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THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


EDITORS 
DANIEL    COIT    GILMAN,    LL.  D. 

PRESIDENT  OF  JOHNS  HOPKINS  UNIVEBSITY  (187(^1901) 
PRESIDENT  OF  CARNEGIE  INSTITUTION 

HARRY  THURSTON  PECK,  Ph.  D.,  L.  H  D. 

PROFESSOR  IN  COLUMBIA  UNIYERSITT 

FRANK  MOORE  COLBY,  M.  A. 

LATE  PROFESSOR  OF  ECONOMICS 
IN  NEW  YORK  UNIVERSITY 


VOLUME  I 


NEW  YORK 

DODD,  MEAD  AND  COMPANY 

1902 


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Copyright,  190S 
Bn  DoDD,  Mead  and  Compaits 


AU  rights  reserved 


Presswork  by 
The  University  Press«  Cambridge,  U.S.A. 


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PREFACE. 

THE  work  which  is  now  given  to  the  public  after  years  of  diligeut  preparation  is  not  a  new 
edition  or  revision  of  the  International  Cyclopcedia.  It  is  not  based  upon  that  or  upon  any 
other  publication.  The  comparatively  small  portion  of  text  which  has  been  retained  unaltered  from 
the  International  Cyclopcedia  and  incorporated  in  these  volumes  has  been  so  retained  because  it  has 
successfully  stood  the  test  of  searching  criticism,  and  because  the  Editors  regard  it  as  satisfying  the 
most  exacting  requirements.  This,  however,  is  the  full  extent  of  the  new  EncydopaBdia's  obligation 
to  the  old.  The  present  work  has  been  planned  and  executed  as  a  wholly  independent  and  original 
undertaking.  It  represents  the  practical  knowledge  gained  from  an  editorial  experience  of  many 
years.  It  embodies  the  results  derived  from  a  critical  study  of  all  the  most  famous  works  of  refer- 
ence which  have  at  any  time  appeared  in  Europe  or  in  the  United  States. 

Every  encyclopsedia  which  has  secured  a  lasting  hold  upon  the  confidence  of  the  reading  public 
has  necessarily  been  distinguished  by  some  especial  merit  of  its  owns  yet  in  the  case  of  each  existing 
publication,  this  peculiar  merit  has  invariably  been  offset  to  a  greater  or  less  extent  by  some  coun- 
terbalancing defect.  Hence,  there  has  always  been  discernible  a  decided  difference  of  opinion,  both 
among  critics  and  among  readers,  as  to  which  one  of  the  standard  encyclopaedias  best  fulfils  the 
proper  function  of  such  a  work.  The  ideal  encyclopaedia  is  one  that  combines  four  attributes  :  first, 
accuracy  of  statement ;  second,  comprehensiveness  of  scope ;  third,  lucidity  and  attractiveness  of 
presentation ;  and  fourth,  convenience  of  arrangement.  Any  compilation  of  this  character,  which 
conspicuously  fails  to  embody  all  of  these  essential  qualities,  f aUs  short  to  that  extent  of  the  ideal ; 
and  it  must  be  said  that  no  one  of  the  great  encyclopaedias  which  are  already  in  existence  can  fully 
stand  this  test.  In  the  course  of  time  there  have  gradually  been  developed  three  distinct  and  well- 
known  types  of  encyclopaedic  publications,  each  one  of  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  concrete  ex- 
pression of  a  single  predominating  purpose.  Thus  the  Encyclopasdia  Britannica  represents,  in  most 
of  its  departments,  accuracy  combined  with  fulness  of  detail,  and  in  its  own  especial  sphere,  which  is 
that  of  science,  it  long  remained  without  a  rival.  It  is,  indeed,  as  every  one  is  well  aware,  far  less  a 
true  encyclopaedia  than  a  collection  of  elaborate  monographs,  so  scholarly  and  so  diffuse  that  many 
of  these  so-called  articles  have  actually  been  published  separately  as  treatises  on  their  respective  sub- 
jects. Nevertheless,  the  Encyclopa^ia  Britannica^  though  its  authority  has  been  very  great,  has 
never  proved  to  be  a  wholly  adequate  and  satisfactory  work  of  reference.  In  the  first  place,  through 
the  massing  of  its  information  under  a  comparatively  few  titles,  it  is  ill  adapted  for  popular  use,  even 
with  the  aid  of  the  ponderous  index  which  its  publishers  appended  to  it  in  a  final  volume.  In  the 
second  place,  it  omits  so  many  topics  of  general  interest  as  to  oblige  its  purchasers  to  supplement  it 
by  some  more  popular  if  less  monumental  work.  Finally,  the  treatment  of  its  most  important 
topics  is  extremely  technical  and  therefore  to  the  great  majority  of  readers  almost  unintelligible. 
Hence,  the  EncyclopcBdia  Britannica,  while  generally  accurate  and  authoritative,  is  neither  truly 
comprehensive  in  its  scope  nor  lucid  in  its  method  of  presentation,  while  it  is  decidedly  incon- 
venient for  purposes  of  ready  reference. 

The  great  French  encyclopaedia  of  Larousse  is  found  in  every  important  library  throughout  the 
world,  and  it  is  in  some  respects  a  model  work.  In  it,  the  different  departments  are  judiciously 
divided,  and  they  are  treated  in  detail  under  the  separate  titles  most  appropriate  to  these  divisions. 
The  work,  moreover,  is  unusually  complete,  and  the  literary  treatment  of  the  different  topics  in- 
cluded in  its  text  is  clear  and  at  times  vivacious  and  entertaining.     There  exists,  however, 


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throughout  its  pages  a  lack  of  accuracy  which  frequently  misleads  the  reader,  whUe  the  number  ot 
the  volumes  and  their  excessive  bulk  reader  the  encyclopaedia  both  inconvenient  in  use  and  almost 
prohibitory  in  cost. 

The  famous  Conversations-Lexikot^,  completed  and  first  published  by  Friedrich  Arnold  Brock- 
haus  in  1812,  and  continued  by  him  and  his  successors  through  many  subsequent  editions  down  to 
the  present  time,  is  an  approximation  to  the  ideal  encyclopsBdia.  Its  accuracy  has  become  prover- 
bial. Its  selection  of  topics  and  its  careful  division  and  sub-division  of  them  for  treatment  in 
detail  have  secured  both  comprehensiveness  of  scope  and  convenience  of  arrangement.  Where  it 
falls  short  of  approaching  something  like  perfection  is  in  the  dryness  of  its  narration  and  its 
thoroughly  Grerman  neglect  of  literary  form.  Nevertheless,  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  it  has  long 
been  accepted  as  the  standard  encyclopaedic  work  of  reference,  and  it  has  been  translated  and 
imitated  in  almost  every  country,  notably  in  the  valuable  and  popular  encyclopaedia  of  Chambers,  of 
which  the  edition  that  appeared  at  Edinburgh  in  1860  was  not  only  based  upon  the  Conversatiowt- 
Lexikon,  but  was  confessedly  in  part  translated  from  it. 

These  three  types  of  encyclopaedia  represent,  as  it  were,  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  and  each  of 
them  owes  something  to  the  others.  Historically,  all  three  have  been  developed  out  of  the  ponder- 
ous compilations  of  the  eighteenth  century,  among  which  Zedler's  Unioersal-Lexikon,  in  sixty-four 
volumes  (1750),  d'Alembert  and  Diderot's  famous  Encyclopddie  in  twenty-eight  (1772),  and  Ersch 
and  Gruber's  Allgemeine  EncyclopUdie  in  more  than  one  hundred  and  sixty  volumes  remain 
the  most  remarkable  examples.  The  gradual  evolution  of  the  modern  encyclopedia  forms, 
indeed,  an  interesting  study.  The  older  works  originally  grouped  their  articles  under  related 
departments  rather  than  in  alphabetical  order;  and  it  was  only  after  many  years  that  the  alpha- 
betical arrangement  came  into  general  use  as  being  infinitely  more  convenient  for  the  reader,  even 
though  theoretically  less  scientific.  The  elaborate  system  of  cross-references,  which  is  now  a 
subject  of  especial  study  on  the  part  of  aU  encyclopaedic  editors,  was  first  developed  by  Ephraim 
Chambers  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  elucidation  of  the  text  by  means  of 
diagrams,  maps,  portraits,  coloured  plates,  and  other  illustrations,  was  at  first  quite  sparingly 
employed ;  but  it  was  an  interesting  feature  of  the  Encyclopmdia  Britannica,  and  was  finally  adopted 
on  a  very  lavish  scale  by  Brockhaus  and  by  Meyer  in  (xermany. 

All  modern  encyclopaedias  have  incorporated  these  three  features  as  being  absolutely  essential. 
Such  fundamental  differences  as  are  perceptible  between  them  will  be  found  to  exist  partly  in  the 
scope  and  purpose  of  each  separate  publication,  and  partly  in  the  method  by  which  the  original 
design  has  been  carried  out  by  those  to  whom  the  task  has  been  committed.  It  therefore  seems 
desirable  that,  in  writing  these  words  of  introduction,  the  Editors  of  the  New  International 
ENCYCLOPiEDiA  should  sct  forth  as  briefly,  yet  as  clearly  as  is  possible,  the  manner  in  which  they 
have  endeavoured  to  ensure  at  least  a  close  approximation  to  what,  in  their  best  judgment,  an  ideal 
encyclopaedia  should  be. 

Since  accuracy  is  very  properly  regarded  as  the  most  essential  of  all  the  attributes  of  such  a 
publication,  the  Editors  have  been  at  especial  pains  to  make  this  work  in  its  several  departments 
fitly  representative  of  modern  scientific  scholarship.  There  has  long  prevailed  in  certain  quarters 
a  definite  yet  quite  untenable  belief  that  this  result  can  be  most  satisfactorily  attained  by  assigning 
sets  of  articles  to  separate  contributors  of  eminence,  for  them  to  write  what  pleases  them  and  then 
to  sign  what  they  have  written.  The  signed  article,  it  has  been  claimed,  is  the  best  possible 
guarantee  of  accuracy,  since  it  carries  with  it  the  weight  and  the  authority  of  its  author's  name. 
This  theory,  however,  will  not  bear  a  close  examination.  For  it  is  evident  that  no  single  specialist, 
however  eminent,  can  be  so  thoroughly  equipped  at  every  point  as  to  leave  in  what  he  writes  no 
room  for  criticism.  He  has  his  individual  preferences  strongly  marked,  and  necessarily  also  his 
individual  bias.  In  treating  matters  of  scientific  doctrine,  therefore,  he  will  quite  unconsciously 
give  to  his  statements  the  colouring  of  his  own  personal  beliefs.  In  discussing  controversial 
topics,  he  will  with  the  same  unconsciousness  lay  more  stress  upon  the  theories  which  he  holds  him- 
self than  upon  those  which  are  accepted  and  maintained  by  other  men  of  equal  eminence.  Moreover, 
he  is  apt  to  assume  upon  the  reader's  part  too  great  a  familiarity  with  the  subject,  and  hence  to 


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employ  language  which  is  ezcessivelj  technical  and  difficult  to  understand.  Finally,  when  the 
individual  contributor  is  permitted  to  treat  his  chosen  topics  in  his  own  way  and  without 
reference  to  what  other  contributors  have  done,  there  will  necessarily  result  a  lack  of  symmetry 
and  proportion  which  will  be  perceptible  to  the  most  casual  reader  of  the  completed  work.  These 
facts  have  been  so  often  demonstrated  in  the  past  as  to  have  led  the  editors  of  the  Brockhaus  Con- 
venations-Lexikon  to  reject  the  signed  article  altogether,  and  to  substitute  for  the  individualistic 
system  another  system  under  which  each  article,  though  originally  written  by  a  single  specialist,  is 
subsequently  criticised  by  other  specialists  through  whose  hands  it  passes  and  by  whom  it  is  so 
modified  as,  in  its  final  form,  to  be  no  longer  the  work  of  one  particular  individual.  It  represents 
instead  the  collective  knowledge  and  the  different  view-points  of  a  number  of  highly  trained  and 
able  men,  while  it  usually  receives,  as  well,  a  finishing  touch  from  t];^e  general  editor,  who  bears 
constantly  in  mind  the  inestimable  value  of  simplicity,  proportion,  and  clearness.  No  signed  article 
can  ever  have  the  completeness,  the  authority,  and  the  practical  value  of  an  article  prepared  in  such 
a  way  as  this;  and  the  proof  of  the  assertion  is  found  in  the  undisputed  fact  that  the  encyclopsedia 
of  Brockhaus  has  been  universally  recognized  as  the  most  minutely  accurate  work  of  reference  that 
exists  to-day.  Moreover,  as  a  practical  matter,  the  signed  article  frequently  involves  a  certain  in- 
evitable deception.  As  new  editions  of  an  encyclopsedia  appear,  a  multitude  of  changes  in  the  text 
are  necessarily  demanded  in  order  to  add  new  facts  and  modify  old  theories ;  and  these  changes  are 
often  made  by  other  hands  than  those  of  the  original  contributors ,  so  that  many  articles  to  which 
a  writer's  name  is  signed  are  no  longer  in  reality  his  o¥ni.  Hence  the  Editors  of  the  present  work 
have,  after  much  deliberation,  dispensed  entirely  with  the  signed  article.  In  its  stead,  they  have 
arranged  that  every  important  contribution  to  the  work,  while  written  by  a  specialist  of  acknowl- 
edged competence,  shall  nevertheless  pass  through  other  hands  and  receive  its  final  form  upon  the 
basis  of  mutual  discussion,  criticism,  emendation,  and  suggestion.  It  is  proper  here  to  acknowledge 
the  great  value  of  the  assistance  rendered  by  Mr.  Louis  Heilprin,  who  has  read^  all  the  proofs,  and 
whose  minute  and  varied  knowledge  and  wide  experience  have  assured  a  very  high  degree  of 
accuracy. 

In  the  second  place,  the  endeavour  has  been  made  to  render  thi6  Encyclopaedia  more  comprehensive 
in  its  scope  than  any  other.  The  rapid  march  of  science  during  the  past  few  years,  the  new  inven- 
tions and  discoveries  that  have  been  made,  the  political  and  social  changes  that  have  been  effected, 
and  the  multitude  of  absolutely  new  interests  that  have  arisen  in  almost  every  department  of  human 
activity,  have  added  an  immense  mass  of  topics  to  the  list  with  which  former  encyclopaedias  have 
had  to  deal.  It  is  believed  that  all  these  topics  have  here  received  adequate  and  accurate  attention ; 
while  a  much  greater  completeness  than  is  usual  will  be  found  in  the  treatment  of  nearly  every 
department.  It  is  desirable  to  call  especial  attention  to  the  amount  of  space  that  has  been 
given  to  the  subject  of  Geography,  both  physical  and  political,  and  to  the  carefully  selected 
information  relating  to  municipal  organization  and  the  management  of  public  utilities,  —  informa< 
tion  such  as  has  never  before  been  systematically  given  in  any  encyclopaedia  published  in  the  English 
language.  Something  also  should  be  said  of  the  fulness  and  the  modern  character  of  the  articles 
bearing  upon  the  several  departments  of  Biology,  Botany,  Education,  and  Psychology,  the  Mechan- 
ical Arts,  Physics,  Military  and  Naval  Science,  Sociology,  and  Biography.  As  to  the  last-named 
subject,  it  may  be  said  without  fear  of  contradiction,  that  no  encyclopaedic  reference-book  in  England 
or  America  contains  as  titles  so  many  names  of  men  and  women ;  while  the  information  given  under 
these  titles  is  brought  down  to  the  very  eve  of  the  publication  of  this  work.  Another  department 
of  great  interest  and  value  is  that  which  has  to  do  with  what  may  be  called  miscellaneous  infoi^ 
mation  and  which  covers  a  range  of  topics  not  heretofore  included  in  a  general  encyclopaedia. 
Under  this  head  will  be  found,  for  instance,  the  titles  of  famous  books,  comprising  works  of  fic- 
tion, the  names  of  the  important  characters  in  imaginative  literature,  the  explanation  of  political 
nicknames  and  popular  allusions,  and  in  fact  all  that  class  of  subjects  which  has  ordinarily  been 
found  only  in  Readers'  Handbooks,  and  similar  special  compilations.  It  should  be  noted,  too,  that 
the  pronunciation  of  all  unusual,  technical,  or  foreign  words  has  been  carefully  figured  in  accordance 
with  a  simple  phonetic  system,  and  that  their  etymology  has  been  systematically  traced.     This  ety- 


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mological  work  has  been  done  with  careful  regard  to  the  conclusions  of  the  newest  school  of  philo- 
logical research,  and  the  facts  are  set  forth  as  simply  and  as  clearly  as  is  possible.  For  the  convenience 
of  the  general  reader,  all  the  words  and  stem-forms  belonging  to  the  Greek  or  to  the  Oriental  lan- 
guages have  been  transliterated.  Care  has  been  taken  to  supply  every  important  article  with  a 
well-selected  bibliography  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  may  wish  to  pursue  the  subject  in  all  its 
ramifications ;  and  the  bibliographical  material  wiU  be  found  to  comprise  not  only  the  standard 
works,  but  also  special  monographs,  pamphlets,  and  papers  published  by  the  various  learned 
societies.  The  Encyclopedia  as  a  whole,  then,  is  in  reality  a  library  whose  books  are  so  divided 
and  arranged  as  to  make  the  information  which  they  afford  immediately  and  conveniently  accessible 
to  the  reader.  It  is  this  completeness  which  justifies  the  title  **  International "  in  its  application 
to  this  work.  The  word  is  one  which  possesses  a  new  significance  to  Americans  at  the  present 
time,  when  our  country  has  shaken  off  its  former  isolation,  and  has  developed  so  many  points  of 
contact,  political  and  commercial,  with  the  other  nations  of  the  earth.  Yet  while  the  work  is  inter- 
national, it  is  international  from  an  American  point  of  view,  and  it  very  naturally  gives  the  fullest 
treatment  to  those  topics  which  are  of  immediate  and  vital  interest  to  Americans. 

With  regard  to  the  third  essential  —  lucidity  and  attractiveness  of  presentation  —  the  recogni- 
tion of  its*  value  which  has  been  expressed  above,  will  afford,  perhaps,  a  clue  to  what  the  Editors 
have  endeavoured  to  accomplish.  There  exists  a  kind  of  writing  which  has  become  so  stereo- 
typed as  to  be  well  known  to  every  one,  and  which  might  be  fittingly  described  as  the  encyclo- 
paedic style.  It  is  in  literature  what  a  monotone  is  in  music, — utterly  devoid  of  individuality, 
of  variety,  and  of  interest.  It  sets  forth  every  possible  subject  in  the  same  dull  way  and  robs  the 
most  living  themes  of  their  vitality.  This  style  has  even  acquired,  by  the  influence  of  tradition, 
a  pseudo-sanctity,  until  many  persons  have  become  convinced  that  an  encyclopaedic  article  must 
inherently  and  inevitably  be  a  synonym  for  dulness.  This  view  the  editors  are  very  far  from 
entertaining,  or  from  desiring  to  perpetuate ;  and  so  the  principal  contributors  have  been  selected 
not  only  for  their  special  knowledge,  but  also  for  their  possession  of  a  clear,  attractive  style ;  and 
in  those  articles  of  which  the  subjects  lend  themselves  to  a  distinctly  literary  treatment,  the  authoi-s 
have  been  expected  to  write  with  the  same  freedom  and  with  the  same  personal  touch  as  would  char- 
acterise their  contributions  to  any  literary  publication  of  a  high  class.  As  the  Encyclopaedia  is 
intended  first  of  all  for  the  general  reader,  it  has  been  written  from  the  general  reader's  point  of 
view,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  free  from  all  vexatious  technicalities.  Regard,  moreover,  has  been 
had  to  form,  and  to  a  logical  order  of  presentation.  In  every  detail,  the  endeavour  has  been  made 
to  compact  really  valuable  information  instead  of  loosely  assoi*ted  and  often  unrelated  facts.  Even 
the  statistics,  which  in  many  works  of  this  character  are  thrown  together  in  a  mass,  have  been 
used  in  such  a  way  as  to  exhibit  comparisons  which  are  significant  and  which  possess  an  interest  of 
their  own  for  every  person  of  intelligence.  In  short,  the  aim  has  been  consistently  to  present  each 
subject  not  only  so  as  to  inform,  but  likewise  so  as  to. attract  and  entertain. 

The  fourth  essential  of  a  useful  encyclopaedia  is  found  in  the  practical  convenience  with  which  it 
may  be  consulted.  This  practical  convenience  has  been  studied  very  carefully  both  by  the  Editors 
and  by  the  contributors  with  the  object  of  enabling  a  reader  to  find,  with  the  least  possible  expenditure 
of  time  and  patience,  the  information  of  which  he  is  in  need.  This  end  has  been  attained,  first,  by 
giving  a  conspectus  of  each  topic  as  a  whole;  second,  by  treating  the  same  topic  more  in  detail 
under  all  the  natural  divisions  into  which  it  falls ;  and  finally,  by  working  out  a  system  of  cross- 
references  which  may  serve  as  guides  from  each  topic  to  the  others  which  supplement  it  and  pro- 
vide the  collateral  information  necessary  to  its  fullest  understanding. 

It  is  thought  that  the  illustrations  of  every  kind  will  be  found  superior  to  anything  hitherto 
attempted  in  any  encyclopaedia  These  illustrations  have  not  been  gathered  together  in  a  haphazard 
fashion  and  merely  for  the  purpose  of  providing  the  volumes  with  a  certain  number  of  attractive 
pictures ;  but  they  were  suggested  and  selected  by  the  various  contributors,  or  prepared  with  their 
cooperation.  In  many  cases  much  assistance  was  derived  from  the  Governmental  Department*  in 
Washington  where  all  the  plates  relating  to  Natural  History  were  examined  and  verified  by  experts 
in  the  Government's  employ. 


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IX 

The  Editors  are  thoroughly  aware  of  the  formidable  character  of  their  undertaking.  No  one,  in 
fact,  who  has  not  been  intimately  associated  with  the  making  of  a  great  encyclopsBdia  can  fully 
understand  the  difBlculties  which  are  inherent  in  such  a  task,  involving  as  it  does  the  cooperation  of  a 
large  body  of  highly  trained  and  scientifically  qualified  experts,  and  demanding  so  many  and  such  varied 
forms  of  effort — organisation,  selection,  knowledge,  literary  skill,  critical  judgment,  and  a  true  sense  of 
proportion.  Nor  has  it  been  forgotten  that  such  a  work  as  this  should  be  something  more  than  a 
convenient  book  of  reference.  Encyclopeedias  have  in  the  past  performed,  and  they  are  still  perform- 
ing, a  remarkable  educational  function  in  disseminating  exact  knowledge  upon  an  immense 
variety  of  subjects.  It  would  be  difficult  to  overestimate  the  influence  which  has  been  exercised  by 
such  famous  works  as  those  which  have  been  mentioned  in  the  preceding  pages ;  for  they  have  been 
really  libraries,  and  to  thousands  upon  thousands  of  families  they  have  been  the  only  libraries  available. 
To  prepare  a  book  which  shall  professedly  discharge  a  function  so  important  is  no  light  undertaking; 
to  obtain  even  a  fair  measure  of  success  is  a  memorable  achievement.  It  is  the  hope  of  the 
Editors  of  this  Encyclopaedia  that  the  test  of  time  will  show  them  to  have  profited  alike  by  the 
merits  and  by  the  defects  of  the  works  which  have  preceded  it ;  and  that  the  result  may  be  approved 
as  embodying  the  experience  of  the  past  with  an  intelligent  conception  of  the  requirements  of 

the  present. 

DANIEL  COIT  OILMAN. 
HARRY  THURSTON  PECK. 

FRANK  MOORE  COLBY. 
Nbw  Yobk,  Jane  6, 1902. 


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ILLUSTKATIONS  IN  VOLUME  L 

COLORED  PLATES 

FAcnro  Paob 

Africa  —  Dark  Races 178 

Amaktllidaceae 420 

Antelopes 598 

Apples 670 

Aquatic  Plakts 682 

Architecture,  Eotftian — Temple  of  Earnak  (from  the  restored  model)  ....  748 

Architecture,  Greek  —  The  Parthenon  (from  the  restored  model) 750 

MAPS 

The  World FrotUispiecs 

Afghanistan 168 

Africa,  Physical  Map 172 

Africa ^ 180 

Alabama 250 

Alaska  and  the  Klondike  Region 262 

America,  North,  Physical  Map 436 

America,  South,  Physical  Map     .     .     .     ! 436 

America,  North 442 

America,  South 442 

Antarctic  Regions 594 

Antilles 614 

Arctic  Regions 760 

Argentine  Republic 774 

Arizona 804 

Arkansas 806 

ENGRAVINGS 

Abalone 4 

Abu-Siiwel  (Stone  Reliefs  at  Entrance  of  Rock  Temple) 48 

Abutilon 50 

Acacia 54 

Acanthus 58 

Addison,  Joseph 112 

Air  Ships  and  Flying  Machines 148 

Air  Compressors 236 

Air  Pumps 238 

Albany — the  Capitol 272 

Alexander  the  Great 312 

Alhambra  —  Court  of  Lions 344 

Alma-Tadema,  Laurence  (At  the  Shrine  of  Venus) 384 

Alphabets 392 

Alpine  Scenery 398 


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xu 

FAonra  Paob 

Alpine  Vegetation 400 

Amiens  Cathedral       464 

Anemone 550 

Angelico,  Fra  (Madonna  of  the  Star) 554 

Anglebs  and  Batfish 560 

Ant 592 

Ant-Eatebs  and  Armadillos 596 

Antelopes 598 

Apes,  Anthropoid 642 

Apollo  Belvedere 654 

Araucaria 710 

Arches 720 

ARGHiEOLOGT,  Mjcenaean  and  Early  Greek 724 

,  Mycenaean  and  Early  Greek 726 

,  American 784 

Architecture,    "Elevator"  (Saint  Paul's   Church,  New  York,  and  Surrounding 

Buildings) 754 

,  Mexican  (Temple  of  Palenque ;  Restoration) 756 


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Ctiitors; 


DANIEL  COIT  GILMAN,   LL.D. 

PRESIDENT  OP  JOHNS    HOPKINS   UNIVERSITY    (1876-1901) 
PRESIDENT   OF   THE   CARNEGIE    INSTITUTION 

HARRY  THURSTON  PECK,   Ph.D.,   L.H.D. 

PROFESSOR   IN   COLUMBIA   UNIVERSITY 

FRANK  MOORE  COLBY,    M.A. 

LATE   PROFESSOR  IN   NEW   YORK  UNIVERSITY 


Assistant  Manafltnfl  Suitor 
ALBERT   WHITE  VORSE 


PARTIAL  LIST  OF  CONTRIBUTORS  AND  OFFICE  EDITORS. 

CLEVELAND  ABBE,  A.M.,  LL.D Meteorology 

Professor  of  Meteorology  in  the  United  States  Weather  Bureau. 

RENWICK  WYLIE  ABBOTT Assistant  to  the  Managing  Editor 

WILBUR  C.  ABBOTT,  B,Litt Education,  Foreign;  English  Universities 

Assistant  Professor  of  History  in  Dartmouth  College. 

CTRUS  C.  ADAMS Geooraphy,  Commercial 

MANSFIELD  ALLAN Office  Editor,  Colleges  and  Societies 

CHARLES  DEXTER  ALLEN Book  Plates 

E.  W.  ALLEN,  Ph.D Agricultural  Chemistry  ;  Animal  Production  ;  Dairying 

Assistant  Director  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

F.  STURGES  ALLEN,  LL.B Pronunciation 

Chief  Editor  (under  Dr.  William  T.  Harris)  of  Webster's  International  Dictionary. 

JOSEPH  SWEETMAN  AMES,  Ph.D Physics 

Professor  of  Physics  and  Director  of  the  Physical  Laboratory  in  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Editor-in-Chief  of  Harpers'  Series  of  Scientific  Memoirs. 

M-  ANAGNOS Blind,  Education  of  the 

Superintendent  of  the  Perkins  Institution  for  the  Blind. 

WALTER  TALLMADGE  ARNDT,  A.M Biography 

ROBERT  ARR0W8M1TH,  Ph.D Readers'  Hand-book 

Formerly  Professor  of  Latin  and  Greek  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

B.   P.  AVERY '.    .    .      Bibliography 

FREDERICK  RANDOLPH  BAILEY,  M.D Bacteriology,  Histology,  Pathology 

Tutor  in  the  Normal  and  Pathological  Histology  of  the  Nervous  System,  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons. 

FRANK  BAKER,  Ph.D Anatomy 

Professor  of  Anatomy  in  Georgetown  University.    Superintendent  of  the  National  Zoolog- 
ical Park. 

FRx\NKLIN  THOMAS  BAKER,  A.M Reading 

Professor  of  the  English  Language  and  Literature  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

MOSES  NELSON  BAKER,  C.E Engineering  and  Manufactures 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Engineering  News. 

ALLEN  P.  BALL,  A.M Drama 

Instructor  in  Latin  in  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 

W.  H.  BEAL,  M.E Agricultural  Physics  and  Engineering 

Editor  of  the  Miscellaneous  Publications  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  etc. 


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XIV 

MARCUS  BENJAMIN,  Ph.D Inobganic  Chemistry 

Editor  to  the  United  States  National  Museum,    formerly  of  the  Editorial  Staff  of  the  Stand- 
ard Dictionary. 

PERCIVAL   R.  BOLTON,   M.D Surokrt 

Instructor  in  Surgery  at  Cornell  University. 
DAVID  JOSIAH  BREWER Unitbd  States  Supreme  Court 

Associate  Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
CHARLES  A.   BRINLEY,  Ph.D University  Extension 

President  of  the  American  Society  for  the  Extension  of  University  Teaching. 
WILLIAM  KEITH   BROOKS,  LL.D Biology 

Professor  of  Zoology  in  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
MARTIN   GROVE   BRUMBAUGH,  Ph.D Education  in  the  Colonies 

Professor  of  Pedagogy  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania.    First  Commissioner  of  Education 

in  Porto  Rico. 

GEORGE  SANDS  BRYAN Biography 

FRANCIS  M.  BURDICK,  LL.D.     Commercial  Law  ;  Criminal  Law  ;   Courts  ;  Torts  ;   Agency  ; 
Partnership 

Dwight  Professor  of  Law  in  Columbia  University. 
CHARLES   BELL  BURKE,   Ph.D Office  Editor,  Literatuob 

Formerly  Professor  of  English  in  the  South  Western  Baptist  University. 
ALEXANDER  F.  CHAMBERLAIN,  Ph.D Topics  in  Anthropology 

Professor  of  Anthropology  in  Clark  University. 
EDWARD  POTTS  CHEYNEY,  A.M Coats  op  Arms 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 
RUSSELL,   HENRY   CHITTENDEN,  Ph.D Chemistry,  Physiological 

Director  of  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School,  Yale  University. 
ARCHIBALD  CHURCH,  M.  D Neurology 

Professor  of  Nervous  and  Mental  Diseases  and  of  Mental  Jurisprudence  in  the  Northwestern 

University  Medical  School. 

HUBERT  LYMAN  CLARK,  Ph.D Biology 

Professor  of  Biology  in  Olivet  College. 
A.  L  DU  P.  COLEMAN Office  Editor,  Church  History 

Instructor  in  English  in  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York. 
Rt.  Rev.  LEIGHTON  COLEMAN,  S.T.D.,  LL.D England,  Church  op 

Bishop  of  Delaware. 
T.  L.  COLEY,  M.D Therapeutics 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Therapeutic  Monthly. 
FREDERIC  TABER  COOPER,  Ph.D.    Literature  —  Hungarian,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  Portugckse 

Formerly  Professor  of  Sanskrit  in  New  York  University. 
L.  C.  CORBETT,  M.S.A Horticulture 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
EDWARD  TANJORE   CORWIN,  D.D Dutch  Reformed  Church 

Editor  of  the  Manual  of  the  Reformed  Church  in  America. 
JOHN   MERLE  COULTER,  Ph.D Botany 

Head  of  the  Department  of  Botany  in  the  University  of  Chicago. 
WILBUR  LUCIUS   CROSS,  Ph.D English  Literature 

Professor  of  English  in  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School  of  Yale  University. 
HARRY   ALONZO  CUSHING,  LL.B.,  PhD United  States  History 

lecturer  in  History  and  Constitutional  Law  at  Columbia  University. 
CHARLES  BENEDICT   DAVENPORT,  Ph.D Biology 

Associate  Professor  of  Zoiilo^y  in  the  University  of  Chicago.    Director  of  the  Biological 

Laboratory  at  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  X.  Y. 

LOUIS  DEMO  REST       Foreign  Gazetteer 

MELVIL  DEWEY,   L.H.D Libraries 

Director  of  the  State  Library,  Albany. 
DANIEL   K.   DODGE,  Ph.D Modern  Philology 

Professor  of  the  English  Language  and  Literature  in  the  University  of  Illinois.     Contributing 

Editor  of  Americana  Germamca. 


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XV 

HENRY  OTIS  DWIGHT,  D.D Missions,  Christian  Forbign 

Editorial  Secretary  of  the  Ecamenical  Conference  on  Foreign  Missions  in  1900. 
K.  EDDY,  D.D .    .    .    .      Universalists 

President  of  the  Universalist  Historical  Society. 
SAMUEL   ATKINS   ELIOT,   D.D Unitarians 

President  of  the  American  Unitarian  Association. 
W.  H.  EVANS,  Ph.D Economic  Botany  ;   Plant  Disbases 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Experiment  Station  Record,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
ROLAND  P.  FALKNER,  Ph.D Political  Economy 

Chief  of  the  Division  of  Documents  in  the  Library  of  Congress. 
JOHN  ALFRED  FAULKNER,  D.D Methodism 

Professor  in  Drew  Theological  Seminary. 
ALBERT  WARREN  FERRIS,  M.D Medicine 

Assistant  in  Neurology  at  Columbia  University,  and  in  Medicine  at  the  University  and  Bellevue 

Hospital  Medical  College. 
Assisted  by:  — 

HUGHES  DAYTON,  M.D Ophthalmology  and  Materia  Medica 

Clinical  Assistant  in  Medicine  at  Columbia  University. 
WILLIAM  A.  DOWNES,  M.D Anatomy  and  Surgery 

Assistant  Surgeon  to  St.  Mary's  and  the  General  Memorial  Hospitals. 

J.  D.  M.  FORD,  Ph.D. 

Instructor  in  Romance  Languages  at  Harvard  University. 

Literature  —  Hungarian,  Spanish,  Italian,  and  Portuoubss.     Romance  Philology 
FRANK  HUGH  FOSTER,  Ph.D..  D.D Systematic  Theology 

Formerly  Professor  of  Theology  in  the  Pacific  Theological  Seminary. 

FRANK  FOWLER,  N.A Painting  and  Sculpture 

JOHN  FOX,  D.D Bible  Societies 

Corresponding  Secretary  of  the  American  Bible  Societies. 
ARTHUR  L.  FROTHINGHAM,  Jr.,  Ph.D Architecture 

Professor  of  Ancient  History  and  Archaeology  in  Princeton  University. 

HENRY  GANNETT Geography 

Geographer  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 
FRANKLIN  H.  GIDDINGS,  Ph.D Sociology 

Professor  of  Sociology  in  Columbia  University. 

GEORGE  GLADDEN      Office  Editor,  Biography 

JAMES  L  GOOD,  D.D Reformed  German  Church 

Professor  of  Dogmatics  and  Pastoral  Theology  and  Dean  of  the  School  of  Theology  in  Ursinus 

College. 
FIIANK  J.  GOODNOW,  Ph.D..  LL,B Administrative  Law 

Professor  of  Administrative  Law,  Columbia  University. 
RICHARD  JAMES  HORATIO  GOTTHEIL,  Ph.D Jews 

Professor  of  the  Semitic  Languages  in  Columbia  University.    Head  of  the  Oriental  Depart- 
ment of  the  New  York  Public  Library. 
LOUIS  H.  GRAY.  Ph.D Etymology;  Modern  History  op  India 

Instructor  in  Indo-lranian  Languages  at  Princeton   University.      Assistant  Editor  of    the 

Orientalische  Bihliographie. 

WILLIAM  ELLIOT  GRIFFIS,  D.D.,  LH.D Literature  — China  and  Japan 

Formerly  Professor  of  Physics  in  the  Imperial  University,  Tokio,  Japan. 
JAMES  E.  HAGERTY Profit  Sharing,  etc. 

Assistant  Professor  of  Economics  and  Sociology  in  the  Ohio  State  University. 
ROBERT  WILLIAM  HALL,  A.M .* Analysis,  Chemical 

Professor  of  Analytical  Chemistry  in  New  York  University. 
J.  TAYLOR  HAMILTON,  D.D Moravians 

Resident  Professor  in  the  Moravian  College  and  Theological  Seminary,  Bethlehem,  Pa. 
A.  D.  F.  HAMLIN;  A.M Art;  Architecture 

Adjunct  Professor  of  Architecture  in  Columbia  University. 
RODNEY  MULFORD  HEGGIE,  A.M American  Cities 


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XVI 

ERNEST  NORTON  HENDERSON,  A.M Systems  op  National  Education 

Eormerlj  Instructor  in  Psychology  and  History  of  Education  at  the  California  State  Normal 
School.  « 

STUART  HENRY,  A.M ^ Countbibs  and  Cities 

WALTER  LOWRIE  HERVEY,  Ph.D P^edagoot 

Formerly  President  of  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University.    Examiner  for  the  Board  of 
Education,  New  York. 

CHARLES  SHATTUCK  HILL,  C.E Enginbbbino  and  Manufactcbes 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Engineering  News. 

WILLIAM  HERBERT  HOBBS,  Ph.D Dynamic  Geology  ;  Petbogbapht 

Professor  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrology  in  the  Uniyersity  of  Wisconsin.    Assistant  Geologist  of 
the  United  States  Geological  Survey. 

CHARLES  ARTHUR  HOLLICK,  Ph.D Paleobotany 

Curator  of  the  Departm^it  of  Fossil  Botany  at  the  New  York  Botanical  Garden. 

WALTER  HOUGH,  Ph.D. Topics  in  Anthbopology 

Assistant  Curator  of  Anthropology  in  the  United  States  National  Museum. 
GEORGE  ELLIOTT  HOWARD,  Ph.D Modebn  English  Histoby  and  Biogbaphy 

Formerly  Head  of  the  Historical  Department  in  the  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.  University. 
Assisted  by  GEORGE  WILLIS  BOTSFORD,  Ph.D.,  GEORGE  KRIEHN,  Ph.D.,  GUERNSEY 

JONES,  Ph.D.,  and  Pbof.  HOWARD  W.  CALDWELL. 
WILLIAM  HENRY  HOWELL,  Ph.D.,  M.D.,  LL.D Physiology 

Professor  of  Physiology  and  Dean  of  the  Medical  School  in  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
JAMES  G.  HUNEKER Music  ;  Opbba 

Music  Critic,  New  York  Sun. 
EDWARD  HUNTER       Militaey  Law 

Assistant  Judge  Advocate  General,  United  States  Army. 

GEORGE  LELAND  HUNTER Italian  Cities 

ERNEST  INGERSOLL    .    .    .    .    " Office  Editob,  Zoology 

ABRAHAM  VALENTINE  WILLIAMS  JACKSON,  L.H.D.,  Ph.D.      .    .    .   Indo-Ibanian  Litebatube 

Professor  of  Indo-Iranian  Languages  in  Columbia  University. 
LAMBERT  L.  JACKSON,  A.M Mathematics 

Head  of  the  Mathematical  Department  in  the  State  Normal  School,  Rockport,  N.  Y. 

SAMUEL  MACAULEY  JACKSON,  D.D.,  LL.D. 

Editob,  Pbotestant  Theology  ;  Religious  Biogbaphy 
Professor  of  Church  History  in  New  York  University. 

MELANCTHON  WILLIAMS  JACOBUS,  D.D Religion  —  New  Testament 

Hosmer  Professor  of  New  Testament   Exegesis   and  Criticism  in  the  Hartford  Theological 
Seminary. 

HAROLD  JACOBY,  A.M Astbonomy 

Professor  of  Astronomy  in  Columbia  University. 

EDGAR  JADWIN,  A.M Militaby  Engineebing 

Captain  in  the  Corps  of  Engineers,  United  States  Army. 

MORRIS  JASTROW,  Jb.,  Ph.D Abchjeology,  Semitic 

Professor  of  the  Semitic  Languages  and  Librarian  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

JUDAH  A.  JOFFE Slavic  Languages  and  Litebatube;  Compabative  Philology 

JOSEPH  FRENCH  JOHNSON Office  Editob,  Economics 

Professor  of  Economics  and  Finance  in  New  York  University. 

CHRISTOPHER  JOHNSTON,  Ph.D Egyptology 

Associate  Professor  of  Oriental  History  and  Archaeology  in  Johns  Hopkins  University. 

JOHN  W.  JOYES Obdnancb 

Captain  in  the  Ordnance  Department,  United  States  Army. 

M.  G.  KAINS,  M.S.A Office  Editob,  Hobticdltcbe  ;  Agbicultdbb  ;  Botany 

Formerly  Special  Crop  Culturist,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

W.  B.  KAVANAGH Modern  Armies  and  Military  Science 


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•     XVll 

CAKL  KELSET Social  Debtor  Classes 

University  of  Pennsylvania. 

JAMES  FURMAN  KEMP,  M.E Adirondacks 

Professor  of  Geology  in  Columbia  University. 
CHARLES  FOSTER  KENT,  Ph.D.      ..." Bible 

Woolsey  Professor  of  Biblical  Literature  in  Yale  University. 

EDWARD  A.  KIMBALL .      Christian  Science 

GEORGE  W.  KIRCHWEY Law 

Nash  Professor  of  Law  and  Dean  of  the  School  of  Law  in  Columbia  University. 

MARY  EASTWOOD  KNEVELS Biography 

GUSTAV  KOBBI;,  A.M Mcsic;  Biography 

Music  Critic  of  the  New  York  Herald, 
GEORGE  K^RIEHN,  Ph.D History  and  Theory  op  Art 

Formerly  Assistant  Professor  of  Art  History  in  Leland  Stanford,  Jr.  University. 

C.  F.  LANG  WORTHY,  Ph.D Foods  and  Feeding  Stuffs 

Associate  Editor  of  the  Experiment  Station  Record,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
W.  H.  LARRABEE,  D.D Minor  Denominations 

Department  Editor  of  the  Christian  Advocate. 
CHARLES  HERBERT  LIVERMORE,  Ph.D Topics  in  Social  Science 

President  of  Adelphl  College,  Brooklyn. 
SAMUEL  McCUNE  LINDSAY,  Ph.D ' Social  Science 

United  States  Commissioner  of  Education  in  Porto  Rico. 
MORRIS  LOEB,  Ph.D Coal  Tar  Colors 

Professor  of  Chemistry  in  New  York  University. 

CHARLES  LEONARD-STUARJ Gazetteer  Matter  and  English  History 

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Captain  in  the  Artillery  Corps,  United  States  Army. 
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Editor  of  the  Outlook, 

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Professor  of  Moral  Philosophy  in  Cornell  University. 
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Curator  of  Anthropology  in  the  United  States  National  Museum.    Professor  of  Anthropology 

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Chief  of  Clinic  and  Instructor  in  Ophthalmology  iq  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons. 

D.  W.  MAY,  M.S Field  Crops 

Assistant  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 

CHARLES  HOLBROOK  MANN Swbdbnborg;  Swbdbnborgians 

Editor  of  the  New  Chttrch  Messenger. 

EMILY  FOGG  MEADE Consumers*  League,  etc. 

ELMER  TRUESDELL  MERRILL Roman  Topography  ;  Numismatics 

Robert  Rich  Professor  of  the  Latin  Language  and  Literature  at  Wesleyan  University. 
ADOLF  MEYER,  M.D.,  LL.D ?athOlOGT 

Director  of  the  Pathological  Institute  of  the  New  York  State  Hospitals. 
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Ethnologist  in  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. 
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Professor  of  International  Law  and  Diplomacj  at  Columbia  Uniyersity. 

CLIFFORD  HERSCHEL  MOORE,  Ph.D Greek  History  and  Philology 

Assistant  Professor  of  Greek  and  Latin  in  Harvard  University. 

W.  MAX  MULLER,  Ph.D Egyptology 

Professor  of  Egyptian  Archaeology  and  Africanistics  in  the  R.  E.  Seminary,  Philadelphia. 

DANA   CARLETON  MUNRO History  —  Early  English  and  Medieval 

Formerly  Assistant  Professor  of    European    History  in   the    University  of   Pennsylvania. 
Professor  of  European  History  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin. 

E.  S.  NADAL Clubs 

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DAVID  HALE  NEWLAND Office  Editor,  Geology;  Physical  Geography 

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GEORGE  N.  OLCOTT,  Ph.D Roman  History  and  Latin  Philology 

Lecturer  in  Roman  Archeology  in  Columbia  University. 
A.  S.  PACKARD,  LL.D Evolution  ;  Cave  Animals 

Professor  of  Zoology  and  Geology  in  Brown  University. 
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Editor  of  the  Pilot  Charts,  United  States  Hydrographic  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 
JAMES  MORTON  PATON,  Ph.D Archeology  —  Greek  and  Roman 

Associate  Professor  of  Greek  in  Wesleyan  University. 

DANIEL  LAWRENCE  PEACOCK,  A.M United  States  Gazetteer 

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€HARLES  RUSSELL  RICHARDS,  B.S Manual  Training 

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First  Lieutenant  in  the  United  States  Revenue  Cutter  Service,  and  Assistant  Inspector  of  the 
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A.  R.  SARIN Chicago 

NATHANIEL  SCHMIDT,  A.M Semitic  Archeology 

Professor  of  Semitic  Languages  and  Literature  in  Cornell  University. 

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Editor  and  Expert  on  Field  Crops  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 

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Formerly  Fellow  in  Indo-Iraulan  at  Columbia  University. 

THOMAS  JOSEPH  SHAH  AN,  D.D.    .    .    .       Roman  Catholic  Missions;  Roman  Catholic  Church 
Professor  of  Church  History  and  Patrology  and  Lecturer  on  Roman  Law  in  the  Catholic  Uni- 
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Captain  in  the  Artillery  Corps,  United  States  Army. 

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Professor  of  Greek  in  the  University  of  Chicago. 

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Editor  and  Expert  on  Horticulture  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture. 
DAVID  EUGENE  SMITH,  Ph.D Mathematics 

Professor  of  Mathematics  in  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University. 

JOSEPH  SOHN Biography 

ALFRED  R.  STARR,  M.D.,  D.D.S Dentistry 

Professor  of  Operative   Dentistry  and  Dental  Therapeutics  in  the  New  York  College  of 

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Formerly  Head  of  the  Department  of  History  in  Tufts  College. 
HARLAN  F.   STONE,  Ph.D.,  LL.B.    .       Contracts;  Corporations;  Equity;  Procedure;  Evidence 

Lecturer  in  Law,  Columbia  University. 

NAHUM  L   STONE,  A.M. Countries  and  Cities 

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Architect;  Editor  and  Chief  Author  of  The  Dictionary  of  Architecture  and  Building. 
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Professor  of  Dynamic  Geology  and  Physical  Geography  in  Cornell  University. 

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Professor  of  History  and  Librarian  in  Haverford  College. 
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Ethnologist  in  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology. 
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Secretary  of  the  Presbyterian  Board  of  Home  Missions. 

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Archdeacon  of  New  York. 

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Instractor  in  History  at  the  PennsylTaDia  State  College. 
WILUAM  PETERFIELD  TRENT,  LL.D Literature  —  American 

Professor  of  English  Literature  in  Colombia  Unirersitv. 
CHARLES  QUINCY  TURNER Sports 

Formerly  Managing  Editor  of  Outing. 

ALFRED  CHARLES  TRUE,  Ph.D. Aoriculturb  and  Horticultorb 

Director  of  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States  Department  of  Agricultare. 

LEWIS  SAYRE  VAN  DUZER Navy 

Lieutenant  in  the  United  States  Navy,  Secretary  of  the  United  States  Naval  Institute. 

GILBERT  VAN  INGEN PALiBONTOLOOY 

Special  Assistant  PalsBontologist  for  the  New  York  State  Museum,  and  Consulting  Geologist 
to  the  Office  of  the  State  Engineer,  Albany. 

HENRY  CLAY  VEDDER,  D.D Baptists 

Professor  Church  History  in  the  Crozer  Theological  Seminary. 
C.  W.  A.  VEDITZ,  Ph.D.,  LL.B Criminology 

Professor  of  Sociology  in  Bates  College. 
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Formerly  Instructor  in  French  in  Yale  University. 
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Assistant,  New  York  State  Museum. 

CHARLES  CRAWFORD  WHINERY,  A.M American  History  and  Biography 

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United  States  Department  of  Agriculture. 
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Librarian  of  the  John  Carter  Brown  Library,  Providence,  R.  I.    Formerly  Assistant  Professor 

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Major  Artillery  Corps,  United  States  Army.    Formerly  Assistant  Professor  of  Chemistry, 

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Professor  of  Church  History  and  New  Testament  Exegesis  in  the  Gettysburg  Theological 

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KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION. 


as 

in 

t( 

ti 

(( 

(( 

(( 

a      "   " 

g  44      44 


I 

44 

C4 

i 

4S 

44 

i 

44 

44 

o 

<4 

44 

6 

44 

44 

6 

44 

44 

d 

44 

44 

o 

44 

44 

oi 

44 

*( 

d5 

44 

41 

oa 

44 

44 

tl 

44 

44 

u 

4( 

44 

a 

44 

4t 

« 

44 

4( 

a 

44 

44 

7 

4C 

4( 

B 

44 

f( 

ch 


ale,  fate. 

senate^  chaotic. 

glare,  care. 

am,  at. 

arm,  father. 

ant,  and  final  a  in  America,  armada,  etc 
In  rapid  speech  this  vowel  readily  be- 
comes more  or  less  obscured  and  like 
the  neutral  vowel  or  a  short  u  (tt). 

final,  regal,  where  it  is  of  a  neutral  or 
obscure  quality. 

all,  fall. 

eve. 

elate,  evade. 

end,  pet.  Also  for  S  in  German,  as  in 
Grafe,  to  which  it  is  the  nearest  Eng- 
lish vowel  sound. 

fern,  her,  and  as  t  in  sir.  Also  for  d, 
oe,  in  German,  as  in  Gothe,  Goethe, 
5rtel,  Oertel,  and  for  eu  and  oeu  in 
French,  as  in  Neufch&tel,  Crfevecoeur; 
to  which  it  is  the  nearest  English 
vowel  sound. 

agency,  judgment,  where  it  is  of  a  neu- 
tral or  obscure  quality. 

ice,  quiet. 

auiescent. 
I,  fit. 

old,  sober. 

obey,  sobriety. 

orb,  nor. 

odd,  forest,  not. 

atom,  carol,  where  It  has  a  neutral  or  ob- 
scure quality. 

oil,  boil,  and  for  eu  in  German,  as  in 
Feuerbach.  / 

food,  fool,  and  as  ti  in  rude,  rule. 

house,  mouse. 

use,  mole. 

unite. 

cut.  but. 

full,  put,  or  as  00  in  foot,  book.  Also  for 
U  in  German,  as  in  Munchen,  Miiller, 
and  u  in  French,  as  in  Buchez,  Budd: 
to  which  it  is  the  nearest  English  vowel 
sound. 

urn,  burn. 

yet,  yield. 

the  Spanish  Habana,  Cordoba,  where  it 
is  lUce  a  6  made  with  the  lips  alone, 
instead  of  with  the  teeth  and  lips. 

chair,  cheese. 


hw 

K 


as  in  the  Spanish  Almodovar,  pulcada,  where 
it  is  nearly  like  th  in  English  then,  this. 
*'   "  go,  get. 

"  "  the  Grerman  Landtag,  and  ch  in  Feuer- 
bach, buch;  where  it  is  a  guttural 
sound  made  with  the  back  part  of  the 
tongue  raised  toward  the  soft  palate,  as 
in  the  sound  made  in  clearing  the  throat. 
"  "  j  in  the  Spanish  Jijona,  g  in  the  Spanish 
gila;  where  it  is  a  fricative  somewhat 
resembling  the  sound  of  h  in  English 
hue  or  y  in  yet,  but  stronger. 
"  "  wh  in  which. 

'*  "  ch  in  the  German  Ich,  Albrecht,  and  g  in 
the  German  Arensberg,  Mechlenburg; 
where  it  is  a  fricative  sound  made  be- 
tween the  tongue  and  the  hard  palate 
towards  which  the  tongue  is  raised.  It 
resembles  the  sound  of  A  in  hue,  or  y  in 
yet;  or  the  sound  made  by  beginning  to 
pronounce  a  k,  but  not  completing  the 
stoppage  of  the  breath.  The  character 
K  is  also  used  to  indicate  the  rough 
aspirates-  or  fricatives  of  some  of  the 
Oriental  languages,  as  of  kh  in  the 
word  Khan. 
"  "  sinker,  longer. 
"   "  sing,  long. 

"  "  the  French  bon,  Bourbon,  and  m  In  the 
French  Etampes;  where  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  a  nasalizing  of  the  preceding 
vowel.     This  effect  is   approximately 
produced  by  attempting  to  pronounce 
"  onion  "  without  touching  the  tip  of 
the  tongue  to  the  roof  of  the  mouth. 
"   "  shine,  shut. 
»*   "  thrust,  thin. 
*•   "  then,  this. 

**   "  z  in  azure,  and  t  in  pleasure. 
An  apostrophe,  or  superior  comma,  [']  is  some- 
times used  to  denote  a  glide  or  neutral  connecting 
vowel,  as  in  ta'bU  (table),  kaz'^m  (chasm). 

Otherwise  than  as  noted  above,  the  letters  used 
in  the  respellings  for  pronimciation  are  to  receive 
their  ordinary  English  sounds. 

When  the  pronunciation  is  sufficiently  shown 
by  indicating  the  accented  syllables,  this  is  done 
without  respelling;  as  in  the  case  of  very  com- 
mon English  words,  and  words  which  are  so 
spelled  as  to  ensure  their  correct  pronunciation  if 
they  are  correctly  accented.  See  the  article  on 
Pronunciation. 


n 
ng 

N 


Bh 
th 

TH 

zh 


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THE  NEW 
INTERNATIONAL 
ENCYCLOPEDIA 


A      &.    The  initial  letter  of  almost  every 

^k  alphabet.     The    Runic    "futhark," 

/  ^k        or   old    Germanic   alphabet,   forms 

r — ^k       an  exception  to  this  rule.     The  a 

A.  m  stands  in  the  fourth  place  in  the 
"futhark."  (See  Hunks).  A  sug- 
gestion has  been  made,  but  apparently  without 
muoh  acceptance,  that  the  position  of  a  in  the 
"futhark'*  may  possibly  be  due  to  an  artificial 
arrangement  of  the  letters  modeled  perhaps 
upon  the  order  of  the  words  in  the  old  Teutonic 
form  of  the  Paternoster.  The  Ethiopic  alpha- 
bet likewise  departs  from  the  common  scheme, 
for  it  places  aleph  in  the  thirteenth  place  instead 
of  the  first.  As  our  alphabet,  moreover,  directly 
follows  the  Latin,  which  itself  is  based  on  the 
Greek,  the  form  of  our  letter  A,  o  agrees  with 
the  same  character  in  those  languages.  The 
letter  was  called  alpha  in  Greek,  whence  "alpha- 
bet," like  our  own  "A,  B,  C,"  or  "Absey  Book." 
The  Greek  name  and  form  of  the  letter  agree 
with  the  West  Semitic  alphabet,  as  shown  by  the 
Hebrew  and  the  Aramaic.  In  these  two  lan- 
guages it  is  designated  as  aleph,  alph,  but  the 
real  meaning  of  the  name  and  the  origin  of  the 
symbol  have  not  yet  been  satisfactorily  deter- 
mined, and  the  subject  is  still  under  discussion. 

PiroNETic  Character.  In  regard  to  its  pho- 
netic character,  original  a  may  be  described  as  a 
"mid-back-wide"  vowel.  It  had  what  we  may 
term  the  a^-sound,  familiarly  known  as  the 
"Italian*'  or  "Continental"  a,  heard  in  far, 
father.  By  nature  a  is  a  simple  and  easy  vowel, 
made  by  opening  the  throat  naturally  and 
expelling  the  breath  with  the  least  modification 
by  the  parts  of  the  mouth.  Such  is  the  sound 
that  this  letter  has  in  most  languages;  in  Eng- 
lish, however,  it  has  undergone  so  many  modifi- 
cations that  to-day  the  pure  a^-sound  is  com- 
paratively scarce  in  our  speech,  and  instead  of 
calling  the  letter  itself  by  the  name  ah,  as  in 
most  Indo-Germanic  tongues,  we  now  term  it 
"ay"  iae),  as  in  Tennyson  {The  Epic,  ad  fin.) 
^'Mouthing  out  his  hollow  oes  and  aea."  The 
Anglo-Saxon  or  earliest  English  preserved  the 
genuine  old  aA-sqund,  though  shorter  perhaps 
in  quantity  than  the  a  of  father.  It  was  of 
•quite  frequent  occurrence,  and  by  its  side 
existed  the  corresponding  long  a,  often  marked 
with  the  quantity  sign.  In  Anglo-Saxon,  short 
a  was  subject,  however,  to  certain  modifications 
iind  shiftings.  (See  Phonetic  Laws.)  These 
Vol.  I.-l 


modifications  account  only  in  part  for  the  vari- 
ety of  sounds  which  the  Modern  English  a  repre- 
sents, as  other  external  infiuences  have  come  in 
to  alter  the  sound  still  more.  The  orthography 
has  not  kept  pace  with  the  change  in  pronunci- 
ation; hence  the  anomalous  character  of  a  as  a 
sound-symbol.  There  are  some  half-dozen  dif- 
ferent sounds,  shorter  and  longer,  which  a  may 
represent  in  English;  some  of  these  sounds  are, 
of  (bourse,  extremely  common;  others  are  com- 
paratively rare.     The  principal  are: 

(1)  fot,  (4)   father, 

(2)  fate,  (5)   false, 

(3)  fare,  (6)   what,  was. 

To  these  is  to  be  added  the  vowel  sound  in  ask, 
chance,  can't,  p€L8t,  which  varies  with  different 
speakers,  and  is  apparently  to  be  placed  some- 
where intermediate  between  fat  and  father. 
Likewise  is  to  be  noted  the  indifferent  sound  of 
a,  approaching  the  u  in  hut,  that  so  frequently 
occurs  in  unstressed  syllables,  like  against, 
abundant,  and  also  the  sporadic  a  in  any,  many, 
where  it  approaches  a  short  e.  The  rounded 
vowel  above  noted  in  tc<i8,  false,  and  the  like,  is 
due  to  the  infiuence  of  the  adjacent  consonant, 
w.  I.  The  former  sound,  the  a,  in  tra«,  is 
almost  the  short  to  all.  In  the  latter  case  with 
I,  we  find  also  au  beside  a  to  express  the  sound, 
as  fault  beside  false.  The  commonest  short 
sound  of  a  in  English,  however,  is  the  fiat 
vowel  in  hat.  Its  frequency  leads  to  our  calling 
this  the  "short  a;"  as  the  corresponding  "long" 
we  generally  assign  the  vowel  in  hate,  although 
the  latter  is  really  the  long  e-sound  of  they. 
The  vowel  of  fare,  hare,  is  a  still  further  modi- 
fication. 

Indo-Germanic  a.  In  the  Indo-Germanic  lan- 
guages the  vowel  series  a,  i,  u  ia  especially  prom- 
inent; in  Sanskrit,  and  also  in  Gothic,  these  are 
the  only  short  vowels.  The  short  a  is  never  writ- 
ten in  Sanskrit  after  consonants,  but  is  regarded 
as  inherent  in  the  sign.  Owing  to  these  circum- 
stances it  was  believed,  until  within  recent 
years,  that  the  primitive  Indo-Germanic  speech 
possessed  only  a,  i,  u,  and  that  a  was  the  oldest 
and  purest  of  the  vowels.  This  view  has  since 
been  much  modified;  it  has  been  shown  that  e 
and  o  must  have  existed  beside  a,  i,  u  in  the 
primitive  speech,  and  that  they  are  of  equal  age 
with  the  others.  As  an  instance  of  a  genuine 
Indo-Germanic  short  a,  we  may  take  Indo-Ger. 
*agr0'8,  "field,  acre;"  Skr.,  dJTa-^.  Qfe.  iyp^J', 


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Lat.,  ager;  Goth.,  akr-a.  The  corresponding  long 
&  occurs  commonly  in  the  oldest  English,  as  in 
the  other  Indo-Glermanic  tongues;  the  history  of 
its  development  into  the  modern  speech,  how- 
ever, has  been  somewhat  different,  as  it  has 
passed  over  chiefly  into  an  ^-sound.  (See  Pho- 
netic Laws.) 

As  A  Symbol.  Standing  at  the  head  of  the 
alphabet  as  a  does,  it  is  commonly  used  as  a 
symbol  to  denote  the  first  in  order  in  a  row  or 
series.  It  is  therefore  so  employed  to  denote 
one  of  the  notes  {la)  in  musical  notation  (q.v.)  ; 
similarly  in  logic  (q.v.)  to  denote  the  universal 
affirmative.  In  algeora  (q.v.)  the  letters  a,  h,  c 
are  used  to  denote  known  quantities  as  opposed 
to  a?,  1/,  z,  the  unknown  quantities.  In  abstract 
reasonings  and  hypotheses.  A,  B,  C  are  likewise 
employed  as  convenient  designations  for  partic- 
ular persons  and  things.  In  writing  and  print- 
ing, the  series  a,  b,  c  is  commonly  used  for 
reference.  In  nautical  matters,  Al,  A2,  A3  are  in 
common  use  to  denote  the  class  and  quality  of 
ships  and  similarly  in  business  matters  to  indi- 
cate the  commercial  standing  of  a  house.  This 
usage  has  passed  over  into  popular  parlance, 
so  that  a  person  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  "Al" 
to  indicate  that  he  is  a  thoroughly  reliable, 
"first-class"  man.  A  stands  also  as  the  first  of 
the  Dominical  Letters   (q.v.). 

In  Grammatical  Forms.  This  same  letter  is 
used  in  a  number  of  phrases  and  grammatical 
forms  in  English.  In  some  of  these  it  is  the 
mutilated  form  of  a  fuller  word.  The  first  use 
to  be  noted  is  its  employment  beside  an  as  an 
indefinite  article;  both  forms,  a,  atif  are  weak- 
ened from  the  A.  S.,  «n,  "one."  In  provincial 
dialects  a  ('a)  appears  as  a  pronominal  form 
for  hCy  etc.,  as  in  quotha,  "quoth  he."  Some- 
times it  thus  stands  for  have.  It  appears  as  a 
.  preposition  for  A.  S.,  en,  with  a  verbal  noun  in 
certain  old  phrases,  as  a-hunting,  a-building; 
also  for  A.  S.,  of  in  Jack-a-lantem,  John  a  Gaunt; 
and  similarly  as  a  prefix  for  A.  S.,  on  in  asleep 
(A.  S.  on  alcBpe),  away  [A.  S.  on  weg) ,  for  off  in 
adown  (A.  S.  of  dQne) ;  again  intensive  in 
a-thirat  (A.  S.  of -thirst).  It  likewise  stands  for 
long  d  as  a  verbal  prefix  arise  (A.  S.  arlsan), 
nxcake,  and  in  many  other  phrases.  The  charac- 
ter d  is  used  in  Swedish  as  a  labialized  guttural, 
like  English  d.  See  Alphabet  and  Abbrevia- 
tions. 

A.  As  a  note  in  music,  the  major  sixth  of  the 
scale  C  major.  See  Pitch  for  A  major  and  A 
minor.    See  also  Key. 

Al.  A  symbol  used  in  the  classification  of 
wooden  ships  by  Lloyd's  Maritime  Insurance 
Association.  The  designation  follows  as  a  result 
of  an  examination  of  a  ship  by  one  of  Lloyd's 
surveyors.  The  symbol  Al  denotes  that  hull 
and  equipment  of  the  ship  in  question  are  in 
good  condition;  the  letter  A  standing  for  con- 
struction and  the  numeral  1  for  equipment; 
when  the  latter  is  inadequate  the  figure  2  is  used. 
Should  the  symbol  be  preceded  by  figures,  thus, 
12AI,  it  means  that  the  classification  is  good  for 
1^  years.  Al  vessels  may  receive  further  exten- 
sion of  classification  (1  to  8  years),  and  the 
symbol  becomes  12-Al  Cont.  6A1,  which  means 
original  12  year  class  continued  6  years.  If 
later  restored  it  would  still  be  possible  to  remain 
in  Al  class  with  the  following  symbol:  12A1- 
Cont.  6A1-  Rest.  6A1.  When  a  vessel  has  passed 
the  age  for  the  character  A,  but  is  still  found 


2  AAIiBOBG. 

fit  for  conveying  perishable  goods  to  all  parts- 
of  the  world,  it  is  registered  A  in  red.  Ships- 
designated  A  in  black  form  the  third  class,  and 
are  allowed  to  carry  perishable  goods  on  shorter 
voyages. 

In  classifying  iron  ships  a  broad  A  is  used 
with  numbers  prefixed,  those  ships  classed 
100^  to  90  A  inclusive  requiring  to  be  sur- 
veyed every  four  years,  and  those  classed  85^ 
and  under  requiring  a  special  survey  every  three 
years.  The  numerals  referring  to  equipment 
are  the  same  as  for  wooden  ships.  In  the  classi- 
fication of  the  German  Lloyd's,  Al  refers  to  new 
wooden  ships  and  repaired  ships  of  equal 
quality;  A  denotes  ships  not  equal  to  the  for- 
mer class,  but  yet  of  superior  construction; 
the  terms  BI,  B,  CL  and  CK  denote  those  of 
inferior  construction.  Iron  and  steel  ships  are 
designated  by  the  characters  /^^  fi^,  J^,  with 
the  numerals  100,  95,  90,  etc.,  prefixed  (100  A 
for  example),  and  referring  to  the  structural 
strength.  The  number  under  the  cross-arm  of 
the  /^  denotes  the  number  of  years  that  may 
elapse  before  the  vessel  must  be  resurveyed. 
An  interesting  account  of  the  development  of 
the  methods  of  classification  and  surveying  of 
the  British  Lloyd's,  as  well  as  the  history  of  the 
society  itself,  will  be  found  in  Annals  of  Lloyd^s 
Register  of  British  and  Foreign  Shipping  (^Lon- 
don, 1884).  The  rules  for  the  building,  equip- 
ment and  classification  of  ships  are  not  given  in 
the  annual  Register  of  Shipping,  but  are  pub- 
lished separately  in  four  volumes,  one  for  steel 
vessels,  one  for  iron,  one  for  wooden  and  com- 
posite, and.  one  for  yachts. 

AAy  a.  The  name  of  a  number  of  rivers  and 
streams  in  Holland,  Germany,  Switzerland,  Rus- 
sia, and  the  north  of  France.  As  many  as  forty 
have  been  enumerated.  The  word  is  said  to  be  of 
Celtic  origin,  but  it  is  allied  to  the  O.  N.  d, 
O.  Ger.  aha,  Goth,  ahva,  identical  with  the  Lat. 
aqua,  "water."  Ach  or  Aach  is  another  form 
of  the  same  word.  Four  streams  of  the  name 
of  Ach  fall  into  the  Lake  of  Constance.  The 
word,  in  both  forms,  occurs  as  final  syllable 
in  many  names  of  places,  as  Fulda  (formerly 
Fuldaha),  Biberach,  Bieberich,  etc.  In  the 
plural  it  is  Aachen  ( waters,  springs ) ,  which  is 
the  German  name  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (q.v.). 
Aix,  the  French  name  of  so  many  places  con- 
nected with  springs,  is  derived  from  Lat.  Aqu(B, 
which  became  in  O.  F.  'Aigues  and  then  Aix. 
Compare  the  Celtic  Esk,  Ex,  Axe,  Ouse. 

AACHEN,  ao'en.    See  Aix-la-Chapelle. 

AAIjBOBG,  ftl^bdrK  (Eel-town).  An  episcopal 
city  of  Denmark,  capital  o&  the  Amt  of  Aalborg, 
in  the  north  of  Jutland,  on  the  south  shore  of  the 
Limfjord,  which  unites  the  North  Sea  and  the 
Kattegat  (Map:  Denmark,  C  I).  The  town 
has  a  cathedral,  a  museum,  and  a  library  of 
30,000  volumes.  It  is  situated  on  one  of  the 
branches  of  the  Danish  State  Railway,  which 
here  crosses  the  Limfjord  on  an  iron  bridge 
900  feet  long  and  16  feet  wide.  The  manufac- 
tures of  the  town  are  considerable,  consisting 
chiefly  of  brandy  and  spirits,  cotton  goods,  dyed 
articles,  cement,  and  lumber.  There  is  an  electric 
lighting  plant.  There  is  some  shipbuilding  and 
sea  trade,  the  latter  with  England,  Norway,  and 
Sweden,  for  the  most  part  in  vessels  owned  by 
citizens  of  the  town.  The  harbor  is  too  shallow 
for  large  vessels.  Aalborg  has  long  been  an 
important  commercial  centre.     It  was  plundered 


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AALBOBG.  ; 

by  Wallenstein  in  1627,  and  by  the  Swedes  in 
1644  and  1657.     Pop.,  1890,  19,603;  1901,  31,462. 

AALESXTND.     See  Alesund. 

A  A  Til  PASHA,  a1*  pi-sha'  (1815-71).  A 
Turkish  statesman  and  diplomat.  He  entered 
the  public  service  at  fifteen  years  of  age;  was 
charge  d'affaires  in  London  in  1838,  and  from 
1841  to  1844  Ambassador  to  Great  Britain.  He 
then  became  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
several  times  after  1852  was  Grand  Vizier.  He 
was  also  promoted  to  the  rank  of  Field-Marshal 
and  Pasha.  In  1856  he  represented  the  Porte 
at  the  Congress  of  Paris,  and  in  1871  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  London  conference  for  the 
settlement  of  the  Black  Sea  question.  He  was 
favorable  to  progress,  and  strove  earnestly, 
thouph  ineflTectually,  to  introduce  reforms  in  the 
Turkish  Grovernment. 

AALST,  alst.     See  Alost. 

AAB,  iir  (Tamil  oar,  river;  Skr.  ara, 
swift).  The  largest  tributary  of  the  Rhine  in 
Switzerland.  It  rises  in  the  glaciers  near  the 
Grimsel  in  Berne,  at  an  altitude  of  7345  feet 
(Map:  Switzerland,  CI),  flows  northwest  and 
enters  Lake  Brienz  after  forming  the  famous 
falls  of  Handeck,  200  feet  high.  Issuing  from 
Lake  Brienz  it  enters  Lake  Thun,  passing  the 
town  of  Interlaken.  On  emerging  from  the  latter 
lake,  the  Aar  becomes  navigable,  and  after  a 
Avinding  course  westward  reaches  the  Jura 
Mountains,  and  flows  along  their  southern  slope 
down  to  its  confluence  with  the  Limmat,  where 
it  breaks  through  the  ridge  and  enters  the  Rhine 
near  Waldshut.  Its  entire  length  is  about  175 
miles,  and  among  its  numerous  tributaries  the 
most  important  are  the  Saane,  Zihl,  and  Emme. 
Through  its  tributaries  the  Aar  is  connected 
with  some  of  the  principal  lakes  in  Switzerland. 
The  most  important  cities  on  its  banks  are  Berne, 
Interlaken,  Solothurn,  and  Aarau.  There  are 
several  small  rivers  of  the  same  name  in  Ger- 
many. 

■A  ATIA'C,  a'rou  (aar-f  Ger.  Aue,  meadow, 
from  aha.  water).  Capital  of  the  canton  of 
Aargau,  Switzerland,  near  the  Jura  Mountains, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Aar,  41  miles  northeast 
of  Berne  (Map:  Switzerland,  CI).  It  is  1100 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  lies  in  a  fertile  plain 
between  the  Jura  and  the  Swiss  plateau.  It  is 
well  built:  has  a  town  hall,  barracks,  several 
small  museums,  and  a  library  for  the  canton  of 
80,000  volumes,  rich  in  Swiss  historical  works. 
There  are  silk,  cotton,  leather,  and  cutlery  fac- 
tories, an  iron  foundry  famed  for  its  cannon  and 
bells,  and  other  workshops.  The  town  is  famous 
for  producing  excellent  mathematical  instru- 
ments. North  and  northeast  of  the  town  are 
the  Wasserfluh,  2850  feet  high,  and  the  Gisela- 
fluh,  2540  feet  high.  The  River  Aar  is  here 
crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge.  Eight  fairs  are 
held  at  Aarau  yearly.     Pop.,  1890,  7000. 

AABD-VABK,  ard'vark'  (Dutch  "earth- 
pig").  A  burrowing,  nocturnal,  insect-eating 
mammal  {Orycteropus  Capensia),  native  and 
common  in  South  Africa.  It  is  about  5  feet 
long,  including  a  long,  tapering,  naked  tail. 
The  head  is  long,  thin,  and  somewhat  pig-like, 
with  a  tubular  snout  and  high,  pointed  ears. 
The  body  is  stout,  fat,  and  thinly  covered  with 
bristly,  reddish  hairs.  The  limbs  are  short, 
strong,  and  equipped  with  claws  adapted  to  dig- 
ging in  hard  ground.    It  inhabits  open  regions, 


AABGAXT. 

is  timid  and  mainly  nocturnal,  lives  in  burrows, 
and  feeds  upon  insects,  mainly  ants  and  termites, 
breaking  into  their  "hills"  and  gathering  them 
into  its  small  mouth  by  means  of  its  long,  pro- 
trusile  tongue,  which  is  coated  with  glutinous 
saliva.  The  flesh  is  edible,  but  likely  to  taste 
of  the  formic  acid  in  its  food.  A  closely  allied 
species  (0.  AiJthiopicus)  inhabits  northeastern 
Central  Africa.  These  two  animals  (with  sev- 
eral fossil  species)  represent  the  Orycteropo- 
didie,.a  family  of  Edentata  differing  from  the 
remainder  of  that  ofder  in  so  many  respects 
(including,  for  instance,  a  milk  dentition)  that 
some  naturalists  have  proposed  to  establish  a 
separate  order  for  it.     See  Plate  of  A?iT-EATiais. 

'  AAJtD-WOLE  (Dutch  "earth-wolf 'M  .  A  noc- 
turnal, carnivorous  mammal  {Proteles  lalandii) 
of  South  Africa,  resembling  a  small  striped 
hyena  with  a  dog-like  head.  It  is  closely 
allied  to  the  hyena,  from  which  it  differs  mainly 
in  its  weak  jaws  and  peculiar  dentition,  which 
prevent  its  overcoming  and  eating  vertebrate 
prey  or  large  carrion.  Hence  its  food  consists  of 
small  carrion,  of  grubs,  and  largely  of  termites. 
Its  fur  is  coarse,  and  capable  of  erection  along 
the  back;  in  color  it  is  ashy-gray,  irregularly 
striped  up  and  down  and  around  the  legs  with 
black;  its  muzzle  is  black  and  nearly  naked; 
legs  and  feet  dark  brown  in  front  and  gray 
behind ;  ears  dark  brown  outside  and  gray  inside. 
It  goes  abroad  only  in  the  night,  and  several  are 
said  to  live  in  the  same  burrow.  It  is  the  sole 
representative'  of  the  family  Protelidae.  See 
Plate  of  Hyenas. 

AABESTBTTP,  a're-str?5op,  Emil  (1800- 
1856).  A  Danish  poet,  born  at  Copenhagen. 
He  was  little  regarded  during  his  lifetime,  but 
since  the  publication  of  his  collected  poems, 
with  a  critical  essay  by  Georg  Brandes,  he  has 
been  deemed  one  of  the  first  lyrists  of  Denmark. 

AABGAXT,  ar'gou,  or  ABGOVIE,  ftr'gd'v^'. 
A  canton  of  northern  Switzerland,  with  an  area 
of  540  square  miles  (Map:  Switzerland,  C  1). 
Its  surface ,  is  mostly  mountainous,  but  there 
are  a  number  of  fine  valleys.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Aar,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine,  and  its 
tributaries,  the  Reuss  and  the  Turgi.  There  are 
a  number  of  mineral  springs.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile.  The  vine  is  cultivated  extensively  in 
the  river-valleys  and  the  output  of  dairy  prod- 
ucts is  considerable.  The  manufacturing  indus- 
tries are  well  developed  and  give  occupation  to 
about  18,000  people.  The  production  of  textiles 
is  the  chief  industry.  For  purposes  of  admin- 
istration the  canton  is  divided  into  eleven  dis- 
tricts. The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  the 
assembly  (Grosse  Rat),  elected  at  the  rate  of 
one  member  for  every  1100  inhabitants.  The 
executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of  a  council 
(Regierungsrat)  of  five  members,  chosen  by  the 
assembly  for  a  period  of  four  years.  The 
referendum  is  frequently  resorted  to,  and  for 
private  initiative  m  legislation  5000  votes  are 
required.  In  the  National  Council  Aargau  is 
represented  bv  ten  members.  The  population 
was  193,580  in  1890  and  206,460  in  1900.  The 
inhabitants  are  mostly  of  German  origin,  and 
the  German  language  is  spoken  by  almost  the 
entire  population.  Capital,  Aarau.  Aargau,  in 
its  original  extent  much  larger  than  the  present 
canton,  was  a  part  of  ancient  Helvetia,  9,nd 
was  subdued  by  the  Franks  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury.    It    was    held    by    the    H8^.pabuTg9    ^^®™ 


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AAB0AXT.  4 

1173  till  1415,  when  it  was  taken  from  them 
by  the  Swiss  Confederates,  who  gave  parts  of 
it  to  Berne  and  Lucerne.  In  1798  the  district 
was  divided  into  the  cantons  of  Aargau  and 
Baden,  which  became  members  of  the  Helvetic 
Confederation.  Ruled  mainly  by  the  aristocratic 
party,  Aargau  gained  a  liberal  constitution  in 
1831,  and  since  then  has  been  the  champion  of 
democracy  against  the  reactionists  and  the 
clericals.  Consult:  Hiatorische  Oesellschaft  dea 
Kantons  Aargau  (Aarau,  1898),  and  J.  Heierli, 
Die  Archdologische  Karth  des  Kantons  Aargau 
(Aarau,  1899). 

AABHXTS,  Ar^o?;s*  A  seaport  and  episcopal 
city  of  Denmark,  capital  of  the  Amt  of  Aarhus, 
Jutland,  situated  on  a  bay  of  the  Kattegat,  in  a 
fertile  plain,  68  miles  northeast  of  Fredericia 
(Map:  Denmark,  D  2).  It  has  a  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, whose  erection  was  commenced  in  1201,  a 
museum,  an  exchange,  and  several  banks.  The  in- 
habitants are  engaged  in  shipbuilding  and  manu- 
facturing. The  town  is  connected  with  tlve  rest 
of  Jutland  by  the  State  Railroad,  and  there  are 
regular  lines  of  steamers  to  Copenhagen  and 
England.  The  harbor  is  well  protected  by  a 
breakwater,  and  admits  vessels  of  six  feet 
draught.  The  town  ranks  among  the  oldest  in 
Denmark,  for  it  had  the  first  Christian  church 
and  was  the  residence  of  a  bishop  in  948.  Aarhus 
was  the  scene  of  a  Danish  defeat  by  the  Prus- 
sians in  1849.     Pop.,  1890,  33,306;  1901,  51,909. 

AABOK,  ar^t&n.  A  Jewish  High  Priest  and 
elder  brother  of  Moses.  When  Moses  was  sent  on 
his  mission  of  deliverance  to  Pharaoh,  Aaron  was 
appointed  his  spokesman  and  performed  some 
miracles,  even  bringing  on  some  of  the  plagues. 
He  is  always,  however,  the  subordinate  of  Moses, 
from  whom  he  receives  his  ordination  as  High 
Priest.  (Ex.  xxix;  Lev.  viii  :  9.)  Aaron  was 
not  so  strong-minded  as  his  brother.  While 
Moses  was  absent  receiving  the  Ten  Command- 
ments, Aaron  acceded  to  the  importunities  of  the 
people  and  fashioned  for  them  the  golden  calf. 
Aaron  was  concerned  in  two  rebellions.  In  the 
first,  his  authority,  as  well  as  the  authority  of 
Moses,  was  called  into  question  by  the  Korahites 
(Num.  xvi).  The  miraculous  budding  of  the 
rod  of  Aaron  settled  that  dispute.  In  the  other, 
Aaron,  perhaps  inspired  by  Miriam,  rebelled 
against  the  authority  of  Moses,  but  here  Miriam 
was  punished.  Because  of  the  incident  at 
Meribah  (Num.  xx  :  8-13)  Aaron  was  not 
allowed  to  enter  Canaan,  but  died  and  was  bur- 
ied on  Mount  Hor,  on  the  confines  of  Idumsea. 
Eleazar,  his  son,  succeeded  to  the  high  priest- 
hood. In  later  Hebrew  literature  Aaron  appears 
as  the  ideal  priest,  "loving  peace,  pursuing 
peace"  {Ethics  of  the  Fathers,  I  :  12),  and  as 
the  great  conciliator.  Those  who  accept  the 
modern  Biblical  criticism  call  attention  to  the 
fact  that  it  is  only  in  the  Pentateuch,  which, 
they  assert,  is  post-exilic,  that  Aaron  is  re- 
garded as  the  ancestor  of  all  lawful  priests, 
whereas  in  the  earlier  literature  he  is  merely  a 
prominent  figure  by  the  side  of  Moses  and  Mir- 
iam. The  prophet  Ezekiel  does  not  trace  the 
origin  of  the  Jerusalem  priesthood  farther  back 
than  to  Zadok,  who  lived  in  the  days  of  Solomon, 
and  when  we  come  to  the  Elohistic  history  (see 
Elohist)  we  find  Joshua,  and  not  Aaron,  assist- 
ing Moses  in  the  exercise  of  religious  rites.  In 
the  Yahviatic  document  Aaron  is  practically 
ignored,  so  that  we  are  permitted  to  conclude 
that  the  picture  drawn  oif  him  in  the  Priestly 


51" 


ABACO. 

Code  and  later  portions  of  the  Old  Testament 
is  part  and  parcel  of  the  "theocratic"  theory 
which  led  Hebrew  writers  to  reconstruct  Hebrew 
history  to  so  large  an  extent.    See  Moses. 

AABOK.  A  character  in  the  Shakespearean 
lay  of  Titus  Andronicus,  a  villainous  Moor, 
lie  resemblance  of  Aaron's  brazen  avowal  of  his 
wickedness  in  the  last  act  of  this  play  to  a  sim- 
ilar passage  in  Marlowe's  Jew  of  Malta  has  been 
cited  as  an  indication  that  the  Titus  Andronicus 
may  possibly  owe  its  origin  to  the  same  author. 

AABSENS,  ar'scns,  Frans  van  (1572-1641). 
A  Dutch  diplomat.  At  twenty-six  years  of  age 
he  was  sent  to  Paris  as  the  agent  of  the  States- 
General;  later  he  became  ambassador  for  the 
United  Provinces,  and  long  represented  his  coun- 
try at  the  French  Court,  where  he  was  highly 
regarded  by  Richelieu.  He  was  also  at  different 
periods  Ambassador  to  Venice,  Germany,  and 
England.  Motley,  who  considered  Aarsens  one 
of  the  ablest  diplomats  of  Europe,  shows  that 
he  contributed  largely  to  the  unrighteous  death 
of  Barneveldt,  1619. 

AASEN,  ft^sen,  Ivar  Andreas  (1813-96).  A 
Norwegian  philologist.  He  was  born  at  S5nd- 
m5re.  He  at  first  studied  botany,  but  subse- 
quently turned  his  attention  to  researches 
respecting  the  native  dialects.  Assisted  by  the 
Government,  he  traversed  nearly  the  whole  of 
Norway,  investigating  popular  speech,  upon 
which  he  sought  to  base  a  national  language 
that  should  be  free  from  Danish  influence.  In 
1848  he  published  Det  Norske  Folkesprogs  Gram- 
matik,  and  in  1850  added  Ordhog  over  det  Norske 
Folkesprog,  enlarged  under  the  title  of  Norsk 
Ordhog  in  1873,  and  in  1856  Norske  Ordsprog, 
a  treatise  on  Norwegian  proverbs.  Through  his 
linguistic  work  he  was  the  originator  of  the 
patriotic  movement  generally  known  as  the 
"Maalstroev." 

AASVAB,  fts'var.  Islands  off  Norway,  about 
latitude  66°  (Map:  Norway,  D  3).  They  have 
herring  fisheries,  m  which  more  than  10,000  men 
are  employed  in  December  and  January,  but  for 
the  rest  of  the  year  they  are  almost  deserted. 
The  fish  is  the  great  Nordland  herring,  and  the 
catch  often  reaches  200,000  tons  in  a  season. 

AASVOGEL,  as'f6-gcl  (South  African  Dutch, 
carrion-bird) .  Any  of  several  South  African  vul- 
tures. 

ABy  ftb.  The  fifth  month  of  the  Jewish  relig- 
ious year,  and  the  eleventh  ( in  intercalary  years 
the  twelfth)  of  the  Jewish  civil  year.  The  first 
day  of  Ab  became  a  fast  to  commemorate  the 
death  of  Aaron;  but  of  far  greater  significance 
is  the  ninth,  commemorated  as  a  fast  to  mark 
the  destruction  of  the  first  temple  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, 586  B.C.,  and  of  the  second  temple  by 
Titus,  70  A.D.,  though  there  is  no  evidence  to 
show  that  the  latter  ever  took  place  on  that  day 
of  the  month.  Ab  corresponds  roughly  to  July- 
August  of  the  common  year. 

ABAB'DE.  A  Hamitic  people  west  of  the 
Red  Sea,  below  Kosseir.  Their  habits  are  those 
of  the  desert,  the  camel  being  their  chief  domes- 
tic animal. 


AB'ACA. 
ASACK'. 


See  Hkmp,  Manila. 
See  Sails. 


ABACO,  a'b&kfi,  or  Lucaya,  Great  and 
Little.  Two  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  150  miles 
east  of  Florida,  lat.  25°  51'  N.,  long.  77**  5'  W. 
(Map:  West  Indies,  J  1).     Together  they  cover 


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ABALONE,     ETC. 


1.AQATE  SHELL  (Achatlna),  with  animal  extended.  6.  ABALONE   (Haliotis),  with  animal  extended. 

2.  WINQ  SHELL  (Avicula).  6.  ABALONE  (Interior),  showing  flattened  spine. 

8.  AUGER  SHELL  (Terebra).  7.  ANODON,  a  River  Mussel,  with  foot  extended. 

4.  ARK  SHELL   (Area).  8.  EQQS  OF   APPLESNAIL. 

9.  APPLESNAIL   (Ampullaria),  with  animal  extended. 


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ASACO. 


ABANDONMENT. 


an  area  of  about  879  square  miles.  Shipbuild- 
ing, wrecking,  and  turtle-fishing  are  the  chief 
employments. 

AB'ACXJS  (Lat.,  Gk.  u^at  ahax).  A  calcu- 
lating machine  or  table  occasionally  employed 
in  modern  primary  schools  to  make  the  elemen- 
tary operations  of  arithmetic  palpable.  It  con- 
sists of  a  frame  with  a  number  of  parallel  wires, 
on  which  beads  or  counters  are  strung.  In 
ancient  times  it  was  used  in  practical  reckoning, 

and  is  thus  used 
still  in  China,  Per- 
sia, and  elsewhere. 
The  ancient  abacus 
consisted  of  a  frame 
separated  by  ver- 
tical lines  into  col- 
umns denoting  the 
several  orders, 
units,  tens,  etc.  In  these  columns  counters 
M-ere  set  to  denote  the  units  of  each  order. 
Counters  above  a  horizontal  line  denoted 
five  units.  In  the  Abacus  Pythagoricus  each 
counter  bore  a  number,  so  that  only  one  was 
needed  in  each  column,  and  more  complicated  op- 
erations could  be  performed.  See  Calculating 
Machines. 

ABACTTS.  In  architecture,  a  square  or  oblong 
level  tablet  on  the  capital  of  a  column.  It  sup- 
ports the  entablature.  In  the  Doric,  Old  Ionic, 
and  Tuscan  orders,  the  abacus  is  a  regular 
oblong;  but  in  the  New  Ionic,  Corinthian,  and 


CHIinMB   ABACUS. 


A— Gothic. 


B— Doric. 


Roman  orders,  the  abacus  has  concave  sides,  with 
truncated  angles.  Square  marble  tablets  let 
into  walls,  and  fields  with  figures  in  them 
inserted  in  mosaic  floors,  were  also  included 
under  the  terra  abacus  in  ancient  architecture. 

ABADy  a-bfid'  (Pers.  and  Hind.,  equivalent 
to  the  Engl,  abode).  An  afiix  in  the  formation 
of  many  Oriental  geographical  names,  especially 
in  British  India  and  Persia,  as  Hyderabad  (Hai- 
darabad),  the  "dwelling"  or  city  of  Hyder. 

ABAD,  a-bild',  or  Abbad.  The  name  of 
three  Moorish  princes  of  Andalusia.  Abad  I. 
(Mohammed  ibn  Ismail  Abul  Kassim  ibn 
Habed)  was  a  Spanish  Moor  of  Syrian  descent 
who  founded  the  Abadite  dynasty  in  Seville  dur- 
ing the  civil  wars  of  the  eleventh  century.  In  1023 
the  iJeople  of  Seville  revolted  from  the  Caliph  of 
Cordova,  and  Abad,  cadi  of  the  city,  was  called  to 
the  head  of  affairs.  He  soon  seized  absolute  pow- 
er, maintained  his  position  against  the  efforts  of 
the  Caliph  to  bring  the  retel  province  to  sub- 
mission, and  added  Cordova  to  his  possessions. 
He  died  in  1042  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son. 
Abad  II.  (Abu  Amru  ibn  Habed)  was  a  cruel 
ruler,  and  carried  on  petty  wars  against  his 
Moorish  neighbors  to  extend  his  dominions.  He 
was,  however,  forced  to  pay  tribute  by  Ferdinand 
I.,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon.     He  died  in  1069. 


His  son,  Abad  III.  (Mohammed  ibn  Habed, called 
Al  Motamid),  was  a  poet  and  patron  of  letters. 
He  was  tolerant,  and  peaceably  added  a  part  of 
Portugal  to  his  kingdom.  His  chief  opponent, 
Alfonso  VI.  of  Castile,  married  his  daughter, 
and  the  alliance  roused  the  jealousy  of  the 
smaller  Moorish  princes,  who  joined  with  the 
King  of  Morocco  in  a  league  by  which  Aban  and 
Alfonso  were  defeated.  He  was  kept  four  years 
a  prisoner  in  Morocco.  He  died  in  1095.  Abad*s 
verses,  written  while  in  captivity,  are  greatly 
admired  by  Mohammedan  readers.  He  was  the 
last  of  the  Abadites. 

ABADa>ON  (Heb.  "ruin,"  "destruction").  In 
the  Old  Testament  one  of  the  names  given  to 
Sheol,  or  rather  to  the  place  of  the  lost  in  Sheol ; 
only  once  used  in  the  New  Testament  (Rev.  ix: 
11 ) ,  and  then  as  the  proper  Hebrew  name  of  the 
King  of  the  Abyss,  whose  Greek  name  is  ApoU- 
yon.    See  Apocalyptic  Number. 

ABAKA  KHAN,  H-M^k  Hiln'  or  kiln'.  See 
MoNooL  Dynasties. 

ABAKANSK,  A^bA-kilnsk'.  A  fortified  vil- 
lage in  the  government  of  Yenisseisk,  Siberia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  River  Yenissei  ( Map :  Asia, 
J  3).  It  was  founded  by  Peter  the  Great  in 
1707,  and  is  situated  in  a  very  fertile  region  in 
the  vicinity  of  coal  mines  that  give  employment 
to  many  of  its  inhabitants. 

AB'AXO^E  (Sp.,  of  unknown  origin).  A 
name  in  California  for  the  several  local  species 
of  marine  gastropods  ( family  Haliotidie ) ,  other- 
wise known  as  ear-shells  or  sea-ears;  represen- 
tatives are  numerous  throughout  the  warmer 
seas  of  the  world,  except  the  western  Atlantic. 
The  shell,  although  having  the  shape  of  a  shal- 
low oval  saucer,  is  really  a  widely  flattened 
spiral,  the  apex  of  which  is  near  one  end,  while 
the  turned-over  margin  is  the  columella.  ( See 
illustrations  on  Plate  of  Abalone,  etc.)  The 
animal  creeps  about  rocks  near  the  shore,  spread- 
ing a  fringed  mantle,  and  extending  tentacles 
through  the  row  of  holes  in  its  shell ;  it  feeds 
upon  seaweeds,  and  when  quiet  or  alarmed  with- 
draws all  soft  parts  beneatn  the  shield-like  shell, 
and  sits  down  with  great  tenacity,  after  the 
manner  of  its  near  relatives,  the  limpets.  The 
lining  of  the  shell  is  a  layer  of  richly  colored 
mother-of-pearl,  much  used  for  inlaying  and  for 
the  manufacture  of  small  ornaments,  buttons, 
etc.  The  animals  are  eaten,  especially  by 
Orientals,  and  great  quantities  of  them  are 
collected  and  dried  on  the  coast  of  California, 
not  only  for  consumption  by  the  local  Chinese, 
but  for  export  to  China  and  Japan.  A  species 
in  the  Channel  Islands,  England,  is  regularly 
collected  for  food,  and  is  called  ormer, 

ABANCAY,  a'BAn-ki'.  The  chief  city  of  the 
department  of  Apurimac,  Peru,  66  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Cuzco,  on  the  Abancay  (Map: 
Peru,  C  6) .  It  possesses  extensive  sugar  refiner- 
ies, and  is  the  centre  of  the  best  sugar-growing 
district  in  Peru.  There  are  also  several  silver 
mines  in  the  neighborhood.     Pop.,  1889,  3000. 

ABANa>ONMENT.  The  Varying  and  dis- 
similar significations  of  this  tetm  ^^  difFerent 
branches  of  the  law,  render  a  o\t\ff^e  definition 
of  it  impracticable.  For  itn  «toat  important 
meanings  in  private  law.  see  ^^  J^'^  -vCE.^'^'  ^^^^^" 
ANCE;  Patents,  and  PBoPER'^^f^^^^ 

In  criminal   law,  abandoiw^  ^  \Xv^  ^^^^^' 

tional  exposure  or  desertion    ^^ti.  ^^  ^tv^^^^  ^^^' 


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ABANDONMENT. 


ASATIS. 


son  by  one  who  is  under  a  legal  duty  of  protect- 
ing and  maintaining  him.  A  parent  or  a  guard- 
ian of  the  person  of  a  young  child  is  guilty  of 
a  misdemeanor  at  common  law  if  the  child  is 
physically  injured  in  consequence  of  the  aban- 
donment; while  if  death  results  therefrom,  the 
abandoning  parent  or  guardian  is  guilty  of  mur- 
der. At  present,  the  offense  is  generally  defined 
by  statute.  In  some  States  it  has  l)een  extend- 
ed to  the  abandonment  of  a  disabled  or  infirm 
animal  in  a  public  place.  Consult:  Wharton, 
Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia,  1896)  ;  Bishop, 
Commentaries  on  Criminal  Law  (Boston,  1895). 

ABANO,  a^bft-no,  Pietro  di  ( 1250-1316) .  An 
Italian  physician  and  astrologer,  professor  of 
medicine  in  Padua.  He  became  famous  through 
his  work,  Conciliator  Differentia  rum ,  quw  inter 
Philo8opho8  et  Medicos  Versantur  (Mantua, 
1472),  the  object  of  which  was  to  reconcile  the 
philosophy  and  medicine  of  the  time.  His  fame 
as  a  scientist  and  his  enormous  popularity  as  a 
physician  aroused  the  envy  of  less  successful 
men.  Charges  of  heresy  and  atheism  were 
brought  against  him,  and  he  was  arraigned 
before  the  Inquisition,  but  died  in  prison  before 
the  end  of  the  trial. 

ABABBANEL,    &-Bgr'b&-n$K.     See    Abraba- 

NEL. 

AB^ABIM.  An  ancient  name  signifying  prob- 
ably the  "parts  beyond,"  and,  when  used  with  the 
article,  applied  to  a  range  of  mountains  in  the 
land  of  Moab,  east  of  the  Jordan  and  facing 
Jericho,  which  was  plainly  visible  in  the  dis- 
tance. The  highest  point  of  the  range  was  Mount 
Kebo,  the  place  where  Moses  closed  his  earthly 
career  (Deuteronomy  xxxii  :  49). 

AB'ABIS  (Gk.  'ASufuc).  A  legendary  hyper- 
borean miracle-worker,  possessor  of  a  magic  ar- 
row of  Apollo,  on  which  he  could  ride  through  the 
air.  His  story  probably  originated  in  the  mysti- 
cal movements  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  though 
Abaris  is  first  mentioned  by  Pindar  and  Horodo- 
tus.  The  New  Platonists  elaborated  the  legend 
and  made  Abaris  a  companion  of  Pythagoras. 

ABASCAL,  a'BAs-knK,  Jost  Fernando  (1743- 
1821).  A  Spanish  statesman  and  general.  He 
entered  the  army  in  1762;  became  Governor  of 
Cuba  in  1796:  was  Viceroy  of  Peru  from  1806 
to  1816;  in  1816  he  was  made  a  marquis.  He 
was  noted  for  administrative  ability,  firmness, 
and  moderation. 

ABASIA^  u-ba's^-ft.     See  Abkhasia. 

ABASOLO,  a'BA-solA,  Mariano  (1780?-1819). 
A  Mexican  revolutionist,  born  at  Dolores,  Guana- 
juato. He  participated  in  the  revolution  started 
by  Hidalgo  in  1810,  and  rose  to  be  a  major-gen- 
eral. He  fought  at  Puente  de  Calder6n,  Was 
taken  prisoner  by  the  Spaniards,  was  tried  at 
Chihuahua,  and  was  sentenced  to  ten  years* 
imprisonment  at  Cadiz,  where  he  died. 

ABATE^MENT  (O.  F.  lessening,  from  Lat. 
a,  away -f  6af were,  to  beat).  A  term  used  in 
various  senses  in  the  common  law  of  England  and 
the  United  States,  as  follows:  (1)  Abatement  of 
Freehold.  The  unlawful  entry  upon  and  taking 
possession  of  an  estate  of  inheritance  by  a 
stranger  after  the  death  of  the  ancestor  and 
before  the  heir  or  devisee  has  become  seized  of 
the  estate  by  entry.  See  Freehold;  Seizin. 
(2)  Abatement  of  Nuisances.  A  remedy  against 
injury  by  nuisance  by  removal  of  the  nuisance. 
See  Nuisance.   (3)  Plea  in  Abatement.    A  plead- 


ing interposed 'by  the  defendant  to  the  plain- 
tin's  complaint  or  declaration  by  which  the 
defendant,  on  some  formal  and  technical  ground, 
seeks  to  abate  or  quash  the  action.  If  sustained 
it  does  not  determine  the  merits  of  the  contro- 
versy, but  requires  the  plaintiff  to  begin  his 
action  anew.  See  Action  ;  Pleading.  (4)  Abate- 
ment of  Legacies.  A  reduction  of  the  amount  of 
legacies  when  the  estate  of  the  testator  is  insuf- 
ficient to  pay  debts  and  legacies  in  full.  See 
Legacy.  (5)  Abatemcvt  of  Suit.  Suspension  of 
proceedings  in  a  suit  in  Chancery  for  want  of 
proper  parties  to  proceed  with  the  suit.  Abate- 
ment may  result  from  the  death,  change  of 
interest  of  a  party,  or  marriage  of  the  plaintiff, 
if  a  woman.  After  abatement  the  suit  may  be 
revived  and  proceeded  with  by  the  legal  repre- 
sentative of  the  deceased  party,  or  by  the  hus- 
band of  the  plaintiff,  if  a  woman.  Action  at 
law  when  abated  could  not  be  revived  as  in 
equity.  This,  however,  is  now  permitted  by 
statute.  See  Action.  (6)  Abatement  or  dis- 
count in  commercial  law.  See  Mercantile  Law. 
(7)  Abatement  or  deduction  of  duties  levied  by 
the  custom-house.  See  Customs  Dl^ties; 
Drawback.  (8)  .4 6a femcnf  or  reduction  of  taxes 
imposed  on  any  person.  Regulated  wholly  by 
statute.     See  Tax. 

ABATEMENT.  In  heraldry,  an  addition  to 
the  paternal  coat  of  arms,  to  indicate  some  base 
or  ungentleman-like  act  on  the  part  of  the  bear- 
er. The  coat  is  then  said  to  be  abated,  or  low- 
ered in  dignity.  Marks  of  abatement  are  repu- 
diated by  the  best  heraldic  authorities.  Menes- 
trier  calls  them  sottises  anglaises,  and  Montagu 
is  of  opinion  that  we  shall  seek  in  vain  for  a 
more  appropriate  designation.  Abatements  are 
carefully  to  be  distinguished  from  such  §ubtract- 
ive  alterations  in  coats  of  arms  as  signify  junior- 
ity of  birth,  or  removal  from  the  principal  house 
or  senior  branch  of  the  family.  These  are  com- 
monly called  marks  of  cadency,  distinctions,  dif- 
ferences, or  brisures.  The  latter'  term  is  gen- 
erally applied  to  marks  of  bastardy,  though 
these  are  sometimes  classed  with  abatements. 

ABATIy  &-bil't^,  NiccoLO  dell\     See  Abbate. 

AB^ATIS  (Fr.  abatis,  mass  of  crushed 
objects).  A  military  defense,  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  retarding  an  enemy's  advance.  It  is  a 
deyice  as  old  as  the  art  of  war  itself,  and  still 
used  under  certain  conditions,  or  in  positions 
where  wire  entanglements  are  neither  possible  nor 


available.  It  consists  of  trees  felled  and  placed 
side  by  side,  the  stronger  boughs  and  branches 
intertwined,  and  pointed  in  the  direction  of  the 
enemy.  In  the  case  of  intrenchments  of  a  more 
permanent  character,   the  abatis   is  built  in   a 


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ABATIS. 

slight  depression  in  front  of  the  trench  or  ditch, 
so  that  it  is  fairly  safe  from  artillery  fire. 

ABAXTZIT,  i'Wz^,  Fraif IN  (1679-1767).  A 
French  scholar.  He  was  born  in  Languedoc  and 
died  at  Geneva.  His  parents  were  Protestants, 
and  at  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes 
he  was  sent  to  Greneva.  Here  he  studied  dili- 
gently, and  became  versed  in  almost  all  the 
sciences.  He  traveled  in  England  and  Holland 
in  1698.  William  III.  wished  to  retain  him 
permanently  in  England,  but  his  aflfection  for 
nis  mother  induced  him  to  return  to  Geneva. 
He  translated  the  New  Testament  into  French 
in  1726,  and  for  his  lucid  investigations  into  the 
ancient  history  of  Geneva  he  received  from  its 
authorities  the  rights  of  citizenship.  He  was 
the  author  of  numerous  theological  and  archaeo- 
logical treatises,  ifis  orthodoxy  has  been  dis- 
puted. Rousseau,  who  could  not  bear  to  praise 
a  contemporary,  penned  his  solitary  panegyric  on 
Abauzit  in  the  Nouiielle  Bdlo'ise,  In  the  course 
of  his  long  life  Abauzit  became  the  friend  of 
Newton,  Bayle,  and  Voltaire. 

AS03A  (Gk.  tifi^d).  The  Aramaic  form  of 
the  Hebrew  word  for  father.  It  occurs  three 
times  in  the  New  Testament  as  a  form  of  address 
to  the  Deity  (Mark  xiv  :  36:  Rom.  viii  :  15; 
Gal.  iv  :  6 ) ,  where  its  meaning  in  Greek  is  added, 
for  the  benefit  of  readers  unfamiliar  with  He- 
brew. In  Talmudic  literature  it  o(?curs  fre- 
quently as  a  title  of  honor  addressed  to  a  scholar, 
and  also  enters  into  the  composition  of  proper 
names.  The  title  Abba  is  given  to  the  bishops 
of  the  Syriac,  Coptic,  and  Ethiopic  Churches. 
See  Bishop;   Papa. 

ABBADIE,  &'bft'd^,  Antoine  Thomson  d' 
(1810-97),  and  Arxaud  Michel  d'  (1815-93). 
Two  French  explorers,  brothers,  born  in  Dublin. 
They  were  known  for  their  researches  in  Abys- 
sinia, from  1837  to  1845.  According  to  their 
own  account,  their  objects  were  purely  ethno- 
logical and  geographical ;  but  they  were  regarded 
by  certain  English  travelers  and  missionaries  as 
agents  employed  by  the  French  Government  for 
religious  and  political  purposes.  Among  the 
results  of  their  travels  were  a  catalogue  of 
Ethiopic  MSS.,  an  edition  of  the  Ethiopic  ver- 
sion of  the  Pastor  of  Hermas,  and  the  O^od^sie 
•de  VEthiopie  ( 1860-73) .  The  English  expedition 
to  Abyssinia  led  Arnaud  to  publish,  in  1868,  his 
Doxize  ana  dans  la  Haute-^thiopie.  Antoine 
published  a  Dictionnaire  de  la  langue  Amarinna 
in  1881. 

ABBADIE,  Jacques  (1654?-1727).  A  French 
Protestant  theologian,  who  died  in  London.  Of 
a  poor  family,  he  was  educated  by  his  friends, 
and  advanced  so  rapidly  that  at  seventeen  he 
was  granted  the  degree  of  doctor  of  theology  at 
Sedan.  He  spent  several  years  in  Berlin  as 
minister  of  the  French  Protestant  church,  and 
in  1688  accompanied  Marshal  Schomberg  to 
England,  becoming  minister  of  the  French 
church  in  London  called  "La  Savoy e."  He  was 
strongly  attached  to  the  cause  of  William  III., 
who  made  him  dean  of  Killaloe,  Ireland.  He 
wrote  a  defense  of  the  English  revolution  oif 
1688,  but  was  best  known  by  his  theological 
works,  the  most  important  of  which  was  Traits 
dc  la  v4riti  de  la  religion  chrHienne  (1684). 

ABBAS  I.,  abOj&s  (1557-1628).  Shah  of 
Persia;  known  as  "the  Great."  He  was  the 
youngest  son  of  Shah  Mohammed  Khodabendeh. 


7  ABBASSIDES. 

He  rose  in  rebellion  against  his  father  and  gained 
possession  of  the  throne  at  the  age  of  eighteen. 
In  1597  he  defeated  the  Uzbeks  in  a  great  battle 
near  Herat,  and  drove  them  from  the  country. 
During  many  campaigns  against  the  Turks  he 
added  a  great  deal  of  territory  to  his  possessions. 
He  overthrew  the  Turks  and  Tartars  near  Sul- 
tanieh  and  extorted  an  advantageous  peace  from 
them  (1618).  Upon  the  renewal  of  hostilities 
he  captured  Bagdad  after  a  year's  siege,  in  1623. 
His  reign  was  marked  by  the  magnificence  of 
his  court  and  by  the  many  important  reforms 
which  he  introduced.     See  Persia. 

ABBAS  I.,  PASHA,  Ub^s  p&-sha'  (1813- 
54 ) .  Viceroy  of  Egypt  and  grandson  of  Mehemet 
Ali.  He  was  active  but  not  distinguished  in 
Mehemet's  wars  in  Syria.  After  Ibrahim's 
short  reign,  he  took  the  throne  (1848)  as  hered- 
itary successor,  and  proved  a  cruel  and  capricious 
ruler.  He  dismissed  all  Europeans  from  State 
service,  and  in  general  was  a  foe  to  civilization. 
In  the  Crimean  War  he  assisted  the  Sultan  of 
Turkey  with  his  fleet  and  15,000  men.  It  is 
supposed  that  he  was  murdered. 

ABBAS  II.,  HiLMi,  K.G.C.  (1874—).  Khe- 
dive of  Egypt;  eldest  son  of  the  late  Tewfik 
Pasha.  He  was  educated  at  Vienna,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1892.  Though  his  attitude 
toward  England  in  Egypt  is  unfriendly,  he  has 
carried  on  his  government  under  British  super- 
vision since  his  abortive  attempt  to  form  an 
anti-British  cabinet  (1893).     See  Egypt. 

ABBAS  Ibn  Abd  il  Muttalib,  ab'b&s  'b'n 
llbd'  ^1  mcR)t-taa^b  (566-652).  Paternal  uncle 
of  Mohammed.  He  was  at  first  a  determined 
opponent  of  his  nephew,  but  his  defeat  in  battle 
at  Bed'r  was  followed  by  his  conversion,  after 
which  he  became  one  of  the  chief  apostles  of 
Islamism.  He  was  the  progenitor  of  the  Abbas- 
side  caliphs  of  Bagdad. 

ABBAS-UIBZA,  Rb'b&s  m^r^zA  (1783-1833). 
A  Persian  prince,  the  son  of  Feth-Ali  Shah.  He 
possessed  great  ability,  and  was  a  friend  of  West- 
ern civilization.  As  provincial  Governor  of 
Azerbijan,  he  applied  himself,  with  the  aid  of 
English  officers,  to  the  reform  of  the  army.  He 
commanded  the  main  Persian  army  in  the  unsuc- 
cessful war  with  Russia,  which  was  concluded  by 
the  peace  of  Gulistan  in  1813,  when  Persia  lost 
its  remaining  possessions  in  the  Caucasus,  and 
was  forced  to  acknowledge  the  flag  of  Russia  on 
the  Caspian  Sea.  At  the  instigation  of  Abbas, 
a  new  war  broke  out  in  1826,  between  Feth-Ali 
and  Russia.  The  Prince  fought  a  second  time 
with  extraordinary  bravery  at  the  head  of  the 
army,  but  was  again  obliged  to  yield  to  the 
superiority  of  the  Russian  arms,  and  to  conclude 
a  peace,  on  February  22,  1828,  at  Turknianchai, 
by  which  Persia  lost  most  of  her  Armenian  terri- 
tory. In  this  treaty,  Russia  guaranteed  to  Abbas 
the  succession  to  the  Persian  throne.  When,  in 
1829,  the  Russian  ambassador  at  Teheran  was 
murdered  in  a  popular  tumult,  which  he  had 
provoked  by  his  own  imprudence,  Abbas  went  in 
person  to  St.  Petersburg,  to  prevent  any  i^l  ^^- 


sequences,  and  to  maintain  the 


peace. 


He  was 


received  by  the  Emperor  with  k\^^-.ft^s^,  atvd  went 
back  to  Persia  loaded  with  pr^ss^^^  "^\a  cVAe^t 
son,  Mohammed  Mirza,  mouri't^    \    \Xcto^^  ^^ 


1834.     See  Persia. 
ABBAS^SIDES,    The.     C 


and    the   most   celebrated    <1^^^^\>^^  C^     c^t' 


^t.* 


^"^V 


^«L^^ 


>ee^ 


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ABBASSIDES. 

rulers,  although  their  rule  never  extended  over 
the  whole  of  Islam,  as  had  that  of  the  Omniiads 
(q.v.).  It  was  never  acknowledged  in  Spain 
and  only  nominally  in  Africa  outside  of  E^pt. 
Theirs  was,  however,  the  true  caliphate,  notwith- 
standing the  rival  claims  of  Cordova.  The 
Abbassides  claimed  descent  from  Abbas,  the 
uncle  and  adviser  of  Mohammed  (566-652  A.D.). 
The  rivalry  between  the  family  of  Abbas  and  the 
Ommiads  broke  out  into  open  war.  In  747  Ibra- 
him, the  head  of  the  Abbasside  faction,  was  over- 
thrown by  the  Caliph  Merwan  and  put  to  death, 
but  three  years  later  his  brother,  Abul  Abbas, 
who  had  proclaimed  himself  rightful  Caliph, 
defeated  Merwan  in  a  great  battle  near  the  river 
Zab  and  established  his  line  firmly  on  the 
throne.  In  Spain,  however,  Abd  el  Rahman, 
one  of  the  Ommiads,  who  had  escaped  from  the 
general  destruction  of  his  house,  succeeded  in 
establishing  the  great  independent  emirate,  or 
kingdom  (subsequently  caliphate)  of  Cordova. 
It  was  long  before  the  rulers  of  Spain  assumed 
the  title  of  Caliph.  The  successor  of  Abul 
Abbas,  Almansor,  made  Bagdad  the  capital  of 
his  empire.  Under  his  followers  the  empire 
enjoyed  comparative  peace  and  attained  to  a 
splendid  development.  The  caliphs  became 
the  patrons  of  literature,  art,  and  learning, 
and  their  courts  were  the  homes  of  th«  most 
extreme  luxury.  The  caliphs  Harun  Al  Rashid 
(786-809)  and  Al  Mamun  (813-833)  were  fa- 
mous throughout  the  world  for  their  wealth,  their 
splendcir,  and  their  munificence.  But  the  martial 
vigor  of  the  Arabs  was  sapped  by  the  influence 
of  Persian  luxury,  and  they  gradually  ceased  to 
be  relied  upon  for  military  service.  In  Africa 
and  in  the  northeastern  part  of  Persia,  emirs 
seized  the  opportunity  to  declare  themselves 
independent;  in  the  west  the  Greek  Empire 
showed  a  revival  of  energy;  but  the  real  danger 
came,  as  with  the  Roman  Empire,  from  an  alien 
soldiery.  Motassem  (833-842)  had  formed  a 
body-guard  of  Turks,  and  these  in  time  seized 
upon  the  real  powers  of  government.  They 
assassinated  Motawakkel,  the  son  of  Motassem, 
in  861,  and  in  the  following  century  forced  the 
caliphs  to  delegate  the  chief  powers  of  govern- 
ment to  their  commander.  Gradually  the  empire 
of  the  Abassides  became  contracted,  until  it  was 
finally  narrowed  down  to  Bagdad  and  the  sur- 
rounding territory.  In  1258  Hulaku  Khan,  the 
Mongol  ruler  of  Persia,  burned  Bagdad  and  put 
the  ruling  Caliph  to  death.  Deprived  of  all  polit- 
ical power,  the  Abassides  found  refuge  with  the 
Mameluke  rulers  of  Egypt,  who  paid  them 
respect  as  the  spiritual  heads  of  the  Moham- 
medan world.  The  last  of  the  Abbassides, 
Motawakkel  III.,  died  in  1538  at  Cairo,  where 
he  was  living  under  the  protection  of  the 
Turkish  Sultan.  Consult:  Muir,  The  Caliphate 
(London,  1891)  ;  Syed  Ameer  Ali,  A  Short  His- 
tory of  the  Saracens  (New  York,  1899)  ;  and 
the  more  elaborate  work,  Weil,  Oeschichte  der 
Chalifen  (Mannheim  and  Stuttgart,  1846-62). 

ASBATE,  ftb-ba'tA,  or  ASATI,  &-ba't^,  Nic- 
COLO  dell'  (1512-71).  An  Italian  painter,  w*ho 
was  born  at  Modena  and  died  at  Fontaine- 
bleau.  He  was  an  able  and  skillful  artist 
in  fresco-painting,  and  was  a  follower  both  of 
Raphael  and  Correggio ;  yet  he  rather  blended  the 
two  styles  in  one  than  imitated  either  separately. 
His  earlier  works  are  to  be  seen  at  Modena,  his 
later  ones  at  Bologna,  among  which  is  his 
"Adoration   of   the   Shepherds,"   considered   his 


8  ABBE. 

finest ;  but  he  is  best  known  by  the  frescoes  which 
he  executed  for  the  palace  of  Fontainebleau, 
from  the  designs  of  Primaticcio.  His  "Martyr- 
dom of  St.  Pe&r  and  St.  Paul"  is  in  the  Dresden 
Gallery. 

ABBATTOIB,  &'b&'twar'.  See  Slaughter- 
house. 

ABBAZIA,  a'b&-ts6^&.  An  Austrian  health 
resort,  charmingly  situated  at  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Quarnero ( Adriatic  Sea) ,  nine  miles  west- 
northwest  of  Fiume  (Map:  Austria,  D  4) .  Well 
sheltered,  Abbazia  is  a  favorite  summer  and  win- 
ter resort,  with  a  mean  temperature  of  60**  F. 
in  winter  and  77**  F.  in  summer.  It  has  a  Kur- 
haus,  various  bathing  institutions,  and  the  Carol 
Promenade,  built  in  1896  at  the  expense  of  the 
King  of  Roumania.  The  population  is  about 
1200,  mostly  Croats. 

ABBlAf  k'lA^,  The  French  name  for  an  abbot 
(q.v.),  but  often  used  in  the  general  sense  of  an 
unbeneficed  Roman  Catholic  priest.  By  the 
famous  Concordat  of  Bologna  between  Pope  Leo 
X.  and  Francis  I.  (August  18, 1516), the  French 
king  had  the  right  to  nominate  upward  of  200 
ahhSs  commetidataires,  who,  without  having  any 
duty  to  perform,  drew  a  considerable  proportion 
of  the  revenues  of  the  convents.  The  hope  of 
obtaining  one  of  those  sinecures  led  multitudes 
of  young  men,  many  of  them  of  noble  birth,  to* 
enter  the  clerical  career,  who,  however,  seldom 
went  further  than  taking  the  inferior  orders 
(see  Orders,  Holy)  ;  and  it  became  customary 
to  call  all  such  aspirants  abbds — ^j ocularly,  "abb^s 
of  St.  Hope."  They  formed  a  considerable  and 
infiuential  class  in  society;  and  an  abb6,  distin- 
guished by  a  short  black  or  violet-colored  frock,, 
and  a  peculiar  style  of  wearing  the  hair,  was 
found  as  friend  or  ghostly  adviser  in  almost 
every  family  of  consequence.  When  a  candidate 
obtained  an  abbey,  he  was  enjoined  to  take  holy 
orders;  but  many  procured  dispensation,  and 
continued  to  draw  the  revenues  as  secular  or  lay- 
abbots.  In  Italy  the  same  class  of  unbeneficed 
clergy  are  called  abhate. 

AB3E,  Clevelajnd,  LL.D.  (1838 — ).  An. 
American  astronomer  and  meteorologist,  born  in 
New  York  City.  He  graduated  in  1857  at  the 
Free  Academy  (now  the  College  of  the  City  of 
New  York) ,  and  studied  astronomy  with  F.  Brfln- 
now  at  Ann  Arbor  ( 1858-60)  and  with  B.  A.  Gould 
at  Cambridge  (1860-64).  From  1864  to  1866  he 
resided  at  the  observatory  at  Pulkova,  Russia, 
and  from  1868  to  1873  was  director  of  the  Cin- 
cinnati Observatory,  where  he  inaugurated  a 
system  of  daily  weather  forecasts  based  upon 
simultaneous  meteorological  observations  report- 
ed by  telegraph.  This  led  to  the  establishment 
of  a  similar  system  by  the  Government;  and  in 
December,  1870,  Professor  Abbe  was  called  ta 
Washington  to  prepare  the  official  weather  pre- 
dictions and  storm  warnings,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  meteorology  in  the  Weather  Bureau. 
To  him  is  due  the  initiation  in  May,  1879,  of  the 
movement  toward  the  introduction  of  the  present 
system  of  standard  time  and  hourly  meridians* 
In  January,  1873,  he  prepared  the  first  official 
Monthly  Weather  Review,  which  has  continued 
under  his  editorship.  He  is  professor  of  meteor- 
ology in  Columbian  University,  Washington, 
lecturer  on  meteorology  in  Johns  Hopkins  Uni- 
versity, Baltimore,  and  a  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  received  the  degree  of 
LL.D.  from  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1887, 


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ABBE. 

and  from  the  University  of  Glasgow  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  Kelvin  Jubilee  in  1896.  Among  his 
publications  may  be  mentioned  the  Annual  Sum- 
mary  and  Revie^c  of  Pragrcsa  in  Meteorology 
(1873-88);  Treatise  on  Meteorological  Appara- 
tus and  Methods  (1887);  Preparatory  Studies 
for  Deductive  Methods  in  Storm  and  Weather 
Predictions  (1889);  The  Mechanics  of  the 
Earth's  Atmosphere   (1891). 

ABBE,  ab'be,  Ernst  (1840—).  A  German 
physicist.  He  was  born  at  Eisenach,  Thuringia, 
and  after  studying  at  the  universities  of  Jena 
and  Gottingen  became  assistant  at  the  astro- 
nomical observatory  in  Gottingen  and  lecturer 
before  the  Physical  Society  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main.  In  1870  he  was  made  professor  at  Jena, 
where  he  had  lectured  since  18C3,  and  in  1878 
he  became  director  of  the  astronomical  and 
nieteorologieal  observatories.  In  1891  he  gave 
up  his  ordinary  professional  duties.  In  addition 
to  his  work  in  pure  science  Professor  Abbe  is 
known  for  the  part  he  has  played  in  the  design 
and  perfection  of  optical  instruments.  In  1866 
he  became  connected  with  the  optical  establish- 
ment of  Carl  Zeiss  in  Jena,  and  largely  as  a 
result  of  his  experimental  work  the  instruments 
su^d  lenses  manufactured  by  this  firm  have  main- 
tained a  high  degree  of  excellence  and  have  dis- 
played many  improvements.  Especially  has  the 
improvement  been  marked  in  photographic  and 
microscopic  lenses.  Professor  Abbe  invented  the 
refractometer  which  bears  his  name,  and  is  the 
author  of  Neue  Apparate  zur  Bestimmung  des 
Brechungs-und  Zerstreuungsvermogensfester  und 
ffiissiger  Korper   (Jena,  1874). 

AB3ESS.  The  superior  of  a  religious  com- 
munity of  women,  who  corresponds  in  rank  and 
authority  to  an  abbot  (q.v.)»  except  that  she  is 
not  allowed  to  exercise  the  spiritual  functions 
of  the  priesthood — such  as  preaching,  confession, 
etc.  lior  can  she  release  her  nuns  from  their 
vows  or  suspend  or  dismiss  them.  Her  personal 
confessor  and  those  for  her  nunnery  must  be 
approved  by  the  bishop.  The  Council  of  Trent 
decreed  that  her  electors  must  be  professed  nuns 
and  that  she  must  be  at  least  forty  years  old 
and  an  inmate  of  the  nunnery  over  which  she 
was  to  preside  for  at  least  the  eight  previous 
years. 

ABBEVILLE,  &'bv6r  (Fr.  "city  of  the  Ab- 
bey," of  St.  Riquier).  Capital  of  the  arron- 
dissement  of  Abbeville,  in  the  department  of 
Somme,  France  (Map:  France,  J  1).  Abbeville 
is  built  partly  on  an  island,  and  partly  on  the 
banks  of  the  River  Somme.  The  streets  are  nar- 
row, and  the  picturesque  houses  are  built  mostly 
of  brick  and  wood.  The  building  most  worthy  of 
notice  is  the  church  of  St.  Wolfran,  commenced 
in  the  reign  of  Louis  XII.,  a  splendid  example 
of  the  flamboyant  style.  Its  city  hall,  built  in 
1209.  is  a  curious  medieval  structure;  the 
library,  containing  45,000  volumes,  dates  from 
1690.  *  The  chief  manufactures  of  Abbeville  are 
velvets,  serges,  cottons,  linens,  sacking,  hosiery, 
jewelry,  soap,  glassware,  glue,  paper,  etc.  It 
is  on  the  Nortnern  Railway,  and  is  connected 
by  canals  with  Amiens.  Paris,  Lille,  and  Bel- 
gium. Vessels  of  between  150  and  200  tons  can 
sail  up  the  Somme  as  far  as  Abbeville,  which  is 
twelve  miles  from  that  river's  mouth  in  the 
British  Channel.  Abbeville  is  well  known  in 
the  scientific  world  from  the  remarkable  fossil 
remains   of   extinct   mammals,   as   well   as   the 


9  ABBEY. 

flint  implements  of  prehistoric  man,  which  have 
been  discovered  in  its  neighborhood.  Pop.,  1896, 
17,781  ;  1901,  20,.388. 

ABBEVILLE,  ftVb^-vIl.  A  town  and  county 
seat  of  Abbeville  Co.,  S.  C,  105  miles  west  of 
the  State  capital,  Columbia,  on  the  Southern 
and  the  Seaboard  Air  Line  railroads  (Map: 
South  Carolina,  B  2).  It  is  an  agricultural 
and  cotton  growing  region,  and  the  principal 
industries  are  cotton  ginning,  cottonseed  oil 
pressing,  flour  and  feed  milling,  and  brick  mak- 
ing.    Pop.,   1890,  1696;    1900,  3766. 

ABBEVILLE,  A'bvAK,  Treaties.  Louis  IX. 
of  France  appears  to  have  doubted  the  validity  of 
his  title  to  some  of  the  former  possessions  of 
the  English  princes;  and  so  after  seventeen  years 
of  intermittent  discussion  the  difficulty  was 
settled  in  a  treaty  of  peace  with  Henry  III. 
This  treaty,  named  from  Abbeville,  where  the 
two  kings  met,  and  dated  May  20,  1259,  was  in 
reality  negotiated  with  Earl  Simon  de  Montfort 
at  Paris  and  concluded  with  Henry  during  his 
visit  to  France,  November,  1259,  to  April,  1260. 
By  its'  terms  Henry  surrendered  all  claim  to 
Normandy,  Touraine,  Maine,  Anjou,  and  north- 
ern Saintonge;  receiving  from  Louis  -in  return 
P^rigord,  l2mousin,  southern  Saintonge,  and 
some  other  territory  south  of  the  Loire,  to  be 
held  as  fiefs.  Henry  gave  up  the  titles  of  Duke 
of  Normandy  and  Count  of  Anjou ;  while  as  Duke 
of  Guienne  and  peer  of  France  he  agreed  to  do 
homage  to  the  French  monarch,  this  engagement 
being  performed  in  the  Garden  of  the  Temple 
at  Pans.  The  inhabitants  of  the  districts  ceded 
to  Henry  were  ill  pleased,  and  in  later  times 
they  refused  to  celebrate  the  saint-day  of  Louis. 
A  treaty  between  Henry  VIII.  and  Francis  I.  was 
made  at  Abbeville  in  1527.  The  negotiations  on 
the  part  of  England  were  conducted  by  Wolsey. 

AB'BEY.     See  Moxastebt,  Sanctuart. 

ABBEY,  Edwin  Austin  (1852 — ).  An 
American  figure  painter,  whose  first  successes 
w^ere  in  the  field  of  illustration.  He  was  born 
in  Philadelphia,  April  1,  1852.  Abbey's  fond- 
ness for  the  early  English  poets  and  dramatists 
admirably  fitted  him  for  depicting  the  quaint 
and  delicate  humor  of  Herrick  and  other  poets 
of  that  period.  He  studied  at  the  Pennsylvania 
.Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  afterward  worked 
in  New  York  until  1883,  when  he  removed  to  Eng- 
land. He  was  for  many  years  best  know^n  as  an 
illustrator  for  the  periodicals  and  as  a  painter 
of  water  colors.  In  painting  he  has  produced 
important  canvases,  dealing  with  subjects  taken 
from  Shakespeare  and  from  romantic  story. 
One  of  his  most  important  works  decorates  the 
delivery  room  *of  the  Boston  Public  Library 
Its  subject  is  the  "Search  for  the  Holy  Grail." 
He  has  also  produced  some  very  individual 
work  in  pastel,  full  of  sentiment  and  color. 
Abbey  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  in  July,  1898.  His  works  are  distin- 
guished by  careful  archseological  accuracy  and 
fine  sentiment.  His  strong  feeling  for  color  is 
remarkable  in  one  who  passed  so  many  years  as 
a  worker  in  black  and  white;  he  may  be  ranked 
amopg  the  strongest  colorists  and  the  most  intel- 
lectual painters  of  America.  He  was  commis- 
sioned to  paint  the  scene  of  the  coronation  of 
King  Edward  VII.  Consult:  Richard  Muther, 
History  of  Modern  Painting  (London,  1896)  ;  A. 
G.  Radelifl'e,  Schools  and  Masters  of  Painting 
(New  York,  1898). 


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ABBBY. 

ABBEY,  Henby  (1842 — ).  An  American 
poet  and  merchant,  bom  at  Rondout,  N.  Y.  He 
18  the  author  of  May  Dreams,  Ralph  and  Other 
Poems,  Stories  in  Verse,  Ballads  of  Oood  Deeds, 
The  City  of  Success,  and  Phaeton.  His  works 
are  collected  in  Poems  of  Henry  Abbey,  of  which 
there  are  three  editions. 

ABBIATEGBASSO,  &b-bya't&-gras's6.  A  city 
in  north  Italy,  394  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the 
Grande  and  Bereguardo  canals,  and  16  miles 
west  of  Milan  ( Map :  Italy,  D  2 ) .  It  manufac- 
tures fertilizers  and  markets  rice.  It  was  cap- 
tured in  1167  by  Empefor  Frederick  I.,  and  m 
1245  by  Emperor  Frederick  II.  In  1313  Matteo 
Visconti  vanquished  the  Guelphs  here,  and  in 
1524  Giovanni  de'  Medici  the  French.  Pop., 
about  5000  (commune,  about  10,000). 

AB'BITIB^IE,  or  ABBITIBBE.  A  Canadian 
river  and  lake.  The  river  flows  northward  to 
James  Bay  in  Hudson  Bay,  and  is  the  outlet  of 
the  lake  which  is  situated  in  latitude  49°  N., 
with  a  trading  station  of  the  same  name  upon  its 
shores. 

AB030  OF  PLEUBY,  fl^'r^  (Abbo  Floria- 
CENSis)  (945?- 1004).  A  French  theologian. 
He  studied  at  Kheims  and  Paris,  and  at  the 
request  of  Oswald,  Archbishop  of  York,  taught 
in  985-987  in  the  English  abbey  of  Ramsey. 
When  he  returned  to  France  he  was  chosen  Abbot 
of  Fleury,  whose  school  he  developed.  He  was 
sent  by  King  Robert  upon  a  diplomatic  mission 
to  Pope  Gregory  V.,  and  was  killed  at  the  priory 
of  La  R^ole,  Gascony,  in  an  uprising  against 
his  reforms  in  monastic  discipline.  He  wrote 
an  Epitome  de  Vitis  Romanorum  Pontificum, 
Desinens  in  Qregorio  I.  (printed  in  1602).  His 
biography  was  written  by  his  pupil  Aimoin  in 
the  Vita  Abbonis  abbatis  Floriacensis. 

AB030T  (Through  Lat.  abbas,  Gk.  a^^aqy 
abbas,  from  Syriac  abbd,  father).  A  name  orig- 
inally given  as  a  term  of  respect  to  any  monk, 
especially  to  one  noted  for  piety,  but  afterward 
ordinarily  applied  to  the  superior  of  a  monastery 
or  abbey.  The  first  abbots  were  laymen,  as  the 
monks  were,  but  in  the  Eastern  Church  priestly 
abbots  appear  in  the  fifth  century,  and  in  the 
Western  Church  in  the  seventh,  and  such 
ordained  abbots  are  now  the  rule.  After  the 
second  Nicene  Council  ( 787 ) ,  abbots  were  empow- 
ered to  consecrate  monks  for  the  lower  sacred 
orders;  but  they  remained  in  subordination 
under  their  diocesan  bishops  until  the  eleventh 
century.  They  exercised  absolute  authority  over 
their  monasteries.  As  abbeys  became  wealthy, 
abbots  increased  in  power  and  influence;  many 
received  episcopal  titles;  and  all  were  ranked 
as  prelates  of  the  Church  next  to  the  bishops, 
and  had  the  right  of  voting  in  Church  councils. 
Even  abbesses  contended  for  the  sanie  honors 
and  privileges,  but  without  success.  In  the 
■eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  abbeys  began  to  come 
into  the  hands  of  laymen,  as  rewards  for  military 
service.  In  the  tenth  century  many  of  the  chief 
abbeys  in  Christendom  were  under  lay-abbots 
{abbates  milites,  or  abba-comites) ,  while  subor- 
dinate deans  or  priors  had  the  spiritual  over- 
sight. The  memoers  of  the  royal  household 
received  grants  of  abbeys  as  their  maintenance, 
and  the  king  kept  the  richest  for  himself.  Thus, 
Hugo  Capet  of  France  was  lay-abbot  of  St. 
Denis,  near  Paris.  Sometimes  convents  of  nuns 
were  granted  to  men,  and  monasteries  to  women 
of  rank.     These  abuses  were,  in  great  measure. 


10 


ABBOT. 


reformed  during  the  tenth  century.  After  the 
reformation  of  the  order  of  Benedictines,  monas- 
teries arose  that  were  dependent  upon  the 
mother-monastery  of  Clugny  and  without  abbots, 
being  pre'sided  over  by  priors  or  pro-abbates.  Of 
the  orders  founded  after  the  eleventh  century, 
only  some  named  the  superiors  of  their  convents 
abbots;  most  used  the  titles  of  prior,  major, 
guardian,  rector.  Abbesses  have  almost  always 
remained  under  the  jurisdiction  of  their  diocesan 
bishop;  but  the  abbots  of  independent  or  liber- 
ated abbeys  acknowledged  no  lord  but  the  Pope. 
In  the  Middle  Ages,  the  so-called  abbates  mitrati 
frequently  enjoyed  episcopal  titles,  but  only  a 
few  had  dioceses.  Before  the  period  of  seculari- 
zation in  Germany,  several  of  the  abbots  in  that 
country  had  princely  titles  and  powers.  In 
England  there  were  a  considerable  number  of 
mitred  abbots  who  sat  and  voted  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  The  election  of  an  abbot  belongs,  as  a 
rule,  to  the  chapter  or  assembly  of  the  monks, 
and  is  afterward  confirmed  by  the  Pope  or  by 
the  bishop,  according  as  the  monastery  is  inde- 
pendent or  under  episcopal  jurisdiction.  At  the 
time  he  must  be  at  least  twenty-five  years  of 
age.  From  early  times,  the  Pope  in  Italy  has 
claimed  the  right  of  conferring  abbacies,  and  the 
Concordat  of  Bologna  (August  18,  1516)  between 
Francis  I.  and  Pope  Leo  X.  gave  that  right  to 
the  king  of  France.  Non-monastic  clergy  who 
possessed  monasteries  were  styled  secular  abbots ; 
while  their  vicars,  who  discharged  the  duties, 
as  well  as  all  abbots  who  belonged  to  the  monas- 
tic order,  were  styled  regular  abbots.  In  France, 
the  abuse  of  appointing  secular  abbots  was  car- 
ried to  a  great  extent  previous  to  the  time  of  the 
revolution  of  1789(see  Abb^)  ;  indeed,  often  mon- 
asteries themselves  chose  some  powerful  person 
as  their  secular  abbot,  with  a  view  of  "commend- 
ing" or  committing  their  abbey  to  his  protection, 
and  such  lay-abbots  were  called  abb^s  commenda- 
taires.  In  countries  which  joined  in  the  Refor- 
mation of  the  sixteenth  century  the  possessions 
of  abbeys  were  mostly  confiscated  by  the  crown ; 
but  in  Hanover,  Brunswick,  and  Wdrttemberg 
several  monasteries  and  convents  were  retained 
as  educational  establishments.  In  the  Greek 
Church,  the  superiors  of  convents  are  called 
hegumeni  or  mandritcs,  and  general  abbots, 
arch  im  an  dri  teJi. 

ABBOT,  Benjamin,  LL.D.  (1762-1849).  A 
New  England  teacher,  who  had  among  his  pupils 
Jared  Sparks,  Daniel  Webster,  George  Bancroft, 
Edward  Everett,  and  others  who  became  famous. 
For  nearly  fifty  years  (until  1838),  he  was  at 
the  head  of  Phillips  Academy,  Exeter,  N.  H. 

ABBOT,  Ezra  (1819-84).  An  American  bib- 
lical scholar.  He  was  born  at  Jackson,  Waldo 
Co.,  Me.,  and  died  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  After 
graduation  at  Bowdoin  College  (1840)  he  taught 
school  in  Maine  and  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  until 
in  1856  he  became  assistant  librarian  of  Har- 
vard University.  From  1872  till  his  death  he 
was  Bussey  Professor  of  New  Testament  Criti- 
cism and  Interpretation  in  the  Divinity  School  of 
Harvard  University.  He  received  the  degrees  of 
LL.D.  (Yale.  1869;  Bowdoin,  1878);  S.T.D. 
(Harvard,  1872)  :  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1884).  His 
industry,  classical  scholarship,  wide  acquain- 
tance with  books,  and  rare  capacity  for  retaining 
minute  information  made  him  a  remarkable  bibli- 
ographer and  textual  critic.  He  won  fame  in 
the  first  direction  by  his  valuable  Literature  of 


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ABBOT. 

the  Doctrine  of  the  Future  Life  (1864),  append- 
ed to  W.  R.  Alger's  book  on  the  subject,  and 
by  his  bibliographical  additions  to  Smithes  Bible 
Dictionary  (American  edition,  Boston,  1867-70, 
4  volumes),  though  the  value  of  the  additions 
is  not  commensurate  with  their  number,  as  no 
critical  distinctions  were  made  between  the  books 
whose  titles  were  so  accurately  given.  But  much 
wider  was  his  fame  in  the  second  direction,  for 
his  acquaintance  with  the  text  of  the  Greek  New 
Testament  was  recognized  throughout  the  bibli- 
cal world,  and  gave  him  a  place  beside  Lach- 
niann,  Tischendorf,  Tregelles,  Scrivener,  West- 
cott,  and  Hort.  He  was  therefore  an  efficient 
member  of  the  American  New  Testament  Revis- 
ion Company  (1871-81),  and  enabled  it  to  boast 
textual  scholarship  equal  to  the  British.  Into 
the  revision  he  put  the  most  painstaking  and 
accurate  learning.  He  displayed  his  attainments 
in  ways  which  won  him  the  hearty  thanks  of  the 
authors  he  aided,  but  not  much  public  recog- 
nition. Thus  he  was  the  coadjutor  of  Caspar 
Ren^  Gregory  upon  his  prolegomena  to  the 
eighth  major  edition  of  Tischendorf's  Greek  New 
Testament  (Leipzig,  1884-94.  3  parts)  ;  he 
revised  the  whole  of  Sohaff's  Companion  to  the 
New  Testament  (New  York,  1883)  ;  and  greatly 
enriched  E.  C.  Mitchell's  Critical  Handbook  of 
the  yew  Testament  (New  York,  1880).  His 
modesty  made  him  indifferent  to  fame,  and  he 
put  his  strength  upon  correcting  other  people's 
books  and  upon  monographs  which  the  scholarly 
world  appreciated.  These  latter  have  been  col- 
lected by  J.  H.  Thayer,  and  are  published  under 
the  caption.  Critical  Essays  (Boston,  1888). 
CoTiJ^ult  Barrows'  sketch  of  Ezra  Abbot  (Boston, 
1884). 

ABBOT,  Francis  Eixingwood  (1836 — ).  An 
American  writer  on  philosophy.  He  w^as  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  Uni- 
versity (1859)  and  the  Meadville  Theological 
School  (1863).  After  having  had  charge  of 
Unitarian  congregations  from  1803  to  1868,  he 
turned  to  journalism,  and  from  1870  to  1880 
edited  a  weekly  journal,  the  Index^  devoted  to 
religious  topics.  He  has  published  Scientific 
Theism  (1886),  and  The  Way  Out  of  Agnosti- 
cism   (1890). 

ABBOT,  George  ( 1562-1633 ) .  Archbishop 
of  Canterbury.  He  was  born  at  Guildford,  Sur- 
rey, and  was  educated  at  Oxford  (B.A.  1582; 
M.A.  1685;  D.D.  1597).  He  took  holy  orders  in 
1585  and  rose  rapidly.  His  pronounced  Puri- 
tanism brought  him  into  conflict  with  William 
Laud.  In  1609  he  was  appointed  Bishop  of  Cov- 
entry and  Lichfield,  and  m  1610  he  was  trans- 
lated to  the  see  of  London.  In  1611  he  was 
enthroned  Archbishop  of  Canterbury.  He  owed 
these  successive  appointments  to  the  marked 
favor  of  James  I.,  and  used  his  exalted  position 
to  advance  a  narrow  Protestantism  and  to  perse- 
cute Roman  Catholics.  He  also  appeared  in 
political  life  as  the  determined  foe  of  Spain  and 
France,  largely  because  they  were  Roman  Cath- 
olic countries.  His  courageous  opposition  to  the 
King  on  several  momentous  occasions  cost  him 
after  1613  much  of  the  royal  favor.  While 
under  a  cloud  he  had  the  misfortune,  when  hunt- 
ing, accidentally  to  kill  a  gamekeeper.  His 
enemies  used  the  incident  against  him.  Laud 
brought  about  a  court  of  inquiry  into  the  alleged 
infringement  of  canon  law,  and  three  persons 
designated   to   bishoprics    refused   to    be   conse- 


11 


ABBOT. 


crated  by  him.  The  inquiry  came  to  nothing, 
but  the  stigma  remained.  The  death  of  James 
I.  (1625)  was  an  additional  misfortune  to 
Abbot,  as  Charles  I.  was  influenced  by  Laud. 
After  1627  he  was  practically  deprived  of  the 
rights  and  privileges  of  his  office.  He  died  at 
Croydon,  then  the  country  residence  of  the  Arch' 
bishop  of  Canterbury,  August  4,  1633.  Of  his 
writings  the  most  popular  was  his  commentary 
on  the  Book  of  Jonah  (1600),  which  was 
reprinted  with  a  life  by  Grace  Webster  (London, 
1845). 

ABBOT,  Henuy  Larcom  (1831 — ).  An  Amer- 
ican soldier  and  engineer.  He  was  born  at  Bev- 
erly, Mass.,  and  graduated  at  the  United  States 
Military  Academy,  West  Point,  in  1854,  entering 
the  corps  of  engineers,  in  which  he  served  with 
distinction  until  his  retirement  in  1895.  He  was 
engaged  in  the  survey  for  the  Pacific  Railroad 
and  the  hydrographic  survey  of  the  Mississippi 
River  delta.  During  the  Civil  War  he  was 
engaged  in  engineering  and  artillery  operations. 
He  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Bull  Run  in 
1861.  In  the  operations  around  Richmond  he 
commanded  the  siege  artillery.  At  the  close  of 
the  war  he  was  brevetted  Brigadier-General  of 
Ignited  States  Volunteers,  and  Major-General  of 
the  United  States  Army.  For  many  years  he 
was  in  command  of  the  garrison  of  engineers  at 
Willett's  Point,  N.  Y.,  and  while  there  developed 
the  torpedo  and  submarine  defense  of  the  Long 
Island  Sound  approach  to  New  York  City  and 
founded  the  school  for  engineers.  In  this  con- 
nection he  did  much  important  work  in  military 
science,  devoting  himself  to  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  submarine  mines  and  mortar  bat- 
teries, as  well  as  to  the  development  of  military 
engineering  equipment  and  drill,  and  serving  on 
the  Gun  Foundry  Board,  the  Board  on  Fortifica- 
tions and  Defenses,  and  numerous  other  military 
commissions.  He  was  a  member  of  the  board  to 
devise  a  plan  for  the  protection  and  reclamation 
of  the  Mississippi  basin.  In  1872  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences. 
He  served  as  president  of  a  board  of  consulting 
engineers  to  consider  the  question  of  a  proposed 
ship  canal  from  Pittsburg  to  Lake  Erie,  and 
designed  the  harbor  at  Manitowoc,  Wis.  In 
May,  1897,  he  was  appointed  a  member  of  the 
Technical  Committee  of  the  New  Panama  Canal 
Company.  He  is  the  author  of  Siege  Artillery 
in  the  Campaign  Against  Richmond  (1867); 
Experiments  and  Investigations  to  Develop  a 
System  of  Submarine  Mines  for  Defending  Har- 
bors of  the  United  States  (1881),  and  with 
General  A.  A.  Humphreys,  Physics  and  Hydrau- 
lics of  the  Mississippi,  in  addition  to  a  large 
number  of  reports  of  military  and  engineering 
commissions  and  boards. 

ABBOT,  Joseph  Hale  (1802-73).  An  Amer- 
ican educator,  born  at  Wilton,  N.  H.  He  grad- 
uated in  1822  at  Bowdoin  College,  and  from  1827 
to  1833  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  an 
instructor  in  modern  languatres  at  Phillips 
Academy,  Exeter.  He  contributed  numerous 
valuable  papers  to  the  Transactions  of  the  Amer- 
ican Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  and  was  an 
associate  editor  of  Worcester's  Dictionary  of  the 
English  Language  (1860). 

ABBOT,  Samuel  (1732-1812).  An  American 
philanthropist.  He  was  born  at  Andover,  Mass., 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Andover 
Theological  Seminary,  to  which  he  gave  $20,000 


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ABBOT. 

in  1807  and  $100,000  more  in  his  will.  He  was 
a  successful  merchant  of  Boston  and  a  large  con- 
tributor to  charities. 

ABBOT,  The.  The  title  of  one  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott's  novels,  published  in  1820.  Its  incidents 
^orm  a  sequel  to  The  Monastery,  and  are  based 
upon  the  history  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  in  the 
years  1567  and*  1568,  ending  with  the  battle  of 
Langside  and  her  escape  to  England. 

ABBOT,  WiLiJS  John  (1863 — ).  An  Ameri- 
can author  and  editor,  grandson  of  John  S.  C. 
Abbot.  He  was  born  at  New  Haven,  Conn.,  and 
graduated  p.t  the  University  of  Michigan  in  1884. 
He  is  best  known  by  his  Blue  Jackets  of  *61, 
Blue  Jackets  of  1812,  and  Blue  Jackets  of  '16, 
a  series  of  stories  for  boys  relating  to  the  naval 
history  of  the  United  States,  and  by  his  Battle 
Fields  of  1861.  Mr.  Abbot  was  managing  editor 
of  the  Chicago  Times  from  1892  to  1893,  and 
from  1896  to  1898  was  on  the  editorial  staff  of 
the  New  York  Jourtial. 

ABBOT  OF  JOY  (Abb^  de  Liesse).  The 
title  bestowed  upon  the  chief  of  a  brotherhood 
founded  at  Lille.  Accompanied  by  a  suite  of 
officers  and  servants  who  bore  before  him  a 
standard  of  red  silk,  he  presided  over  the  games 
which  were  held  at  Arras  and  the  neighboring 
towns  during  the  period  of  the  carnival,  coming 
under  the  general  title  of  "Feast  of  the  Ass" 
(q.v.).    See  also  Misrule,  Lord  of. 

AB^OT  OF  MISBUXE^.  See  Misrule, 
Lord  of. 

AB30TSF0BD.  The  estate  of  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  situated  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tweed, 
about  three  miles  from  Melrose  Abbey.  Before 
it  became,  in  1811,  the  property  of  Scott,  the 
'  site  of  the  house  and  grounds  of  Abbotsford 
formed  a  small  farm  known  as  Clarty  Hole.  The 
new  name  was  given  it  by  the  poet,  who  loved 
thus  to  connect  himself  with  the  days  when 
Melrose  abbots  passed  over  the  fords  of  the 
Tweed.  On  this  spot,  a  sloping  bank  overhang- 
ing the  river,  with  the  Selkirk  Hills  behind,  he 
built  at  first  a  small  villa,  now  the  western  wing 
of  the  mansion.  He  afterward  added  the  remain- 
ing parts  of  the  building,  on  no  uniform  plan,  but 
with  the  desire  of  combining  some  of  the  features 
(and  even  actual  remains)  of  those  ancient 
works  of  Scottish  architecture  which  he  most 
loved.  The  result  was  a  picturesque  and  irregu- 
lar pile,  which  has  been  aptly  called  "a  romance 
in  stone  and  lime."  The  property  has  remained 
in  Scott's  family  now  to  the  fourth  generation. 
Consult:  Irving's  Abbotsford  (London,  1850)  ; 
l^ckhart*s  Life  of  Scott  (Edinburgh,  1838),  and 
Mary  Scott's  Abbotsford  (New  York,  1893). 

ABOBOTT,  Austin,  LL.D.  (1831-96).  An 
American  la\vyer,  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  the  son 
of  Jacob  Abbott.  He  graduated  at  the  University 
of  the  City  of  New  York  in  1851  and  was  admit- 
ted to  the  bar  in  the  following  year.  He  was  in 
partnership  with  his  brothers,  Benjamin  Vaughan 
and  Lyman  (afterward  editor  of  the  Out- 
look), He  gained  a  national  reputation  as 
counsel  for  Theodore  Tilton  in  his  suit  against 
Henry  Ward  Beecher.  He  aided  his  brother 
Benjamin  in  the  preparation  of  his  well-known 
digests  of  laws,  and  published  many  legal  text 
books.  He  also  wrote,  in  collaboration  with  his 
two  brothers,  two  novels,  Matthew  Caraby  and 
Conecut  Corners.  He  was  an  able  lecturer  on 
law  and  was  Dean  of  the  Iaw  School  of  the 


12 


ABBOTT. 


University  of  the  City  of  New  York  from  1891 
until  his  death. 

ABBOTT,  Benjamin  (1732-96).  A  Methodist 
Episcopal  minister,  born  on  Long  Island,  N.  Y. 
He  was  apprenticed  to  a  hatter  in  Philadelphia, 
and  subsequently  to  a  farmer  in  New  Jersey. 
He  was  converted  from  a  dissipated  life  when 
about  40  years  old,  and  immediately  became 
an  itinerant  Methodist  preacher.  After  sixteen 
years'  service  in  New  Jersey  he  was  assigned  to 
the  Dutchess  (N.  Y.)  circuit  in  1789.  He  was 
transferred  to  the  Long  Island  circuit  in  1791,  to 
Salem,  N.  J.,  in  1792,  to  the  Cecil  circuit,  Mary- 
land, as  presiding  elder,  in  1793,  and  died  at 
Salem,  N.  J.,  in  1796.  He  was  famous  in  his 
day,  and  is  still  remembered  as  a  "rousing" 
preacher.  His  vehemence  was  such  that  he 
frequently  fainted,  and  generally  raised  a  com- 
motion among  his  hearers. 

ABBOTT,  Benjamin  Vaughan  ( 1830-90) .  An 
American  lawyer,  the  son  of  Jacob  Abbott.  He 
graduated  at  the  University  of  the  City  of  New 
York  in  1850,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1852.  In  legal  practice  his  brothers  Austin  and 
Lyman  were  associated  with  him.  He  produced 
nearly  100  volumes  of  reports  and  digests  of 
Federal  and  State  Laws.  In  1865,  as  Secretary  of 
the  New  York  Code  Commission,  he  drafted  a 
penal  code  which,  when  adopted  by  the  Legis- 
lature, became  the  basis  of  the  present  code.  In 
1870  President  Grant  appointed  him  one  of  three 
commissioners  to  revise  the  statutes  of  the 
United  States. 

ABBOTT,  Chablbs,  first  Baron  Colchestek 
(1757-1829).  A  speaker  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons. He  was  born  at  Abingdon  and  was 
educated  at  Christ  Church.  After  he  had  occu- 
pied numerous  positions  under  the  <jk>vemment 
he  became  Speaker  of  the  House  ( 1802)  and  held 
the  office  until  1816,  when  ill-health  compelled 
him  to  resign.  He  was  one  of .  the  ablest 
speakers  that  ever  occupied  the  chair,  and  also 
rendered  valuable  services  as  a  trustee  of  the 
British  Museum.  His  valuaole  Diary  and  Cor- 
respondence was  published  by  his  son  in  1861. 

ABBOTT,  Charles  Conrad  (1843  — ).  An 
American  archaeologist  and  naturalist,  bom  at 
Trenton,  N.  J.  He  studied  medicine  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania,  and  served  as  a  surgeon 
in  the'  Federal  Army  during  the  Civil  War.  From 
1876  to  1889  he  was  assistant  curator  of  the 
Peabody  Museum  in  Cambridge,  Mass.,  to  which 
he  presented  a  collection  of  20,000  archaeological 
specimens,  and  he  has  given  freely  to  other  archae- 
ological collections.  His  book.  Primitive  In- 
dustry (1881)  detailed  the  evidences  of  the  pres- 
ence of  pre-glacial  man  in  the  Delaware  Valley, 
and  is  a  valuable  contribution  to  archaeology.  He 
has  also  published  many  books  on  out-door  obser- 
vation, such  as  A  Naturalist's  Rambles  About 
Home  (1884).  His  other  works,  besides  some  fic- 
tion, include:  Upland  and  Meadow  (1886)  ; 
Wasteland  Wanderings  (1887) ;  Outings  at  Odd 
Times  (1890);  Clear  Skies  and  Cloudy  (1899) 
and  In  Nature's  Realm  (1900). 

ABBOTT,  Edward,  I5:D.(  18^1 — ).  An  Amer- 
ican clergyman,  journalist,  and  author,  born  at 
Farmington,  Me.  He  graduated  in  1860  at  the 
University  of  New  York,  studied  from  1860  to 
1862  at  the  Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and 
in  1863  served  in  the  United  States  Sanitary 
Commission  at  Washington  and  with  the  Army 
of  the  Potomac.     He  was  ordained  in  1863  to 


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ABBOTT.  13 

the  Congregational  ministry,  and  was  pastor  of 
Pilgrim  Church,  Cambridge,  Mass.,  from  1865 
to  1869.  From  1869  to  1878  he  was  associate 
editor  of  the  Congregationaliat,  and  from  1878 
to  1888  editor  of  the  Literary  World,  whose 
direction  he  again  assumed  in  1805.  In  1879 
he  was  ordained  a  priest  of  the  Protestant  Epis- 
copal Church  and  appointed  rector  of  St.  James's 
parish,  Cambridge.  His  publications  include 
The  Conversations  of  Jesus  (1875),  and  Phillips 
Brooks   (1900). 

ABBOTT,  Rev.  Edwin  Abbott  ( 1838 — ) .  An 
English  author,  born  in  London.  He  graduated 
at  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge,  with  distinction 
(B.A.  1861,  M.A.  1864);  was  assistant  master 
in  King  Edward's  School,  Birmingham  (1862- 
64),  and  head-master  of  the  City  of  London 
School  (1865-1889),  which  he  made  one  of  the 
best  day  schools  in  England;  retired  in  1889,  and 
received  a  pension  the  next  year.  He  was  twice 
Select  Preacher  at  Cambridge  and  once  at 
Oxford.  He  published  several  volumes  of  ser- 
mons and  other  religious  works,  as  Cambridge 
Sermons  (1875),  Oxford  Sermons  (1879),  Car- 
dinal Netcman  (1892),  and  St,  Thomas  of  Can- 
terbury (1898).  He  is  best  known  by  his 
Shakespearian  Grammar  (1869;  third  edition 
revised  and  enlarged,  1870),  a  pioneer  work, 
which,  though  unscientific,  has  hardly  been 
superseded. 

ABBOTT,  Emma  (Emma  Abbott  Wetherell) 
(1849-1891).  An  American  soprano,  born  in 
Chicago,  111.  She  began  her  musical  experience 
in  the  choir  of  Plymouth  Church,  Brooklyn, 
(N.  Y.),  and  afterward  studied  in  Milan  under 
San  Giovanni  and  in  Paris  under  Wartel  and 
Albert  James.  She  made  her  d^but  at  Covent 
Garden,  London,  as  Maria  in  La  Fille  du  Regi- 
ment. For  three  years  thereafter  she  made  an 
operatic  and  concert  tour  of  England  and  Ire- 
land under  the  direction  of  Colonel  Mapleson. 
Subsequently  she  returned  to  the  United  States, 
where  she  sang  with  the  Abbot  and  Hess  Opera 
Company,  and  later  with  the  English  opera  com- 
pany long  known  by  her  name.  She  sang  in 
Martha,  Faust,  Les  Huguenots,  The  Chimes  of 
Normandy,  and  the  more  popular  works  of 
Verdi,  Bellini,  and  Donizetti.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  Clara  Louise  Kellogg,  she  was  perhaps 
more  widely  known  than  any  other  American 
singer  of  her  time. 

ABBOTT,  Frank  Frost  (1800).  An  Amer- 
ican Latinist,  born  at  Redding,  Conn.  He  grad- 
uated at  Yale  in  1882,  and  in  1891  received  the 
degree  of  Ph.D.  From  1885  to  1891  he  was 
tutor  at  Yale;  in  1892  he  w^as  appointed  associ- 
ate proiessor,  and  in  1894  professor  of  Latin  in 
the  University  of  Chicago.  He  was  also  professor 
in  the  American  School  of  Classical  Studies  at 
Kome,  from  1901  to  1902.  His  works  include 
A  History  of  Roman  Political  Institutions  ( Bos- 
ton, tool),  and  numerous  philological  papers. 

ABBOTT,  GORHAM  Dummer  (1807-1874).  An 
American  Congregational  clergyman  and  edu- 
cator, born  in  Hallowell,  Me.  He  graduated  at 
Bowdoin  in  1826  and  at  Andover  in  1831.  With 
his  brothers,  Jacob  and  John  S.  C.  Abbott,  he  was 
a  pioneer  in  the  higher  or  collegiate  education  of 
jroung  women.  In  1847  he  founded  the  Spingler 
Institute,  in  New  York  City.  The  school  main- 
tained a  high  reputation  during  its  brief  history. 
He  wrote  The  Family  at  Home,  Nathan  W, 
Dickermany  Pleasure  and  Profit, 


ABBOTT. 


ABBOTT,  Jacob  (1803-79).  A  popular  juve- 
nile and  didactic  writer.  He  was  born  at  Hal- 
lowell, Me.  He  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1820.  Like  his  brother  John,  he  studied  for 
the  ministry  at  Andover,  and  was  ordained  to 
the  Congregational  ministry.  From  1825  to 
1829  he  was  professor  of  mathematics  and  natural 
philosophy  at  Amherst.  He  then  established  a 
girls'  school  in  Boston^  and  in  1834  organized 
the  Eliot  Church,  Roxbury.  Five  years  later  he 
moved  to  Farmington.  He  passed  the  remainder 
of  his  life  there,  in  New  York,  and  in  foreign 
travel,  devoting  himself  wholly  to  literature. 
He  died  at  Farmington,  October  31,  1879.  Abbott 
published  more  than  two  hundred  volumes,  the 
most  noteworthy  of  which  are  The  Rollo  Books 
(28  volumes),  The  Franconia  Stories  (10  vol- 
umes), The  Rainbow  and  Lucky  Series  (5  vol- 
umes), a  number  of  juvenile  histories,  written 
in  collaboration  with  his  brother,  and  a  series  of 
histories  of  America.  He  also  edited  many 
school  books.  His  style  had  a  singular  fascina- 
tion for  the  young,  and  many  of  his  writings 
continue  to  be  popular. 

ABBOTT,  Sir  John  Joseph  Caldwell  (1821- 
93).  A  Canadian  statesman,  born  at  St.  An- 
drew's, Quebec.  He  was  educated  at  McGill 
College,  Montreal;  studied  law^,  and  in  1847  was 
called  to  the  bar.  Beginning  in  1859  he  repre- 
sented Argenteuil  County  in  the  Canadian 
Assembly,  until  the  union  in  1867,  when  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Dominion  Parliament 
for  the  same  place.  In  1862  he  was  solicitor- 
general  in  the  cabinet  of  John  Sandfield  Mac- 
donald,  but  resigned  before  liis  chief  lost  pnower. 
In  1887  Sir  John  A.  Macdonald  invited  him  to 
join  the  cabinet  as  a  minister  without  portfolio. 
In  June,  1891,  on  the  death  of  Sir  John  A  Mac- 
donald, Abbott  was  made  Premier  of  the  Domin- 
ion Government,  but  resigned  in  November,  1892, 
because  of  his  ill  health.  He  took  a  seat  in  the 
cabinet  of  his  successor.  Sir  John  Thomson,  but 
without  a  portfolio.  He  was  Dean  of  the  Facul- 
ty of  Law  of  McGill  University  for  ten  years, 
was  considered  an  authority  on  commercial  law, 
and  was  knighted  in  1892. 

ABBOTT,  John  Stephens  Cabot  (1805-87). 
An  American  historian,  pastor,  and  pedagogical 
writer,  a  brother  of  the  equally  prolific  Jacob 
Abbott  (q.v.).  He  was  born  at  Brunswick,  Me., 
and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in  1825.  He 
studied  for  the  ministry  at  Andover,  and  was 
ordained  a  Congregational  minister  in  1830. 
He  held  successive  pastorates  at  Worcester,  Rox- 
bury, and  Nantucket.  His  writings  were,  from 
the  outset,  popular.  Beginning  with  semi-relig- 
ious pedagogy,  The  Mother  ai  Home  (1833), 
Th^  Child  at  Home,  etc.,  he  was  presently 
diverted  to  history,  and  after  1844  resigned  his 
pastorate,  giving  himself  entirely  to  literature. 
He  died  at  Fairhaven,  Conn.,  June  17,  1887. 
His  most  noteworthy  books  are  The  French  Revo- 
lution, The  Hiatory  of  Napoleon  Bonaparte, 
Napoleon  at  St.  Helena,  The  History  of  Napoleon 
the  Third  (1868)  ;  The  History  of  the  Civil  War 
in  America  (1803-65),  and  The  History  of  Fred- 
erick IF.,  Called  Frederick  the  Great  (New 
York).  AH  these  are  readable  but  none  of  them 
has  any  critical  value. 

ABBOTT,  Lyman,  D.D.(1835 — ).  An  Ameri- 
can Congregational  clergyman  and  editor.  He 
was  born  at  Roxbury,  Mass.,  a  son  of  Jacob 
Abbott.     He  graduated  at  the  New  York  Univer- 


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ABBOTT.  14 

sity  in  1853  and  for  a  time  practiced  law  with 
his  brothers  Austin  and  Benjamin  Vaughan 
Abbott.  Afterward  he  studied  theology  with  his 
uncle,  Rev.  John  S.  C.  Abbott,  and  became  pastor 
of  a  church  at  Terre  Haute,  Ind.,  in  1860.  Five 
years  later  he  was  made  secretary  of  the  Ameri- 
can Union  (Freedman's)  Commission  and  became 
pastor  of  the  New  England  Church  in  New  York 
City.  In  1860  he  resigned  this  pastorate  and 
thereafter  was  successively  one  of  the  editors  of 
Harper's  Maaazine,  the  principal  editor  of  the 
Illustrated  Christian  Weekly,  and,  as  associate 
of  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  an  editor  of  the  Chris- 
tian Union  (now  the  Outlook),  of  which  he  after- 
ward became  editor-in-chief.  He  succeeded  Mr. 
Beecher  as  pastor  of  Plymouth  Church,  Brook- 
lyn, in  1888,  but  resigned  in  May,  1800,  and  has 
since  devoted  himself  entirely  to  editorial  and 
literary  work.  In  collaboration  with  his 
brothers  Austin  and  Benjamin  he  wrote  two 
novels,  Concent  Comers  (1885)  and  Matthew 
Carahy  (1888).  Among  his  other  numerous 
works  are  commentaries,  Jesus  of  'Sazareth 
(1860);  a  Dictionary  of  Religious  Knowledge 
(1872,  with  Dr.  T.  J.  Conant)  ;  Life  of  Henry 
Ward  Beecher  (1883)  ;  Evolution  of  Christianity 
(1802);  Christianity  and  Social  Problems 
( 1806)  ;  The  Theology  of  an  Evolutionist  ( 1807 )  ; 
Life  and  Letters  of  Paul  (1808)  ;  Life  and  Liter- 
ature of  the  Ancient  Hebrews  (1001)  ;  The  Rights 
of  Man  (1001). 

ABBQTT,  Thomas  Ktngsmill  (1820 — ).  An 
Irish  scholar.  He  was  born  at  Dublin  and  was 
educated  at  Trinity  College,  where  he  afterward 
occupied  the  chair  of  moral  philosophy  (1867- 
72),  of  biblical  Greek  (1875-88),  and  of  Hebrew 
(after  1870).  He  wrote  the  following  books: 
The  Elements  of  Logic  (third  edition,  1805)  ; 
Essays,  chiefly  on  the  original  texts  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  (1892);  A  Commentary 
on  Ephesians  and  Colossians  (1807);  a  trans- 
lation of  KanVs  Ethics,  with  a  memoir,  and 
Kant's  Introduction  to  Logic  (fifth  edition, 
1878). 

ABBBE'VIA'TIONS  (Lat.  ad,  to +hrevis, 
short).  Contrivances  in  writing  for  saving 
time  and  space.  They  are  of  two  kinds,  consist- 
ing either  in  the  omission  of  some  letters,  or 
words,  or  in  the  substitution  of  some  arbitrary 
sign.  In  the  earliest  times,  when  uncial  or 
lapidary  characters  were  used,  abbreviations  by 
omission  prevailed,  such  as  we  find  in  the 
inscriptions  on  monuments,  coins,  etc.  In  these 
the  initial  letter  is  often  put  instead  of  the  whole 
word,  as  M.  for  Marcus,  F.  for  Filius.  It  was 
after  the  small  Greek  and  Roman  letters  had 
been  invented  by  transcribers  for  facilitating 
their  work,  that  signs  of  abbreviation,  or  char- 
acters representing  double  consonants,  syllables, 
and  whole  words,  came  into  use.  Greek  manu- 
scripts abound  with  such  signs,  and  often  only 
one  who  has  expressly  studied  Greek  palaeogra- 
phy can  make  them  out.  From  the  manuscripts 
they  passed  into  the  early  printed  editions  of 
Greek  books,  and  it  is  only  within  the  last  cen- 
tury that  they  have  quite  disappeared.  Among 
the  Romans  the  system  was  carried  to  such  an 
extent  that  L.  Anmeus  Seneca  collected  and  clas- 
sified 5000  abbreviations.  The  same  practice  has 
prevailed  in  all  languages,  but  nowhere  more 
than  in  the  rabbinical  writings.  The  abbrevi- 
ations used  by  the  ancient  Romans  were  contin- 
ued  and  increased   in  the  Middle  Ages.     They 


ABBB.EVIATIONS. 

occur  in  inscriptions,  manuscripts,  and  legal 
documents;  and  the  practice  enduVed  in  these 
long  after  the  invention  of  printing  had 
made  it  unnecessary  in  books.  An  act  of  Parlia- 
ment was  passed  in  the  reign  of  George  II.,  for- 
bidding the  use  of  abbreviations  in  legal  docu- 
ments. Owing  to  these  abbreviations,  the  deciph- 
ering of  old  writings  requires  special  study  and 
training,  and  forms  a  separate  science,  on  which 
numerous  treatises  have  been  written.  One  of 
the  most  exhaustive  is  Tassin's  Nouveau  Traite 
de  Diplomatique  (6  volumes,  Paris,  1750-65). 
See  PaLuCooraphy. 

In  ordinary  writing  and  printing  few  abbrevia- 
tions are  now  employed.  The  sign  d,  originally 
an  abbreviation  for  the  Latin  et,  "and,"  is  one 
of  the  few  still  to  be  met  with  of  this  arbitrary 
kind.  It  does  not  stand  properly  for  a  w^}rd, 
for  it  is  used  in  different  languages,  but  for  an 
idea,  and  is  as  much  a  symbol  as  +.  The  abbre- 
viations by  using  the  initials  of  Latin  words 
that  are  still  in  use  are  chiefly  confined  to  titles, 
dates,  and  a  few  phrases;  as  M.A.  (magister 
artium) ,  Master  of  Arts;  A.D.  (anno  domini) , 
in  the  year  of  our  Lord;  e.g.  {exempli  gratia), 
for  exainple.  Many  are  now  formed  from  Eng- 
lish words  in  the  same  way;  as  F.G.S.,  Fellow 
of   the  Geological   Society;    B.C.,  before   Christ. 

The  following  table  contains  many  of  the 
more  important  abbreviations  in  general  use. 
There  are  omitted  from  it  many  others  whose 
meanings  are  obvious,  and  all  abbreviations  for 
days,  months,  countries.  States,  many  proper 
names,  as  those  of  the  Scriptures;  grammatical, 
scientific,  and  other  technical  terms;  familiar 
titles,  as  Mr.,  Gov.;  and  the  majority  of  commer- 
cial terms,  as  B/I,  bill  of  lading.  The  names  of 
many  societies  are  omitted,  especially  when  their 
abbreviations,  as  Y.M.C.A.,  are  well  known. 

A.B.,  Bachelor  of  Arts. 

Abp.,  Archbishop. 

A.C.    {ante  Christum),  Before  Christ. 

Accel.  (acceZerando) ,  In  music,  more  quickly. 

A.D.  {anno  Domini),  In  the  year  of  our  Lord. 

A.D.C.,  Aide-de-camp. 

A.H.  {anno  Hegiroe),  In  the  year  of  the 
Hegira    (reckoning  from  622  A.D.). 

Ad  Lib.,  {ad  libitum).  At  pleasure. 

Aet.  (cetatis) ,  Of  (his  or  her)  age. 

A.M.  {ante  meridiem),  Before  noon;  {anno 
mundi.  In  the  year  of  the  world;  {artium  mag- 
ister), Master  of  Arts. 

An.   {anno).  In  the  year. 

Anon.,  Anonymous. 

A.R.A.,  Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  (Lon- 
don). 

A.S.A.,  American  Statistical  Association. 

A.T.S.,  American  Tract  Society. 

A.U.C.  {ah  urhe  condita).  From  the  building 
of  the  city — that  is,  Rome. 

A. v..  Authorized  Version. 

b.,  Born. 

B.A.  or  A.B.  {artium  haxjcalaureus) ,  Bachelor 
of  Arts. 

Bart,  or  Bt.,  Baronet. 

B.C.,  Before  Christ. 

B.C.L.,  Bachelor  of  Civil  Law. 

B.D.,  Bachelor  of  Divinity. 

B.L.,  Bachelor  of  Letters. 

B.LL.,  Bachelor  of  Laws. 

B.M.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

B.Mus.,  Bachelor  of  Music. 

Bp.,  Bishop. 

B.S.  or  B.Sc,  Bachelor  of  Science, 


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ASBB.EVIATIONS.  15 

B.V.M.,  Blessed  Virgin  Mary 

C.  (centum),  A  hundred;  chapter ;*c.,  century. 
Also  C.  =  Centigrade. 

Cantab.    {Cantahrigiensis) ,  Of  Cambridge. 

C.B.,  Companion  of  the  Bath. 

G.E.,  Civil  Engineer. 

cf.  or  cp.,  Confer;  compare. 

C.I.,  Order  of  the  Crown  of  India. 

C.I.E.,  Companion  of  the  Order  of  the  Indian 
Empire. 

C.M.G.,  Companion  of  St.  Michael  and  St. 
George. 

Co.,  County. 

c/o,  Care  of. 

C.O.D.,  Cash,  or  collect,  on  delivery. 

Cr.,  Creditor. 

Cresc.   {crescendo) y  In  music,  more  loudly. 

C.S.I.,  Companion  of  the  Star  of  India. 

cwt.,  Hundred- weight. 

d.  ( dcnariits ) ,  Penny ;  died. 

D.C.    (da  capo).  From  the  beginning. 

D.C.L.,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law. 

D.D.,  Doctor  of  Divinity;  donum  dedii. 

D.D.S»,  Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery. 

D.G.  (Dei  gratia).  By  the  grace  of  God;  (Deo 
gratia^)  thanks  be  to  God. 

Dim.    (diminuendo),  In  music,  less  loudly. 

D.Lit.,  Doctor  of  Literature. 

Do.    (Ital.  detto,  said),  Ditto,  the  same. 

D.O.M.  (Deo  Optimo  maximo) ,  To  God  the 
best  and  greatest. 

Dr.,  Doctor,  debtor. 

D.Sc,   Doctor  of  Science. 

D.S.O.,  Companion  of  the  Distinguished  Ser- 
vice Order. 

D.V.   (Deo  volente),  God  willing. 

dwt..  Pennyweight. 

e.g.  or  eJc.  gr.   (exempli  gratia),  For  example. 

et.  al.    (et  alii).  And  others. 

etc.  (et  cetera),  And  the  rest;  and  so  on. 

et  seq.   (et  sequentia) ,  And  the  following. 

F.,  Fahrenheit. 

f.  (forte),  loudly. 

F.  and  A.  M.,  Free  and  Accepted  Masons. 

P.D.   (fidei  defensor),  Defender  of  the  Faith. 

flf.  (fortissimo).  Very  loud. 

f.  or  fit..  Following. 

fl.  (floruit).  Flourished. 

F.M.,  Field  Marshal. 

F.R.C.P.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physi- 
cians. 

F.R.C.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons. 

F.R.G.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society. 

F.R.S.,  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society. 

F.S.A-,  Fellow  of  the  Society  of  Antiqua- 
ries. 

G.G.B.  (Knight),  Grand  Cross  of  the  Bath. 

G.C.M.G.  (Knight),  Grand  Cross  of  St. 
Michael  and  St.  George. 

G-C.S.I.  (Knight),  Grand  Commander  of  the 
Star  of  India. 

H.B.M.,  His    (or  her)    Britannic  Majesty. 

H.E.,  His  Eminence;  His  Excellency. 

H.T.H.,  His  (or  Her)  Imperial  Highness. 

H.M.S.,  His  (or  Her)  Majesty's  Service,  or 
Ship. 

H.S.H.,  His  (or  Her)  Serene  Highness. 

I.  {imperator  or  imperatrix) ,  Emperor  or 
Empress. 

ib.  or  ibid,   (ibidem),  In  the  same  place. 

Id.   (idem).  The  same;   (idua),  the  Ides. 

i.e.  (id  est),  That  is. 


ABl^BEVIATIONS. 

I.H.S.*  (lesus  Hominum  Salvator),  Jesus  the 
Saviour  of  men. 

Incog.    (Ital.  incognito),  Unknown. 

Inf.    (infra).  Below. 

In  loc.  (in  loco).  In  the  place  referred  to. 

I.N.R.I.  (lesus  Nazarenus  Rex  Judcerum) , 
Jesus  of  Nazareth,  the  King  of  the  Jews. 

Inst,  (instante — mense  understood),  In  the 
current  (month). 

I.O.O.F.,  Independent  Order  of  Odd  Fellows. 

J.C.D.  (juris  civilis  doctor).  Doctor  of  Civil 
Law. 

J.P.,  Justice  of  the  Peace. 

Jr.,  Junior. 

J.U.D.  (juris  utriusque  doctor),  Doctor  of 
Laws,  i.e.,  both  of  civil  and  canon  law. 

Kal.  (Kalendw),TheKsi\ends. 

K.C.,  King's  Counsel. 

K.C.B.,  Knight  Commander  of  the  Bath. 

K.C.M.G.,  Knight  Commander  of  St.  Michael 
and  St.  George. 

K.C.S.I.,  Knight  Commander  of  the  Star  of 
India. 

K.P.,  Knight  of  St.  Patrick. 

K.T.,  Knight  of  the  Thistle. 

L.  (libra).  Pound  (in  English  money). 

It),   (libra).  Pound   (weight). 

I.e.  (loco  citato),  In  the  place  cited;  (lower 
case)  small  letters  in  printing. 

leg.  ( legato ) ,  smoothly. 

L.H.D.  )   (Htterarum     humaniorum     doctor), 

Litt.D.  \  Doctor  of  Literature,  or  Letters. 

LL.B.  (legum  baccalaureu^) ,  Bachelor  of  Laws 
(the  double  L  denoting  the  plural). 

LL.D.   (legum  doctor).  Doctor  of  Laws. 

L.S.    (locus  sigilli).  The  place  of  the  seal. 

M.,  Monsieur;  MM.,  Messieurs  (plural); 
( meridies )   noon. 

M.A.,  Master  of  Arts. 

M.B.,  Bachelor  of  Medicine. 

M.C.,  Member  of  Congress. 

M.D.   (medicinas  doctor).  Doctor  of  Medicine. 

M.E..  Mininar  or  Mechanical  Engineer;  Meth- 
odist Episcopal. 

mf.   (mezzo  forte).  Moderately  loud. 

M.F.H.,  Master  of  Fox  Hounds. 

Mile.,  Mademoiselle. 

Mme.,  Madame. 

M.P.,  Member  of  Parliament;  Methodist  Prot- 
estant. 

M.S.  or  M.Sc,  Master  of  Science. 

MS.,   Manuscript;    MSS.,  manuscripts. 

Mus.D.   (musiccB  doctor).  Doctor  of  Music. 

N.B.   (nota  bene),  Mark  well. 

nem.  con.  (nemine  contradicente) ,  Unanimous- 
ly. 

n.d.,  No  date. 

Non.   (nonm).  The  Nones. 

N.S.,  New  style. 

Ob.  (obiit).  Died. 

O.P.  (ordinis  prcBdicatorum)  Of  the  Domin- 
ican Order. 

O.S.,  Old  style. 

O.S.A.,  Order  of  St.  Augustine. 

O.S.F.,  Order  of  St.  Francis. 

Oxon.  (O.Tor?i€n5i«),  Of  Oxford. 

p.   (piano).  Softly. 

P.C.,  Privy  Councilor. 

•ThiB  was  originally  written  IHS,  the  first  three  Greek  let- 
tens  of  the  name  Jesne;  but  lt«  orgin  having  been  lost  sight  of, 
by  snbetitnting  S  for  2  and  then  mistaking  the  Greek  H  (long 
e)  for  Latin  H;  a  signification  was  found  for  each  letter.  The 
symbol  was  further  developed  by  converting  the  horizontal 
stroke,  which  was  the  sign  of  abbreviation,  into  a  cross,  in 
which  form  it  is  the  recognized  device  of  the  Jesuit  order. 


Digitized  by 


Goo 


ABBBEVIATIOVS. 

Ph.B.  {philosaphug  huccalaureus) ,  Bachelor  of 
Philosophy. 

Ph.D.  (philo8ophi<B  doctor).  Doctor  of  Philos- 
ophy. 

P.E.,  Protestant  Episcopal. 

Ph.G.,  Graduate  Pharmacist. 

P.L.,  Poet  laureate. 

P.M.   {post  meridiem).  After  noon;  postmas- 
ter. 

pp.  ( pianissimo ) ,  Very  softly. 

P.P.,  Parish  priest. 

P.P.C.    (Fr.    pour   pretidre   congi) ,   To   take 
leave. 

p.,  Page;  pp.,  pages. 

pro  tern,  {pro  tempore).  For  the  time. 

prox.    {proximo — mense   understood),   In  the 
next  (month). 

P.S.    {post  scriptum) ,  Postscript. 

P.T.O.,  Please  turn  over. 

Q.,  Query  or  question. 

Q.C.,  Queen's  Counsel. 

Q.E.D.    {quod   erat   demonstrandum).   Which 
was  to  be  proved. 

Q.E.F.   {quod  erat  faciendum).  Which  was  to 
be  done. 

Q.S.   {quantum  sufficit) ,  A  sufficient  quantity. 

q.v.  {quod  vide) ,  Which  see. 

R.  {rew  or  regina) ,  King  or  queen.    Also,  R.  = 
Reaumur. 

R.  or  I^  {recipe),  Take. 

R.A.,    Royal   Academician;    Royal    Artillery; 
Royal  Arch. 

rail,    {rallentando) ,  More  slowly. 

R.A.M.,  Royal  Academy  of  Music. 

R.C.,  Roman  Catholic. 

R.E.,  Royal  Engineers. 

R.I.P.    {requiescat  in  pace).  May  he  rest  in 
peace. 

rit.  {ritardando) ,  More  slowly. 

R.M.,  Royal  Marines. 

R.N..  Royal  Navy. 

R.S.V.P.  (Fr.  r^pondez  sHl  vous  plait),  Please 
reply. 

R.V.,  Revised  version. 

S.,  Saint;  south;   shilling;   SS.,  saints. 

sc.   {scilicet).  Namely;  understood. 

sf.   {sforzando).  With  marked  emphasis. 

S.J.,  Society  of  Jesus. 

s.p.  {sine  prole),  Without  issue. 

S.P.Q.R.   {senatus  populusque  Romanus) ,  The 
Senate  and  People  of  Rome. 

sq.     {sequens).    The    following;    sqq.    in    the 
plural. 

Sr.,  Senior. 

S.S.,  Steamship ;  Sunday  school. 

St.,  Saint;   street. 

S.T.D.    {sanctxB  theologies  doctor).  Doctor  of 
Divinity. 

S.T.P.    {sanctcB   theologies  professor).  Doctor 
of  Divinity. 

sup.    {supra),  above. 

s.v.    {sub  voce),  Under  the  heading. 

T.C.D.,  Trinity  College,  Dublin. 

Twp.,  Township. 

ult.   {ultimo— mense  understood),  In  the  last 
(month). 

U.P.,  United  Presbyterian. 

U.S.,  United  States. 

U.S.A.,    United    States    of    America;    United 
States  Army. 

(T.S.N.,  United  States  Navy. 

V.C.,  Victoria  Cross;  Vice  Chancellor. 

vs.  (versus),  Against. 

Consult,  for  a  reproduction  of  13,000  abbrevia- 


16 


ABD-AL-ULTIF. 


tions  used  in  old  Jjatin  MSS.,  Campelli,  Dizio- 
nario  di  Abbreviature   (Milan,  1899). 

ABBBE'VIA^IO  PLACriTCKBXTM  (Lat. 
abridgment  or  abstract  of  pleas).  A  record 
of  judicial  decisions  in  the  itinerant  Court  of  the 
King's  Bench  {curia  regis,  q.v.)  in  the  Norman 
period  of  English  law.  It  is  one  of  the  earliest 
collections  of  judicial  precedents  in  our  law, 
antedating  the  Year  Books  (q.v.).  It  was  first 
published  in  1811.  See  Anglo-Norman  Law; 
Pleas  of  the  Cbown;  Register  of  Rolls;  and 
Reports. 

ABBBE^VIA'TOBS.  In  the  Papal  Court,  a 
college  of  eleven  prelates  to  whom  the  revision  of 
the  papal  bulls  and  other  similar  documents  is 
committed,  and  who  sign  them  in  the  name  of 
the  Cardinal  Vice  Chancellor.  They  date  from 
Pius  II.  (1458-64),  and  derive  their  name  from 
the  fact  that  by  means  of  traditional  abbrevia- 
tions they  prepared  a  short  minute  of  the  decis- 
ion, which  they  subsequently  expanded  into 
proper  form. 

ABBT,  Apt,  Thomas  (1738-66).  A  German 
author,  born  at  Ulm,  educated  at  the  University 
of  Halle,  and  professor  of  mathematics  at  Rin- 
teln.  He  did  much  toward  the  improvement  of 
the  language  of  his  country.  Of  his  books  the 
more  important  are  Vom  Verdienste  (1766),  and 
Vom  Tod  fur's  Vaterland  (1761). 

ABCH£BX)V,  ftb'she-rOn^  or  ABSHEBOK. 
See  Apsheron. 

ABD,  ftbd.  In  Arabic  and  in  the  Sem- 
itic languages  in  general,  "slave"  or  "serv- 
ant." With  the  name  of  God,  it  enters  into  the 
composition  of  many  proper  names;  as,  Abd- 
Allah,  "servant  of  Allah;"  Abd-el-Kader,  "serv- 
ant of  the  mighty  one ; "  Abd-ul-Latif ,  "servant  of 
the  gracious  one,"  etc.  In  Hebrew,  we  have 
such  names  as  Abdeel,  "servant  of  God,"  "Abdi," 
but  also  the  form  "Ebed,"  and  "Ebed  melech." 
In  Syriac  and  Assyrian  we  likewise  have  proper 
names  compounded  with  this  word  under  the 
form  Abad  and  Abdi  respectively. 

ABDAIiL AH  -  BEN  -  ZOBEIB,  &b-dftn&  ben 
z6-ba'6r  (622-692).  Ruler  of  Mecca.  He  was  the 
son  of  Zoheir,  one  of  the  Prophet's  friends  and 
companions.  Abdallah  opposed  Ali,  the  cousin 
and  fourth  successor  of  the  Prophet,  and  renewed 
his  struggle  for  supremacy  after  All's  assassina- 
tion. He  seized  Mecca,  holding  it  against  Yezid, 
Caliph  of  Damascus.  During  the  siege  the  tem- 
ple of  the  Holy  Kaaba  was  destroyed,  but  Yezid's 
death  saved  the  city  from  capture.  Abdallah  was 
acknowledged  Caliph  of  Mecca,  and  rebuilt  and 
restored  the  city  by  686.  The  caliphs  of  Damas- 
cus renewed  the  war,  and  Mecca  was  again 
besieged,  and  finally  taken  by  assault,  and 
Abdallah,  who  retreated  within  the  Kaaba,  was 
slain. 

ABDALLAH  -  IBN  -  YAZIM,  Vn  yft-z^m' 
(died  1058).  The  founder  of  the  Almorayide 
sect  in  Morocco,  which  in  a  short  space  of  time, 
through  the  propaganda  of  the  sword,  became 
transformed  into  a  temporal  power,  overran 
northern  Africa  and  conquered  Mohammedan 
Spain.  Though  holding  supreme  authority  for  a 
long  time,  he  was  content  with  the  title  of  "Theo- 
logian." 

ABD-AL-LATIF,  abd'  ftl  Ift-tSf.  See  Abd- 
ul-Latif. 


Digitized  by 


Google 


ABD  AL  HXTHIK  ABTT  MOHAMMED.       1 7 


ABDICATION. 


ABD  AL  MUMIN  ABIT  MOHAMMED, 
ftbd'  al  mJRJ'm^n  a'boo  irnVhAin'med  (c.  1100- 
1163) .  The  founder  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Almo- 
hades  (q.v.).  He  was  born  at  Tajira,  in  the 
Province  of  Tlemcen,  North  Africa,  and  was  a 
member  of  the  Kumija,  one  of  the  Berber  tribes 
of  the  Atlas  region.  After  the  death  of  Ibn 
Tumart,  the  founder  of  the  sect  of  the  Almohades, 
who  had  shown  great  favor  to  Abd  al  Mumin, 
he  was  chosen  as  his  successor.  He  now  assumed 
the  leadership  of  the  Almohades,  put  the  Almo- 
ravides  to  flight,  and  conquered  the  cities  of 
Gran,  Tlemcen,  Fez,  Sal4,  Ceuta,  and  finally, 
after  a  siege  of  eleven  months,  Morocco  (1140- 
47).  He  extended  his  dominion  over  Al- 
Maghrib  and  the  other  provinces  of  North  Africa, 
and  passed  over  into  Spain,  conquered  Cordova 
(1148),  Almeria  (1151),  and  Granada  (1154); 
in  short,  the  greater  part  of  Mohammedan  Spain. 

ABD-EL-KADEB  IBV  MOXTHI  AD-DIN, 
abd'  e\  ka'dSr  m?R/h*  Ad-d6n'  (c.  1807-83). 
An  Algerian  ruler  and  patriot.  He  was  born 
near  Mascara,  and  was  educated  under  the  super- 
vision of  his  father  at  the  Ghetna,  an  educational 
institution  of  the  Marabouts.  His  father,  who  was 
esteemed  a  ver^  holy  man,  exercised  great  in- 
fluence over  his  countrymen,  and  bequeathed 
this  influence  to  his  son.  In  his  eighth  year 
Abd-el-Kader  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  with 
his  father ;  and  in  1827  he  visited  Egypt,  where, 
in  Cairo  and  Alexandria,  he  first  came  in  contact 
with  Western  civilization.  He  had  a  gifted 
mind,  and  a  character  marked  by  religious  enthu- 
siasm and  a  tendency  to  melancholy.  He  was 
free  from  cruelty  and  sensuality.  He  studied 
in  the  chief  schools  of  Fez,  maintained  the  faith 
of  his  people,  and  used  their  fanaticism  as  one 
of  his  most  important  sources  of  influence.  His 
public  career  began  at  the  time  of  the  conquest 
of  Algiers  by  the  French.  No  sooner  was  the 
power  of  the  Turks  broken,  than  the  Arab  tribes 
of  the  province  of  Oran  seized  the  oppor- 
tunity to  make  themselves  independent.  They 
obtained  possession  of  Mascara  and  elected  Abd- 
el-Kader  their  emir.  He  established  his  author- 
ity over  a  number  of  the  neighboring  tribes. 
He  attacked  the  French,  and  after  two  bloody 
battles,  fought  on  December  3,  1833,  and  Janu- 
ary 6,  1834,  against  General  Desmichels,  then 
commanding  in  Oran,  obliged  the  latter  to  enter 
into  a  treaty  with  him.  In  the  interior  of  the 
country  his  power  spread  rapidly.  The  cities 
and  tribes  of  the  provinces  of  Oran  and  Titer! 
acknowledged  him  as  their  sultan;  the  more 
distant  tribes  ^nt  him  ambassadors  with  pres- 
ents. Hostilities  were  soon  resumed  between 
him  and  the  French.  General  Tr^^zel,  at  the 
head  of  a  French  army,  was  attacked  at  Makta, 
on  June  28,  1835,  by  nearly  20,000  Arab  cavalry, 
and  suffered  a  defeat.  The  tide  turned,  how- 
ever, and  after  a  struggle  of  six  years  Abd-el- 
Kader  found  himself  obliged  (1841)  to  take 
refuge  in  Morocco.  There  he  succeeded  in  organ- 
izing a  religious  war  against  the  enemies  of 
Islam,  and  the  arms  of  France  were  now  turned 
against  Morocco  for  the  support  given  to  him. 
After  the  decisive  battle  of  Isly(  1844)  the  Sultan 
of  Morocco  was  obliged  to  give  up  Abd-el-Kader's 
cause,  but  soon  found  that  the  latter  was  at  least 
his  equal  in  power.  The  end  of  Abd-el-Kader 'a 
power,  however,  had  come.  On  the  night  of 
December  11,  1847,  he  made  a  bold  attack  on 
the  Moorish  camp,  in  which  he  was  defeated. 
He  fled  with  his  followers  to  Algeria,  where  the 
Vol.  I.-8 


greater  part  surrendered  to  the  French.  Dis- 
pirited, Abd-el-Kader  surrendered  December  22, 
1847,  to  General  Lamoricidre  and  the  Due 
d'Aumale.  He  was  kept  a  prisoner  with 
his  family  at  Toulon,  Pau,  and  the  Chateau 
d'Amboise.  Liberated  in  1852  by  Napoleon  III., 
he  lived  at  Brussa,  in  Asia  Minor,  till  1855. 
He  then,  for  a  time,  lived  in  Constantinople, 
and  finally  made  his  home  in  Damascus.  For 
his  services  during  the  Syrian  massacres  of  1800 
he  received  the  Grand  Cross  of  the  Legion  of 
Honor  from  Napoleon  III.  In  1865  he  visited 
Paris  and  England,  and  was  present  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  in  1867.  In  his  retirement  he  wrote 
a  religious  work,  a  translation  of  which  was  pub- 
lished at  Paris  in  1858,  under  the  title,  Rappel 
d  Vintelligent:  avis  d  Vindiffii-ent.  He  died  in 
Damascus,  May  26,  1883.  See  Algeria;  consult 
C.  H.  Churchill,  The  Life  of  Abd-el-Kader  (Lon- 
don, 1867),  described  as  "written  from  his  own 
dictation  and  compiled  from  other  authentic 
sources,"  highly  eulogistic,  and  in  no  sense  a 
scientific  biography:  Lam^naire,  Fie,  aventures, 
combatSy  amours  et  prise  d* Abd-el-Kader  (Paris, 
1848)  ;  Bellemare,  Abd-el-Kader,  sa  vie  politique 
et  militaire  (Paris,  1863). 

ABD-EL-MELEK,  abdM-m&^ek.  See  AsMAi. 

ABD-EL-WAHAB,  ftbd'el-w&-haV.    See  Wa- 

HABIS. 

ABa>EMON.  A  Tyrian  who  distinguished 
himself  by  solving  the  riddles  which  had  been 
propounded  to  his  master,  Hiram,  by  King  Solo- 
mon. According  to  the  story,  Solomon  chal- 
lenged Hiram  and  the  Tyrians  to  a  contest  of 
wits,  each  side  sending  riddles  for  solution  by 
the  other.  Solomon  had  already  won  in  the 
competition  and  the  amount  agreed  upon  as  a 
wager  had  been  paid  him,  when  Abdemon  entered 
the  lists,  and  not  only  found  answers  to  the 
riddles  which  had  baffled  his  countrymen,  but 
also  invented  others  with  which  to  try  further 
the  Israelite  king.  Solomon  failed  to  answer 
them  and  returned  the  forfeit. 

ABDE'BA  (Gk.  'A.ddvpa).  A  town  on  the 
coast  of  Thrace  between  the  mouth  of  the  Nestus 
and  Lake  Bistonis.  It  is  fabled  to  have  been 
founded  by  Heracles  on  the  spot  where  his 
favorite,  Abderus,  was  torn  to  pieces  by  the 
steeds  of  Diomedes.  The  historical  colonization 
took  place  in  656  B.C.  under  the  leadership  of 
Timesius  of  Clazomense.  Shortly  after  its  col- 
onization, the  town  was  destroyed  by  the 
Thracians,  and  in  543  b.g.  it  was  recolonized  by 
the  inhabitants  of  Teos.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  Protagoras,  Democritus,  Anaxarchus,  the  later 
HecatsDUs,  and  other  distinguished  men.  Its 
inhabitants  were,  however,  proverbial  for  their 
stupidity,  and  the  term  "Abderite"  was  a  term 
of  reproach. 

ABD-EB-BAHMAN,    IBN    ABDALLAH, 

abd'  er  rttn'mAn  'b'n  &b-daKlft  (  ?— 732).  A  Sara- 
cen governor  of  Spain.  At  the  head  of  about 
80,000  men  he  invaded  Gaul  in  732,  but  encoun- 
tered the  Franks  under  Charles  Martel  and 
Eudes,  near  Poitiers  (October,  732).  After  six 
days  of  hand-to-hand  fighting,  during  which  Abd- 
er-Rahman  was  slain,  the  Christians  gained  a 
decisive  victory,  and  put  an  eiTectual  check  to 
the  conquests  of  the  Saracens  of  Spain. 

AB'DICA^ION  (Lat.  abdicatio,  renuncia- 
tion, from  aby  away  from  -f  dicare,  to  proclaim) . 
The  renunciation  of  an  office,  generally  the  office 


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ABDICATION. 


18 


of  ruler  or  sovereign.     It  is  rarely  done  out  of 
pure  preference  of  a  private  station,  but  is  gen- 
erally the  result  of  vexation  and  disappointment. 
The  general  well-being  of  a  State  is  sometimes 
served  by  the  abdication  of  its  ruler.    Military 
reverses,   popular   disaffections,   court   scandals 
and   other   causes   often    render   it   imperative. 
History  records  many  abdications  of  this  char- 
acter.    It    was   perhaps   voluntarily   and    from 
being  wearied  with  dominion,  that  Diocletian, 
and  along  with  him  Maximian,  abdicated  (305). 
Christina   of   Sweden  retired   from   the  throne 
(1654)    out   of   preference   for   the  freedom   of 
private  life,   but  wished   still   to   exercise   the 
rights  of  a  sovereign.    Charles  V.  of  Germany 
laid  down  the  crown    (1556)    and  assumed  the 
humble   habit  of   a   monk,   because   his   great 
schemes  had  failed.     Philip  V.   of   Spain   laid 
down   the  crown   in   1724,   but   resumed   it  on 
the  death  of  his  son.     Amadeus  VIII.  of  Savoy 
abdicated    (1449)    to  become  a   priest.    Victor 
Amadeus  II.  of  Sardinia,  who  abdicated  in  1730, 
wished   to   recall   the   step,   but   this   was   not 
allowed.     Louis  Bonaparte  resigned  the  crown  of 
Holland  in  1810  rather  than  consent  to  treat  that 
country  as  a  province  of  France.    Charles  Em- 
manuel II.  of  Sardinia  retired  from  the  throne 
in  1802,  not  finding  himself  able  to  cope  with  the 
French.    Victor   Emmanuel    I.   of   Sardinia   re- 
signed in  1821  in  consequence  of  a  revolutionary 
movement.    William  I.  of  the  Netherlands  re- 
signed (1840)  in  great  measure  by  reason  of  his 
mortification  at  the   disastrous   results  of   his 
policy  regarding  Belgium.     Foreign  force  com- 
pelled the  abdication  of  Augustus  the  Strong  of 
Foland    (1706),   and   later,   that   of   Stanislaus 
Leszczjrnski  (1735)  and  of  Poniatowski  (1795)  ; 
as  well  as  that  of  Charles  IV.  of  Spain  (1808), 
and  of  Napoleon    (1814  and   1815).     Insurrec- 
tions have  been  the  most  frequent  cause  of  forced 
abdications.     The  early  history  of  the  Scandi- 
navian   kingdoms    abounds    in     instances.     In 
England,  the  compulsory  abdication  of  Richard 
II.    (1399)    is  an  early  example.     More  recent 
times  saw  Charles  X.  of  France  (1830)  and  Louis 
Philippe  (1848)  retire  before  the  storm  of  revo- 
lution.   The  abdication  of  Ferdinand  of  Austria 
(1848)   was  a  consequence  of  the  events  of  the 
year  of  revolutions;   that  of  Charles  Albert  of 
Sardinia    (1849)    of  the  battle  of  Novara.     Of 
several  cases  among  German  princes,  the  chief 
is  tnat  of  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  ( 1848) .     Amadeus, 
King  of  Spain,  felt  himself  obliged  to  give  up 
his     crown    on     February     11,     1873.      Prince 
Alexander  of  Bulgaria  was  compelled  in   1886 
to  relinquish  his  principality,  and  three  years 
later  King  Milan  I.  of  Servia,  worried  by  domes- 
tic troubles  and  beset  by   internal   dissensions 
in  his  kingdom,  left  the  throne  to  his  son  Alex- 
ander I.     In  some  countries,  the  king  can  abdi- 
cate whenever  he  pleases;  but  in  England,  the 
constitutional  relation  between  the  crown  and 
the  nation  being  of  the  nature  of  a  contract, 
the  king  or  queen,  it  is  considered,  cannot  abdi- 
cate without  the  consent  of  Parliament.     It  is, 
however,  said  that  the  king  does  abdicate,  or,  to 
speak    perhaps    more    correctly,    an    abdication 
may  be  presumed,  and  acted  on  by  the  people, 
if  his  conduct  politically  and  overtly  is  inconsis- 
tent with,  and  subversive  of,  the  system  of  con- 
stitutional  government  of   which   the  qualified 
monarchy  of  his  office  forms  part.    At  the  con- 
ference between  the  two  Houses  of  Parliament 
previous  to  the  passing  of  the  statute  which 


ABDOMEN. 

settled  the   crown   on   William   III.,   it  would 
appear  that  the  word  ''abdicated"  with  reference 
to  King  James  II.  was  advisedly  used  instead 
of    "deserted" — ^the    meaning,    it    is    presumed^ 
being  that  King  James  had  not  only  deserted  his 
office,  but  that  by  his  acts  and  deeds,  of  which 
the  said  desertion  formed  part,  he  had,  in  view 
of  the  Constitution,  ceased  to  have  right  to  the 
throne.     From  this  it  may  be  inferred  that  abdi- 
cation was  considered  to  have  a  twofold  political 
signification,    involving    maladministration    as 
well  as  desertion.     The  Scottish  convention,  how- 
ever,   more  vigorously   and   distinctly  resolved 
that  King  James   "had   forefaulted   [forfeited] 
the  crown,  and  the  throne  was  become  vacant." 
ABDI-CHIBA,  ab'd6-che^&.     A  governor  of 
Jerusalem  in  the  time  of  Amenhotep  IV.  ( 1403- 
1385  B.C.).     If  correctly  read,  his  name  probably 
designates  him  as  a  "servant  of  Hadad,"  th& 
storm-god;    but    it    possibly    was    pronounced 
"Ardu-chipa,"  and  may  have  been  of  Mitanian 
origin     (compare    Pu-chipa,    Tadu-chipa,    Gilu- 
chipa).    Among  the  letters  Jfound  at  £1  Amama, 
the  site  of  Amenhotep's  capital,  Chut-t-Aten,  in 
1888,  Abdi-chiba  was  the  author  of  at  least  six 
(179-184,  edition  Winckler)  and  possibly  of  two 
more    (185,   186).     He  is  also  mentioned  in  a 
letter  of  Shuwardata   (165).    These  letters  ar& 
written  in  cuneiform  characters  and  in  a  Baby- 
lonian patoia  that  was  no  doubt  spoken  by  a 
part   of   the   population    in    Syria.    Abdi-chiba. 
apparently  came  from  a  family  that  had  reigned 
over  Jerusalem  before  the  Egyptian  conauest^ 
as   he   repeatedly   reminded  Amenhotep   of   the- 
fact  that  his  father  and  mother  had  not  made 
him  a  ruler,  but  the  strong  arm  of  the  great 
king,  probably  Amenhotep  III.,  had  given  him 
the  territory  of  his  ancestors,  who  may  have- 
been  Mitanians  or  Hittites.    As  king  he  seems 
to  have  had  a  certain  control  over  the  governors 
of  Palestine.    With  his  neighbors,  Shuwardata. 
at  Kilti-Keilah  and  Milkili  at  Gath,  he  was  often 
at  war.    He  was  accused  by  them  of  having  plot- 
ted with  the  Chabiri  and  taken  possession  of 
Kilti,  while  he  charged  them  with  the  capture  of 
Bit  Ninib,  a  town  belonging  to  the  country  of 
Urusalimj  and  with  betraying  the  land  into  the^ 
hands  of  the  Chabiri.    These  were  none  else  than 
the  Hebrews  in  the  wider  sense,  including  Israel- 
itish,    Edomitish,    Moabitish,    and   Ammonitish 
clans.     The  term  Abiru  probably  means  simply  a- 
"nomad,"  a  "wanderer."    Neither  the  Egyptian 
resident,  nor  the  king  himself,  seems  to  hav& 
trusted    Abdi-chiba,    and    the     correspondence- 
leaves  it  doubtful  whether  the  relief  he  asked 
for  was  finally  granted.     These  Amarna  letters, 
have  been  published  by  Winckler,  in  Der  Thorta- 
felfund  von  El  Amarna   (Berlin,  1889-90),  and 
Keilimchriftliche  Bihliothek,  Volume  V.  (1896). 
They  have  also  been  translated  or  discussed  by 
Hal6vy  in  Journal  Asiatique  (Paris,  1891),  and 
in  Revue  Sdmitique  (Paris,  1893),  by  Zimmem 
in  Zeitschrift  fiir  Assyriologie    (Leipzig,  quar- 
terly, 1891,  vi  :  245-263),  by  Jastrow  in  Journal 
of  Biblical  Literature    (Boston,   1892,   95-124), 
and  Hehraica,  ix  :  24-46   (Chicago),  by  Delattre 
in     Revue    des    questions     historiques     (Paris, 
1896),    and   by   Eduard   Meyer   in   ^gyptiaca 
(Berlin,  1897). 

ABDIEL,    ftb'dl-§l    (Heb.    dhd,   servant -f  c^ 
god).    In  Paradise  Lost,  the  faithful  angel  who 
opposed  the  revolt  in  heaven  begun  by  Satan. 
ABDO'MEN.    The  lower  cavity  of  the  human 


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ABDOMEN.  19 

body.  The  trunk  of  the  human  body  is  divided 
by  the  diaphragm  into  two  cavities — the  upper 
being  the  thorax  or  chest,  and  the  lower  the 
abdomen  or  belly.  Both  the  cavity  and  the 
viscera  it  contains  are  included  in  the  term 
abdomen.  It  contains  the  liver,  pancreas, 
spleen,  and  kidneys,  as  well  as  the  stomach, 
small  and  large  intestine.  The  lower  bowel, 
the  bladder,  and  internal  organs  of  generation 
lie  in  the  lowest  part  of  the  cavity,  which  is 
called  the  pelvis.  The  abdomen  is  lined  by  a 
serous  membrane,  the  peritoneum,  which  is 
folded  over  the  viscera,  allowing  them  a  certain 
freedom  of  motion,  but  keeping  them  in  their 

S roper  relations  to  each  other.     The  abdomen  is 
ivided  by  two  imaginary  horizontal  lines  into 


ABD-Xrir-HAMID. 


three  principal  zones — the  upper  or  epigastric, 
the  middle  or  umbilical,  and  the  lower  or  hypo- 
gastric. These  are  again  subdivided  by  two 
vertical  lines — the  side-divisions  bein^  called  the 
hypochondriac,  lumbar,  and  iliac  regions  respec- 
tively; the  names  epigastric  and  umbilical  are 
then  applied  in  a  restricted  sense  to  the  middle 
divisions  of  the  two  upper  zones,  while  the 
middle  division  of  the  lower  is  called  the  hypo- 
gastric region.  The  abdominal  viscera  are  sub- 
ject to  many  important  acute  and  chronic  affec- 
tions, to  which  reference  is  made  under  their 
respective  headings. 

Abdomen.  In  entomology,  the  last  of  the 
three  parts  into  which  the  body  of  an  insect  is 
divided.  It  is  composed  of  a  number  of  rings  or 
segments,  frequently  nine,  more  or  less  distinct 
from  each  other.  It  contains  a  portion  of  the 
intestines  and  the  sexual  organs.  In  the  perfect 
insect,^  its  segments  bear  no  legs  or  wings ;  but 
the  hind  legs  of  larvae  or  caterpillars,  which 
afterward  disappear,  are  attached  to  them.  In 
many  insects,  its  last  segments  bear  appendages 
of  various  uses  and  forms,  as  pincers,  stings, 
borers  or  ovipositors,  etc.  See  IU»ions  of  the 
Body. 

ABDUCTION.      The   English    common    law 


treated  the  abduction  or  unlawful  taking  away 
of  a  wife,  or  of  a  child,  or  of  a  ward,  as  a  tort 
or  private  wrong  to  the  husband,  the  parent,  and 
the  guardian  respectively,  and  gave  to  the 
injured  party  an  action  for  damages.  The  term 
is  generally  used,  however,  to  denote  the  crim- 
inal offense  of  forcibly  taking  away  a  woman 
for  the  purpose  of  marriage  or  of  prostitution. 
As  distinguished  from  kidnapping  (q.v.)  the 
crime  has  been  defined  by  statute  in  England 
for  more  than  five  hundred  years.  It  is  also 
a  matter  of  statutory  definition  and  regulation 
in  this  country.  The  tendency  of  our  legis- 
lation is  to  extend  the  scope  of  the  term  far 
beyond  its  common  law  limits.  For  example, 
many  statutes  declare  that  a  person  receiving 
or  harboring  a  female  under  the  a^e  of  sixteen 
years  for  the  purpose  of  prostitution  is  guilty 
of  abduction.  Nor  is  his  ignorance  of  the  girl's 
age  an^  defense  to  the  at^uction.  He  acts  at 
his  peril  in  so  harboring  or  receiving  her.  Under 
early  English  statutes,  abduction,  as  therein 
defined,  was  a  felony  without  benefit  of  clergy 
(q.v.).  In  this  country  it  is  a  crime,  punishable 
by  imprisonment  for  a  term  of  years  or  by  a 
heavy  fine  or  by  both.  See  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  Criminal  Law.  Consult : . 
Wharton,  Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia,  1896) ; 
Harris,  Principles  of  the  Criminal  Law  (London, 
1899). 

ABD  -  TIL  -  AZIZ,  ftbd^ul-&-zez'  (1830-76). 
Thirty-second  sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire. 
He  was  the  second  son  of  Mahmud  II.,  and  suc- 
ceeded his  brother  Abd-ul-Medjid,  June  25,  1861. 
He  placed  the  government  in  the  hands  of  two 
ministers,  Fuad  and  Aali,  both  of  reforming  ten- 
dencies, largely  reduced  his  own  civil  list,  and 
aroused  hopes  of  an  improvement  in  the  condi- 
tion of  his  empire.  But  he  soon  lapsed  into 
reckless  extravagance,  and  the  projected  reforms 
proved  meaningless  and  ineffective.  In  1867  he 
made  a  tour  of  Europe,  visiting  the  Paris  Expo- 
sition and  several  capitals,  in  which  he  spent  a 
vast  amount  of  money  to  little  purpose.  In  1868 
he  reorganized  the  council  of  state,  and  promised 
more  reforms  in  response  to  the  demand  of  the 
Powers;  but  the  revolt  in  Crete  took  his  atten- 
tion, war  with  Greece  was  probable,  and  the 
state  of  the  treasury  precluded  efficient  reform. 
The  Greek  difficulty  was  arranged  by  a  confer- 
ence at  Paris.  Ismail  Pasha,  Khedive  of  Egypt, 
took  advantage  of  the  Sultan's  financial  embar- 
rassment to  obtain  important  concessions,  among 
them  a  new  law  of  succession  for  his  house,  and 
nearly  all  the  prerogatives  of  an  independent 
sovereign.  The  Sultan's  affairs  grew  desperate. 
The  friendship  of  France  had  been  Turkey's  main 
reliance  during  the  Second  Empire.  When  that 
fell  in  1870,  the  rival  Russian  influence  became 
powerful  at  Constantinople.  When  the  revenues 
were  so  low  as  barely  to  pay  interest  on  the 
public  debt,  a  revolt  b^an  in  Herzegovina  (1875) , 
and  soon  extended  to  Bosnia.  A  renewed  and 
more  imperative  demand  of  the  Powers  for  radi- 
cal reforms  was  embodied  in  the  "Andrftssy  note" 
(December  30,  1875),  and  the  progressive  consti- 
tutional party  (Young  Turkey)  demanded  the 
Sultan's  abdication.  Ho  was  deposed  by  the 
council  of  ministers  May  30,  1876,  and  on  June 
4  was  found  dead  in  his  apartments,  whether  by 
assassination  or  suicide  is  not  known. 

ABD-TJL-HAMID,  ftbd'yl-hft-mM',  I.  (1725- 
89).     Sultan  of  Turkey  and  son  of  Ahmed  III. 


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ABD-TJL-HAHID. 

He  succeeded  his  brother,  Mustapha  III.,  in  1774. 
He  was  twice  involved  in  wars  with  Russia.  By 
the  treaty  of  Kutchuk-Kainardji  in  1774,  he 
was  compelled  to  relinquish  his  suzerainty  over 
the  Crimea  and  other  Tartar  regions.  In  1788 
the  town  of  Otchakov  was  stormed  by  the  Rus- 
sians, a  humiliation  that  doubtless  hastened  his 
death.  Consult:  Assim  Tarischi,  History  of  Ahd- 
ul'Hamid  and  Selim  III.  (Constantinople,  1867). 

ABD-TTL-HAHID  11.  (1842—).  Thirty- 
fourth  sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire ;  second  son 
of  Abd-ul-Medjid.  He  was  born  September  22, 
1842,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  August  31, 
1876,  on  the  deposition  of  his  elder  brother, 
Murad  V.  Abd-ul-Hamid  came  to  power  at  a 
trying  time.  The  insurrection  in  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  was  gaining  strength,  Servia  had 
declared  open  war  upon  Turkey,  and  Russia  was 
fomenting  the  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  in  the 
Slav  states  tributary  to  Turkey.  The  party  of 
Young  Turkey,  led  by  Midhat  Pasha,  attempted 
to  establish  a  parliamentary  government  and  to 
escape  European  control  just  when  the  aid  of 
Europe  was  needed  against  Russia.  The  savage 
measures  taken  to  suppress  the  revolt  in  Bul- 
garia and  the  failure  of  all  Turkish  promises 
of  reform  quickly  alienated  the  Powers,  who 
gave  Russia  a  free  hand.  The  Czar  declared  war 
m  April,  1877,  a  Russian  army  at  once  invaded 
Turkey,  and  advanced  almost  to  Constantinople. 
Turkey  was  saved  only  by  European  jealousy 
of  Russia.  The  treaty  of  San  Stefano  between 
the  belligerents  was  materially  modified  by  the 
Congress  of  Berlin  (q.v.),  but  even  then  Turkey 
lost  its  remaining  claims  to  suzerainty  over 
Montenegro,  Servia,  and  Roumania,  yielded  all 
real  sovereignty  in  Bulgaria,  Bosnia,  and  Herze- 
govina, and  lost  some  of  its  territory  in  Asia 
Minor.  The  Sultan  was  bound  by  the  treaty  to 
introduce  reforms  in  the  Christian  provinces, 
but  he  failed  to  do  this,  and  adopted  a  distinctly 
reactionary  policy.  He  took  into  his  own  hands 
the  direction  of  the  council  of  ministers  and 
made  his  government  a  personal  one.  The  Arme- 
nian outrages  from  1895  to  1896  at  first  aroused 
the  signatory  powers  of  the  Berlin  treaty  to  ac- 
tion, but  the  international  relations  at  the  time 
were  complicated,  and  Abd-ul-Hamid  pursued  the 
policy  he  has  always  so  well  understood  of 
eluding  all  demands  for  redress  or  reform  by 
means  of  promises  and  excuses,  playing  off  the 
rival  Powers  against  one  another  in  the  meantime. 
In  1897  a  rising  in  Crete,  brought  on  by  Turk- 
ish misgovernment,  was  assisted  by  Greece  and 
led  to  war  between  that  country  and  Turkey, 
in  which  Greece  was  defeated  and  forced  to  con- 
sent to  n  rectification  of  the  Thessalian  border 
in  favor  of  Turkey  and  to  pay  an  indemnity. 
Conditions  which  threatened  to  revive  the  East- 
ern question  in  an  acute  form  were,  however, 
obscured  by  events  in  other  parts  of  the  world, 
and  Turkish  affairs  remained  quiet.  Abd-ul- 
Hamid  stands  as  the  representative  of  the  con- 
servative orthodox  Mohammedan  party,  and  has 
revived  the  pretension  to  the  actual  headship  of 
Islam.  Consult:  Bfirard,  La  Turquie  et  VHelU- 
nisme  content porain  (Paris,  1893).  and  La  poli- 
tique du  aultan  (I'aris,  1897);  E.  Oilier,  Cas- 
seW8  IlUiatrated  History  of  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  (London,  1900),  voluminous,  but  not  criti- 
cal. 

abdxtllAh  ibn  abdttl  mtjttalib, 

nb-dyllft  'b'n  ilb'dyl  mo<Jt-tJl'l^b  (545-570).     The 


20    .  ABD-XTL-MEJIB. 

father  of  Mohammed.  He  was  an  only  child, 
and  was  about  to  be  sacrificed  by  his  father 
when  another  person  interfered  and  persuaded 
the  father  to  sacrifice  a  hundred  camels  instead 
of  the  boy.  Soon  after  Abdullah  married  Amtna, 
a  daughter  of  Wahb,  and  of  this  union  came  the 
great  Prophet.  So  beautiful  was  Abdullah  that, 
according  to  tradition,  on  the  day  of  his  marriage 
two  hundred  maidens  of  Mecca  died  of  broken 
hearts. 

ABDXJLLAHI  IBN  SEYID  MOHAIOCED, 
ab'dyl-la'hA  'b'ri  sA-y6d'  mA-hftm'mfid  (c.  1845- 
99).  The  "Khalifa,"  follower  of  the  Mahdi 
(q.v.),  whom  he  succeeded  in  1885.  He  extended 
his  dominions  in  the  Sudan,  but  incurred  the  en- 
mity of  his  followers  by  his  cruelty.  He  was 
defeated  by  the  British  under  Kitchener  at  Om- 
durman,  September  2,  1898,  and  fled  to  the  south 
witii  the  remainder  of  his  army,  which  was  dis- 
persed in  the  battle  of  Om  Debrikat,  November 
24,  1899,  Abdullahi  himself  being  slain. 

ABD-TJL-LATIF,  abd'yl-lft-tef  (1160-1231). 
A  prolific  Arabian  writer,  physician,  and  trav- 
eler. He  was  born  at  Bagdad,  and  died  while 
on  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca.  His  early  training 
consisted  in  memorizing  not  only  the  Koran  but 
also  works  on  law,  philology,  and  the  standard 
poets.  He  then  went  to  Damascus,  whither  Sal- 
adin  had  assembled  the  learned  men  of  the 
Mohammedan  world.  Thanks  to  the  liberality 
of  Saladin  and  with  letters  of  introduction  from 
his  vizier,  Fadhl,  Abd  -  ul  -  Latif  was  able  to 
travel  to  Egypt,  and  in  Cairo  he  sought  out  the 
great  Jewish  doctor  and  philosopher,  Maimoni- 
des.  At  Cairo  he  taught  medicine  and  philos- 
ophy (subjects  with  the  Arabs  generally  com- 
bined), but  his  love  of  travel  brought  him  to 
Damascus  again  and  to  Aleppo.  Of  the  many 
works  of  AM-ul-Latif  only  one.  The  Account  of 
Egypt,  is  generally  known.  This  was  translated 
into  Latin  by  White  (1800)  and  into  French  by 
De  Sacey  (1810),  Relation  de  VRgypte  (Paris, 
1810.  Consult:  Brockelmann,  Oeschichte  der 
Arahischen  Litteratur   (Weimar,  1898,  I.,  481). 

ABD-TJL-MEDJID,  iibd'^l-me-jgd^  (1823- 
61).  Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  from  1839 
to  1861.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Mahmud  II., 
at  a  time  when  the  Turkish  Empire  was  threat- 
ened by  the  ambition  of  the  great  Viceroy  of 
Eg>'pt,  Meheniet  Ali.  The  army  had  been  de- 
feated and  dispersed  by  the  Egyptians  in  the 
battle  of  Nisib,  June  24,  1839,  and  there  was 
nothing  to  liinder  the  victorious  Ibrahim  Pasha 
from  advancing  oh  Constantinople,  where  a  large 
party  was  favorable  to  the  elevation  of  Mehemot 
Ali  to  the  sultanate.  The  intervention  of  the 
Christian  Powers  saved  the  house  of  Osman. 
The  treaty  of  July,  1840,  from  which  France 
kept  aloof,  rescued  the  young  Sultan  from  sure 
destruction.  Mehemet  Ali  had  to  submit.  No- 
vember 27,  1840,  to  the  restriction  of  his 
power  to  Egj'pt;  and  the  treaty  of  July,  1841, 
to  which  France  subsequently  adhered,  settled 
the  future  dependent  relation  of  Egypt  to  Tur- 
key. The  Sultan,  though  not  very  energetic  in 
body  or  mind,  pioceeded  in  the  path  of  reform 
begun  by  Selim  III.  and  Mahmud  II.  In  this 
he  had  for  hi««  chief  adviser  Rcshid  Pasha,  an 
intelligent  and  humane  Mussulman,  educated  in 
Franco.  The  aim  of  all  his  measures  was  to 
place  the  Ottoman  population  on  a  footing  with 
the  civilized  inhabitants  of  the  west.  A  proc- 
lamation   of    the    rights    of    all    subjects,    irre- 


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ABD-XTIi-HEDJID. 

spective  of  creed,  was  issued  in  the  haiti-sherif 
of  November,  1839.  This  was  followed  by  nu- 
merous reforms  in  all  departments,  and  in  1850 
the  adherents  of  all  religions  were  decreed  equal 
in  tlie  eye  of  the  law.  The  good  purpose  of 
these  decrees  was  obstructed  by  the  illiberal 
Moslems,  and  they  remained  practically  a  dead 
letter.  In  1850,  the  Sultan,  in  spite  of  the  men- 
aces of  Russia  and  Austria,  refused  to  give  up 
Kossuth  and  the  other  Hungarian  refugees.  The 
Sultan  had  a  specially  difficult  part  to  play  dur- 
ing the  war  with  Russia  (1853-56)  and  the 
diplomatic  negotiations  consequent  to  it.  Abd-ul- 
Medjid  was  the  thirty-first  sovereign  of  the  race 
of  Osman.  He  died  June  25,  1861,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother,  Abd-ul-Aziz  (q.v.).  See 
Ottoman  Empire. 

ABD  -  Xm  -  KAHMAK,  abd'vr-rft'min  ( 1778- 
1859).  Sultan  of  Fez  and  Morocco  from  1823 
to  1859.  He  was  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne 
when  his  father  died  in  1794,  but  was  super- 
seded by  an  uncle,  after  whose  death  he  as- 
cended the  throne.  The  first  four  years  of  his 
reign  were  occupied  in  quelling  insurrections. 
Austria  refused  to  pay  tne  tribute  for  safety 
against  pirates;  but  the  Sultan  wisely  adjusted 
the  dispute  by  relinquishing  this  sort  of  black- 
mail, formerly  levied  on  European  ships  in  the 
Mediterranean.  The  war  waged  by  Abd-el-Kader 
<  q.v. )  a^^ainst  the  French  in  Algeria  involved  the 
Sultan  in  its  events.  He  was  overwhelmed  by 
Bugeaud  in  the  battle  of  Isly  (1844),  and  forced 
to  turn  against  Abd-el-Kader.  The  Sultan  was 
a  zealous  Mussulman  without  the  fanaticism 
common  among  his  countrymen;  as  a  ruler  he 
was  strict  and  often  cruel.  He  was  succeeded 
by  his  eldest  son,  Sidi-Mohammed   (1803-1873). 

ABD  -  TTR  -  BAHMAN  (  'Abd  al  -  Rahman) 
Kuan,  Hftn  or  kftn  (1830-1901).  Ameer  of 
Afghanistan  from  1880  to  1901.  In  the  confu- 
sion succeeding  the  death  of  his  grandfather. 
Dost  Mohammed  (q.v.)  (1863),  he  supported 
the  pretensions  of  his  father,  Afzul,  against  his 
uncle,  Shere  Ali,  who  had  been  named  as  his  suc- 
cessor by  the  late  Ameer.  The  rebellion  was 
at  first  successful,  and  Abd-ur-Rahman  was  in- 
stalled as  Governor  of  Balkh,  where  he  showed 
himself  a  wise  ruler.  Jn  1868  Shere  AH  over- 
threw his  rivals  and  Abd-ur-Rahman  took  refuge 
in  'Russian  territory,  living  at  Samarcand  upon 
a  liberal  Russian  pension.  In  1879  he  returned 
to  his  old  province  of  Balkh,  which  had  always 
been  well  disposed  toward  him.  Yakub,  the  son 
of  Shere  Ali,  who  had  been  set  up  as  ameer  by 
the  English,  and  then  left  to  shift  for  himself, 
was  unable  to  maintain  order,  and  a  new  war 
with  the  English  was  followed  by  his  deposition. 
Abd-ur-Rahman,  in  July,  1880,  was  recognized  as 
ameer  by  the  leading  chiefs  and  was  confirmed 
by  the  Anglo-Indian  Government,  from  whom 
he  received  a  subsidy  of  £160,000  a  year  and 
much  in  the  way  of  military  equipment.  It  had 
been  feared  from  his  previous  relations  with 
Russia  that  he  would  be  favorable  to  Russian 
designs;  but  he  at  once  resumed  the  pro-English 
policy  of  his  grandfather,  and,  by  a  firm  and 
skillful  control  of  the  tribes  of  his  realm,  he 
preserved  the  integrity  of  Afghanistan  and 
maintained  peaceful  relations  with  his  powerful 
neighbors.  In  1893  the  mountainous  district  of 
Kafir istan,  in  the  Hindu  Kush,  was  ceded  to  him 
by  the  Anglo-Indian  Government,  and  in  1896 
he  completed  the  sul^jugation  of  the  tribes  in- 


21 


A'BECKETT. 


habiting  it.  He  was  an  intelligent,  well-meaning 
ruler,  of  a  masterly  habit,  which  stood  him  in 
good  stead  in  dealing  with  his  half-barbarous 
people.  He  was  made  by  the  British  Grovern- 
ment  a  Grand  Commander  of  the  Bath  and  also 
of  the  Star  of  India.  He  died  October  3,  1901, 
after  a  brief  illness,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  son,  Habib  UUah  Khan,  who  for  some 
time  had  borne  an  active  part  in  the  govern- 
ment and  shown  much  administrative  ability. 
See  Afghanistan.  Consult:  J.  A.  Gray,  At  the 
Court  of  the  Ameer  (London,  1895)  ;  Wheeler, 
The  Ameer  Abdurrahman  (London,  1895)  ;  Mo- 
hammed Khan  (Mir  Munshi  Sultan),  The  Life 
of  Ahdur  Rahman,  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  (Lon- 
don, 1900). 

ABEAM^     See  Bearing. 

ABECEDABIANS,  ft'bd-s^daM-anz  (Lat. 
ahecedarius,  pertaining  to  the  alphabet,  with 
reference  to  the  first  four  letters ) .  Followers  in 
1522  of  Nikolaus  Storch,  a  clothmaker  of  Witten- 
berg, a  disciple  of  Luther,  who  imbibed  enthusi- 
astic views  commonly  called  Anabaptist.  They 
believed  it  was  best  not  to  know  how  to  read, 
since  the  Holy  Spirit  would  convey  knowledge  of 
the  Scriptures  directly  to  the  understanding,  and, 
as  education  might  be  a  hindrance  to  salvation, 
they  encouraged  pupils  to  leave  the  schools  and 
universities  and  learn  trades. 

A'BEC£a>ABY  CIB^CLES.  Rings  of  let- 
ters described  around  magnetized  needles,  by 
looking  at  which  friends  at  a  distance  were  sup- 
posed to  be  able  to  communicate  with  each  other. 

A'BECK^T,  Thomas.    See  Becket,  Thomas. 

A'BECKETT,  Arthur  William  (1844—), 
son  of  Gilbert  Abbott  A'Beckett.  An  English 
journalist,  novelist,  and  dramatist.  He  was  born 
in  London,  and  edited  various  comic  periodicals 
and  monthly  magazines.  In  the  Franco-Prus- 
sian War  he  was  special  correspondent  for  the 
London  Standard  and  Globe.  In  1874  he  became 
a  member  of  the  staff  of  Punch,  and  in  1896 
editor  of  the  Naval  and  Military  Magazine.  He 
is  the  author  of  several  novels  and  dramas. 

A'BECKETT,  Gilbert  Abbott  (1811-56). 
An  English  humorous  writer,  born  in  London. 
He  became  a  lawyer,  and  during  the  last 
seven  years  of  his  life  was  a  metropolitan  police 
magistrate,  in  which  office  he  displayed  marked 
ability.  He  also  devoted  much  of  his  time  to 
literature;  was  the  founder  of  Figaro  in  Lon- 
don, the  precursor  of  Punch,  and  became  one  of 
the  original  staff  of  the  latter.  He  wrote  more 
than  sixty  plays,  and  with  Mark  Lemon  drama- 
tized The  Chimes  and  other  works  of  Charles 
Dickens  at  his  request.  He  was  the  author  of  the 
Comic  History  of  England;  Comic  History  of 
Rome;  Comic  Blackstone,  and  Quizziology  of  the 
British  Drama. 

A'BECKETT,    Gilbert    Arthur    (1837-91). 
An   English   journalist   and   dramatist,   son   of 
Gilbert   Abbott   A'Beckett    (181\,56).    He  was 
born    in   London    and    studied     ^^    ^es^Wtvater 
School   and   Christ  Church,   OxluC  (V     ^®  ^^^^ 
many  successful  songs  and  th^    vJ    \\,0%  ^^  ^t\ 
terbury  Pilgrims  and  Savonavf^^'^^  ^^a  \>1J  VJ; 
Villiers   Stanford,   and   was    i^^V^    OT^AvOt^  "^^x^A 
Herman  Merivale,  of  tlie  po^v-VOv  ^^       e^"^    xl 
The    White    PilgHm.     Duriiv^V^^  .^a# .   "^t  v^^ft 
vears    of    his    life    A'Becket.^      ^  ^  V^    oV 


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ABEEL. 

ABE£L,  k'h^V,  Dayid,  D.D.  (1804-48).  An 
early  missionary  to  China.  He  was  bom  in 
New  Brunswick,  N.  J.,  June  12,  1804;  gradu- 
ated from  the  theological  seminary  of  the  Re- 
formed Dutch  Church  in  his  native  town,  and 
became  pastor  in  Athens,  Greene  County,  N.  Y., 
1826.  Failing  health  compelled  his  resignation 
after  two  years  and  a  half;  in  1829  he  went  to 
China  as  chaplain  in  the  employ  of  the  Seamen's 
Friend  Society;  in  1830  was  transferred  to  the 
American  Board  of  Commissioners  of  Foreign 
Missions.  He  traveled  extensively  through  the 
Far  East,  and  on  his  way  home  invalided  he 
went  over  Europe  and  excited  great  interest  in 
missions  there,  as  he  did  later  in  America  (1833- 
36).,  Again  thinking  himself  well  enough  for 
service  he  returned  to  China  in  1838,  but  was 
compelled  by  his  increasing  debility  to  return 
home  (1845)  and  died  in  JV.Ibany,  N.  Y.,  Sep- 
tember 4,  1846.  As  one  of  the  earliest  and  most 
devoted  of  missionaries  he  is  still  remembered. 
His  addresses  in  London  led  to  the  formation  of 
the  undenominational  society  for  promoting 
female  education  in  the  East  (1834);  in  1844 
he  founded  the  Amoy  Mission,  now  under  the 
Reformed  Dutch  Church  Foreign  Mission  Board. 
He  published  Journal  of  a  Residence  in  China 
(New  York,  1834;  second  edition,  1836);  The 
Missionary  Convention  at  JertisaJcm,  or  An  Ex- 
hibition of  the  Claims  of  the  Word  of  the  Gospel 
(1838).  For  his  biography,  consult  G.  R.  Wil- 
liamson  (New  York,  1848). 

ABBILLE,  i'bAy  or  A'b&K,  Jonas  (1809—). 
A  French  military  surgeon.  He  was  born  at  St. 
Tropez  and  was  educated  at  Montpellier.  As  the 
chief  physician  of  the  military  hospitals  of  Paris 
he  was  one  of  the  principal  promoters  of  the 
method  of  treating  cholera  with  strychnine. 
After  1857  he  devoted  himself  more  particularly 
to  private  practice  and  to  scientific  research. 
His  publications  include:  M^moires  sur  les  in- 
jections ioddes  (1849;  honored  with  a  gold 
medal  by  the  Medical  Society  of  Toulouse)  ; 
Etudes  cliniqu^s  sur  la  paraplegic  ind6pendante 
de  la  my^lite  (1854;  prize  awarded  by  the  Medi- 
cal Academy  in  1855)  ;  Chirurgie  conservative 
(1874)  ;  Traitement  des  maladies  chroniques  de 
la  matrice  (second  edition,  1878). 

A^EL  (Heb.  hSbH,  perhaps  kindred  to 
Babyl.  ahlUy  son).  According  to  Crenesis 
(iv  :  2),  the  name  of  the  second  son  of  Adam 
and  Eve.  In  contrast  to  his  brother  Cain,  who 
is  an  agriculturist,  Abel  is  a  shepherd.  At  the 
close  of  the  year,  Cain  offered  up  of  the  fruits  of 
the  field  as  a  sacrifice  to  Jehovah,  while  Abel 
brought  the  firstlings  of  his  flock.  The  latter's 
gift  was  regarded  with  greater  favor  by  Jehovah, 
in  consequence  of  which  Cain's  jealousy  was 
aroused  and  he  slew  his  brother  Abel.  (See 
Cain.)  The  story  of  Abel  and  Cain  has  been 
interpreted  as  expressing  the  superiority  of  the 
pastoral  over  the  agricultural  life.  Aoel,  the 
shepherd,  is  a  representative  of  the  Palestinian 
nomad — though  of  the  milder  type — of  which 
the  patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob  were 
examples;  whereas  Cain  represents  the  Canaan- 
itcs,  who,  at  the  time  that  the  Hebrews  entered 
the  country,  had  already  advanced  to  the  agri- 
cultural stage.  The  Hebrews  subsequently  be- 
came agriculturists  themselves,  but,  while  the 
ideal  held  up  in  the  Pentateuchal  legislation  is 
agricultural  life,  still  the  preference  for  the 
older  nomadic  conditions  crops  out  from  time  to 


22 


ABEL. 


time,  and  as  late  as  the  days  of  Jeremiah  we 
find  a  party  known  as  the  Rechabites  who  not 
only  eschewed  agricultural  life,  but  continued  to 
live  in  huts  and  would  not  taste  wine,  which 
was  the  symbol  par  excellence  of  agricultural 
pursuits.  The  story  of  Cain  and  Abel  is  con- 
ceived in  the  spirit  of  the  Rechabites,  just  as 
there  is  a  trace  of  the  same  spirit  in  the  implied 
disapproval  of  vine  culture  in  the  tale  of 
Noah's  drunkenness  ( Genesis  ix  :  20-21 ) .  In  rab- 
binical theology,  however,  and  under  the  totally 
different  view  that  was  taken  of  early  biblical 
traditions,  Abel  became  the  type  of  the  pious, 
devoted  worshipper  of  Jehovah  who  suffered 
martyrdom  for  his  devotion.  This  view  is  re- 
flected in  the  interpretation  put  upon  the  story 
in  the  New  Testament  where  (e.g.,  Hebrews 
xi  :  4)  Abel's  sacrifice  is  (]|ualified  as  "better" 
than  Cain's,  and  Abel  himself  becomes  the 
"righteous"  man,  the  possessor  of  true  faith,  in 
contrast  to  Cain  the  wicked  (Matthew  xxiii  :  35; 
Luke  xi  :  51).  The  etymology  of  Abel  is  doubt- 
ful. The  Jewish  view,  which  gives  to  the  name 
the  force  of  "vanity,"  is  untenable;  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  connect  the  name  with  the  Assyr- 
ian aplu  (or  ahlu)y  which  means  "son,"  is  also 
open  to  serious  objections,  since  there  are  no 
traces  of  Babylonian  or  Assyrian  influence  in  the 
story  itself. 

ABEL,  Carl.  Ph.D.  (1837—).  A  German 
philologist.  He  was  born  in  Berlin,  and  after 
studying  at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  Munich, 
and  Tubingen,  acquired  familiarity  with  all 
European  and  several  Oriental  tongues.  He  was 
at  one  time  a  lecturer  at  Oxford,  taught  philo- 
sophical and  comparative  linguistics  at  the  Hum- 
boldt Academy  of  Science  at  Berlin,  and  was 
linguistic  assistant  in  the  German  Foreign  Office. 
His  publications  in  German,  French,  and  Eng- 
lish are  numerous.  The  English  works  include 
Linguistic  Essays  (1880),  Slavic  and  Italian 
(1881),  and  Russland  und  die  Lage   (1888). 

ABEL,  Sib  Frederic  Augustus,  K.C.B., 
D.C.L.  (1827—).  An  English  chemist.  He  was 
born  in  London  and  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the 
science  of  explosives.  He  was  consulting  chem- 
ist to  the  British  War  Department  from  1854 
to  1888,  and  was  knighted  in  1883.  Abel  intro- 
duced important  improvements  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  gun-cotton  and  of  blasting  gelatine.  He 
published:  Gun-cotton  (1866)  ;  The  Modem  His- 
tory of  Gunpowder  (1866)  ;  On  Explosive  Agents 
(1872);  Researches  in  Explosives  (1875),  and 
Electricity  Applied  to  Explosive  Purposes  ( 1884) . 
He  Avrote  also,  in  conjunction  with  Colonel  Blex- 
am,  a  Handbook  of  Chemistry, 

ABEL,  John  (1857 — ).  An  American  physio- 
logical chemist.  He  was  born  in  Cleveland, 
Ohio,  received  his  education  at  the  University 
of  Michigan,  and  studied  medicine  in  Germany. 
On  his  return  to  this  country  he  became  con- 
nected with  the  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
where  he  was  made  professor  of  pharmacology 
in  the  medical  school  and  head  professor  of 
physiological  chemistry.  Dr.  Abel's  researches 
have  formed  valuable  contributions  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  fluids  and  tissues  of  the  animal  body. 
ABEL,  110)61,  Karl  Friedrich  (1725-87).  A 
German  musician,  celebrated  as  a  player  on  the 
viola  de  gamba.  He  was  born  at  CSthen,  be- 
came a  pupil  of  Sebastian  Bach,  and  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Polish  band  at  Dresden.  He 
went  to  England  in  1759  and  six  years  later  be- 


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ABEL. 

came  chamber  musician  to  Queen  Charlotte. 
He  also  won  considerable  distinction  as  a  com- 
poser. 

ABEL,  fi^\,  Nnxs  Henbik  (1802-29).  One 
of  the  most  brilliant  mathematicians  of  the  first 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  born 
at  FindcSe,  Norway.  After  a  course  of  study  at 
the  University  of  Christiania,  he  spent  two  years 
in  Paris  and  Berlin,  and  in  1827  was  made  in- 
structor at  the  university  and  at  the  school  of 
engineering  in  Christiania.  He  was  the  first  to 
demonstrate  with  rigor  the  impossibility  of 
solving  by  the  elementary  processes  of  algebra 
general  equations  of  any  degree  higher  than  the 
fourth.  His  chief  contributions  were  made  to 
the  theory  of  functions,  of  which  he  was 
one  of  the  founders.  An  important  class  of 
elliptic  functions  (see  Functions)  are  known 
as  Abelian,  from  their  discoverer.  There  are 
also  Abelian  groups  and  bodies.  The  Binomial 
Theorem  (q.v.),  proved  by  Newton  and  Euler, 
received  at  the  hands  of  Abel  a  wider  generaliza- 
tion, including  the  cases  of  irrational  and  im- 
aginary exponents.  Abel's  works,  in  two  vol- 
umes, were  published  by  the  Swedish  Govern- 
ment (Christiania,  first  edition,  1839;  second 
edition,  1881). 

AB:^LABD  (Engl.  a^Mftrd;  Fr.  A'b&'lilr^), 
Pierre  (1079-1142).  A  scholastic  philosopher 
and  theologian,  the  boldest  thinker  of  the  twelfth 
century.  His  name  is  commonly  given  in  the 
French  form,Ab6lard  or  Abailard;  in  Latin,  Abai- 
lardus  or  Bajolardus.  But  these  are  epithets  of 
uncertain  meaning,  the  latter  form  perhaps  from 
hajulus,  ''teacher,"  the  former  from  abeille,  a 
bee.  He  had  properly  the  single  name  Peter, 
Petrusy  to  which  was  added  de  Palais,  from  the 
place  of  his  birth,  Le  Pallet,  or  in  Latin  form 
Palatinus,  a  village  eight  miles  •  southeast  of 
Nantes,  Brittany,  western  France.  He  was  bom 
in  1079.  His  father  was  the  knight  Berengar, 
lord  of  the  village;  his  mother  was  Lucia,  and 
they  both  later  on  entered  monastic  orders.  An 
irrepressible  thirst  for  knowledge  and  a  special 
pleasure  in  scholastic  logic  moved  Ab^lard  to 
resign  his  rights  of  primogeniture  in  favor  of 
his  younger  brothers.  His  first  teacher  was  Ros- 
cellin,  the  Nominalist,  during  the  latter's  stay 
at  Vannes.  He  wandered  about  in  search  of 
knowledge  until  he  arrived  in  Paris,  where  he 
became  a  pupil  of  William  of  dlhampeaux,  the 
Realist,  the  head  of  the  cathedral  school  of  Notre 
Dame  there,  but  soon  incurred  the  hatred  of  his 
master,  whom  he  puzzled  by  his  wonderful  subtle- 
ty. He  fled  to  Melun,  where  he  started  a  school 
of  his  own,  and  afterward  to  Corbeil,  admired, 
yet  persecuted,  wherever  he  went.  He  then  re- 
turned home  for  the  restoration  of  his  health. 
With  renewed  strength,  he  returned  to  Paris, 
reconciled  himself  with  his  opponents,  and 
mold€^,  by  his  influence  as  a  lecturer,  some  of 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  age,  among 
whom  were  the  future  Pope  Celestine  II.,  Peter 
Lombard,  Berengar,  his  future  apologist,  and 
Arnold  of  Brescia. 

At  this  time,  however,  there  also  lived  in 
Paris  with  her  uncle,  the  canon  Fulbert,  H4loTse, 
the  eighteen-year-old  natural  daughter  of  a  cer- 
tain canon  John,  of  Paris,  already  remarkable 
for  her  beauty,  talents,  and  attainments.  At  Ful- 
bert's  invitation  Ab^lard  made  his  home  with 
him  and  instructed  H^loTse.  She  soon  kindled 
in  the  breast  of  Ab^lard,  then  thirty-eight  years 


23 


ABELABD. 


old,  a  violent  and  overwhelming  passion,  which 
was  returned  by  H4loIse  with  no  less  fervor. 
The  lovers  were  happy  together  until  Ab^lard's 
ardent  poetical  effusions  reached  the  ears  of  the 
canon.  He  sought  to  separate  the  lovers ;  but  it  was 
too  late.  They  fled  together  to  Ab^lard's  home, 
where,  in  his  sister  Dionysia's  house,  H6loIse 
gave  birth  to  a  son,  and  was  privately  married 
to  Ab^lard  with  the  consent  of  her  uncle.  Not 
long  after,  H^lolse  returned  to  Fulbert's  house, 
and  denied  the  marriage,  that  her  love  might  be 
no  hindrance  to  Ab^lard's  advancement  in  the 
Church.  Enraged  at  this,  and  at  a  second 
flight  which  she  took  with  Ab^lard  to  the  Bene- 
dictine nunnery  at  Argenteuil,  where  she  had 
been  educated,  a  flight  which  Fulbert  interpreted 
as  showing  Ab^lard's  desire  to  rid  himself  of  his 
wife,  Fulbert,  in  order  to  make  him  canonically 
incapable  of  ecclesiastical  preferment,  caused 
Ab^lard  to  be  emasculated.  In  deep  humiliation 
Ab^lard  entered  as  a  monk  the  abbey  of  St. 
Denis,  in  Paris,  and  induced  H^lc^se  to. take  the 
veil  at  Argenteuil. 

But  the  lectures  which  he  began  to  give  soon 
after  exposed  him  to  new  persecutions.  The 
synod  of  Soissons  (1121)  declared  his  opinions 
on  the  Trinity  to  be  heretical.  In  punishment 
he  had  to  throw  the  offending  treatise  into  the 
flre,  to  read  publicly  the  Athanasian  Creed,  and 
to  endure  a  brief  imprisonment.  The  charge  seems 
to  have  been  that  he  declared  Ciod  the  Father 
alone  omnipotent.  But  what  cost  him  more  was 
his  declaration  that  St.  Dionysius,  the  patron 
saint  of  France,  had  been  bishop  of  Corinth,  and 
not  of  Athens,  for  this  stirred  up  court  opposi- 
tion. He  fled  from  St.  Denis  to  the  monastery  of 
St.  Aigulph,  near  Provins,  but  was  brought  back 
and  compelled  to  retract  his  opinions  concerning 
St.  Dionysius.  He,  was  then  allowed  to  go,  and 
went  to  Nogent-sur-Seine,  and  there  built  of 
reeds  and  rushes  a  little  chapel  to  the  Trinity, 
and  later,  on  account  of  the  press  of  hearers, 
who  planted  their  huts  about  him,  a  structure 
of  wood  and  stone,  which  he  called  the  Paraclete, 
the  ruins  of  which  exist  to  this  day.  But  as 
everything  he  did  caused  adverse  criticism,  so 
the  name  that  he  gave  the  building — ^because  it 
brought  into  unusual  prominence  the  Holy  Spirit 
— involved  him  in  fresh  trouble,  and  he  left  the 
Paraclete  and  accepted  the  abbotship  of  St. 
Gildas  de  Rhuys,  on  the  coast  of  Lower  Brit- 
tany. It  was  a  sore  trial  for  him  to  contend 
with  the  unruly  monks.  Meanwhile,  the  con- 
vent at  Argenteuil,  where  H^lolse  was  prioress, 
had  been  broken  up.  Ab^lard  transferred  H^loTse 
and  her  nuns  to  the  Paraclete  and  made  her 
abbess  of  the  nimnery  he  established.  It  was  a 
long  distance  from  St.  Gildas,  but,  as  spiritual 
director,  he  frequently  went  thither.  Naturally, 
he  fell  under  suspicion  of  renewing  his  intimacy 
with  H^lolse,  and  so  the  lovers  flnally  restricted 
themselves  to  writing.  The  correspondence  has 
been  preserved.  On  his  part  it  was  sternly  re- 
pressive, to  the  point  of  coldness;  on  her  part 
the  heart  expressed  its  love,  which  was  an  inex- 
tinguishable passion,  both  of  body  and  soul,  and 
tyrannical  in  its  demands  upon  the  monk  who 
had  ceased  to  share  it. 

After  ten  more  years,  Ab^lard,  fearing  an 
attack  upon  his  life,  left  his  monks  and  became 
a  wandering  teacher  again.  Two  men,  Norbert 
and  the  much  more  famous  Bernard  of  Clair- 
vaux,  were  always  on  his  track.  The  Council 
of  Sens,  held  in  1141,  under  the  influence  of  Ber- 


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ABfULBD. 


24 


nard,  condemned  his  teachings.  Ab^lard  ap- 
pealed to  the  pope,  Innocent  II.,  and  the  latter 
confirmed  the  finding  of  the  council  and  ordered 
his  imprisonment  and  the  burning  of  his  writ- 
ings. Ab^lard  submitted,  reconciled  himself  with 
Bernard,  and  was  on  his  way  to  Rome  to  undergo 
his  punisment,  when  he  came,  worn  out,  to  the 
great  monastery  of  Cluny.  Through  the  ifriendly 
oflfices  of  Peter  the  Venerable,  its  noble  abbot,  he 
received  permission  to  retire  thither  and  a  re- 
lease from  the  order  of  imprisonment.  He  had 
not  long  to  live,  but  the  time  was  well  spent  in 
religious  exercises  and  in  occasional  teaching. 
He  had  the  scurvy,  and  when  his  ills  increas^ 
he  was  removed  to  the  priory  of  St.  Marcel  at 
Chalon-sur-Sadne  where  the  air  was  better,  it 
was  thought.  There  he  died,  on  April  21,  1142. 
His  body  was  brought  to  the  Paraclete.  H^lolse 
died  there  May  16,  1164,  and  was  laid  beside  him. 
In  the  cemetery  of  P6re-la-Chaise  in  Paris  their 
bones  are  now  united  in  one  tomb,  erected  in 
1817.  The  figure  of  H6loIse  is  really  that  of  a 
lady  of  the  Dormans  family,  and  was  originally 
in  the  chapel  of  the  old  College  de  Beauvais. 

The  loves  of  Ab^Iard  and  H^lolse  have  made 
them  immortal,  but  Ab^lard  also  has  importance 
as  a  philosopher.  He  followed  John  Scotus 
Erigena,  the  ninth  century  philosopher,  in  his 
rationalism.  He  planted  himself  on  Aristotelian 
ground  (although  all  he  knew  of  Aristotle  *was 
derived  from  L^tin  quotations),  and  did  much 
to  overthrow  the  prevalent  realism.  His  great 
service  in  the  development  of  ethics  was  in  his 
treatment  of  conscience  by  dwelling  upon  the 
subjective  aspect.  He  also  has  sreat  importance 
as  the  virtual  founder  of  the  University  of  Paris, 
in  a  sense  the  mother  of  mediseval,  and  so  of  all 
modern,  universities.  This  claim  may  be  made 
for  him  because  he  first  established  schools  inde- 
pendent of  the  monastic  and  episcopal  schools. 
In  Melun,  in  Corbeil,  and  then  in  Paris,  at 
Nogent-sur-Seine,  he  had  thousands  of  pupils, 
and  gave  an  extraordinary  impetus  to  learning 
and  speculation.  His  example  as  an  independent 
teacher  was  followed.  Out  of  such  gatherings 
of  students  at  a  later  date  the  universities  were 
evolved.  By  his  appeal  to  reason  instead  of 
authority,  he  showed  the  path  to  intellectual 
freedom,  and  thus  became  the  prophet  of  the 
freedom  of  speech  and  research  for  which  the 
universities  properly  stand.  In  both  these  re- 
spects his  pedagogical  importance  is  great,  and 
so  his  particular  opinions  and  errors  are  of  com- 
paratively small  moment. 

His  works,  all  written  in  Latin,  first  printed  at 
Paris,  161 6, are  in  Migne:  Patrol.  Lat.CLXXVIH. 
(Paris,  1855)  ;  also  as  edited  by  Victor  Cousin: 
Ouvrages  inidits  d*Ah^lard  (Paris,  1836)  ; 
Opera  (1849-59,  2  volumes);  to  which  should 
be  added  his  Sic  et  Non,  editors,  E.  L.  T.  Henke 
and  <2r.  L.  Lindenkohl  (Marburg,  1851)  ;  Plancttis 
Virginum  Israel  super  filia  Jeptce  OaladitcBf 
editors,  W.  Meyer  and  W.  Brambach  (Munich, 
1886)  ;  Tractatus  de  Unitateet  Trinitate  [discov- 
ered, edited,  and  published  by  R.  Stolzle  under 
title:  Abelards  1121  zu  Soissons  verurtheilter 
Tractatus,  etc.]  ( Freiburg-im-Breisgau,  1891); 
his  Uymnarius  Paraclitensius,  editor  G.M.Dreves 
(Paris,  1891).  The  letters  of  Ab^lard  and 
H^loTse  have  very  often  been  published  and  trans- 
lated, e.g.,  the  Latin  text  and  the  French  trans- 
lation by  Grfiard  (Paris,  1885)  ;  complete  Eng- 
lish translation  by  J.  Berington,  with  the  Latin 
text.  The  History  of  the  Lives  of  Aheillard  and 


ABEK. 

miotse  (Birmingham,  1788),  edited  by  H.  Mills 
(Ixindon,  1850)  ;  O.  W.  Wight,  Lives  and  Letters 
of  AhHard  and  U4l6%se  (New  York,  1861). 
Consult:  A.  S.  Richardson,  Ah^lard  and 
H6l6xse  (New  York,  1884),  with  selections  from 
their  letters;  H.  Morton,  Love  Letters  of  Ah4- 
lard  and  H4lo%se  (New  York,  1901),  and  the 
standard  biography  of  Ab^lard  by  C.  de  R^musat 
(Paris,  1855).  For  recent  literature  concern- 
ing him,  consult:  H.  Hayd,  Ahdlard  und  seine 
Lehre  im  Verhdltniss  zur  Kirche  und  ihrem 
Dogma  (Ratisbon,  1863)  ;  H.  V.  Sauerland, 
Ahdlard  und  Udloise  (Frankfort,  1879)  ;  P.  Tiby, 
Deux  couvens  au  moyen  dge,  ou  Vabhaye  de  Saint 
Gildas  et  le  Paraclet  au  temps  d*Ab6lard  et 
d'mioxse  (Paris,  1851);  C.  A.  Wilkens,  Peter 
Ahdlard  (Bremen,  1851);  C.  de  R4musat,  Ah6- 
lard,  a  drama  (Paris,  1877)  ;  S.  M.  Deutsch, 
Ahdlard*s  Verutheilung  zu  Sens,  HH,  nach  den 
Quellen  kritisch  dargestellt  (Berlin,  1880)  ;  £. 
Vacandard,  Ahdlard,  sa  lutte  avec  Saint  Bernard^ 
sa  doctrine,  sa  m^thode  (Paris,  1881)  ;  S.  M. 
Deutsch,  Peter  Ahdlard,  ein  kritischer  Theologe 
des  ztoolften  Jahrhunderts  (Leipzig,  1883)  ;  A. 
Hausrath,  Peter  Ahdlard  (Leipzig,  1893)  ;  G. 
Compayr4,  Ahdlard  and  the  Origin  and  Early 
History  of  Universities  (New  York,  1893)  ;  F. 
Thaner,  Ahdlard  und  das  canonische  Recht 
(Graz,  1900)  ;  J.  McCabe,  Peter  Ahdlard  (New 
York,  1901). 

ABEL  DE  PUJOL,  A'bCK  de  pv'zhAK,  Aijac- 
ANDRE  Denis  ( 1785-1861 ) .  A  French  historical 
painter.  He  was  born  at  Valenciennes,  and  was 
a  pupil  of  the  famous  David,  whose  classicism 
he  followed.  In  1811  he  won  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Rome  with  "Jacob  Blesses  the  Children  of 
Joseph."  He  painted  numerous  frescoes  in  St. 
Sulpice  and  other  churches,  in  the  Bourse,  the 
Louvre,  and  Fontainebleau.  In  1835  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts. 
His  other  works  include  "The  Death  of  Britan- 
nicus"  (first  medal,  1814),  "Caesar  on  the  Day 
of  His  Assassination,"  "The  Baptism  of  Clovis" 
(in  the  cathedral  of  Rheims),  and  "Peter  Raises 
the  Dead." 

ABELE,  k-heV.    See  Poplar. 

ABELIN,  a'be-l^n,  Johann  Philipp  ( ?- 
1633?).  A  German  historian.  He  wrote  undfer 
the  names  Philipp-  Arlanib&us,  Abeleus,  and 
Johann  Ludwig  Grottfried,  or  Gothofredus.  He 
produced  a  niunber  of  works  still  consulted, 
including  the  Arma  Suecica  (1631-34),  and  the 
Inventarium  Suecice  (1632),  descriptions  of 
military  events  of  the  time.  He  also  founded  the 
Theatrum  Europwum  (1635-1738),  a  serial 
work  on  contemporary  history,  for  which  he 
compiled  the  first  two  volumes.  Others  of  his 
publications  are  a  Historische  Chronika  (1633) 
and  an  Historia  Antipodum  (1655).  See  Droysen, 
ArJanihdus,  Oodofredus,  Ahelintts    (1864). 

ABELITES,  a^l-its,  or  ABEL0NLA19^S, 
fl'bSl-o'nI-anz.  A  very  small  Christian  sect  of 
the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries,  found  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Hippo,  in  North  Africa.  Their 
chief  distinction  consisted  in  marrying  but 
abstaining  from  matrimonial  intercourse,  in  or- 
der not  to  propagate  original  sin.  They  kept  up 
their  numbers  by  adopting  children.  They  held 
that  Abel  so  lived,  because  the  Bible  mentions 
no  children  of  his. 

ABEN,  a^en.  A  form  used  in  the  translit- 
eration of  Oriental  names  instead  of  the  more 
correct  /6n    ("son"). 


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ABEVCEBRAQES. 

ABENCEBBAGES,  A-ben^se-rfij'ez;  Sp.  pron. 
&-b$ii'thA-ril'H6s.  According  to  legend,  a  noble 
Moorish  race  whose  struggles  with  the  family 
of  the  Zegris  and  tragical  destruction  furnish 
the  material  for  the  historical  romance  Las  guer- 
ras  civiles  de  Granada,  by  Gines  Perez  de  Hita 
(Saragossa,  1595).  From  this  Chateaubriand 
composed  the  novel  Le  dernier  des  Ahenc^rages. 
There  w^as  actually  a  family  of  Abencerrages, 
powerful  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  their  history  has  been  so  embel- 
lished by  legend  that  it  is  difficult  to  say  what 
is  true  and  what  is  imaginary. 

ABEN-ESBA,  ft'b^n  fiz^rft,  properly  Abra- 
ham-ben-Meir-ibn-Esba  ( 1092-1 167 ) .  One  of 
the  most  learned  Jews  of  his  time.  He  was  born 
in  Toledo,  Spain.  He  died  January  23,  1167. 
He  was  master  of  the  Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Ara- 
maic languages;  had  considerable  knowledge  of 
mathematics,  astronomy,  and  medicine;  was  a 
scientific  observer  and  a  poet,  and  generally  dis- 
tinguished himself  as  a  sagacious  thinker.  He 
visited  Lombardy,  Provence,  France,  Egypt,  and 
England,  and  passed  the  later  years  of  his  life 
in  Rome,  everywhere  giving  lectures  on  gram- 
mar, theology,  astronomy,  etc.,  besides  writing 
and  translating  several  works  in  Hebrew  and 
Arabic.  His  Commentaries  on  the  Old  Testa- 
ment are  the  most  important  of  his  works.  In 
them  he  first  made  generally  useful  to  Jews  the 
work  of  Spanish  exegesis.  He  also  produced 
some  treatises  on  astrology,  since  published  in 
Latin.  The  scholastic  writers  mention  Aben- 
Esra  as  Abenabe  or  Avenabd.  An  English 
translation  of  his  Isaiah  has  been  made  by  M. 
Friedlander  (London,  1873),  of  his  Canticles  by 
H.  J.  Mathews,  with  original  text  (London, 
1874). 

ABEKSBEBG,  A^ns-b^rK.  A  town  in  Low- 
er Bavaria,  Germany,  situated  18  miles  south- 
west of  Ratisbon  (Map:  Germany,  D  4).  It  has 
warm  springs  and  rums  of  a  castle.  On  April 
20,  1809,  Napoleon  here  defeated  the  Austrians 
and  opened  the  way  for  the  victory  of  Eckmlll. 
Pop.,  1900,  2202. 

ABEOXtJTA,  a'bft-d-klSo^tA.  A  large  city  in 
Yoniba,  on  the  Slave  Coast,  north  of  Lagos,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  rail  (Map:  Africa, 
D  4).  It  is  situated  on  an  elevated  plain  and 
is  surrounded  by  a  high  mud  wall.  It  occupies 
an  extensive  area,  but  its  general  appearance  is 
that  of  a  very  large  village.  Abeokuta  was 
founded  about  1825  as  a  result  of  the  slave- 
hunting  expeditions  of  the  natives  of  Dahomey 
and  Ibadon.  It  was  founded  primarily  on  the 
lines  of  a  confederation  for  mutual  protection, 
each  tribe,  however,  preserving  its  individual 
rights  and  customs.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  from  80,000  to  130,000,  and  consists 
of  about  60  different  tribes.  The  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  artisans  and  traders,  and  show  much 
skill   in   their  buildings  and  textiles. 

ABEBBBOTHWICK,  ftb'er-brdth^k.  See 
Abbboath. 

AB^BCABN  (Cymr.  aher,  confluence  of 
rivers -h  Gadel.  cam,  a  conical  heap  of  stones). 
A  town  in  Monmouthshire,  England,  five  and  one- 
half  miles  southwest  of  Pontypool.  It  is  a  pro- 
gressive municipality,  owning  waterworks  and 
cemeteries.  Population,  mostlv  engaged  in  coal 
mining,  1891,  10,400;  1901,  12,600. 


25  ABEBCBX)MBY. 

ABEBGBOMBIE,  &b'er-kriim'bl,  Jahes.  See 
Abebgbombt,  James. 

ABEBCBOMBIE,  John  (1780-1844).  An 
eminent  Scotch  physician.  He  was  born  at  Aber- 
deen, and  graduated  in  medicine  at  Edinburgh 
in  1803.  He  practiced  his  profession  in  the 
Scottish  capital,  and  soon  became  recognized  a» 
the  first  consulting  physician  in  Scotland. 
Among  the  honors  bestowed  upon  him  were  the 
degree  of  M.D.  from  Oxford,  the  rectorship  of 
Marisehal  College,  the  vice-presidency  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh,  and  the  office  of 
physician  in  ordinary  to  His  Majesty  for  Scot- 
land. Besides  his  professional  writings  he  pub- 
lished Inquiries  Concerning  the  Intellectual  Pow- 
ers (Edinburgh,  1830),  ahd  Philosophy  of  the 
Moral  Feelings  (London,  1833),  both  of  which 
attained  a  remarkable  popularity.  They  cham- 
pioned the  views  of  the  Scotch  school  as  repre- 
sented by  Dugald  Stewart,  but  had  no  origi- 
nality, and  therefore  have  now  little  philosophy 
leal  value. 

AB9BCB0MBY,  ftVer-krum'bl,  or  Abeb- 
CBOMBIE,  James  (1706-81).  A  British  soldier,, 
born  at  Glassbaugh,  Scotland.  He  entered  the 
arm}'  as  colonel  in  1746,  and  was  raised  to 
the  Vank  of  major-general  and  sent  to  Amer- 
ica in  1756,  where  in  1758  he  replaced  Lou- 
don •  as  commander-in-chief  of  the  British  and 
colonial  forces.  On  July  8,  1758,  at  the 
head  of  15,000  men,  he  attacked  Ticonderosa 
(q.v.),  but  was  repulsed  with  a  loss  of  fully 
2000  men.  This  attack  was  the  culmination  of  a 
career  of  incapacity,  and  in  September  he  was 
superseded  by  Sir  Jeffrey  Amherst.  Returning 
(1759)  to  England,  he  became  a  member  of 
Parliament,  and  was  conspicuous  as  an  upholder 
of  George  III.'s  colonial  policy.  For  his  record 
as  an  officer  in  America,  consult:  Parkman,. 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe   (Boston,  1884). 

ABEBCBOMBY,  Sib  Ralph  (1734-1801).  A 
distinguished  British  general.  He  was  born  at 
Menstry,  near  Tullibody,  Scotland,  October,  1734. 
He  was  educated  at  Rugby,  and  studied  for  the 
legal  profession  at  Edinburgh  and  Leipzig,  but 
preferred  the  army,  and  a  cornet's  commission 
was  obtained  for  him  in  1756.  In  1758  he  accom- 
panied his  regiment  to  Germany,  where  he  saw 
active  warfare,  and  gained  experience  in  army 
management.  At  the  conclusion  of  peace,  he 
was  stationed  in  Ireland  for  several  years.  He 
married  in  1767,  and  by  1773  had  risen  to  the 
rank  of  lieutenant-colonel.  He  entered  Parlia- 
ment after  a  bloodless  duel  with  his  defeated 
opponent,  and  stronely  opposed  the  American 
war,  a  course  particularly  honorable,  as  he 
desired  active  service.  The  war  with  France 
gave  him  his  opportunity.  Family  influence  and 
his  reputation  procured  his  promotion  to  be 
major-general  of  a  brigade  ordered  to  Flanders, 
where  he  distinguished  himself  so  highly  as  to 
be  publicly  thanked  by  the  Duke  of  York.  Under 
him  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  then  Lieutenant- 
Colonel  Wellesley,  commanding  the  Thirty- third 
Regiment,  received  his  baptism  of  fire.  Aber- 
cromby  was  knighted  on  his  return  to  England  in 
1795,  and  was  surprised  to  find  himself  famous 
as  his  country's  greatest  general.  The  disastrous 
campaign,  however,  had  shown  him  the  deteri- 
oration in  army  discipline,  and  his  energies  were 
devoted  to  the  reorganization  of  the  whole  army 
system.  In  1796  he  conducted  a  successful  expe- 
dition to  the  West  Indies.     In  1797  he  went  to 


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ABEBCBOMBY. 

Ireland  as  commander  of  the  forces.  He  strongly 
condemned  the  governmental  policy  toward  that 
country,  however,  and  this  caused  his  resigna- 
tion; but  he  was  at  once  given  a  similar  appoint- 
ment in  Scotland.  In  1799  he  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  expedition  to  Holland  and  began 
it  brilliantly;  but  he  was  superseded  by  the 
Duke  of  York,  and  the  campaign  ended  ignomin- 
iously.  Abercromby  alone  acquitted  himself 
with  credit,  and  the  ministry  wished  to  make 
him  a  peer,  but  he  refused  to  have  his  name 
associated  with  a  failure.  In  1800  he  com- 
manded the  expedition  to  the  Mediterranean,  and 
after  some  brilliant  operations  defeated  the 
French  in  the  battle  of  Alexandria,  March  21, 
1801.  During  the  action  he  was  struck  by  a 
musket-ball  in  the  thigh ;  but  not  until  the  battle 
was  won  and  he  saw  the  enemy  retreating  did  he 
show  any  sign  of  pain.  He  was  borne  from  the 
field  in  a  hammock,  cheered  by  the  blessings  of 
the  soldiers  as  he  passed,  and  conveyed  on  board 
the  flag-ship  Foudroyant.  The  ball  could  not  be 
extracted;  mortification  ensued,  and  seven  days 
later,  on  March  28,  1801,  he  died.  Abercromby 
was  at  once  gentle  and  brave,  clear-sighted  and 
cool  in  deliberation;  in  action,  prompt  and  dar- 
ing. Apart  from  his  qualities  as  a  soldier,  he 
was  a  man  of  liberal  accomplishments,  free  from 
prejudices,  and  of  sound  practical  judgment. 
The  national  gratitude  to  this  eminent  man  took 
the  form  of  a  peerage  conferred  on  his  widow, 
afterward  enjoyed  by  his  eldest  son,  with  the 
title  of  Baron  Abercromby.  Consult:  J.  Aber- 
cromby, Memoir  of  the  JAfe  of  Sir  R,  Ahercrom- 
hy  (Dublin.  1801)  ;  J.  Abercromby,  Baron  Dun- 
fermline, Memoir  of  Lieutenant-General  Sir 
Ralph  Abercromby   (London,  1861). 

ABEBDABE,  ab'er-dftr^.  A  town  in  Gla- 
morganshire, Wales,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Cynon,  four  miles  southwest  of  Merthyr-Tydvil. 
It  is  situated  in  a  rich  mineral  district,  having 
extensive  coal,  iron,  and  tin  works  (Map: 
Wales,  C  5).  Aberdarc  is  connected  with  the 
coast  by  a  canal  and  railway.  Its  growth  has 
been  remarkable.  From  an  unimportant  village 
of  6500  inhabitants  in  1841  it  has  developed  into 
a  thriving  town  of  38,500  in  1891  and  43,400  in 
1901.        ^  ■         ' 

AB'EBDEEK'  (Cymr.  aber,  confluence  of 
waters,  i.e.,  of  the  Don  and  Dee).  The  fourth 
largest  city  of  Scotland,  and  the  capital  of 
Aberdeenshire.  It  is  situated  in  the  southeast- 
ern part  of  the  county,  on  the  North  Sea,  about 
95  miles  north  of  Edinburgh  (Map:  Scotland, 
F  2 ) .  It  forms  the  chief  part  of  a  parliamentary 
burgh  of  the  same  name,  and  comprises  all  the 
territory  lying  between  the  rivers  Dee  and  Don, 
thus  including  what  was  formerly  known  as 
Old  Aberdeen.  It  has  a  mean  temperature  of 
about  46°  F.,  and  ia  about  66  feet  above  the 
sea  level.  Aberdeen  is  a  handsome  city,  largely 
built  of  granite  quarried  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  is  therefore  known  as  the  "Granite  City." 
Its  streets  are  for  the  most  part  regular  and 
well  paved.  Union  Street,  its  principal  thor- 
oughfare, has  been  described  as  one  of  the 
handsomest  streets  in  Europe,  and  contains 
many  of  the  notable  public  buildings.  Chief 
among  them  are  the  municipal  and  county  build- 
ings, an  imposing  structure  in  the  Scotch  baro- 
nial style.  Nearby  is  "The  Cross,"  a  curious  mon- 
ument adorned  with  medallions  of  Scottish  mon- 
archs.    At  the  western  end  of  Union  Street  are 


26 


ABEBDEEN. 


the  Music  Hall  buiidings,  particularly  notable 
in  point  of  architecture,  and  the  Trades'  Hall, 
in  which  are  kept  the  shields  of  the  different 
incorporated  trades.  Several  of  the  bank  build- 
ings are  tasteful  edifices.  The  east  and  west 
churches,  although  comparatively  modern,  are 
interesting  from  the  fact  that  they  are  built  on 
the  site  of  the  ancient  church  of  St.  Nicholas, 
and  are  connected  by  an  old  wooden  tower. 
Among  the  many  other  churches  of  Aberdeen 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  is  notable  for  its 
beautiful  spire,  two  hundred  feet  high,  and  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Machar,  begun  in  1357,  for  its 
severe  simplicity  of  style.  The  River  Dee  is 
crossed  by  four  bridges,  one  of  which,  a  stone 
bridge,  dates  from  1527. 

Among  its  advantages  the  city  has  an  excellent 
harbor  and  immense  floating  docks,  enabling  it 
to  carry  on  a  large  iparitime  trade  in  textile 
goods,  agricultural  products,  and  granite.  It  is 
a  large  manufacturing  centre,  the  chief  indus- 
tries including  cotton  spinning,  manufacture  of 
cotton,  woolen  and  linen  goods,  iron  foundries 
and  paper  mills.  Granite  cutting  and  shipbuild- 
ing are  also  quite  important,  although  the  latter 
industry  has  diminished  in  importance  since  the 
days  of  wooden  vessels,  when  the  Aberdeen  clip- 
pers were  famous.  Aberdeen's  means  of  com- 
munication are  excellent.  It  is  at  the  junction 
of  three  railway  lines,  and  is  connected  by 
steamer  with  Leith,  Newcastle,  Hull,-  and  Lon- 
don. Its  own  shipping  comprises  about  180 
steam  and  40  sailing  vessels,  tonnage  about  100,- 
000.  Annually  3000  vessels,  representing  a  gross 
tonnage  of  nearly  2,000,000,  clear  the  port.  The 
chief  exports  are  fish,  spirits,  cloth  manufac- 
tures, coal  products,  stone,  etc.,  and  the  chief 
imports  barley,  wheat  meal,  maize,  oats,  flax- 
seed, sugar,  timber,  paper-making  materials, 
etc.  The  total  value  of  imports  and  exports 
averages  annually  £1,100,000  ($5,500,000).  Aber- 
deen is  the  fourth  port  of  importance  in  Scot- 
land. The  United  States  is  represented  there  by 
an  agent. 

Aberdeen  sends  two  members  to  Parlia- 
ment, and  is  one  of  the  most  progressive  of 
municipalities.  It  has  the  usual  authorities, 
consisting  of  a  lord  provost,  bailies,  council- 
lors, etc.  (See  Great  Britain,  Local  Govern- 
ment.) The  city  owns  and  operates  its  water 
and  gas  works  and  an  electric  light  plant,  as 
well  as  its  electric  tramways,  and  maintains 
public  baths,  markets,  and  two  cemeteries.  It 
is  one  of  the  few  municipalities  which  have 
taken  up  the  question  of  the  proper  housing  of 
the  working  people,  and  as  a  result  it  has  estab- 
lished a  lodging  house  and  erected  several  w^ork- 
men's  dwellings.  Aberdeen's  educational  insti- 
tutions are  very  numerous,  and  include  the  Uni- 
versity of  Aberdeen  (q.v.) ,  established  in  1860  by 
the  consolidation  of  King's  College  of  Old  Aber- 
deen, founded  in  1494,  and  Marischal  College 
of  New  Aberdeen,  founded  in  1593.  In  the  year 
1899-1900  there  were  about  900  students  in 
attendance.  The  university  library  contains 
about  130,000  volumes.  Among  the  other  col- 
leges and  schools  are  Gordon's  College,  which 
receives  a  yearly  grant  from  the  city,  an  art 
school,  a  navigation  school,  an  ancient  grammar 
school  dating  from  1263,  the  Free  Church  Divin- 
ity College,  and  the  Mechanics'  Institution. 
Among  the  benevolent  and  charitable  institutions 
are  the  Royal  Infirmary,  an  epidemic  hospital 
and  one  for  incurables,  a  large  lunatic  asylum, 


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ABEBDEEV. 

and  a  poorhouse.  The  city  has  two  fine  public 
parks.  Aberdeen  appears  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury as  a  populous  town.  William  the  Lion 
granted  it  a  charter  in  1179  and  Robert  Bruce 
extended  its  privileges.  The  English  burned  the 
town  in  1336,  but  it  was  rebuilt  and  named 
New  Aberdeen.  It  suffered  severely  during  the 
civil  wars  of  the  seventeenth  century.  A  period 
of  great  prosperity  began  in  1818,  with  the 
rediscovery  of  the  art  of  granite  polishing. 
Population  of  royal,  parliamentary,  and  munic- 
ipal burgh,  1891,  123,000;  1901,  153,108,  9386  of 
whom  overflow  into  Kincardineshire. 

ASEBDEEN.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Monroe  Co.,  Miss.,  about  130  miles  southeast  of 
Memphis,  Tenn.,  on  the  Tombigbee  River,  and  on 
the  Illinois  Central,  the  Kansas  City,  Memphis, 
and  Birmingham,  and  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  rail- 
roads (Map:  Mississippi,  J  3).  It  has  grist- 
mills, lumber-mills,  cotton-gins,  and  other  indus- 
trial establishments,  and  is  principally  engaged 
in  the  cotton  trade.  Pop.,  1890,  3449;  1900, 
3434. 

ABEBDEEN.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Brown  Co.,  South  Dakota,  280  miles  west  of 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul, 
and  the  Great  Northern  railroads  (Map:  South 
Dakota,  G  4).  It  has  a  public  library  (Car- 
negie) and  is  the  seat  of  a  State  normal  school. 
The  city  has  important  commercial  interests, 
and  manufactures  brooms,  mantels,  patent  medi- 
cines, and  artesian  well  supplies.  Settled  in 
1880,  Aberdeen  was  incorporated  in  1882.  The 
government  is  administered  under  a  charter  of 
1890.  which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  bien- 
nially, and  a  city  council  which  exercises  powers 
of  confirmation  in  the  executive's  appointments 
of  the  majority  of  administrative  officials.  The 
water  works  are  owned  and  operated  by  the 
municipality.     Pop.,  1890,  3182;  1900,  4087. 

ABEBDEEN,  fourth  Earl  of,  George  Ham- 
ilton Gordon  (1784-1860).  A  British  states- 
man. He  was  born  at  Edinburgh,  January  28, 
1784.  He  was  educated  at  Harrow,  and  in  1804 
took  the  M.A.  degree  at  St.  John's  College,  Cam- 
bridge. In  1801  he  had  succeeded  to  the  earl- 
dom and  made  a  journey  through  Greece,  which 
is  perpetuated  by  Byron's  satirical  distich, 

**  Pint  In  the  oat-fed  phalanx  shall  be  seen 
The  traveled  thane,  Athenian  Aberdeen." 

He  was  elected  a  Scotch  representative  peer  and 
took  his  seat  as  a  Torj'  in  December,  1806.  In 
1813  he  was  appointed  Ambassador  Extraordina- 
ry to  Austria,  where  he  gained  the  friendship  of 
Metternich,  whom  he  considered  a  pattern  of 
diplomacy.  He  signed  the  Treaty  of  Paris,  as 
one  of  England's  representatives,  on  May  30, 
1814.  He  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Viscount 
Gordon.  He  was  foreign  secretary  under  Wel- 
lington, 1828  to  1830,  and  under  Peel,  1841  to 
1846;  in  1834  and  1835  acting  as  Peel's  war  sec- 
retary. The  general  principle  which  guided  his 
policy  as  secretary  of  state  for  foreign  affairs 
was  that  of  non-interference  in  the  internal  af- 
fairs of  foreign  states,  which,  joined  to  his  well- 
known  sympathy  with  such  statesmen  as  Metter- 
nich, exposed  him — ^not  always  justly — ^to  the 
suspicion  of  being  inimical -to  the  cause  of  popu- 
lar liberty.  His  gradual  abandonment  of  high 
Tory  principles  was  evinced  by  his  support  of  the 
bill  for  the  repeal  of  the  test  and  coporation  acts 


27  ABEBEOYLE. 

and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  Act, 
The  conclusion  of  the  Chinese  War,  the  Ashburton 
Treaty,  and  the  Oregon  Treaty  were  the  principal 
services  rendered  to  the  country  during  his 
administration  of  foreign  affairs.  In  1852,  on 
the  resignation  of  Lord  Derby,  the  extraordinary 
state .  of  parties  necessitated  a  coalition,  and 
Lord  Aberdeen  was  selected  as  the  fittest  man 
to  head  the  new  ministry,  which  for  some  time 
was  extremely  popular.  The  feeble  and  vacil- 
lating policy  displayed  in  the  conduct  of  the 
war  with  Russia  gradually  undermined  its 
stability,  and  the  disastrous  mismanagement 
brought  to  light  in  the  winter  of  1854,  in  all 
departments  of  the  public  business  connected 
with  the  war,  filled  up  the  measure  of  popular 
discontent,  and  led  to  his  resignation  in  1855. 
He  died  in  London,  December  14,  1860.  Consult: 
Gordon,  Earl  of  Aberdeen  (London,  1893). 

ABEBDEEN,  seventh  Eabl  of.  Sir  John 
Campbell  Gordon  (1847 — ).  A  British  states- 
man. He  was  educated  at  St.  Andrew's  and  Uni- 
versity College,  Oxford;  in  1880  was  appointed 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Aberdeenshire,  and  from  1881 
to  1885  was  lord  high  commissioner  to  the  gen- 
eral assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland.  In 
1880  he  was  appointed  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland 
by  Gladstone,  and  from  1893  to  1898  was  Gover- 
nor-General of  Canada.  In  1891  he  became  a 
Vice-president  of  the  Royal  Colonial  Institute. 

ABEBDEEN,  University  of.  A  university 
founded  jn  1494  by  the  Bishop  of  Aberdeen, 
William  Elphinstone.  In  1505  the  College  of 
St.  Mary,  later  King's  College,  was  founded 
within  the  university.  In  1593  Marischal  Col- 
lege was  founded  by  George  Keith,  Earl  Mari- 
schal of  Scotland.  In  1860,  these  two  were 
united  by  act  of  Parliament  into  the  University 
of  Aberdeen.  Tlie  students  retain  the  old  divi- 
sions into  four  nations.  Mar,  Buchan,  Moray, 
Angus.  The  officers  are  a  chancellor,  lord  rector, 
vice-chancellor  and  two  secretaries.  There  are 
a  large  number  of  bursaries  or  scholarships,  ag- 
gregating over  £8000.  The  students  number 
about  900.  There  are  faculties  of  arts,  science, 
theology,  law,  and  medicine,  with  about  thirty 
professors  and  many  assistants.  The  University 
of  Aberdeen  has  a  library  of  over  130,000  vol- 
umes and  several  museums. 

AB'EBDEEN^SHIBE.  A  maritime  province 
in  the  northeast  division  of  Scotland;  bounded 
north  by  Banffshire  and  the  North  Sea ;  east,  by 
the  North  Sea;  south,  by  Kincardine,  Forfar, 
and  Perth  shires;  west,  by  Inverness  and  Banff 
shires  (Map:  Scotland,  F  2).  Its  greatest 
length  is  102  miles;  its  greatest  breadth,  50 
miles,  with  60  miles  of  sea-coast,  and  an  area  of 
1055  square  miles.  It  is  popularly  divided  into 
five  districts.  Mar,  Strathbogie,  Garioch,  For- 
martin  and  Buchan.  The  principal  towns  are 
Aberdeen,  the  capital,  Peterhead,  Fraserburgh, 
Huntly,  Kintore,  Inverurie,  and  Turriff.  The' 
chief  industries  are  connected  wit^  agriculture 
and  sea  fisheries.  Pop.  igrvi  \^\,\00;  1851, 
212,000;  1891,284,036;  1901  V(\i  400.  Con?.M\t-. 
A.  Smith,  History  of  AbcW  ^  Iwe  V^^«^^^^^' 
1875).  ^a^c-rvS*^ 

AB^BDEVINE'  (ori^v  ^^V    ^^\^* 

dealer's   name   for   the    "]&V>^      ->i5^^  \\^^'^''  ^ 
ahadavine.     See  Siskin.  ^>>^  "^^  ^^ 

AB'EBPOYLE'.     A.  ^W  ^^'^'^'^t^Ivl 

Scotland,  a  few  miles  X.  '^     <^t^ 


\ 


^\^ 


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ABEBFOYLE. 


28 


It  and  the  neighboring  Lake  of  Menteith  are  the 
scenes  of  incidents  in  Scott's  lioh  Roy. 

ABEBGAVENNY,  &b'?r-gan'n!,  or  ftb'er-gi- 
v^n'nl  (the  Roman  Oohannium).  A  market 
towTi  of  Monmouthshire,  England,  13  miles  west 
of  Monmouth,  beautifully  situated  in  the  valley 
of  the  Usk  (Map:  England,  D  5).  The  town  is 
regularly  and  compactly  built,  and  many  im- 
provements have  of  late  years  been  made.  It  was 
incorporated  in  1899.  St.  Mary's  Church,  which 
was  once  a  fine  cruciform  structure,  and  contains 
many  interesting  monuments,  has  been  spoiled  by 
restorations.  The  castle,  built  by  Hammeline  de 
Baladun,  soon  after  the  Conquest,  is  now  a  ruin. 
There  are  collieries  and  iron  works  in  the  neigh- 
borhood.    Pop.  1891,  7700;  1901,  7800. 

AB^BNE'THY.  A  village  in  Perthshire, 
Scotland,  on  the  Tay,  about  six  miles  southeast  of 
Perth  (Map:  Scotland,  E  3).  It  is  believed  to 
have  been  the  capital  of  the  Picts,  and  for  many 
years  in  the  ninth  century  was  the  seat  of  the 
only  bishopric  in  Scotland.  It  is  chiefly  notable, 
however,  for  its  ancient  round  tower,  like  which 
there  is  only  one  other  in  Scotland.  Pop.,  1901, 
police  burgh,  623;  civil  parish,  1276. 

ABEBNETHY,  James  (1815-96).  A  Scotch 
civil  engineer.  He  was  born  at  Aberdeen.  In 
1841  he  was  resident  engineer  of  the  Aberdeen 
harbor  works,  and  from  1842  to  1862  was 
surveying  officer  for  the  Admiralty.  He  was  the 
first  to  apply  hydraulic  power  to  the  working  of 
lock-gates,  and  constructed  such  important  works 
as  the  Birkenhead  docks,  the  Hull  docks,  and 
the  Turin  and  Savona  Railway  (Italy).  He 
was  also  the  director  of  the  works  for  the  drain- 
ing of  Lake  Abukir,  Egypt,  by  which  twenty 
thousand  acres  were  reclaimed.  In  1881  he  was 
elected  President  of  the  Institute  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers. 

ABEBNETHY,  John  ( 1680-1740) .  An  Irish 
dissenting  minister.  He  was  born  at  Colerain, 
Ireland,  the  son  of  a  dissenting  Presbyterian  min- 
ister; was  educated  at  Glasgow  and  Edinburgh, 
and  was  licensed  to  preach  before  he  was 
twenty-one  years  old.  He  was  ordained  at 
Antrim  in  1703;  in  1717  he  was  invited  to 
a  congregation  in  Dublin  and  another  in  Bel- 
fast, while  Antrim  desired  him  to  remain. 
The  synod  was  appealed  to  and  decided  that 
he  should  go  to  Dublin,  but  he  declined  and 
remained  at  Antrim.  This  refusal  to  obey  the 
synod  was  unheard  of  and  was  considered  ecclesi- 
astical rebellion,  and  a  fierce  controversy  en- 
sued, the  parties  dividing  into  "subscribers"  and 
"non  -  subscribers."  Though  himself  strictly 
evangelical,  Abernethy  and  his  associates  were 
remotely  the  occasion  of  the  contest  which  ended 
in  eliminating  Arian  and  Socinian  elements  from 
the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church.  In  1726,  Aber- 
nethy and  all  the  "non-subscribers"  were  turned 
out  with  due  ban  and  solemnity,  but  only  four 
years  afterward  he  was  called  to  a  "regular" 
congregation  in  D\iblin.  In  1731,  in  the  con- 
troversy regarding  the  test  act,  Abernethy  took 
broad  ground  "against  all  laws  that,  upon  ac- 
count of  mere  differences  of  religious  opinions 
and  forms  of  worship,  excluded  men  of  integrity 
and  ability  from  serving  their  country."  He 
was  a  century  ahead  of  the  time,  and  had  to 
argue  against  those  who  denied  that  a  Roman 
Catholic  or  a  dissenter  could  be  a  "man  of  in- 
tegrity and  ability."  Abernethy  was  foremost 
where   unpopular .  truth   and   right  were   to   be 


ABEBBATION. 

maintained,  and  his  Tracts,  collected  after  his 
death,  did  good  service  for  generations.  He  died 
in  Dublin,  December,  1740.  Consult:  Drechal, 
Sermons  of  John  Abernethy y  with  his  Life 
(London,  174^61 ). 

ABEBNETHY,  John  (1764-1831).  An  emi- 
nent English  surgeon.  He  was  born  in  London. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  John  Hunter;  in  1787  was 
appointed  assistant-surgeon  of  St.  Bartholomew's 
Hospital,  and  in  1815  chief  surgeon.  Soon  after 
his  appointment  he  began  to  lecture  in  the  hos- 
pital on  anatomy  and  surgery,  and  may  be  said 
to  have  laid  the  foundation  of  its  character  as 
a  school  of  surgery.  His  clear,  simple,  and  posi- 
tive style,  illustrated  by  an  inexhaustible  va- 
riety of  apt  anecdotes,  made  him  the  most  popu- 
lar medical  teacher  of  his  day.  In  1813  he  was 
appointed  surgeon  to  Christ's  Hospital,  and  in 
1814  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  to  the 
College  of  Surgeons.  His  practice  increased 
with  his  celebrity,  which  the  singular  eccentric- 
ity and  occasional  rudeness  of  his  manners  con- 
tributed to  heighten.  Of  his  works,  the  most  im- 
portant are  his  Observations  on  the  Constitu- 
tional Origin  and  Treatment  of  Local  Diseases 
(1806),  and  his  Lectures  on  the  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Surgery  (1830). 

AB'EBBA'TION,  Chromatic  (from  Lat. 
ahy  away  -f  errare,  to  wander,  and  Gk.  Xpu/ia, 
chrdma,  color,  literally,  colored  deviation).  A 
phenomenon  observed  when  images  of  an  object 
emitting  white  light  are  form^  by  a  lens  or 
a  prism,  it  being  observed  that  there  is  then 
not  one  white  image,  but  many  colored  ones, 
which  do  not  occupy  the  same  position,  and  which 
are  of  different  sizes,  thus  producing  a  blurred 
image  with  a  colored  border.  It  is  explained  in 
the  article  Light  that  the  sensations  of  different 
colors  are  due  to  waves  in  the  ether  of  different 
wave-number  or  wave-length,  and  that  these 
waves,  in  passing  through  portions  of  trans- 
parent matter,  such  as  glass,  travel  with  different 
velocities,  depending  upon  their  wave-number. 
As  a  consequence  of  this,  in  passing  through 
lenses  or  prisms,  waves  of  different  wave-num- 
ber have  different  paths.  White  light  is  shown 
to  be  due  to  the  reception  by  the  eye  of  waves 
of  different  wave-number;  or,  in  other  words, 
from  a  "white  object,"  or  an  object  "emitting 
white  light,"  waves  of  different  wave-numbers 
proceed  outward.  These  waves  are  such  that 
each  train  of  waves  of  a  definite  wave-number 
would  produce  in  the  eye  a  definite  color-sen- 
sation, e.g.,  blue,  green,  etc.  In  this  sense  we 
may  speak  of  "blue- waves,"  "green-waves,"  etc.; 
and  in  general  white  light  is  due  to  the  recep- 
tion by  the  eye  of  waves  which  correspond  to  the 
"colors  of  the  spectrum;"  violet,  blue,  green, 
yellow,  orange,  red,  and  all  the  intermediate 
shades.  Therefore,  owing  to  this  difference  in 
path  in  a  lens  or  prism  of  waves  of  different 
color,  if  an  image  of  a  white  object  is  formed 
there  will  be  a  series  of  images  corresponding 
to  the  different  colors,  these  images  differing  in 
position  and  size,  as  well  as  in  color.  This  re- 
sult is  said  to  be  due  to  the  "chromatic  aberra- 
tion" of  the  lens  or  prism.  (There  are,  of 
course,  ether- waves  which  do  not  affect  the  sense 
of  sight;  and  any  prism  or  lens  which  is  trans- 
parent to  them  will  in  general  deviate  waves 
of  different  wave-number  differently,  and  so  have 
this  same  kind  of  aberration,  as  ordinary  glass 
lenses  have  for  visible  waves.)     Mirrors  do  not 


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ABERRATION.  29 

have  chromatic  aberration,  as  there  is  no  re- 
fraction of  the  rays.  Moreover,  it  is  possible, 
by  combining  two  or  more  prisms  or  lenses,  to 
diminish  greatly  the  aberration.  (See  Aciiboma- 
TiSM.)  The  colors  which  are  not  •thus  brought 
to  the  same  focus  form  the  "secondary  spec- 
trum." 

Reference  to  the  diagrams  will  possibly  serve 
to  explain  the  matter  more  fully.     Fig.  1  shows 


ABERRATION. 


Fxo.  1. 


the  dispersion  (q.v.)  of  a  beam  of  white  light 
on  passing  through  a  prism,  or,  in  other  words, 
its  separation  into  its  constituent  colors. 

In   fig.   2    let  MN   represent   a  convex   lens, 


which  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  a  num- 
ber of  prisms  and  having  the  same  dispersive 
effect.  Let  A  represent  a  source  of  white  light. 
Considering  a  pencil  which  falls  on  the  lens 
at  c,  where  it  is  refracted,  it  is  found  that 
dispersion  takes  place,  and  the  red  rays  after 
being  deviated  proceed  to  D,  where  an  image  of 
the  object  A  is  formed,  while  the  violet  rays 
which  undergo  greater  refraction  proceed  to 
C,  and  there  form  an  image  of  the  object  A. 
Consequently,  if  the  image  at  C  is  examined  with 
an  eye-piece,  or  allowed  to  fall  on  a  screen,  it 
will  be  found  to  have  a  red  border,  while  that 
at  D  will  be  seen  surrounded  by  violet.  When 
correction  is  made  for  chromatic  aberration,  the 
purpose  for  which  the  lens  is  designed  must  be 
considered.  (See  Telescope.)  For  photographic 
work  the  violet  rays  are  required,  and  any  correc- 
tion (see  Achhomatism)  should  aim  to  bring 
them  to  the  desired  focus.  For  a  visual  telescope 
or  microscope  the  yellow  rays  must  be  considered, 
and  such  a  combination  of  lenses  made  that  they 
are  brought  to  the  same  focal  plane.  The  chap- 
ters on  optics  in  M(iller-Pouillet*s  Lehrhuch  der 
Physik  (Brunswick,  1897)  treat  the  subject  most 
fully,  as  does  Glazebrook's  Physical  Optics  (Lon- 
don, 1898).  The  correction  of  this  evil  in  photo- 
^aphic  lenses  iS  extensively  treated  from  the 
theoretical  standpoint  in  S.  P.  Thompson's  trans- 
lation of  Lummer's  Photographic  Opt\cs  (London, 
1900). 

ABERRATION,  Spherical.  A  term  used  in 
geometrical  optics  (see  Light)  to  express  the 
difference  in  path  and  effect  of  rays  of  light 
incident  perpendicularly  and  obliquely  upon  a 
mirror  or  upon  a  surface  separating  two  portions 
of  transparent  matter,  e.g.,  upon  a  surface  of 


water.  If  a  source  of  light  is  very  small,  it  can 
be  called  a  *'point-source,"  and  can  be  considered 
as  sending  out  "rays  of  light"  in  all  directions, 
like  the  radii  of  a  sphere.  If  one  of  these  rays 
is  perpendicular  to  the  surface  of  the  mirror  or 
to  the  surface  of  separation  of  the  two  media, 
the  rays  near  this  will  form  a  small  cone  or 
"pencil  of  rays;"  and  in  optics  it  is  shown  that 
such  a  perpendicular  pencil  of  rays  always  gives 
rise  by  reflection  or  refraction  to  another  pencil 
of  rays  which  meet  in  a  point  called  the  "image" 
or  "focus"  of  the  point-source.  If,  however,  a 
small  cone  or  pencil  of  rays  be  chosen  around 
a  ray  which  falls  obliquely  on  the  mirror  or  sep- 
arating surface,  it  will  give  rise  by  reflection  or 
refraction  to  rays  which  do  not  form  a  cone 
and  therefore  do  not  have  a  point  as  a  focus, 
except  in  the  case  of  a  plain  mirror,  such  as  an 
ordinary  looking-glass.  If  the  incident  pencil 
is  narrow,  the  reflected  or  refracted  rays  will 
have  two  foci,  in  the  form  of  two  short,  straight 
lines,  some  distance  apart  and  perpendicular  to 
each  other.  These  are  called  "focal  lines;"  and 
in  between  them  the  rays  come  the  closest  to 
forming  a  point  focus,  producing  what  is  called 
the  "circle  of  least  confusion."  If  instead  of 
considering  a  narrow  pencil  of  rays,  we  study  the 
whole  bundle  of  rays  falling  on  the  entire  reflect- 
ing or  refracting  surface,  it  is  evident  that  the 
rays  are  brought  to  a  focus  on  a  surface  which 
can  be  thought  of  as  due  to  the  combined  effect 
of  the  short  focal  lines  produced  by  the  indi- 
vidual pencils  of  which  the  bundle  of  rays  is 
composed,  and  which  has  a  cusp  or  projecting 
point  ending  at  the  point-focus  due  to  the  per- 
pendicular pencil.  A  section  of  this  "caustic 
surface"  is  often  seen  on  looking  down  on  a  cup 
of  coffee  or  a  glass  of  milk,  if  there  is  a  lighted 
lamp  near;  because  the  projecting  sides  of  the 
cup  or  glass  act  as  a  curved  mirror.  An  imme- 
diate consequence  of  spherical  aberration  is  that 
the  image  formed  of  any  object  by  a  curved 
mirror  or  by  a  lens  or  prism  is  not  "sharp,"  but 
blurred,  unless  care  be  taken  to  exclude  the 
oblique  rays.  This  is  done  ordinarily  by  the 
use  of  diaphragms,  such  as  are  seen  in  opera- 
glasses,  photographic  lenses,  etc.  The  smaller 
the  opening  in  the  diaphragm,  so  much  the 
sharper  is  the  image.     See  Caustic. 

The  accompanying  diagrams  will  show  the 
effect  of  spherical 
aberration  in  the 
case  of  spherical 
and  parabolic  mir- 
rors and  convex 
lenses.  In  fig.  1 
parallel  rays  are 
incident  on  a 
spherical  mirror. 
Those  falling  per- 
pendicularly o  r 
near  the  centre  of 
the  mirror  are  re- 
flected to  the 
point  Q,  which  is 
termed  the  princi- 
pal focus  of  the 
mirror.  The  rays 
which  strike  the 
surface  more 
obliquely  do  not 
meet  at  Q  after  re- 
flection, but  at  points  ^t^x  \\v^  ^**^ 
surface    whose    section.      YV\^^     .    cC^     A  M 


^\o 


\. 


u\^ 


^\^' 


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ABEBRATIOV. 

heavy  line  with  a  cusp  at  Q.  In  fig.  2  the  elimina- 
tion of  spherical  aberration  by  the  use  of  a  para- 
bolic mirror  is  shown,  as  here,  by  the  peculiar 
property  of  a  parabola  (q.v.),  all  rays  parallel 
to  the  axis  are  brought  to  a  point  at  F,  called 
the  focus.     For  this  reason  the  parabolic  mirror 


30 


ABEBSYCHAK. 


Fio.2. 


is  theoretically  the  most  available  for  telescopes 
(<j.v.),  but  in  practice  the  construction  of  such 
mirrors  presents  great  difficulties,  which  are  but 
rarely  effectually  surmounted.  The  effect  of 
spherical  aberration  in  the  case  of  a  lens  is 
indicated  in  fig.  3,  where  the  rays  passing 
through  the  lens  near  its  circumference  are 
brought  to  a  focus  at  C,  while  those  lying  nearer 
the  axis  AB  meet  at  or  near  F.  The  foci  for 
intermediate  rays  lie  between  that  point  and 
C.  From  these  dio^ams  the  advantages  obtained 
by  the  use  of  diaphragms  will  be  seen.  The 
oblique  rays,  or  those  which  strike  the  mirror  or 


Fio.  8. 

lens  at  a  distance  from  its  centre,  and  which 
do  not  come  to  a  focus  at  the  same  point  as 
those  passing  through  the  central  portion,  are 
accordingly  cut  off  and  the  image  rendered  more 
distinct.  The  spherical  aberration  of  lenses  can 
be  reduced  by  using  two  or  more  lenses  in  com- 
bination, as  is  done  in  the  case  of  most  photo- 
graphic objectives.  Two  lenses  with  equal  focal 
lengths  can  be  combined,  and  their  effect  is  the 
same  as  a  lens  with  one-half  the  focal  length, 
while  the  spherical  aberration  is  greatly  dimin- 
ished. The  books  of  reference  mentioned  under 
Aberration,  Chromatic,  will  also  supply  ample 
information  on  this  subject. 

ABEBBATION  OF  LIG^T.  An  expression 
used  to  describe  the  phenomena  that  arise 
from  the  fact  that  light  requires  appreciable 
time  for  its  transmission  through  space. 
The  motion  of  light  traveling  from  a  star 
or  a  planet  toward  the  earth,  combined  with 
the  earth's  own  motion,  causes  an  apparent 
displacement  of  the  stars  on  the  sky:  they  all 


appear  to  occupy  positions  a  little  different  from 
their  true  ones.  In  explaining  this  phenomenon, 
we  often  use  the  analogy  of  a  man  running  in  a 
rain-storm.  Though  the  raindrops  may  be  fall- 
ing straight  down,  they  will  seem  to  the  running 
man  to  descend  on  his  face  slantingly.  Light, 
too,  may  be  coming  down,  as  it  were,  vertically, 
but  as  the  earth,  with  the  observer  on  it,  is 
hurrying  through  space,  there  will  be  produced  a 
similar  apparent  slant  of  the  light,  and  we  shall 
see  the  stars  displaced  on  the  sky  in  the  direction 
of  the  terrestrial  motion.  But  since  the  motion 
of  our  planet  takes  place  in  a  closed,  oval  curve, 
the  apparent  displacement  of  the  stars  is  now 
in  one  direction,  and  now  in  another,  corre- 
sponding to  the  earth's  position  in  one  or  the 
other  half  of  its  oval  path.  The  result  is  that 
the  stars  themselves  seem  to  move  each  year 
through  a  small  curve;  and  this  is  a  sort  of 
miniature  reproduction  of  the  earth's  orbit 
around  the  sun.  When  the  celestial  body  under 
observation  is  itself  in  motion  with  respect  to 
our  earth,  as  is  the  case  with  the  other  planets 
of  the  solar  system,  a  further  somewhat  analo- 
gous displacement  is  produced.  Astronomers 
therefore  need  to  correct  all  their  observations 
by  a  process  of  calculation,  so  as  to  reduce  them 
to  what  they  would  be  if  no  such  thing  as  aber- 
ration existed.  Aberration  was  discovered  by 
James  Bradley,  and  was  announced  to  the  Royal 
Society  of  England  in  1729. 

The  Constant  of  Aberration.  From  what 
has  been  said  above  it  may  be  seen  that  the 
quantity  of  apparent  displacement  depends  on 
the  velocities  both  of  light  and  of  the  earth. 
The  nature  of  that  dependence  is  quite  sim- 
ple: the  velocity  of  light  is  known  in  miles 
per  second  from  laboratory  experiments;  the 
amount  of  possible  aberration,  while  inversely 
proportional  to  the  velocity  of  light,  is  large 
in  proportion  to  the  earth's  speed.  If,  there- 
fore, we  could  determine  by  direct  observation 
of  the  stars  just  how  much  they  are  displaced,  it 
would  be  possible  to  calculate  the  earth's  orbital 
velocity  from  the  size  of  the  aberration.  The 
aberration  may  be  determined  by  the  simple 
method  of  observing  a  star  at  intervals  during 
the  year  and  noting  how  much  its  position 
changes.  If  we  select  a  star  most  favorably 
situated  for  this  purpose,  we  find  that  its 
position  throughout  the  year  will  vary  from  the 
average  by  a  little  more  than  twenty  circular 
seconds.  This  number  (more  exactly  20".47) 
is  called  the  constant  of  aberration.  To  meas- 
ure this  constant  with  the  utmost  possible  pre- 
cision has  long  been  the  object  of  very  earnest 
efforts;  and  few  other  astronomical  problems 
have  received  so  much  attention  in  recent  years. 
Its  particular  importance,  as  we  have  seen,  is 
due  to  the  computations  rendered  possible  by  a 
knowledge  of  the  constant.  Combined  with  the 
known  velocity  of  li^ht,  it  gives  us  the  earth's 
orbital  velocity  in  miles  per  second.  From  this 
we  get  the  length  of  the  annusd  terrestrial  orbit 
in  miles,  and  then  by  a  simple  calculation  w^e 
find  its  semi-diameter,  or  the  distance  from 
the  earth  to  the  sun.  This  last  is  the  funda- 
mental unit  for  astronomical  measures  of  dis- 
tance, and  its  exact  evaluation  is  considered  the 
most  important  of  all  astronomical  problems. 
See  Parallax,  Solar;  Sun. 

ABEBSYCHAN.  aVgr-sIk'an.  A  town  in 
Monmouthshire,  England,  about  10  miles  north 
of  Newport,  in  the  coal  district.  (Map:  England, 


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ABEBSTCHAN. 

C  5).     There  are  numerous  collieries  and  iron 
foundries.     Pop.,   1891,   15,300;    1901,  17,800. 

AB^EBT,  John  James  (1788-1863):  An 
American  military  engineer.  He  was  born  in 
Sheperdstown,  Virginia,  and  graduated  at  West 
Point  in  1811,  but  resigned  from  the  army  and 
practiced  law  in  Washington.  He  served  as  a 
private  in  the  battle  of  Bladensburg,  Augusi  24, 
1814.  I^ter  in  the  same  year  he  joined  the  corps 
of  engineers,  and  in  1838  had  become  colonel  in 
command  of  the  topographical  bureau.  He  was 
retired  in  1861.  Colonel  Abert  exercised  an  im- 
portant influence  in  the  development  of  the 
earlier  engineering  works  of  the  Government. 

AB'EBTILXEBY.  A  town  in  Monmouth- 
shire, England,  four  and  oncyhalf  miles  northwest 
of  Pontypool.  Population,  chiefly  engaged  in 
coal  mining,  1891,  10,850;   1901,  22,000. 

ABEBYSTWITH,  ab'er-Ist'wTth,  A  favorite 
watering-place  and  summer  resort  in  Cardigan- 
shire, Wales,  on  Cardigan  Bay,  about  50  miles 
north-portheast  of  Swansea  (Map:  Wales, 
B  4).  On  a  hill  above  the  town  stand  the  ruins 
of  an  old  castle  erected  by  Gilbert  de  Strong- 
bow.  Adjoining  it  is  the  University  College  of 
Wales,  established  in  1872.  Pop.,  in  1891,  6700; 
1901,  8000. 

ABEBYSTWITH,  University  College  op. 
See  Wales,  Uni\'ersity  op. 

ABES^SA.  A  damsel  in  Spenser's  Faery 
Queen  (I.  iii.),  who  personified  abbeys  and  con- 
vents. When  Una,  in  search  of  the  Red  Cross 
Knight,  called  out  to  her,  Abessa,  frightened  at 
the  lion,  ran  into  the  house  of  Blind  Supersti- 
tion and  closed  the  door,  which  the  lion  broke 
open.  The  meaning  is,  that  when  Truth  came, 
the  abbeys  and  convents  were  alarmed  and  barred 
her  out,  but  Henry  VIII.  (the  lion)  broke  in  the 
door. 

ABEY'AHCE  (O.  F.  aUiance,  from  a,  Lat 
ad,  at  -f  0.  F.  Mer,  Fr.  hayer.  Low  Lat.  hadare, 
to  gape,  to  expect).  A  legal  term  importing  that 
the  title  to  real  or  personal  property,  a  dignity  or 
office  is  not  vested  in  any  one,  but  is  in  expectation 
or  suspended  until  the  true  owner  appears  or  the 
right  thereto  is  determined.  Strictly  speaking, 
there  could  be  no  abeyance  of  a  freehold  at  com- 
mon law.  In  legal  contemplation,  there  must 
always  be  some  one  in  whom  is  vested  a  present 
estate  or  interest  in  the  land.  This,  however, 
did  not  apply  to  future  estates  which  might  be 
in  abeyance.  '  Thus,  when  one  man  holds  land  for 
life,  with  remainder  to  the  heir  of  another,  the 
latter  being  alivfe,  the  remainder  is  in  abeyance, 
since  the  heirs  of  that  other  remain  undetermined 
while  he  is  alive.  Titles  of  power  are  said  to 
be  in  abeyance  when  it  is  uncertain  who  shall 
enjoy  them.  Thus,  under  the  English  law,  when 
a  nobleman  leaving  a  title  descendible  to  his 
heirs  general  dies,  leaving  daughters  and  no  male 
i.^sue,  the  king,  by  his  prerogative,  may  grant 
the  title  to  any  one  of  the  daughters.  Until  the 
king  exercises  his  prerogative,  the  title,  which 
is  thus  suspended,  is  said  to  be  in  abeyance. 
See  the  authorities  referred  to  under  Title  (to 
property)  and  Property. 

AB^QAB.  A  common  name  or  title  of  several 
kings  of  Edessa  in  northwestern  Mesopotamia. 
One  of  them  is  known  from  an  alleged  corre- 
spondence with  Christ.  The  account  given  byEuse- 
bius  {Ecclesifuiical  History,  XIII.,  i)  states  that 
he   sent   a  letter   to   Christ   requesting  him   to 


31 


ABIGAIL. 


come  to  Mesopotamia  and  heal  him.  To  this 
Christ  made  a  reply  that  although  unable  himself 
to  come,  he  would,  after  his  ascension,  send  a 
disciple.  Both  of  these  letters  Eusebius  claims 
to  have  found  in  the  archives  of  Edessa  and  be- 
lieves to  be  genuine.  Other  versions  add  that 
Christ  sent  to  the  king  a  portrait,  now  displayed 
at  both  Rome  and  Genoa.  Consult:  R.  A.  Lip- 
sius.  Die  Edeasenische  Abgar  Sage  (Brunswick, 
1880). 

ABHOB^EBS.  In  English  history,  the 
name  given  to  the  Tory  element  that  expressed 
abhorrence  of  the  petitions  presented  to  Charles 
II.  for  the  reassembling  of  Parliament  (1680), 
and  that  upheld  the  King  in  his  efforts  to  con- 
trol public  opinion.  Their  opponents  were  called 
Petitioners.  Consult:  A  List  of  Abkorrers,  etc. 
(London,  1682)  ;  A.  A.  Cooper,  First  Earl  of 
Shaftsbury,  About  Abkorrers  and  Addressers 
(London,  1682). 

ABFATHAB  (Heb.  father  of  plenty).  The 
high  priest  whose  father,  Ahimelech  (I.  Sam- 
uel xxii  :  20),  was  slain  at  the  command  of  Saul 
for  having  received  and  helped  the  fugitive 
David  (I.  Samuel  xxii  :  9-10).  The  statement 
(II.  Samuel  viii  :  17;  also  I.  Chronicles  xviii  :  16, 
where  for  Ahimelech  we  must  read  Abimelech) 
that  Ahimelech  was  the  son  of  Abiathar  must  be 
inverted  in  accordance  with  I.  Samuel  xxii  :  20. 
Abiathar  also  was  a  strong  adherent  of  David, 
and  showed  his  friendship  especially  during  Ab- 
salom's rebellion  (II.' Samuel  xv:20).  Later 
on,  Abiathar  favored  Adonijah  (I.  Chronicles 
i  :  7 ) ,  and  for  this  Solomon  deprived  him  of  hia 
priesthood  and  banished  him  to  Anathoth  (I. 
Kings  ii  :  26-33 ) .  With  his  deposition,  the  di- 
rect high  priest  by  line  of  Eleazar  comes  to  an 
end,  and  the  place  is  taken  by  Zadok  and  his 
descendants  (I.  Kings  ii  :  35.  See  Ezekiel  xl  : 
46;  xliii  :  19;  xliv  :  15).     See  Ahimelech. 

A^IB.  The  older  biblical  name  for  the  first 
month  of  the  Jewish  ecclesiastical,  and  the  sev- 
enth of  the  civil,  year.  In  this  month  the  feast 
of  Passover  is  celebrated  (Exodus  xiii  :  4; 
xxxiv  :  18).  In  the  later  books  of  the  Bible  rep- 
resenting the  period  when  the  Babylonian  names, 
together  with  the  Babylonian  calendar,  were 
adopted  by  the  Hebrews  ( Nehemiah  ii  :  1 ; 
Esther  iii  :  7).  the  month  is  called  Nisan,  and 
this  name  is  used  at  the  present  time  in  the 
official  calendar  of  the  Jewish  Church. 

ABICH,  ft^lK,  WiLHELM  Hermann  (1806- 
86 ) .     A  •  German    geologist    and    traveler.     He  \ 

was  born  in  Berlin.  He  studied  at  the  university  ^ 

there,  in  1842  became  professor  of  minerology  in 
Dorpat,  and  in  1853  member  of  the  St.  Petersburg 
Academy  of  Sciences.  He  explored  the  Cau- 
casus, Russian  Armenia,  northern  Persia  and 
Daghestan,  and  published  several  books  on  the 
geology  and  mineralogy  of  those  regions,  among  ii, 
which  may  be  mentioned:  Ueher  die  Natronseen  * 
auf  der  Araxesebene  (1846  and  1849V,  ^^r  la 
Structure  et  la  Odologie  du  tka^ghCBian  (1862) . 

ABIES,  fi^I-$z.    See  Fir. 

ABIGAIL  (Heb.  mv  f^tv   <  \^  y''^\^^  \^^^^\ 
of    joy).     The    wife    of     ^^^^  <,    T)VJ\^>  .^^^^^ 
for  \lr   beauty    and    ^J.^XN^J^.  JJ^^'S. 
originally  the  wife  of  N^V>^\>«^^  ^  ^^^,  w 
David    during  his   flighO^^,    »  '5>»r:^^,  ^.^^  4«.^» 
husband  had  refused  to  ^^       -v^    <ft  k'  Vv    >5svw>Si  Vo 
later"  Nabal  died,  an<\.^VO^N*0^      ^^   v-S.vvv«* 
wife    (I.    Samuel   xxv  ^    .^^V\    ^'-K  <^ 


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ABIGAIL. 

captured  Abigail  during  a  raid  (I.  Kings  xxx  : 
5),  but  David  recovered  her  (I.  Samuel  xxx: 
18),  and  she  bore  him  a  son,  Chileab  (II.  Samuel 
iii  :  3 ) ,  or  Daniel  ( I.  Chronicles  iii  :  1 ) .  Another 
Abie^ail  was  a  sister  of  David,  and  became  the 
mother  of  Amasa  (II.  Samuel  xvii  :  25).  In 
modern  usage  Abigail  is  employed  as  a  general 
name  for  waiting-maid  or  a  lady's-maid. 

ABFJAH  (Heb.  Yahweh  is  father),  or  ABF- 
JAM.     The  name  of  several  Bible  characters. 

1.  King  of  Judah,  a  son  of  Rehaboam  and 
Maacah,  the  daughter  of  Abisbalom  (I.  Kings 
XV  :  2 ) .  He  succeeded  his  father  and  reigned 
about  three  years  (936-934?  B.C.),  during  which 
time  there  was  war  between  him  and  Jeroboam  I. 
( I.  Kings  XV  :  7 ) .  Abi jah  probably  gained  a  vic- 
tory over  Jeroboam  near  Zemaraim  ( II.  Chroni- 
cles xiii),  but  the  number  of  combatants,  1,200,- 
000,  is  greatly  exaggerated. 

2.  A  son  of  Jeroboam  I.  of  Israel  (953-932? 
B.C.),  who  died  in  his  childhood  (I.  Kings  xiv: 
1-18).  The  Greek  version  brings  in  the  story  of 
his  illness  and  his  mother's  visit  to  the  prophet 
Ahijah  immediately  after  the  death  of  Solomon, 
consequently  before  Jeroboam  ascended  the 
throne. 

ABIIJ>aAABD,  &n)n-gOrd,  Nikoiai  Abra- 
ham (1743-1809).  A  Danish  historical  painter. 
He  \>-as  born  at  Copenhagen,  and  first  studied  at 
the  Academy  there.  He  went  to  Rome  in  1772, 
was  appointed  a  professor  in  1777  and  in  1789 
a  director  of  the  Academy.  His  most  important 
work,  a  series  of  ten  pictures  in  the  castle  of 
Christiansborg,  was  burned  with  the  castle  in 
1794.  He  also  painted  scenes  from  Shakespeare 
a.nd  Ossian,  and  four  from  the  Andria  of  Terence. 
He  was  one  of  Thorwaldsen's  early  instructors. 

AB^LE^E.  A  district  referred  to  in  Luke 
iii  :  1  ("Lysanias  being  tetrarch  of  Abilene"). 
It  was  a  fragment  of  the  earlier  kingdom  of 
Iturea,  the  capital  of  which  was  Chalcis  in  the 
plain  of  Massyas,  between  the  Lebanon  and 
Anti-Lebanon  mountains.  When  the  Romans 
took  possession  of  this  region  the  Iturean  king- 
dom became  broken  up  into  four  tetrarchies,  of 
which  Abilene  was  one.  This  took  place,  prob- 
ably, between  36  and  23  d.c.  The  Lysanias 
referred  to  by  Luke  was  the  second  of  that  name, 
the  first  Lysanias  having  been  ruler  of  the  still 
undivided  territory.  The  district  of  Abilene  was 
so  named  from  its  chief  town  Abila,  on  the 
Abana  or  Barada,  the  stream  on  which  Damascus 
is  situated.  Abila  was  on  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Anti-Lebanon  range,  just  where  the  Albana 
breaks  through  the  mountains.  Near  its  site  is 
an  old  cemetery  and  the  ruins  of  a  small  temple, 
both  belonging  to  Roman  times.  In  37  a.d,  Cali- 
gula gave  Abilene  to  Agrippa  I.,  who  died  in  44. 
In  53  it  was  given  by  Claudius  to  Agrippa  II, 
(mentioned  in  Acts  xxv),  who  ruled  it  until  his 
death  in  100,  when  it  became  a  part  of  the  Roman 
province  of  Syria.  Consult:  SchUrer,  History  of 
the  Jewish  People,  I.  ii.  325-344. 

ABILENE,  ubi-len.  A  city  and  county  seat 
of  Dickinson  Co.,  Kan.,  163  miles  west  of  Kansas 
City,  on  the  Smoky  Hill  River,  and  on  the  Union 
Pacific,  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island,  and  Pacific, 
and  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  F6  rail- 
roads (Map:  Kansas,  E  3).  It  is  primarily 
a  residential  and  commercial  place,  contains 
Mount  Saint  Joseph  Academy;  manufactures 
merry-go-rounds,  creamery  products,  etc.  Min- 
eral   water,     flowing    from     sand    springs,     is 


32 


ABnaroDON. 


exported.  Settled  about  1860,  Abilene  was 
incorporated  in  1869,  the  charter  of  that  date 
being  still  in  operation,  and  providing  for  an 
annually  elected  mayor  and  a  municipal  council. 
Pop.,  1890,  3547 ;   1900,  3507. 

ABILENE.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Taylor 
Co.,  Tex.,  160  miles  west  by  south  of  Fort  Worth, 
on  the  Texas  and  Pacific  Railroad  (Map: 
Texas,  E  3).  It  is  in  a  region  devoted  princi- 
pally to  agriculture  and  stock-raising,  and  has 
a  grain  elevator,  fiour,  grist,  and  planing-mills, 
cotton  gins,  etc.    Pop.,  1890,  3194;  1900,  3411. 

ABTMELECH,  &-bIm'd-lgk  (Heb.  my  father  is 
king,  or  Moloch).  The  name  of  four  persons  in 
the  Old  Testament,  two  of  whom  appear  promi- 
nently in  the  narratives. 

1.  A  son  of  Gideon  (Judges  viii  :  31),  c.1200 
B.C.,  and  reckoned  as  one  of  the  judges  by  the 
narrative  in  Judges  x:l.  Upon  the  death  of 
his  father,  who  refused  to  take  the  title  of  king 
either  for  himself  or  children,  Abimelech  set  out 
to  claim  the  sovereignty,  slew  seventy  of  his 
brothers,  and  was  declared  king  (Judges  ix  : 
1-6).  Three  years  afterward  the  Shechemites 
under  the  leadership  of  Gaal  made  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  to  throw  off  his  rule  (Judges 
xxii  :  41 ) .  After  capturing  Shechem  and  burn- 
ing the  temple  of  El-berith,  Abimelech  went 
against  Thebez,  and  here,  while  besieging  the 
place,  he  was  struck  on  the  head  by  a  piece  of 
millstone  thrown  from  the  wall  by  a  woman. 
To  avoid  an  ignominious  death,  he  ordered  his 
armor-bearer  to  run  him  through  (Judges  ib.  43- 
57).  His  reign  is  the  first  attempt  to  establish 
a  monarchy  in  Israel. 

2.  A  king  of  Gerar  mentioned  both  in  the 
biblical  narrative  about  Abraham  (Genesis  xx 
and  xxi  :  22-32 ) ,  and  about  Isaac  ( Genesis 
xxvi  :  7-11;  26-33).  The  story  in  both  cases  is 
pretty  much  alike.  Abimelech  takes  Sarah  into 
his  harem,  after  Abraham,  for  fear  that  he 
should  be  killed,  declared  Sarah  to  be  his  sister. 
In  a  dream,  the  true  relation  between  Abraham 
and  Sarah  is  revealed  to  Abimelech,  who  forth- 
with returns  Sarah  to  her  husband  and  loads 
the  latter  with  presents  of  cattle  and  servants. 
Similarly  Isaac  declares  to  the  men  of  Gerar, 
among  whom  he  has  settled,  that  Rebekah  is  his 
sister.  Abimelech,  however,  discovers  the  true 
relationship,  and  reproaches  Isaac  for  having 
almost  been  the  cause  of  bringing  a  "great  sin" 
upon  Abimelech  and  the  men  of  Gerar.  In  view 
of  this  similarity,  it  is  generally  supposed  by 
modern  critics  that  the  two  stories  are  but  dif- 
ferent versions  of  one  and  the  same  tale. 

3.  A  king  of  Gath,  according  to  the  title  of 
Psalm  xxxiv,  though  here  it  is  possible  that 
Abimelech  has  by  an  error  been  introduced  for 
Achish  (I.  Samuel  xxi  :  20). 

4.  A  priest  according  to  I.  Chronicles  xviii  :  16, 
where,  however,  the  reading  must  be  corrected 
to  Abimelech,  as  we  find  the  name  written  in 
II.  Samuel  viii  :  17  and  elsewhere  in  Samuel. 
See  AiiiMELECH. 

ABINGDON.  A  city  in  Knox  County,  111., 
incorporated  in  1857,  on  the  line  of  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  and  Quincy  and  the  Iowa  Central 
railroads;  10  miles  from  Galesburg,  and  85  miles 
northeast  of  Quincy  (Map:  Illinois,  B  3).  It 
is  the  seat  of  Hedding  College  (Methodist  Epis- 
copal) and  of  the  Abingdon  Normal  College.  Ab- 
ingdon has  wagon  works,  an  animal -trap  factory, 
said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  other  manu- 


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ABINGDON. 


a3 


ABNAEI. 


factures  of  less  extent.  The  city  was  first  settled 
in  1828,  and  is  governed  by  the  charter  of  1859. 
The  mayor's  term  is  one  year,  and  the  city  coun* 
cil  is  eompoHcd  of  five  members.  Pop.,  1890, 
1321;   1900,  2022, 

ABINOBON.  A  town  and  county  seat  of 
Washington  Co.,  Va.,  140  miles  west  by  south 
of  Lynchburg,  on  the  Norfolk  and  Western  Rail- 
road (Map:- Virginia,  C  5).  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Martha  Washington  College  (Methodist 
Episcopal,  South),  established  in  1858,  and  the 
Stonewall  Jackson  Institute  (Presbyterian), 
opened  in  1869  (both  for  young  ladies),  and  con- 
tains Abingdon  Academy.  The  industries  are 
cigar  and  "wagon  factories  and  planing  mills. 
Abingdon  was  settled  about  1730  and  was  incor- 
porated in  1778.    Pop.,  1890,  1674;  1900,  1306. 

AS^TNGTON.  A  manufacturing  town  in  Ply- 
mouth Co.,  Mass.,  20  miles  southeast  of  Boston, 
on  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford  Rail- 
road (Aiap:  ^fassachusetts,  F  3).  It  was  set- 
tled about  1680,  and  incorporated  as  a  colonial 
town  1712.  The  town's  affairs  are  administered 
by  the  town  meetings,  at  which  all  questions  af- 
fecting the  interests  of  the  town  are  discussed 
and  settled.  The  town  owns  and  operates  its 
water-works.  Pop.,  1890,  4260;  1900,  4489.  Con- 
sult: B.  Hobart,  History  of  the  Town  of  Abvng- 
ion  (Boston,  1866). 

ASINGTON,  Frances  (1737-1815).  A  fa- 
mous English  actress.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Barton,  a  common  soldier.  As  an  errand-girl, 
she  acquired  French  from  a  milliner.  She  be- 
came a  fiower-girl  at  the  theatres,  and  made  her 
first  appearance  at  the  Haymarket  in  London 
(1775)  as  Miranda,  in  The  Busybody.  She  was 
man'ied  to  Abington,  her  music  teacher,  from 
whom  she  soon  separated.  The  headdress  she 
wore  was  adopted  by  the  women  of  fashion,  and 
the  **Abington  cap"  became  famous.  Returning 
to  England  in  1765,  at  the  invitation  of  Garrick, 
she  played  at  Drury  Lane  for  eighteen  years, 
and  later  at  Covent  Garden.  She  was  the  orig- 
inal representative  of  Lady  Teazle  in  1777,  and 
played  many  Shakespearean  parts.  After  the  re- 
tirement of  Mrs.  Pritchard  and  Kitty  Clive,  she 
had  no  rivals  on  the  London  stage,  and  became 
the  first  comic  actress  of  the  period.  Her  last 
appearance  was  on  April  12,  1799. 

AB'IOGEN^SIS.     See  Biogenesis. 

ABIPONE,  a'b*-p6'nft.  A  South  American 
Indian  tribe  of  Guaycuran  stock,  which  formerly 
wandered  over  the  Gran  Chaco  region,  west  of 
the  Paraguay  River,  from  the  headwaters  of  the 
Rio  Grande  in  Bolivia  southward  to  the  Ver- 
mejo  in  Argentina.  Their  traditions  pointed  to 
a  more  northern  origin.  They  obtained  horses 
about  the  year  1640,  and  soon  developed  into 
bold  riders  and  implacable  foes  of  the  Spaniards. 
They  were  of  splendid  physique,  and  lived  en- 
tirely by  hunting.  The  women  tattooed,  and  the 
men  practiced  the  couvade.  Their  weapons  were 
the  bow,  the  lance,  and  the  shield.  The  Jesuits 
established  missions  among  them,  but  owing  to 
constant  wars  with  the  Spaniards  and  with  other 
tribes,  and  also  to  the  custom  among  the  women 
of  killing  all  but  two  children  born  to  a  family, 
the  tribe,  which  aboiit  1780  was  estimated  at 
5000,  dwindled  rapidly  and  is  now  supposed  to  be 
entirely  extinct. 

ABKHASIA,     &b-Ka^s^&.        A     district    of 
Asiatic  Russia  on  the  Black  Sea,  included  in  the 
Vol.  1.-3 


goyemment  of  Kutais.  It  is  separated  by  the 
lofty  ridge  of  the  Caucasus  from  Circassia,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  southeast  by  Mingrelia  ( Map : 
Russia,  F  6).  It  derives  its  name  from  the 
Abkhasians.  'The  country  is  mountainous,  with 
well- watered  valleys,  and  has  rich  woods  of  oak, 
walnut  trees,  etc.  Area,  about  2800  square  miles. 
The  northern  part  has  a  mild  and  healthful  cli- 
mate, while  in  the  south  it  is  hot  and  unhealth- 
ful.  Its  population,  numbering  about  50,000, 
mainly  Mingrelians  and  Abkhasians,  is  engaged 
in  agriculture,  cattle-raising,  and  trade  in  lum- 
ber. This  country  was  subdued  by  the  Emperor 
Justinian,  who  introduced  the  Christian  religion. 
Subsequently  Persia,  Georgia,  and  Turkey  ruled 
in  succession,  the  latter  suppressing  Christianity 
and  establishing  Moslemism.  In  1810,  the  Khan 
of  Abkhasia  embraced  Christianity  and  swore  al- 
legiance to  Russia,  reserving  to  himself  and  his 
heirs  the  right  of  governing  the  district.  The 
chief  town  in  this  region  is  Sukhumkale.  The 
people  speak  a  Circassian  dialect,  and  are  phys- 
ically akin  to  that  stock,  although  typically 
ruder  and  less  graceful.  Their  folk-life  is  also 
more  primitive.  As  a  result  of  the  Russian  oc- 
cupation, a  great  part  of  the  tribe  emigrated  into 
Turkish  territory.    See  Circassians. 

AB^LATIVE  CASE.    See  Declension. 

ABIiAXJT,  ftl/lout;  Ger.  pron.  ftp^out,  or 
Vowel  Gradation.  The  name  given  by  Ger- 
man scholars,  and  in  common  use  in  English,  to 
a  change  in  the  root  vowel  in  different  forms  of  the 
same  word.  While  Ablaut  appears  in  other  Indo- 
European  languages  and  in  other  parts  of  speech 
in  the  Teutonic  languages,  it  has  become  the  es- 
sential feature  in  the  strong  conjugation  of  the 
verbs.  (See  Verb.)  Ablaut  is,  therefore,  not  like 
Umlaut,  a  speciilcally  Teutonic  change,  though 
its  application  to  the  verbal  conjugation  is. 
Through  various  causes  Ablaut  has  been  obscured 
in  modern  English,  but  in  Old  English  six  classes 
or  grades  of  Ablaut  can  be  observed.  Ablaut  ap- 
pears also  in  connection  with  the  reduplicating 
verbs.  For  a  complete  list  of  the  strong  verbs 
arranged  according  to  the  classes  of  Ablaut  see 
any  Old  English  (Anglo-Saxon)  grammar.  See 
Phonetic  Laws. 

ABLEGATE  (Lat.  a&,  away,  from,  oft  +  le- 
garCy  to  send  with  a  commission).  A  papal  en- 
voy or  emissary,  a  special  commissioner,  deputed 
by  the  court  of  Rome  to  carry  the  hat  and  red 
beretta  to  a  newly  appointed  cardinal.  His  offi- 
cial duties  are  completed  when  the  latter  has 
received  the  insignia  of  his  office.  The  so-called 
apostolic  ablegates  are  of  higher  rank  than  those 
termed  pontificaU 

ABLXT^TION.     See  Purification. 

ABNAKI,  Ab-nU'kft  ("Easterners").  A  con- 
federacy of  Algonquin  tribes,  including  the  Pas- 
samaquoddies,  Penobscots,  Norridgewocks  and 
others,  formerly  occupying  what  is  now  Maine 
and  southern  New  Brunswick.  On  the  northeast 
their  territory  adjoined  that  of  the  Micmacs, 
while  on  the  southwest  it  merged  into  that  of  the 
Pennacooks.  In  consequence  of  King  Philip's 
War  (see  Wampanoag),  they  attached  themselves 
to  the  French  side  and  maintained  unceasing  hos- 
tility against  the  encroachment  of  the  English, 
until  the  destruction  of  their  principal  town  at 
Norridgewock  and  the  killing  of  their  mission- 
ary Rasle  in  1724,  after  which  the  greater  por- 
tion removed  to  Saint  Francis,  Canada,  whither 
other  refugees  from  the  New  England  tribes  had 


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ABNAEI. 

already  preceded  them.  Those  who  remained 
afterward  entered  into  an  arrangement  with  the 
English  by  which  they  were  confirmed  in  pos- 
session of  a  small  part  of  their  ancient  inher- 
itance. They  are  now  represented  by  the  Amal- 
ecites  on  Saint  John  River,  New  Brunswick  and 
Quebec  (820),  the  Passamaquoddies  on  the  bay 
of  that  name  in  Maine  (300),  the  Penobscots  at 
Oldtown,  Maine  (400),  and  the  Abnakis  at  Saint 
Francis  and  B^ancour,  Quebec  (430).  Their 
language  is  preserved  in  the  monumental  dic- 
tionary of  Rasle. 

ABOTEB  (Heb.  father  of  light).  The  son 
of  Ner,  and  cousin  of  Saul,  and  commander  of 
his  army  ( I.  Samiiel  xiv  :  60) .  After  SauPs  death 
the  tribe  of  Judah  recognized  David,  while  Ab- 
ner  pre\-ailed  upon  the  other  tribes  to  recognize 
Saul's  son,  Ishbosheth  (II.  Samuel  ii:8-ll).  Da- 
vid sent  his  army,  under  Joab,  into  the  field,  and 
at  the  pool  of  Gibeon  the  followers  of  Abner,  who 
was  in  control,  suffered  defeat  {ibid.,  verses 
12-17).  In  his  flight,  Abner,  being  hotly  pursued 
by  Asahel,  turned  and  reluctantly  slew  him 
{ibid.y  verses  19-23).  Afterward  Abner  had  a 
quarrel  with  Ishbosheth  and  went  over  to  David 
(II.  Samuel  iii  ;  7-11,  17-21)  ;  but  the  death  of 
Asahel  produced  a  blood  feud  between  Joab  ( Asa- 
hel's  brother)  and  Abner,  which  ultimately  led  to 
Abner's  death.  In  consequence  of  a  quarrel  be- 
tween Abner  and  his  master,  Ishbosheth,  who  ac- 
cused him  of  having  designs  upon  the  throne, 
Abner  espoused  David's  cause.  While  being  hos- 
pitably entertained  by  David  at  Hebron,  Abner 
was  treacherously  killed  by  Joab  and  the  conni- 
vance of  his  brother  Abishai  ( II.  Samuel  iii  :  22- 
27).  The  murder  called  forth  general  indig- 
nation, and  the  King  himself  acted  as  chief 
mourner.  He  ordered  a  public  mourning,  and  a 
portion  of  an  elegy  is  preserved  ( II.  Samuel  iii  : 
33-34),  said  to  have  b«en  composed  by  David  in 
memory  of  Abner. 

AB'NET,  Captain  Sir  William  de  Wiveles- 
LIE  (1844 — ).  An  English  astronomer  and 
physicist.  He  was  born  at  Derby,  and  was  edu- 
cated at  the  Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich. 
He  was  made  a  lieutenant  in  the  Royal  Engineers 
in  1861  and  a  captain  in  1871.  From  1893  to 
1895  he  served  as  president  of  the  Royal  Astro- 
nomical Society,  and  in  the  latter  year  he  became 
president  of  the  Physical  Society  of  London. 
Subsequently  he  was  appointed  the  principal 
assistant  secretary  of  the  Science  and  Art  De- 
partment of  the  Board  of  Education.  He  is 
well  known  for  his  researches  in  photography 
and  spectroscopy,  and  has  published  a  num- 
ber of  important  books  on  these  subjects, 
including  Instruction  in  Photography  (1870)  ; 
Treatise  on  Photography  (1875)  ;  Colour  Vision^ 
Colour  Measurement  and  Mixture  (1893)  ; 
Thebes  and  its  Five  Great  Temples  (1876)  ;  and, 
with  C.  D.  Cunningham,  The  Pioneers  of  the 
Alps  (1888).  Captain  Abney  was  knighted  in 
1900  in  recognition  of  his  scientific  work. 

ABO,  a'bd.  The  most  ancient  city  and  former 
capital  of  Finland,  now  Jhe  chief  town  of  the 
Russian  Government  of  Abo-Bj<)rneborg,  situa- 
ted on  the  River  Aurayoki,  near  its  embouchure 
in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  128  miles  west  by  north 
from  Helsingfors  ( Map :  Russia,  B  2 ) .  Its  streets 
are  broad  and  lined  with  rathey  low  stone  build- 
ings. Owing  to  its  antiquity,  Abo  has  a  number 
of  buildings  of  historical  interest,  among  them 
the  cathedral,  containing  a  magnificent  sarcopha- 


34 


ABOLITIONISTS. 


gus  erected  in  1865  for  the  unfortunate  Queen,. 
Catharine  Monsdotter,  who  died  in  1512.  In 
one  of  its  suburbs  is  the  spring  of  St. 
Henry,  in  which,  according  to  tradition,  the 
first  Finns  embracing  Christianity  were  bap- 
tized. It  is  in  regular  steamship  communication 
with  St.  Petersburg,  Stockholm,  and  other  porta 
on  the  Baltic,  visited  annually  by  some  100 
vessels,  whose  aggregate  tonnage  reaches  about 
200,000  tons.  Shipbuilding  is  an  important 
industry  here,  many  of  the  Russian  warships 
having  been  constructed  in  this  city.  The  great 
Crayton  works  supply  the  Russian  fleet  with 
torpedo  boats.  It  has  a  number  of  cotton  mills, 
tobacco  factories,  sugar  refineries,  and  machine 
shops.  Of  its  educational  institutions,  the 
School  of  Navigation  and  the  School  for  Deaf- 
mutes  deserves  special  attention.  In  addition  ta 
these  it  has  a  number  of  gymnasiums,  a  technical 
institute,  a  commercial  school,  and  a  normal 
training  school.  The  United  States  is  repre- 
sented by  a  consular  agent.  Population,  1888, 
27,000;  1897,  35,000,  64%  being  Finns  and  nearly 
42%  Swedes.  The  town  grew  up  around  a  castle 
(which  is  still  in  existence,  and  is  used  as  a 
prison  at  present)  founded  in  1156  by  Eric  IX.» 
and  became  an  important  place  in  the  following 
century.  It  was  repeatedly  attacked  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  Russians  in  their  many  wars 
with  the  Swedes,  and  finally  fell  into  their 
hands  in  1808;  since  then  it  has  remained 
a  Russian  possession.  It  was  the  capital  of 
Finland  until  1819.  In  the  year  1827  a  great 
part  of  the  town,  including  the  university  build- 
ings, was  destroyed  by  fire,  and  the  university 
was  removed  to  Helsingfors,  now  the  capital. 
The  Peace  of  Abo  (1743),  between  Sweden  and 
Russia,  put  an  end  to  the  war  commenced  by 
Sweden,  under  French  instigation,  in  1741. 

ABOABD'.    See  Snip. 

AbO-BJOBNEBOBG,  A^6-b^er^ne-b0rg.  A 
government  in  southwest  Finland.  Area, 
9336  square  miles.  Its  topography  is  like 
that  of  the  rest  of  Finland.  Among  the  moun- 
tain ranges  of  granite  crossing  it  there  are  about- 
one  hundred  and  fifty  lakes  and  numerous- 
marshes.  The  southern  section  is  more  hilly  than 
the  northern,  and  along  the  seashore  has  many 
safe  havens  for  sea-going  vessels.  Except  the 
River  Kumo,  Abo-Bjorneborg  has  no  navigable 
rivers.  It  has  a  temi)erate  and  healthful  climate, 
and  the  principal  industries  are  agriculture  and 
the  raising  of  cattle,  and  fishing.  There  is  a 
flourishing  mining  industry,  the  chief  products, 
being  granite,  black  marble,  iron,  and  clay. 
Abo-Bjorneborg  is,  moreover,  the  foremost  manu* 
facturing  province  of  Finland,  the  chief  branchea 
of  industry  being  wood  and  metal  working,  dis- 
tilling, brewing,  manufacture  of  leather,  paper, 
and  tobacco.  Population,  1897,  419,300,  scat- 
tered in  six  towns  (55,500  inhabitants)  and 
3403  villages;  in  1888  there  were  380,500  people. 
About  83  %  of  the  population  arc  Finns,  less  than 
17%  Swedes. 

AB'OLI^IOimSTS  (Lat.  abolitio,  an  annul- 
ling, from  abolerCy  to  check  the  growth).  The 
term  by  which,  after  1835  and  until  the  Civil 
War,  those  opponents  of  slavery  were  designated 
who  were  the  most  intense  in  their  desire  to 
secure  the  immediate  emancipation  of  the  blacks. 
Others  avowed  their  "anti-slavery"  opinions,  but 
these  advocated,  by  all  the  means  they  could 
command,    immediate    "abolition."     Their    posi- 


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ABOLITIONISTS.  35 

tion  was  weakened,  and  their  reputation  for 
sobriety  was  damaged,  by  their  steadfast  refusal 
to  recognize  the  binding  force  of  any  liuman  laws 
which  recognized  human  slavery,  and  even  of 
the  constitution;  and  their  extreme  demands 
and  radical  methods  repelled  the  sympathy  of 
many  conservative  men  who  desired  that  the 
abolition  of  slavery  should  be  secured,  although 
by  expedient  and  legal  means.  Although  dis- 
credited in  many  quarters,  the  abolitionists  were 
in  the  end  successful,  from  one  point  of  view, 
in  making  slavery  a  national  issue  and  in  hasten- 
ing the  time  of  final  decision  as  to  its  contin- 
uance. Among  the  most  conspicuous  leaders  of 
the  abolitionists  were  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
a  vigorous  and  fearless  writer,  Wendell  Phillips, 
the  famous  orator,  Gerrit  Smith,  a  generous 
philanthropist,  Arthur  Tappan,  William  Goodell, 
and  Lucretia  Mott.  The  biographies  of  most  of 
these  leaders  have  been  written^  and  they  afford 
ample  illustrations  of  the  spirit  by  which  they 
were  governed.  See  Anti-Slavery  Society; 
Garrison,  Wiixiam  Lloyd;  Giddinos,  Joshua 
K.;  and  Parker,  Theodore. 

ABOUnOK  OF  SLAV^EBY.  See  Slavery. 

ABO^HA  (Portug.).  A  boa.  The  term  is 
widespread  in  tropical  America,  but  lately  has 
been  more  especially  applied  to  the  Central 
American  thick-headed  or  singed  boa  {Epicratea 
c€nchria)y  which  is  of  gigantic  size,  and  is  dark 
yellowish-gray,  having  a  row  of  dark  brown  rings 
along  the  back,  and  the  sides  marked  with  dark 
blotches,  each  inclosing  a  lighter  crescent.  See 
Boa  and  Plate  of  Boas. 

ABOMBY,  ft'bA-mft',  The  capital  of  Daho- 
mey, West  Africa,  situated  about  60  miles  inland, 
in  7**  N.  lat.  and  2°  4'  E.  long.  (Map:  Africa, 
E  4).  It  is  surrounded  by  a  wall  built  of  mud 
and  a  deep  trench.  The  houses  are  also  built  of 
mud  and  are  unpretentious  in  appearance. 
There  are  several  royal  palaces,  once  the  scenes 
of  religious  rites  and  barbaric  orgies.  Before 
the  French  occupation,  Abomey  was  an  important 
slave  market,  but  at  present  the  traffic  is  con- 
fined to  ivory,  palm  oil,  and  gold.  The  town 
was  captured  by  the  French  in  1892.  The  pop- 
ulation is  estimated  at  about  20,000. 

ABOBIOnnSS,  aVA-rljI-nez  (Lat.  ah,  from 
4-  origo,  origin ) .  Properly,  the  earliest  inhab- 
itants of  a  country.  The  corresponding  term 
used  by  the  Greeks  was  autochthones  ( q.v. ) .  The 
Roman  and  Greek  historians,  however,  apply  the 
name  to  a  special  people,  who,  according  to 
tradition,  had  their  original  seats  in  the  moun- 
tains about  Reate,  now  Rieti;  but,  being  driven 
out  by  the  Sabines,  descended  into  Latium,  and, 
in  conjunction  with  a  tribe  of  Pelasgi,  subdued 
or  expelled  the  Siculi  and  occupied  the  country. 
The  aborigines  then  disappeared  as  a  distinct 
people,  they  and  their  allies,  the  Pelasgi,  having 
taken  the  name  of  Latini.  The  non-Pelasgic 
element  of  the  Roman  population  is  supposed 
to  represent  these  aborigines,  who  would  thus 
belong  to  the  Oscans  or  Ausonians. 

ABOK^TIOK  (Lat.  ahortioy  from  ah,  away -j- 
oriri,  to  rise).  The  expulsion  of  the  offspring 
from  the  womb  of  its  mother  before  it  is  capable 
of  living  independently.  Abortion  occurring  in 
a  woman  before  the  sixth  month  of  pregnancy 
is  generally  called  a  miscarriage.  If  the  foetus 
leaves  the  womb  after  it  is  viable,  and  before 


ABOBTION. 


the  proper  end  of  pregnancy,  the  occurrence  is 
termed  a  premature  delivery.  Hegar  considers 
that  there  is,  in  women,  one  abortion  to  every 
ten  normal  pregnancies;  Devilliers  states  the 
ratio  as  one  in  three  or  four.  Whitehead  states 
that  80%  of  all  abortions  take  place  between 
the  second  and  fourth  months  of  pregnancy. 
It  is  therefore  important  that  a  mother  should 
have  special  care  during  the  early  months  of 
gestation.  Microscopical  examination  is  re- 
quired to  determine  the  fact  of  an  abortion  oc- 
curring within  four  weeks  of  conception.  After 
the  first  month  the  foetus  commences  to  assume 
a  recognizable  shape. 

Causes  of  Abortion.  Abortion  may  be  due  to 
disease  of  the  father,  to  morbid  changes  in  the 
ovum,  to  morbid  changes  in  the  placenta,  or  to 
maternal  causes.  (1)  Of  the  diseases  of  the 
father  that  may  cause  abortion,  syphilis  is  the 
most  important.  Habitual  abortion  leads  to  the 
suspicion  of  syphilitic  taint,  although  other 
causes  may  bring  about  this  condition.  Old  age, 
tuberculosis,  kidney  disease  of  the  father  may 
so  afl'ect  the  vitality  of  the  germ  of  conception 
that,  although  pregnancy  may  occur,  there  is  not 
enough  strength  to  complete  the  development. 
(2)  Causes  due  to  disease  or  death  of  the  ovum 
itself,  apart  from  other  causes,  are  rare.  They 
are  usually  associated  with  some  defect  in 
the  formation  of  the  young  embryo.  (3)  Pla- 
cental causes  are  frequent.  If  the  placenta  does 
not  have  a  sufficient  area  from  which  to  draw  a 
blood  supply  for  the  foetus,  it  may  die ;  or  if  the 
placenta  is  fastened  low  in  the  uterus,  hem- 
orrhage and  abortion  are  very  liable  to  occur. 
(4)  The  causes  which  are  due  to  disease  or  in- 
jury of  the  mother  are  the  most  frequent.  Dis- 
eases of  the  decidua  of  the  uterus  and  of  the 
other  generative  organs,  such  as  tumor  of  the 
ovary,  distention  of  the  fallopian  tubes,  inflam- 
matory adhesions  about  the  uterus,  and  badly 
formed  pelvic  organs,  are  among  the  local  causes. 
Certain  constitutional  diseases  may  also  cause 
abortion,  as  syphilis.  Alcoholic  excesses  are 
almost  as  pernicious.  Poisoning  with  metals, 
as  lead  or  mercury,  with  phosphorus  and  other 
poisons,  as  coal  gas  and  many  volatile  oils,  and 
some  of  the  acute  diseases,  pneumonia,  yellow 
fever,  smallpox,  and  peritonitis,  have  brou|fht 
about  abortion.  Shock  and  injury  are  very  im- 
portant causes.  Excessive  muscular  fatigue,  bi- 
cycle riding,  horseback  riding,  lawn  tennis,  use 
of  the  sewing-machine,  and  swimming  are  espe- 
cially to  be  avoided.  Lack  of  hygiene  is  also 
responsible  for  numerous  cases.  Insufficient  food, 
contaminated  air,  change  in  climate,  and  tightly 
laced  corsets,  all  interfere  with  the  proper  nour- 
ishment of  the  foetus  and  thus  induce  abortion. 
After  abortion  has  once  taken  place,  successive 
abortions  are  very  liable,  even  in  comparatively 
healthy  women.  A  normal  healthy  mental  atti- 
tude is  a  saving  grace  from  this  accident. 

Symptoms.    The  cardinal  symptoms  are  pa,in, 
and  hemorrhage  from  the  \xterus»  these  varying 
greatly,   according   to   the    comP^®^^^^*  ^^   ^^ 
process.     Early  symptoms  y^  ^  \>e  **•  ^^^*^t\oiv  ot 
weight,  with  distress  or  ^Ai^^J  *mi.Vi^  ^^  ^^*^  ^^^^' 
increased  by  standing  a>  *^^\vl  V.'^g.    ioWo^^^  \>7 
oozing  or  a  menstrual   ^     N^^\V>^t  ^^^^^^.wXv 
hemorrhage      This     ma^^^^^^   o^  %<n^Wi 
sometimes  lasting  ?ever^        "^^^  ,^t     .V^V  r;^^^..v\oTv 
charges  of  blood,  with  x^^\    ^"^^^^    ve^t -k^^^-  ^^ 
of  all  the  symptoms  fot^  ^  ^      Ws^l  \r.  o^  ^v^^  \)aa 
later  abortions,  the  li^    '^V^V    1^^  '^   •<!> 


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ABOBTION. 

foetus  is  suspended,  may  either  ooze  away  or 
come  away  in  a  gush. 

The  pain  is  rarely  continuous;  at  times  it 
resembles  the  intermittent  pains  of  a  colicky 
diarrhea.  It  is  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the 
uterine  muscle  trying  to  eject  a  foreign  body. 
With  each  muscular  contraction  there  is  oozing, 
or  more  copious  bleeding,  or  the  expulsion  of 
the  product  of  conception.  If  the  pains  are 
comparatively  weak  and  occur  at  long  intervals, 
it  may  be  possible  to  prevent  the  abortion.  If 
they  are  strong  and  come  closely  one  after  the 
other,  the  chances  of  stopping  the  process  are 
less. 

Treatment.  Healthy  physical  and  mental  ex- 
ercise is  one  of  the  best  preventives  of  this 
accident.  In  families  where  the  mother  or 
grandmother  aborted  frequently,  special  care  of 
diet,  exercise,  and  clothing  should  be  taken. 
Constipation  should  be  avoided  by  the  use  of 
water  and  the  green  vegetables.  Should  the 
symptoms  mentioned  occur,  the  woman  should 
lie  down,  absolutely  quiet,  on  her  back  and  call 
her  regular  medical  attendant. 

There  are  occasional  cases  (as  where  the  out- 
let of  the  pelvis  is  very  contracted)  in  which  it 
is  necessary  for  physicians  to  induce  abortion. 
It  cannot  be  too  generally  known  that  all  at- 
tempts at  procuring  criminal  abortion,  either  by 
the  administration  of  powerful  drugs  or  the  ap- 
plication of  instruments,  are  accompanied  with 
extreme  danger  to  the  pregnant  woman.  It  can- 
not be  too  earnestly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of 
those  who  are  tempted  to  procure  a  criminal 
abortion  by  means  of  drugs  that  the  danger  of 
causing  death  is  very  serious.  Many  so-called 
emmenagogues  (q.v.) ,  which  induce  the  menstrual 
flow  in  a  woman  who  is  not  pregnant,  but  is 
merely  suffering  from  amenorrhoea,  or  suppres- 
sion of  the  menses,  are  abortifacients  only  when 
given  in  such  doses  as  to  endanger  life,  or  to  set 
up  violent  internal  inflammations.  Among  these 
are  the  various  preparations  of  ergot  of  rye 
(q.v.),  savin  (the  most  powerful  of  all  emmena- 
gogues), borax,  rue,  tansy,  cantharides,  etc.  In 
the  South,  among  the  ignorant  negroes,  concoc- 
tions of  pennyroyal  and  cotton-root  bark  are 
used  for  the  same  purpose.  The  milder  emmena- 
gogues, such  as  iron,  aloes,  etc.,  have  no  abortive 
tendency,  except  in  the  case  of  those  women  who 
are  predisposed  to  abort.  Violent  purgatives,  in 
cases  where  they  have  caused  abortion,  have  not 
done  so  because  they  directly  exercise  an  ecbolic 
effect  on  the  uterus,  but  only  as  a  secondary  con- 
sequence of  the  excessive  intestinal  irritation 
which  they  cause. 

Abortion,  or  Miscarriage,  in  Law.  The 
courts  in  this  country  are  not  agreed  as 
to  the  nature  of  the  crime  at  common  law.  In 
a  number  of  States  there  are  decisions  or  dicta 
to  the  effect  that  "to  produce  an  abortion  on  a 
woman,  before  she  is  quick  with  child,  and  with 
her  consent,"  is  not  to  commit  the  common- 
law  crime  of  abortion.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
has  been  judicially  declared  in  Pennsylvania  that 
"it  is  not  the  murder  of  a  living  child  which 
constitutes  the  offense  of  abortion,  Init  the  de- 
struction of  gest*ition  by  wicked  means  and 
against  nature,"  and,  consequently,  that  one  who 
intentionally  causes  the  miscarriage  of  a  woman, 
even  with  her  consent  and  before  the  foetus  has 
quickened,  is  indictable  at  common  law.  This 
appears  to  be  the  correct  view,  and  it  has 
been  approved  by  several  courts.    Modern  stat- 


36 


ABOBTION. 


utes,  as  a  rule,  have  given  effect  to  this  view. 
At  present  the  crime  is  generally  defined,  with 
much  particularity,  by  statute,  and  may  be  com- 
mitted by  one  of  three  classes  of  persons.  First, 
by  the  pregnant  woman  who  takes  any  drugs  or 
submits  to  any  treatment  with  intent  to  pr^uce 
her  miscarriage,  unless  that  is  necessary  to  save 
her  life  or  the  life  of  the  child.  Second,  by  a 
person  prescribing,  supplying  or  administering 
any  substance  to  a  woman,  or  treating  her,  with 
intent  to  cause  her  miscarriage,  unless  that  is 
necessary  to  save  her  life  or  the  life  of  the  child. 
Under  some  statutes,  such  a  person  may  be  guilty 
of  the  offense,  whether  the  woman  is  pregnant 
or  not;  the  gist  of  his  crime  consisting  in  the 
intention  with  which  his  act  was  done.  Third, 
by  a  person  manufacturing,  giving  or  selling  an 
instrument  or  substance  with  int«nt  that  it 
may  be  unlawfully  used  in  procuring  the  mis- 
carriage of  a  woman.  Acts  done  in  procuring  an 
abortion  may  subject  the  actor  to  punishment  for 
another  crime  also,  as  assault  (q.v.),  or  homi- 
cide (q.v.).  Consult:  Wharton,  Criminal  Law 
(Philadelphia,  1896)  ;  Harris,  Principles  of  the 
Criminal  Law  (London,  1899). 

Abortion  in  Animals.  In  general,  two  forms 
of  abortion  are  recognized  by  veterinarians, 
the  non-contagious  and  the  contagious.  There 
are  a  number  of  conditions  which  may  produce 
non-contagious  abortion.  A  general  cachexia 
or  anaemia  may  be  among  the  predisposing 
causes  of  abortion;  and  among  other  conditions 
and  causes  which  may  lead  to  abortion  mention 
should  be  made  of  acute  diseases  of  the  vital 
organs,  contagious  fevers,  chronic  diseases  of 
the  abdominal  organs,  diseases  of  the  ovaries, 
kidneys,  or  bladder,  diarrhea,  fatty  degeneration 
of  the  heart;  ingestion  of  large  quantities  of 
cold  water,  various  forms  of  indigestion,  espe- 
cially those  which  are  accompanied  by  the  forma- 
tion of  gas  in  the  stomach;  imprudent  feeding 
with  succulent  forage  in  large  quantities,  such 
as  roots,  potatoes,  apples,  pumpkins,  ergotized 
grasses,  sweaty  or  rusty  grains  and  grasses; 
standing  in  stalls  with  too  great  a  backward 
slope,  nervous  excitement,  and  muscular  strain. 
Contagious  abortion  is  most  frequent  in  cows. 
It  occurs  also  in  sheep,  goats,  horses,  swine,  and, 
perhaps,  in  the  dog  and  cat.  •  It  appears  in  an 
enzootic  or  epizootic  form.  The  disease  is  per- 
petuated in  the  herd  or  transmitted  from  one 
herd  to  another  by  means  of  contagion.  If  an 
aborting  cow  is  placed  in  a  herd  which  has 
hitherto  been  healthy,  an  outbreak  of  abortion 
may  occur.  Bulls  that  have  served  aborting 
cows  may  transmit  the  disease  to  other  cows. 
In  general,  the  micro-organisms  to  which  the 
disease  is  due  are  found  in  the  male  and  female 
genital  organs,  and  on  the  afterbirth  from  abort- 
ing animals. 

In  cows,  abortion  seldom  occurs  before  the 
fourth  month  of  pregnancy,  but  may  occur  at 
any  time  after  that  period.  The  symptoms  of 
the  disease  are  not  prominent  or  characteristic. 
Cows  which  are  affected  with  the  disease  may  re- 
main apparently  healthy  until  abortion  takes 
place.  The  foetus  is  expelled  with  ease,  and  is 
usually  dead  at  birth.  If  abortion  occurs  at  the 
end  of  six  months  the  young  may  be  alive,  but 
lives  only  a  few  hours.  Alares  abort  between 
the  fourth  and  the  seventh  month  of  gestation. 
The  premonitory  symptoms  of  abortion  in  mares 
are  enlargement  of  the  mammary  glands  and  a 
white  mucous  or  sometimes  purulent  discharge 


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ABOBTION. 


37 


ABBACADABBA. 


from  the  vagina  three  or  four  days  before  the 
expulsion  of  the  foetus.  The  treatment  for  this 
disease,  which  has  given  satisfactory,  results,  is 
the  application  of  thorough  antisepsis.  In  case 
of  an  outbreak  of  abortion,  the  foetus  and  foetal 
membranes  from  aborting  animals  should  be 
burned  or  deeply  buried,  the  posterior  parts  of 
the  animals  should  be  washed  in  some  antiseptic 
solution,  repeated  antiseptic  vaginal  douches 
should  be  given,  and  the  stable  should  be  thor- 
oughly disinfected.  In  order  to  prevent  the  pos- 
sible spread  of  the  infection,  the  posterior  parts 
of  other  cows  or  mares  in  the  same  stable  should 
be  carefully  washed  with  a  solution  of  creolin, 
potassium  permanganate,  or  corrosive  sublimate. 
(Tontagious  or  epizootic  abortion  has  been  known 
in  all  parts  of  Europe  since  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. The  disease  also  prevails  in  Australia 
and  in  all  parts  of  the  t/nited  States.  Many 
extensive  outbreaks  are  recorded  in  different  lo- 
calities. Consult:  Turner'^  "Infectious  Abor- 
tion in  Mares,"  American  Veterinarian  Review 
(1894,  p.  187);  Report  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  1893,  Division  of  Animal 
Industry,  Bulletin  3,  D.  E.  Salmon;  Special  Re- 
port on  Afiscellaneous  Investigations  Concerning 
Infectious  and  Parasitic  Diseases  of  Domes ti- 
catcd  Animals   (Washington,  1893). 

Abortion  in  Plants.  That  kind  of  arrest 
in  development  by  which  an  organ  appears  in  its 
early  stages,  but  fails  to  develop  to  its  normal 
form  or  size.  For  example,  in  many  flowers  cer- 
tain stamens  are  aborted,  their  primordia  having 
appeared,  but  having  failed  to  develop  into  func- 
tioning stamens.  The  abortion  may  be  of  any 
degree  between  the  first  appearance  of  the  organ 
and  its  complete  maturity.  A  very  closely  re- 
lated term  is  "suppression,"  in  which  not  even 
the  beginning  of  an  expected  organ  appears.  The 
phenomenon  is  chiefly  observable  in  connection 
with  the  Flower  (q.v.). 

ABOTJ  BEN  ADHEM  (%^M  b6n  Hd^$m) 
AKD  THE  ANGEL.  A  short  narrative  poem 
by  Lieigh  Hunt,  the  significance  of  which  appears 
in  the  line, 

^*  Write  me  as  one  that  loves  his  fellowmen." 

ABOTTKIB,  a'b5<5-k§r^.     See  Abukib. 

ABOUIilA,  ft-b?R5ai-&.    See  Will. 

ABOUT'.    See  Tacking. 

ABOUT,  i'bSi/,  Edmond  (1828-86).  A  bril- 
liant, witty,  but  very  uneven  journalist,  nov- 
elist, and  writer  of  social  and  political  essays. 
He  was  bom  at  Dieuze,  completed  his  studies  in 
Paris,  won  honors,  and  was  sent  in  1851  to  the 
French  School  at  Athens,  where  he  studied  lit- 
tle, but  observed  much  in  a  desultory  way.  The 
literary  result  of  his  two  years'  stay  in  Greece  is 
La  Or^ce  contcmporaine  (1854),  and  Le  roi  des 
moniagnes  (1856),  both  full  of  humor  and  irony. 
Thej  were  popular,  often  translated,  and  had 
influence  on  what  passed  for  political  thought. 
In  1855  he  published  Tolla,  a  story  of  Italy,  bor- 
rowed in  part,  and  without  due  acknowledg- 
ment, from  an  Italian  novel,  Vittoria  Savorelli 
(1841).  In  1856  he  essayed  the  stage  without 
success,  but  won  popularity  by  short  stories  col- 
lected under  the  titles  Les  mariages  de  Paris 
(1856)  and  Les  mariages  de  protiince  (1868). 
His  most  popular  stories  are  L*homme  d  Vorcille 
tass^e  (1861)  and  Le  nez  du  notaire  (1861), 
both  often  translated.  He  had  a  gift  of  facile 
narration,  but  he  did  not  take  his  talent  seri- 


ously, and  ceased  writing  fiction  with  the  fall  of 
the  Second  Empire,  of  which  he  was  a  spoiled 
child.  To  politics  during  these  years  he  had 
contributed  La  question  romaine  (1859),  Rome 
contcmporaine  (1861),  La  Prusse  en  1860,  La 
nouvelle  carte  de  V Europe  (1860),  and  Le 
progrds  (1864).  After  the  fall  of  the  Empire 
he  became  editor  of  Le  XIX  Si^cle,  and  published 
a  bitter  book  on  Alsace  (1872).  He  was  made  an 
academician  in  1885.  The  general  character- 
istics of  his  work  are  a  kindly  humor,  a  keen 
irony,  a  cleanly  taste,  and  a  rather  shallow  skep- 
ticism. 

ABOVILLE,  A'b6'v^y  or  A'b^'v^K,  Fban- 
gois  Marie  (1730-1817).  A  French  general 
of  artillery.  He  was  born  at  Brest.  During  the 
war  of  the  American  Revolution  he  commanded 
Kochambeau's  artillery  at  Yorktown.  In  1792  he 
commanded  the  armies  of  the  North  and  of  Ar- 
dennes, and  in  1809  was  appointed  Crovernor  of 
Brest. 

ABOX^    See  Box  Hal^lino. 

A^BA.  ( 1 )  A  character  in  Prior's  poem.  Solo- 
mon on  the  Vanity  of  the  World,  She  appears 
in  the  second  part  of  the  poem  as  an  obedient 
concubine  of  the  King,  and  finally  captivates 
him.  (2)  A  character  in  the  mediaeval  romance  of 
Amadis  of  Greece.  She  is  a  sister  of  the  Sultan 
of  Babylon,  and  secures  his  throne  after  he  is 
killed  by  her  lover,  Lisnarte. 

ABBABAHEL,A-brrB&-neK,  ABABBAHEL, 
A-Bfir'b&nfiK,  or  ABBAVAKEL,  ft-bra'v&.n6l', 
Isaac  ben  Jehuda  (1437-1508).  A  Jewish 
scholar  and  statesman.  He  was  born  in  Lisbon, 
and  claimed  descent  from  King  David.  He 
was  treasurer  of  Alfonso  V.,  but  after  that 
king's  death  was  banished  from  Portugal  and 
his  property  confiscated.  In  Spain  he  made 
a  fortune  as  a  merchant,  and  was  in  high 
favor  with  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  in  1487, 
but  the  decree  of  1492  banished  all  Jews  from 
Spain,  and  Abrabanel  fied  to  Naples,  where  he 
found  royal  favor,  but  was  again  obliged  to  fly 
when  Naples  surrendered  to  the  French  in  1495. 
He  settled  last  at  Venice.  He  was  one  of  the 
ablest  men  of  his  time,  and  was  learned  in  bibli- 
cal exegesis  and  philosophy.  His  most  celebrated 
work  is  his  Herald  of  Salvation  (1526),  an  elab- 
orate presentation  of  the  Jewish  doctrine  of  the 
Messiah. 

AB'BACADAB^BA.     A    word    probably    de- 
rived from  the  same  root  as  Abraxas,  and  used 
by  the  Gnostics  of  the  sect  of  Basilides  in  the 
Orient  (second  century  and  later)   as  a  magical 
formula  by  which  the  assistance  of  good  spirits 
was  invoked  against  all  evils 
or  maladies.    Inscribed  upon     ABRACADABRA 
gems    it   formed   a   class   of       ABRACADABR 
the  so-called  Abraxas  stones,         ABRACADAB 
and  was  concealed  about  the  ABRACADA 

person.    With  the  spread  of  ABRACAD 

magical    practices    it    came  ABRACA 

into  use  outside  the  Gnostic  ABRAC 

sect.     The  Gnostic  physician  ABRA 

Sammonicus    describes    how  ABR 

it    can    be    made    efiicaeious  AB 

Against     fevers,      especially  A 

agues.     It  should  be  written 
several  times,  each  time  on  a  separate  line  and 
each  time  dropping  a  letter,  the  letters  arranged 
so  as  to^form  an  inverted  triangle  and  to  read 
across  the  base  and  up   the  right  side.    This 


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ABBACADABSA.  38 

amulet  was  to  be  folded  and  worn  on  the  bosom 
for  nine  days,  then  flung  backward  before  sun- 
rise into  a  stream  flowing  eastward.  See  Abrax- 
as; Amuxet. 

AB'BADA^AS.  A  king  of  Susa,  who  at  first 
fought  against  Cyrus  the  Great,  but  who  after- 
ward, in  consequence  of  the  latter's  kindness  to 
Pantiiea,  his  wife,  who  had  been  captured 
by  the  Persians,  yielded  to  Cyrus  and  became 
his  ally.  Abradatas  perished  in  the  war  against 
Croesus  the  Lydian.  The  story  of  his  romantic 
alfection  for  Panthea  and  her  suicide  after  his 
deatli  appears  in  the  fifth  book  of  Xenophon's 
CyropcBdia, 

ABRAHAM.  The  Father  of  the  Hebrews, 
whose  story  is  given  in  Genesis  xi-xxv.  It  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  incidents  in  the  patriarch's 
life,  put  together  in  a  consecutive  narrative 
and  emanating  from  different  literary  sources. 
In  Genesis  xi  :  10  the  genealogy  of  the  Shemites 
(or  sons  of  Shem)  is  taken  up,  leading  up  to 
Terah,  the  father  of  Abram,  Nahor,  and  Haran. 
The  home  of  Terah  and  his  sons  is  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees — ^a  place  commonly  identified  with  the 
site  of  the  mound  Mugheir,  in  southern  Baby- 
lonia— ^but  after  the  death  of  Haran  the  Tera- 
hites  journey  northward  to  Haran  and  take  up 
their  settlements  at  that  place*.  Terah  dies  in 
Haran,  and  Abram,  accompanied  by  his  wife 
Sarai  and  his  nephew  Lot  (the  son  of  Haran), 
quits  Babylonia  by  divine  command  and  pro- 
ceeds by  a  circuitous  northern  route  via  Damas- 
cus to  Canaan.  He  halts  at  various  places,  nota- 
bly Shechem  and  Bethel,  where  he  erects  altars 
to  Yahweh  (chap.  xii.).  Leading  a  pastoral  life, 
we  next  find  him  in  Egypt,  whither  he  has  been 
driven  in  consequence  of  a  famine  in  Palestine. 
Sarai's  beauty  attracts  the  attention  of  the 
Pharaoh,  but  for  Yahweh's  intervention  Abram 
would  have  been  obliged  to  give  up  his  wife, 
whom  he  had  represented  to  be  his  sister. 
Pharaoh  obliges  Abram  to  leave  Egypt,  and  he 
accordingly  returns  to  Bethel  with  Lot.  At  this 
juncture  the  separation  between  Abram  and  Lot 
takes  place  in  consequence  of  quarrels  between 
the  followers  of  the  two  chiefs.  Lot  chooses  for 
himself  the  rich  pasture  land  of  the  Jordan  Val- 
ley, while  Abram  remains  in  Canaan  proper, 
though  removing  to  Hebron.  He  becomes  in- 
volved in  a  war  with  the  kings  of  the  Jordan 
Valley  in  order  to  rescue  Lot.  who  had  been 
taken  captive.  He  not  only  succeeds  in  this  en- 
terprise, but  aids  in  restoring  the  kings  of  Sodom 
and  Gomorrah  to  power  and  magnanimously  re- 
fuses any  compensation  for  his  services  (chap, 
xiv) .  At  the  time  that  Abram  left  Haran  he  was 
seventy-five  years  old.  At  Damascus  he  is  joined 
by  Eliezer,  who  becomes  his  trusted  servant,  and 
on  whom  the  succession  to  Abram's  property 
would  fall  in  the  event  of  Abram  remaining 
childless.  This  contingency  is  eliminated  by  the 
birth  of  Ishniael,  a  son  by  Hagar,  a  concubine 
of  Abram,  and  an  Egyptian  maid-servant  of 
Sarai.  Subsequently,  however,  when  Abram  is 
ninety-nine  year.s  old  and  Sarai  ninety,  a  son, 
who  is  called  I«iaac,  is  born  to  them  (chap,  xvii), 
and  who  becomes  the  heir  of  Abram  in  preference 
to  Ishmael.  At  the  time  that  this  son  is  prom- 
ised to  Abram,  Sarai,  through  the  appearance 
of  Y'ahweh  himself  to  Abram,  the  names  of  the 
patriarch  and  his  wife  are  changed  by  the  Lord 
to  Abraham  and  Sarah,  respectively,  the  former 
being  interpreted  as  embodying  the  promise  that 


A-RltATTAlff 

the  patriarch  will  become  "the  father  of  a  mul- 
titude of  nations."  The  promise  of  a  son  to  be 
born  to  Sarah  is  confirmed  by  a  visit  of  Yahweh 
accompanied  by  two  angels*  all  three  in  hu- 
man form,  who  partake  of  Abraham's  hospitality 
and  make  a  similar  announcement.  The  two 
angels  proceed  to  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  while 
Yahweh  remains  behind  and  reveals  to  Abraham 
the  intended  destruction  of  the  cities  of  the  plain 
because  of  the  wickedness  and  corruption  pre- 
vailing there.  Abraham  pleads  with  Yahweh  to 
save  the  cities  for  the  sake  of  the  righteous,  and 
Yahweh  agrees  to  do  so  provided  only  ten  right- 
eous men  are  found  in  the  district.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  the  cities  are  destroyed  and  only  Lot  and 
his  family  are  permitted  to  escape  (chap.  xvii). 
Before  Isaac  is  actually  born,  Abraham  is  rep- 
resented as  proceeding  to  the  extreme  south  of 
Palestine,  known  as  the  Negeh,  and  at  Gerar  en- 
counters the  King  (Abimelech ) ,  who  takes  into  his 
harem  Sarah,  whom  Abraham  again  passes  off 
as  his  sister,  Jehovah  warns  Abimelech,  and  Sarah 
IS  released  (chap.  xx).  The  birth  of  Isaac  is  re- 
counted in  the  21st  chapter.  Eight  days  after 
his  birth  he  is  circumcised— an  act  which  is  re- 
garded as  symbolizing  the  covenant  established 
between  Jehovah  and  those  descended  from  Abra- 
ham (Genesis  xvii  :  23-27).  Some  years  later 
the  faith  of  Abraham  is  put  to  a  severe  trial  by 
the  divine  command  to  sacrifice  his  beloved  son 
(chap.  xxii).  Abraham  proceeds  to  carry  out 
the  decree,  but  is  withheld  from  doing  so  by 
Jehovah  himself,  who^  satisfied  with  Uie  test, 
accepts  a  ram  which  providentially  makes  its 
appearance.  The  last  three  chapters  of  the  nar- 
rative are  taken  up  with  the  account  of  Sarah's 
death,  her  burial  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah  at 
Hebron,  purchased  by  Abraham  from  Ephron 
the  Hittite,  the  marriage  of  Isaac  and  Rebekah 
and  the  death  of  Abraham,  which,  however,  does 
not  take  place  until  his  marriage  to  Keturah, 
by  whom  two  sons  are  bom  to  him.  The  death  of 
Abraham  takes  place  when  he  has  reached  the 
age  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  years,  and 
he  is  interred  by  the  side  of  Sarah  at  Machpelah. 
Many  modern"^  Bible  critics  regard  this  cycle  of 
Abrahamic  stories  as  embodying  a  mixture  of 
early  and  late  traditions,  a  recast  with  a  view  of 
presenting  Abraham  as  a  type  of  the  pious,  ob- 
servant Jew.  Besides  the  biblical  stories,  other 
tales  were  current,  or  became  current  among  the 
Jews  of  post-exile  days,  many  of  which  were 
taken  up  into  that  portion  of  rabbinical  literature 
kno\^^l  as  the  Midrash.  In  this  way  the  biblical 
narrative  was  supplemented  by  incidents  in  the 
early  career  of  Abraham,  on  which  Genesis  has 
nothing  to  say.  These  stories  bring  Abraham 
into  association  with  Nimrod.  The  historical 
kernel  in  the  Genesis  chapters  is  quite  insignifi- 
cant. The  genealogical  lists  are  fictitious,  the 
names  representing  in  most  cases  not  individuals 
but  clans,  of  whom  some  faint  traditions  have 
survived.  There  is,  however,  no  reason  to  doubt 
the  existence  of  an  ancient  hero  whose  name 
was  preserved  in  two  forms,  Abram  and  Abra- 
ham, the  former  representing  perhaps  a  contrac- 
tion or  dialectical  variation  of  the  latter,  and 
to  whom  as  a  popular  personage  various  sto- 
ries that  had  come  down  from  various  periods 
were  attached.  Of  the  "historical"  Abram  or 
Abraham  hardly  anything  more  can  be  asserted 
than  that  his  home  appears  to  have  been  Hebron. 
The  wanderings  of  the  Terahites,  among  whom 
Abram  is  reckoned,  reflect  the  faint  recollection 


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ABHAHAM. 


39 


of  the  origin  of  the  Hebrews,  or  of  some  of  the 
clans  who  subsequently  formed  part  of  the  coali- 
tion known  as  Hebrews  from  the  Mesopotamian 
district.  The  story  of  the  wanderings  of  the  Te- 
rahites  along  the  Euphrates  and  thence  into 
Palestine  is  typical  of  the  manner  in  which 
nomadic  bands  in  the  early  and  the  late  days 
of  Babylonian  history  proceeded  from  the  Arab- 
ian desert,  and,  attracted  by  Babylonian  cul- 
ture, skirted  the  western  borders  of  this  culture, 
some  making  more  or  less  permanent  settlements, 
while  others  pass  on  to  the  north.  A  significant 
passage  in  Deuteronomy  (xxvi  :  5)  designates 
the  ancestors  of  the  Hebrews  as  "nomadic  Ara- 
mseans."  Aram  here  is  a  designation  for  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  the  chief  value  of  the  story,  of  Abra- 
ham's wanderings  lies  accordingly  in  thus  pre- 
serving a  picture  of  conditions  prevailing  at  the 
earliest  period  of  which  any  recollection  survived 
among  the  people. 

Bibliography:  For  the  rabbinical  legends  and 
traditions  about  Abraham,  consult  Beer,  Daa  Le- 
hen  Abrahams  in  Lehensgemdlde  Bihlischer  Per- 
sonen  nach  Auffassung  der  judischen  Sage  (Leip- 
zig, 1859)  :  Grtinbaum,  Neue  Beitrage  zur  8emi- 
tischen  Sagenkunde  (Leipzig,  1893),  which  also 
contains  the  Mohammedan  legends  about  Abra- 
ham. For  archaeological  aspects,  see  Tomkins's 
Studies  on  the  Times  of  Abraham  (London, 
1878)  ;  Sayce,  Patriarchal  Palestine  (Utrecht, 
1895)  (to  be  used  with  caution),  as  well  as  the 
early  chapters  in  histories  of  the  Hebrews  by 
Stade,  Kittel,  Guthe,  Piepenbring,  as  well  as  the 
commentaries  on  Genesis  by  Gunkel,  Dillmann, 
Delitzsch,  etc. 

ABRASAM  -  A  -  SANCTA  CLASA,  k^rk- 
h&m  k  saok'tA  klar^A  (1044-1709).  A  popular 
German  preacher  and  friar.  His  real  name 
was  Ulrich  Megerle,  but  he  is  generally  known 
by  the  name  given  to  him  when  he  joined  the 
Augustinians.  He  was  provincial  prior  of  the 
Augustinians  and  court  preacher  at  Vienna. 
Uncouth  puns,  coarse  expressions,  and  strange 
freaks  of  humor  marked  his  sermons.  He  lashed 
the  follies  of  all  classes  of  society  and  in  partic- 
ular exposed  the  vices  of  courtiers  and  court  life. 
He  was  an  honest,  faithful,  and  devoted  priest, 
as  was  proved  by  his  self-sacrificing  conduct 
during  the  plague  in  1679.  His  collected  works 
aggregate  twenty-one  volumes  (1835). 

ABBASAMITES,  a^r&hfim-Its,  or  BOHE- 
KIAK  DEISTS.  The  name  under  which  a 
number  of  Bohemians,  trusting  to  the  edict  of 
toleration  issued  by  Joseph  IL,  avowed  them- 
selves (1782)  as  believers  of  the  doctrine  alleged 
to  have  been  held  by  Abraham  before  his  circum- 
cision. As  early  as  the  ninth  century  a  sect  of 
the  same  name  had  arisen  in  Syria,  and  had 
denied  the  divinity  of  Christ.  But  the  Bohe- 
mian deists  professed  to  be  followers  of  John 
Hus,  though  they  held  no  Christian  doctrine 
beyond  that  of  the  unity  of  Grod,  and  accepted 
nothing  of  the  Bible  save  the  Ten  Command- 
ments and  the  Lord's  Prayer.  As  they  would 
join  neither  Jewish  nor  Christian  sects,  the 
Emperor  refused  to  tolerate  them;  and  in  1783 
expelled  them  from  their  native  land,  and  scat- 
tered them  in  various  parts  of  Hungary,  Tran- 
sylvania, and  Slavonia,  where  many  were  made 
converts  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  while 
others  died  clinging  to  their  simple  creed 

ArBBAHAM-MEN'.  A  class  of  sturdy  beg- 
gars   in    England    who    feigned    lunacy,     and 


ABBASIVE& 

wandered  about  the  country  in  a  disorderly 
manner.  They  were  common  in  Shakespeare's 
time,  and,  it  would  seem,  existed  even  as  late 
as  the  period  of  the  Civil  Warst  The  term 
is  a  cant  one.  "An  Abram  cove,"  as  Decker, 
in  his  English  Villanies,  calls  one  of  those 
mendicants,  meant  one  who  personated  a 
"Tom  o*  Bedlam."  He  would  "disguise  him- 
self in  grotesque  rags,  with  knotted  hair, 
long  staff, -and  with  many  more  disgusting  con- 
trivances to  excite  pity,"  but  he  did  not  hesitate 
to  live  by  thieving  too;  when  detected  in  pil- 
fering or  in  any  species  of  depredation,  he 
pleaded  the  immunities  of  a  Bedlamite.  This 
word  connoted  originally  an  inmate  of  the  lunacy 
ward  of  Bethlehem  Hospital,  London,  under  the 
patronage  of  dhe  patriarch  Abraham.  Wearing 
a  badge  for  identification,  such  a  man  was  for- 
mally permitted  to  roam  about  the  country  when 
discharged  and  solicit  alms.  Many  mendicants 
took  wrongful  advantage  of  this  privilege  and 
preyed  upon  the  charitable.     The  term  is  still 

E reserved  in  the  slang  phrase  "to  sham  Abra- 
am." 

A'BBAHAM'S  BOS^OM.  A  term  used  to 
designate  the  abode  of  bliss  of  the  blessed,  not 
only  among  Jews  but  among  Christians.  Laz- 
arus reclining  in  Abraham's  bosom  was  a  figura- 
tive expression.  In  Byzantine  and  mediaeval  art 
the  souls  of  the  blessed  are  represented  as  being 
taken  into  Abraham's  bosom  in  the  form  of 
little  children.  Abraham  is  the  central  figure 
in  the  fore-court  of  heaven. 

A'BBAHAM  THE  JEW  AND  THE  ULEB/- 
CHANT  THE^ODOBE.  A  medieval  tale  of 
the  conversion  of  a  Jewish  money-lender,  after 
occurrences  in  which  figures  prominently  the 
miracle-working  power  of  the  great  image  of 
Christ  in  the  copper  market  at  Constantinople. 
Theodore,  in  financial  straits,  twice  borrows 
money  of  Abraham  on  the  security  of  his  oath 
before  the  statue,  and  only  after  repeated  losses 
does  he  find,  while  on  a  foreign  shore,  means  to 
repay  the  loan.  For  lack  of  other  mode  of 
transmission  the  merchant  trusts  his  box  of 
money  to  the  sea.  It  is  carried  by  the  waves 
safely  home  to  the  Jew,  who  denies,  however, 
after  the  return  of  Theodore,  that  he  has 
received  it.  The  Christian's  prayer  before  the 
image,  where  he  has  brought  Abraham  to  take 
oath,  leads  the  Jew  to  confession  of  the  Christian 
faith. 

ABBA-IGOBBOTE,  a^r&  e'gAr-rytft,  or 
GuiNAANE.  A  head-hunting  tribe  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Abra,  northern  Luzon.    See  Philippines. 

ABBANTES,  A-brftn'tAs.  An  ancient  town 
in  Estremadura,  Portugal,  situated  on  the 
Tagus,  70  miles  northeast  of  Lisbon  (Map: 
Portugal,  A3).  It  is  strongly  fortified,  being 
surrounded  by  walls  and  protected  by  a  castle. 
It  is  remarkable  for  the  grand  architectural 
features  of  its  monastery.  By  way  of  the  Tagus, 
Abrantcs  has  a  brisk  trade  with  Lisbon  in  grain, 
olive  oil,  wine,  and  fruit.  From  this  town  Mar- 
shal Junot  took  his  title  of  Duke  of  Abrantes. 
Pop.,  about  8000. 

ABBANTES,  A'brftN'tAs',  Due  d'.  See  Junot. 

ABBANTES,  Duchesse  d'.    See  Junot. 

ABBA^SrVES  (Lat.  ah,  away  +  radere,  to 
scrape,  scratch).  The  natural  and  artificial 
substances  used  in  the  arts  for  scraping,  grind- 
ing,   and    polishing.     The    principal    abrasives 


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ABRASIVES.  40 

now  used  are  corundum,  emery,  garnet,  quartz, 
carborundum,  diatomaceous  earth,  tripoli,  pum- 
ice, rouge,  crushed  steel,  abrasive  stones,  and 
sand.  Corundum  is  a  crystalline  mineral  sub- 
stance, large  deposits  of  which  are  mined  in 
North  Carolina.  The  process  of  manufacturing 
corundum  ore  into  an  abrasive  powder  consists 
in  crushing  and  grinding  it  to  a  powder,  which 
is  mixed  with  water  and  fed  onto  sieves  or 
screens;  the  properly  ground  material  passes 
through  the  screens  and  the  coarser  powder 
remains  on  top  and  is  reground.  The  remain- 
der of  the  process  consists  in  refinins;  and  sizing 
the  powder  into  eight  or  ten  grades  for  the 
market.  Emery  is  an  impure  grade  of  corun- 
dum, and  is  prepared  for  the  market  by  crush- 
ing, screening,  and  sizing,  like  corundum  proper. 
Emery  is  used  in  the  form  of  powder  for  polish- 
ing plate  glass  and  stones,  as  emery  paper  and 
as  emery  wheels.  Emery  paper  or  emery  cloth 
is  paper  or  cloth  covered  with  hot  glue  and 
dusted  with  powdered  emery.  Emery  wheels 
are  sometimes  solid  emery  stone,  and  sometimes 
wheels  the  faces  of  which  are  coated  with  emery. 
Oamet  occurs  in  segregated  masses  scattered 
through  other  rocks.  Formerly  the  process  of 
production  was  to  separate  the  garnet  masses 
from  the  barren  rock  by  hand  after  the  rock  had 
been  broken  down  by  picks  or  by  blasting.  This 
method  of  separation  resulted  in  the  loss  of  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  garnet  in  the  rock, 
and  a  process  has  recently  been  perfected  by 
which  the  rock  is  crushed  by  machinery  ahd  the 
garnet  separated  from  the  barren  rock  by  water, 
(iarnet  is  harder  than  quartz,  and,  unlike  quartz, 
does  not  wear  smooth,  but  by  its  cleavage  pre- 
sents new  cutting  edges.  It  is  used  chiefly  in 
the  form  of  garnet  paper  or  as  a  facing  for  cylin- 
ders, disks,  belts,  etc.,  for  smoothing  and  finish- 
ing wagons,  cars,  carriages,  wooden  parts  of 
bicycles,  furniture,  etc.,  and  in  boot  and  shoe 
manufacture  for  smoothing  and  polishing  the 
heels  and  soles.  Carborundum  is  an  artificial 
product  manufactured  by  a  single  American  com- 
pany whose  works  are  at  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y. 
The  raw  material  for  carborundum  manufacture 
consists  of  34.2  parts  coke,  54.2  parts  sand,  9.9 
parts  sawdust,  and  1.7  parts  salt.  This  mixture 
IS  smelted  by  electricity  in  special  furnaces  of 
fire-brick  16  feet  long,  5  feet  high,  and  6  feet 
wide.  In  the  centre  of  the  end  walls  are  the 
terminals  or  electrodes,  each  of  which  consists 
of  60  carbon  rods  30  inches  long  and  3  inches  in 
diameter,  into  the  outer  ends  of  which  small 
pieces  of  %  inch  copper  rods  are  fixed.  A  square 
copper  plate  bored  with  00  holes  holds  the  carbon 
electrodes  in  place.  The  carbons  having  been 
put  in  place  from  the  inside  of  the  furnace, 
the  spaces  between  them  are  tightly  packed  with 
graphite,  which  prevents  the  oxidation  of  the 
carbons  and  adds  materially  to  their  durability. 
The  charge  is  next  thrown  into  the  furnace  until 
it  is  a  little  more  than  half  full,  when  a  semi- 
circular trench  about  21  inches  in  diameter  is 
made  the  full  length  of  the  furnace.  Into  this 
trench  the  core  of  coke  is  placed  and  built  up 
to  form  a  cylinder  21  inches  in  diameter.  Around 
this  core  more  material  is  packed  to  the  full 
height  of  the  side  walls,  and  heaped  above  their 
tops,  the  furnace  then  being  ready  for  operation. 
This  consists  of  passing  an  electric  current 
through  the  charge  between  the  two  terminals, 
which  is  maintained  for  thirty-six  hours,  after 
which  the  furnace  is  allowed  to  cool  slowly  for 


ABRASIVES. 

twenty-four  hours,  when  the  side  walls  are  torn 
down  and  the  charge  removed.  The  carborun- 
dum forms  a  layer  about  10  or  12  inches  thick 
around  the  coke  core.  This  is  crushed  and 
treated  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid  for  three  days 
at  a  temperature  of  100°  C.  to  remove  the 
iron  and  alumina.  The  clean  material  is  then 
washed  with  water,  dried,  and  graded  according 
to  fineness.  Carborundum  is  used  like  emery 
and  garnet  in  the  manufacture  of  abrading  cloth, 
cylinders,  wheels,  etc.,  and  in  the  form  of  powder 
for  polishing  stones,  steel  balls,  etc.  Diatoma- 
ceous or  infusorial  earth  is  a  natural  product 
consisting  of  the  siliceous  framework  of  diatoms,, 
which  is  ground  and  used  principally  in  polish- 
ing metals  and  finishing  wood.  Tripoli  is  dis- 
tinguished from  infusorial  earth  by  the  mode  of 
origin,  it  being  the  porous  silica  left  from  a 
siliceous  limestone  from  which  the  lime  has  been 
leached,  leaving  the  silica.  The  natural  product 
is  ground  in  a  mill  and  sifted  for  use  in  polish- 
ing metals,  horn,  shell,  etc.,  and  is  also  cut  out 
into  the  form  of  disks  and  used  in  household 
filters  for  filtering  water.  Rouge  as  usually  sold 
is  made  by  dissolving  iron  in  sulphuric  acid  so 
as  to  form  iron  sulphate;  this  salt  is  heated 
and  the  sulphur  driven  off,  leaving  a  residue 
of  sesquioxide  of  iron,  which  after  washing  is 
known  as  rouge.  Rouge  is  used  for  polishing' 
plate  glass.  Crushed  steel  and  steel  emery  are 
manufactured  preferably  from  pieces  of  high 
grade  crucible  steel  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  about  2500  F.  and  then  quenched  in  a 
bath  of  cold  water  or  other  suitable  hardening 
solution  which  gives  the  steel  a  granular  struc- 
ture. The  pieces  are  then  reduced  to  powder 
by  powerful  hammers  or  crushing  machines,, 
after  which  the  steel  particles  are  tempered  in 
the  following  manner:  They  are  placed  in  a  steel 
pan  or  cylinder  and  heated  to  a  temperature  of 
450°  F.,  and  then  cooled  by  being  subjected 
to  cold  air  in  various  ways.  The  final  process 
is  the  grinding  and  sizing  of  the  powder.  Steel 
emery  is  made  exactly  like  crushed  steel  but  is 
given  an  intensely  hard  temper.  Crushed  steel 
ranks  close  to  the  diamond  in  hardness. 
Crushed  steel  and  steel  emery  are  extensively- 
used  in  stone  sawing  and  polishing,  in  lens 
grinding,  glass  beveling,  brick  grinding,  and  by 
lithographers,  engineers,  and  plate  glass  manu- 
facturers. Grindstones  are  cut  from  a  hard 
sandstone  of  a  peculiar  quality,  and  whetstones^ 
scythestones  and  oilstones  are  quarried  and  cut 
from  similar  natural  rocks.  MillMones  or  huhr- 
stones  are  cut  down  or  built  up  from  various 
kinds  of  rock;  the  American  buhrstone  is  a 
quartz  conglomerate  which  is  known  .under 
various  local  names;  the  German  buhrstone  is 
a  basaltic  lava,  and  that  which  comes  from 
France  and  Belgium  is  a  hard,  porous  material 
consisting  of  small  particles  of  silica  in  a  cal- 
careous cement.  The  foreign  stone  is  brought 
into  the  United  States  in  small  pieces,  which 
are  cut  and  built  up  into  wheels  with  cement^ 
but  the  domestic  stone  is  worked  down  from 
quarry  blocks  into  a  solid  wheel  of  the  required 
size.  Millstones  are  used  for  grinding  grains, 
cement,  pigments,  etc.  Sand  is  extensively  used 
as  an  abrasive  in  the  form  of  sandpaper  and 
in  the  sandblast  for  cleaning  castings,  structural 
iron-work,  etc.  Pumice  is  a  volcanic  ash  or 
tufa  w^hich  may  be  ground  into  powder  for 
scouring  and  polishing  or  sold  in  lumps  for 
similar  purposed.    See  Sandpaper;  Sandblast. 


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ABKAXAW  STONX. 


ABRASIVES. 

For  a  detailed  description  of  the  occurrence  and 
preparation  of  abrasives,  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  Annual  Reports  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  Mineral  Resources  of  the 
United  States,  which  also  include  statistics  of 
production  and  importation. 
ABBAVANEL,    &-brrv&-neK.     See   Abbaba- 

NEL. 

ABSAX^AS.  A  term  used  by  the  Gnostic 
sect  of  Basilides  to  designate  the  multiform 
manifestation  of  the  Supreme  Deity  in  the  uni- 
verse, because  when  the  word  is  written  with 
Greek  letters,  these  letters,  computed  numerically, 
have  the  value  of  365,  w^hich  equals  the  solar  year 
and  the  number  of  eons  or 
worlds  that  formed  the  total 
Gnostic  universe.  The  word, 
in  harmony  with  the  magical 
tendencies  of  the  East  in  the 
second  century,  was  engraved 
on  precious  stones  and  used  as 
an  amulet.  These  gems  often 
bore  strange  figures  of  Gnostic 
deities,  sometimes  part  lion,  or 
serpent,  or  cock,  some  con- 
nected with  Jewish,  some  with 
Egyptian,  and  some  with 
Gr«co-Roman  worship.  They  are  characteris- 
tic of  the  hybrid  religious  movement  that 
fou«;ht  for  supremacy  with  Christianity.  In 
many  cases  the  figure  represented  has  the  head 
of  a  cock,  the  body  of  a  man,  and  two  serpents 
instead  of  legs,  and  is  armed  with  a  whip  and 
shield,  with  the  inscription  I  AC,  iao  derived 
from  the  Hebrew  name  for  Grod.  Other  divine 
manifestations  inscribed  or  represented  on  the 
gems  are  Sabaoth,  Adonai,  Elol — ^Hebrew  names 
for  God — ^Astaphaios,  laldabaoth,  Chnouphis. 
Others  have  names  or  figures  of  Jewish  an- 
gels (Michael,  Gabriel,  Uriel,  Onoel)  ;  others 
those  of  Egyptian  gods  (Isis,  Osiris,  Phtah, 
Neith,  Hathor,  etc.)  ;  others  those  of  Greek 
pods  and  heroes  (Zeus.  H«kate,  Aphrodite, 
Herakles).  It  is  a  fact  that  the  (Ilhristian 
Church  and  the  Christian  emperors  of  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  found  it  far  more  difiicult 
to  stamp  out  magical  beliefs  and  practices  than 
those  of  official  paganism,  and  of  this  these 
stones  are  the  clearest  proofs.  (See  Abraca- 
dabra and  Amulet.)  For  further  information 
consult  Martigny,  Dictionnaire  des  Antiquit4s 
Chr^tiennes  (Paris,  1877),  and  Kraus,  Real  En- 
cyklopiidie  der  Ckristlichen  AlterthUmer  (Frei- 
burg, 1882-86). 

ABBEAST^    See  Bearing. 

ABBIBG^MEKT  (O.  P.  ahrigier,  Lat.  allre- 
viarCj  to  shorten).  A  condensation  or  abbrevia- 
tion of  a  book  or  treatise.  In  the  law  of  copy- 
right an  abridgment, when  fairly  made,  is  deemed 
a  new  work,  and  consequently  its  publication  is 
not  an  infringement  of  the  copyright.  An 
abridgment  is  to  be  distinguished  in  the  law  of 
copyright  from  a  compilation.  The  former  is  a 
condensation  of  the  substance  of  the  copyrighted 
article,  while  the  latter  is  a  reproduction  in 
part,  at  least,  of  the  language  of  the  copyrighted 
article  and  is  held  to  be  an  infringement. 
Abridgments  of  the  rules  of  law  by  various  writ- 
ers have  been  of  great  importance  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  English  common  law.  Before  our 
modem  methods  of  reporting  decided  cases,  the 
abridgments  of  Comyn,  Viner,  Bacon,  and 
others  were  highly  valued  as  text-books,  and  were 


41 


ABBTTZZI. 


the  chief  repositories  of  legal  learning.  They 
are  still  valuable  as  authorities  as  to  the  rules 
of  the  early  law. 

ABBOC'OMAS  AND  ANTHFA.  One  of 
the  oldest  works  of  Greek  prose  fiction;  also 
knowTi  as  Ephesiacaj  or  the  Loves  of  Anthia  and 
Ahrocomas,  It  was  by  an  otherwise  unknown 
writer  named  Xenophon  of  Ephesus,  of  uncertain 
date,  supposed  to  have  lived  about  the  time  of 
the  Antonines.  It  is  in  simple  narrative  style, 
but  abounds  in  improbable  incidents.  The  story 
is  the  ultimate  source  of  Romeo  and  Juliet. 

AB'BOQA^ION  (Lat.  ahrogatio,  from  ah, 
away  +  rogare,  to  ask,  propose  a  law).  In  law, 
the  annuling  or  repealing  of  a  former  law  by  an 
act  of  the  legislative  body.  Abrogation  may  be 
accomplished  by  express  provision  of  the  later  act, 
which  in  general  terms  abrogates  all  laws  in- 
consistent with  the  new  one,  or  names  specifi- 
cally the  laws  to  be  abrogated,  in  which  case  the 
abrogation  is  said  to  be  express.  Abrogation 
may  also  be  implied,  when  the  new  law  is  neces- 
sarily inconsistent  with  earlier  laws.  Also, 
in  England  and  Scotland,  though  not  generally 
in  the  United  States,  when  a  statute  by  lapse  of 
time  becomes  unsuited  to  the  times  and  condi- 
tions, it  is  impliedly  abrogated.  Abrogation  of 
statute  law  revives  any  provision  of  the  common 
law  which  the  earlier  statutes  had  abrogated. 
See  Statute;  Repeal. 

ABBOLHOS,  &-brdny6s.  A  group  of  islands 
and  shoals,  5  miles  off  the  east  coast  of  Brazil 
and  50  miles  east  of  Caravellas,  forming  part  of 
the  state  of  Bahia.  The  largest  island  of  the 
group,  Santa  Barbara,  is  the  site  of  a  lighthouse 
(Map  :  South  America). 

AMBITS  (Gk.  &pp6c.  hahros,  graceful, 
pretty).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Leguminoss.  The  only  known  species,  Alhrus 
precatorius,  is  a  shrub  originally  belonging  to 
India,  where  it  is  chiefly  found  in  clayey  soils, 
biit  now  not  uncommon  in  the  West  Indies  and 
other  tropical  regions.  The  roots  possess  prop- 
erties similar  to  those  of  the  common  licorice. 
The  seeds,  often  called  crab*s  eyes,  are  nearly 
spherical,  as  large  as  small  peas,  of  a  scarlet 
color,  with  a  black  scar,  and  are  familiar  to 
most  people  in  England  and  elsewhere,  being 
used  as  beads.  They  are  narcotic.  In  India  and 
Australia  they  are  believed  to  be  poisonous,  and 
a  number  of  criminal  cases  of  cattle  poisoning 
by  this  means  were  reported  by  the  Cattle 
Plague  Commission  in  1870. 

ABBTTZZI,  ft-br7$?;t's«,  and  MOLISE,  m6- 
le'sA.  A  division  {compartimento)  of  central 
Italy,  situated  between  the  Apennines  and  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  and  comprising  the  provinces  of 
Teramo  (Abruzzo  Uteriore  I.),  Chieti  (Abniz- 
zo  Citeriore),  Aquila  (Abruzzo  Ulteriore  II.), 
and  Campobasso  (Molise)  (Map:  Italy,  H  5). 
The  area  is  6380  square  miles.  It  comprise* 
the  wildest  and  loftiest  portion  of  the  Apen- 
nines. The  rent  and  jagged  mountain  groups 
are  very  picturesque  and  reach  in  II  Gran 
Sasso  d'ltalia,  or  "the  great  rock  of  Italy,"  the 
highest  of  the  chain,  the  elevation  of  0600  feet. 
The  highlands  are  clothed  with  luxuriant  for- 
ests and  slope  precipitously  on  all  sides,  but  es- 
pecially toward  the  northeast  shore.  The  river* 
are  numerous,  but  mostly  very  short,  and,  with 
the  sole  exception  of  the  Pescara,  are  of  little  im- 
portance. The  climate  of  the  Abnizzi  is  raw  in  the 
higher  regions ;  snow  rests  on  the  mountains  from 


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ABBUZZI.  42 

October  to  April,  and  on  some  of  the  peaks  all 
the  year  round.  While  the  mountain  slopes 
provide  ample  pasture  for  the  numerous  herds 
of  cattle  and  swine,  fertile  valleys  yield  olives, 
rice,  saffron,  wine,  and  grains  in  abundance. 
The  raising  of  domestic  animals  is  one  of 
the  most  important  occupations,  and  animal 
products  form  the  chief  article  of  export.  Silk 
is  produced  to  some  extent.  In  former  times 
the  district  was  considered  of  much  strategical 
importance,  owing  to  its  inaccessibility,  which 
rendered  it  especially  fit  as  a  protection  for 
Naples.  In  1901  the  division  had  a  population  of 
1,442,365,  as  compared  with  1,317,215  in  1881. 
The  inhabitants,  once  famous  for  their  warlike 
spirit,  are  leading  a  pastoral  life  with  all  the 
patriarchal  features  incidental  to  it.  Consult: 
A.  de  Nino,  Uai  e  Coatumi  Ahruzzeai  (Florence, 
5  volumes,  1879-91). 

ABBUZZI,  Prince  Lmoi  Amadeo  of  Savoy- 
AosTA,  Duke  of  the  (1873 — ).  An  Italian  trav- 
eler and  Arctic  explorer.  He  is  the  son  of  ex-King 
Amadeus  of  Spain,  was  born  in  Madrid,  and 
studied  at  the  naval  college  in  Leghorn.  In  1897 
he  attracted  much  attention  by  making  the  first 
ascent  of  Mount  St.  Elias — a  venture  rendered 
doubly  difiicult  by  the  high  latitude  of  the  moun- 
tain. On  June  12,  1899,  he  set  out  on  his  voyage 
toward  the  North  Pole,  his  plan  being  to  leave  his 
ship,  the  Stella  Polare,  in  harbor,  and  send  north- 
ward a  series  of  sledge  expeditions.  He  spent  one 
winter  in  the  Bay  of  Teplitz,  and  would  have 
remained  a  second  had  not  a  serious  injury  to 
the  vessel  compelled  his  return.  While  repairs 
were  being  made,  one  of  his  sledge  parties,  under 
the  immediate  direction  of  Captain  Umberto 
Cagni,  attained  the  northermost  latitude  as  yet 
reached  (86°  33',  239.15  statute  miles  from  the 
Pole).  On  September  6,  1900,  he  returned  to 
Christiania,  whence  he  had  set  out.  His  ex- 
plorations determined  the  northern  boundary  of 
Franz -Josef  Liand  and  the  non-existence  of 
Peterman*s  Land.  Consult:  F.  de  Filippi,  La 
Bpedizione  di  Luigi  Amadeo  di  Savoia  al  Monte 
8anV  Elia  (Milan,  1900). 

AB'SAIiOM  (Heb.  father  of  peace).  The 
third  son  of  King  David  (II.  Samuel  iii  :  2;  I. 
Chronicles  iii  :  2),  whose  romantic  career  makes 
him  a  prominent  figure  in  Old  Testament  history. 
Encountering  the  ill  will  of  David  through 
slaying  Ammon,  another  son  of  the  King,  in  re- 
venge for  an  outrage  committed  by  Ammon  upon 
his  sister  Tamar  (II.  Samuel  xiii.),  Absalom  was 
banished  from  his  father's  court,  and  more  than 
five  years  elapsed  before  he  was  again  admitted 
into  the  presence  of  his  father  (II.  Samuel  xiv.). 
A  complete  reconciliation,  however,  appeared  out 
of  the  question  and  Absalom  shrewdly  laid  his 
plans  to  ingratiate  himself  in  the  hearts  of  the 
people  (II.  Samuel  xv  :  1-6).  When  the  moment 
appeared  ripe  he  organized  a  rebellion  against 
David,  which  soon  assumed  such  dimensions  as 
to  force  the  King  and  his  court  to  leave  Jeru- 
salem and  fly  for  refuge  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan. 
Absalom  entered  Jerusalem,  and  the  rebellion 
would  probably  have  been  successful  but  for  the 
crafty  intrigues  of  Ilushai,  who.  while  pretend- 
ing to  espouse  the  cause  of  Absalom,  gave  coun- 
sel which  enabled  David  and  his  adherents  to 
obtain  time  for  gathering  a  following  (IT.  Sam- 
uel XV  :  17).  A  decisive  battle  was  then  fought 
"in  the  wood  of  Ephraim"  (II-  Samuel  xviii  :  6), 
in  which  Absalom  lost  his  life.     According  to 


ABSCHATZ. 

the  narrative,  Joab,  chief  counselor  of  David, 
sent  three  darts  into  Absalom's  heart  while  he 
was  hanging  from  an  oak,  in  the  branches  of 
which  his  flowing  locks,  while  he  was  riding,  be- 
came entangled.  With  Absalom's  death  the  re- 
bellion came  to  an  end  (II.  Samuel  xviii  :  7-17). 
David  is  represented  as  having  been  profoundly 
grieved  at  the  death  of  his  son,  and  this  grief  fs 
a  reflection  of  the  impression  made  upon  the 
people  by  the  romantic  career  of  Absalom.  In- 
stead of  denouncing  him,  the  -^Titer  in  the  sec- 
ond book  of  Samuel  tells  the  story  in  a  manner 
calculated  to  arouse  at  least  partial  sympathy 
for  Absalom,  who  is  described  as  a  youth  of  ex- 
traordinary beauty  and  attractiveness  (II.  Sam- 
uel xiv  :  25-27 ) .  Absalom  was  buried  near  the 
spot  where  he  died  and  the  grave  was  marked  by 
a  great  heap  of  stones  (II.  Samuel  xviii  :  17). 
The  date  of  Absalom's  death  may  be  fixed  ap- 
proximately at  980  B.C. 

ABSAIiOK  AND  ACHITOPHEL,  &  klt^6-f^l. 
The  title  of  a  poetical  satire  by  John  Dryden, 
published  in  1681.  Absalom  represented  the 
Duke  of  Monmouth,  illegitimate  son  of  Charles 
II.,  whose  character  is  said  to  have  resembled 
that  of  the  rebellious  son  of  King  David. 
Achitophel,  David's  disloyal  adviser,  stood  for 
the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  against  whom  the  satire 
was  directed.  It  was  intended  to  justify  King 
Charles  II.  as  against  the  Whig  party.  As  a  po- 
litical document  it  was  extremely  effective,  and 
it  has  been  highly  praised  for  its  vigorous  liter- 
ary qualities.  The  second  part,  published  in 
1682,  was  added  by  Nahum  Tate. 

AB^SCESS  (Tjit.  aft,  dbs,  away -f  ccdere,  to 
go,  Gk.  airdoTtfjua,  apostSma,  distance).  A  col- 
lection of  pus  formed  within  some  tissue  or  or- 
gan of  the  body  where  no  cavity  previously  ex- 
isted, and  due  to  injury,  toxication,  or  septic 
infection  from  bacteria.  An  abscess  is  thus 
formed:  First,  the  capillary  vessels  become  over- 
charged with  blood,  in  consequence  of  inflamma- 
tion. The  fluid  part  of  the  blood,  flowing  very 
feebly,  together  with  some  of  the  white  blood 
corpuscles,  exudes  through  the  walls  of  the  capil- 
lary vessels  and  becomes  pus.  This  matter 
gradually  disintegrates  the  tissues,  and  so  makes 
for  itself  a  larger  cavity,  and  frequently,  by 
gradual  dissolution  of  the  adjacent  parts,  works 
its  way  either  to  the  surface  or  to  some  natural 
cavity  of  the  body.  Pus  thus  making  its  appear- 
ance in  a  different  part  of  the  body  from  where 
it  was  formed,  constitutes  a  "cold  abscess."  It 
also  occurs  that  when  the  purulent  matter  does 
not  find  any  outlet,  either  naturally  or  arti- 
ficially, it  is  gradually  absorbed.  In  abscesses 
superficially  seated — either  in  or  close  under  the 
skin — the  early  treatment  consists  chiefly  in 
promoting  the  JForraation  of  pus  by  the  applica- 
tion of  moist  and  warm  bandages  or  poultices,  or 
limiting  the  process  by  the  application  of  ice. 
The  next  step  is  the  removal  of  the  pus  and  pro- 
vision of  drainage.  When  this  is  too  long  de- 
layed, even  poisoning  may  ensue.  An  abscess 
must  be  regarded  not  as  a  di.sease  in  itself,  but 
as  the  result  of  disease,  or  as  an  effort  of  nature 
for  the  removal  of  injurious  matters  from  the 
system. 

ABSCHATZ,  ap'schftts.HANS  Assmann,  Fret- 
HERR  VON  (1646-90).  A  German  poet  of  the 
second  Silesinn  School.  He  was  born  at  Wilr- 
bitz,  and  studied  at  Strasburg  and  I^eyden.  He 
was  appointed  life  deputy  from  the  principality 


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ABSCHATZ. 


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ABSOLUTE. 


of  Liegnitz  to  the  Silesian  Diet  at  Breslau  in 
1679.  Strongly  patriotic  in  tone,  he  was  one  of 
the  best  known  of  German  seventeenth  century 
poets.  He  translated  the  Pastor  Fido  from  the 
Italian  of  Guarini.  His  Poeiiache  Uebersetz- 
ungen  und  Oedichte  were  published  after  his 
death  (edited  by  Christian  Gryphius,  1704).  Se- 
lections also  appear  in  Volume  VI.  of  W.Milller's 
liihliothek  Deutscher  Klassiker  dea  siebzchnten 
Jahrhunderts  (1824). 

ABSCHIEBS  -  SYMPHONIE,     &p'sh6ts-z6m 
f6-ne'  (Ger.  "Farewell  Symphony").  A  symphony 
composed   by  Haydn,  dated   1772  on  the  auto- 
graph score.    It  was  written  as  an  appeal  to  the 
Prince    EsterhAzy  to  allow  the  musicians  leave 
of  absence.     One  after  another  stopped  playing 
and  left  the  orchestra,  and  Haydn's  object  was 
attained  through  this  delicate  hint.    See  Haydn. 
ABSCIS'SA.   See  Analytic  Geometry. 
ABSCONIVING   (Lat.  aha,  away  +  condere, 
to  put  up).  In  law,  the  act  of  leaving  the  state 
or  concealing  oneself  therein  for  a  fraudulent 
purpose,  such  as  hindering,  delaying,  or  defraud- 
ing one's  creditors.  It  is  not  a  common-law  of- 
fense for  one  to  go  beyond  the  boundaries  of  his 
country,  nor  to  treat  his  house  as  his  castle, 
that  is,  as  a  place  into  which  an  officer  has  no 
right  to  break  in  order  to  serve  civil  process. 
But  if  a  debtor  went  abroad  or  locked  himself 
in  his  house  to  avoid  the  service  of  legal  process, 
or  if  he  was  about  to  do  either  with  like  intent, 
the  creditor  was  entitled,  upon  resorting  to  the 
proper  proceedings,  to  seize  his  property.    The 
rights  of  creditors  against  absconding  debtors 
are  regulated  usually  by  statute.     See  Arrest; 
Attachment;  Bankruptcy;  Insolvency;  Limi- 
tation OP  Actions. 

AB^ENTEE^.  A  capitalist,  especially  a  land- 
owner,  who  derives  his  income  from  one  country 
and  spends  it  in  another.  Ireland  offers  the  clas- 
sic example  of  absenteeism  and  its  attendant  eco- 
nomic and  social  evils.  A  large  part  of  the  land 
is  owned  by  members  of  the  aristocracy,  who  ad- 
minister their  affairs  by  agents  and  rarely  visit 
their  possessions.  This  state  of  affairs  dates  in 
the  main  from  the  union  with  Great  Britain  and 
the  transfer  of  Parliament  from  Dublin  to  Lon- 
don. It  has  always  been  a  matter  of  bitter  com- 
plaint. It  is  urged  that  the  system  drains  Ire- 
land of  its  wealth  and  leaves  it  in  poverty.  While 
some  writers,  notably  McCulloch,  have  considered 
this  complaint  fundamentally  wrong,  there  is  a 
general  concensus  of  opinion  that  absenteeism  is 
hurtful  to  the  economic  interests  of  a  region. 
It  removes  from  the  country  its  natural  lead- 
ers, those  whose  wealth  creates  employment,  and 
whose  personal  concern  in  the  upbuilding  of  the 
country  is  essential  to  public  welfare.  It  in- 
tensifieH  the  struggle  between  classes  and  makes 
co<)peration  difficult.  It  is  likely  to  result  in 
misuse  of  the  land  by  owners  more  bent 
upon  securing  maximum  financial  returns  than 
upon  maintaining  and  increasing  its  earning  ca- 
pacity, while  the  management  of  the  paid  over- 
seer is  not  tempered  by  the  spirit  of  nohlesae 
oblige  which  generally  prevails  when  the  land- 
lord is  a  resident.  The  voluminous  discussion  of 
the  Irish  question  within  and  out  of  Parlia- 
ment teems  with  references  to  absenteeism. 

ABSENTEE,  THE,  A  story  by  Maria  Edge- 
worth  (q.v.),  published  in  1812.  It  was  one  of 
the  series  called  Talea  of  Faakionable  Life,  or 
Fwhionahle  Talea, 


ABSINTHE,  ftb^slnth  (Fr.;  from  the  Gk. 
urjfiv&tov,  apainthion,  wormwood) .  A  bitter  liquor, 
the  base  of  which  is  an  alcoholic  solution  of  cer- 
tain essential  oils  derived  from  a  number  of 
plants.  The  chief  source  is  a  form  of  Worm- 
wood, or  Absinthium  {Artemisia  absinthium), 
which  is  extensively  cultivated  in  Europe.  The 
leaves  and  tops  of  this  plant,  together  with  por- 
tions of  Angelica  root  (Archangelica  officinalia). 
Sweet -flag  root  {Acorua  calamus).  Dittany 
{Cunila  marianaj,  Star-anise  seeds  (Illicium 
cerum),  and  other  aroma  tics  are  macerated  in 
alcohol  for  eight  days  and  then  distilled.  The 
product  is  an  emerald-colored  liquor,  to  which 
anise  oil  is  added,  and  which  constitutes  the  gen- 
uine French  extrait  d^absinthe.  Other  absinthe 
of  inferior  quality  is  made  from  various  herbs  and 
essential  oils,  and  adulterations  are  numerous 
and  deleterious.  As  adulterants,  tumeric  and 
indigo,  and,  in  some  cases,  sulphate  of  copper, 
have  been  used,  chiefly  for  the  production  of  the 
gi-een  color  in  the  inferior  grades.  Two  kinds  of 
absinthe  are  known  in  commerce,  common  and 
Swiss;  the  latter,  prepared  from  highly  concen- 
trated spirits,  being  the  more  trustworthy.  The 
chief  places  of  manufacture  are  Neuch&tel  in 
Switzerland  and  Bordeaux  in  France.  The  prod- 
uct is  consumed  mostly  in  France,  though  large 
quantities  are  exported  to  the  United  States. 
Absinthe  was  first  used  by  the  French  soldiers 
in  the  Algerian  War  (1844-1847),  who  mixed  it 
with  their  liquor  as  a  febrifuge,  and  who  later 
introduced  the  habit  in  France.  Absinthe-drink- 
ing has  become  in  France  so  ^eat  an  evil  that 
its  use  has  been  prohibited  in  both  the  army 
and  navy  of  that  nation. 

Absinthe  when  excessively  used  gives  at  first 
a  feeling  of  exhilarated  intoxication.  Later  the 
digestive  organs  are  deranged,  the  appetite  de- 
stroyed, then  thirst,  giddiness,  ringing  in  the 
ears,  hallucinations  of  sight,  heavy  mental  op- 
pression, anxiety,  loss'  of  brain  power,  and  idiocy 
may  succeed  each  other.  The  use  of  absinthe  in- 
duces a  condition  of  alcoholic  intoxication  plus 
the  poisoning  by  the  essential  oils,  notably  by 
that  known  as  absinthol,  contained  in  the  worm- 
wood. It  is  doubtful  whether  the  hideous  pic- 
tures frequently  drawn  are  true  to  life;  they 
probably  represent  the  extremes.  Absinthe  is, 
however,  much  more  intoxicating  than  the  or- 
dinary liquors.  Consult:  Mew  and  Ashton, 
Drinks  of  the  World  (New  York,  1892).  See 
Liqueur;  Wormwood;  Artemisia. 

AB'SOLON.  A  character  in  Chaucer's  Miller's 
Tale.  He  was  a  parish  clerk,  who  fell  in  love 
with  the  jealous  carpenter's  wife,  but  ludicrously 
failed  of  his  suit. 

AB'SOLXTTE  (Lat.  absolutus,  brought  to  a 
conclusion,  final,  complete,  from  absolvere^  to 
loosen  from,  bring  to  a  close,  complete) .  A  term 
employed  in  philosophy  and  theology  with  vari- 
ous meanings,  hut  in  every  case  in  direct  antithe- 
sis to  the  term  relative.  "  Many  theological  phi- 
losophers speak  of  God  as  absolute,  meaning 
thereby  that  He  need  stand  in  no  relation  to  any- 
thing distinct  from  Himself.  Absolute  means  here 
independent  of  essential  relations  to  other  ob- 
jects. Herbert  Spencer  speaks  of  absolute  ethics, 
meaning  ethic?*  dealing  with  a  standard  that  is 
unchan&^ing,  as  opposed  to  the  relative  ethics  of 
any  particular  place  or  time.  With  the  Hegel- 
ians absolute  means  all-inclusive;  essential  re- 
lation is  included  in  such  a  conception,  but  mere- 
ly   external    relation    is    excluded:     the    uni- 


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ABSOLUTE. 


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ABSORPTION. 


verse,  in  the  sense  of  all  existence,  including  all 
the  relations  binding  everything  to  everything 
else,  is  absolute  in  this  meaning  of  the  word; 
and  the  universe  alone  is  absolute.  Much  of  the 
discussion  about  the  possibility  of  the  absolute 
has  turned  upon  the  ambiguity  of  the  word.  So 
also  the  question  whether  there  can  be  knowledge 
of  the  absolute.  If  by  the  absolute  is  meant 
something  that  exists  in  itself  apart  from  all 
knowledge,  and  if  knowledge  is  considered  as  a 
relation  between  two  independent  things,  the 
knower  and  the  known,  then  knowledge  of  the 
absolute  is  ex  hyp.  impossible.  This  is  Sir  Wil- 
liam Hamilton's  (q.v.)  contention,  and  also 
Spencer's  (^.v.) .  If  knowledge  means  exhaustive 
comprehension  of  every  objective  detail  within 
the  unity  of  a  single  consciousness,  and  yet  if 
consciousness  and  its  object  are  not  looked  on  as 
independent  of  each  other,  then  absolute  knowl- 
edge would  be  possible  on  the  supposition  of  the 
existence  of  a  being  that  sustains  all  reality 
within  its  unchanging  consciousness  (T.  H. 
Green).  If  knowledge  is  not  synonymous  with 
exhaustive  knowledge,  and  yet  if  the  object  of 
knowledge  is  regarded  as  essentially  related  to 
the  consciousness  that  knows,  and  if  such  an  ob- 
ject also  stands  in  essential  relation  to  every 
other  object,  then  all  knowledge  is  partial  knowl- 
edge of  the  absolute.  See  Knowledge,  Thxobt  of. 

ABSOLUTE,  Captain.  A  leading  character 
in  Sheridan's  The  Rivals,  the  son  of  Sir  An- 
thony Absolute.  He  is  a  young  soldier,  and  the 
lover  of  Lydia  Languish,  to  gratify  whose  unprac- 
tical and  romantic  temperament  he  makes  his 
suit  in  the  assumed  guise  of  a  penniless  Ensign 
Beverley.  He  thus  wins  her  heart,  and  proves 
himself  his  own  successful  rival. 

ABSOLUTE,  Sib  Anthony.  A  celebrated 
character  in  Sheridan's  comedy  of  The  Rivals. 
He  is  a  choleric  and  apparently  obstinate  old 
gentleman,  who  is,  however,  at  bottom  entire- 
ly kind-hearted.  He  avows  his  excessive  irri- 
tability in  the  first  act:  "No,  no,  Mrs.  Malaprop. 
Jack  knows  that  the  least  demur  puts  me  in  a 
frenzy."  But  when  finally  the  lovers  in  the  play 
are  united,  he  shows  himself  most  jovial  and 
sympathetic. 

ABSOLUTE  VAI/TTE.  In  the  development 
of  mathematics  several  artificial  number  systems 
have  been  formed,  which  are  used  in  connection 
with  the  primitive  system  of  natural  numbers, 

e.g.,   negative   numbers,   — I,   — 2,  — 3,    , 

imaginary   numbers,    V  —  1,    V^^^^,    ,   and 

complex  numbers,  3  -f  V  —  1,  2  —  V  — 3.  The 
natural  number  which,  multiplied  by  ( — 1), 
equals  a  given  negative  number,  is  called  the  ab- 
solute value  of  the  negative  number;  thus,  the 
absolute  value  of  — 2,  expressed  |—  2  |,  is  2. 
Similarly,  the  coefficient  of  V  —  1  in  an  imag- 
inary number  is  called  the  absolute  value  of  the 
imaginary  number;  thus,  the  absolute  value  of 
vT^TS  (or  VT  \r=n),  expressed  |  V^=l  |,  is 
\r5.  The  modulus  of  a  complex  number  (q.v.) 
is  called  its  absolute  value;  thus,  the  absolute 
value  of  3-f  V^=^,  expressed  |  3  -f  V^^^^,  is 
V3«-f  (\/7J%  a  usage  due  to  Weierstrass. 

ABSOLUTION.     The  remission  of  sin  and  its 

l)enalties  may  be  divided  into  sacramental  and 
canonical — one  relating  to  the  forum  internum, 
and  constituting  the  most  iniportiint  part  of  the 


sacrament  of  penance ;  the  other  to  the  fw^m  ex- 
ternum and  devoted  especially  to  the  remission  of 
ecclesiastical  censure.  Their  early  history  is 
closely  connected,  as  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
Church  all  grievous  public  sins  incurred  the 
penalty  of  absolute  separation  from  the  assembly 
of  the  faithful,  and  reconciliation  could  be  ob- 
tained only  by  undergoing  the  penance  imposed 
by  the  Church.  The  bishops  were  the  chief  min- 
isters of  absolution;  but  the  whole  body  of  the 
faithful  were  consulted  as  to  the  term  of  the 
public  penance,  since  they,  as  well  as  God,  were 
injured  by  the  sin.  \A'ith  the  gradual  decrea.se 
of  severity  and  of  public  penances,  absolution  was 
pronounced  by  the  priest  immediately  after  con- 
fession, if  he  judged  the  repentance  sincere.  Fonual 
excommunication,  however,  could  even  in  later 
days  be  remitted  only  by  public  absolution  by  the 
bishop  or  his  deputy,  and  certain  sins  are  still 
'reserved'  to  the  same  authority  for  judgment. 
The  power  of  judicial  absolution  in  the  name  of 
God  is  attributed  by  Roman  Catholics  to  all 
priests,  on  the  basis  of  the  commission  in  John 
XX.  23 ;  the  Protestant  churches  generally  ascribe 
only  a  declarative  power  to  their  ministers, 
though  the  Church  of  England  retains  the  abso- 
lute form  in  the  Order  for  the  Visitation  of  the 
Sick.  The  form  of  absolution,  since  none  was 
given  by  Christ,  has  varied  considerably;  the 
Western  Church  down  to  the  Twelfth  Centun% 
with  rare  exceptions,  and  the  Eastern  churches  to 
the  present  time  employing  a  deprecatory  form 
("May  Christ  absolve  thee,"  etc.),  for  which  the 
indicative  form,  Ego  absolvo  fe,  was  definitively 
substituted  by  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  differ- 
ence in  form,  however,  has  implied  no  change  in 
doctrine.  See  Confession:  Penance;  Disci- 
pline, EcCLESIASTICAIta 

ABSOLUTION,  Day  of.  See  Good  Fmdat 
(so  called  from  the  ancient  practice  of  empha- 
sizing forgiveness  upon  that  day). 

AB^OLTTTISM  (Lat.  ahsolutus,  complete, 
unrestricted,  from  a6,  away  +  solvere,  to  loosen, 
free).  That  system  of  government  in  which  the 
supreme  power  is  vested  in  a  ruler  unchecked 
by  any  constitution  or  laws.  It  characterized 
all  the  ancient  monarchies  (a  brief  period  in  the 
case  of  the  Roman  Empire  excepted),  and  has 
prevailed  in  all  Oriental  monarchies,  down  to 
Japan  of  a  few  years  ago.  The  barbarian  in- 
vasions replaced  the  absolute  monarchy  by 
feudalism  in  Western  Europe,  but  with  the 
growth  of  towns  and  the  rise  of  the  commercial 
classes  came  the  necessity  for  a  strong  central 
government  to  protect  the  nation  against  the 
feudal  barons,  and  the  absolute  king  once  more 
arose,  master  of  a  regular  army,  uniting  in 
himself  the  different  functions  of  the  national 
life,  religious  as  well  as  political.  A  mild  form 
of  absolute  monarchy  is  familiar  to  the  student 
of  English  history  in  the  House  of  Tudor,  with 
its  monarchs  of  strong  will  and  arbitrary 
methods;  but  a  represen&tive  absolute  monarch 
of  modern  times  is  better  seen  in  Louis  XIV.  of 
France,  with  his  famous  assertion,  L'itat  &e8i 
moi  ("I  am  the  state'*) .  The  only  absolute  mon- 
archies existing  in  Europe  now  are  those  of 
Russia  and  Turkey. 

ABSOB^ENTS.  See  Lacteals;  Lym- 
phatics. 

ABSOBP^ION  (Lat.  a6,  away  -f  sorhere,  to 
swallow).  When  certain  fluids  are  brought 
together  the  molecules  of  one  mix  intimately 


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ABSORPTION. 

trith  those  of  the  other  and  diffysion  takes 
place.  If  certain  solids  containing  fluids  are 
brought  in  contact  with  other  liquids,  some  of 
the  liquid  passes  into  the  solid  and  ahaorption 
takes  place.  Gases  may  also  be  absorbed  simi- 
larly. Diffusion  acting  through  an  animal  or 
vegetable  membrane  is  called  osmosis.  Much 
of  what  is  termed  absorption  in  physiology  is 
really  osmosis.  Most  of  the  tissues  of  living 
bodies  have  the  power  of  absorbing  fluids — ^a 
property  that  often  continues  after  death  and 
until  decomposition.  Animal  substances  differ  in 
absorbing  power  according  to  differences  in  the 
liquid,  notably  if  they  diner  in  specific  gravity 
and  if  the  fluids  in  the  substances  brought  in  con- 
tact are  miscible.  The  following  table  from  Chev- 
reul  shows  the  amounts  of  liquid  absorbed  by 
different  substances  in  twenty-four  hours: 


100  Parts  qf 


Cartilage    

Tendon    

Elastic  ligament   

Cartilaginous  ligament 

Cornea  

Dried  fibrin 


Parf4i  of     Saline 
Water.     Solution. 


231 
178 
148 
319 
461 
301 


125 

114 

30 

370 
154 


OU. 


8.6 
7,2 
3.2 
9.1 


Activity  of  absorption,  or  osmosis,  varies  with 
the  freshness  of  the  membrane,  being  great  soon 
after  separation  from  the  principal  parts;  and 
varies  also  with  pressure,  motion,  and  tempera- 
ture. Absorption  of  oxygen  by  the  blood  in 
the  lungs  is  apparently  instantaneous,  the 
change  in  color  from  dark  red  to  bright  red  as 
soon  as  it  arrives  at  the  pulmonary  vessels, 
showing  the  action  of  the  ^as  it  has  taken  from 
the  atmosphere.  This  rapidity  of  absorption  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  circulation  of  the 
lungs  the  blood  is  spread  out  in  the  fine  capil- 
laries over  a  very  large  area  and  to  the  inces- 
sant motion  of  the  blood  in  the  capillaries. 
Claude  Bernard  found  that  if  a  solution  of 
iodide  of  potassium  were  injected  into  the  duct 
of  the  parotid  gland  on  one  side  of  a  living 
animal,  the  saliva  discharged  by  the  correspond- 
ing gland  on  the  other  side  almost  instantly 
afterward  contained  iodine.  In  a  measureless 
instant,  therefore,  the  iodine  was  taken  up  by 
the  glandular  membrane  on  one  side,  absorbed 
by  the  blood,  carried  to  the  heart,  absorbed 
from  the  blood  by  the  glandular  membrane  on 
the  other  side  and  furnished  to  the  saliva.  It 
is  by  this  process  of  absorption  that  the  elements 
of  nutrition  are  taken  from  the  intestines  and 
conveyed  to  the  tissues  they  are  to  nourish; 
the  bones  absorb  much  calcareous  matter  from 
the  blood,  cartilages  less,  and  muscles  less  still ; 
the  brain  takes  more  water  than  does  muscle, 
and  muscle  more  than  bone.  The  active  prin- 
ciples of  drugs  and  poisons  are  dissolved  by  the 
juices  in  the  stomach,  and  by  osmosis  pass, 
unchanged  or  slightly  modified,  into  the  circu- 
lation. (See  Lacteaijs;  Lymphatics.)  Opium 
dissolved  by  the  liquids  of  the  stomach  is 
absorbed  by  the  membranous  lining,  taken  away 
by  the  blood  and  distributed  well  through  the 
body;  at  the  brain  it  acts  on  the  brain  cells 
and*  produces  sleep  or  narcotism  or  insensibilitv. 
The  quickness  of  absorptive  action  is  shown  m 
using   hypodermic  Injections;    a   few   moments 


45  ABSORPTION. 

after  the  syringe  has  punctured  the  skin  of  the 
forearm  a  severe  pain  in  the  foot  is  sensibly 
relieved. 

ABSOBPTION,  IN  Plants.  The  process  by 
which  substances  are  taken  into  the  body.  A 
few  plants  only,  being  devoid  of  any  external 
cover  to  the  protoplasm,  are  able  to  engulf  par- 
ticles of  food,  which  may  then  be  digested.  The 
most  prominent  of  these  are  the  Myxomycetes 
(q.v.),  or  slime  molds,  which  in  the  period  of 
their  vegetative  activity  consist  of  a  mass  of 
naked  protoplasm  (called  a  plasmodium),  some- 
times as  large  as  one's  two  hands.  These  Plas- 
modia, like  huge  Amoebse  (q.v.),  creep  about 
and  envelop  particles  of  decaying  organic  matter, 
etc.,  on  which  they  feed.  The  zoospores,  or 
reproductive  bodies,  of  some  AlgsB  and  Fungi 
are  also  microscopic  bits  of  naked  protoplasm, 
but  they  probably  do  not  ingest  solid  food  during 
this  period.  Inasmuch  as  the  protoplasm  of 
most  plants  forms  on  its  surface,  as  the  first 
step  of  development,  a  thin  jacket  of  cellulose 
or  some  similar  material,  the  taking  up  of  solid 
substances  is  thereby  absolutely  prevented. 
Whether  the  body  consist  of  one  cell  or  many, 
it  presents  to  the  surrounding  medium  a  contin- 
uous membrane  with  no  visible  openings. 
Through  these  cell-walls,  therefore,  neither  solid 
nor  gaseous  substances  can  pass  without  pre- 
viously undergoing  solution.  The  materials 
whose  absorption  is  to  be  explained  are  (1) 
dissolved  substances  or  solutes,  and  (2)  the 
solvent,  water. 

( 1 )  Solutes.  The  protoplasm  itself  and  its 
surrounding  membrane  (the  cell- wall)  contain 
a  large  amount  of  water  (50  to  98%).  This 
water  may  be  conceived  of  as  lying  between  the 
particles  of  which  the  substances  named  are 
composed,  much  as  it  stands  between  the  close- 
set  stalks  of  plants  in  a  marsh.  Since  water 
always  pervades  the  structures  of  plants,  sub- 
stances in  order  to  enter  the  plant  body  must 
be  soluble  in  water.  When  so  dissolved  they 
behave  essentially  as  gases;  their  molecules, 
being  then  free  to  move  apart,  tend  to  distribute 
themselves  equally  throughout  the  solvent.  But 
the  diffusion  of  solutes  is  greatly  retarded  by 
the  molecules  of  the  water,  so  that  it  is  much 
slower  than  the  similar  diffusion  of  gaseous 
bodies.  It  is  also  retarded  somewhat  by  the 
particles  of  cell- wall  when  these  also  are  encoun- 
tered in  the  water.  But  the  distances  between 
the  particles  of  the  cell-wall  are  relatively  so 
great  that  most  solutes  are  able  to  pass  freely 
between  them.  The  structure  of  the  protoplasm, 
however,  is  such  that  many  substances  cannot 
readily  pass  through  it.  Consequently,  some 
materials  which  can  enter  the  plant  body  may 
travel  only  through  the  cell-walls  and  may  never 
enter  the  living  protoplasm.  The  protoplasm 
permits  at  some  periods  substances  to  pass 
through  it  which  at  otlier  times  are  excluded; 
probably  due  to  ability  to  alter  its  structure 
on  occasion.  Such  substances  as  can  pass 
through  the  invisible  spaces  in  cell- wall  and 
protoplasm  are  therefore  free  to  travel  to  any 
part  of  the  plant  body.  If  any  such  substances 
be  removed  from  solution  through  use  or  storage, 
they  will  continue  to  be  supplied  from  the 
regions  of  greater  abundance,  and  consequently 
of  greater  pressure,  to  the  regions  of  lesser 
pressure,  i.e.,  where  they  are  being  used.  The 
fact  that  different  amounts  of  a  given  compound 
enter  plants  growing  in  the  same  soil  is  explic- 


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ABSOBPTION. 


46 


ABSTBACTION. 


able  mainly  on  this  basis.  Thus,  wheat  and 
clover  may  grow  side  by  side;  the  ash  of  the 
wheat  will  contain  67.5%  of  silica,  while  that 
of  the  clover  contains  only  2.5%.  This  selective 
absorption  must,  however,  be  in  part  referred 
to  the  power  possessed  by  protoplasm  of  regulat- 
ing the  admission  of  solutes. 

( 2 )  Water.  Entrance  of  water  into  the  plant 
to  supply  losses  by  evaporation  or  consumption 
depends  upon  similar  factors.  In  a  living 
mature  cell,  the  protoplasm  usually  lies  in  a 
thin  layer  close  to  the  cell-wall  and  envelops  a 
water-filled  space,  the  vacuole.  (See  Grow^th.) 
Many  substances  are  constructed  by  plants  which 
cannot  ordinarily  pass  through  the  protoplasm, 
and  remain  dissolved  in  the  water  of  the  vacuole 
or  cell-sap.  These  substances  exert  upon  the 
surrounding  layer  of  protoplasm  a  definite  pres- 
sure. If  they  were  in  gaseous  form  this  would 
be  their  gas  pressure.  As  they  are  dissolved 
it  is  called  their  osmotic  pressure.  The  osmotic 
pressure  of  solutes  in  the  water  outside 
the  plant  is  usually  less  than  that  of  solutes 
in  the  cell-sap.  As  the  solvent  moves  toward  the 
region  of  higher  osmotic  pressure,  i.e.,  from  a 
place  where  there  is  a  greater  number  of  water 
molecules  in  unit-space,  to  a  place  where  there 
are  fewer,  water  usually  enters  the  plant.  But 
if  at  any  time  the  conditions  are  reversed,  the 
solutes  outside  the  plant  having  higher  osmotic 
pressure  than  those  inside,  water  will  leave  the 
plant.  This  happens  in  nature  sometimes,  and 
it  is  this  condition  that  makes  possible  the 
destruction  of  weeds  by  common  salt.  Gases 
are  absorbed  in  the  same  manner  as  solids;  the 
apparent  difference  in  their  absorption  by  land 
plants  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  mostly  become 
dissolved  (and  so  fitted  for  absorption)  only 
when  they  come  into  contact  with  the  water 
saturating  the  cell-wall.  This  condition  among 
the  larger  land  plants  exists  only  in  the  walls 
of  cells  bordering  intercellular  spaces.  (See 
Aeration.)  While  land  plants  absorb  gases 
chiefly  from  the  atmosphere,  doubtless  one  ab- 
sorbed some  gases  by  the  roots,  notably  the 
oxygen  required  for  their  own  respiration. 

ABSOBPTION,  Electrical.  A  phenomenon 
observed  in  electrical  condensers  (q.v.),  in  which 
the  dielectric  or  insulating  material  between  the 
conductors  is  non-homogeneous,  e.g.,  a  piece  of 
glass.  It  is  noted  that  if  such  a  condenser  is 
charged,  then  discharged  and  allowed  to  stand 
for  a  short  time,  there  will  appear  another  charge. 
If  this  is  discharged,  another  charge  will  soon 
appear.  These  secondary  charges  are  said  to  be 
due  to  electrical  absorption.     See  Electricity. 

ABSOBFTION  of  Gases.  The  phenom- 
enon of  the  taking  up  or  absorbing  of  gases  by 
liquids  and  solids.  The  number  of  cubic  centi- 
metres of  a  gas  which  can  be  absorbed  by  one 
cubic  centimetre  of  a  given  liquid  at  15**  C. 
is  called  the  "absorption  coefficient"  of  the  liquid 
for  the  gas.  The  absorption  coefficient  of  water 
for  ammonia  is  756;  for  carbon  dioxide,  1.0; 
for  chlorine,  2.4.  The  mass  of  the  gas  absorbed 
varies  directly  as  the  pressure;  so,  if  a  gas  is 
forced  into  a  liquid  under  high  pressure,  and  if 
the  pressure  is  afterward  released,  the  gas  will 
be  evolved.  'This  is  what  happens  in  the  case 
of  beer  and  aerated  waters.  The  absorption  of 
gases  by  solids  is  called  occlusion.  The  most 
conspicuous  illustration  of  this  is  the  power  of 
palladium  to  occlude  nine  hundred  times  its  own 
volume  of  hydrogen. 


ABSOBPTION  OF  Waves.  Waves  of  any 
kind  in  any  medium  carry  energy  with  them; 
and,  if  the  energy  decreases,  the  medium  is  said 
to  absorb  it  or  to  exhibit  "absorption."  Thus, 
if  white  light  falls  upon  red  glass,  i.e.,  if  ether- 
waves  which  affect  the  normal  human  eye  with 
the  sensation  "white"  are  incident  upon  glass 
which  appears  red  to  the  same  eye,  all  the  waves 
except  those  which  produce  the  sensation  red 
are  absorbed  by  the  glass,  while  the  others  are 
transmitted.  Bodies  differ  greatly  in  the  qual- 
ity and  quantity  of  their  absorptive  power;  but 
it  is  a  general  law  that  the  absorptive  power  of 
a  body  equals  its  emissive  power  under  the  same 
conditions.  (See  Radiation.)  Absorption  is 
due  to  the  presence  in  the  pure  medium  carrying 
the  waves,  of  some  portions  of  matter  whose  own 
natural  period  of  vibration  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  period  of  the  waves;  and,  therefore,  these 
portions  of  matter  are  set  in  vibration  by  "reso- 
nance" (q.v.).  Thus,  if  a  person  sings  a  pure 
note  near  a  piano  it  may  be  observed  that  the 
particular  string  of  the  piano  which  of  itself 
gives  the  same  note  is  set  in  vibration  by  the 
air-waves  sent  out  by  the  singer. 

If  air-waves  of  any  length  fall  upon  a  soft 
body,  such  as  a  cushion  or  a  curtain,  there  is 
absorption,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  re- 
flected waves  are  much  less  intense  than  the 
incident  waves.  The  energy  thus  absorbed  is 
not  spent  in  emitting  other  waves,  but  is  dis- 
sipated throughout  the  body  producing  heat 
effects.  Similarly,  if  ether-waves  fall  upon  an 
absorbing  body,  the  energy  absorbed  is  dissi- 
pated in  general  throughout  the  smallest  par- 
ticles of  the  body  producing  heat  effects.  See, 
however.  Fluorescence. 

AB^STINENCE.    See  Fast. 

AB^STINENCE  SOCIETIES.  Associations 
to  promote  total  abstinence  from  alcoholic 
liquors  as  beverages.     See  Temperance. 

ABSTBACrriON  (Lat.  aha,  away  -f  trahere, 
to  draw).  In  logic,  the  process  by  which  the 
mind  separates  out  marks  or  characteristics 
which  are  similar  in  various  objects,  and  disre- 
gards the  marks  or  characteristics  by  which  the 
objects  differ.  It  also  occurs  where  characteris- 
tics of  particular  objects,  or  classes  of  objects, 
are  replaced  by  a  more  general  characteristic. 
Ai^  instance  of  the  first  kind  is  the  formation  of 
the  class  "biped"  by  the  inclusion  of  all  two- 
legged  animals.  An  instance  of  the  second  type 
is  the  substitution  of  the  general  mark  "repro- 
duction" for  the  more  special  marks,  "vivipa- 
rous," "oviparous,"  "fissiparous,"  etc.  The  re- 
sult of  this  process  is  also  called  an  abstraction, 
or,  if  it  appears  as  a  word,  a  concept.  The  psy- 
chology of  abstraction  consists  in  describing  the 
way  in  which  the  attention,  in  passing  from  one 
object  to  another,  fastens  upon  an  element  com- 
mon to  all  and  dissociates  it  from  its  context. 
Abstraction  is  carried  out  in  a  state  of  active 
attention  (see  Attention),  as  when  the  phi- 
lologist searches  out  common  or  allied  roots  in 
different  languages,  or  when  the  geologist  iden- 
tifies strata  in  different  localities  and  JForms  the 
abstraction  of  a  single  epoch  in  which  they  were 
laid.  The  process  is,  however,  facilitated  by 
the  sheer  decaj'  of  mental  complexes;  a  decay 
which  obliterates  small  differences  and  reduces 
mere  similarity  to  indistinguishableness.  It 
thus  comes  about  that  we  form  sketchy,  "ab- 
stract" images — as  of  "pen,"  "house,"  or  "book" 


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ABSTBACnON. 

— from  similar  things,  and  that  one  of  these 
schematic  images  is  sufficient  to  call  up  a  large 
number  of  more  concrete  (unobliterated)  ideas 
whenever  an  appropriate  incentive  is  given. 
(See  Association.)  Consult:  R.  H.  Lotze,  Logic 
(Oxford,  1888)  ;  W.  James,  Principles  of  Psy- 
chology  (New  York,  1890). 

AB'STBACT  OF  TITTLE.  A  brief  and  or- 
derly statement  in  writing  of  the  successive  con- 
veyances and  other  events  through  which  a  per- 
son claiming  to  own  a  parcel  of  land  derives  his 
title.  A  purchaser  or  mortgagee  of  real  prop- 
erty is  entitled — ^by  law  in  England,  by  custom 
in  the  United  States — to  receive  such  an  abstract 
from  the  vendor  or  mortgagor  in  advance  of  the 
consummation  of  the  transaction,  and  it  there- 
upon becomes  the  basis  of  the  examination  of 
title  (q.v.),  which  it  is  the  duty  of  the  solicitor 
or  attorney  of  the  purchaser  to  make.  A  perfect, 
abstract  should  furnish  a  complete  history  of  the 
title  sought  to  be  transferred,  showing  not  only 
the  origin  and  nature  of  the  vendor's  interest, 
but  also  all  incumbrances  and  other  interests — 
such  as  mortgages,  easements,  recorded  judg- 
ments, trusts,  etc. — ^which  affect  his  title.  In 
England,  where  the  practice  of  recording  deeds 
does  not  generally  obtain,  the  abstract  is  based 
upon  the  title  deeds  (q.v.),  which  are  carefully 
preserved  and  transmitted  with  each  transfer  of 
the  estate;  while  in  the  United  States  the  pub- 
lic records  of  conveyances  are  the  principal,  but 
not  the  exclusive,  source  of  the  information  upon 
which  the  maker  of  the  abstract  proceeds.  ( See 
Kecordino.)  Consult:  Warvelle,  A  Practical 
Treatise  on  Abstracts  and  Examinations  of  Titles 
to  Real  Property  (Chicago,  1892)  ;  and  also 
Warvelle,  A  Treatise  on  the  American  Law  of 
Vendor  and  Purchaser  of  Real  Property  (Chi- 
cago, 1902)  ;  Comyns,  On  Abstracts  of  Title 
(Tendon,  1895). 

ABSXTB^TTM,  Reductio  ad  (Lat.  a  reduc- 
ing to  an  absurdity) .  The  method  of  proving  a 
truth  by  showing  that  to  suppose  the  proposition 
untrue  would  lead  to  a  contradiction  or  absur- 
dity. 

ABSYBTTTS  (Gk.  'A^proc,  Apsyrtos), 
In  the  legend  of  the  Argonautic  expedition  (see 
Arqoxauts),  the  younger  brother  of  Medea. 
She  carried  him  off  with  her  when  she  fled 
with  Jason  from  Colchis,  and,  according  to  the 
common  version  of  the  story,  deterred  her  pur- 
suing parent,  -Eetes,  by  cutting  the  boy  in  pieces 
and  scattering  his  body  on  the  sea  for  his  father 
to  gather  up. 

ABT,  apt,  Franz  (1819-85).  A  German  song 
writer  and  musical  conductor.  He  was  bom  at 
Wiesbaden  and  sent  to  the  Thomasschule  at 
Leipzig  to  study  theology.  Here  he  met  Men- 
delssohn, w^ho  is  said  to  have  persuaded  him  to 
follow  a  musical  career.  He  was  appointed 
kapellmeister  at  the  court  theatre  of  Bernburg 
in  1841,  but  soon  relinquished  this  position  for 
a  similar  one  at  ZQrich,  where  he  remained  for 
eleven  years,  obtaining  great  popularity  as  a 
teacher,  composer,  and  leader  of  singing  socie- 
ties. He  was  called  to  Brunswick  in  1852  as 
second  musical  director  at  the  court  theatre, 
was  appointed  court  kapellmeister  in  1855,  and 
pensioned  in  1881.  He  came  to  the  United 
States  in  1872  at  the  invitation  of  several 
choral  societies,  and  everywhere  met  with  a  cor- 
dial reception.  Abt  was  a  prolific  composer,  and 
at  the  time  of  his  death  had  published  nearly  600 


47 


ABU-HASSAN. 


books  (Hefte),  some  of  them  containing  from 
twenty  to  thirty  numbers.  He  belongs  to  that 
group  of  composers  which  includes  Truchu, 
KQcken,  and  Gumbert.  His  vocal  compositions 
are  remarkable  for  their  simplicity  and  clearness 
of  melodic  construction.  Among  these  may  be 
mentioned:  Wenn  die  Schwalben  heimwdrts 
zich'n  ('When  the  Swallows  Homeward  Fly")  ; 
Oute  Nacht,  du  mein  herziges  Kind  ("Good 
Night,  My  Child")  ;  Schlaf  wohl,  du  siisser  Engel 
("Sleep  Well,  Sweet  Angel")  ;  Leuchtendes  Auge 
("Marie,  or.  When  1  Am  Near  Thee"). 

ABTJy  21^<3o.  One  of  the  Aravalli  mountains 
(q.v.),  India,  over  5000  feet  high.  It  is  held 
in  high  esteem  by  the  Jainas  and  is  celebrated 
for  its  two  magnificent  temples  of  white  marble, 
supposed  to  have  been  built  in  the  twelfth  and 
thirteenth  centuries,  and  considered  the  finest 
specimens  of  Indian  architecture. 

ABU,  a'bro.  The  Arabic  word  for  "father," 
which  in  modem  Arabic  often  becomes  abbrevi- 
ated to  Bu.  It  is  prefixed  to  many  Arabic  proper 
names,  as  the  equivalent  syllable  Ab  is  prefixed 
to  Hebrew  names.  Example:  Abu-bekr,  which 
is  explained  by  the  Arabic  traditions  as  "father 
of  the  virgin."  But  Abu,  like  the  Hebrew  Aby 
often  is  not  to  be  interpreted  literally,  but  signi- 
fies possessor,  or  is  used  to  indicate  even  more 
generally  the  notion  of  fullness,  largeness,  and 
the  like;  as  in  Abulfeda  (possessor  of  fidelity) , 
"the  trusty  one;"  Abner,  "the  brilliant  one,"  lit- 
erally "father  or  possessor  of  light." 

ABTJ-BBKB.,  a'boo-b6k'*r  (Ar.  Father  of  the 
virgin,  referring  to  Ayesha,  wife  of  Moham- 
med) (570-634).  The  first  caliph.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  infiuence  in  the  Koreish  tribe.  In 
632,  when  Mohammed  died,  he  was  made  caliph, 
or  successor  of  the  Prophet.  After  defeating  nis 
enemies  in  Arabia,  and  warring  successfully 
against  Persia  and  the  Byzantine  emperor  Her- 
aclius,  Abu-bekr  died  (634  a.d.)  and  was  buried 
at  Medina,  near  the  remains  of  Mohammed  and 
the  Prophet's  wife  Ayesha  (q.v.). 

ABU-BEKB  MOHAMMED  IBN  TO- 
FHAIL,  a'boo-bek'V  m6-hflm'm6d  'b'n  tf/fi-el 
(1100-85).  A  famous  Arabic  physician,  mathe- 
matician, poet,  and  philosopher.  He  was  born 
in  Andalusia  nad  died  in  Morocco.  His  chief 
extant  philosophical  work  is  entitled  Hajj  ibn 
Jokdhan,  The  Living,  the  Son  of  the  Awake.  It 
depicts  the  natural  progressive  development  of 
the  human  faculties  till  nature  and  God  are  ade- 
quately known  in  virtue  of  a  communion  of  the 
human  intellect  in  the  divine  thought.  To  secure 
this  communion,  positive  religion  is  valuable  for 
the  vulgar,  but  religious  doctrines  are  only  exo- 
teric presentations  of  the  mystic  truth.  Consult: 
Ritter,  Qeschichte  der  Philosophic  (Hamburg, 
1829-31);  English  by  Morrison  (OxfoiM  and 
London,  1838-40).  Also  Munk,  Melanges  dc 
Philosophic  Juive  et  Arabe  (Paris,  1859).  See 
also  the  article  Arabian  Language  and  Lit- 
erature. 

ABU-BEKB.  MOHAMMED  EB  BASI,  Sr 

ril's^.    See  Khaze^. 

ABI7HABTE,  ft'bSo-hftr'tA.     See  Oryx. 

ABU-HASSAN,  a'b?5o-hfis'sAn,  surnamed  The 
Wag.  The  hero  of  The  Sleeper  Awakened,  one 
of  the  stories  of  the  Arabian  Nights.  He  was 
a  whimsical,  rich  citizen  of  Bagdad,  who  enter- 
tained the  Caliph  unawares,  and  after  strange 
experiences  became  his  friend. 


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ABUIi  SXJ'TJD. 


ABU  JAAPAB.  LBN  MOHAMMED,  Ik'b^ 
ja'far  'b'n  in6-hAm'inM,  called  El  Sadik, 
**The  Righteous"  (699-765).  A  caliph,  one  of 
the  twelve  imams  of  the  Arabians.  He  wrote  a 
work  on  alchemy,  augury,  and  omens;  and  one 
of  his  pupils,  Ahu  Musa  Jabir  ibn  Haiyan  of 
Tarsus,  compiled  a  work  of  two  thousand  pages, 
in  which  he  inserted  five  hundred  of  the  prob- 
lems of  his  master.  Abu  Jaafar  is  the  principal 
Arabian  representative  of  the  pretended  art  of 
prophesying  from  cabalistic  tablets,  and  all  the 
superstitious  disciplines  of  the  Arabs  are  usually 
ascribed  to  him,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that 
these  pseudo-sciences  undoubtedly  originated  in 
countries  farther  to  the  east. 

ABXJKIB,  a'boo-ker^  An  insignificant  village 
on  the  coast  of  Egypt,  about  13  miles  northeast 
of  Alexandria,  probably  the  ancient  Buldris.  The 
important  city  of  Canopus  was  situated  in  the 
near  vicinity.  The  castle  of  Abukir  stands  on 
the  west  side  of  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  which 
is  west  of  the  Rosetta  branch  of  the  Nile.  This 
bay  is  celebrated  on  account  of  Nelson's  victory 
liere  gained  over  the  French  fleet,  August  1-2, 
1798,  the  engagement  being  frequently  called  the 
Battle  of  the  Nile.  The  French  fleet  was  sta- 
tioned in  a  curved  line  near  a  small  island  guard- 
ed by  a  battery;  but  Nelson,  with  his  usual  in- 
trepidity, forced  a  passage  with  half  of  his  fleet 
of  fifteen  vessels  between  the  island  and  the 
French  line  of  battle,  while  the  other  half  at- 
tacked the  enemy  in  front.  The  French  ad- 
miral I)e  Bruyes  was  killed  by  a  cannon-ball, 
and  his  flag-ship,  VOrient^  was  destroyed.  The 
French  fleet  was  completely  defeated,  and  only 
two  vessels  escaped.  Napoleon  defeated  the 
Arabs  here  on  July  25th,  1799,  and  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby  (a.v.)  repulsed  the  French  near  this 
point  in  1801  (the  engagement  being  know^n  as 
the  battle  of  Alexandria). 

ABU  KLEA,  a'boo  klfl'A.  A  place  in  the 
Sudan  situated  on  the  route  between  Korti  and 
Metemme,  both  of  which  are  on  the  great  bend 
of  the  Nile  below  Khartum.  It  was  the  scene 
of  a  battle  fought  on  January  17,  1885,  in 
which  the  Mahdi's  forces  were  defeated  by  the 
English  troops  under  Sir  Herbert  Stewart.  See 
Mahdi. 

ABUL  AIiA  All  MAAB.&I,  U^b<^l  :t^I&  al  m&- 
Sr'r*  (937-1027).  An  Arabian  poet  and  philos- 
opher*. He  was  born  in  Syria,  and  at  an  early 
age  lost  his  eyesight.  In  his  poems — mostly  of 
.a  philosophical  nature — he  sets  up  purity  and  un- 
selfishness as  the  highest  ideals  that  man  could 
follow.  A  collection  of  his  poems  was  made 
at  Cairo  (1306).  Consult:  Kremer,  Ueher  die 
philosophischen  Gedickte  des  AbH  l-Ald  al-Ma'- 
arri  (Vienna,  1888). 

ABULCASIM,  a'bool-ka's^m.  Commonly 
termed  by  European  historians  Abul-Kasts.  A 
famous  Arabic  physician.  He  was  born  at  El- 
Zahra,  near  Cordova.  The  exact  date  of  his 
birth  is  unknown.  He  died  in  his  birthplace 
1106.  His  great  work,  Altasrif,  an  en- 
cyclopaedia of  medicine,  is  of  jnuch  interest,  the 
treatise  on  surgery  contained  in  it  being  the  best 
that  has  come  to  us  from  antiquity,  and  still  of 
importance  in  tracing  the  progress  of  surgery.  A 
partial  Latin  translation  of  Abulcasim's  work 
was  published  in  Augsburg,  1519;  the  section  on 
surgery  was  published  in  the  original  Arabic 
with  a  Latin  translation  by  Channing  (Oxford, 
1778,  two  volumes). 


ABUIiFABAJ,  a'bSol-fA-raj'.      See  Bar  He- 

BBiCTJS. 

ABULFAZL,  a^b^RH-fa^zl,  MXTBABAX-I 
AliliAMI  (sixteenth  century).  Vizier  and  his- 
toriographer  of  Akbar  (q.v.),  the  great  Mongol 
emperor.  His  chief  work  is  in  two  parts ;  the  first 
part  (Akhar  NAmah,  or  Book  of  Akbar)  is  a 
complete  history  of  Akbar's  reign,  and  the  second 
half  {Ayin-i-Akharf  or  Institute  of  Akbar)  gives 
an  account  of  the  religious  aud  political  consti- 
tution and  administration  of  the  empire.  The 
btyle  is  excellent,  and  the  second  part  is  of  unique 
and  enduring  interest.  The  Persian  text  of  the 
Akbar  Namah  is  edited  in  the  Bibliotheca  Indica 
( 1873-87 ) ,  and  a  translation  is  now  being  issued 
by  Beveridge  in  the  same  collection.  The  Ayini- 
Akbary  edited  in  the  Bibliotheca  Indica  { 1867-77) 
is  translated  by  Blochmann  and  Jarett  (1873-94) 
in  the  same  series.  Abulfazl  died  by  the  hand  of 
an  assassin  while  returning  from  a  mission  to 
the  Deccan  in  1602. 

ABUXFEDA  ISMAEL  BEN  ALI,  IMAD 
ED-DIN,  ft'bSol-fa'dA  ds-mA-eP  b€n  ft'l*  (1273- 
1331).  A  Moslem  prince  and  historian.  He  was 
born  at  Damascus.  During  his  youth  he  distin- 
guished himself  in  several  campaigns  against  the 
Crusaders.  He  inherited  the  principality  of  Ha- 
mah,  Syria,  in  1298,  but  in  consequence  of  a  dis- 
pute over  the  succession  the  dignity  was  abol- 
ished by  the  Sultan.  It  was  restored  in  1310  by 
Sultan  Melik  el-Nassir  and  bestowed  upon  Abul- 
feda  for  distinguished  military  services.  He  was 
given  practically  sovereign  powers.  From  1310 
to  the  time  of  his  death  he  ruled  over  the  prin- 
cipality, visited  Egypt  and  Arabia,  and  patron- 
ized literature  and  science.  Among  his  impor- 
tant writings  were  An  Abridgment  of  the  His- 
tory of  the  Human  Race,  in  the  form  of  annals, 
from  the  creation  to  1328.  The  work  is  partly  a 
compilation  and  partly  original.  It  is  impor- 
tant as  historical  material  for  the  era  after  Mo- 
hammed. There  are  several  translations  from 
the  original  Arabic.  One  (1610)  is  contained  in 
the  first  volume  of  Muratori,  Scrip  tores  Rerum 
Italicarum.  The  part  preceding  the  Mohamme- 
dan era  was  rendered  into  Latin  by  Fleischer  as 
AbulfedcB  Hi^toria  ante  -  Tslamitica  (Leipzig, 
1831)  ;  and  the  later  part  by  Reiske  as  Annates 
Mo8lemici(S)  volumes,  Copenhagen,  1789-94).  The 
Geography  of  Abulfeda  is  chiefiy  valuable  for 
the  history  and  description  of  the  Mohammedan 
world.  A  complete  edition  Was  published  by 
Beinaud  and  de  Slane  in  Paris  (1840)  ;  and  a 
French  translation  by  Keinaud  in  1848.  Manu- 
scripts are  in  the  Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford, 
and  the  Bibloth^ue  Nationale  of  France. 

ABUL-HASSAN,  aOjcJol-h&s's&n.  See  Judah, 
Ben  Samuel. 

ABULIA,  A-booli-A.     See  Psychiatry. 

ABUL  KASIM  MANSUB,  &n>5Ql  ka^s^m 
mfin-soor'.     See  Fibdaust. 

ABUXONE,  &-booad-nft.  A  wild  tribe  in  Zam- 
bales  province,  Luzon.     See  Philippines. 

ABUL  SU'UD,  a'bool  sy-ood'  (1828—-).  An 
Arabian  poet.  He  was  born  in  a  village  of  Lower 
Egypt  of  poor  parents,  and  was  one  of  a  number 
of  pupils  annually  selected  from  the  primary 
schools  to  take  the  course  in  languages  at  the 
institute  founded  at  Cairo  by  Mehemet  Ali 
He  at  first  imitated  the  elegiac  poets  of  Arabia: 
afterward  his  verses,  many  of  which  became  very 
popular,  were  distinguished  by  a  wealth  of  ideas 


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ABU  sxj'iro. 

and  by  voluptuous  mystical  tendencies.  The 
accession  of  Said  Pasha  inspired  Abul  Su'ud  to 
s,  splendid  kacida  (ode),  and  the  fall  of  Sebas- 
topol  was  celebrated  by  him  in  a  dithyramb 
which  voiced  an  appeal  for  universal  brother- 
hood, an  idea  till  then  little  Icno^^-n  in  the  Orient. 

ABXTL  WEFA,  &^b5ol  wft^f&.  See  Moham- 
HED  BEN  Mohammed  ben  Yahya. 

ABTJMESACKA,  &-b;^mft-8ft^k&  (native 
name).  A  large  catfish  of  the  Nile  {Charotes 
laticeps) . 

ABUKDAy  A-bT^n^dA.  A  Bantu  people  of 
Angola,  living  partly  on  the  low-lying  coastlands 
and  partly  on  the  terraced  escarpments,  and 
hence  divided  into  "highlanders"  and  "lowland- 
ers."  They  have  long  been  in  contact  with  Euro- 
peans, and  there  is  a  considerable  admixture  of 
white  blood,  largely  accounting  for  their  enter- 
prise, which  travelers  praise  highly.  Most  of 
them  speak  both  Portuguese  and  Umbunda,  a 
trade  language  which  is  current  over  vast  areas. 
It  is  said  that,  with  a  knowledge  of  Umbunda 
and  Ki-Swahili,  also  a  Bantu  dialect,  a  traveler 
can  make  his  way  across  the  continent  from 
Benguela  to  Zanzibar. 

ABU  NUWAS,  a'bSS  n?R5'wft8  (762T-810). 
A  celebrated  lyrical  poet  of  Arabia.  According 
to  competent  critics,  he  was  in  his  day  the  great- 
est poet  in  Islam.  His  learning  was  extensive, 
and  BO  marvelous  was  his  memory  that  he  is  said 
to  have  known  by  heart  700  arjusat,  or  poems  of 
irr^ular  metre,  by  men,  as  well  as  the  complete 
poetical  works  of  sixty  Arabian  women  poets. 
His  verses  celebrating  wine  have  been  equaled 
only  by  those  of  Aasha  and  Akhtal.  In  conse- 
<|uence  of  a  lampoon  which  he  had  written  on 
Ali,  the  son-in-law  of  the  Prophet,  he  was  as- 
sailed by  his  enemies  at  Bagdad  and  brutally 
murdered. 

ABU  SAID  KHAN,  nn^m  s&-^^Kttn.  See 
Mongol  Dynasties. 

ABUSER  OF  FBOCESS.  The  wrongful  em- 
ployment of  a  regular  judicial  proceeding. 
Courts  of  justice,  quite  as  much  for  their  own 
protection  as  for  that  of  the  party  injured  there- 
by, refuse  to  lend  themselves  to  the  abuse  of  their 
procedure,  and  may,  accordingly,  stay  or  dismiss 
actions  and  strike  out  defenses  which  are  mani- 
festly frivolous  or  vexatious.  The  question 
whether  an  allegation  or  a  denial  comes  under 
this  description  is  addressed  to  the  discretion  of 
the  court.  The  jurisdiction  to  prevent  or  redress 
such  abuse  may  be  exercised  on  the  motion  of 
the  party  aggrieved  or  at  the  instance  of  the 
court  itself.  In  order  to  sustain  an  action  for 
malicious  abuse  of  civil  process,  it  is  necessary 
to  allege  and  prove  both  a  want  of  probable  cause 
and  the  existence  of  a  malicious  motive.  Con- 
sult: Newell,  Laic  of  Malicious  Prosecutiorif 
False  Imprisonment,  and  Abuse  of  Legal  Process 
(Chicago,  1892).     See  Malicious  Prosecution. 

ABUSHEHB,  ft'bo^^-sher',  or  BUSHIBE^ 
bo<5-8her'  (Pers.  Bendershehr) .  A  Persian  sea- 
iwrt  town  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
about  130  miles  southwest  of  Shiraz,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  caravan  route.  It  is  situ- 
ated at  the  extremity  of  a  peninsula  and  has  an 
extremely  hot  climate.  Owing  to  its  advan- 
tageous position  as  a  terminal  of  one  of  the  most 
important  caravan  routes  of  Persia,  Abushehr 
has  a  very  considerable  trade,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  its  harbor  is  neither  safe  nor  deep 
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49 


ABU  TEMMAM. 


enough  for  heavy  vessels,  which  are  compelled 
to  anchor  outside.  The  trade  (over  $7,000,000 
annually)  is  chiefly  with  Great  Britain  and  her 
colonies.  The  exports  consist  of  opium,  raw  cotton 
and  silk,  mother  of  pearl,  carpets,  tobacco,  and 
hides,  while  the  imports  are  made  up  chiefly  of 
cotton  goods,  tea,  metals,  and  sugar.  Abushehr 
is  the  seat  ol  several  European  consuls,  as  well 
as  of  a  Persian  governor.  The  population  is 
about  15,000. 

ABU-SIMBEL,  ft^bi^-sim^l  (Ibsambul  of 
Ipsambul).  a  place  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Nile  in  Nubia,  lat.  22°  22'  N.,  the  site  of  two 
very  remarkable  rock-cut  temples.  Both  were 
constructed  by  Rameses  II.,  who  dedicated  the 
larger  to  the  gods  Ammon  of  Thebes,  Harmachis 
of  Heliopolis,  and  Ptah  of  Memphis;  the 
smaller  to  the  goddess  Hathor.  The  larger 
temple  has  a  facade  119  feet  broad  and  more  than 
100  feet  high,  adorned  with  four  sitting  colossi, 
each  more  than  65  feet  in  height,  representing 
the  King.  Upon  these  are  carved  inscriptions 
commemorating  the  visit  of  Phoenician  and 
Greek  mercenaries  in  the  service  of  King  Psam- 
metichus  II.  (594-589  B.C.).    The  interior  of  this 


temple,  which  is  180  feet  in  depth,  contains  two 
large  halls  and  twelve  smaller  chambers  and 
corridors,  all  decorated  with  sculptures  and 
paintings.  The  great  outer  hall,  58  by  54  feet, 
is  supported  by  two  rows  of  square  pillars,  four 
in  each  row,  30  feet  high;  and  to  each  of  these 
pillars  is  attached  a  standing  figure  of  the  King, 
reaching  to  the  roof.  The  walls  of  this  hall  are 
decorated  with  representations,  in  color,  of  vic- 
tories over  the  Hittites  and  other  enemies  of 
Egypt.  In  front  of  the  smaller  temple  are  six 
statues,  each  33  feet  higli,  repre.senting  King 
Rameses  and  his  Queen.  These  temples  were 
discovered  by  Burckhardt.  In  1892,  Captain 
Johnston,  R.E.,  repaired  the  front  of  the  larger 
temple,  and  built  two  walls  to  protect  the  en- 
trance against  the  drifting  sand. 

ABU  TEKMAJC,  H'boo  tSm-mttm',  Habib 
( 807  ?-846  ? )  .^  An  Arabic  poet,  the  exact  dates 
of  whose  birth  and  death  are  uncertain.  He  was 
born  in  Syria,  and  his  father  is  said  by  some 
authorities  to  have  been  a  Christian.  But  few 
facts  of  his  life  are  known.  At  an  early  age 
he  came  to  Egypt,  where  he  first  became  known 
as  a  poet.  He  led  the  life  of  a  wanderer,  and 
passed  from  Damascus  to  Mosul,  thence  to  Bag- 
dad, and  finally  settled  for  some  time  in  Hama- 
dan,  where  a  large  library  was  placed  at  his  dis- 


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ABYSSINIA. 


posal,  from  which  he  compiled  four  collections  of 
Arabic  poems.  The  most  famous  of  these  is 
known  as  the  Hamasa — i.e.,  "heroic"  anthology. 
Though  Abu  Temmam  achieved  high  renown  as  a 
poet,  his  reputation  rests  chiefly  upon  this  an- 
thology. The  Arabic  text  of  the  Hamasa  was 
published  by  G.  W.  Freytag  in  two  volumes 
(Bonn,  1828-47),  and  an  edition  has  also  been 
published  in  Bulak  and  Calcutta  (1856).  The 
German  poet,  Friedrich  Rfickert,  published  a 
German  translation  of  the  Hamasa  (Stuttgart, 
1846). 

ABXJ^ILON  (Ar.  auhUtilUn),  or  Flower- 
ing Maple.  A  genus  of  mostly  shrubby  tropical 
or  semi-tropical  plants  of  the  natural  order  Mal- 
vacete,  including  about  seventy  species.  A  num- 
ber of  species  are  grown  like  Geraniums  or 
Fuchsias  in  pots  in  greenhouses  and  in  summer 
planted  out  in  borders.  The  leaves  are  long- 
stalked,  often  maple-like  or  vine-like,  and  gen- 
erally edged  or  mottled  with  white;  the  flowers 
are  pendant,  one,  two  or  more  inches  long,  vary- 
ing in  color  from  red  to  yellow  and  white  and 
intermediate  shades.  The  more  commonly  cul- 
tivated species  are:  Abutilon  striatum,  Abutilon 
thompsoni,  Abutilon  venosum,  Abutilon  in- 
signe,  etc.  Abutilon  avicennae,  known  as  Velvet- 
leaf,  is  a  common  weed  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States.     See  Plate  of  Abutilon. 

ABUTOICENT  (Fr.  aboutir,  to  end  in,  to 
touch  by  the  extremity,  from  bout,  end,  compare 
Engl,  butt).  In  architecture,  that  part  of  a  wall 
or  pier  which  takes  the  weight  or  thrust  of  the 
construction*  above  it,  as  of  an  arch,  vault,  or 
truss.  It  is  not  generally  used  to  designate 
minor  supports,  but  only  those  at  the  end  of  a 
series;  neither  does  it  refer  to  vertical,  but  to 
diagonal  thrusts.  An  abutment  arch  is  the  land 
arch  of  a  bridge,  or  any  arch  in  a  series  that 
is  next  to  the  abutment. 

AB'O'-Y^S'fiT  YAK'&B,  a'b55-y?R5'syf  yft'kyb, 
called  AL-MANsf)B,  or  "The  Victorious"  (1160- 
98) .  The  fourth  sultan  of  the  Almohade  dynasty 
in  Africa  and  Spain.  His  father  was  killed  at 
the  siege  of  Santarem,  1184,  and  as  soon  as  he 
had  quelled  certain  insurrections  in  Morocco, 
Abd-Ydsaf  Yakdb  he  turned  his  arms  against  the 
Christians  and  carried  off  to  Africa  40,000  cap- 
tives. In  subsequent  expeditions  he  captured 
Torres  and  Silves,  in  Portugal,  and  defeated  the 
Christians  under  Alfonso  III.,  near  Valencia.  He 
died  in  Morocco.     See  Almghadbs. 

A^Y,  S'bA,  Christoph  Thbodob.     See  Aeby. 

ABY'DOS  (Gk.  'AfivSo^.),  In  ancient  geogra- 
phy, a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  situated  at  the  nar- 
rowest part  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite  Sestos. 
It  is  celebrated  as  the  place  where  Xerxes  and 
his  vast  army  passed  into  Europe  in  480  B.C.; 
also  as  the  scene  of  the  story  of  Hero  (q.v.)  and 
Jjeander.  The  people  of  Abydos  were  prover- 
bial for  their  effeminate  and  dissolute  manners. 
There  is  another  Abydos  in  Upper  Egypt 
(Thebals),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile  and  on 
the  main  route  of  commerce  with  Libya.  It  is 
mentioned  in  the  earliest  Egyptian  inscriptions, 
and,  especially  under  the  nineteenth  dynasty, 
was  a  city  of  considerable  extent  and  importance. 
Later  it  declined,  and  in  the  time  of  Strabo, 
about  the  beginning  of  the  Christian  era,  it  was 
in  ruins.  Abydos  was  celebrated  as  the  burial 
place  of  Osiris,  and  the  bodies  of  pious  Ej^yptians 
were  brought   thither  for   interment  from   all 


parts  of  the  land.  Magnificent  temples,  dedi- 
cated to  Osiris,  were  built  at  this  place  by  Seti  I. 
and  by  his  son  Rameses  II.  In  the  latter  temple 
was  found,  in  1818,  a  portion  of  the  famous  tablet 
of  Abydos,  containing  a  list  of  Egyptian  kings. 
The  second  and  more  important  part  of  this 
tablet  was  found  in  1864  in  the  temple  built  by 
Seti  I.  In  recent  years  excavations  conducted 
at  Abydos  by  Amfilineau  and  Flinders  Petrie 
have  brought  to  light  important  remains  of  the 
first  Egyptian  dynasty.  See  Petbie,  F.,  and  also 
Egypt. 

ABYDOSy  Bbide  of.  A  narrative  poem  in 
two  cantos,  by  Lord  Byron  (published  1813). 
The  heroine,  Zuleika,  is  an  Oriental  character 
of  ideal  purity  and  beauty. 

AB'YLA  AND  CAI/PE.    See  Hebcules,  Pil- 

LABS    OF. 

ABYS'KAIi  ACCU'MXriiA^nONS.  Depos- 
its which  gather  upon  the  bottom  of  the  abysmal 
denths  of  the  ocean.  They  consist  chiefly  of 
red  and  gray  clays,  and  the  so-called  oozes, 
which  latter  are  combinations  of  the  clays  with 
the  shells  of  minute  organisms  such  as  Radio- 
larians,  Foraminifera,  and  Diatoms.  For  a 
more  detailed  description  of  these  abysmal  accu- 
mulations and  other  forms  of  deep-sea  deposits 
the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on  Oceazcic 
Deposit. 

ABYSS^  (Gk.  apvaatK,  abyssoa,  bottomless, 
from  a,  a,  priv.  -|-  ftvtrad^,  byasos,  depth,  bottom). 
A  designation  applied  in  the  Greek  translation 
of  the  Old  Testament  to  the  primitive  "chaos" 
as  described  in  Genesis  i  :  2.  The  Hebrew  term 
— tehdm — occurs  some  thirty  times,  and  was  mod- 
ified in  the  course  of  time  to  convey  the  notion 
of  the  "watery  deep"  in  general  surrounding 
the  earth,  on  which,  according  to  what  appears 
to  be  a  later  conception,  the  earth  was  supposed 
to  rest,  and  from  which  springs  and  rivers  were 
fed.  The  situation  of  Sheol  being,  according  to 
primitive  Semitic  ideas,  in  the  depths  of  the 
earth,  the  term  "abyss"  is  used  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment (Romans  x  :  7)  as  the  designation  for  the 
abode  of  the  dead,  and  then  more  specifically  for 
the  prison  in  which  evil  powers  are  confined 
( so  in  seven  passages  of  Revelation,  ix  :  1 ; 
xi  :  7,  etc.  See  also  Luke  viii  :  31 ) .  In  the 
Revised  Version  of  the  New  Testament,  the  Greek 
term  is  rendered  by  "abyss,"  but  in  the  Author- 
ized Version  and  in  both  the  Authorized  and 
Revised  Versions  of  the  Old  Testament  expres- 
sions like  "deep"  and  "bottomless  pit"  are  em- 
ployed. 

ABYS'SAIi  FATJ^A.  See  Distribution  op 
Animals. 

AB'YSSINIA  (Ar.  Habeah,  "mixed,"  refer- 
ring to  the  population).  A  country  in  East 
Africa,  situated  between  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Blue  Nile,  and  extending  from  about  5®  to  15" 
N.  lat.,  and  36*  to  43*»  E.  long.  (Map:  Africa, 
H  4) .  It  is  bounded  by  Nubia  on  the  northwest, 
the  Italian  colony  of  Eritrea  on  the  northeast, 
the  country  of  the  Danakil  on  the  east,  British 
East  African  possessions  on  the  south,  and  the 
Egyptian  Sudan  on  the  we^t;  but  its  boundaries 
can  hardly  be  drawn  with  precision,  on  account 
of  the  changes  caused  by  foreign  treaties  and  fre- 
quent wars  between  the  Negus  and  the  neighbor- 
ing tribes.  It  comprises  the  kingdoms  of  Tigrft, 
Amhara  with  Gojam,  and  Shoa,  and  the  outlying 


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ABTSSIHIA.  .  51 

dependencies  of  Harrar,  Kaffa,  and  Enarea.  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  150,000  square  miles,  and 
its  population  at  3,500,000. 

The  surface  of  Abyssinia  is  a  plateau,  with  an 
average  altitude  of  about  8000  feet,  and  a  general 
depression  toward  Lake  Tsana  (q.v.)  on  the 
west.  Of  the  numerous  mountain  chains  in  this 
region  only  a  few  can  be  clearly  traced.  The 
Samen  group,  situated  at  the  northern  end  of 
the  country,  and  inclosed  by  the  bend  of  the 
Takazze,  has  an  average  altitude  of  about  10,000 
ieet  and  rises  in  Ras  Dashan,  over  15,000  feet 
above  the  sea.  South  of  the  Samen  group  is 
another  chain,  the  Talba  Wakha,  surrounded  by 
the  upper  course  of  the  Atbara  (q.v)  on  its 
emerging  from  Lake  Tsana  (q.v.).  This  chain  is 
inferior  in  height  to  the  Samen,  its  greatest 
elevation  being  only  about  9000  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  southern  part  of  Abyssinia  is  less 
mountainous,  but  abounds  in  so-called  "ambas," 
isolated  rocky  hillocks,  most  of  them  very  pre- 
cipitous and  difficult  of  ascent.  Although  at 
present  it  includes  no  active  volcanoes,  the  coun- 
try in  its  entire  aspect  bears  evidence  of  violent 
volcanic  eruptions  in  some  remote  age.  Even 
to-day  numerous  extinct  volcanoes  are  to  be 
found,  with  their  craters  half  obliterated,  and 
there  are  several  hot  springs  in  the  vicinity  of 
Mount  Entoto,  some  of  them  with  a  temperature 
of  170  degrees. 

Among  the  rivers  the  most  important  are  the 
Abai,  or  Blue  Nile  (q.v.),  the  Atbara,  or  Black 
Nile,  the  Takazze,  the  main  head-stream  of  the 
latter,  and  the  Hawash.  With  the  exception  of 
the  Abai,  none  of  these  rivers  is  navigable,  and 
all  are  liable  to  sudden  rises,  often  accompanied 
by  great  disasters.  The  largest  lake  is  Tsana, 
called  also  Dembea. 

In  regard  to  climate  and  flora,  the  country 
may  be  divided  into  three  zones.  The  first  em- 
bracing all  the  districts  lying  below  the  altitude 
of  4800  feet  above  the  sea,  and  called  Kollas, 
has  an  annual  temperature  ranging  from  70**  to 
100**  F.,  and  an  exceedingly  luxuriant  vege- 
tation, including  cotton,  indigo,  bananas,  sugar 
cane,  cofTee,  date  palms,  and  ebony.  The  second 
zone,  Woina  Dega,  includes  all  the  country  be- 
tween 4800  and  9000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is 
characterized  by  a  moderate  temperature,  rang- 
ing from  60**  to  80**  F.,  and  its  vegetation 
includes  many  of  the  grasses  and  cereals  which 
flourish  in  Europe,  besides  oranges,  lemons, 
olives,  tobacco,  potatoes,  onions,  the  bamboo, 
the  turpentine  tree,  etc.  The  third  zone,  Dega, 
which  comprises  all  of  the  country  situated 
above  9000  feet,  has  a  temperature  of  45  to  50 
degrees.  It  affords  excellent  grazing  grounds, 
and  its  soil  is  well  adapted  for  the  cultivation 
of  the  hardier  cereals. 

The  rainy  season  on  the  coast  lands  lasts  from 
December  to  May.  In  the  interior  of  the  country 
there  are  generally  two  rainy  seasons,  one  from 
April  to  June,  and  the  other  from  July  to  Oc- 
tober.   The  climate  is  generally  healthful. 

The  fauna  is  not  inferior  m  variety  to  the 
flora.  It  includes,  among  other  animals,  the 
lion,  the  elephant,  the  rhinoceros,  the  giraffe,  a 
species  of  wolf  (the  kaberu),  the  hyena,  hippo- 
potamus, zebra,  and  several  forms  of  antelopes. 
Consult:  Blanford,  Qeology  and  Zoology  of  Ahys- 
«inta  (London.  1870).  Among  the  domestic  ani- 
mals may  be  mentioned  the  horse,  mule,  donkey, 
camel,  ox,  sheep,  and  goat. 

Geologically  the  surface  of  Abyssinia  is  com- 


ABTSSINIA. 


posed  mainly  of  sandstone,  together  with  gran- 
ite, basalt,  trachyte,  and  other  varieties  of  ig- 
neous rocks.  The  minerals  include  gold,  which 
is  found  mostly  in  the  streams,  and  also  iron, 
coal,  silver,  and  rock  salt.  For  further  infor- 
mation about  the  geology  of  Abyssinia,  see 
Africa  and  Rift  Valley. 

Industries.  Abyssinia  is  preeminently  an 
agricultural  country,  and  its  soil  is  especially 
well  adapted  for  the  cultivation  of  cereals.  The 
land  is  divided  not  among  individuals  but  among 
families,  and  the  only  title  to  land  is  its  occu- 
pation. The  agricultural  methods  employed  are 
of  the  most  primitive  kind,  a  fact  which,  to- 
gether with  the  extortionate  practices  of  the 
civil  and  military  officials,  is  not  very  conducive 
to  the  agricultural  development  of  the  country. 
Wheat  and  barley  are  the  chief  grains  raised. 
Different  kinds  of  fruit,  such  as  oranges,  lemons, 
bananas,  etc.,  are  found  in  abundance,  but  very 
little  attention  is  paid  to  their  cultivation. 
Cattle  raising  is  a  very  important  industry  in 
Abyssinia,  and  wool  is  one  of  the  chief  articles 
of  export.  Of  manufacturing  industries  Abys- 
sinia has  practically  none.  Ancient  remains 
found  in  several  parts  of  the  country  bear  traces 
of  skill  which  is  hardly  to  be  met  with  among 
the  modern  Abyssinians. 

Trade.  Abyssinians  do  not,  as  a  rule,  engage 
in  foreign  trade,  which  is  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  foreign  merchants.  The  trade  is  not  consid- 
erable, as,  until  recently,  the  buying  was  done 
almost  exclusively  by  the  King  and  his  court. 
The  increased  security  of  life  and  property,  how- 
ever, which  the  Abyssinians  have  been-  enjoying 
under  King  Menelek  has  prompted  an  increasing 
number  of  them  to  part  with  their  buried  treas- 
ures of  gold  and  silver  in  exchange  for  all  kinds 
of  goods.  The  total  imports  in  1899-1900  into 
the  two  chief  trading  centres  of  the  country, 
Addis  Abeba  and  Harrar,  were  estimated  at 
about  $3,500,()00,  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States  being  the  two  leading  sources,  and 
France  and  Germany  coming  next.  The  leading 
articles  of  import. are  cotten,  silk,  and  arms, 
the  American  cotton  being  preferred  to  all  others. 
The  chief  articles  of  export  are  coffee,  gold,  ivory, 
and  skins.  Coffee  is  exported  chiefly  to  Arabia, 
gold  to  India.  The  chief  obstacles  to  trade  are 
the  primitive  means  of  communication,  resulting 
in  slow  and  expensive  transportation.  The  dis- 
tance from  Addis  Abeba  to  Harrar,  for  example, 
about  250  miles,  is  traversed  in  from  four 
to  six  weeks;  the  goods  are  carried  on  mules' 
and  camels'  backs.  The  railway  line  between 
Jibutil,  in  French  Somaliland,  and  Harrar,  which 
is  to  be  eventually  extended  to  Addis  Abeba, 
will  have  a  total  length  of  about  500  miles,  of 
which  about  60  miles  were  completed  and  opened 
for  traffic  in  1900.  This  line  is  constructed  en- 
tirely by  French  capital,  with  a  political  rather 
than  a  commercial  aim,  although  it  will  cer- 
tainly attract  the  trade  between  Abyssinia  and 
the  coast,  which  at  present  passes  through  Zeila, 
in  British  Somaliland. 

The  chief  mediums  of  exchange  are  the  Maria 
Theresa  dollar  and  a  dollar  issued  by  King 
Menelek.  Salt  bars  of  uniform  size,  and  car- 
tridges also  circulate  to  some  extent  in  certain 
parts  of  the  country. 

In  its  form  of  government  Abyssinia  may  be 
considered  a  sort  of  feudal  monarchy.  The  pres- 
ent King,  or  Negus,  is  undoubtedly  the  real  ruler 
of  Abyssinia;  but  this  position  he  owes  more  to 


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ABYSSINIA.  52 

his  personal  qualities  than  to  any  traditional 
rights.  Certain  parts  of  the  country  are  ruled 
by  petty  kings  or  ras,  some  of  them  appointed 
by  the  Negus,  while  others  are  sufficiently  strong 
to  defy  his  authority,  and  may  throw  the  country 
into  a  state  of  disorder  at  his  death.  The  petty 
chiefs  have  retinues  of  followers  ready  to  support 
them  in  any  undertaking  so  long  as  there  is 
any  prospect  of  plunder.  This  class  of  profes- 
sional warriors,  whose 'usefulness  lasts  as  long 
as  there  are  any  insubordinate  tribes  to  pacify, 
is  a  great  hindrance  to  the  development  of  the 
country.  The  revenue  is  derived  from  tithes 
paid  in  kind,  and  taxes  on  commodities,  espe- 
cially gold  and  ivory  sold  in  the  market.  The 
collection  of  taxes  is  intrusted  to  the  governors 
of  the  villages  or  ahums,  who  are  practically  un- 
restricted as  to  the  methods  used  or  amounts 
collected.  The  laws  of  the  country  are  supposed 
to  be  copied  from  the  old  Roman  code,  but  they 
are  almost  disregarded  by  the  native  judges,  who 
are  guided  in  their  decisions,  as  a  rule,  by  their 
personal  preferences  or  the  social  position  of  the 
defendant.  The  Abyssinian  army,  numbering 
about  160,000,  is  almost  entirely  composed  of 
cavalry  and  is  very  well  adapted  for  swift  move- 
ments, as  it  is  not  encumbered  by  any  commis- 
sariat, its  maintenance  being  obtained  from  in- 
habitants of  regions  through  which  it  passes. 
This  kind  of  commissariat  naturally  leaves  ample 
room  for  abuse  and  falls  most  heavily  on  the  ag- 
ricultural population.  The  regular  army  may  be 
supplemented  by  irregular  and  provincial  troops 
in  case  of  need. 

The  political  divisions  of  the  country  are  sub- 
ject to  continual  alteration;  but  the  following 
are  the  most  important:  (1)  The  kingdom  of 
Tigr6,  extending  between  the  River  Takazze  or 
Bahr-el-Aswad  (Black  River),  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Samen  on  one  side,  and  the  district  of 
Samhara  on  the  other.  Its  chief  towns  are 
Antalo  and  Adowa.  (2)  The  kingdom  of  Amhara, 
extending  on  the  west  of  the  Takazze  and  the 
Samen  Mountain,  and  including  Go  jam.  The 
capital,  Gondar,  is  situated  in  the  northeast  of 
the  plain  of  Dembea  or  Gondar,  at  an  elevation 
of  about  7500  feet.  (3)  The  kingdom  of  Shoa 
(including  Efat) ,  lying  southeast  of  Amhara  and 
separated  from  the  Galla  tribes  by  the  Hawash. 
This  is,  by  all  accounts,  the  best  "organized  and 
most  powerful  state  now  existing  in  Abyssinia. 
The  capital,  Ankobar.  at  an  elevation  of  about 
8000  feet,  contains  7000  inhabitants,  and  enjoys 
a  delightful  cliniato. 

The  capital  of  Abyssini^,  formerly  at  Adowa, 
was  transferred  after  the  Italian  war  to  Addis 
Abeba,  which  has  grown  from  a  village  to  a 
city  of  about  80,000  inhabitants  within  two  to 
three  years. 

Population.  The  location  of  the  people  be- 
tween the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea  permitted  the 
commingling  of  Hamites  from  the  north,  Him- 
varitic  Semites  from  Asia,  and  negroes  from  the 
south.  The  Abyssinians  are  of  m^ium  stature; 
in  color  they  vary  from  brunette  to  translucent 
black.  The  principal  language  of  the  upper 
classes  is  the  Amharic,  closely  allied  to  the  an- 
cient Geez  (still  used  in  ritual),  and  are  written 
in  a  syllabary  resembling  that  of  the  old  inscrip- 
tions in  Yemen,  Arabia.  The  Amharic  is  the  lan- 
guage of  the  court.  (See  Amharic  Language.) 
Of  the  same  stock  are  the  Tigr6  and  Tigrifla- 
tongiics.  The  language  of  the  common  people 
throughout  a  great  part  of  the  country  is  the 


ABYSSINIA. 


Agua  (Agow),  a  Hamitic  tongue.  The  Gallas, 
who  form  an  important  element  in  the  popula- 
tion, likewise  speak  a  Hamitic  language.  The 
Abyssinians  are  in  the  hand  epoch  of  the  iron 
age,  and  are  herdsmen.  Polygamy  prevails  ex- 
tensively. They  have  little  that  deser^^es  the 
name  of  literature.  Education  is  in  the  bands 
of  the  clergy.  The  national  religion  is  a  per- 
verted Christianity,  introduced  into  the  country 
in  the  fourth  century.  The  tribe  of  the  Falashas 
profess  Judaism.    The  Gallas  are  Mohammedans. 

History.  Abyssinia  is  a  part  of  the  ancient 
and  vaguely  defined  Ethiopia.  (For  its  ancient 
history,  see  the  article  on  Ethiopia.)  The  people 
still  call  themselves  Ethiopians,  the  name  Abys- 
sinians, by  which  they  are  generally  known  out- 
side their  own  borders,  being  a  Portuguese  form 
of  the  Arabic  Hahah  or  Hahesh,  signifying  "mix- 
ture," and  referring  to  the  diverse  tribes  which 
compose  the  population.  The  traditions,  customs, 
and  language  point  to  an  early  and  intimate 
intercourse  with  the  Jews;  and  the  Book  of 
Kings  professes  to  record  the  rulers  down  from 
the  Queen  of  Sheba  and  her  son  Menelek  by 
Solomon,  King  of  Israel;  but  this  book  is  not 
to  be  depended  upon  unless  corroborated  by  in- 
dependent evidence.  Greek  influence  was  intro- 
duced through  an  invasion  by  Ptolemy  Euer- 
get^  (247-221  B.C.).  In  the  fourth  century 
Christianity  was  introduced,  and  Frumentiua, 
who  had  been  instrumental  in  its  introduction, 
was  in  326  consecrated  as  a  bishop  by  Atha- 
nasius,  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  and  became,  as 
Abuna  Salamah  ("our  father  of  peace'*),  the 
head  of  the  Abyssinian  Church,  with  his  seat  at 
Axum,  then  the  capital.  The  Coptic  rite,  older 
than  that  of  Rome  or  Moscow,  has  prevailed  in 
Abyssinia  to  the  present  day,  in  spite  of  efforts 
to  introduce  other  forms  of  Christianity  made 
by  the  Jesuits  in  the  sixteenth  century  and  by 
representatives  of  Protestant  churches  in  later 
years.  The  head  of  the  Church  is  still  the 
Abuna,  who  is  sent  from  Alexandria;  but  he 
shares  his  ecclesiastical  authority  with  the  native 
Echegheh,  or  head  of  the  monastic  bodies.  Mo- 
nasticism  of  the  Oriental  type  was  introduced 
about  the  year  470,  and  became  a  permanent 
feature  of  the  life  of  the  country.  The  monks 
number  about  12,000.  In  the  sixth  century  the 
King  of  the  Homerites,  an  Arab  convert  to 
Judaism,  began  a  persecution  of  the  Christians, 
and  King  Elesbaas,  or  Caleb  of  Axum,  invad- 
ed Arabia,  and  conquered  Yemen,  which  vras 
ruled  as  a  province  of  Abyssinia  for  sixty-seven 
years. 

This  was  the  most  flourishing'  period  of 
Abyssinia;  its  influence  then  reached  farthest 
and  it  was  most  in  touch  with  the  outside  world. 
In  690,  the  overthrow  of  Abrahah,  the  last 
Abyssinian  ruler  of  Yemen,  left  Arabia  open 
for  the  spread  of  Mohammedanism,  which  soon 
rose  like  a  flood  and  rolled  around  Abyssinia, 
cutting  it  off  from  the  outside  world  and  from 
the  influences  that  had  been  urging  it  forward. 
It  thus  became  a  primitive,  half-barbaroiis  civi- 
lization in  a  state  of  arrested  development.  A 
line  of  usurpers  took  the  place  of  the  ancient 
sovereigns  in  the  tenth  century  and  reigned  until 
about  1300.  In  the  reign  of  Naakweto  Laab,  the 
last  of  this  line,  Tekla  Haimanot,  an  ar- 
dent patriot,  who  possessed  great  influence  be- 
cause of  the  dignity  of  his  character  and  the 
unselfishness  of  his  life,  succeeded  in  negotiating 
a  treaty  between  the  King  and  the  representative 


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ABYSSINIA.  53 

of  the  old  line,  which  still  held  the  government 
of  Shoa,  by  which  Noakweto  Laab  agreed  to  ab- 
dicate, receiving  in  return  a  certain  mountainous 
province  as  a  hereditary  possession  and  the  right 
of  sitting  on  the  same  kind  of  chair  as  that 
U8ed  by  the  sovereign.  By  the  same  treaty  one- 
third  of  the  kingdom  was  granted  to  the  clergy, 
and  it  was  proA'ided  that  no  native  should  ever 
be  Abuna,  but  that  the  oflice  should  be  filled  by 
appointees  of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria.  This 
was  an  attempt  to  renew  some  connection  with 
the  outer  world,  and  shows  that  the  more  intel- 
ligent Abyssinians  keenly  felt  their  isolation. 
The  rise  of  the  Mohammedan  power  cut  Abyssinia 
off  from  the  coast;  the  invasion  of  the  rude 
Gallas  from  the  south  in  the  sixteenth  century 
introduced  an  alien  race  into  the  country,  which 
has  alwavs  been  a  harmful  and  disturbing  ele- 
ment. The  true  Abyssinian  type  was  produced 
probably  by  a  mingling  of  the  African  Hamitic 
and  the  Asiatic  Semitic  stocks,  which  here  came 
into  contact. 

Portuguese  Jesuit  missionaries  came  into 
the  country  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries,  and  Portugal  took  much  interest  in 
Abyssinian  affairs,  assisting  the  Negus  against 
his*  enemies,  the  Turks.  The  attempts  of  the 
Jesuits  to  supplant  the  old  faith  with  that  of 
Rome  was  intensely  displeasing  to  the  Abyssin- 
ians, who  have  always  clung  loyally  to  their 
national  church.  The  Jesuits  were  expelled  in 
1633,  and  Abyssinia  relapsed  again  into  prac- 
tical isolation  until  the  present  century.  Oc- 
casional African  explorers  entered  Abyssinia 
from  the  fifteenth  to  the  nineteenth  centuries 
(see  Bruce,  James),  and  some  remained,  volun- 
tarily or  constrained  by  the  laws  of  the  country, 
which  at  times  were  hospitable  to  the  admission 
of  travelers,  but  did  not  allow  their  departure. 
In  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  the 
power  was  in  the  hands  of  Ali,  a  ras  or  prince  of 
the  barbarous  Gallas,  when  it  was  seized  by  Lij 
Kasa,  an  adventurer  who  was  crowned  as  Negus 
with  the  name  of  Theodore,  in  1854.  He  was 
at  first  very  unfriendly  to  the  English,  and  acted 
to  a  great  extent  under  the  advice  of  the  English 
consul,  Mr.  Plowden;  but  meeting  difficulties  in 
his  task  of  imposing  unity  upon  the  disorganized 
country,  he  became  morose,  and  taking  offense  at 
the  neglect  by  the  English  Government  of  a  letter 
sent  by  him  to  Queen  Victoria,  he  imprisoned 
Mr.  Cameron,  then  British  consul,  and  his  suite, 
and  followed  this  by  seizing  and  holding  the 
members  of  the  mission  sent  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment under  Mr.  Rassam  to  negotiate  for  free- 
ing the  consul.  After  prolonged  and  useless  at- 
tempts at  negotiation,  an  army  of  English  and 
Indian  troops,  under  Sir  Robert  Napier,  invaded 
the  country,  and  in  a  vigorous  campaign  cap- 
tured Magdala,  Theodore's  chief  stronghold,  and 
released  the  prisoners  (April  13,  1868).  Theo- 
dore at  once  committed  suicide.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  John,  ras  of  Tigr€,  who  proved  un- 
equal to  the  task  of  quelling  rebellion.  He  fell 
in  1889  in  battle  with  the  dervishes  of  the  Su- 
dan, and  Menelek  II.,  rds  of  Shoa,  who  claims  to 
represent  the  old  line  of  kings,  obtained  the 
crown. 

Meneldc  represents  in  the  main  the  spirit  of 
progress.  As  the  onljr  country  in  tropical  Africa 
suitable  for  the  residence  of  white  men,  with 
considerable  latent  resources,  and  its  position  in 
the  upper  basin  of  the  Nile,  Abyssinia,  with  its 
almost  impregnable  highlands,  is  an  important 


ABYSSIIHAN  CHTTBOH. 


stronghold  on  the  borders  of  savage  Africa,  and 
a  commanding  point  with  relation  to  surround- 
ing territories  under  European  fiags.  It  has 
therefore  become  an  object  of  interest  to  Euro- 
pean powers  since  the  opening  of  Africa  to  trade 
and  colonization. 

Italy,  eager  for  lands,  began  to  look  in  this 
direction  as  early  as  1870,  and  having  occupied 
several  hundred  miles  of  the  Red  Sea  littoral 
about  Massowah  (1881-85),  it  commenced 
aggressions  upon  Abyssinian  territory,  which 
would  have  resulted  in  open  war  but  for  the 
intervention  of  England,  through  the  friendly 
mission  of  Sir  Grerald  Portal.  The  Italians 
claimed  a  protectorate  over  Abyssinia  by  virtue 
of  a  clause  in  the  treaty  of  Ucliali  ( 1889) ,  which 
read  differently  in  the  Amharic  and  Italian  ver- 
sions. Menelek  denounced  this  treaty  in  1893, 
and  when  the  Italians  occupied  Kassala  in  the 
following  year,  as  an  outcome  of  the  Anglo- 
Italian  agreement  of  1891,  defining  the  spheres 
of  influence  of  the  two  nations,  Abyssinia  re- 
newed hostilities  (1895).  After  sustaining  a 
terrible  defect  at  Adowa,  March  1,  1896,  Italy 
was  compelled,  in  the  treaty  of  Addis  Abeba  ( Oc- 
tober 26,  1896),  to  recognize  fully  the  independ- 
ence of  Abyssinia.  Great  Britain,  by  treaty,  in 
1898  ceded  to  Abyssinia  about  8000  square  miles 
of  British  Somaliland,  and  established  a  political 
agency  at  the  Abyssinian  capital.  The  title  of 
the  Abyssinian  sovereign  is  Negus  Negustij  King 
of  Kings,  or  more  fully  in  English,  "King  of  the 
Kings  of  Ethiopia  and  Conquering  Lion  of 
Judah." 

See  Afbica,  the  Openhto  of;  Italy.  Consult: 
Wylde,  Modem  Abyssinia  (London,  1891),  a  use- 
ful historical  and  descriptive  book  by  an  Eng- 
lish consul-general  to  the  Red  Sea;  Vivian, 
Abyssinia  (New  York,  1901),  a  recent  work  by 
an  intelligent  observer;  Portal,  My  Mission  to 
Abyssinia  (London,  1892)  ;  Rassam,  Narrative 
of  the  British  Mission  to  Abyssinia  (London, 
1869)  ;  Markham,  A  History  of  the  Abyssinian 
Expedition  (London,  1869),  containing  an  excel- 
lent summary  of  Abyssinian  history;  Vign^ras, 
Une  Mission  Francaise  en  Abyssinie  (Paris, 
1897);  Rohlfs,  Meine  Mission  nach  Abyssinien 
(Leipzig,  1883)  ;  Stanford's  Compendium  of 
Geography  and  TraveL  Volume  I.  (London, 
1899)  ;  J.  T.  Bent,  The  Sacred  City  of  the  Ethio- 
pians (London,  1893)  ;  Welby,  'Twixt  Sirdar  and 
Menelek  (London,  1901). 

AB'YSSINaAN  CHXJB.GH,  The.  The  Church 
founded  about  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century 
by  Frumentius  (q.v.),  whose  titles  Abuna  ("our 
father")  and  Abba  Salamah  ("father  of  peace") 
are  still  used  by  his  successors.  The  abuna,  the 
head  of  the  Church,  is  never  an  Abyssinian,  and 
is  appointed  by  the  Coptic  patriarch  of  Alexan- 
dria. He  is  bishop  of  Axum.  In  Christology 
the  Church  is  monophysite;  the  secular  priests 
are  allowed  to  marry  once;  circumcision,  the 
Sabbath,  and  the  Levi  rate  law  are  adhered  to. 
Baptism  (of  adults  by  time  immersion,  infants 
by  aspersion),  and  the  Eucharist  (in  which 
grape  juice  is  exclusively  used)  are  accepted; 
but  confirmation,  transubstantiation,  extreme 
unction,  purgatory,  crucifixes,  and  image  worship 
are  all  forbidc^en.  There  are  180  festivals  and 
200  fast  days.  The  Scriptures  are  read  in 
Geez  or  Ethiopic,  which  is  now  a  dead  language. 
The  attempts  of  Roman  Catholics  and  Protest- 
ants to  build  up  missions  among  these  Christians 
have  not  been  permanently  successful. 


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ABYSSINIAN  lOLADOW  GRASS. 

ABYSSINIAN    MBAIKOW    GBASa      See 

Mbadow  Gsass. 

ACA'CIA  (literally,  thorny,  Gk.  ctKig,  ak%8, 
point,  splinter,  thorn).  A  genus  of  plants  of 
the  order  Leguminosae,  differing  from  Mimosa  in 
the  gpreater  number  of  stamens  (10  to  200)  and 
the  absence  of  transverse  partitions  in  the  pods. 
There  are  about  450  species  of  Acacia,  300  of 
which  are  indigenous  to  Australia  and  Polynesia. 
The  others  are  found  in  all  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical countries  except  Europe.  The  flowers 
are  small  and  are  arranged  in  globular  or  elon- 
gated clusters.  The  leaves  are  usually  bipin- 
nately  compound;  but  in  many  of  the  Australian 
species  the  leaflets  are  greatly  reduced  and  the 
leaf  blades  correspondingly  enlarged  and  flat- 
tened into  what  are  termed  phyllc^ia.  Most  of 
the  species  having  phyllodia  inhabit  hot,  arid 
regions,  and  this  modification  prevents  too  rapid 
evaporation  of  moisture  from  the  .leaves.  Many 
of  the  species  are  of  great  economic  importance: 
some  yield  gums,  others  valuable  timber,  and 
still  others  food  products.  The  African  species, 
Acacia  gummifera,  Acacia  seyal,  Acacia  ehrenber- 
giana,  Acacia  tortilis,  and  Acacia  arabica,  yield 
gum  arable,  as  do  the  Asiatic  species.  Acacia 
arabica  and  the  related  Albizzia  lebbek.  A  some- 
what similar  gum  is  produced  by  Acacia  decur- 
rens  and  Acacia  dealbata  of  Australia  and 
Acacia  horrida  of  South  Africa.  Gum  Senegal 
is  the  product  of  Acacia  verek,  sometimes  called 
Acacia  Senegal.  The  drijg  "catechu"  is  prepared 
from  Acacia  catechu.  The  astringent  bark  of  a 
number  of  species  is  extensively  used  in  tanning, 
especiallv  the  bark  of  those  known  in  Australia 
as  Wattles.  For  this  purpose  Acacia  decurrens, 
the  Black  Wattle,  is  one  of  the  best,  the  air-dried 
bark  of  this  plant  containing  about  four  times 
as  much  tanning  extract  as  good  oak  bark.  The 
most  valuable  timber  tree  of  the  genus  is  prob- 
ably the  Blackwood,  Acacia  melanoxylon,  of 
Australia.  The  tree  attains  a  large  size,  and 
the  wood  is  easily  worked  and  takes  a  high 
polish.  A  number  of  the  Acacias  have  been 
introduced  into  cultivation  in  Europe  and  Amer- 
ica, where  they  thrive.  The  California  experi- 
ment station  recommends  planting  several 
species  for  tanning  extract  and  for  timber.  A 
number  of  species  are  grown  in  mild  climates 
and  in  greenhouses  as  ornamentals,  partly 
because  of  the  fragrance  of  their  flowers.  The 
foliage  of  some  of  the  bipinnate  species  exhibits 
sleeping  movements  analogous  to  the  movements 
of  the  sensitive  plant.  Some  species  show  a 
remarkable  sensitiveness  to  weather,  the  leaves 
remaining  closed  while  the  sky  is  cloudy.  The 
common  American  Robinia  or  Locust  {Kohinia 
pseudacacia)  and  the  Robinia  hispida  are  known 
as  Acacia  and  Rose  Acacia  in  Europe  and  else- 
where. Fossil  forms  of  Acacia  are  abundant  in 
the  Tertiary  beds  of  Aix  in  France,  and  an  allied 
genus,  Acacia»phyllum,  has  been  described  from 
the  Cretaceous  beds  of  North  America.   Consult: 

F.  von  Mueller,  Iconography  of  Australian 
Acacias  (Melbourne)  ;  L.  H.  Bailey,  Cyclopcedia 
of  American  Horticulture  (New  York,  1900-01)  ; 

G.  Nicholson,  The  Illustrated  History  of  Garden- 
ing  (London,  1888). 

ACACIANSy  &-ka^shI-anz.    See  AcACius. 

AC  ACID'S,  ft-kft'shl-iis,  Bishop  op  C.^sarea 
(340-.365).  He  founded  a  sect,  named  after  him, 
which  maintained  that  the  Son  was  like  the 
Father;  not  of  the  same  or  of  similar  substance. 


54 


ACADEMY. 


but  that  this  likeness  was  in  the  will  alone. 
Thus  he  differed  from  the  general  Arian  party. 
His  doctrine  w^as  actually  accepted  by  a  synod 
at  Constantinople,  which  he  manipulated  (359), 
which  gave  rise  to  Jerome's  famous  saying:  "The 
whole  world  groaned  and  wondered  to"  find  itself 
Arian."  Yet  in  the  end,  as  formerly,  it  was  con- 
demned, and  he  was  exiled. 

ACADEMIC  liE'GION.  A  name  applied 
particularly  to  an  armed  body  of  students  who 
participated  in  the  uprising  of  1848  in  Vienna; 
also  more  generally  to  similar  student  companies 
elsewhere  in  the  revolutionary  disturbances  of 
that  year. 

ACAD^MIE  DES  BEAUX  ABT8,  A'k&'d&' 
m^dft  bAzHr'.    See  Design,  Schools  of. 

AC'ADE^KUS    (Gk.    Axadnfioc,     AkadHnos). 
A  mythical  hero  of  Attica.     When  the  Tyndar- 
idA  invaded  the  Attic  land  to  rescue  Helen  from 
the   hands   of   Theseus,   Academus   revealed  to 
them  the  place  where  their  sister  was  hidden, 
and  in  return  for  this  act  the  Lacedaemonians 
then  and  thereafter  showed  the  hero  great  honor. 
The  Academia  was  thought  to  have  received  its 
name  from  Academus,  though  the  earlier  form, 
Hecademia,  seems  to  point  to  an  original  Heca- 
demus.    The. Academia   was   in   early  times  a 
.sacred    precinct,    six   stades    northwest   of  the 
Dipylon  gate  of  Athens.    Later   a  gymnasium 
was  built   in  the  precinct,  and  still  later  the 
spot  was  made  a  public  park,  being  planted  with 
many    kinds    of    trees,    adorned    with    statues, 
watered  by  the  Cephissus,  and  laid  out  in  walks 
and  lawns.     Here,  in  the  gymnasium  and  the 
neighboring   walks,    Plato    conversed    with   his 
pupils  and  held  his  first  formal  lectures  in  phi- 
losophy.    Later,  having  purchased  in  the  neigh- 
borhood  a   piece  of   land  and  built  thereon  a 
temple  to  the  Muses  and  a  lecture-hall,  he  trans- 
ferred his  school  thither.     This  spot  was  also 
called   Academia,    and    gave    its    name   to   the 
school. 

ACAIXEMY   (Gk.    ^Ko^jieta,      ak<idimeia,  or 
aKadrffiia,  akad^mia ) .      Originally    the    name   of 
a  public  garden  outside  of  Athens,  dedicated  to 
Athene  and  other  deities,  and  containing  a  grove 
and  a  gymnasium.     It  was  popularly  believed  to 
have  derived  its  name  from  its  early  owner,  a  cer- 
tain Academus,  an  eponymous  hero  of  the  Tro- 
jan War.     It  was  in  these  gardens  that  Plato 
met   and  taught  his  followers,  and   his  school 
came  to  be  known  from  their  place  of  meeting 
as  the  Academy.     The  later  schools  of  philosophy 
which    developed   from   the   teachings    of   Plato 
do^Ti  to  the  time  of  Cicero  were  also  known  as 
academies.      Cicero    himself    and    many   of   the 
best  authorities  following  him  reckoned  but  two 
Academies,  the  Old,  founded  by  Plato    (428-348 
P.C.),    and    including    Speusippus,     Xenocrates 
of  Ohalcedon,  Polemo,  Crates,  and  Cranto;  and 
the  New,   founded  by  Arcesilaus      (241   or  240 
B.C.).    Others  have,  however,  reckoned  the  latter 
as  the  Middle  Academy,  and  added  a  third,  the 
New  Academy,  founded  by  Carneades   ( 213-160  T 
B.C.).   Others  again  have  counted  no  fewer  than 
five,  adding  to  the  three  above  a  fourth,  that  of 
Philo,    and   a    fifth,    that   of   Antiochus.       (See 
articles  Plato  ;  Arcesilaus  ;  CARnncADES ;  Philo  ; 
Philosophy;    and   references   under  the   last.) 
From  its  use  in  the  sense  of  a  school  the  word 
academy  has  come  to  be  applied  to  certain  kinds- 
of  institutions  of  learning;  from  its  use  in  the 
sense  of  a  body  of  learned  men  it  has  come  to 


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ACACIA,     ETC. 


1.  ALOES  (Aloe  vulgaris). 

2.  ACONITE  (Aconltum  napellus). 


3.  ACACIA  (Acacs\ 

4.  ARNICA  (ArrC\^    w 


\ 


*'• 


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ACADEMY. 

be  applied  to  various  associations  of  'scholars, 
artists,  literary  men  and  scientists  organized  for 
the  promotion  of  general  or  special  intellectual 
or  artistic  interests.  Not  only  was  the  name  ap- 
plied particularly  to  the  followers  of  Plato,  but  it 
soon  came  to  be  given  as  well  to  general  societies 
of  learned  men  unconnected  with  a  philosophical 
school.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  name  and  insti- 
tution survived  not  merely  among  the  Arabs,  par- 
ticularly in  Spain,  but,  passing  over  the  fable  of 
Alfred's  foundation  of  an  academy  at  Oxford, 
we  find  such  an  institution  under  the  name  of 
academy  among  the  group  of  scholars  whom 
Charlemagne  gathered  around  him. 

At  the  Renaissance  the  academy  sprang  into 
sudden  prominence  as  a  favorite  form  of  intellec- 
tual organization,  and  took  its  place  as  an  intel- 
lectual force  beside  the  universities.  From  these 
it  differed,  as  it  does  to-day,  in  being  not  a  teach- 
ing body  but  a  group  of  investigators,  who, 
generally  under  royal  or  state  patronage,  en- 
couraged learning,  literature,  and  art  by  research 
and  publication.  Laying  aside  the  claims  of 
Alost  to  a  society  of  scholars  in  1107,  and  that  of 
Diest  to  a  society  of  poets  in  1302,  academies  of 
this  type  seem  to  have  first  appeared  in  Italy  and 
to  have  been  devoted  to  literature,  art,  and  archi- 
tecture. The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  founded  at 
Florence  about  1270  by  Brunetto  Latini;  that  of 
Palermo,  about  1300,  by  Frederick  II.;  and  the 
Academy  of  Architecture  of  Milan  (1380?)  were 
among  the  first  of  these.  Language  and  litera- 
ture were  not  far  behind.  The  so-called  Academy 
of  Floral  Games  (Academic  des  Jeux  Floraux), 
founded  at  Toulouse  about  1325  by  one  Clemens 
Isaurus  as  a  part  of  the  great  Troubadour  move- 
ment, was  probably  the  earliest  of  these  literary 
academies,  and  has  had  an  almost  continuous 
history  till  the  present  day.  With  this  exception 
the  earliest  academies  rose  in  Italy,  and  found 
their  prototype  in  that  brilliant  group  of  schol- 
ars, critics,  and  literati  gathered  at  the  court  of 
Lorenzo  de'  Medici,  the  Magnificent,  and  Cosmo 
de*  Medici  in  Florence,  the  so-called  Platonic 
Academy  which,  founded  about  1474,  was  dissolved 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Medici  in  1527.  It  was 
succeeded  in  Florence  by  the  Academy  of  Flor- 
ence, formed  in  1540  especially  for  the  study  of 
Tuscan,  particularly  Petrarch.  Before  the  Pla- 
tonic Academy  of  the  Medici  only  Naples  boasts 
an  earlier  academy,  that  founded  in  1440  by  Al- 
fonso. But  the  sixteenth  century  was  rich  in 
academies  devoted  to  literature.  The  Introvati 
of  Siena,  1525;  the  Inflammati  of  Padua,  1534; 
the  Rozzi  of  Siena,  later  suppressed  by  Cosmo 
de'  Medici,  1568;  and  the  Accademia  dellx  Crusca 
or  Furfuratorum,  founded  in  1587,  and  still  in 
existence,  the  most  famous  of  them  all,  are 
perhaps  the  best  known  of  that  astonishing 
burst  of  academic  vigor  which  produced  in  the 
sixteenth  century  in  Italy  a  number  variously 
estimated  from  170  to  700  of  this  form  of  organ- 
ization. In  these,  under  curious  names  but  with 
common  purpose,  the  Italian  aristocracy  espec- 
ially, barred  from  political  interests  by  tyrants 
and  republics  alike,  found  vent  for  their  activity. 

One  academy  of  distinction  alone  devoted  to 
science  appears  in  this  period,  the  Academia 
Secretorura  Naturae,  founded  at  Naples  in  1500, 
and  after  a  short  existence  suppressed  by  the 
Church.  It  was  succeeded  by  the  Accademia  della 
Lincei,  founded  by  Prince  Chesi  in  1603,  count- 
ing Galileo  among  its  members,  and  still  ex- 
isting in  Rome  after  many  changes.    The  foun- 


55 


ACADEMY. 


dfition  of  this  society  heralded  that  great  burst 
of  interest  in  sciences  of  the  seventeenth  and 
eighteenth  centuries  which  to  some  extent  suc- 
ceeded the  purely  literary  activity  of  the  six- 
teenth. The  Reformation  had  destroyed  or  altered 
much  of  the  ecclesiastical  power  which  had  served 
to  check  investigation  earlier,  and  the  foundation 
of  several  societies  indicated  a  new  interest  in 
science.  Of  these  the  Academia  Naturse  Curiosor- 
um,  Leipzig,  established  by  Dr.  J.  L.  Bausch  in 
1651-52,  still  exists  under  the  name  of  CsBsareo- 
Leopoldinia,  in  honor  of  the  Emperor  Leopold  I., 
who  patronized  it  liberally.  Since  1808  it  has 
had  its  headquarters  at  Bonn.  The  Royal  Society 
in  England  (q.v.),  the  Academy  of  Sciences  in 
Paris,  the  Academy  or  Collegium  Curiosura 
established  by  Professor  Sturm  of  the  University 
of  Altdorf ,  and  similar  institutions  brought  about 
an  astonishing  increase  of  interest  and  conse- 
quent advance  in  scientific  pursuits  and  methods. 
The  importance  of  these  academies  to  science 
indeed  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 

This  was  maintained  in  the  eighteenth  century, 
and  the  establishment  of  academies  was  further 
stimulated  then  bv  the  influence  of  Louis  XIV., 
so  important  in  this  as  in  so  many  other  intel- 
lectual as  well  as  political  interests  throughout 
Europe.  In  this,  however,  as  in  so  many  other 
ways,  he  and  his  ministers  but  carried  further 
the  plans  of  their  predecessors.  In  1635  Riche- 
lieu established  the  most  famous  of  all  such 
organizations,  the  old  French  Academy,  which 
had  its  inception  six  years  before  in  the  minds 
of  eight  men  of  letters.  It  consisted  of  forty 
members,  with  a  director,  a  cl^ncellor,  and  a 
secretary,  and  its  avowed  purpose  was  to  control 
the  French  language  and  regulate  literary  taste. 
Its  constitution  provided  for  the  publication  of 
a  grammar,  a  treatise  on  rhetoric,  and  one  on 
poetry,  besides  a  dictionary  of  the  French  lan- 
guage. Though  its  condition  has  been  somewhat 
changed,  it  is  the  same  in  all  essentials  to-day 
as  it  was  at  its  foundation.  In  this  plan  Riche- 
lieu was  copied,  as  usual,  by  his  successor, 
Mazarin,  who  established  .the  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts  (Beaux  Arts)  in  1655.  Colbert  continued 
this  policy  by  founding  the  Academy  of  Inscrip- 
tions and  Belles  Lettres  in  1663,  as  a  committee 
of  the  old  academy  to  draw  up  inscriptions  for 
monuments  and  medals  to  commemorate  the 
victories  and  glories  of  Louis  XIV.  This  was 
remodeled  in  1706.  Colbert  established  also  an 
Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  in  1664,  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  in  1666,  the  Academy  of 
Architecture  in  1671,  later  merged  into  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  and  the  Academy  of 
France  at  Rome.  All  these,  save  the  last, 
together  with  the  Academy  of  Moral  and  Politi- 
cal Science,  founded  in  1832,  came  to  form  the 
Institute  (q.v.)  To  Louis  XIV.  other  cities  in 
France  owed  the  charters  of  their  academies, 
notably  Montpellier  in  1706. 

Largely  owing  to  these  two  causes,  that  is  to 
say,  the  interest  in  science  and  the  fashion  of  roy- 
al patronage  set  by  Louis  XIV.,  the  foundation  of 
academies  reached  its  height  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  especially  in  Germany  and  the  north 
and  east  of  Europe.  Frederick  I.  of  Prus- 
sia founded  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
in  Berlin  in  1700,  on  a  plan  drawn  up  by 
Leibnitz,  its  first  president.  That  savant  aided 
also  in  drawing  up  the  scheme  adopted  by  Peter 
the  Great  and  carried  out  by  Catherine  I.  in  the 
foundation  of  the  Imperial  Academy  of  Sciences 


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ACADEKY. 

at  St.  Petersburg  in  1725.  In  1739  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Stockholm  was  established  witn 
a  most  distinguished  member  in  Linnaeus,  and 
was  incorporated  in  1741  as  the  Royal  Swedish 
Academy.  In  1742  Christian  VI.  founded  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Copenhagen;  in  1750-51  the 
GOttingen  Academy  of  Sciences  was  established; 
in  1754  the  Electoral  Academy  at  Erfurt;  in  1755 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  of  Mannheim  was 
founded  by  the  Elector  I'alatine,  Karl  Tlieodor, 
and  in  1759  the  Electoral  Bavarian  Academy  of 
Sciences  was  founded  at  Munich.  In  Spain  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Science  at  Madrid  began  its 
existence  in  1774;  in  Italy  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences  of  Turin  originated  in  1759  as  a  pri- 
vate society,  receiving  royal  recognition  in  1783. 
Not  merely  were  academies  founded  in  the  broad 
field  of  science,  in  its  earlier  sense  of  all  human 
knowledge,  they  were  established  for  all  imag- 
inable special  purposes.  In  surgery,  the  Surgical 
Academy  of  Paris,  1731,  and  the  so-called  Acad- 
emy of  Surgery  at  Vienna,  more  properly  a 
college,  are  the  most  prominent  e^^mples.  In 
archaeology  and  history  we  find  the  Koyal  Acad- 
emy of  Portuguese  History  established  in  1720, 
a  similar  institution  at  Madrid  chartered  in 
1738,  the  Archaeological  Academy  of  Upsala 
founded  in  1710,  that  of  Cortona  in  1727,  and 
that  of  Herculaneum  at  Naples  in  1755.  In 
literature  the  Royal  Spanish  Academy,  founded 
by  the  exertions  of  the  Duke  d'Escalona  in  1713 
to  1714,  and  the  Roval  Academy  of  Savoy,  found- 
ed in  1719  by  Charles  Felix,  are  the  most  prom- 
inent of  numerous  similar  institutions,  including 
those  of  St.  Petersburg  of  1783,  later  a  part  of 
the  Imperial  Academy,  and  Stockholm  in  1786. 
In  music  and  the  fine  arts,  the  departments  to 
which  the  name  has  been  especially  applied  in 
England,  the  Royal  Academy  of  Arts  was  found- 
ed in  1768,  with  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  as  its  first 
president,  the  Academy  of  Arts  at  Milan,  that 
of  painting  and  sculpture  and  architecture  at 
Madrid  by  Philip  V.,  the  Swedish  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts  by  Count  Tessin  in  1733,  and  the 
Academy  of  Painting  and  Sculpture  at  Turin 
in  1/78. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  a  much  smaller 
number  of  such  organizations  was  founded, 
partly,  no  doubt,  because  the  field  was  so 
well  covered,  partly  because  other  forms  of 
activity  or  the  same  form  of  institution  under 
a  dift'erent  name  took  its  place.  (See  Soci- 
ety; ASSOCIATION;  Institute,  etc.)  The  Royal 
Hibernian  Academy,  founded  in  1803,  the  English 
Royal  Academy  of  Music,  founded  in  1822  and 
incorporated  in  1830,  and  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy,  founded  in  1826  and  chartered  in  1838, 
represent  the  English  activities  in  this  field. 
The  Philadelphia  Academy  of  Sciences,  founded 
in  1812  and  incorporated  in  1817,  and  the  Vienna 
Academy  of  Sciences,  founded  in  1846,  are  among 
the  most  important  scientific  foundations  of 
the  century.  The  Celtic  Academy  of  Paris, 
founded  1800  to  1805  and  merged  in  1814  into 
the  Society  of  Antiquaries  of  France,  and  the 
Academy  of  History  and  Antiquities  of  Naples, 
founded  by  Joseph  Bonaparte,  represent  the 
Napoleonic  period.  The  Academy  of  Medicine 
of  Paris,  founded  for  research  into  matters 
affecting  public  health,  1820,  has  performed 
excellent  service  to  the  community  at  large. 
But  the  most  important  event  in  academic  organ- 
ization of  the  century  was  the  reorganization  of 
the  French  Academy  into  the  Institute  of  France, 


56 


ACADEKY. 


an  account  of  which  may  be  found  under  that 
title  in  this  work.  The  French  Academy  as  now 
constituted  represents  the  old  academy  of  Rich- 
elieu, though  it  is  reckoned  officially  as  the 
highest  of  the  five  divisions  of  the  Institute, 
Its  membership  in  1902  was  as  follows,  in  order 
ot  seniority: 


Ernest  Legoav6 

£mile  OlliTier 

Alfred  M/6zieraB 

Gaston  Boissier 

VIctorien  Sardoa 

Dae  d'AudiffreuPaaqoier 

A.  J.  E.  Kooflse 

R.  F.  A.  Sally-Pradhomme 

Cardinal  Pernod  (Bishop  of 

Autun) 
Fran9oi8  Copp^e 
Ladovic  flal^vy 
V.  C.  O.  Gr&ird 
Comte  Oth6nin  d^HaosaonviJle 
Jules  Claretie 
ytcomte  £.  M.  Melchlor  do 

Vogfl^ 
Charles  de  Freycinet 
Jalien  Viand  (Pierre  Loti) 
Ernest  Lavlsse 
Panl  Thurean-Dangin 


Ferdinand  Branetidre 

Joa^  M.  de  H6r6dia 

Albert  Sorel 

Paul  Bourget 

Henri  Hoosaaye 

Jules  Lemaltre 

Anatole  France 

Harqois  Costa  de  Beanregird 

Gaston  Paris 

Andr6  Thenriet 

Comte  Albert  Vandal 

Comte  Albert  de  Hun 

Gabriel  Hanotaux 

C.  J.  B.  E.  Guillaume 

H.  £.  L.  Lavedan 

P.  E.  L.  Deschanel 

Paul  Herrieu 

£mile  Fagnet 

MarcelUn  Berthelot 

Marquis   C.   J.   Melchlor  de 

Vog06 
Edmond  Rostand 


It  remains  to  notice  in  detail  some  of  the  other 
more  important  existing  academies.  The  Royal 
Academy,  Burlington  House,  London,  the  asso- 
ciation of  English  artists,  holds  an  exhibition 
each  year,  open  to  all  artists,  and  corresponding 
to  the  French  Salon.  It  consists  at  present  of 
358  Academicians  (R.  A.),  four  Honorable  Re- 
tired Academicians,  six  Honorable  Foreign 
Academicans,  thirty  Associates  (A.  R.  A.),  four 
Honorable  Retired  Associates.  Sir  Edward  John 
Poynton  has  been  its  president  since  1896.  The 
Royal  Academy  of  Berlin,  founded  in  1700,  owes 
its  present  statutes  to  the  year  1881.  It  consists 
of  two  sections — physics-mathematics  and  phi- 
losophy-history. It  has  60  regular  and  20  for- 
eign, corresponding,  and  honorary  members.  Its 
publications  have  appeared  since  its  foundation. 
The  Imperial  Academy  of  St.  Petersburg,  found- 
ed in  1725,  has  three  divisions — physics-mathe- 
matics, Russian  language  and  literature,  history- 
philology.  It  is  richly  endowed,  and  offers  year- 
ly prizes  for  contributions  to  learning.  Its  li- 
brary is  very  large,  and  it  controls  a  number  of 
museums.  The  Royal  Swedish  Academy,  founded 
in  1739,  has  100  native  and  75  foreign  members, 
and  its  work  is  divided  into  nine  classes.  The 
Royal  Bavarian  Academy  includes  theology,  law, 
finance,  and  medicine  among  its  activities,  and 
has  three  classes — philosophy-philology,  mathe- 
matics-physics, and  history.  The  Imperial  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences  of  Vienna,  founded  in  1846, 
comprises  two  classes  —  philosophy-history  and 
mathematics-science,  with  frequent  meetings,  and 
its  publications  are  especially  numerous  and  im- 
portant. It  is  well  endowed  by  private  benefac- 
tion, and  by  the  State,  and  is  enabled  to  send  out 
many  scientific  expeditions. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  many  such  soci- 
eties. The  earliest  founded  was  the  American 
Philosophical  Society,  organized  in  1743  through 
the  efl'orts  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  who  was  its 
first  secretary,  and  later,  until  his  death,  its 
president.  The  interests  and  the  activities  of 
this  society  covered  the  whole  range  of  science 
pure  and  applied,  and  of  philosophy.  The  pub- 
lication of  transactions  began  in  1709  and  of  its 
proceedings  in  1838.    At  present  the  society  has- 


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ACADEKY. 

200  resident  and  300  non-resident  members. 
The  American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences 
was  chartered  by  the  Legislature  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1780,  to  a  considerable  extent  through 
the  influence  of  John  Adams.  Us  attention  was 
devoted  to  the  study  of  the  antiquities  and  the 
natural  history  of  America.  It  has  published  a 
series  of  memoirs,  beginning  in  1785,  and  proceed- 
ings since  1846.  The  Connecticut  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences  was  founded  in  1799,  and  the 
Philadelphia  Academy  of  Natural  Science  in 
1812.  This  latter  academy  has  a  very  valuable 
library  and  museum,  especially  rich  in  conchol- 
ogy  and  ornithology,  and  has  published  Journals 
since  1817  and  Proceedings  since  1841,  besides 
the  American  Journal  of  Conchology.  The  New 
York  Academy  of  Science  was  founded  in  1818 
as  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History,  but  received 
its  present  title  in  1875.  It  is  organized  into 
four  sections,  as  follows:  Astronomy  and  phys- 
ics, geology  and  mineralogy,  biology,  anthro- 
pology, psychology,  and  philology.  These  sec- 
tions hold  monthly  meetings,  and  the  Academy 
holds  general  meetings  and  gives  an  annual 
exhibit  of  scientific  progress  that  is  of  great 
value.  Similar  scientific  academies  have  been 
organized  in  most  of  the  large  cities  in  the 
United  States,  but  their  influence  is  chiefly  local. 
Such  societies  usually  cover  the  entire  field  of 
the  exact  and  the  natural  sciences,  while  special 
societies  for  particular  sciences  are  now  com- 
monly formed.  In  recent  years  Washington  is 
becoming  the  centre  of  scientific  interest  in  this 
country,  and  in  1898  its  various  scientific  soci- 
eties combined  into  the  Washington  Academy  of 
Science.  National  associations  of  the  same 
character  have  been  formed.  In  1863  Congress 
chartered  the  National  Academy  of  Science, 
which  was  designed  to  investigate  scientific 
questions  and  to  report  thereon  to  the  Govern- 
ment. As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  Acad- 
emy has  not  been  frequently  employed  by  the 
Government.  Two  annual  meetings  are  held 
and  reports  and  memoirs  are  issued.  The  mem- 
bership of  the  Academy  originally  was  limited  to 
50  members,  but  in  1870  this  limitation  was 
removed,  and  now  five  members  may  be  elected 
annually.  At  present  there  are  86  members.  The 
American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of 
Science  was  organized  in  1848  and  is  the  most 
active  and  the  largest  of  such  associations.  It 
now  has  about  1000  members  and  776  fellows, 
the  latter  being  those  who  are  engaged  in 
advancing  science,  while  any  one  interested  in 
science  may  be  a  member.  In  fine  arts  both 
Philadelphia  and  New  York  possess  institutions 
under  the  name  of  academies,  founded  in  1805 
and  1828  respectively,  each  having  schools  of 
design  and  annual  exhibitions.  Many  other  such 
associations,  under  different  names,  are  to  be 
found  in  this  country  for  the  prosecution  of 
research  and  publication  along  literary  as  well 
as  soientific  lines.  Of  these  last  the  American 
Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science  of 
Philadelphia  is  perhaps  the  most  important.  It 
was  founded  in  1889,  has  a  large  membership, 
and  its  publications,  under  the  title  of  Annals^ 
are  of  considerable  value.  See  Institute; 
Association;  Society;  Smithsonian,  etc. 

In  the  sense  of  a  school  or  an  institution  of 
learning,  the  term  academy  has  come  to  be 
applied  to  an  educational  institution  between  the 
elementary  school  and  the  colle^je.  particularly 
in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  though 


57 


ACAMAPICTLI. 


used  occasionally  elsewhere.  In  his  Tractate  on 
Education,  John  Milton  calls  his  ideal  educa- 
tional institution  an  academy.  In  England  the 
term  applied  to  those  institutions  of  secondary 
rank  established  by  the  dissenting  religious 
bodies  during  the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth 
and  the  eighteenth  century  to  provide  for  the 
general  education  of  their  youth,  especially 
those  intended  for  the  ministry,  since  such  edu- 
cation could  not  be  obtained  from  the  existing 
public  schools.  In  the  United  States  the  term 
was  first  applied  to  the  institution  founded  in 
Philadelphia  in  1740  under  the  leadership  of 
Benjamin  Franklin.  This  Academy  and  College 
of  Philadelphia,  was  chartered  in  1753,  and 
became  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1779. 
The  typical  academies  were  those  founded  during 
the  Revolutionary  War  period  at  Exeter,  N.  H., 
and  Andover,  Mass.,  largely  through  the 
generosity  of  John  Phillips,  after  whom  they  are 
named.  Such  academies  became  very  numerous 
and  took  the  place  of  the  old  Latin  grammar 
schools,  which  had  lost  their  popularity  and 
serviceableness  on  account  of  the  economic  and  . 
political  changes  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
Such  academies  are  controlled  by  trustees  usually 
of  some  one  religious  denomination,  and  are  not 
dependent  upon  state  support.  Their  place  has 
been  largely  taken  up  by  the  modern  high  school ; 
the  existing  ones  have  for  the  most  part  become 
college  preparatory  schools. 

The  term  is  also  used  much  more  widely  in 
a  lower  sense,  to  indicate  places  where  special 
accomplishments  are  taught,  such  as  riding, 
dancing,  or  fencing  academies.  A  more  restrict- 
ed use  is  that  in  connection  with  schools  that 
prepare  for  particular  professions,  as  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  at  West  Point.  In 
France  and  the  United  States  it  is  occasionally 
applied  to  buildings  devoted  to  particular  arts, 
especially  music;  hence  an  opera  house,  often 
called  an  academy  of  music;  and  occasionally 
by  analogy  to  the  theatre  as  well. 

ACADEMY  OF  DESIGN^  National.  See 
Design,  Schools  of. 

ACA'DIA  (Fr.  Acadie,  I/Acadie,  or  La  Cadie, 
from  the  Micmac  Indian  word  ^kiide,  meaning 
abundance).    See  Nova  Scotia. 

ACAa)IAN  SERIES.  See  Cambrian  System. 

ACAJUTLA,  a'kft-hoSt'lA.  A  seaport  in 
the  Department  of  Sanson  ate.  Republic  of  Salva- 
dor, Central  America,  situated  on  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  10  miles  south  of  Sansonate  (Map:  Cen- 
tral America,  C  4).  It  is  the  second  port  of  Sal- 
vador in  importance,  and  is  the  seat  of  consular 
agent  of  the  United  States. 

AC'ALE^H.ffi  (plural  of  Gk.  a/ca?.^^;/,  ak- 
alephe,  a  nettle,  a  kind  of  jellyfish).  A  group 
of  ifree-swimming,  discoidal  or  bell-shaped  medu- 
SiP,  the  lobed  jellyfishes,  with  downwardly  direct- 
ed mouth,  gastro-vascular  powc^ves,  and  numer- 
ous radial  canals,  and  ha.v\T\cr  c^*  ^  rule,  the 
margin  of  the  umbrella  lo\^  i.'^caWedDiacoipYvoTa 
by  Huxley.    See  Jellyfi^^^^* 

ACAMAPICTLI,       a        ^       ^?v-V^^'^I^^^\u.v 
ACAMPICHTLI,  ^r  1  1Xk-^W"*''^>^v  ^    ^^ 
hand    full    of    reeds").  ^^^1^^^     ^^^f^V^ 
king.     The  date,  of  hi^    v.  A.^    N*^  n^^'"  tl  ^^' ^ 


vassal  of  the  King  of  tV^'^X   X.^  %,V  I  O^^V'^^^^^"^ 
a  small  territory,  yet  K^C^    ^  A'^   nC^' \  v.^^'lwitw.o, 
the  coiistrnction  of  tKT^^C^         V   /v\^^  \>*5v^ 


r 


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ACAMAPICTLI.  58 

and  built  many  stone  edifices  in  his  capital  of 
Tenochtitlan. 

AC'ANTHA^CKS  (For  derivation  see 
Acanthus).  An  order  of  dicotyledonous  plants 
embracing  about  130  genera  and  IGOO  species. 
It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  tropics,  but  also  occurs 
in  the  south  of  Europe  and  the  United  States. 
The  species  are  mostly  herbs  and  shrubs, 
although  a  few  become  trees.  Plants  of  this 
order  frequent  almost  every  situation,  from 
marshes  to  the  driest  of  conditions  where  plants 
are  able  to  survive.  The  leaves  are  usually 
thin  and  entire.  The  flower  parts  in  fours  or 
fives,  stamens  often  two  and  styles  two.  The 
fruit  is  a  two-celled  capsule,  upon  the  explosion 
of  which  the  seeds  are  thrown  out,  aided  by 
peculiar  outgrowths  from  the  base  of  their 
stalks.  The  chief  genera  are  Nelsonia,  Thunber- 
gia,  Strobilanthus,  Ruellia,  Blepharis,  Acanthus, 
and  Justicia. 

ACAN'THITE  (6k.  &Kav6a,  akaniha, 
thorn).  A  silver  sulphide  that  crystallizes  in 
the  orthorhorabic  system.  It  is  iron-black  in  color, 
and  has  a  metallic  lustre.  It  occurs  with  argen- 
tite  and  stephanite  at  various  localities  near 
Freiberg  in  Saxony,  and  is  named  from  the 
peculiar  shape  of  its  crystals. 

ACAN^HOCEPH'ALA  (Gk.  drnvQa,  akan- 
tha,  thorn,  prickle  -f  /ce^^^,  kephale,  head ) . 
An  order  of  round  parasitic  worms  distinguished 
by  an  elongated  cylindrical  body  and  a  proboscis 
armed  with  horny  hooks.  The  order  contains  three 
families,  viz.,  Gigantorhynchidae,  Neorhynchid«, 
and  Echinorhynchidw.  Echinorhynchus  gigas  is 
parasitic  in  the  small  intestine  of  swine.  Other 
species  are  found  in  ducks  and  other  aquatic 
birds.  The  Acanthocephala  belong  to  the  class 
Nemathelminthes,  which  includes  also  the  Got- 
diaceee  and  the  Nematodes. 

ACANTHOPTEBYGn,  &k'ftn-th6p-t€r-Ij^-I 
( Gk.  dxavBa^  aJcantha,  thorn  -^irrepiyiov,  pterygion, 
wing;  plural,  fins).  One  of  the  primary  divis- 
ions of  the  osseous  fishes  (Teleostei).  It  in- 
cludes many  families,  among  which  are  largely 
the  most  specialized  forms  of  fishes.  They  are 
characterized  by  the  possession  of  spines  in  the 
anterior  portion  of  the  dorsal  fin  or  in  the  first 
dorsal  when  two  are  present,  and  by  the  usual 
absence  of  a  pneumatic  duct  connecting  the  air- 
bladder  with  the  (esophagus.  The  ventral  fins 
are  generally  thoracic,  i.e.,  fastened  to  the  shoul- 
der. The  acanthopterygian  fishes  include  the 
perch,  bass,  mackerel,  and  similar  forms. 

ACANTHUS  (Lat.  from  Gk.  dxa  vof, 
akanihos,  brankursine).  A  name  given  by  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  to  certain  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Acanthaceae,  which  order  contains 
nearly  134  genera  and  1600  species.  Tlie  plants 
of  the  order  are  herbs  or  shrubs,  rarely  trees, 
chiefly  tropical,  a  few  occurring  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  in  the  United  States,  and  in 
Australia.  The  greater  number  are  mere  weeds, 
but  the  genera  Justicia,  Aphelandra,  and  Ruellia 
contain  some  of  our  finest  hothouse  flowers.  In 
cultivation  the  Acanthus  is  only  semi-hardy,  and 
needs  protection  in  England  and  in  the  United 
States  north  of  Virginia.  Of  a  dozen  varieties 
of  the  genus  Acanthus  two  only  were  anciently 
common  in  Mediterranean  lands:  the  wild 
Acanthus  {Acanthus  apinostis) ,  a  short  prickly 
plant  with  curly  leaves;  and  the  cultivated 
Acanthus  (Acanthus  mollis),  with  larger,  thick- 


ACAPTTLCO. 

er,  smooth  leaves  without  thoiHs.    See  plate  of 
Acanthus. 

In  Architecture.  The  leaves  of  both  of  these 
varieties  have  been  copied  in  architectural  deco- 
ration. Those  of  Acanthus  spinosus  only  were 
conventionalized  by  the  Greeks  in  the  Corinthian 
capital  (q.v.),  whose  characteristic  decorations 
they  formed,  as  well  as  in  other  details,  such  as 
the  acroterium    (q.v.)    of  temples,  monuments, 


ACANTHUB. 


or  sepulchral  columns,  etc.  In  all  these  Grecian 
decorations  the  acanthus  leaves  are  straight  and 
pointed.  Etruscan  and  early  Roman  works 
show  a  form  of  acanthus  with  curling,  split 
leaves  of  quite  different  aspect.  The  typical 
Greek  three-lobed  acanthus  was  introduced  into 
Roman  architecture  before  the  close  of  the  Repub- 
lic, but  the  Roman  artists  of  the  time  of  the 
Empire  were  not  satisfied  with  its  simple  forms; 
they  conventionalized  it,  adopted  in  preference 
the  form  of  the  more  luxuriant  Acanthus  mollis, 
and  combined  with  it  the  forms  of  other  trees 
and  plants,  especially  the  olive,  laurel,  and 
parsley.  The  result  was  an  extremely  rich  dec- 
oration of  capitals,  friezes,  consoles,  moldings, 
and  cornices  quite  unknown  to  Greek  art.  The 
acanthus  came  into  use  also  in  other  forms  of 
decoration:  in  fresco  painting,  in  the  ornamen- 
tation of  table  feet,  of  vases,  candelabra,  furni- 
ture, goldsmith  work,  and  embroideries.  It 
naturally  passed  into  post-classical  ornament, 
together  with  the  Corinthian  capital,  which  was 
the  favorite  form,  and  we  find  it  in  early  Chris- 
tian, Byzantine,  and  Ronianesque  art.  In  cer- 
tain parts  of  Italy  it  preserved  its  purity  until 
the  Renaissance  —  especially  in  central  and 
southern  Italy — ^and  in  southern  and  central 
France  it  was  superseded  only  by  Grothic  foliage. 
See  Column  ;  Corinthian  Order. 

A  CAPELLA,  a  k&-p€l1&  (Ital.  in  the  church 
style).  Music  for  voices  without  accompani- 
ment, like  the  early  church  compositions.  The 
term  is  also  used  when  the  accompaniment  is 
octaves  or  unison.  As  an  indication  of  time  it 
is  equivalent  to  alia  breve  (q.v.). 

A  CAPBICCO,  fi  kA-pre'chft  (lUl.).  At  the 
caprice  or  pleasure  of  the  performer,  regarding 
both  time  and  expression.  A  musical  term. 

ACAPITLCO,  a'kA-po??l'k6  (a  corrupted  ab- 
breviation of  the  Latin  name  [Portus]  Aequo:: 
Pulchrce  [Port  of]  beautiful  water).  A  town 
on  the  Pacific  coast,  in  Guerrero,  Mexico,  231 
miles  southwest  of  the  City  of  Mexico,  of  which 
it  was  formerly  the  Pacific  port,  on  account  of  the 
excellence  of  its  harbor  (Map:  Mexico,  J  9).  It 
was  the  chief  centre  of  commerce  with  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands,  as  well  as  China  and  India,  until 
the  railroad  between  the  City  of  Mexico  and  San 
Bias  robbed  it  of  most  of  its  trade.  Population, 
about  4000. 


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ACANTHUS.     ETC. 


^'-  ^S^^T'l^^S   Ucanthya   molds,  war,   LatlfoHa). 


^     ^^'^ninvo   ^.^caninya   moirts,  war,   LatlfG 
a"   I  Ef^^^*^    '■"-Y    Ugapamhus  umboHatus). 
^     ir^^'LIE^-BLEEOlNG    (Amafanthga  caudatua). 
•  '^l-MOND    (AmygdaluB  comrnvnia). 


B.  THE    ABSiNTHE    PLArsi> 

6.  ROCKV    MOUNTAIN  A 

grar 

7.  PHEASAN 


>(f^*J\tirO"^**"^ 


ir    MOUNTAIN  Aq;,     f  irtt^*" 

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i 


I 


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ACABIASIS.  59 

ACA'BIA'SIS.    See  Mange. 
ACABI'NA.    See  Mites. 

AC'ABNA^NIA  (Gk.  *AKapvavia,  Akama- 
%),  A  country  of  ancient  Greece,  separated 
>m  Epirus  on  the  north  by  the  Ambracian 
ilf,  now  the  Gulf  of  Arta,  from  iEtolia  on  the 
st  by  the  River  AcheloUs,  and  washed  south 
d  west  by  the  Ionian  Sea.  Along  with  iEtolia, 
forms  one  of  the  nomes  or  departments  of  the 
xlern  kingdom  of  Greece,  with  an  area  of 
13  square  miles  and  a  population  of  170,566 
1896.  The  western  part  of  Acamania — from 
e  mouth  of  the  Achelotts  or  Aspropotamo  to 
,pe  Actium  in  the  northwest — is  occupied  by  a 
iss  of  rocky  and  thickly-wooded  mountains, 
ling  abruptly  from  the  indented  coast  and  cul- 
inating  in  the  summit  of  Berganti.  A  consid- 
eible  part  of  Acarnania  is  overgrown  with  wood 
a  rare  feature  in  modern  Greece.  There  is  no 
wn  of  importance  in  the  whole  district,  though 
turally  the  territory  is  not  destitute  of  re- 
tirees. Consult:  Oberhummer,  Akamanient 
nbrakia,  Amphilochien,  Lcukaa  im  Altertum 
riunich,  1887). 

AC^ABirS  FOLLICXTL(XBirM,  or  Demodew, 
Steaiozoon  foUiculorum,  the  commedo  mite.  A 
icroscopic  parasite  residing  in  the  sebaceous 
cs  and  hair  follicles  of  the  human  skin.  It 
as  first  described  by 
r,  Simon  of  Berlin  in 
42,  under  the  title  of 
c  a  r  u  s  follieulorum, 
tiich  was  suggested  by 
e  eminent  zoologist, 
richsen  of  Berlin.  Ac- 
rding  to  Professor 
^'en,  who  gave  it  the 
ime  of  Demodex,  it 
presents  the  lowest 
rm  of  the  class  Ar- 
hnida,  and  makes  a 
ansition  from  the  An- 
lids  to  the  higher  Ar- 
sulata.  Their  pres- 
ice  has  no  reference  to 
sease  of  the  skin  or 
the  follicles.  They 
e  met  with  in  almost 
ery  person.  They  vary 
length  from  A"^^ 
y^th  of  an  mcb, 
id    the    accompanying 

jure  represents  the  magnified  parasite.  Their 
imber  is  various;  in  some  persons  not  more 
lan  two  or  three  can  be  found  in  a  follicle, 
bile  in  others  upward  of  fifteen.  The  head  is 
ways  directed  inward.  They  are  most  corn- 
only  found  in  the  skin  of  the  face,  particularly 
lat'of  the  nose;  but  they  have  also  been  met 
ith  in  the  follicles  of  the  back,  the  breast,  and 
le  abdomen.  The  animal  possesses  eight  thor- 
;ic  appendages  (Cf  c)  of  the  most  rudimentary 
ind,  each  of  which  is  terminated  by  three  short 
't«.  The  integument  of  the  abdomen  is  very 
nely  annulated.  The  mouth  is  suctorial  or 
robosidiform,  consisting  of  two  small  spine- 
laped  maxilla;  (&),  and  an  extensive  labium 
ipabfte  of  being  elongated  or  retracted;  it  is 
ronded  on  each  side  with  a  short,  thick,  maxil- 
iry  palp  (a,  a),  consisting  of  two  joints  with  a 
irrow,  triangular  labrum  above.  The  sexes  are 
ittixiiot,  but  uie  differences  between  the  male  and 


(A)  ACABUS  rOLUCULOBUll. 
(B)  DBXODBX  MOBNIKI8. 


ACCA  LABEKTIA. 

female  are  not  well,  recognized.  Ova  are  fre- 
quently seen,  both  in  the  body  of  the  female  and 
in  detached  discharged  masses.  Acari  may  be 
examined  by  collecting  between  two  pieces  of 
thin  glass  the  expressed  fatty  matter  from  a 
nasal  follicle  and  moistening  it  with  a  drop  ol 
olive  oil  before  placing  under  a  microscope  lens 
of  300  diameters.  Identical  animals  have  been 
found  in  the  skin  of  dogs,  hogs,  and  cattle.  They 
damage  cowhides  in  some  instances.  No  treat- 
ment is  requisite. 

V  ACA8TE,  ii'kkst^  One  of  the  characters  in 
Moli^re's  Misanthrope  (q.v.)  ;  a  self-satisfied 
young  marquis  who  easily  consoles  himself  when 
scorned  as  a  suitor  by  C^lim^ne. 

ACASTO,  i-kfts'tA.  In  Otway's  tragedy  of 
The  Orphan  (q.v.)  a  nobleman  retired  from  the 
court  who  is  the  guardian  of  Monimia,  the  hero- 
ine, and  father  of  Castalio  and  Polydore. 

ACASTTJS  (Gk.  'AKooTog,  Akaatos).  A  son 
of  Pelias,  King  of  lolcus;  one  of  the  Argonauts 
and  of  the  Calydonian  hunters.  He  revenged  the 
murder  of  his  father  (killed  by  his  daughters  at 
the  instigation  of  Medea)  by  driving  Jason  and 
Medea  out  of  lolcus.    See  Argonauts  ;  Medea. 

AC'ATHIS^XTS  (Gk.  a,  a  priv.  +  KoOiCetv, 
kathizein,  to  sit  down ) .  A  hymn  in  honor  of  the 
Virgin,  sung  standing  in  the  Greek  Church  on 
Saturday  of  the  fifth  week  in  Lent,  when  the 
repulse  of  the  Avars  from  Constantinople  is  cele- 
brated. 

AC^CAD.  One  of  the  chief  cities  of  the  land 
of  Shinar  (i.e.,  Babylonia),  mentioned  in  Genesis 
X  :  10.  Originally  applied  to  a  city  only,  the 
name  was  afterward  extended  to  the  district  of 
which  Accad  (or  Akkad)  was  at  one  time  the 
centre,  and  among  the  titles  of  the  kings  of 
Babylonia  and  Assyria  we  find,  from  about  3000 
B.C.  on,  the  phrase  "King  of  the  land  of  Shumer 
(the  biblical  Shinar)  and  Akkad''  used  as  a 
designation  for  all  Babylonia.  If  the  identi- 
fication of  Accad  with  the  city  of  Agade,  men- 
tioned in  the  inscriptions  of  Sargon  I.  and  of  his 
son,  Naram-sin,  were  certain,  we  could  place 
this  ancient  city  of  Akkad  about  fifteen  miles 
west  of  Bagdad.  According  to  the  testimony  of 
Nabonidus,  the  last  ruler  of  Babylonia,  Sargon 
I.,  whose  seat  was  at  Agade,  ruled  about  3800 
B.C.,  but  the  statement  of  Nabonidus  is  open  to 
suspicion  as  overstating  the  length  of  time  be- 
tween him  and  Sargon,  and  the  identification  of 
Akkad  with  Agade  is  not  certain.  The  city  of 
Accad  was  still  in  existence  in  the  days  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar I.  (circa  1135  B.C.),  who  makes 
mention  of  it  in  his  inscription.  The  Accadians 
belonged  to  the  white  race,  and  were  probably 
Semites,  the  theory  of  an  Accadian-Sumerian 
language  of  Turanian,  or  Uralo-Altaic,  aflRnities 
having  been  abandoned  by  the  best  authorities. 
Whether  they  were  the  flr^t  \tv\vaV\iai\t8  ol  the 
eountrv,  in  which  they  ar^  *oUtvd  so  early,  may 
be  doubted;  but  their  pr^A  \paftoT*,  '^^  ^^y*  "^^^^ 
of  the  white  race,  possiblv  ^^^atvft^  o^'  *^^  ^^^  ,  * 
peoples  akin  to  the  trib^^  At5  v,o  Cft^cA^wa.    In- 


\We. 


d,  the  Accadians  th^C     0^  ^1  tft^'i  T'' v^^ 
...  part  Aryan..  Co^sut^^:eV<C,«^^r^, 


SUMERIA. 

AC^CA  LAKENT^^ 

tive    Rome,    the    wif^ 


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ACCA  LABENTIA. 


60 


Faustulus,  who  found  the  twin  infants,  Romulus 
and  Remus,  and  carried  them  to  her  to  be 
nursed  and  brought  up.  But  this  is  a  later  leg- 
end. The  name  Acca  Larentia  seems  to  have 
meant  "Mother  of  the  Lares;"  and  in  the  primi- 
tive Latin  mythology  she  was  the  cultus-heroine 
of  the  festival  Larentalia,  held  in  honor  of  the 
spirits  of  the  dead  on  December  23.  She 
was  perhaps  identical  with  Dea  Dia,  to  whose 
worship  the  Fratres  Arvales  were  dedicated.  See 
ABVAii  Brethren. 

ACGAXTLT,  &'ky.  Michel.  A  French  &i- 
plorer.  He  was  a  lieutenant  of  La  Salle,  at 
whose  request  he  accompanied  Louis  Hennepin 
in  the  exploration  of  the  upper  part  of  the  Miss- 
issippi in  ^679.    See  Hennepin. 

AC'CELEBANa>0  (Ital.  pron.  ^chA-lft- 
r&nMd).  In  music,  with  gradually  increasing 
velocity  of  movement. 

AC'CELEBA^ION  (from  Lat.  od,  to  + 
celerare,  to  hasten).  In  theoretical  mechanics,  a 
term  which  denotes  the  rate  of  change  of  velocity 
at  any  instant  with  respect  to  the  time,  that  is, 
the  change  of  velocity  in  the  next  second  of  time 
if  the  rate  of  change  is  uniform;  in  other  words, 
the  change  which  would  take  place  in  the  velocity 
in  the  next  second  if,  during  that  time,  the 
change  were  to  continue  at  the  same  rate  as  at 
the  instant  considered.  An  example  of  accelera- 
tion is  furnished  by  a  body  falling  freely  toward 
the  earth.  Its  numerical  value  is  about  981  centi- 
metres, or  32.2  feet,  per  second.  Hence  a  body 
freely  falling  from  a  position  of  rest,  or  with 
velocity  equal  to  zero,  at  the  end  of  the  first 
second  would  be  moving  with  a  velocity  of  32 
feet  per  second,  at  the  end  of  the  second  second 
with  a  velocity  of  64,  at  the  end  of  the  third 
second  with  a  velocity  of  96,  and  so  on.  In  math- 
ematical language,  the  acceleration  is  the  lim- 
iting value  of  the  ratio  Av/  At,  where  Av  is 
the  actual  change  in  the  velocity  in  the  interval 
of  time  At  seconds,  as  this  interval  is  taken 
shorter  and  shorter.  There  are  two  kinds  of 
acceleration,  linear  and  angular,  corresponding 
to  the  two  kinds  of  motion,  translation  and  rota- 
tion, and  there  are  two  types  of  each  of  these. 
See  Mechanics. 

ACCENT  (Lat.  accenius,  from  ad,  to  -f 
cantua,  singing,  chant).  A  special  stress  laid 
upon  one  syllable  of  a  word,  by  which  it  is  made 
more  prominent  than  the  rest.  In  the  Indo- 
European  languages  two  kinds  of  accent  are 
found,  varyinjj  in  quality — the  musical  and  the 
expiratory.  The  first  is  found  in  Sanskrit  and 
Greek,  the  second  in  Latin  and  Teutonic.  The 
accent  may  also  be  distinguished  by  its  position, 
as  free,  in  Greek  and  primitive  Teutonic,  and 
fixed,  in  later  Teutonic.  In  English  the  general 
tendency  is  to  throw  the  accent  back.  In  com- 
pound words  the  accent  is  usually  on  the  first 
part,  as  in  courtyard,  highway.  When  the  first 
part  is  a  prefix  it  receives  the  accent  if  the  word 
be  a  noun  or  adjective:  the  root  is  accented  if 
the  word  be  a  verb.  This  rule  applies  also  to 
some  other  words,  as  pres'ent  and  pre  sent'.  Bor- 
rowed words  usually  adopt  the  English  accent, 
as  orator,  presence;  but  some  recently  borrowed 
French  words  retain  the  original  accentuation, 
as  parole,  caprice.  The  absence  of  stress  on  final 
inflectional  syllables  has  played  an  important 
part  in  the  leveling  of  inflections.  (See  English 
Lanquaoe.)  Besides  word-accents,  there  is  a 
sentence-accent,  by  which  some  word  in  the  sen- 


AOCESa 

tence  is  given  greater  stress  than  the  others. 
This  is  always  a  free  accent,  the  position  of  the 
accent  depending  upon  the  meaning.  In  the  sen- 
tence, ''VVhere  is  he?"  three  different  meanings 
can  be  given  by 'shifting  the  position  of  the  ac- 
cent. The  effect  of  sentence  accent  is  often  seen 
in  the  development  of  doublets,  or  words  with 
a  common  origin,  but  a  different  form  and  mean- 
ing, as  to — ^too,  of — off.  (See  Phonetic  Laws.) 
Accent  is  also  the  essential  principle  of  modem 
verse.  (See  Metre.)  For  the  primitive  Indo- 
European  accent  and  its  effect  in  connection  with 
conjugation,  see  Philology. 

In  Music,  the  t«rm  is  analogous  to  accent  in 
language,  the  stress  or  emphasis  given  to  cer- 
tain notes  or  parts  of  bars  in  a  composition. 
It  may  be  of  three  kinds:  grammatical,  rhyth- 
mical, and  rhetorical  or  aesthetic.  The  first  al- 
ways falls  on  the  first  part  of  a  bar,  long  or 
compound  measures  of  time  usually  having 
additional  or  subordinate  accents — only  slightly 
marked.  The  rhythmical  accent  is  appli^  to 
the  larger  component  parts  of  a  composition, 
such  as  phrases,  themes,  motives,  etc.,  and  marks 
their  entrance,  climax,  end.  The  rhetorical  ac- 
cent is  irregular,  and  depends  on  taste  and  feel- 
ing, exactly  as  do  the  accent  and  emphasis 
used  in  oratory.  In  vocal  music  well  adapted  to 
words,  the  words  serve  as  a  guide  to  the  right 
use  of  the  rhetorical  accent.  See  Syncopation; 
Ragtime. 

ACCEN^OB  (Lat.  one  who  sings  with  an- 
other, from  ad,  to  +  cantor,  singer).  A  book- 
name  for  a  group  of  European  warblers,  of 
which  the  misnamed  British  hedge-sparrow  {Ac- 
centor modularis)  is  a  type;  and  also  for  the 
American  water-thrushes,  wood-warblers  of  the 
genus  Seiurus. 

ACCEPT^ANCE.  In  law,  the  signification 
by  the  drawee  of  his  assent  to  the  order  of  the 
drawer  of  a  bill  of  exchange  (q.v.).  The  term 
is  also  employed  to  descril^  the  bill  after  such 
acceptance. 

ACCEPIYANTS,     AFPEI/LANTS.        The 

names  given,  respectively,  to  those  among  the 
French  clergy  who  accepted  the  bull  Unigeniiu^ 
condemning  Jansenism  (1713),  and  to  those  who 
did  not  but  appealed  to  a  general  council  to 
settle  the  controversy. 

ACCESS,  Right  of.  A  legal  incident  of  the 
ownership  of  property  abutting  on  the  sea  or 
other  navigable  waters  or  on  a  highway  or  other 
public  lands.  In  addition  to  the  general  right 
to  the  use  of  such  waters  and  lands,  which  he 
shares  with  the  public  at  large,  the  adjacent 
owner  has  a  right  of  free  access  which  is  consid- 
ered a  special  property  right,  and  of  which,  in 
this  country,  he  cannot  be  deprived,  even  by  the 
State,  without  due  process  of  law  and  compen- 
sation. The  existence  of  such  a  right  as  against 
the  State  was  long  disputed,  but  is  now,  as  the 
result  of  recent  decisions,  firmly  established. 
Peculiar  applications  of  this  right  are  to  be 
found  in  the  common-law  rights  of  mooring 
vessels  and  of  wharfing  out  in  navigable  waters. 
Its  infringement  has  usually  taken  the  form  of 
a  grant  of  the  shore  or  of  land  under  water 
for  railroad  or  wharfing  purposes,  whereby  the 
access  of  the  riparian  owner  was  cut  off.  The 
right  is  not  to  be  confused  with  that  of  the 
abutting  owner  in  a  highway  or  private  stream 
subject  to  a  public  use  where  the  fee  of  the  high- 


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ACCESS. 


y  or  stream  is  vested  in  such  owner.  As  to 
8,  see  Highway;  Rivers;  Ripabian  Rights; 
\.TERS.  Consult  Gould,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Iters  (Chicago,  1900). 

^CCES^SION  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  cedere,  to  go, 
»ve).  In  the  law  of  property,  a  mode  of 
[uiring  title  to  land  or  goods  by  their  annex- 
on  to  the  real  or  personal  property  of  another, 
ereby  the  thing  annexed  loses  its  separate 
intity.  It  occurs  where  land  is  gradually 
ireased  by  accretion  (q.v.)  or  alluvion  (q.v.), 
ere  a  tenant  or  stranger  erects  a  building  or 
laches  a  fixture  (q.v.)  to  land,  and  where  a 
ittel  belonging  to  one  is  improved  by  the 
lition  of  materials  or  labor  of  another,  as  in 
!  repair  of  a  wagon  by  adding  a  wheel  or  by 
inting  it,  or  in  the  conversion  of  leather  into 
)es.  The  legal  effect  of  the  annexation  is 
transfer  the  title  of  Ihe  thing  annexed  to  the 
ner  of  the  property  so  improved  or  increased, 
!  identity  of  the  former  having  been  merged 

the  latter;  the  wheel,  the  paint,  and  the 
»or,  in  the  examples  given  above,  having  dis- 
peared  as  separate  articles  and  being  now 
eparable  parts  of  the  wagon  and  the  leather, 
e  rule  governing  accessions  is  that  the  own- 
hip  of  the  principal  thing  carries  with  it  that 
the  inferior  thing.  But,  as  the  question  of 
jeriority  or  inferiority  is  not  always  one  of 
oe  or  value,  the  rule  is  sometimes  difficult  of 
plication.     Thus,  additions  and  improvements 

land,  however  extensive  and  valuable  they 
y  be,  always  accrue  to  the  owner  of  the  soil, 
i  a  chattel  may  be  doubled  or  trebled  in  value 

the  expenditure  of  skill  and  labor  without 
mging  its  ownership.  But  where  the  identity 
a  chattel  is  completely  changed  by  the  labor 
)ended  upon  it,  as  by  the  conversion  of  malt 
o  beer,  or  where  it  is  enormously  increased 
value,  as  by  the  manufacture  of  pig  iron  into 
tch-springs,  the  product  belongs  to  the  person 
ose  money  and  labor  have  effected  the  trans- 
mation.  See  the  article  on  Ck)NFUSiON;  and 
isult  Schouler,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Personal 
yperty  (Boston,  1896). 

^CCES^SOBY.  At  common  law,  a  person 
o  was  not  the  chief  actor  in  a  crime,  nor 
?sent  at  its  performance,  but  was  concerned 

its  commission,  was  an  accessory.  Treason 
i  misdemeanors  did  not  admit  of  accessories, 
vever:  the  former,  Blackstone  says,  because 
the  heinousness  of  the  crime,  and  the  latter 
a  use  the  law  does  not  descend  to  distinguish 
(  different  shades  of  guilt  in  petty  offenses. 

accessory  before  the  fact  is  one  who  counsels 
procures  the  commission  of  a  crime,  but  who 
neither  present  nor  engaged  in  furthering  the 
nsaction  when  the  crime  is  committed.  An 
essory  after  the  fact  is  one  who,  knowing  a 
3ny  has  been  committed,  receives,  relieves, 
Qforts,  or  assists  the  felon.  Several  reasons 
;  assigned  by  Blackstone  for  the  common  law 
tinction  between  principals  and  accessories, 
t  the  tendency  of  modern  legislation  is  to 
ivert  accessories  before  the  fact  into  princi- 
la,  and  to  permit  the  trial  and  conviction  of 

accessory,  whether  the  principal  has  been 
ed  and  convicted  or  not.  Consult  the  author- 
B8  referred  to  under  the  title  Criminal  Law; 
o,  Wharton,  Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia, 
J6) ;  Stephen,  A  History  of  the  Criminal  Law 
England  (London,  1883)  ;  Harris,  Principles 
the  Criminal  Law  (London,  1899). 


61  ACCIDENT  INSUBANCE. 

ACCIDENT  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  cadere,  to  fall, 
happen,  occur).  In  the  law  of  torts,  a  trans- 
action in  which  one  is  harmed  by  another  while 
the  latter  is  acting  lawfully  and  in  the  exercise 
of  due  care  adapted  to  the  exigency  of  the  case. 
For  example,  A's  and  B's  dogs  are  fighting;  A 
beats  them  in  order  to  separate  them,  and,  as 
he  raises  his  cane,  unintentionally  and  without 
negligence  hits  B,  who  is  standing  behind  him. 
B  has  no  cause  of  action  against  A,  as  the  injury 
was  accidental.  This  is  now  the  undisputed  law 
both  in  England  and  in  the  United  States, 
although  formerly  there  was  much  apparent 
authority  in  England  for  A's  liability  in  such  a 
case.  See  the  authorities  referred  to  under  the 
title  Tort. 

In  equity  accident  denotes  an  unforeseen  event, 
loss,  act,  or  omission,  riot  the  result  of  negli- 
gence or  misbehaWor  in  any  of  the  parties;  such 
as  the  loss  of  negotiable  or  other  papers;  or 
where  some  part  of  a  document  has  been  omitted, 
in  which  case  the  court  can  require  its  insertion. 
In  penalties  and  forfeitures,  where  the  injury 
caused  by  omission  of  duty  can  be  reasonably 
compensated,  as  in  case  of  failure  to  pay  rent 
on  a  given  day,  the  court  may  relieve  the  offend- 
ing party  against  the  penalty  of  forfeiture. 
Where  there  has  been  neglect  or  omission 
through  want  of  information  or  through  negli- 
gence to  defend  a  suit,  the  court  may  permit  the 
proper  steps  to  be  taken.  But  as  a  rule,  a  court 
of  equity  will  interfere  only  in  favor  of  persons 
paying  a  consideration;  so  if  a  seal  should  be 
omitted  from  a  conveyance  made  without  con- 
sideration, or  a  clause  should  be  left  out  of  a 
will,  no  relief  would  be  extended.  It  is  also 
ruled  that  no  relief  will  be  granted  against  a 
purchaser  who  has  acquired  legal  rights  in  good 
faith  for  a  consideration  of  value.  Consult:  Bisp- 
ham.  Principles  of  Equity  Jurisprudence.  See 
Tort;  Crime;  Accident  Insurance;  Contract. 

ACCIDENT  (in  logic  and  philosophy).  See 
Chance;  Logic,  and  Predicable. 

ACCIDENTAL.  In  music,  a  symbol  placed 
before  a  note  and  intended  to  alter  its  pitch. 

ACCIDENT  INSUB^ANCE.  A  form  of 
insurance  which  indemnifies  the  insured  in  case 
of  disablement  or  death  as  the  result  of  bodily 
accident.  Under  the  usual  contract  of  accident 
insurance  the  only  injuries  insured  against  are 
those  caused  by  violent,  accidental,  external,  and 
visible  means.  It  does  not  therefore  cover  cases 
of  intentional  injuries,  whether  self-inflicted  or 
not,  nor  cases  of  injury  or  death  resulting  from 
surgical  operations,  where  the  operations  were 
themselves  rendered  necessary  by  natural  dis- 
ease or  weakness  and  not  by  external  accident. 
The  fact  that  the  accident  was  incurred  through 
the  misconduct  or  negligence  of  the  insured  will 
not,  in  general,  affect  his  rigl^ts  under  the  policy, 
though  some  companies  seek  to  protect  them- 
selves by  stipulations  that  tA\ey  *^^^^  ^^^  ^ 
liable  in  cases  where  the  -v  „;Aetvt  ^^^*  ^"^^  ^ 
the  intoxication  of  the  insxr*  \  oX  ^^*  ^Tvcuvred 
while  wilfully  exposing  U^^e^!.  to  wtv^^^^^^^^? 
danger.  The  general  pri^Tj^^  fiP^^^TV^^X 
dent  insurance  arp  tha  ^*^^^  \o«»  r>  >v.a9.e  o^  ^^«» 
marine,  and 
Liability    (q 


ice  are  the    ^'K>\t  ^^t^^^^^^^ 

life  insurflLYv^^^  ,  ^N-    T^\»Xxv\^*> 
.  V. ) ,  under    ^^^^"«^^  J  '^  A^*    vx\^-.  ^"^^^ ^ 
is  a  form  of  accident  iris^  ^x^    V^^^^O^   tNj£^^^^*^ 
Law  of  Insurance   (Bos-w  X>w\v    A,  ^ 

of  Insurance  (London,     ^^^N^V>^  (!V r^'^ 


i 


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ACCIPITBE8.  62 

ACGIP^ITBES  (Lat.  plural  of  accipiter,  the 
Ci^iiitnon  hawk),  or  Rap  aces,  or  Kaftobes. 
S«e  Birds  of  Pbet. 

ACdTTS.     See  Axnus. 

AC'CXAMA^nON  (Lat.  acclamatio,  a  call- 
ing tn,  from  ad,  to  +  clamare,  to  shout,  call). 
All  c^xpression  of  opinion  of  any  assembly  by 
meuiiH  uf  the  voice.  Among  the  Romans,  aocla- 
mntion  was  varied  in  both  form  and  purpose. 
At  marriages  the  spectators  would  shout  "lo 
Hymen,"  "Hymenaee,"  or  "Talassio."  A  victorious 
array  or  leader  was  greeted  with  "lo  triumphe." 
In  the  theatre,  approbation  for  the  play  was 
ask^d  by  the  actor  speaking  the  closing  words, 
who  added  "Plaudite."  In  the  senate,  opinions 
were  expressed  and  votes  passed  in  such  forms 
as  ^'Otiines,  omnes,"  "^^uum  est,"  "lustum  est," 
etc* ;  and  the  praises  of  the  emperor  were  cele- 
brated in  certain  prearranged  sentence  which 
B4?eiii  to  have  been  chanted  by  the  whole  body  of 
aeuiXtorH.  At  first  the  acclamation  which  greeted 
the  works  of  poets  and  authors  recited  in  public 
wa^  j*pnuine;  but  the  modern  claque  was  early 
introdui^  by  rich  pretenders  to  literary  ability 
who  kept  paid  applauders  not  only  for  them- 
a<*lves*  but  lent  them  to  their  friends.  Nero  gave 
n  speeiraen  when  he  caused  5000  chosen  knights 
iiud  commoners  at  a  given  signal  to  chant  his 
prairt*»s  in  the  theatre;  they  were  called  "Augus- 
tiani."  and  were  conducted  by  a  regular  music- 
mil  3  tor.  In  the  early  times  of  the  Christian 
dturch  it  was  not  uncommon  for  a  congregation 
to  express  their  approbation  of  a  favorite 
preiichor  during  the  course  of  his  sermon,  and  in 
thii!  manner  Chrysostom  was  frequently  inter- 
ruptc'd.  In  ecclesiastical  councils  voting  by  ac- 
rljiiuiition  is  very  common,  the  division  being 
ustijilly  put  in  the  form  "placet"  or  "non-placet." 

ACGU'MATIZA^nON.  The  adaptation  of 
a  apt>cies  or  race  to  a  climate  different  from 
that  to  which  it  has  previously  been  accustomed. 
Ac(.']]infl,tization  is  often  confused  with  Naturali- 
zation (q.v.),  but  naturalization  is  rather  the 
i^italiJishment  of  a  species  in  a  new  country,  and 
duen  not  necessarily  imply  a  slow  adjustment  to 
cornlitiims  that  are  at  first  injurious,  as  is  the 
ease  in  acclimatization.  Naturalization  may  take 
pliire  without  any  real  acclimatization,  as  when 
the  new  country  is  climatically  like  the  old.  This 
ease  l^  illustrated  by  the  large  number  of  plants 
\\hirl<  have  spread  eastward  or  westward  along 
[lainiHals  of  latitude.  Again,  acclimatization 
may  occur  without  naturalization.  This  is  well 
ill  11  fit  rated  by  the  large  number  of  plants  that 
iirf*  Imrdy,  and  yet  rarely,  if  ever,  run  wild; 
fH'ohflbly  the  struggle  for  existence  is  so  keen 
finit  such  plants  fail  to  establish  themselves 
ftpniitnneously.  Still  again,  naturalization  may 
Arooinpsiny  acclimatization,  as  in  the  case  of 
phiTitq  that  migrate  along  meridians. 

The  t^rm  acclimatization  is  employed  by  the 
zoitliiifists  in  a  somewhat  broader  sense,  espe- 
eisilly  when  referring  to  the  adaptation  of  ma- 
rine organisms  to  new  conditions  of  existence. 
In  tlie  latter  case  climatic  changes  are  relatively 
unimportant  factors.  The  changes  in  the  char- 
acter of  the  water,  as  respects  temperature,  con- 
taiin?<i  food  supply,  marine  currents,  and  pres- 
eure  as  determined  by  depth,  are  the  influential 
factors. 

\  X  Plants.  The  most  obvious  examples  of  ac- 
Hhniit  ration  are  found  in  cultivated  plants. 
\Vhil(»  the  original  stock  as  well  as  the  home  of 


ACCLIMATIZATION. 

most  oereala  is  not  definitely  known,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  most  of  them  have  come  from  warm, 
temperate  or  semi-tropical  countries.  They  have 
now  become  fully  acclimatized  in  far  northern 
regions;  indeed,  some  varieties  of  wheat,  barley, 
etc.,  flourish  even  better  in  cold,  temperate  dis- 
tricts than  in  their  original  home.  The  peach  is 
believed  to  grow  farther  north  now  than  in  the 
days  of  the 'ancient  Greeks.  Evidences  of  ac- 
climatization apart  from  man's  influence  are  not 
wanting;  for  example,  it  has  been  shown  that 
plants  grown  from  seeds  that  mature  at  high 
altitudes  are  hardier  than  those  grown  from 
seeds  that  mature  at  low  altitudes. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  results  of  acclima- 
tization is  the  change  of  the  plant  periods.  In 
Finland  and  northern  Norway  barley  ripens  in 
89  days,  while  100  days  are  required  in  south- 
ern Sweden.  Varieties  %of  corn  which  ripen  in 
New  York  in  93  days  require  105  days  in  Texas. 
Interesting  but  not  altogether  harmonious  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  from  deciduous  plants 
taken  from  temperate  into  tropical  evergreen  re- 
gions. In  most  plants  the  leafless  period  is  short- 
ened, and  in  some  cases  ( notoriously  in  the  peach 
tree)  it  is  eliminated  altogether,  the  plant  be- 
coming an  evergi'een.  Schimper  has  observed  an- 
other change,  viz.,  the  gradual  loss  of  rhythmic 
growth;  trees  of  temperate  climes  becoming  in 
this  respect  more  and  more  similar  to  native 
tropical  trees. 

In  some  cases  the  capacity  for  acclimatization 
is  incomplete,  i.e.,  plants  are  unable  to  adjust 
all  of  their  structures  and  functions  to  a  new 
climate.  This  lack  of  adjustment  is  seen  in 
some  plants  of  warm  regions  which,  when  trans- 
ported to  cool  regions,  vegetate  well  but  fail 
to  ripen  wood.  Many  plants  that  can*  perform 
all  their  vegetative  functions  may  still  be  un- 
able to  mature  seeds;  this  is  true  not  only  of 
plants  taken  into  cooler  climates,  but  also  in 
some  cases  of  plants  transported  into  warmer 
climates.  Some  species  occurring  naturally  in 
Spitzbergen  are  said  never  to  ripen  seed;  since 
their  reproduction  is  now  wholly  vegetative, 
their  original  appearance  in  that  region  must 
necessarily  have  been  at  a  period  when  the  cli- 
mate was  much  warmer  than  at  present. 

Darwin  and  others  have  discussed  the  influence 
of  individual  variation  as  compared  with  varia- 
tion through  offspring  on  the  acclimatization  of 
a  species.  There  can  be  but  little  doubt  of  the 
gradual  adaptation  of  a  race  through  the  nat- 
ural selection  of  the  hardiest  individuals  of  each 
generation.  Darwin  also  believed  in  the  power 
of  an  individual  to  become  acclimatized.  The 
Wyoming  experiment  station  reports  that  po- 
tatoes from  the  same  stock  endure  in  the  up- 
lands frosts  that  would  destroy  them  in  the 
lowlands.  This  favors  the  idea*  of  individual  accli- 
matization. Oranges,  however,  propagate  hard- 
ier forms  by  seeds  than  by  grafts,  which 
shows  that  gradual  acclimatization  through  off- 
spring may  be  more  important.  Northern-gro^n 
seeds  are  preferred  by  farmers,  partly  because 
plants  grown  from  them  mature  sooner  than 
from  home-grown  seeds.  In  a  few  generations, 
however,  this  hereditary  peculiarity  is  lost,  and 
a  new  supply  becomes  necessary.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  many  of  the  above  statements 
are  based  on  imperfect  observations,  and  that 
there  is  the  greatest  need  for  careful  experiment 
in  this  field. 

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ACCLIMATIZATION. 


63 


ACCLIMATIZATION. 


res  to  changed  environment  is  not  possessed 
the  same  degree  by  different  species  of  one 
us  or  by  the  individuals  of  any  species.  It 
ies  with  the  hardihood,  with  the  capacity  for 
[stance,  both  of  the  individual  and  of  the  spe- 
i.  Just  what  the  changes  are,  whether  chem- 
[  or  physical,  that  go  on  in  the  protoplasm 
:he  body  during  the  period  of  acclimatization, 
do  not,  in  many  cases,  know.  In  the  acclima- 
ition  of  fishes  to  denser  media  it  is  apparent 
t  some  solids  are  taken  into  the  body,  for  the 
es  sink  when  transferred  again  to  fresh  wa- 
Some  organisms  possess  a  remarkably  high 
ree   of  acclimatization.     Thus,   few  animals 

resist  a  temperature  of  over  115°  F.,  while 
°  F.  is  the  death-point  of  whole  groups, 
certain  organisms  live  in  hot  springs  in 
:er  of  much  higher  temperature,  although 
y  may  be  similar  in  kind  to,  or  even  identical 
h,  those  that  live  in  cooler  waters  outside, 
[  probably  were  acclimated  to  the  high  tem- 
ature  by  slow  degrees  as  they  made  their 
/  up  the  outlets  into  the  springs.  We  know 
n  experimentation  that  organisms  can  resist 

amount  of  heat,  of  density  or  of  poison 
?n  accustomed  to  it  by  slow  degrees,  that 
lid  have  been  fatal  had  they  been  subjected 
it  suddenly.  We  owe  the  fact  that  certain 
lestic  animals,  such  as  the  horse,  cattle, 
:,  cat,  fowls,  rats,  and  mice  have  spread 
h    mankind    over    nearly    all    the    world    to 

great  capacity  for  acclimatization  of  these 
ais,  most  of  which  have  originated  in  warm 
dates.  Likewise  the  ubiquity  of  such  food- 
nts  as  the  potato  and  cereals,  as  well  as  cer- 
1  weeds,  is  due  to  their  great  capacity  of  adap- 
ion;  for  those  plants  and  animals  that  have  a 
ited  amount  of  adaptation  have  likewise  a 
ited  range  of  distribution.  The  quality  and  the 
mgih  of  some  animals  seem  actually  to  im- 
ve  in  a  new  climate.  Thus  the  merino  sheep 
►orted  into  Silesia  and  Pomerania  from  Spain 
u  to  be  superior  in  those  lands  to  their  Span- 
ancestors,  while  the  fleece  of  the  Syrian  sheep 
onies  finer  in  Spain;  but  in  such  cases  it  is 
icult  to  say  just  how  much  is  due  to  climate 
[  how  much  to  the  breeder's  skill  and  care, 
ny  of  our  domestic  animals  have  been  so  long 
ihe  countries  in  which  we  now  find  them  that 
can  never  hope  to  know  anything  about  the 
Lory  of  their  importations;  but  the  silkworm 
comparatively  so  late  an  importation  into 
rope  that  we  can  follow  its  progress.  It  was 
ught  from  China  first  into  Italy,  and  now  it 
acclimated  not  only  to  southern  France  but 
n  to  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  it  is 
e  to  live  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States. 
>f  late  years  numerous  acclimatization  socie- 
i  have  been  formed  (the  best  known  of  which 
:he  Soci4t6  d'Acclimatation  of  Paris),  having 
their  object  the  transference  of  seemingly  de- 
ible  animals  from  their  native  lands  to  other 
ts  of  the  world  where  they  may  thrive  to 
nan  advantage.  This  has  been  found  feasible 
many  instances,  so  far  as  the  ability  to  be- 
ne acclimated  is  concerned,  but  in  many 
esi  the  expected  benefits  have  turned  to  evils 
ough  overmuitiplication  or  other  means  of 
oming  a  local  pest,  and  such  experiments  are 
V  rarely  attempted.  The  introduction  of  sal- 
noid  fishes  from  the  Pacific  to  the  Atlantic 
e  of  the  United  States,  and  from  Europe  to 
w  Zealand,  of  bumble-bees  into  New  Zealand, 
i  of   several   insects,   such   as   ladybirds,   as 


3  of  agricultural  pests,  are  instances  of  the 
eneficial  sort.     The  European  house-spar- 


enemies 

more  beneficial  sort.  The  European  house-spar 
row  in  North  America,  the  mongoose  and  agua- 
toad  in  the  West  Indies,  the  rabbit  in  Australia, 
and  a  great  host  of  more  or  less  accidentally 
introduced  insects  destructive  of  plants,  etc.,  are 
cases  of  an  opposite  character.  For  particulars 
in  respect  to  these,  see  accounts  of  the  respective 
animals. 

In  People.  This  treats  of  the  ability  of  men  to 
maintain  themselves  in  a  country  with  radically 
different  climatic  conditions  from  those  from 
which  they  migrate.  At  present  the  inevitable 
tendency  of  European  and  American  peoples  to 
spread  over  the  major  part  of  the  earth  gives  the 
question  many  practical  bearings.  Can  a  race 
and  a  civilization  from  the  temperate  zone  be 
transplanted  to  the  tropics?  The  question  is  a 
double  one:  (1)  Can  individuals  from  the  tem- 
perate ^ne  live  in  the  tropics  for  a  few  years 
and  maintain  their  health  and  vigor;  (2)  can 
they  work  at  their  usual  occupations,  maintain 
their  customary  vigor,  energy,  and  ability,  rear 
families  and  propagate  their  kind  for  several 
generations?  On  the  first  point  most  authorities 
agree  in  the  affirmative,  provided  reasonable 
provision  for  sanitation  is  made,  and  temperance 
and  thrift  prevail  among  such  emigrants.  On 
the  second  point  authorities  differ,  with  the  bal- 
ance in  the  negative.  Races  differ  in  their  abil- 
ity to  adjust  themselves  to  new  climatic  condi- 
tions. The  individual  or  the  race  may  not  suc- 
cumb at  once  when  transferred  to  a  very  differ- 
ent climate,  and  yet  the  acclimatization  may  be 
only  partial.  Certain  organs  only  of  the  body 
may  be  affected  by  the  changes,  so  that  "diseases 
of  acclimatization"  may  be  induced.  Thus  Euro- 
peans are  liable  in  tropical  countries  to  suffer 
from  diseases  of  the  liver,  while  natives  of  the 
tropics  are  subjected  to  pulmonary  troubles  in 
temperate  zones.  The  Africiin  in  the  United 
States  has  a  high  death  rate  from  lung  affections. 
On  the  other  hand,  loss  of  hardihood  induced  by 
climate  may  express  itself  mainly  in  deteriora- 
tion in  size,  as  is  the  case  with  the  Shetland 
pony.  So  far  as  the  human  races  are  concerned 
there  seems  to  be  a  direct  ratio  between  intelli- 
gence and  capacity  for  acclimatization.  The  An- 
glo-German race  is  able  to  endure  climatic 
changes  with  less  loss  of  vigor  than  any  other 
European  race,  and  for  this  reason  has  been 
able  to  surpass  all  the  others  as  colonizers. 
High  moral  qualities  are  needed.  Homesick- 
ness is  a  frequent  cause  of  failure.  Temperance 
and  thrift  are  excellent  qualities  for  success,  as 
evidenced  in  the  history  of  Jewish  and  Chinese 
emigration.  Mankind  is  tolerant  of  great  ex- 
tremes of  climate,  — 97''  F.  to  154*'  F.  being 
the  greatest  extremes  recorded  as  having  been  en- 
dured by  human  beings,  though  no  such  range 
of  variation  has  ever  been  endured  by  one  peo- 
ple or  in  any  one  place.  Not  only  temperature 
but  also  meteorological  con^\t\oit\*  liave  an  ef- 
fect, and  moisture  is,  next  +o  teix^P^^^^^^®'  ^^® 
most  important  element. 

Bibliography.     The  beat  t^  tr^atme^t  ot 

acclimatization  may  be  fo>r   'H'^^^     ^  ^  ^^^''I'V  ^fC 
huch  der  Klimatologie    i^yxV'^''  ..S^.'^^'X^^^ 
win,  The  VaHations  of  ^x^?^^  .V^  ^^^i^.t.. 
der    Domestwatton,     rev\^  >■       i\f  ;i\o^^  ..M^a^lole 
1875);  Pavillard,  J5;/(«wieA's^       ^^6^  \vV\   .tvC^*^^    ,. 


^"S^'^^r^^. 


c^^^:  \m>^ 


(Paris,     1901);     Schitw^  ^\^.    ^  a\0\  

auf    physiologischer    G^^\^      ^'^  %  \v<^\\^  K^^"^ 
Hollick,  "Relation  Bet>vr>;^y\4  f    \?  ^^'^ 


f 


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ACCLIMATIZATION. 

in  New  Jersey/*  Oeological  Survey  of  Xeic  Jersey, 
Annual  Report  (Trenton,  1899)  ;  Wallace,  Island 
Aiye(  London,  1880)  ;  Heilprin,  The  Geographical 
and  Geological  Distribution  of  Animals  (New 
York,  1887)  ;  Wallace,  The  Geographical  Distri- 
bution of  Animals^  2  volumes,  London,  1890). 
A  |»opular  treatment  of  acclimatization  of  peoples 
in  ;^iven  in  Ripley,  Racial  Geography  of  Europe 
M^oston,  1890),  in  which  book  there  are  also 
♦'xcellent  bibliographical  references;  also  A.  Ire- 
land, Tropical  Colonization  (New  York,  1899); 
P«>schel,  The  Races  of  Man  and  Their  Geograph- 
ityii  Distribution  (London,  1878). 
ACCO,  or  AC^CHO.  See  Acre. 
ACCOLADE,  ilk'k6-ladMFr.  an  embrace,  kiss, 
from  Lat.  ad,  to  -|-  collum,  neck) .  A  part  of  the 
ceremonies  of  conferring  knighthood  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  The  sovereign  or  other  superior  embraced 
the  aspirant  around  the  neck  (ad  collum).  The 
term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  later  ceremony 
<jf  giving  a  slight  blow  on  the  shoulder  with  the 
flat  of  the  sword.  In  music,  the  accolade  is  the 
4  ouplet  uniting  several  staves,  as  in  part  music 
^>r  pianoforte  music. 

ACCOLOM".  In  Sir  Thomas  Malory's  Morte 
fl' Arthur,  a  knight  of  Gaul,  who  obtained  posses- 
sion of  King  Arthur's  sword  Excalibur  through 
the  treachery  of  Morgan  le  Fay.  He  died  after 
hijs  fight  with  the  king  (Book  IV.),  which  had 
l«*d  to  the  discovery  of  the  trick  and  the  recovery 
*'f  the  sword. 

ACCOLTI,  ftk-kAl't^,  Benedetto  (1415-66); 
<'a)]ed  the  Elder.  An  Italian  jurist.  He  was 
iMirn  at  Arezzo,  Italy,  and  died  at  Florence.  At 
llr^it  a  professor  of  law  at  Florence,  he  afterward 
bet-ame  chancellor  of  the  Republic,  and  occupied 
thi;}  position  until  his  death.  He  was  gifted 
^vjth  a  marvelous  memory,  and  is  said  on  one 
occasion  to  have  repeated  word  for  word  a  Latin 
disi;ourse  which  the  Hungarian  ambassador  had 
wddressed  to  the  magistracy  of  Florence.  His 
historical  attainments  were  considered  inferior 
to  his  knowledge  of  law.  Accolti's  principal 
jmblications  are:  De  Bella  a  Christianis  Contra 
Htirbaros  Gesio  pro  Christi  Sepulchro  et  ludcea 
Ii'*ruperandis  Libri  Quatuor  (Venice,  1572; 
Florence,  1G23,  with  a  commentary  by  Scoto) 
which  furnished  the  material  for  Tasso's  Jcru- 
Mtittm  Delivered;  and  Prcestantia  Virorum  Sui 
Atii  (first  published  at  Parma  in  1G89  and  fre- 
MiH?ntly  reprinted).  Consult  Potthast,  Biblio- 
thvia  Historica  Medii  Aevi,  Volume  I.  (Berlin, 
H98). 

ACCOLTI,  Berxardo  (1465-1536).  An  Ital- 
ian poet,  a  son  of  Benedetto  Accolti  (q.v.).  He, 
was  born  at  Arezzo,  and  is  said  to  have  enjoyed 
so  much  popularity  as  a  poet  that  the  sliops 
wt^re  closed  and  multitudes  flocked  to  hear  him 
rrcite  his  verses.  But  although  styled  by  his 
rr»n temporaries  "The  Unique,"  such  portions  of 
lii^  works  as  have  come  down  to  us  scarcely 
justify  so  high  an  estimate  of  his  ability.  His 
ptwmH  were  first  published  at  Florence  in  1513 
under  the  title:  Virginia,  Commcdia,  Capitoli, 
r  Hirambotti  di  Messcr  Bernardo  Accolti  Aretino. 
They  were  republished  at  Venice  in  1519  and 
hiA'e  since  been  frequently  reprinted. 

ACCOM^CODA^ION  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  corn- 
modus,  fit,  suitable).  The  power  of  altering  the 
Uk'US  of  the  eye  so  that  rays  coming  from  an 
^jhject  nearer  than  twenty  feet  are  brought  to- 
l^<3ther  on  the  retina.     This  is  brought  about  by 


64 


ACCOMPAHIKENT. 


changes  in  the  convexity  of  the  crystalline  lens 
( q.v. ) .  The  latter  possesses  a  degree  of  elastic- 
ity which  tends  to  make  it  assume  a  spherical 
form.  The  lens  being  suspended  by  a  ligament 
extending  around  its  periphery,  the  ciliary  mus- 
cle is  so  attached  that  when  it  contracts  it 
causes  a  relaxation  of  the  suspensory  ligament 
This  diminishes  the  tension  upon  the  latter  and 
allows  the  lens  to  become  more  spherical,  chiefly 
on  its  anterior  surface.  At  the  same  time  the 
pupil  contracts,  and  the  visual  lines  of  the  two 
eyes  converge.  The  range  of  accommodation  is 
the  distance  between  the  "far  point"  or  the  far- 
thest point  of  distinct  vision  and  the  "near 
point,"  or  nearest  point  at  which  the  eye  can 
distinctly  see  objects.  As  a  person's  age  in- 
creases, the  power  of  accommodation  gradually 
diminishes  and  the  near  point  recedes.  At  ten 
years  it  is  2.8  inches;  at  thirty  it  has  reached 
6.6  inches,  and  after  forty-five  it  increases 
rapidly,  until  at  seventy  it  is  160  inches,  and  at 
seventy-five,  infinity.     See  Vision. 

ACCOMKODATIOV  (In  Theology).  Either 
the  practice  of  forcing  Scripture  texts  to  bear 
other  than  their  plain  meaning,  or  the  theory 
that  Jesus  Christ  in  his  teaching  fell  in  with 
certain  errors  of  his  time,  e.g.,  belief  in  de- 
moniacs, and  thus  accommodated  himself  to  the 
mental  and  moral  conditions  of  the  Jews. 

ACCOMMODATION  BILL  OB  NOTE.    A 

draft,  bill  of  exchange  or  promissory  note,  one 
or  more  of  the  parties  to  which  has  signed  it 
without  receiving  value  therefor,  and  for  the 
purpose  of  lending  his  credit  to  some  other  party 
thereto.  Such  a  bill  is  a  valid,  negotiable  in- 
strument, and  the  accommodation  party,  whether 
known  to  be  such  or  not,  is  liable  thereon  to  a 
holder  for  value.  But,  as  between  himself  and 
the  party  accommodated,  he  is  only  a  surety,  and 
is,  as  such,  exonerated  by  the  giving  of  time  to 
the  principal  debtor  without  his  assent.  See 
Principal  and  Surety;  Bill  of  Exchange; 
Xegotiablb  Instruments,  and  the  authorities 
therein  referred  to. 

ACCOMPANIMENT.  The  additional  in- 
strumental part  which,  in  music  written  for  a 
solo  voice  or  instrument,  gives  harmonic  and 
rhythmic  support  to  the  solo  part  or  melody; 
as  the  pianoforte  part  in  a  song,  the  orchestral 
part  in  a  concert,  etc.  An  ad  libitum  accom- 
paniment is  one  that  is  not  a  part  of  the  struc- 
ture of  the  composition,  and  may  therefore  be 
performed  or  omitted  at  pleasure.  An  obligato 
accompaniment,  on  the  contrary,  forms  an  in- 
tegral part  of  the  music  and  is  indispensable. 
The  accompanist  of  the  present  day  has  an  easy 
task  compared  with  that  of  his  predecessors  in 
the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries,  and 
even  later.  In  the  scores  of  the  old  masters, 
especially  those  of  Handel  and  Bach,  the  accom- 
paniments were  not  written  out  in  full.  A 
single  bass  part  was  given,  and  the  accompany- 
ing harmonies  were  indicated  by  figures  over  the 
notes.  This  species  of  musical  shorthand  be- 
came known  as  figured  or  thorough  bass,  and 
also  basso  continuo.  The  accompanist  at  the 
organ  or  harpsichord  translated  these  figures  at 
sight  into  their  equivalent  harmonies,  and  with 
them,  improvised,  with  runs,  trills,  and  various 
ornaments,  the  sort  of  accompaniment  that  the 
music  needed.  The  musicians  of  the  time  be- 
came very  expert  at  this  difficult  accomplish- 
ment, both  Handel  and  Bach  being  renowned  for 


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ACCOMPANIMEKT.  65 

wonderful  polyphonic  accompaniments. 
jr  of  these  old  scores  have  been  worked  out 
killed  musicians,  who  have  filled  out  the 
ing  parts  and  arranged  the  accompaniment 
he  modem  orchestra.  Among  the  scores  to 
h  ''additional  accompaniments"  have  been 
ben  are  those  of  Handel's  Messiah,  by 
irt;  Israel  in  Egypt,  by  Mendelssohn,  and 
great  edition  of  Bach's  works,  by  Franz, 
ult:  Apthorp,  Musicians  and  Music  Lovers 
¥  York,  1894). 

CJCOM^LICK  (Through  confusion  with 
nplish,  for  earlier  complice,  companion,  es- 
.lly  in  crime,  from  Lat.  complew,  closely  con- 
Mi,   confederate.)     One  whose  participation 

crime  renders  him  liable  to  punishment, 
r  as  a  principal  or  as  an  accessory.  Hence, 
rson  who  acts  only  the  part  of  a  detective 
>t  an  accomplice,  although  he  may  pretend 
s  the  criminal's  confederate,  for  his  act,  not 
r  done  with  criminal  intent,  is  not  punish- 

The  term  is  most  frequently  used  in  cases 
e  one  of  several  criminals  has  turned  state's 
^nce.  As  his  testimony  against  his  fellows 
>t  to  be  given  in  the  hope  of  securing  im- 
ity  for  himself,  the  court  usually  charges 
ury  that  it  is  open  to  suspicion,  and  many 
>rn  statutes  declare  that  a  conviction  can- 
)e  had  upon  the  testimony  of  an  accomplice, 
»a  he  be  corroborated  by  such  other  evidence 
inds  to  connect  the  defendant  with  the  com- 
iod  of  the  crime.  Consult  the  authorities 
joned  under  the  title  Chimin al  Law;  also 
rton.  Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia,  1896). 

[•COSAMBOin,  &k'k6-r&m-b</n6,  Vibginia 
1585).  An  Italian  woman  remarkable  for 
beauty  and  her  tragic  history.  She  was 
ht  in  marriage  by  Paolo  Giordano  Orsini, 
t  of  Bracciano,  who  was  supposed  to  have 
iered  his  wife,  Isabella  de*  Medici,  but  her 
^  gave  her  to  Francesco  Peretti,  nephew  of 
inal  Montalto,  afterward  Pope  Sixtus  V. 
husband  was  assassinated  in  1581,  and  the 
w  fled  from  her  father-in-law's  house  to  that 
he  Duke  of  Bracciano,  the  supposed  mur- 
r.  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  opposed  her  mar- 
i  to  the  duke  so  far  as  to  keep  her  a  prisoner 
le  castle  of  Sant'  Angelo  nearly  a  year,  but 

did  not  prevent  their  union.  Not  long 
•ward  the  duke  died,  leaving  nearly  the  whole 
is  fortune  to  the  widow.  This  so  incensed 
>vico  Orsini,  a  relative,  that  he  caused  the 
iw  to  be  murdered  in  her  home  in  Padua, 
mber  22,  1585.  Her  history  has  been  made 
subject  of  novels  and  plays,  among  others, 
i^ebster's  tragedy,  The  White  Devil.  Consult: 
li,  \ittoria  Accoramhoni  (Florence,  1870). 
CCOBIX  AND  SAmSFAC^nON.    In  the 

of  contracts,  a  mutual  agreement  entered 

by  the  parties  to  a  contract  by  which  one 
y  agrees  to  discharge  the  other  from  his 
^tion  under  the  contract,  in  return  for  the 
r  party's  promise  to  do  or  give  something, 
satisfaction  is  the  performance  of  the  prom- 
to  do  or  give  something.  The  agreement 
the  discharge  of  the  contract  may  be  unilat- 
,  that  is,  the  promise  is  given  on  the  one 

in  return  for  an  act  on  the  part  of  the 
nisee,  in  which  case  the  accord  and  satisfac- 
i  come  into  existenoe  simultaneously.  At 
mon  law  it  was  early  held  that  an  accord 
ii  satisfaction  was  a  good  defense  to  an  action 
ided  upon  simple  contract,  but  that  a  mutual 
Vol.  I.-6 


ACOOTTNT. 

agreement  to  discharge  a  pre-existing  contrnct, 
being  mere  promise  given  for  promise,  w^is  an 
accord  only  and  not  a  valid  defense  at  law. 
This  was  either  because  mutual  promises,  not 
being  good  consideration  for  each  other,  were 
not  regarded  as  binding,  or  because  the  taw 
would  not  enforce  an  agreement  which  inerely 
substituted  one  cause  of  action  for  anotljer, 
or  for  both  reasons.  The  first,  owing  to  the 
changed  conception  of  consideration,  has  ct<£i>^(5d 
to  exist,  and  the  second  is  now  generally  disre- 
garded, most  jurisdictions  holding  that  a  mere 
accord  without  satisfaction  is  a  valid  diieharge 
of  a  simple  contract,  though  the  decided  cases 
are  not  altogether  harmonious  on  this  point. 
Agreements  never  to  sue  on  the  earlier  contrat  t 
were  regarded  as  a  good  accord  or  accord  and 
satisfaction  and  a  valid  defense,  but  agreemimts 
not  to  sue  for  a  limited  time  were  not  admitted 
as  a  defense  at  conunon  law;  but  equity  ini}i:ht 
enforce  them  by  enjoining  action  on  the  earlier 
contract^  In  the  case  of  contracts  under  hbii], 
before  breach,  accord  and  accord  and  sati^ifLR'tiuri 
were  not  admitted  as  valid  defenses  at  common 
law,  but  after  breach  of  the  obligation  under 
seal,  it  was  regarded  as  a  mere  ri^ht  of  action 
for  damages,  of  no  higher  nature  than  a  ^im[i]e 
contract  and  subject  to  the  same  defenses.  Kquily 
under  proper  conditions  would  enforce  the  accoid 
even  when  entered  into  before  breach  of  the  eon- 
tract  under  seal  by  enjoining  all  action  upon  the 
latter;  and  in  most  jurisdictions  where  eqiiittible 
defenses  may  be  pleaded  at  law,  accord  or  aeeord 
and  satisfaction  may  now  be  set  up  as  a  defen'^e 
to  an  action  on  the  instrument  under  seal.  An 
accord  must  always  be  an  agreement  founded 
on  good  consideration.  Thus,  a  mere  agrcH^ineiit 
founded  upon  a  promise  to  do  or  give  something 
which  the  promisee  was  already  bound  to  do 
(for  example,  an  agreement  to  pay  a  les^^ei  smn 
in  lieu  of  a  debt  for  a  greater)  is  not  valol  a;^ 
an  accord.  An  apparent  exception  to  lhi»  rule 
exists  in  cases  where  the  precise  amount 
or  character  of  the  obligation  under  the  earlier 
contract  was  uncertain,  in  which  case  an  iiccoi  J 
by  way  of  a  compromise  agreement  is  re^ardetl 
as  made  upon  valid  consideration.  A  real  exrefi- 
tion  to  the  rule  was  allowed  in  case  of  c<un  pro- 
mise agreements  in  which  a  debtor  agreed  to 
pay  a  smaller  sum  in  lieu  of  a  greater  to  hist 
creditors  in  return  for  their  promise  to  i  elea-s^e 
him  from  his  debts  to  them.  In  a  nuitiher  of 
the  States,  notably  New  York,  a  written  reeeipt 
given  by  the  creditor  to  a  debtor  without  iims it- 
eration and  with  intent  to  release  the  drbtn  \^ 
allowed  to  be  a  valid  discharge  of  the  debU. 
This  is  anomalous.  See  the  authorities  referred 
to  under  Conteact. 

ACCORDION'  (Fr.  accordeVf  to  accord,  be  in 
harmony).  A  musical  instrument  whieb  pro- 
duces its  tones  by  the  vibration  of  iiutaHic 
tongues  of  various  sizes,  while  wind  is  snpjilied 
by  the  action  of  a  hand  bellows.  Two  i^ets  of 
tongues  make  it  possible  to  produce  the  ^ame 
tones  either  by  pressing  or  pulling  the  bellows. 
It  was  invented  by  Damian  of  Vienna  in  ISiiJ. 
See  CoNCEBTiNA  and  Harmonium. 

ACCOUNT'  (Lat.  ad,  to  -^^  cotnpw' *"''''  to 
sum  up,  reckon,  compute),  v  jt«  bi<iadest 
sense,  a  catalogue  of  items,  \^V  !l  -  q\  del^i:^  or 
credits,  arising  out  of  contr^  **W^®*  *^  tlie  cft-^e 
of  merchants;  or  a  fiduciary  ^V.u  8-^       n-i  Vn  U^e 

nt%ae%    e\4    m«.«  viy>i  v^o  1     n  vi<4     a^vamA.      *^  V     ^^      .toll*  3.  Vvr 


case  of  principal  and  agent  •       V  uU^^ 


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ACCOTTNT.  6 

law,  as  in  the  case  of  an  administrator  or  public 
officer.  A  mutual  account  is  one  containing 
reciprocal  demands  or  charges  against  the 
parties;  as  the  account  between  two  merchants, 
or  between  a  merchant  and  a  customer,  each  of 
whom  has  sold  goods  to  the  other.  Before  an 
account  is  rendered  or  adjusted,  it  is  spoken  of 
as  **open"  or  "current."  A  stated  account  is 
one  which  has  been  accepted  as  correct  by  the 
party  against  whom  it  states  a  balance.  The 
debtor's  assent  to  the  correctness  of  the  account 
as  stated  need  not  be  express ;  it  may  be  implied 
from  his  retention  of  an  account  rendered  with- 
out an  objection  to  it  within  a  reasonable  time. 
The  acceptance  of  an  account  stated,  or,  to  use 
the  ordinary  legal  phrase,  the  stating  of  an 
account,  is  said  to  be  in  the  nature  of  a  new 
promise;  and  the  creditor  suing  upon  such  an 
account  need  not  set  forth  the  subject  matter 
of  the  original  debt.  Originally  an  account 
stated  was  confined  to  transactions  between 
merchants;  but  in  England  and  in  most  of  our 
jurisdictions  its  scope  has  been  extended  to 
accounts  between  all  creditors  and  debtors.  In 
some  States,  however,  stating  an  account  between 
others  than  merchants  does  not  create  a  new 
cause  of  action,  but  is  available  to  the  creditor 
only  as  an  admission  by  the  debtor.  Even  after 
an  account  has  been  stated  it  may  be  >corrected 
for  fraud  or  mutual  mistake. 

The  action  of  account  at  common  law  has 
fallen  into  disuse,  partly  because  it  was  difficult, 
dilatory  and  expensive,  but  chiefly  because  a 
court  of  equity  possessed  more  extended  author- 
ity and  better  machinery  in  cases  involving  an 
account.  Equity  will  entertain  an  action  for 
an  accounting  where  a  fiduciary  relation  exists 
between  the  parties,  such  as  that  of  principal 
and  agent  (q.v.),  trustee  (q.v.),  and  cestui  que 
trust f  guardian  (q.v.)  and  ward;  or  where  there 
is  a  mutual  account  between  plaintiff  and  defend- 
ant; or  where  there  are  circumstances  of  compli- 
cation, as  in  partnership  (q.v.)  accounts.  So  an 
accounting  may  be  had  as  incidental  to  the 
exercise  of  other  equity  jurisdiction,  as  in  mort- 
gage foreclosures. 

ACCOUNT'ANT.  In  the  United  States  a 
term  applied  widely  to  any  one  who  keeps 
accounts,  i.e.,  a  bookkeeper,  though  there  is  a 
tendency  to  restrict  it  to  those  whose  accounts 
present  a  certain  difficulty  and  complexity.  In 
England  the  term  designates  an  officer  employed 
by  railway  companies,  banks,  etc.,  from  time  to 
time  to  inspect  and  verify  their  books  and 
accounts,  and  to  make  out  periodical  statements 
and  balance  sheets.  It  is  recognized  as  a  special 
branch  of  business.  Generally  speaking,  the 
work  of  an  accountant  may  be  classified  under 
two  divisions:  (1)  All  those  matters  that 
involve  the  investigation  of  the  books  of  a  firm 
or  company,  with  the  making  up  of  balance 
sheets,  statements  of  all  kinds,  and  reports;  and 
(2)  the  management  of  estates,  whether  of 
bankrupts  or  others.  While  the  last  named 
function  is  not  known  in  the  United  States,  the 
practice  of  a  periodical  report  by  accountants 
not  permanently  connected  with  the  business  is 
growing  among  the  larger  financial  institutions. 
With  this  practice  there  have  arisen  professional 
accountants  whose  function  it  is  to  act  as  im- 
partial witnesses  to  the  accuracy  of  the  accounts 
of  corporations  and  similar  enterprises,  and  to 
make  expert  investigations  in  controversies  at 
law  involving  accounts. 


}  AOCXTBATIOK. 

ACTRA.    See  Akkra. 

ACCBE^nOK  (Lat.  accretio,  an  increase, 
from  ad,  to -\- creaoere,  to  grow).  In  law,  the 
gradual  extension  of  the  boundaries  of  land  at 
the  expense  of  the  sea,  or  of  a  neighboring  owner, 
by  the  imperceptible  action  of  natural  forces, 
as  by  the  recession  of  the  ocean,  the  deposit  of 
silt  and  earth  by  a  stream,  the  drying  up  of  a 
pond,  etc.  The  word  is  sometimes,  though  im- 
properly, used  to  include  the  various  kinds  of 
accession  (q.v.)  and  as  the  equivalent  of  that 
term ;  but  it  is  in  its  legal  sense  properly  applic- 
able only  to  that  form  of  accession  in  which 
land  is  added  to  other  land  by  the  process  above 
described.  Where  the  land  so  gained  is  washed 
up  by  the  sea,  or  deposited  by  a  running  stream, 
or  left  bare  by  the  gradual  drying  up  or  retire- 
ment of  the  water  boundary,  it  is  known  as 
alluvion  (q.v.).  As  above  indicated,  the  process 
must,  in  order  to  result  in  an  accretion,  be  so 
slow  as  to  be  imperceptible  in  its  progress.  If 
sudden,  no  change  of  ownership  results,  the 
land  so  exposed  remaining  the  property  of  the 
sovereign  or  of  the  neighboring  proprietor  af- 
fected thereby.  Thus  a  boundary  stream  may. 
by  changing  its  course  gradually,  little  by  little 
transfer  the  ownership  of  the  land  on  one  side 
to  the  opposite  proprietor,  whereas  a  sudden 
change  of  course  would  not  affect  the  boundaries 
of  the  two  parcels  of  land  in  the  slightest  degree. 
Consult:  Ghould,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Waters 
(Chicago,  1900)  ;  Angell,  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Watercourses   (Boston,  1877). 

AC^CBIKGTON.  A  manufacturing  town  in 
Lancashire,  England.  It  has  recently  increased 
much  in  size  and  importance,  and  lies  in  a  deep 
valley,  surrounded  by  hills,  about  20  miles  north 
of  Manchester  and  5  miles  east  of  Blackburn, 
on  the  banks  of  the  Hindburn  (Map:  England,, 
D  3).  Among  its  notable  buildings  are  Christ 
Church,  a  fine  Gothic  edifice,  erected  in  1838, 
and  the  town  hall,  a  handsome  building  in  the 
Italian  style.  The  town  was  incorporated  in 
1878.  The  gas  and  water  supply  are  owned 
jointly  by  the  town  of  Accrington  and  several 
other  neighboring  towns.  The  town  owns  public 
baths,  markets,  slaughter-houses,  and  cemeteries, 
and  maintains  a  te^nical  school.  It  also  owns 
its  street  railways,  which  are  leased  to  private 
companies.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly  employed  • 
in  cotton  factories,  dye-works,  chemical  works, 
weaving,  and  calico-printing.  Accrington  is  con- 
sidered the  centre  of  the  cotton-printing  industry. 
There  are  ooal  mines  in  the  neighborhood,  in 
which  many  of  the  people  find  employment. 
Accrington  is  advantageously  situated  in  r^ard 
to  communications,  being  a  station  on  the  Lan- 
cashire and  Yorkshire  Railway.  Its  growth  of 
population  has  been  very  rapid.  From  less  than 
9000  in  1841  it  rose  to  38,000  in  1891,  and  in 
1901.  to  43,100. 

AC'CUBATION  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  cuhare,  to  lie 
down).  The  reclining  posture  of  Greeks  and 
Romans  at  table.  Among  the  Greeks  a  low  table 
was  placed  beside  each  couch,  on  which  usually 
two  persons  reclined,  resting  on  the  left  arm, 
which  was  supported  by  cushions.  Among  the 
Romans  three  couches  were  placed,  so  as  to  form 
three  sides  of  a  square,  and  three  persons- 
reclined  on  each  couch.  The  middle  couch  was 
the  most  honorable.  Respectable  women  did  not 
adopt  this  position  until  the  time  of  the  Roman 
Empire. 


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ACCXTM.  67 

LCCUM,  ak^lcym,  Friedbich  (1769-1838).  A 
-man  chemist.  He  was  bom  in  Westphalia, 
it  to  London  in  1793,  and  became  professor 
jhemistry  there  in  1802.  He  was  known  chiefly 
account  of  his  work,  A  Practical  Treatise  on 
flight  (1815),  which  had  the  effect  of  intro- 
!ing  the  illuminant  in  England.  The  book 
}  translated  into  several  languages.  In  1822 
became  professor  in  a  technical  institute  in 
■lin,  where  he  died. 

LCCTTM'XrLATIONS  (Lat.  od,  to  +  cumu- 
?,  to  pile,  heap).  In  law,  the  accumulated 
?rest  and  income  of  property  held  in  trust 
>n  a  trust  created  for  the  purpose  of  effecting 
h  accumulation  for  the  benefit  of  the  cestui 

trust  (q.v.).  The  law  relating  to  accumula- 
1  is  closely  related  to  the  rule  against  per- 
uities  (q.v.)  as  now  defined  by  modern  stat- 
It  was  the  common  law  rule  that  any 
[)osition  of  real  estate  which  postponed  a 
ting  of  any  interest  in  the  estate  for  longer 
n  a  life  or  lives  in  being  and  twenty-one  years 
[  a  few  months  additional  was  absolutely 
i.     This  rule  was  deemed  to  be  violated  by 

creation  of  a  trust  for  accumulation  for  any 
ater  period.  This  continued  to  be  a  rule  of 
ision  until  the  passage  by  the  English  Par- 
nent  of  the  so-called  Thellusson  Act.  (See 
illusson  V.  Woodford,  4  Ver.  p.  227,  Gray  Pub. 
oc.,  Boston.)  This  act  placed  several  limi- 
ions  on  the  common  law  rule  as  to  accumula- 
I.  The  rule  relating  to  accumulation  is  now 
iilated  wholly  by  statute  in  most  jurisdic- 
is,  and  generally  the  power  to  create  trusts 

accumulation  is  limited  to  the  creation  of  a 
st  for  the  life  of  the  grantor  only  or  for 
nty-one  years  or  during  the  minority  of  the 
eficiary.  See  the  authorities  referred  to 
ier  Trust  and  Perpetuity. 

LCCXr^iniATOBS.  Apparatus  for  equal- 
[g  pressure  or  for  the  accumulation  of  energy 

intermittent  use.  The  storage  battery  and 
Leyden  jar  are  electrical  accumulators.  (See 
RAGE  Battery;  Condenser,)  Hydraulic  ac- 
lulators  are  extensively  used  in  connection 
h  hydraulic  machinery  for  operating  cranes, 
iching  and  riveting  machines,  presses,  etc. 
!  simplest  way  of  storing  up  water  lor  pres- 
e  purposes  is  to  erect  a  tank  at  a  sufiicient 
^ht  to  give  the  required  pressure  by  the 
ght  or  head  of  the  water  column  alone.  This 
angement  is  generally  adopted  for  hydraulic 
■ators  in  warenouses  and  lofty  buildings.  ( See 
:vATORS.)  Where  very  high  pressures  are 
uired,  however,  it  becomes  impracticable  to 
pt  a  tank  or  water  tower,  since  the  elevation 
uired  to  give  the  necessary  pressure  would  be 
>racticable   to   obtain,   700   pounds   pressure, 

instance,  requiring  a  tank  ICIO  feet  high, 
such  cases  accumulators  are  employed,  and 
y  generally  assume  the  form  of  a  vertical 
Inder  resting  on  a  firm  base  and  having  a 
nger  working  through  a  stuffing-box  at  the 
.  This  plunger  has  at  its  upper  end  a  yoke 
ich  carries  by  means  of  suspension  rods  a 
ivy  weight  of  cast  iron  or  other  heavy  mate- 
I.  A  power  pump  forces  water  into  the  cyl- 
er  at  a  pressure  sufficient  to  lift  the  weighted 
mger  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  where  the 
mger  strikes  a  stop  which  prevents  its  rising 
ther  and  prevents  the  further  escape  of  water 
m  the  pump.  In  this  position  the  cylinder 
filled  with  a  column  of  water,  which  supports 


ACEPHALI. 


the  weighted  plunger  on  its  top.  As  water  is 
drawn  off  from  the  cylinder  to  supply  the  crane, 
press,  riveter,  or  other  machinery,  the  weighted 
plunger  descends,  always  keeping  a  pressure  on 
the  top  of  the  water  column  equal  to  the  com- 
bined weight  of  the  plunger  and  its  load.  As 
soon  as  the  plunder  descends  the  pump  resumes 
work  and  raises  it  again.  By  this  combination 
of  operations  the  water  pressure  is  always  kept 
constant  for  supplying  the  hydraulic  machinery. 
Sometimes  steam  or  air  pressure  acting  on  the 
top  of  the  plunger  is  substituted  for  the  more 
common  suspended  weights.  Hydraulic  accumu- 
lators are  built  to  give  pressures  ranging  from 
five  pounds  to  ten  tons  per  square  inch. 

ACCUSATION.  A  legal  term  which  signi- 
fies eithei  the  act  of  charging  one  with  a  crime, 
or  the  charge  itself.  When  the  charge  is  made 
outside  of  a  judicial  proceeding  it  may  subject 
the  accuser  to  an  action  for  defamation  (q.v.), 
while  if  made  in  the  course  of  a  judicial  pro- 
ceeding it  is  generally  not  actionable.  A  threat 
or  a  conspiracy  te  accuse  another  of  a  crime  is 
indictable.     See  Blackmail  and  Extortion. 

ACCXT^SATIVE  CASE.     See  Declension. 

ACELDAMA,  &-selM&-m&,  or  AKELDA- 
MA,  &-k6KdA-m&,  R.  V.).  According  to  Acts 
i  :  19,  "the  field  of  blood;"  but  inasmuch  as  the 
original  Greek  text  furnishes  the  form  Acelda- 
mach,  it  has  been  suggested  by  August  Kloster- 
mann  (Prohleme  im  Aposteltexte,  pp.  1-8)  that 
the  second  element,  datnach,  is  the  Aramaic  word 
"to  sleep,"  so  that  the  real  meaning  of  the  term 
is  "field  of  sleep."  Such  a  name  would  have  beeu 
appropriate  for  a  field  which,  according  to  Mat- 
thew xxvii  :  S,  was  bought  by  the  priests  of 
Jerusalem  as  a  field  in  which  to  bury  strangers. 
Aceldama  was  acquired  in  this  way  with  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  which  Judas  Iscariot  received  as 
a  reward  for  betraying  Jesus,  but  which  in  the 
hour  of  his  repentence  he  returned  to  the  priests. 
The  designation  of  Aceldama  as  a  "potter's  field" 
in  both  of  the  passages  of  the  New  Testament 
referred  to  connecte  the  place  with  the  "potter's 
house"  mentioned  by  Jeremiah  xviii  :  2 ;  xix  :  2. 
It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  Aceldama  is 
older  than  the  story  told  of  it  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  its  designation  as  a  "field  of  blood" 
is  but  a  play  upon  the  word,  introduced  to  add 
color  to  the  narrative  of  Judas  Iscariot.  A  tra- 
dition of  considerable  antiquity  locates  Acel- 
dama on  a  level  overhanging  the  "valley  of  the 
son"  (Hinnom)  and  halfway  up  the  hill.  As 
early  as  the  sixth  century  this  traditional  site 
was  used  as  a  burying-place  for  Christian  pil- 
grims, and  continued  in  use  until  the  seven- 
teenth century.  A  liistory  and  description  of  the 
site  is  furnished  by  Schick  in  the  quarterly 
statement  of  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  of 
1892,  pp.  283-289. 

ACEPH'ALI     (Gk.    A,    a,    priv.      +    xeipaXv, 
kephale,   head;    i.e.   headless).    A   name   given 
(1.)   To  metropolitans  and  bishops  who  have  no 
ecclesiastical  head  over  them.      (2.)   To  certain 
ecclesiastical  parties:    (a),  those  bishops  at  the 
ecumenical  council  of  Epheaus  in  431  who  re- 
fused to  join  either  the  party  q^  CytW  or  of  John 
of  Antioch ;  (b) ,  those  who  r^^^cted  ^^  doctrinal 
decision  of  the  ecumenical  ^^^^      •\  YveAd  at  ChaV 
cedon  in   451    upon  the  na^^^     rx^  C^xi^^^   ^^\ 
Christolooy)  ;    (c),  the  Ev^VVxX^  ^i;  ^d\^eTeTv^  ot 
Mongus,  who  refua^^WXCV^V^V^''  ^^  t'. 
icon    (q.v.)    in  482^^      Mi  ^    I  "^ 


Peter 
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AOEPHAIX 

Monophysite  Controversy.  (3.)  To  clergy  belong- 
ing to  no  diocese.  (4.)  To  the  Flagellants  (q.v.). 
ACEPH^ALOCTST  (literally,  a  cyst  with- 
out a  head;  Gk.  a,  a,  priv.  +  ke^aXif, 
kephaU,  head  +  idHmc,  kyatis,  a  bladder, 
bag).  A  hydatid  growth  found  in  the  liver, 
kl&eys  or  other  glandular  organs  of  man,  and 
sometimes  of  lower  animals.  It  is  a  globular  sac 
with  walls  of  condensed  albuminous  substance 
of  laminated  composition.  In  its  cavity  is  a  col- 
orless fluid  of  albuminous  and  gelatinous  compo- 
sition. Sometimes  many  secondary  cysts  occur. 
They  are  of  parasitic  origin,  being  produced  by 
the  larve  of  a  species  of  tape- worm  (Tcsnia  echl- 
nococcua). 

A^CEB.    See  ^^Iaplb. 

ACEBBI,  A-cher'b^,  Giuseppe  (1773-1846). 
An  Italian  naturalist,  born  at  Castel  Goffredo. 
He  studied  at  Mantua  and  became  proficient  in 
natural  science.  He  was  the  first  Italian  to  reach 
North  Cape  (1798).  In  1816  he  founded  the 
Bibliotcca  Italiaiuif  a  literary  review  published 
at  Milan,  and  from  1826  to  1836  was  Aus- 
trian consul-general  in  Egypt,  where  he  made 
important  archaeological  collections  for  the  muse- 
ums of  Vienna,  Padua,  Milan,  and  Pavia.  He 
published  (in  English)  Travels  Through  Sweden, 
Finland,  Lapland  (1802). 

ACEBBA,  &-cher^rA,  the  ancient  Acerr>£.  An 
episcopal  city  in  south  Italy,  nine  miles  north- 
east of  Naples  and  opposite  Mount  Somma,  from 
which  there  is  an  excellent  view  of  Vesuvius.  It 
has  a  cathedral  and  a  seminary.  The  country 
is  fertile,  but  until  recently,  when  the  marshes 
were  drained,  was  extremely  unheal thful,  owing 
to  the  inundations  of  the  Agno,  which  is  the 
Claniiis  non  csquua  Acerria  of  Viriril.  Pop.,  1901, 
16,443. 

ACET.  A  combining  form  used  in  various 
chemical  terms,  and  ultimately  derived  from 
Lat.  acetum,  vinegar;  as  in  oce^al,  oce^anilid, 
etc. 

ACETAL,  as'^tai,  CH,CH(OC,H,),.  A  color- 
less liquid  of  agreeable  odor  and  taste.  It  is 
readily  obtained  by  heating  a  mixture  of  alde- 
hyde and  ordinary  alcohol.  It  has  been  used  to 
improve  the  flavor  of  wine. 

ACETA>TILID,  fts'6t-an11-Id,  or  Id.  A  crys- 
talline powder  made  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid 
on  aniline.  It  is  od«)rless,  slightly  bitter,  spar- 
ingly soluble  in  water,  but  freely  so  in  alcohol, 
ether,  and  chloroform.  Chemically,  it  is  phenyl- 
aeetamide,  CH.CONHCeHs.  It  is  known  also  by 
the  trade  name  antifebrin.  Its  action  resembles 
that  of  antipyrine  ( q.v. ) ,  but  is  less  likely  to  cause 
eruptions,  respiratory  disturbance,  cyanosis,  and 
collapse,  and  its  administration  is  followed  by 
less  sweating.  In  health  it  does  not  affect  the 
temperature  to  any  extent.  Its  uses  are  similar 
to  those  of  antipyrine,  but  being  insoluble  it 
cannot  be  used  liypodermatically,  and  is  gener- 
ally given  in  tablet,  capsule  or  wafer.  The  dose 
required  is  much  smaller  than  that  of  antipyrine. 

ACETATES,  fts'^tftts.  The  salts  of  acetic 
acid,  which  are  generally  prepared  by  the  action 
of  acetic  acid  on  metallic  carbonates  or  hydrox- 
ides. Most  acetates  are  soluble  in  water.  To 
prove  the  presence  of  an  acetate  in  a  solution, 
the  analytical  chemist  adds  to  the  solution  some 
strong  sulphuric  acid  and  a  little  alcohol  and 
heats  the  mixture  for  a  few  seconds;  by  this 
treatment  of  an  acetate  solution  ethyl   acetic 


68 


ACETO-ACBTIC  E8TEB. 


ester  is  produced,  which  is  readily  recognized  by 
its  pleasant  and  characteristic  odor.  Some  of 
the  acetates  are:  {I) Aluminium  acetate.  This 
has  been  obtained  only  in  its  aqueous  solution, 
which  is  used  as  a  mordant  under  the  name 
of  "red  liquor."  (2)  The  acetate  of  iron,  known 
as  "black  liquor,"  is  likewise  used  as  a  mor- 
dant in  dyeing  and  printing  cotton.  The 
acetates  of  (3)  lead,  (4)  ammonium,  and  (5) 
potassium  are  much  used  in  medicine.  Lead  ace- 
tate, commonly  known  as  "sugar  of  lead,"  is 
used  for  external  applications  as  an  astringent 
Ammonium  acetate  is  used  to  promote  perspira- 
tion ;  it  is  prepared  best  by  passing  an  excess  of 
gaseous  ammonia  into  strong  acetic  acid.  Po- 
tassium acetate  is  very  largely  used  as  a  diu- 
retic. Other  metallic  acetat^  are  mentioned  un* 
der  the  names  of  the  metals  (qq.v.). 

ACET'IC  ACID,  CHgCOOH.  The  sour  prin- 
ciple of  vinegar,  an  acid  composed  chemically 
of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen.  The  commer- 
cial acid  is  largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
acetates,  dye-stuffs,  etc.  Concentrated  acetic 
acid  burns  the  skin,  and  is  therefore  applied  as 
a  caustic  to  remove  small  warts  and  corns.  Like 
any  other  acid,  if  taken  internally  for  any  length 
of  time,  dilute  acetic  acid  impairs  the  digestion 
and  absorption  of  food. 

Acetic  acid  occurs  here  and  there  in  the 
organic  world.  It  is  found  ready  formed  in 
sweat  and  other  animal  secretions,  as  well  as  in 
the  juices  of  various  plants.  It  is  manufactured 
either  by  the  oxidation  of  ordinary  alcohol 
through  fermentation  (see  Vinegar),  or  by  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood.  The  aqueous 
product  obtained  in  the  latter  process  is  sub- 
jected to  fractional  distillation,  and  the  fraction 
constituting  impure  acetic  acid  (called  pyrolig- 
neous  acid)  is  neutralized  with  soda  or  lime.  In 
this  manner  a  solution  of  sodium  or  calcium 
acetate  is  obtained;  this  solution  is  evaporated 
to  dryness,  and  the  remaining  salt  is  freed  from 
water  and  organic  impurities  by  heating  above 
400°  F.  Pure  acetic  acid  is  prepared  oy  dis- 
tilling the  acetates  thus  obtained  with  strong 
sulphuric  acid.  The  pure  anhydrous  acid  is  known 
as  glacial  acetic  acid;  at  temperatures  below 
62**  F.  it  is  solid  and  crystalline;  above  that 
temperature  it  forms  a  colorless  liquid  readily 
knoMTi  by  its  pungent,  penetrating  odor.  Since 
carbon  is  one  of  its  constituent  elements,  it  is.  of 
course,  classed  with  the  compounds  of  organic 
chemistry.  It  is  a  comparatively  weak  acid,  its 
salts  being  broken  up  not  only  by  the  strong 
mineral  acids,  but  even  by  many  organic  acids. 
Besides  the  methods  just  mentioned,  acetic 
acid  can  be  made  by  synthesis  from  the  constit- 
uent elements.  When  electric  sparks  are  passed 
between  carbon  poles  in  an  atmosphere  of  hydro- 
gen, acetylene  gas  is  produced;  and  when  oxygen 
(furnished,  say,  by  chromic  acid)  is  made  to  act 
upon  acetylene  in  the  presence  of  water,  the 
acetylene  combines  with  oxygen  and  water,  and, 
as  a  result,  acetic  acid  is  formed  according  to 
the  following  chemical  equation: 

C^,    +   O   4-   H.0  =       CAO, 
Acetylene  Acetic  acid 

It  would  not  pay,  however,  to  use  this  method 
in  manufacturing  acetic  acid  for  practical  pur- 
poses. 

ACETO- ACETIC  (fts'g-t^A-se'tlk)  ES'TEB, 
CHjCOCHjCOOCAIv  A  colorless  liquid  organic 
substance   obtained   by   the   action   of   metallic 


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ACETO- ACETIC  ESTEB. 


69 


ACETYLENE. 


ium  on  the  ester  formed  by  the  union  of  acetic 
I  and  ordinary  alcohol  (i.e.,  ethyl  acetic 
t).  Aceto-acetic  ester  mixes  in  all  propor- 
13  i/i-ith  alcohol  or  with  ether,  but  is  only 
ringly  soluble  in  water.     It  boils  at  180**  C. 

two  hydrogen  atoms  of  its  CH,  group  are 
eible  of  being  replaced  either  by  metals  or 

hydrocarbon  radicles  like  methyl  (CH,), 
rl  (C^e),  etc.,  and  the  substitution  products 
3  obtained  yield,  on  treatment  with  acids  and 
ilies,  a  variety  of  important  carbon  com- 
nds.    The  ester  is,  therefore,  extensively  used 

the  artificial  preparation  of  various  sub- 
ices  for  scientific  purposes. 
,CETONE,  fts'^ton,  or  Dimethyl  Ketone, 
COCH,.  A  colorless  organic  liquid  boiling 
iG**  .3  C,  and  having  at  20**  a  specific  grav- 
of  0.792.  It  is  volatile  and  inflammable,  has 
easant  ethereal  odor,  dissolves  various  organ- 
ubstances  such  as  fats  and  resins,  and  mixes 
.11  proportions  with  water,  alcohol,  and  ether, 
is  separated  from  its  aqueous  solutions 
means  of  calcium  chloride.  It  dissolves  con- 
rable  quantities  of  acetylene  gas  (q.v.),  and 
>rbs  a  very  large  amount  of  sulphurous 
ydride.     It  is  used  as  a  solvent  as  well  as 

the  manufacture  of  chloroform,  iodoform. 
Acetone  is  produced  when  various  organic 
stances  are  subjected  to  destructive  distil- 
on;  it  is  thus  found  in  pyroligneous  spirit 
;  Methyl  Alcohol)  obtained  by  the  dry 
illation  of  wood.  It  is  separated  from  wood 
it  by  distilling  over  calcium  chloride.  It  is 
Eilly  prepared  by  distilling  barium  acetate 
a  moderate  heat,  according  to  the  follow- 
chemical  equation: 

(CHaCOO),Ba  =  C,H,0   -f  BaCO, 
Bariam  acetate  Acetone 

he  somewhat  impure  product  obtained  either 
n  wood  spirit  or  from  barium  acetate  may 
eadily  purified  and  dehydrated  by  the  use  of 
acid  sulphite  of  sodium,  with  which  it  com- 
is  to  form  a  crystalline  solid  compound, 
e  acetone  is  obtained  from  the  latter  by  dis- 
ng  with  sodium  carbonate.  When  acted  on 
chlorine  in  the  presence  of  alkali,  acetone  is 
k'erted  into  chloroform.  Iodoform  is  sim- 
ly  produced  by  the  action  of  iodine  (in  am- 
lium  iodide  solution)  and  ammonia  upon 
X)ne,  the  reaction  forming  the  most  sensitive 
•  for  acetone  that  is  known  to  chemists.  When 
tone  is  distilled  with  strong  sulphuric  acid, 
iitylene  is  produced;  this  reaction  has  been 
p'eat  value  in  determining  the  chemical  con- 
ution  of  a  vast  number  of  benzene  derivatives 
ed  to  mesitylene.  Acetone  occurs  in  small 
ntities  in  the  blood,  and  is  present  in  the 
lid  passing  over  when  urine  is  distilled.     It 

long  been  known  to  chemists  as  a  product 
distillation  of  acetates;  its  composition  was 
t  determined  by  Liebig  and  Dumas  in  1832. 
LCETONES.     See  Ketones. 
LCBTYIi,  fts'^tll.    An  atomic  group  or  radi- 

in  organic   chemistry.     See   Carbon    Com- 

JNDS. 

^CETTTLENE  (from  acetyl),  HC=CH.  A 
orless  gas  composed  chemically  of  carbon  and 
Iro^en.  It  is  present  in  small  quantities  in  ordi- 
7  illuminating  gas,  and  has  a  characteristic 
agreeable  odor  somewhat  resembling  that  of 
•lie.  Its  "critical  temperature"  is  37**  C. 
^ut  98*.6  F.) ;    that  is  to  say,  no  matter 


how  great  the  pressure  to  which  it  may  be  sub- 
jected above  37**  it  will  remain  gaseous,  while 
at  37°  a  certain  pressure,  called  the  "critifal 
pressure,"  is  necessary  and  sufficient  tu  liqu4?fy 
it;  the  critical  pressure  of  acetylene  is  08  at- 
mospheres. Acetylene  burns  with  a  brilliant 
flame  and  is  used  as  an  illuminant.  It  is  best 
made  for  scientific  as  well  as  for  indu^^ti  ial  pur- 
poses by  the  action  of  water  on  the  i-arbide 
of  calcium  (<j.v.).  It  is  thus  produced,  for  in- 
stance,  in  bicycle  "gas  lamps."  The  various 
apparatus  devised  for  the  manufacture  of  acety- 
lene produces  it  either  in  the  gaseous  ^tiite  or, 
by  immediate  compression,  in  the  liquefied  i^tate. 
We  will  distinguish  two  types  of  apparatiis. 
In  the  first,  the  carbide  is  contained  in  an 
appropriate  reservoir,  into  which  tmtcr  t\s 
introduced  at  a  required  rate.  Such  apparatus 
is  rather  inconvenient  and  somewhat  dan^^eiuufl, 
for  the  reason  that  in  the  mass  of  carhide  con- 
siderable rise  of  temperature  may  occur  at  the 
point  immediately  attacked  by  water;  besides, 
a  crust  of  lime  may  form  on  the  surface  of  a 
lump  of  carbide,  and  when  the  water  At  litst 
penetrates  to  the  core  of  the  lump  a  sutlden  and 
more  or  less  violent  reaction  may  ensue ;  aU  of 
which  would  naturally  result  in  uneven  ^^n^iiera- 
tion  of  gas,  variations  of  pressure,  and,  perhaps, 
the  explosive  inflammation  of  the  gas.  In  the 
second  type  of  apparatus,  on  the  contrary,  the 
carbide  is  throum  into  a  considerable  mas^  of 
water,  whereby  undue  elevations  of  tem]>eniture 
and  irregularity  of  action  are  completely  avoid- 
ed. As  the  presence  of  impurities  in  acety- 
lene adds  considerably  to  the  danger  of  \\^\w^  the 
gas,  various  methods  of  purification  have  been 
proposed.  Now,  the  nature  and  quantity  of  im- 
purity in  acetylene  depends  entirely  on  th<^  com- 
position of  the  carbide  used  in  its  matin fiirture, 
and  a  very  pure  acetylene  has  been  produced  on 
quite  a  large  scale  simply  by  employing  a  pure 
carbide.  With  air  or  oxygen  acetylene  formfi 
extremely  explosive  mixtures;  mere  external 
friction  of  a  vessel  in  which  such  a  mixture  is 
contained  may  cause  an  explosion.  Bnt  even 
when  isolated  and  pure  acetylene  is  explosive 
if  kept  under  pressure  of  more  than  two  ntmiyfi- 
pheres;  and  it  is  very  dangerous  inder-tJ  ^vhen 
preserved  in  liquid  form.  It  has,  instead.  IjtHMi 
stored  in  solution  in  ordinary  acetone,  which 
absorbs  considerable  quantities  of  it.  If  the 
pressure  under  which  the  gas  is  dissolved  in 
acetone  is  not  very  great,  explosion  cnn  fxeur 
only  in  the  gaseous  volume  above  the  surf  tire  of 
the  liquid;  the  dissolved  portion  of  the  p\A 
does  not  take  part  in  the  explosion.  Under  any 
circumstances,  sudden  compression  of  a  volnme 
of  acetylene  may  cause  an  explosion.  Aielylene 
is  slightly,  if  at  all,  poisonous;  it  is  certainly 
much  less  poisonous  than  ordinary  illuminating 
gas. 

Acetylene  contains  a  high  percentage  of  car- 
bon, and  the  amount  of  heat  generate  I  in  its 
combustion  is  very  large.  These  are  th<'  tansed 
to  which  its  high  illuminating  power  is  dne; 
for,  in  order  that  a  fiame  may  be  luminoii>i,  it 
must  contain  a  large  amount  of  carbon  par- 
ticles, and  its  temperature  must  be  high  enough 
to  keep  those  particles  in  ^  gtate  o!  ineanden- 
cence.  In  order  that  acetvipne  1^*^  yli'l^  a. 
large  amount  of  light,  i<t^^^^^  .  ^^  properly 
burned.  The  numerous  y.  Tft^*  ^^vi^p^I  ^^^ 
this  purpose,  are  constrvx!?\\tti^^^.  i,V\  a  ^'^^^'  ^^ 
burning  either   pure  ac^t^VwA  V^^*'    ^li^^^^^^  ^^ 


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ACETYLENE. 

acetylene  and  other  gases,  such  as  nitrogen,  car- 

tK)nic  acid  gas,  and  especially  marsh  gas.     We 

reproduce     here     the     Perrodil 

^  burner,    which,    while    adapted 

^(^^         ^or  use  with  pure  acetylene,  al- 

^^r       ^^^     lows  it  to  be  sufficiently  mixed 

^^Ljl^^B^    with  air  before  it  reaches  the 

^^^^H^^P    point    a,    where    it    begins    to 

^^TBt^     burn. 

la  Acetylene  is  one  of  the  cheap- 

est illuminants.  It  has,  be- 
sides, the  important  advantage  over  other  il- 
luminants of  being  easily  produced  and  requiring 
no  special  establishment  for  its  manufacture. 
In  the  opinion  of  eminent  experts,  the  danger 
4'onnected  with  storing  it  even  in  large  quanti- 
ties is  not  great  enough  to  justify  a  verdict 
against  its  introduction  into  common  use. 

We  will  mention  a  few  other  uses  to  which 
acetylene  may  be  applied: 

1.  If  calcium  carbide  were  cheaper,  acetylene 
might  be  used  as  an  enricher;  i.e.,  to  increase 
the  illuminating  power  of  coal  gas  and  of  other 
combustible  gases. 

2.  When  acetylene  is  passed  into  an  alkaline 
solution  of  iodine,  the  substance  di-iodoform 
4,0 J^)  is  produced.  This  substance  possesses 
the  antiseptic  properties  of  ordinary  iodoform 
without  having  the  strong  and  annoying  odor 
of  that  substance.  In  the  last  few  years  di- 
iodoform  has  been  manufactured  on  an  indus- 
trial scale. 

3.  Under  the  influence  of  electric  sparks  acety- 
lene combines  directly  with  nitrogen  to  form 
prussic  (hydrocyanic)  acid.  It  might,  there- 
fore, be  used  in  the  cyanide  industry. 

4.  A  process  has  been  patented  in  Germany 
for  the  manufacture  of  sugar  from  acetylene. 

5.  When  heated  with  hydrogen,  acetylene  is 
converted  into  ethylene,  and  by  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  water  the  latter  yields  or- 
dinary alcohol.  It  has  been  argued  that  if  pure 
alcohol,  manufactured  by  this  method,  could  be 
substituted  as  an  article  of  commerce  for  the 
highly  toxic  liquors  so  freely  sold  at  the  pres- 
ent day,  a  great  deal  would  be  accomplished 
toward  diminishing  the  evil  of  alcoholism.  Un- 
der the  present  conditions,  however,  the  process 
would  be  too  expensive. 

Chemically,  acetylene  is  an  unsaturated  com- 
pound, the  first  of  an  important  series  of  hydro- 
carbons. It  is  said  to  be  "unsaturated"  because 
it  combines  with  bromine  and  the  other  halo- 
gens without  at  the  same  time  losing  any  of  its 
own  elements.  It  combines  in  a  similar  man- 
ner with  hydrogen.  By  heating  a  mixture  of 
acetylene  and  hydrogen,  ethylene  gas  may  be  ob- 
tained, and  this  can  be  further  transformed  into 
ethane  gas  by  the  action  of  hydrogen  in  the 
presence  of  "platinum  black"  (finely  divided 
platinum).  Since  from  ethylene  gas  and  ethane 
we  can  derive  innumerable  other  compounds,  it 
was  a  highly  important  problem  to  prepare 
acetylene  itself  directly  from  its  elements.  This 
problem  solved,  we  could  claim  that  we  have 
been  able  to  effect  the  complete  synthesis  of  all 
those  compounds;  that  is  to  say,  that  we  can 
prepare  them  artificially  without  using  any  com- 
pound occurring  ready  formed  in  nature.  The 
importance  of  the  problem  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
it  has  been  asserted  that  many  such  compounds 
could  not  be  obtained  artificially;  that  mys- 
tcTious  forces  beyond  human  control  could  alone 
produce   them.     The   French   chemist   Berthelot 


70 


ACHJEA. 


effected  the  interesting  synthesis  of  acetylene  by 
simply  passing  electric  sparks  between  carbon 
poles  placed  in  a  vessel  filled  with  hydrogen. 
Under  such  conditions  the  carbon  of  the  poles 
combines  directly  with  hydrogen  to  form  acety- 
lene. 

In  conclusion,  another  important  property  of 
acetylene  may  be  mentioned.  When  acetylene 
is  passed  into  a  solution  of  a  cuprous  salt  (say, 
cuprous  chloride),  containing  some  ammonia,  a 
curioup  and  characteristic  compound  of  acetylene 
and  copper  is  obtained,  called  copper  acetylide. 
When  a  chemist  is  called  upon  to  determine 
whether  acetylene  is  present  or  absent  in  a  given 
mixture,  he  tests  it  with  a  solution  of  cuprous 
chloride  containing  some  ammonia;  the  forma- 
tion of  copper  acetylide  proves  the  presence  of 
acetylene.  It  is  currently  believed  that  the  ex- 
plosive compound  of  copper  and  acetylene  mW 
form  whenever  acetylene  comes  in  contact  with 
metallic  copper  or  its  alloys.  This  idea  has, 
however,  b€«n  proved  positively  false;  there  is 
no  danger  w*liatever  in  storing  acetylene  in 
metallic  vessels  of  any  kind.  Consult:  W.  E. 
Gibbs,  Lighting  by  Acetylene,  Generators,  Burn- 
ers, and  Electric  Furnaces  (New  York,  1899), 
and  V.  B.  Lewes,  Acetylene  i  a  Handbook  for  the 
Student  and  Manufacturer  (New  York,  1900). 
A  technical  journal  devoted  to  the  acetylene  in- 
dustry iZeitschrift  fUr  Calciumcarbid-Fahrik^ir 
tiofi^  und  Acetylen-Beleuchtung)  was  established 
at  Suhl  in  1807  and  has,  since  1900,  been  pub- 
lished at  Berlin. 

ACHffiA,  A-k^A  (Gk.  Axota).  (1)  The  south- 
east part  of  Thessaly,  the  legendary  home  of 
Achilles.  (2.)  The  northern  part  of  Pelopon- 
nesus, bordering  on  the  Corinthian  Gulf.  The 
land  rising  gradually  from  the  coast  to  the  hills 
of  the  interior  was  famed  in  ancient  times  for 
fertility  in  the  produce,  of  oil,  wine,  and  fruits, 
while  the  wooded  mountains  contained  much 
game.  In  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece  Achsea 
forms  a  nome,  or  department,  in  the  extreme 
northwest  of  the  Morea,  and  its  chief  town  is 
Patras.  Excepting  the  west  coast,  the  land  is 
fertile,  and  produces  corn,  wine,  and  oil. 

In  early  times  the  Achseans  held  more 
or  less  aloof  from  participation  in  the  affairs 
of  the  rest  of  Greece.  There  were  twelve  prin- 
cipal towns,  the  names  ot  which,  according  to 
Herodotus,  were  Pellene,  --Egeira,  A^gsd,  Bura, 
Helice,  ^gium,  Rhypes,  Patrae,  Pharae,  Olenus, 
Dyme,  and  Tritaea,  and  these  formed  a  confeder- 
acy, with  Helice  at  the  head.  After  the  destruc- 
tion of  Helice  by  an  earthquake  in  373  B.C., 
^gium  took  its  place  as  the  chief  city  of  the 
confederacy.  The  wars  and  rivalries  which  pre- 
vailed after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great 
brought  about  the  complete  dissolution  of  the 
ancient  bond,  but  a  new  union  was  formed  in 
280  B.C.,  which  gradually  extended  itself,  and  in 
a  few  years  comprised  the  ten  cities,  Patrse, 
Dyme,  Pharae,  Tritaea,  I^ontium,  .^geira,  Pellene, 
iKgium,  Bura,  and  Ceryneia.  This  second  con- 
federacy was  known  as  the  Achaean  League.  It 
first  came  into  prominence  as  an  important 
factor  in  Greek  and  Hellenic  politics  in  249  b,c., 
when  Aratus  joined  thereto  his  native  city, 
Sicyon.  The  aim  of  the  league  was  from  this 
time  forth  to  free  the  Greek  peninsula  from 
Macedonian  rule.  In  242  B.C.  the  Macedonian 
garrison  was  driven  from  Corinth,  and  this  city 
was  brought  into  the  confederacy.  Before  the 
last   quarter   of   that   century   the   league   had 


i 


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ACSMA.  71 

;hed  its  most  flourishing  period  of  develop- 
it.    It  included  the  whole  of  northern  and 
die  Peloponnesus  and  many  cities  in  other 
Ls  of  Greece. 
he  government  of  the  league  affords  perhaps 

best  example  in  antiquity  of  the  federal 
em.  In  foreign  affairs  the  union  acted 
A  whole,  but   in  internal   affairs  each  city 

a  unit,  and  had  equal  rights  with  every 
r  city.  Also,  each  state  still  preserved  its 
re  independence.  There  was  a  public  council 
ih  met  regularly  twice  every  year,  in  spring 
in  autumn,  and  was  attended,  not  by  depu- 

but  in  person  by  all  male  citizens  of  thirty 
s  of  age  or  over.  The  meeting-place  of  the 
icil  was  at  first  a  grove  near  ^gium,  but 
"  Philopocmen  instituted  a  change,  whereby 
jngs  were  designed  to  be  held  in  rotation 
le  various  cities  belonging  to  the  league.     In 

council  the  affairs  of  the  league  were 
ght  up  to  be  discussed  and  passed  upon, 
a  record  was  kept  of  the  proceedings.  The 
f  officer   of   the   league   was   the   atrategos, 

had  as  subordinates  a  hipparchos  and  a 
trchos.  There  was  also  a  secretary.  The 
tegos  was  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
general  executive  officer.  He  was  assisted 
le  duty  of  calling  together  the  assembly  and 
iding  thereat  by  a  board  of  ten  demiurgi. 
some  years  the  league  maintained  its  indepen- 
e  against  all  enemies.  Something  of  the  old 
5r  of  Greece  seemed  to  return,  and  there 
a  promise  of  permanent  union;  but  it  soon 
ared  that  the  league  was  bent  on  its  own 
ruction.  Instead  of  presenting  a  firm  front 
nst  the  common  foes  of  Greece,  its  members 

divided  by  continual  discords.     The  ^to- 

League  was  a  formidable  rival,  and  the 
'tans,  led  by  King  Cleomenes  III.,  pressed 
confederacy  so  hard  that  Aratus  was  finally 
)elled  to  seek  the  alliance  of  the  Macedonian 
,  Antigonus  Doson. 
lis  act   was   nothing  less   than   the  begin- 

of  the  dependency  of  the  Achaean  Le«^e 
he  Macedonian  power.  Another  dangerous 
ly  was  Rome.    Led  by  the  wise  and  ener- 

policy  of  Philopcemen,  of  Megalopolis,  the 
eans  held  out  against  enemies  at  home  and 
ad  for  a  number  of  years,  but  in  198  B.c. 

were  induced  to  ally  themselves  with  the 
ans.  In  192  B.C.  Philopcemen  appeared  at 
ta  and  compelled  that  city  to  join  the  league, 
by  the  following  year  the  whole  of  Pelopon- 
9  had  come  over  to  the  union.  This  power, 
>ver,  lasted  but  a  short  time.  The  hostilities 
Iparta,  the  intrigues  of  the  Romans,  and 
nal  dissensions  combined  to  bring  about 
all  of  the  confederacy.  In  167  B.C.  a  whole- 
deportation  of  leading  Acheans  to  Rome  as 
igea  took  place.     In  146  B.C.  the  Achoeans 

defeated  at  Corinth  by  the  Roman  general 
imius.  This  defeat  not  only  dissolved  the 
16,  but  destroyed  the  political  independence 
rreece.  Southern  and  central  Greece,  under 
name  of  Achaea,  became  a  Roman  province, 
bins,  who  was  one  of  the  Acheans  taken  to 
e  as  hostages  in  167  B.C.,  has  given  an  ex- 
ed  account  of  the  league  in  his  history  of 
period  between  220  B.C.  and  146  B.C.  Consult: 
►rn,  Oeschichte  Oriechenlands  von  der  Ent- 
ung  detoliachen  und  achdischcfi  Bundea 
nn,  1833)  ;  Drumann,  Ideen  zur  Oeachichte 
Verfalls  der  griechiachen  Siaaten  (Berlin, 
) ;     Hertzberg,     Chaohichie     Oriechenlands 


ACHABD. 

unter  den  Romem  (Halle,  1876)  ;  and  Freeman, 
History  of  Federal  Oovernment  (second  edition, 
London,  1893). 

(3.)  Under  the  Romans,  the  province  con- 
taining all  Greece  except  Thessaly  and  Mace- 
donia. 

ACH^ANS,  k'k^anz  (Gk.  'Axatoi,  Achaiai). 
One  of  the  races  of  ancient  Greece.  In  Homer  the 
name  sometimes  includes  all  the  Greeks.  The 
Achffians  inhabited  the  southeastern  part  of 
Thessaly  and  much  of  the  Peloponnesus.  By  the 
Dorian  invasion  they  were  crowded  into  the 
northwestern  corner  of  the  Peloponnesus,  where 
they  later  formed  the  Achaean  League.  (See 
AcHAiA.)  In  mythology,  their  ancestor  was 
Achseus,  son  of  Xuthus,  grandson  of  Hellen,  and 
brother  of  Ion. 

ACHJEH^NES  (Gk.  'Axaifirvvc*  Achat- 
men^),  ACH'JEMEN^IDJSB.  The  names  of  the 
progenitor  and  of  the  dynasty  of  ancient  Persian 
kings,  Cyrus,  Cambyses,  Darius,  Xerxes,  Ar- 
taxerxes,  and  their  successors.  The  rule  of  the 
Achsemenidffi  over  Iran  lasted  558-330  B.C.  In 
the  old  Persian  inscriptions  Darius  proudly 
traces  his  lineage  back  to  Hawdmanisiya  (in 
Greek,  *AxatfievrK:\  as  the  founder  of  the  royal 
line,  and  states  that  from  him  the  family  re- 
ceived the  name  Achemenians. 

ACHAMOTH,  ftk^&-mOth.  In  the  theological 
system  of  Valentinus  (q.v.)  the  Gnostic,  a  per- 
sonification of  a  form  of  wisdom  inferior  to  the 
pure  Sophia.  She  is  the  mother  of  the  world- 
maker,  Demiurgus.    See  Demiurge. 

ACHAQXTA,  A-cha^cwA.  An  Indian  tribe  of 
Arawakan  stock,  which  formerly  inhabited  the 
forests  of  the  upper  Orinoco  region  in  northeast- 
ern Colombia.  They  were  prominently  men- 
tioned in  the  last  century,  but  were  entirely 
uncivilized,  practicing  tattooing,  polyandry,  and 
the  destruction  of  female  infants.  About  500 
were  still  known  to  exist  on  the  Rio  Muco  about 
the  year  1850. 

ACHABD,  ftG'art,  Franz  Karl  (1753-1821). 
A  German  physicist  and  chemist,  bom  in  Berlin. 
He  is  remembered  chiefiy  as  the  founder  of  the 
beet-sugar  industry.  He  devoted  several  years 
to  investigating  the  best  methods  of  raising 
sugar-beets  and  of  producing  sugar  on  an  indus- 
trial scale.  Finally,  at  the  instance  of  the  King 
of  Prussia,  experiments  were  successfully  car- 
ried out  in  Berlin  about  1800,  and  as  a  result 
Achard  was  enabled  to  establish  in  1801  the  first 
sugar  manufactory.  He  wrote  Die  europUiache 
Zuckerfahrikation  aus  Runkelriihen  in  Verhin- 
dung  mit  der  Bereitung  des  Branntweina  (1812). 
Achard  was  for  a  time  director  of  the  class  of 
physics  in  the  Berlin  Academy  of  Sciences,  and 
published  four  volumes  of  Vorleaungen  Uher 
Experimentalphyaik  (1790-92). 

ACHABD,  A'shAr^,  Louis  Am£d£e  Eugene 
(1814-75).    A    French   novelist.    He  was  born 
in  Marseilles,  and  was  at  first  a  merchant.    He 
entered   newspaper   work   in   \^\^  native  place; 
continued  it  in  Paris,  and  w^>v^  aa  a  xepoxter  to 
Spain   with   the   Due  de   Hciv.   *Ptvft^®^  ^^^^^"^^^ 
and  followed  the  French  artt^^^^r  \«l^-   ^^^^* 
is   chiefly   known   as   a   n^^^^^  \^\^  ""^^""BelU 


being   numerous.      Among 

Rose    (1847)  ;    Lea   mia^ 

( 1861)  ;  and  Hiatoire  d*u>^  ^^  -'  «^i 

also  wrote  several  plays^  >^    vi    a"^  vv« 

de  tnea  amis  ( 1874) .  '^^XJ^  a 


AXVowvawe 


"^■^ 


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ACHABKIAN& 

ACEABNIANS,  k-Mr^nlanz,  Thb  (Ok. 
'Axapveic,  Achameia),  A  comedy  of  Aristoph- 
anes (q.v.)  produced  in  Athens  at  the  festival 
of  the  ^nsea,  425  B.C.,  under  the  name  of  Callis- 
tratus.  The  title  comes  from  the  character  of 
the  chorus  men  of  Acharns,  an  Attic  deme  near 
Mount  Fames,  and  the  play  is  in  opposition  to 
the  democratic  policy  of  war  with  Sparta. 
Dicsopolis,  the  hero,  is  an  honest  farmer  who 
is  tired  of  the  fighting  and  his  attendant  losses, 
and  finally  makes  a  private  treaty  with  the 
Lacedemonians.  This  leads  to  a  farcical  but 
brilliant  display  of  the  contrasts  between  the 
discomforts  of  war  and  the  joys  of  peace. 

ACHATES,  ft-k&^t€z  (modern  Dirillo).  (1.) 
A  river  in  southern  Sicily  that  gave  its  name  to 
the  agate  {aohatea)  which  was  found  there, 
according  to  Pliny  (37,  139).  (2.)  A  faithful 
companion  of  ^neas  in  his  wanderings  (Virgil, 
/Eneidy  i.,  188),  whence  the  name  fidus  Achate$ 
applied  to  any  faithful  friend. 

ACHEEN,  &-chen^     See  AcHm. 

ACHELOXrS,  ftk'Myfis  (Gk.  'AxelixK,  Ache- 
Woa,  now  called  Abpbopotamo,  i.e.,  White  River, 
from  the  cream  color  of  its  waters) .  The  largest 
river. in  Greece  (Map:  Greece,  C  6).  It  rises  in 
Mount  Pindus,  flows  southward,  separating 
jEtolia  from  Acarnania,  and  falls  into  the  Ionian 
Sea.    It  is  over  100  miles  long,  and  unnavigable. 

AOHENy  &o^en,  or  AOXEH,  ftk^en,  Johaxn 
or  Hans  von  (1552-1615).  A  German  painter. 
He  was  born  at  Cologne,  studied  there  and  under 
Kaspar  Rems  at  Venice,  and  in  1590  entered  the 
service  of  the  Bavarian  court.  At  the  invitation 
of  the  Emperor,  Rudolph  II.,  he  afterward  went 
to  Prague.  His  style  is  formal  but  skillful.  His 
works  include  a  ^^Crucifixion"  ( in  the  Protestant 
church,  Cologne),  an  "Entombment"  (in  the 
cathedral  of  Bonn),  "St.  Mary  and  Carthusian 
Monk,"  "Portrait  of  Burgomaster  Broelman," 
"Christ  Raising  the  Widow's  Son,"  and  "Truth 
Victorious  Under  Protection  of  Justice." 

ACHENBACHy  ao^en-b&o,  Andreas  ( 1816 — ) . 
A  German  landscape  and  marine  painter.  He 
was  born  at  Cassel,  studied  under  Schirmer  at 
DUsseldorf,  and  is  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
painters  of  the  DOsseldorf  School.  He  painted 
chiefly  in  the  Rhine  country,  Holland,  and  Nor- 
way, and  produced  realistic  works.  He  received 
a  medal  of  the  flrst  class  in  Paris  in  1855.  Many 
of  his  paintings  are  in  private  galleries  in  the 
United  States. 

ACHENBACHy  Oswald  (1827 — ).  A  Ger- 
man landscape  painter.  He  was  born  in  DOssel- 
dorf, and  is  the  brother  and  pupil  of  Andreas 
Achenbach.  He  painted  in  the  Bavarian  Alps, 
Switzerland,  and  Italy.  His  conception  of  nature 
is  more  ideal  than  that  of  his  brother.  Many  of 
his  pictures  are  in  the  United  States. 

ACHENE,  &-ken^  also  Achb/nium  and 
Akeni/  (Gk.  a,  a  priv.  +  x^^^eiv,  chainein,  to 
gape).  A  seed-like  fruit  such  as  is  character- 
istic of  the  great  family  of  Composite,  to  which 
belong  sunflowers,  thistles,  dandelions,  etc.  The 
pits  of  the  strawberry  and  the  small  fruits  form- 
ing a  head  in  the  centre  of  a  buttercup  are  also 
achenes.  The  seed-like  appearance  arises  from 
the  fact  that  the  wall  of  the  seed-vessel  hardens 
and  invests  the  solitary  seed  so  closely  as  to 
seem  like  an  outer  coat.    See  Fbuit. 

ACHEHSEEy  Ho^enzA.  A  lake  in  north 
Tyrol,  Austria,  20  miles  northeast  of  Innsbruck. 


72 


ACHILLEA. 


it  is  5^  miles  long  and  a  half  mile  bro9A.  Its 
picturesque  shoves  dotted  with  hotels  and  villas 
are  much  frequented  as  summer  resorts.  Steam- . 
ers  ply  on  its  waters. 

ACHEKWALL,  ao^en-viil,  Gottfrted  (1719- 
72).  A  German  economist  and  statistician.  He 
was  professor  of  philosophy  in  GQttingen  from 
about  1750  until  his  death.  Though  not  the 
originator  of  the  science  of  statistics,  he  was  the 
first  to  formulate  and  define  its  purpose. 

ACHEBOH,  &k^«-rOn  (Gk.  'A;t^puv.  A^herdn). 
The  name  given  to  several  rivers  by  the  ancients. 
The  best  known  is  the  Acheron  in  Thesprotis, 
which  flows  through  the  lake  Achenisia,  and 
pours  itself  into  the  Ionian  Sea.  According  to 
Pausanias,  Homer  borrowed  from  the  river  in 
Thesprotis  the  name  of  his  infernal  Acheron. 
In  the  later  poets  and  mythographers  Acheron 
is  the  name  of  a  river  or  lake  in  the  lower 
world  across  which  the  souls  of  the  dead  were 
obliged  to  pass.  (See  Styx.)  The  lake  Ache- 
nisia in  Thesprotis  was  regarded  as  an  entrance 
to  the  lower  world,  and  the  name  was  also 
applied  to  other  places  where  the  same  belief 
prevailed,  e.g.^  a  walled  enclosure  near  a  temple 
at  Hermione  in  Argolis,  and  a  promontory  near 
Heracleia  in  Pontus. 

k  CHEVAL  (ft'she-vAl')  POSITION  (Fr.  i 
oheval,  on  horseback).  A  military  term  to  de- 
note  the  position  of  an  army  where  a  river  or 
highway  separates  considerable  portions  of  the 
troops  and  is  perpendicular  to  the  front.  As  an 
instance  of  this  position  may  be  cited  the  case 
of  Wellington's  army  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo, 
where  it  was  d  cheval  on  the  road  from  Charleroi 
to  Brussels.  WTien  the  perpendicular  to  the 
front  is  formed  by  a  river,  possession  of  a  bridge 
is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  the  effective  co- 
operation of  the  troops  on  both  sides. 

ACHILL,  ftk^,.  or  EAGLE  ISLE.  An  island 
off  the  west  coast  of  Ireland,  in  the  county  of 
Mayo.  It  is  15%  miles  long  by  12%  miles  broad, 
and  has  several  mountains  composed  of  mica 
slate,  which  rise  to  an  elevation  of  about  2000 
feet.  There  are  several  villages,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  5000. 

ACHILLEA,  ikraWk  (Lat.  aohilUos,  mil- 
foil, yarrow,  said  to  have  been  discovered  by 
Achilles).  A  genus  of  plants  of  about  eighty 
species,  of  the  natural  order  Compositse,  having 
small  flowers  (heads  of  flowers)  disposed  in 
oorrmbs,  and  the  receptacle  covered  with  chaffy 
scales  (small  bractee).  The  florets  of  the  ray 
are  fertile,  and  have  a  short,  roundish  tongue  or 
lip;  the  florets  of  the  disk  are  hermaphroditic, 
the  tube  of  the  corolla  flatly  compressed  and  two- 
winged;  the  involucre  is  imbricated.  The  com- 
mon Yarrow  or  Milfoil  {AchiUea  millefolium) 
abounds  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and  in  many 
parts  of  North  America — ^into  which,  however, 
it  has  perhaps  been  carried  from  Europe — 
growing  in  meadows,  pastures,  etc.  It  is  afx>ut 
a  foot  in  height;  its  leaves  bipinnate,  the  pinnse 
deeplv  divided,  the  segments  narrow  and 
crowded.  It  has  white  or  rose-colored  flowers. 
The  leaves  have  a  bitterish,  aromatic,  somewhat 
austere  taste,  and  little  smell;  the  flowers  have 
a  strong,  aromatic  smell,  with  an  aromatic  bitter 
taste,  and  contain  an  essential  oil,  a  resin,  bitter 
extractive,  gum,  several  salts,  and  traces  of  sul- 
phur. Both  leaves  and  flowers  are  used  in  medi* 
cine  as  a  powerful  stimulant  and  tonic.    The 


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ACHILLEA. 


73 


ACHIMENES. 


leaves  were  formerly  much  used  for  healing 
wounds,  and  are  still  so  employed  by  the  com- 
mon people  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  ex- 
pressed juice  is  a  popular  spring  medicine  in  Ger- 
many. Yarrow  is  often  sown  along  with  grasses  in- 
tended to  form  permanent  pasture  for  sheep,  but 
in  the  United  States  it  is  generally  considered  a 
weed  in  pastures.  Achillea  moschata,  called 
Musk  Milfoil,  is  cultivated  as  food  for  cattle  in 
Switzerland.  Achillea  moschata,  atrata,  and 
nana — ^all  natives  of  the  Alps — are  very  aro- 
matic, and  bear  the  name  of  Genipi  or  Genip. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  Alps  value  them  very 
highly,  and  use  them  for  making  what  is  called 
Swiss  tea.  Achillea  nana  is  said  to  be  used  in  mak- 
ing cha/treuse.  They  are  very  stimulating  and 
tonic;  as  are  also  Achillea  setacea  and  Achillea 
nobilis,  both  natives  of  Switzerland  and  other 
middle  parts  of  Europe,  and  Achillea  ageratum, 
a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  used  by  the 
French  as  a  vulnerary,  and  called  herbe  au  char- 
pentier,  Sneezewort  {Achillea  ptarmioa)  is  a 
native  of  Europe,  and  somewhat  introduced  into 
the  United  States,  one  to  three  feet  high,  with 
lanceolate  leaves,  and  much  larger  flowers  than 
the  common  Milfoil.  It  grows  in  meadows  and 
damp  places.  The  root,  which  is  aromatic,  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  Pellitory  of  Spain,  and 
the  whole  plant  is  pungent  and  provokes  a  flow 
of  saliva. 

ACHILLES,  A-kIll6z  (Gk.  'A^t^AXeiJf,  AchiU 
leus).  The  hero  of  Homer's  Iliad,  and  the  type 
of  glorious  youth.  In  the  Homeric  poems  his 
story  is  simple.  The  son  of  King  Peleus  and  the 
sea-goddess  Thetis,  he  was  brought  up  at  his 
father's  court  in  Phthia  until  induced  to  take 
part  in  the  Trojan  War,  preferring  an  early  death 
with  fame  to  a  long  but  inglorious  life.  This 
fate  gives  Achilles  a  tinge  of  melancholy  charac- 
teristic of  the  Greek  mind.  While  the  Greeks 
were  in  camp  before  Troy,  Achilles  plundered  the 
surrounding  country  and  secured  as  his  booty 
the  beautiml  Brisels.  The  Iliad  narrates  the 
wrath  of  Achilles  because  Agamemnon  deprived 
him  of  his  fair  slave  to  replace  Chrysels,  whom 
he  had  been  forced  to  restore  to  her  father  in 
order  to  avert  the  wrath  of  Apollo  from  the 
Greeks.  In  the  absence  of  Achilles  the  Trojans 
drive  the  Greeks  to  their  ships,  and  their  de- 
struction is  averted  only  when  Achilles  allows 
his  friend,  Patroclus,  to  lead  his  Myrmidons  to 
the  rescue.  Pursuing  the  Trojans  to  their  walls, 
Patroclus  is  slain  by  Hector,  and  Achilles,  over- 
whelmed with  grief,  becomes  reconciled  with 
Agamemnon,  that  he  may  hasten  to  obtain  re- 
venge. He  returns  to  the  fight,  and  after  driv- 
ing the  Trojans  within  the  city,  slays  Hector 
and  drags  his  body  to  the  ships.  After  celebrat- 
ing the  funeral  of  Patroclus  with  great  pomp, 
lie  yields  to  the  command  of  Zeus  and  allows 
Priam  to  ransom  the  body  of  his  son.  In  the 
Odyssey  we  have  allusions  to  the  death  of 
Achilles,  his  splendid  burial,  and  the  renown  of 
liis  son,  Neoptolemus.  Later  epic  poems  and 
other  compositions  add  many  details.  Accord- 
wig  to  some,  his  mother  rendered  him  invulner- 
able by  dipping  him  in  the  River  Styx ;  but  his 
heel,  by  which  she  held  him,  was  not  immersed, 
and  here  he  received  his  death  wound  from  an 
arrow.  He  was  educated  by  the  centaur  Chiron, 
and  was  afterward  hidden  by  his  mother  at  Scy- 
'08,  among  the  daughters  of  Lycomedes.  He 
^aa  needed,  however,  in  the  expedition  against 


Troy,  and  was  detected  by  the  craft  of  Odysseus, 
who  offered  a  sword,  as  well  as  trinkets,  to  the 
maidens.  When  a  trumpet  sounded  an  alarm 
Achilles  at  once  seized  the  sword,  and,  being 
recognized,  was  then  easily  induced  to  join  the 
Greeks.  His  combats  with  Penthesilea,  Queen  of 
the  Amazons,  and  with  Memnon  (q.v.),  who  came 
to  aid  Priam  after  the  death  of  Hector,  were  fa- 
vorite subjects  with  Greek  artists.  He  met  his 
death  at  the  hands  of  Apollo  and  Paris  before 
the  Scsan  gate,  or  in  the  temple  of  Apollo, 
where  he  had  gone  to  meet  Polyxena,  daughter 
of  Priam.  She  was  slaughtered  on  his  grave 
after  the  capture  of  Troy.  After  his  death  he 
was  transported  to  the  Islands  of  the  Blessed, 
where  he  was  united  with  Medea.  Achilles  was 
worshipped  in  Laconia  and  other  parts  of  Greece, 
and  it  is  probable  that,  like  other  Greek  heroes, 
he  was  originally  a  god,  honored  especially  by 
the  Achseans  of  Phthiotis.  See  the  articles 
Homer  and  Trojan  War. 

ACHILLES  TATIUS,  til'shl-iis  (Gk.  'A;t*X. 
Ae(;f  Tdr^oc,  Achilleua  Tatioa).  A  Greek  writer, 
a  native  of  Alexandria,  who  probably  lived  in 
the  fifth  or  sixth  century,  a.d.  He  was  the 
author  of  a  romance  in  eight  books,  entitled  The 
History  of  Leucippe  and  Clitophon,  in  which  he 
borrowed  freely  from  the  work  of  his  predecessor 
Heliodorus,  by  whom  alone  he  was  surpassed  in 
popularity.  While  his  work  is  graceful  in  style, 
it  is  inferior  to  that  of  his  model;  and  for  u» 
it  is  marred  in  passages  by  the  grossest  pagan 
immorality.  It  was,  however,  freely  imitated 
by  later  writers,  especially  by  Eustathius  and 
Nicetes  Eugenianus  in  the  Byzantine  period. 
Suidas  says  that  the  author  became  a  Christian 
and  attained  to  the  office  of  bishop,  but  the  truth 
of  his  statement  is  doubtful.  The  work  has  been 
edited  with  commentary  by  Jacobs  (Leipzig, 
1821);  Hirschig  (Paris,  1866);  Hercher  (Leip- 
zig, 1858).  Consult:  Rohde,  Der  griechische  Ro- 
man und  seine  Vorlaufcr  (Leipzig,  1876). 

ACHILLES  TENa>ON  (Lat.  Tendo  Achil- 
lis).  A  tendon  (a)  which  attaches  the  soleus  (6) 
and  gastrocnemius  muscles 
of  the  calf  of  the  leg  to  the 
heel-bone.  It  is  capable 
of  resisting  a  force  equal  to 
1000  pounds  weight,  and 
yet  is  occasionally  rup- 
tured by  the  contraction 
of  these  muscles  in  sud- 
den extension  of  the  foot. 
The  name  was  given  with 
reference  to  the  death  of 
Achilles  by  a  wound  in  the 
heel. 

ACHIMENES,    &-kIm^^ 
n§z.      (Probably  from  Lat. 
Achwmensis,   Gk.    axaifirvtc, 
iichaimenis,    an    amber-col- 
ored plant  in  India  used  in 
magical  arts.)     A  genus  oi 
plants    of    the   order    Ges- 
neraceae  (q.v.),  much  culti- 
vated as  a  greenhouse  herb. 
The  species  are  numerous — ^ 
natives   of   tropical    Amer« 
ica.     Achimenes    is   propa.^ 
gated  either  by  the  natur^^ 
increase  of  the  rhizome   c^^ 
by  cuttings.  If  the  rhizom^^ 
are  potted  by  April  1,  tVv^^ 


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ACfmrRNBS. 


74 


ACHB0KATI8M. 


into  blossom  by  the  last  of  May  and  continues  to 
bloom  without  cessation  for  four  or  five  months. 
The  corolla  tube  is  cylindrical  and  the  limbs  are 
spreading.  The  blossoms  are  red,  blue  and 
white,  with  all  intermediate  shades. 

ACHIN,  &-chen^  or  ATCHEEH.  A  pettv 
kingdom  of  about  20,000  square  miles  area,  with 
more  than  half  a  million  inhabitants,  at  the 
north  end  of  Sumatra,  famed  from  ancient  times 
as  part  of  the  Golden  Chersonese.  The  country 
is  mountainous  and  intersected  with  many  rivers, 
llie  famous  Gold  Mountain,  6000  feet  high,  is  at 
the  extreme  northern  point,  with  the  capital  city 
of  Achin  at  its  base. 

The  shorter  stature,  darker  color,  etc.,  of  the 
aborigines  of  Achin  has  led  some  authorities  to 
separate  them  from  the  Sumatrans  in  general, 
and  their  language  is  by  others  held  to  be  Poly- 
nesian rather  than  Malay  at  bottom.  While,  un- 
doubtedly Malays,  the  Achinese,  like  several  other 
peoples  of  the  East  Indies,  may  have  a  strain  of 
Arab  blood.  In  the  seventh  century  the  Hindu 
missionaries  introduced  civilization,  and  many 
emigrants  from  India  settled  here.  In  the 
thirteenth  century  the  people  were  converted  to 
the  faith  of  Islam,  the  sultans  of  Achin  claiming 
descent  from  the  first  Mohammedan  missionary. 
When  in  the  sixteenth  century  Europeans  reached 
Achin,  they  found  astonishing  wealth.  The  Ach- 
inese sent  an  embassy  to  the  powerful  Dutch 
republic,  and  the  envoys  had  audience  of  Prince 
Maurice  in  his  camp  before  Grave  in  1602.  The 
Dutch  kept  up  intermittent  trade  intercourse 
with  them  until  1811,  when  Sumatra  was  ceded 
to  the  British.  When  the  Dutch  regained  nom- 
inal possession,  Great  Britain  stipulated  that 
none  but  British  citizens  should  reside  in  Achin, 
and  that  the  Dutch  should  not  conquer  the  little 
kingdom,  the  English  wishing  to  retain  the  com- 
merce. The  piratical  instincts  of  the  Achinese, 
liowever,  led  them  into  conflicts  with  the  Dutch, 
who  found  it  necessary  to  chastise  them.  In 
1871  by  The  Hague  Treaty,  the  British  withdrew 
their  reservation,  and  the  Dutch  sent  an  expedi- 
tion in  1873  to  capture  the  chief  city  and  invade 
the  country.  They  were  beaten  in  this,  as  well 
as  in  other  expeditions,  and  the  country  was  not 
pacifled  until  several  years  later,  when  a  civil 
government  was  instituted.  The  Achin  wars 
have  cost  the  Netherlands  12,000  lives  and  nearly 
one  hundred  million  dollars  for  blockade  and 
naval,  and  military  operations,  and  the  country 
is  yet  practically  unsubdued  in  the  interior. 
This  is  owing  not  merely  to  the  fanatical  spirit 
of  independence  in  the  natives,  but  also  and  more 
because  Achm  furnishes  a  rich  and  tempting 
field  for  British  blockade  runners.  There  was 
an  outbreak  in  1901.  There  are  numerous  works 
in  Dutch  treating  of  Achin  as  there  are  in  Hol- 
land many  monuments  and  trophies  of  the  war. 
Besides  the  historical  work  of  Veth,  Atchin 
(Leyden,  1873),  the  standard  treatise  on  the 
Achinese  is  Snouck,  De  Ajehers  (two  volumes, 
Batavia,  1893-95). 

ACHMET,  ax'met.    See  Ahmed. 

ACHMET,  HK'met,  or  AHMED,  Uii'm^d. 
The  name  of  three  sultans  of  Turkey,  of  whom 
Achmet  III.  (reigned  1703-30)  was  the  most 
famous.  It  was  this  sovereign  who  sheltered 
Charles  Xll:  after  his  defeat  at  Pultowa  in  1709. 
He  wrested  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians  in 
17 16.  Having  invaded  Hungary,  he  was  defeated 
by  Prince  Eugene  at  Peterwardein  in  1716,  and 


later  near  Belgrade,  and  compelled  to  cede  to 
Austria,  by  the  treaty  of  Passarovitz,  1718,  Bel- 
grade, the  Banat,  and  other  territories.  The 
soldiers  drove  him  from  the  throne  in  1730,  and 
he  died  in  prison  in  1736. 

A^CHOB.  A  valley  which  forms  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  Judah  (Joshua  xv:7)  near 
Jericho.  Its  identification  is  uncertain,  though 
Wady-el-Kelt  has  been  suggested,  which,  how- 
ever, is  not  broad  enough  to  become  "a  place 
for  the  herds  to  lie  down  in"  (Isaiah  kv  :  10). 

ACH(KEU[OK.    See  Ringworm. 

ACHBASy  ftk^rfts.    See  Black  Bullt. 

ACHBOKATIC,  &k'r6-mftt^.  See  Tele- 
scope. 

ACHB(y][ATISlC    (oolorlessness,  from  Gk. 
i,  a  priv. -f  xp^/^  chrthna,  color).    The  prop- 
erty by  virtue  of  which  certain  combinations  of 
lenses  and  prisms  refract  a  beam  of  white  light 
without  producing  dispersion  of  certain  colors. 
(See  Dispersion.)     Newton,  misled  by  imperfect 
experiments,  concluded  that  dispersion  could  not 
be  annulled  without  annulling  refraction.    Hall, 
in  1733, and  later, Dollond( independently), found 
that  certain  media  have  large  powers  of  refrac- 
tion with   small   dispersion,   while   others  give 
small  refraction  with  large  dispersion;  so  that 
the  dispersion  of  two  colors  produced  by  one 
medium  can  be  corrected  by  that  due  to  another, 
while  the  deviation  of  the  light  from  its  orig- 
inal direction  is  not  entirely  annulled.    For  ex- 
ample, by  properly  combining  a  convex  lens  of 
crown-glass  with  a  concave  one  of  fiint-glass  an 
"achromatic  lens"  can  be  produced  which  will 
have  the  same  focus  for  the  two  selected  colors, 
while  the  foci  for  the  other  colors  are  at  neigh* 
boring  points  along  the  axis  of  the  lens.    It  is 
thus  seen  that  the  achromatism  in  the  above  ar- 
rangement is  not  perfect.     In  Fig.  I  a  beam  of 
white  light  having  the 
direction    c    d    meets 
the   crown-glass   prism 
and. is  refracted.     Dis- 
persion      also       takes 
place,  and  the  beam  as  *^ 
it  emerges  is  separated 
into  its  component  col- 
ors.    Adjacent   to   the 
prism  of  crown-glass  is  one  of  fiintr glass,  whose 
action  is  to  bring  together  the  rays  so  that  they 
emerge  parallel,  with  the  desired  deviation.  The 
reason  is  that  prisms  of  different  media  do  not 
give  exactly  similar  spectra,  the  colors  being  dis- 
persed according  to  different  laws  for  different 
media.      Fig.  2  shows  achromatic  combinations 
of     lenses     where    the 
flint  and  crown-glasses 
are  combined  with  the 
same  effect   as   in  the 
achromatic     prism    il- 
lustrated.      A    combi- 
nation of  three  lenses, 
or  prisms,  gives  a  bet- 
ter   approximation    to 
absolute     achromatism 
than  a  combination  of 
two. 

If  a  lens  is  to 
be  used  for  visual  ob- 
servations, it  is  "corrected"  generally  for  a  defi- 
nite ^ave-length  in  the  yellow  and  one  in  the 


*^K.  1. 

ACHBOMAtlO  PRISM. 


Kip.  2. 

ACUUOMATIC  LENSES. 


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ACIDS. 


bluish-green,  i.e.  these  two  colors  are  brought 
to  the  same  focus;  but  if  it  is  to  be  used  for 
photographic  purposes,  it  is  "corrected"  for  two 
wave-lengths,  which  include  those  radiations  pos- 
sessing the  greatest  photographic  action.  There 
are  two  defects  which  a  lens  may  have,  owing  to 
chromatic  aberration  (q.v.)}  in  that  the  colored 
images  may  be  at  different  distances  from  the 
lens  and  that  they  may  be  of  different  sizes.  The 
second  of  these  defects  is  insignificant  if  the  lens 
is  thin ;  and  the  first  may  be  "corrected,"  as  just 
described,  by  combining  two  thin  lenses.  If  the 
lens  is  thick,  or  if  the  lenses  of  the  lens-system 
are  some  distance  apart,  the  second  of  the  above 
mentioned  errors  becomes  serious.  It  may,  how- 
ever, be  corrected. 

ACHTEBXAKNy  &o^ter-mftn,  Thbodorb 
WiLHKLM  (1799-1884).  A  German  sculptor. 
In  his  sculptures  he  devoted  himself  principally 
to  New  Testament  subjects.  While  at  Rome,  in 
1841,  he  prepared  a  statue  of  Christ  and  an 
"Ecce  Homo"  for  the  Duke  of  Aremberg.  His 
most  celebrated  productions  are  preserved  in  the 
cathedral  at  MQnster,  and  consist  of  a  "PietA" 
and  a  "Descent  from  the  Cross."  Another  ad- 
mirable work  is  the  marble  altar  on  which  are  de- 
picted three  episodes  from  the  life  of  Christ  (in 
relief),  prepared  in  1873  for  the  cathedral  at 
Prague. 

A  CBJTLA,  &-shS?$a&  (Portug.).  A  danoe 
similar  to  the  fandango  (q.v.). 

ACHTTBCH^,  Janet.  The  stage  name  of 
Janet  Achureh  Sharp,  an  English  actress,  the 
wife  of  Mr.  Charles  Charrington.  She  was  bom 
in  Lancashire  and  first  appeared  in  London  at 
the  Olympic  Theatre  in*January,  1883.  In  1887 
she  joined  Beerbohm  Tree's  company,  and 
at  the  Novelty  Theatre,  June  7,  1889,  created 
in  English  the  part  of  Nora  Helmer  in  A  DolVa 
House.  This  was  the  first  presentation  of  an 
Ibsen  pla^  to  the  English  public.  She  has  since 
toured  with  a  company  in  India  and  Australia, 
and  appeared  in  the  United  States  with  Richard 
Mansfield  (1895),  and  independently.  In  June, 
1897,  at  the  Olympic  Theatre,  London,  she  took 
the  Shakespearean  part  of  Cleopatra  to  the 
Antony  of  Louis  Calvert. 

ACHZIB,  fik^zlb.  (1).  A  Phoenician  city 
claimed  by  Asher  (Joshua  xix:29),  but  not 
conquered  (Judges  i  :  31)  ;  the  modern  Ez-Zib 
on  the  promontory  of  Ras-en-Nakurah.  Achzib 
is  mentioned  by  Sennacherib.  (2)  A  town  in  the 
Shephelah  of  Judah  (Joshua  xv  :  44).  Possibly 
the  modem  'Ain-el-Kezbeh  near  Bet-Nettif. 

ACIDASPIS,  As'I-d&s'pIs  (Gk.  a/c/V,  akis, 
spine  -f  aaTT/'f,  flwpw,  shield) .  A  peculiar  genus  of 
trilobites  found  in  rocks  of  Silurian  and 
Devonian  age  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  individuals  are,  as  a  rule,  small,  and  are 
remarkable  because  of  the  spiney  ornamenta- 
tion of  the  dorsal  shield  or  carapace.  The  loba- 
tion  of  the  head  shield  is  rather  peculiar  and 
quite  unlike  that  seen  in  any  other  genus  of 
trilobites,  the  trilobite  division  being  obscured 
by  a  number  of  supplementary  furrows  and  by 
the  strong  development  of  two  longitudinal  false 
furrows  between  the  normal  dorsal  furrows. 
The  thorax  contains  nine  or  ten  segments,  and 
the  tail-shield  is  of  rather  small  size.  In  some 
species  a  row  of  slender  spines  is  developed  u[>on 
the  sides  of  the  head-shield  and  a  long  spine 
projects    from    each    posterior    angle.     Besides 


these  there  are  often  two  long  straight  or  curved 
spines  directed  upward  and  backward  from  the 
middle  posterior  edge  of  the  head.  Each  seg- 
ment of  the  thorax  is  produced  laterally  into 
long  spines,  and  there  are  also  two  short  spines 
on  the  raised  median  portion  of  each  seffment. 
The  tail-shield  is  in  nearly  all  species  likewise 
furnished  with  spines,  so  that  on '  the  whole 
these  animals  must,  though  of  small  size,  have 
presented  a  rather  formidable  aspect  to  larger 
animals  which  sought  to  prey  upon  them.  A 
few  species  of  the  genus  are  of  particular  interest 
on  account  of  the  abnormal  development  of  the 
eyes,  which  are  placed  at  the  summits  of  highly 
elevated  slender,  though  immovable,  stalks, 
which  arrangement  enabled  the  animal  to  com- 
mand a  view  in  all  directions.  This  elevation  of 
the  eye  recalls  the  stalk-eyes  of  some  modem 
crabs  and  lobsters.  For  illustration  see  Plate 
Trilobites. 

ACIDIMETBY,  ftsl-dlm^d-trl  (Lat.  addus, 
sour -f- 6k.  fiirpov,  metran,  measure).  Th« 
determination  of  the  amount  of  acid  contained 
in  a  solid  or  liquid  substance.  When  the  com- 
pound is  a  solid,  the  determination  is  usually 
made  by  the  gravimetric  method,  which  consists 
in  the  dissolving  of  a  known  weight  of  the 
material,  and  its  subsequent  treatment  by  such 
reagents  as  will  yield  an  insoluble  compound, 
from  the  weieht  of  which  the  amount  of 
acid  can  be  calculated.  When  the  substance  is 
a  liquid,  free  from  foreign  matter,  the  proportion 
of  acid  may  be  ascertained  by  determining  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  solution  by  means  of  a 
hydrometer,  but  in  case  of  mixtures  the  acidity 
of  a  solution  is  best  ascertained  by  the  volu- 
metric method,  which  is  described  under  Alkali- 

MiSTEB. 

ACIDSy  fts^dz  (Lat.  actdiM,  sour).  A  large 
and  important  class  of  chemical  substances. 
They  all  contain  hydrogen,  part  or  all  of  which 
is  replaced  by  metals  when  the  acids  are  brought 
in  contact  with  metallic  hydroxides.  The  com- 
pounds formed  by  substituting  metals  for  the 
hydrogen  of  acids  are  termed  the  salts  of  those 
metals,  and  therefore  the  acids  themselves  may 
be  regarded  as  salts  of  hydrogen.  An  example 
may  render  these  definitions  more  clearly  intel- 
ligible. When  the  sour  principle  of  vinegar  is 
brought  in  contact  with  potassium  hydroxide, 
a  reaction  ensues,  resulting  in  the  formation  of 
a  new  substance.  A  chemical  analysis,  com- 
bined with  a  determination  of  the  molecular 
weight  of  the  sour  principle  of  vinegar  shows 
that  the  molecule  of  the  latter  must  be  repre- 
sented by  the  formula  CsH^O,;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  substance  formed  with  potassium 
hydroxide  is  represented  by  the  formula  CaHsKO,. 
Evidently,  part  of  the  hydrogen  of  the  sour  prin- 
ciple of  vinegar  has  been  replaced  by  the  metal 
potassium  (K).  We  therefore  class  the  sour 
principle  of  vinegar  with  the  acids  ( it  is  the  well 
known  acetic  acid)  ;  and  we  class  the  substance 
obtained  by  its  action  on  potassium  hydroxide, 
with  the  salts  (it  is  called  the  acetate  of  potas- 
sium, while  acetic  acid  itself  may  be  called  the 
acetate  of  hydrogen ) . 

Most  acids  have  a  sour  ta«»^p  ^xA  c^^^^g®  ^^^ 
blue  color  of  litmus  to  re<l       TYvefte  pTopertlea, 
how^ever,  are  not  strictly  cK^        v«t\S^''^^  ^^  ^?l    ' 
silicic    acid,    for    instance   ^>^^^  «a\tvft  ^^^^^^J^- 
thoutch— like    a    true    aoi^     >C)0*^  !caX>^^^^   "^ 
metallic  hydroxides  to  ^orvJ\i^\, 


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ACID&  76 

According  to  the  maximum  number  of  their 
hydroeen  atoms  replaceable  by  metals  acids  are 
termed  mono-basic,  di-basic,  tri-basic,  etc.     No 
matter  how  great  the  excess  of  potassium  hydrox- 
ide employed,  only  one  hydrogen  atom  of  acetic 
acid,  CjH^O,,  can  be  replaced  by  potassium,  the 
only  resulting  salt  having  the  formula  CHgKO,. 
Acetic  acid  is,  therefore,  said  to  be  a  mono-basic 
acid.    By  the  action  of  a   limited   amount  of 
potassium  hydroxide  on  sulphuric  acid  (1^804) 
a   salt  called   the   acid   sulphate   of   potassium 
(HKSO4)  may  be  obtained;  this  salt  is  formed 
by  substituting  the  metal  potassium  for  one  of 
the  hydrogen  atoms  of  sulphuric  acid.     But  if 
an  excess  of  potassium  hydroxide  is  used,  both 
of  the  hydrogen  atoms   of   sulphuric  acid   are 
replaced  by  potassium,  and  the  salt  known  as 
the  neutral  sulphate  of  potassium    (KxSO«)    is 
produced.     Sulphuric  acid  is  therefore  said  to 
be  a  di-basic  acid.     In  like  manner  phosphoric 
acid  (HjPO*)  is  found  to  be  a  tri-basic  acid,  etc. 
Acids  containing  carbon  among  their  constit- 
uent elements  are  called  organic  acids,  because 
some   of    them    were    orginially    found    in    the 
organic  world.     Most  organic  acids  are  found  to 
contain  one  or  more  can>oxyl  groups   (COOH) ; 
it  is  the  hydrogen  of  these  groups  that  is  replace- 
able by  metals.     These  acids  are  called  carboxylic 
acids,  and  their  basicity  is  determined  by  the 
number  of  carboxyl  groups  they  contain.    The 
carboxylic  acids  are  subdivided  into  carbocyclic 
and  fatty   acids,   according  as  their   molecules 
do  or  do  not  contain  those  rings  of  which  the 
so-called  aromatic  benzene-nucleus  is  the  most' 
important.     Thus  benzoic  acid,  CJIsCOOH,  is  a 
carbocyclic  acid;    acetic   acid,   CH,COOH,   is   a 
fatty  acid.    An  interesting  group  of  substances 
belonging  to  the  aromatic  series  and,  like  acids, 
combining    with   metallic    hydroxides,    are    not 
included  among  the  true  aromatic  acids  because 
they  do  not  contain  the  carboxyl  group.     These 
substances,  called  phenols   (q.v.),  are  found  to 
be   weaker    than    the   weakest   carboxylic   acid 
known,  viz.,  carbonic  acid. 

The  specific  strength  of  an  acid  depends,  natu- 
rally, on  its  composition  and  chemical  consti- 
tution. But  the  precise  nature  of  that  relation  is 
as  yet  unknown.  The  correctness  of  the  very 
methods  of  measuring  the  strength  of  acids  is, 
according  to  some  eminent  authors,  still  subject 
to  doubt.  It  is,  however,  remarkable  and  cannot 
be  denied,  that  the  different  methods  employed 
yield  very  nearly  coincident  results. 

One  of  those  methods  consists  in  determining 
the  avidity  of  acids  for  a  metallic  hydroxide, 
as  shown  by  the  proportion  in  which  the  latter 
is  distributed  between  two  acids  when  brought 
in  contact  with  a  mixture  of  the  two,  the  amount 
of  metallic  hydroxide  employed  being  insufficient 
to  saturate  both  acids  completely.  For  example : 
sodium  hydroxide,  sulphuric  acid,  and  nitric 
acid  are  weighed  out  m  such  quantities  that 
the  sodium  hydroxide  is  just  sufficient  to  neu- 
tralize either  one  of  the  two  acids.  When  the 
three  substances  are  now  mixed  together  in 
aqueous  solution,  it  is  found  that  two-thirds 
of  the  sodium  hydroxide  have  been  taken  up  by 
the  nitric  acid  and  only  one-third  by  the  sulphu- 
ric acid.  The  conclusion  is  drawn  that  nitric 
acid  is  twice  as  strong  an  acid  as  sulphuric  acid. 
It  is  similarly  found  that  hydrochloric  acid,  too, 
is  twice  as  strong  as  sulphuric  acid,  and  hence 
possesses  the  same  strength  as  nitric  acid.  Acetic 
acid  is  found  to  be  very  weak. 


ACIDS. 


Another  interesting  method  of  determining  the 
relative  strength  of  acids  consists  in  measuring 
the  rapidity  with  which  various  acids  are  capa- 
ble of  effecting  the  inversion  of  sugar ;  that  is  to 
say,  the  decomposition  of  sugar  into  dextrose 
and  laevuloee,  a  reaction  taking  place  under  the 
influence  of  acids,  according  to  the  following 
equation  : 

C^„Oa    -f    n,0    =    C.H„Oe    -f    C.H„0, 
Cane-BOfsar  Dextrose  Laevnloae 

For  example,  if  equivalent  quantities  of  nitric 
and  hydrochloric  acids  are  added  to  two  equal 
portions  of  a  solution  of  cane-sugar,  it  is  found 
that,  under  the  same  conditions  of  temperature 
and  concentration,  the  inversion  takes  place  with 
equal  rapidity  in  both  cases;  the  conclusion  is 
drawn  tnat  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids  are 
equally  strong  acids.  It  is  similarly  found  that 
these^  acids  are  about  twice  as  strong  as  sul- 
phuric acid,  while  acetic  acid  is  found  to  be 
very  weak. 

When  an  acid  is  dissolved  in  water,  its  mole- 
cules are  assumed  to  become  dissociated  into 
ions,  some  of  which  are  charged  with  positive, 
some  with  negative,  electricity.  Thus  acetic 
acid  is  supposed  to  break  up,  according  to  the 
following  equation: 

+  — 

CH,COOH    =    H     -f     CH3COO 
Acetic  acid 

The  dissociation  is  usually  incomplete;  that  is 
to  say,  only  a  fraction  of  the  amount  of  acid 
in  solution  is  dissociated  into  ions,  the  rest 
remaining  undissociated.  So  that  a  solution  of 
acetic  acid,  for  instance,  contains  three  kinds 
of   particles,   viz.,    (1)    positive   hydrogen  ions 

H;  (2)  negative  ions  CH,COO;  and  (3)  electri- 
cally neutral  (undissociated)  acetic  acid  mole- 
cules CHaCOOH.  The  magnitude  of  the  fraction 
dissociated,  or,  as  it  is  called,  the  degree  of 
dissociation  of  an  acid,  depends  (a)  upon  the 
amount  of  acid  in  solution;  (b)  upon  the  tem- 
perature; and  (c)  upon  the  nature  of  the  acid. 
Under  the  same  conditions  of  concentration  and 
temperature  the  number  of  free  ions  in  solutions 
of  different  acids  depends  upon  nothing  but  the 
nature  of  the  acids.  And  as  according  to  the 
electrolytic  theory  the  capacity  of  an  acid  for 
conducting  electricity  depends  upon  nothing  but 
the  presence  of  free  ions  in  its  solution,  the 
electrical  conductivity  of  the  solution  may  be 
taken  as  a  measure,  so  to  speak,  of  the  nature 
of  the  acid. 

Now,  when  the  acids  are  tabularly  arranged 
in  the  order  of  their  electrical  conductivity,  it  is 
found  that  the  order  is  the  same  as  when  they 
are  arranged  according  to  their  avidity  for 
metallic  hydroxides,  or  when  they  are  arranged 
in  the  order  of  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
can  effect  the  inversion  of  cane-sugar. 

A  remarkable  relation  is  thus  seen  to  exist 
between  three  phenomena  having  apparently  no 
connection  with  one  another.  The  common  oiuse 
of  these  phenomena  is  assumed  to  be  the  pres- 
ence of  free  hydrogen  ions  in  an  acid  solution. 
Furthermore,  on  this  assumption  the  neutrali- 
zation of  acids  by  metallic  hydroxides  is  ex- 
plained in  the  following  manner.  The  fact  that 
pure  water  is  a  non-conductor  of  electricity 
proves  that  its  molecules  are  not  dissociated 
into  ions.    If  ions  formed  by  the  elements  of 


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ACIDS.  7 

water  met  in  a  solution,  they  must  immediately 
combine  to  form  undissociated  molecules  of 
water.     Now,    while    the    solution   of    an    acid 

contains  electro-positive  hydrogen  ions  H,  the 
solution  of  a  metallic  hydroxide  contains  electro- 
negative hydroxyl  ions  OH.  When  the  solutions 
are  mixed,  these  ions  combine  into  neutral  mole- 
cules of  water,  according  to  the  following  equa- 
tion: 

+  — 

H    -h     OH      =      H.0 
WRter 

The  disappearance  of  free  hydroxyl  and  hydro- 
gen ions  as  such  causes  the  simultaneous  disap- 
pearance of  the  properties  both  of  the  basic 
hydroxide  and  of  the  acid;  and  the  acid  and 
base  are  said  to  have  neutralized  each  other. 

ACIBEAIiE,  rch^r&-&'Ul  (Sicil.  laoi).  A 
city  in  Sicily,  525  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  River  Aci,  which  descends  from 
Mount  Etna  to  form  a  small  harbor  here,  9 
miles  northeast  of  Catania  (Map:  Italy,  K  10). 
The  broad  streets,  spacious  houses,  and  high 
towers  rest  on  beds  of  lava,  from  which  many 
of  them  were  constructed.  The  climate  is  con- 
sidered very  healthful,  and  in  summer  the  Terme 
di  Santa  Venere  offers  baths  of  tepid  mineral 
water  containing  sulphur,  salt,  and  iodine.  There 
are  pleasant  walks  and  drives  to  neighboring 
villages  on  the  slopes  of  Mount  Etna,  and  the 
grotto  of  Galatea  and  the  cave  of  Polyphemus 
are  in  the  neighborhood.  The  coast  south  of 
Acireale  is  steep,  and  has  risen  more  than  40 
feet  during  the  historical  period.  In  the  sea 
near  by  rise  the  Scogli  de'  Ciclopi,  the  rocks 
which  according  to  tradition  were  hurled  after 
the  wily  Ulysses  by  the  blinded  Polyphemus. 
The  most  beautiful  of  them  is  about  230  feet 
high  and  2300  feet  in  circumference,  and  consists 
of  basalt  containing  wonderful  crystals  and  cov- 
ered with  hard  limestone  that  carries  fossil 
shells.  The  city  has  a  gymnasium  and  a  techni- 
cal school,  and  one  of  the  old  families  possesses 
a  splendid  collection  of  Sicilian  coins.  The  man- 
ufactures are  silk,  linen,  and  cotton  goods,  knives 
and  shears,  and  there  is  an  important  commerce 
in  flax  and  grain.     Pop.,  1881,  39,000. 

A'CIS  (Gk.  *Aic<c,  Akis).  A  small  stream 
flowing  from  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna  in  Sicily. 
Legend  derived*  the  name  from  Acis,  son  of 
Faunus  and  Symaethis,  beloved  by  the  nymph 
Galatea.  The  Cyclops  Polyphemus,  jealous  of 
the  boy,  crushed  him  under  a  rock,  and  his 
blood,  gushing  forth,  was  changed  into  the  river. 
8ee  Galatea. 

A'CIS  AND  GAL'ATI/A.  The  title  of  a 
pastoral  serenata  or  cantata  composed  by  Handel 
and  produced  about  1720.  The  words  are  by 
Gay,  Pope,  and  Hughes.  It  was  acted  as  an 
opera  at  the  Haymarket  Theatre,  London,  in 
1732,  without  the  consent  of  the  composer,  and 
has  been  since  repeated  at  Drury  Lane. 

ACKEBHAlTy  ak^eir-mAn,  Konrad  Ebnst 
(1712-71 ) .  One  of  the  founders  of  German  dram- 
atic art.  He  began  his  career  as  an  actor  with 
the  famous  Schonemann  company  at  Lilneburg  in 
January,  1740.  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  dis- 
astrous Seven  Years'  War  he  sold  a  theatre  he 
had  erected  in  K5nigsberg,  and  the  loss  thus  en- 
tailed compelled  him  thenceforth  to  lead  a  wan- 


7  ACKNOWI^EDGICENT. 

dering  life  with  his  troupe.  On  July  31,  1765, 
he  opened  a  'new  theatre  at  Hamburg,  which, 
according  to  Lessing,  eventually  set  the  standard 
for  theatrical  performances  in  Germany.  Be- 
sides the  members  of  his  own  family,  the  com- 
panies organized  by  Ackerman  included  some 
of  the  ablest  talent  in  Germany.  The  theatre 
was  conducted  by  him  until  1767,  when  it  passed 
into  the  hands  of  twelve  citizens  of  Hamburg, 
and  was  thereafter  known  as  the  Deutaches  Na- 
tionaltheater.  Ackerman's  representations  were 
models  of  freshness  and  vigor,  and  although  he 
lacked  qualifications  requisite  for  heroic  and 
emotional  parts,  his  acting  of  many  character 
rdles  was  remarkable. 

ACKEBMANK,  Rudolph  (1764-1834).  A 
German-English  inventor  and  publisher.  He  was 
born  at  Schneeberg,  Saxony,  and  followed  the 
occupation  of  coach  builder  and  saddler  in  vari- 
ous German  cities,  as  well  as  in  Paris  and  Lon- 
don. He  established  an  art  school  in  London  in 
1795.  In  1801  he  patented  a  method  of  render- 
ing paper,  cloth,  and  other  fabrics  waterproof, 
and  for  this  purpose  erected  a  factory  at  Chelsea, 
England.  He  also  contributed  greatly  to  the  de- 
velopment of  lithography.  It  is,  however,  as  a 
publisher  of  fine  art  subjects  that  Ackermann 
is  best  known.  His  greatest  achievement  in  this 
field  was  the  Repository  of  Arts,  Literature, 
Fashions,  Manufactures,  etc.,  a  publication  which 
was  continued  regularly  until  1828,  when  forty 
volumes  had  appeared.  Many  of  the  plates  were 
supplied  by  Rowlandson  and  other  eminent  art- 
ists. Among  his  other  numerous  illustrative 
works  are  The  World  in  Miniature  (43  volumes, 
12mo.,  637   plates,   1821-26), 

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.  (1.)  An  admission 
by  a  person  that  he  is  owing  a  debt  or  is  subject 
to  a  liability,  which,  but  for  such  acknowledg- 
ment, would  be  barred  by  the  statute  of  limita- 
tions (q.v.).  It  need  not  be  in  any  set  form  of 
w^ords,  but  it  must  be  a  clear  admission  of  an 
identified  liability,  and  modern  statutes  often  re- 
quire it  to  be  in  \iTiting.  (2.)  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  formal  act  of  declaring,  before  a 
notary  public  or  other  proper  officer,  that  a  writ- 
ten instrument  executed  by  the  declarant  is  his 
act  and  deed.  It  is  applied  also  to  the  certificate 
of  the  oflicer  setting  forth  the  facts  connected 
with  such  declaration.  An  acknowledgment  is 
not  essential  to  the  validity  of  an  instrument,  un- 
less made  so  by  statute,  although  by  recording 
acts  (q.v.)  it  is  generally  required  in  order  that 
the  instrument  may  be  lawfully  recorded.  In 
England  and  in  many  of  our  States,  a  deed  of  con- 
veyance or  release  of  dower  by  a  married  woman 
is  declared  invalid  by  statute,  unless,  upon  an 
examination  apart  from  her  husband,  she  ac- 
knowledges that  she  executed  the  deed  of  her 
own  free  will.  Such  a  conveyance  has  taken  the 
place  of  the  conveyance  by  fictitious  suit,  known 
as  a  fine  (q.v.).  The  object  of  this  legislation 
has  been  declared  by  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  to  be  twofold:  not  only  to  protect  the 
wife  by  making  it  the  duty  of  the  officer  taking 
the  acknowledgment  to  certify  that  she  has  not 
acted  under  compulsion  of  hex-  \vuaband,  or  in 
ignorance  of  the  contents  of  ^v^  ^eed,  but  also 
to  facilitate  the  conveyance  .  ^\ve  es^^^  ^^ 
married  women,  and  to  se^w/^^  ^  ^expetwate 
evidence,  upon  which  innoc^^^^  tv't^*  ^*  ^^^^ 
as  subsequent  purchasers  ttv^X  ^^  \^^«k^  ^^  T^' 
quirements    of    the    statut^-^  '^    ^-^   ^  ^^ 

\0^ 


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ACKHOWIiEDOlEENT.  78 

validity  to  the  deed  have  been  complied  with. 
Such  an  examination  and  certificate  is  a  quaai- 
judicial  act,  and  can  be  impeached  and  invalided 
only  for  fraud.  Judges,  clerks  of  courts,  mayors, 
notaries  public,  commissioners  of  deeds,  and  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  are  authorized  in  most  States 
to  take  acknowledgments.  The  laws  of  the  State 
in  which  the  acknowledgment  is  to  be  used  de- 
termine its  sufficiency.  For  forms  of  acknowl- 
edgments consult  Hubbell,  Legal  Directory  for 
Lawyers  and  Business  Men  (New  York,  revised 
annually) .  See  the  authorities  referred  to  under 
Will;  Deed. 

ACyLAITDf  CHBis'nAN  Henbietta  Casolink 
( 1 750- 1816).  Commonly  known  as  Lady  Harriet 
Acland,  the  wife  of  John  Dyke  Acland,  an  Eng- 
lish officer  in  the  American  revolution.  She  was 
married  in  1770;,  and  in  1776  accompanied  her 
husband,  then  commander  of  grenadiers,  to  Amer- 


ACSTE. 


ACLINIC  um. 

ica,  and  with  him  endured  most  of  the  hard- 
ships of  the  Burgoyne  campaign.  Major  Acland 
became  dangerously  ill  in  Canada,  but  was 
nursed  back  to  health  by  her,  and  was  again 
tenderly  cared  for  by  her  after  being  wounded 
in  the  battle  of  Hubbardton  (July  7,  1777).  In 
the  second  battle  of  Saratoga  (October  7,  1777) 
he  was  severely  wounded  and  became  a  prisoner 
in  the  hands  of  the  Americans.  Lady  Acland, 
hearing  of  this,  bravely  entered  the  American 
camp,  where  she  was  received  with  the  utmost 
courtesy.  She  rejoined  her  husband  at  Albany, 
and  nursed  him  until  his  wounds  had  healed, 
when  she  returned  \vith  him  to  England.  Major 
Acland  died  in  1778,  as  the  result  of  a  cold  con- 
tracted while  fighting  a  duel  to  vindicate  the 
courage  of  the  Americans,  and  Lady  Harriet, 
contrary  to  the  usual  accounts,  did  not  marry 
again.  Consult:  Stone,  Sketch  of  Lady  Harriet 
Acland,  in  Ballads  and  Poems  Relating  to  the 
Burgoyne  Campaign  (Albany,  1893). 

ACLAND,  Sib  Henry  Wentworth  Dyke 
(1816-1900).  An  English  physician.  He  was 
born  at  Exeter  and  was  educated  at  Oxford.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Oxford  University 
Museum,  and  in  1869  published,  with  Ruskin, 
an  account  of  the  aims  of  that  institution.  He 
accompanied  the  Prince  of  Wales  to  America  in 


1860.  In  1894  he  tendered  his  resignation  as 
regius  professor  of  medicine  at  Oxford,  which 
position  he  had  occupied  since  1858.  His  more 
important  publications  included  the  Memoir  on 
the  Visitation  of  the  Cholera  in  Omford  in  l^ky 
and  Village  Health  (1884). 

ACLAKDy  John  Dtke.  See  Acland,  Chris- 
tian Henrietta  Caroline. 

ACLIK^C  IiIHE  (Unbending,  unwavering, 
from  Gk.  d,  a,  priv.-f  icAivftv,  klinein,  to  incline) . 
This  is  an  imaginary  line  around  the  earth  be- 
tween the  tropics  where  the  magnetic  needle  has 
no  inclination;  that  is,  where,  when  balanced 
free  to  turn  in  any  direction,  it  places  itself 
horizontal.  It  is  called  the  magnetic  equator, 
and  is  about  90  degrees  from  the  magnetic  poles. 
The  line  is  variable  and  irregular.  In  1901,  in 
the  Western  Hemisphere,  it  was  south,  and,  in  the 
eastern,  north,  of  the  geographical  equator.  See 
Maqnetism,  Terrestrial. 

ACOOTE  (Gk.  anfiii,  akm^,  point,  edge).  A 
sodium-iron  silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the 
monoclinic  system,  has  a  vitreous  to  resinous 
lustre,  and  is  red  to  brown  and  green  in  color. 
It  occurs  in  the  older  rocks  in  Sweden  and 
Greenland,  and  in  the  United  States  minute 
crystals  have  been  found  in  northwestern  New 
Jersey,  while  line  prismatic  crystals,  frequently 
eight  inches  in  length,  occur  at  Hot  Springs  and 
Magnet  Cove,  Ark.  It  is  called  acmite  from  the 
sharp  pointed  extremities  of  its  crystals. 

AC^KE    (probably   from   Gk.   dx/iv,    f^^^^y  ^ 
point).     An    inflammatory    structural    disorder 
of  the  sebaceous  glands  or  follicles  of  the  skin 
(q.v.).     Dust  plugs  the  outlets  of  some  follicles, 
forming  "black  heads"  or  comedones.     Retention 
of  the  sebum  causes  irritation  of  the  follicle, 
leading  to  increased  secretion  and  congestion  of 
the  surrounding  tissue.     Pressure  with  a  watch 
key  or  the  finger  nails  causes  expulsion  of  the 
sebum  in  a  little  spiral  white  mass,  with  a  black 
point  or  anterior  end,  erroneously  regarded  as  a 
worm.    In  the  midst  of  the  white  mass  of  seba- 
ceous matter,  a  parasite,  Acarus  folliculorum,  is, 
however,  often  found.     Some  points  suppurate 
and  some  intermediate  follicles  become  inflamed, 
and   pimples    (papules),    as   well    as   hardened 
masses,  appear.     This  variety  of  acne  is  called 
Acne    vulgaris.       Ansemia,     dyspepsia,     consti- 
pation, and  uterine  disorders  may  be  the  indirect 
causes  of  acne,  the  immediate  cause  being  the 
entrance  of  the  Staphylococcus  pyogenes    (the 
germ  of  suppuration)  into  the  sebaceous  follicles. 
Treatment  must  be  directed  against  the  indirect 
causes  mentioned,  and  also  vigorous  local  treat- 
ment must  be  employed.     Internal  remedies  in- 
clude  aperients,   mineral  waters,  cod   liver  oil, 
hypophosphites,  malt  extract,  arsenic,  iron,  mer- 
cury,  and  sulphur.     External   remedies   include 
salicylic  acid,  ichthyol,  mercury,  borated  alcohol, 
sulphur,  zinc,  and  caustic  potash.     Acne  rosacea 
is  a  chronic  hyperemic  disease  of  the  face,  more 
especially  of  the  nose,  characterized  by  hyper- 
trophy, redness,  dilatation  of  the  blood  vessels 
and  acne.     In  one  form  acne  papules  and  pus- 
tules are  plenty,  and  appear  on  a  background  of 
bright  red  infiltrated  skin.     In  the  other  form 
of  Acne  rosacea  there  is  a  general  erythema  or 
redness,    with    enlargement    of    the    superficial 
veins  of  the  skin,  and  frequently  a  hypertrophy 
of  the  nose  or  chin.     If  extensive,  and   if  the 
hypertrophy  becomes  excessive,  the  term  Acne 


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AdTB. 

hypertrophica  is  applied  to  these  cases.  If  the 
usual  acne  treatment  fails,  scarification  or  re- 
moval of  the  surface  with  the  knife  is  necessary 
in  Acne  rosacea  and  Acne  hjrpertrophica.  In 
Acne  atrophica,  which  usually  occurs  upon  the 
templea  and  border  of  the  scalp,  wings  of  the 
nostrils  and  between  the  eyebrows,  there  is  ne- 
crosis of  the  tissues  with  resulting  contractions 
and  pits.  In  Acne  keloid  there  is  a  deep  infil- 
tration of  the  true  skin  with  destruction  or  al- 
teration of  the  hair.  Its  favorite  seat  is  on  the 
back  of  the  neck,  where  it  appears  as  nodulated, 
hard  tumors.     Cauterization  is  the  treatment. 

ACOCK^HiL.    See  Anchob. 

ACCEHETJB,  fts'd-me't^  (Gk.a,  a,  priv. + 
Koi/MoBai,  koimasthai,  to  sleep).  A  class  of 
Greek  monks  called  watchers,  who  chanted  service 
continuously  day  and  night,  dividing,  like  sailors, 
into  three  watches.  They  originated  about  400 
A.D.  on  the  Euphrates,  later  appeared  in  Con- 
stantinople, and  established  many  monasteries, 
the  chief  one  being  the  Studium  in  Constanti- 
nople itself,  erect^  by  the  consul  Studius  in 
471.  They  were  excommunicated  in  634  by  Pope 
John  II.  for  opposing  the  formula,  "One  of  the 
Trinity  suffered,"  and  thus  placing  themselves 
on  the  Nesterian  side. 

AOOIN,  ftk'Mn.  A  white  crystalline  sub- 
stance, soluble  in  water,  derived  from  guanin, 
and  closely  related  te  caffeine  and  theobromine^ 
Chemically,  it  is  di-para-anisyl-mono-phen-ethyl- 
guanidin-chlor-hydrate.  Experiments  have  shown 
that  it  is  less  toxic  than  cocaine  <q.v.), 
like  which  it  is  employed  as  a  local  anesthetic 
in  the  eye.  It  has  been  used  by  dropping  an 
aqueous  solution  upon  the  conjunctiva,  causing 
more  pain  than  cocaine,  and  also  seeming  less 
effec'tive  than  cocaine  in  cases  in  which  there  was 
congestion.  In  other  cases  it  has  been  found 
as  rapidly  efficient  as  cocaine,  but  producing  no 
change  in  the  pupil,  accommodation  or  intra- 
ocular tension.  After  cocainizing  the  conjunc- 
tiva it  may  be  injected  without  pain. 

AGOLLAS,  A'kA'lA',  6mile  (1826-91).  A 
French  jurist  and  publicist.  He  was  born  at 
1^  ChAtre,  and  was  educated  at  Bourges  and 
Paris.  He  was  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  rep- 
resentatives at  the  Congress  at  Geneva  in  1867, 
when  the  formation  of  a  general  European  demo- 
cratic confederation  was  advocated,  and  upon  his 
return  to  France  was  condemned  to  one  year's 
imprisonment  for  his  active  participation  in  the 
deliberations  of  that  party.  In  1871  the  Paris 
Commune  nominated  him,  during  his  absence  in 
5!>witzerland,  president  of  the  legal  faculty,  and 
in  1880  he  was  appointed  inspector-general  of  the 
penitentiaries.  Among  his  numerous  publica- 
tions, all  of  which  emphasize  the  principles 
'*,l)roit  et  Libert^,"  the  most  important  is  Cours 
Element  aire  de  droit,  a  work  consisting  of  seven 
volumes,  published  in  the  form  of  manuals. 

ACOLYTES,  ftk'Mlts  (Gk.  iKdXovdoi,  aha- 
»ttfho«,  a  follower).  A  name  occurring  first 
about  the  third  century,  and  applied  to  func- 
tionaries who  assisted  the  bishops  and  prieste  in 
the  performances  of  religious  rites,  lighting  the 
<^andles,  presenting  the  wine  and  water  at  the 
<»mmunion,  ete.  They  were  considered  as  in  holy 
oraers,  and  ranked  next  to  sub-deacons.  These 
J^'viees  have  since  the  seventh  century  been  per- 
lonned  by  laymen  and  boys,  who  are  improperly 
called  acolytes;  but  in  the  Roman  Church  as- 


79 


ACONITE. 


pirante  to  the  priesthood  are  still  at  one  stage 
consecrated  as  acolytes,  and  receive  candles  and 
cups  as  the  symbols  of  the  office.  See  Orders, 
Holt. 

ACOMA,  &-kd^m&.  An  Indian  pueblo  in  Va- 
lencia County,  New  Mexico,  about  15  miles  south- 
west of  Lagun,  60  miles  southwest  of  Albu- 
querque, the  Acuna,  or  Acuco,  of  Spanish  histo- 
rians (Map:  New  Mexico,  E  2).  Population, 
1890,  566;  1900,  492.  It  enjoys  the  distinction, 
with  few  towns,  of  occupying  the  original  site  of 
a  village  since  its  discovery  by  the  Spaniards  in 
1540.  Near  by  is  the  prehistoric  Indian  vil- 
lage on  a  rocky  teble-land  430  feet  high, 
now  inaccessible  except  by  scaling,  and  former- 
ly reached  only  by  spiral  steirs  cut  in  the 
stone.  The  tradition  of  the  Acoma  Indians  as 
to  its  previous  occupancy  by  their  ancestors  has 
been  verified  by  the  existence  of  a  trail  and  pots- 
herds at  various  pointe.  Acoma  was  visited  in 
1540  by  Alvarado,  under  orders  from  Coronado, 
and  in  1582  by  Espejo,  who  reported  a  population 
of  about  5000.  The  Indians  under  their  leader, 
Zutucapan,  ofi'ered  a  determined  resistance  to  the 
Spaniards,  and  in  1599  they  defeated  near  here 
a  detechment  of  Ofiate's  force,  though  later  in 
the  year  the  place  was  captured  by  Zaldfvar,  who 
is  said  to  have  put  to  death  at  least  5000  of  the 
6000  inhabitants.  Subsequently  a  Spanish  mis- 
sion was  esteblished  here.  Consult:  H.  H.  Ban- 
croft, History  of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  (San 
Francisco,  1880)  ;  F.  W.  Hodge,  "The  Enchanted 
Mesa,"  National  Geographic  Magazine^  Volmne 
VIII.   (Washington). 

ACONCAGXTA,  rkto-ka^gw&;  Span.-Amer. 
pron.  kft'wA.  An  extinct  volcano  in  the  southern 
part  of  the  Andes,  situated  in  lat.  32''  39'  S., 
long.  70®  W.,  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Chile  and  Argentina,  and  belonging  to  the  lat- 
ter (Map:  Chile,  D  10).  It  is  usually  consid- 
ered the  loftiest  mountein  in  America,  ite  es- 
timated height  being  about  23,000  feet.  A  river 
of  the  same  name  rises  on  the  southern  slope  of 
the  mountain  and  enters  the  Pacific  after  a 
course  of  over  200  miles.  Consult:  E.  Fitzger- 
ald, "The  First  Ascent  of  Aconcagua,"  in  A/c- 
Clure'a  Magazine,  Volume XI.  (New  York,  1898)  ; 
Sir  M.  Conway,  "Aconcagua  and  the  Volcanic 
Andes,"  Harper's  Magazine,  Volume  C.  (New 
York,  1899). 

ACOHCAGtTA.  A  central  province  of  Chile, 
bounded  by  the  Chilean  provinces  of  Coouimbo 
on  the  north,  Santiago  on  the  south  and  Valpa- 
raiso on  the  southwest,  Argentina  on  the  east, 
and  the  Pacific  on  the  west  (Map:  Chile,  C  10). 
It  covers  an  area  of  6226  square  miles.  The 
mounteinous  regions  which  occupy  the  larger 
part  of  the  province  are  mostly  barren,  while  the 
valleys  of  the  Aconcagua  River  and  other 
streams  are  highly  fertile  and  produce  different 
kinds  of  fruit,  as  well  as  hemp  and  some  grain. 
The  province  also  contains  considerable  deposits 
of  copper.  The  population  in  1895  was  113,165. 
Capital,  San  Felipe   (q.v.). 

AC^ONITE,  Aconi'titm    i^     .    flcot»^*^^»  ^^; 
aK&vtrov,       afconifon,   wolfVl^^^\        K.^^'^Z.?* 


plants  of  the  order  RanuncuY  ^'fc\'  V^"^^*   I' 
regular  sepals,  the  upper    ^-v^\vfc^'  /v5.c^  *? 
spurred  petels  concealed  Vt^^^  \y^  ^  ^^^     "^^^^ 
roote  are  usually  fusifortrv^^^    N!^   &V^    a^'^^^" 
whole  plant  is  very  poisoiv^..^  '^M    i^  w^^^.  wssvv- 
ber  of  alkaloids,  among  ^\x^^V^Sjy^^ 


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ACONITE.  80 

itine,  and  isaconitine.  Some  of  these  are  em- 
plojed  in  medicine,  being  administered  in  small 
doses  for  nervous  and  other  disorders.  The 
Wolf'a-bane  or  Monk's-hood,  Aconitum  napellua, 
is  often  cultivated  for  its  racemes  of  handsome 
blue  flowers.  A  number  of  species  is  said  to 
be  employed  in  India  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
hikh  poison.  Aconitum  album,  with  white  flow- 
ers, and  Aconitum  lycoctonum,  with  yellow  flow- 
ers, European  species,  are  often  met  with  in 
flower  gardens.  Aconitum  uncinatum,  which  has 
blue  flowers,  and  Aconitum  reclinatum,  with 
white  flowers,  are  found  in  the  eastern  United 
States,  while  Aconitum  columbianum  is  common 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Paciflc.  It  is 
reputed  poisonous  to  stock,  especially  to  sheep, 
which  often  eat  it  in  quantity.  Consult:  H.  G.  L. 
Reichenbach,  Monoffraphia  Oeneria  Aooniti 
(Leipzig,  1820)  ;  W.  Weil,  translated  by  H.  D. 
Millard,  A  Monograph  upon  Aconite  (New  York, 
1860) ;  L.  H.  Bailey,  Cydopadia  of  American 
Horticulture  (1900-1901).   For  illus.  see  Acacia. 

ACONTIXrS,  A-k6n^8hI-fls  (Gk.  *Aic^r(oc, 
AkontioB).  The  hero  of  a  classic  love  story  con- 
tained in  a  lost  poem  of  Gallimachus,  and  also 
given  by  Gvid  (Heroides  xx:21).  He  is  a 
youth  from  Ceos,  who,  being  at  Delos  and  in 
love  with  Cydippe  (q.v.),  throws  at  her  feet  an 
apple  on  which  he  has  written,  "I  swear  by  the 
sanctuary  of  Artemis  to  marry  Acontius."  In- 
advertently she  reads  the  words  aloud,  and  in 
spite  of  her  inclination  to  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  youth,  is  held  by  the  goddess  to  her 
vow  thus  made.  Consult:  Morris,  "The  Story  of 
Acontius  and  Cydippe,"  in  The  Earthly  Paradise, 
part  iii.   (London,  1872). 

AGOBN,  ft'kdrn  (properly,  fruit  of  the  field, 
A.  S.  CBcer,  a  field).  The  nut-like  fruit  of  dif- 
ferent species  of  oak.  It  consists  of  the  nut 
proper  and  the  cupule,  or  saucer  or  cup.  The 
acorns  from  different  species  differ  much  in  size 
form,  color,  and  taste.  In  some  the  cup  is  deep 
and  very  rough ;  in  others  it  is  smooth  and  shal- 
low. A  few  kinds  of  acorns  are  sweet  and  not 
unlike  chestnuts  in  flavor,  but  most  are  bitter 
and  more  or  less  astringent  in  taste,  owing  to 
the  presence  of  quercin,  or  some  similar  bitter 
principle,  and  tannin.  On  an  average,  fresh  acorns 
have  the  following  percentage  composition:  Wa- 
ter, 37.12;  protein,  4.11;  fat,  3.05;  nitrogen 
free  extract,  45.27;  crude  fibre,  8.95;  and  ash, 
L50.  The  shell  makes  up  14  per  cenfi  of  the 
total  fruit,  the  flesh,  85  per  cent.  Acorns  are  a 
favorite  food  of  wild  hogs,  and  have  been  used 
since  earliest  times  as  feeding  stuff  for  domestic 
animals,  especially  pigs.  It  is  customary  to  let 
the  pigs  gather  this  food.  Acorns  and  beechnuts 
are  commonly  spoken  of  as  mast.  The  agreeable 
flavor  of  the"  flesh,  ham,  and  bacon  of  the  razor- 
back  hog  of  the  southern  United  States  is  attrib- 
uted in  no  small  degree  to  its  being  fed  on 
acorns.  On  the  other  hand,  an  excess  of  acorns 
may  produce  a  soft,  spongy  flesh  and  an  oily 
lard.  This,  however,  is  usually  obviated  by  feed- 
ing corn  for  two  or  three  weeks  before  slaughter- 
ing. Acorns  have  been  successfully  fed  to  milch 
cows  and  to  poultry.  Horses  also  are  said  to 
eat  them.  In  the  United  States  acorns  are  not 
much  eaten  by  men.  Under  the  name  "Biotes," 
the  fruit  of  Quercus  emoryii  is  used  as  food  in 
the  southwest.  Sweet  acorns  are  eaten  occasion- 
ally in  different  regions,  mainly  by  children.  The 
Indians  of  the  Pacific  coast  region  from  North- 


AC08TA. 

em  California  to  Mexico  use  acorns  in  consider- 
able quantities.  Di'ied  and  pounded,  they  are 
made  into  a  sort  of  mush,  and  also  into  bread. 
The  acorn  meal  is  usually  leached  to  free  it  from 
tannin  and  whatever  bitter  principle  is  present 
When  the  meal  is  used  for  bread  a  kind  of  clay 
is  sometimes  mixed  with  it.  In  several  regions 
of  Italy,  notably  Umbria,  Tuscany,  Emilia,  and 
the  Marches,  acorns  made  into  a  sort  of  bread 
with  the  addition  of  two-thirds  ground  grain  are 
a  common  article  of  diet.  The  bread  is  black 
and  heavy  and  not  readily  digestible.  Dried 
acorns  are  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for 
coffee.    See  Oak. 

ACOBN-SHEIiL,  ft'kflm-shel.  A  sessile  bar- 
nacle of  the  family  Balanidse.     See  Barnacle. 

AO'OBtrS  (Gk.  dKopog^  akoros,  sweet-flag). 
A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Araces. 
(See  Arum.)  The  plants  of  this  genus  have  a 
leaf-like  scape,  which  bears  upon  its  side  a  dense, 
cylindrical,  greenish  spike  of  fiowers.  Here  be- 
longs the  Sweet-fiag  {Acorua  calamus)^  which 
was  brought  to  Europe  from  Asia  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  has  become  naturalized  in  Eng- 
land, Germany,  etc.,  growing  in  ifaarshes  and 
ditches.  In  North  America  it  is  found  from  Nova 
Scotia  to  Florida,  and  west  through  Minnesota 
and  Iowa.  Its  root  (rhizome)  is  perennial,  di- 
vided into  long  joints  about  the  thickness  of  the 
thumb,  has  a  oitt^rish,  acrid  taste,  and  is  very 
aromatic.  It  is  a  powerful  medicine  of  transient 
tonic  effect,  occasionally  used,  especially  in  cases 
of  weak  digestion.  In  many  places  on  the  conti- 
nent 6i  Europe  it  is  found  in  confectionery  shops 
sliced  and  prepared  with  sugar.  It  is  also 
used  to  correct  the  empyreumatic  odor  of  spirits 
and  to  give  them  a  peculiar  flavor.  It  is  called 
Calamus  root.  In  Great  Britain  it  is  chiefly  em- 
ployed by  perfumers  in  the  manufacture  of  hair 
powder.  The  other  species  of  Acorus  are  like- 
wise aromatic,  and  are  applied  to  the  same  uses. 
Acorus  gramineus  is  cultivated  in  China.  Some 
fossil  species  of  Acorus  have  been  found  in  rocks 
of  the  Tertiary  Age  in  North  America  and  on  the 
island  of  Spitzbergen.  For  illustration,  see 
Plate  of  Abum  and  Allies. 

ACOSTAy  ft-kos'tA,  Gabriel,  later  Uriel 
(1594?-!  647).  A  Portuguese  philosopher,  de- 
scended from  a  Jewish  family.  He  was  born  at 
Oporto.  After  being  educated  in  the  doctrines 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  when  twenty-five 
years  of  age  he  became  skeptical,  and  then  adopt- 
ed the  Jewish  faith;  but  as  the  profession  of 
such  was  not  allowed  him  in  his  own  country, 
he  fled  to  Amsterdam,  where  he  was  formally  re- 
ceived into  the  Jewish  community,  and  changed 
his  name,  which  had  been  Gabriel,  to  Uriel.  But 
what  he  conceived  to  be  the  Pharisaism  and  spir- 
itual pride  of  the  Amsterdam  Jews  disgusted 
him,  and  he  opposed  many  of  their  ideas,  and  es- 
pecially denied  that  the  doctrine  of  immortality 
had  any  Mosaic  sanction.  Hence  he  became  in- 
volved in  a  controversy  with  his  rabbinical  teach- 
ers. On  account  of  his  work,  entitled  Examen 
de  tradicoens  Phariseaa  conferidas  con  la  l^'tf 
escrita  ("Examination  of  Pharisaic  Traditions 
Compared  with  the  Scriptures"),  1624,  he  was 
charged  with  atheism  by  the  Jews  before  the  city 
magistracy  and  flned.  He  was  also  excommuni- 
cated, and  so  remained  for  seven  years,  when  he 
recanted  after  ignominious  treatment.  He  died 
in  1647  by  suicide.  His  autobiography  was  first 
published  by  P.  Limborch  in  Latin,  1687.    Eng- 


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AC08TA.  81 

llsh  translation  (London,  1740) ;  Latin  and  Ger- 
man edition,  H.  Jellinek  (Leipzig,  1847).  He  is 
the  hero  of  an  effective  tragedy  by  Gutzkow. 

ACOSTA,  Joaquin.  (?  —  1852).  A  South 
American  geographer.  He  was  born  at  Guachias, 
Colombia.  In  1834  he  made  a  tour  with  the 
botanist  C^spedes  through  the  valley  of  the  Scor- 
To  as  far  as  the  Magdalena/  and  seven  years 
afterward  traveled  from  Antioquia  to  Aserma 
for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  history  and  cus- 
toms of  the  native  tribes.  Besides  an  excellent 
map  of  New  Granada,  Acosta  published  the  fol- 
lowing interesting  and  valuable  works:  Com- 
pendio  Histdrico  del  Deacubrimiento  y  Coloniza- 
cion  de  la  Nueva  Oranada  en  el  aiglo  Dicimo 
Sexto  (Paris,  1848) ;  Semenario  de  la  Xueva 
Granada.  Miscelldnea  de  CienciaSf  Literatura, 
Artes  e  Induairia,  with  portraits  and  map,  pub- 
Ushed  by  a  patriotic  society  under  the  direction 
of  Francesco  Jos^  de  Caldos  (Paris,  1849) . 

AGOSTAy  Jos£  DS.  (1539-1600).  A  Spanish 
Jesuit  He  was  born  at  Medina  del  Campo, 
Spain.  He  entered  the  Society  of  Jesus  and 
went  as  missionary  to  Peru,  where  he  labored 
for  many  years.  Upon  his  return  home  he  be- 
came superior  of  the  Jesuit  Seminary  of  Valla- 
dolid,  and  afterward  rector  of  the  University  of 
Salamanca,  where  he  died.  His  fame  rests  upon 
his  work  on  the  natural  history  of  the  New 
World  and  the  efforts  put  forth  for  its  evangel- 
ization, published  in  Latin  at  Salamanca  in 
1589,  and  in  Spanish  (Seville,  1590).  The  last- 
named  publication  was  under  the  caption  Hia- 
toria  'Saiural  y  Moral  de  laa  Indiaaf  and  was 
several  times  reprinted  and  translated  into 
French,  Dutch,  and  English  {The  'NaiuraU  and 
Morale  Historie  of  the  Eaat  and  Weat  Indiea, 
London,  1004). 

ACOXrCHYy    &-k?^sh«,    or    ACtTCHI.      See 

Agoi-ti. 

ACOTJMBTEB,  A-kou'm^ter  or  &-k?5<5'-,  or 
AC'OXJSIM^TEB,  (Gk.  dKoi'etv,  akouein,  to 
hear,  -f  fthpov,  tnetron,  measure).  An  in- 
strument used  to  determine  the  acuteness  of 
hearing.  It  is  a  small  steel  bar  which,  when 
struck  by  a  hammer,  gives  a  uniform  soimd. 

ACOUSTICS,  &-kou'3t!k8  or  &-k?55'-  (Gk.  aiaw- 
<rrLK6c,  akouatikoa,  relating  to  hearing,  from  dKov- 
tnf,  akouein,  to  hear).  The  name  applied  to  the 
science  of  the  phenomena  of  sound.  The  name 
"sound"  is  given  to  the  sensation  perceived  by 
the  auditory  nerves,  and  it  is  a  matter  of  every- 
day experience  that  the  immediate  cause  of  the 
aeiisation  is  some  vibrating  body,  e.g.,  a  violin 
string,  a  drum  head,  a  hammer  when  striking  a 
nail.  This  was  early  recognized,  and,  so  far  as 
acoustics  is  considered  as  a  science  dealing  with 
the  vibrations  of  matter  and  with  the  waves  pro- 
duced in  the  air  by  this  motion  the  history  of 
its  development  is  identical  with  the  progress 
of  mathematics  and  dynamics  from  the  time  of 
Galileo  and  Newton  to  the  present.  Few  dates 
can  be  assigned  to  definite  discoveries.  The 
laws  of  vibrations  of  a  stretched  string  were 
first  deduced  mathematically  by  Brook  Taylor  in 
1715  and  by  Daniel  Bernoulli  in  1755,  although 
they  had  been  discovered  experimentally  by 
Mersenne  in  1036.  Longitudinal  and  torsional 
vibrations  of  bars  were  first  investigated  by 
Chladni  (1766-1827).  Daniel  Bernoulli  was  the 
first  to  attack  the  problem  of  the  lateral  vibra- 
tions of  bars ;  but  the  mathematical  treatment  of 
VOL.L— « 


ACOXrSTICS. 

the  question  is  still  of  interest.  Poisson  (1829) 
was  the  first  to  give  a  correct  mathematical  so- 
lution of  the  free  vibrations  of  a  membrane,  and 
good  experimental  work  on  the  subject  has  been 
done  by  Savart,  Bourget,  and  Elsas.  The  vibra- 
tions of  plates  have  been  studied  mathematically 
by  Poisson,  Kirchhoff,  and  more  recent  writers, 
and  experimentally  by  Chladni,  Savart,  and 
Wheatstone.  A  full  account  of  the  history  of 
the  mathematical  side  of  acoustics  will  be  foimd 
in  Rayleigh's  great  work  on  the  Theory  of 
Sound, 

The  history  of  that  portion  of  acoustics  which 
considers  the  phenomena  of  the  sense  of  hear- 
ing, harmony,  discord,  pitch,  etc.,  begins  un- 
doubtedly with  the  earliest  days  of  civilization. 
It  was  known  to  Pythagoras  (sixth  century  b.c.) 
and  to  whom  before  him  no  one  can  tell — that 
sounds  were  in  harmony  when  produced  by  two 
stretched  strings  of  the  same  material,  cross-sec- 
tion and  tension,  provided  their  lengths  were  in 
the  ratio  of  1  :  2,  2  :  3,  or  3  :  4.  Mersenne  discov- 
ered in  1636  that  the  freauencies  of  such  vibrat- 
ing strings  varied  inversely  as  their  lengths,  and 
so  proved  that  for  two  notes  to  be  in  harmony  it 
was  necessary  for  their  frequencies  to  bear  sim- 
ple numerical  relations  to  each  other.  No  ex- 
planation of  this  fact  was  given  until  the  great 
research  of  Helmholtz,  begun  in  1854,  the  results 
of  which  were  published  in  1862  in  his  classical 
work  on  the  Senaationa  of  Tone.  Helmholtz 
was  the  first  to  discover  the  existence  of  summa- 
tional tones,  although  the  differential  tones  were 
discovered  probably  by  Komieu  in  1743,  and  cer- 
tainly by  Sorge,  the  court  organist  at  Loben- 
stein,  in  1746.  Helmholtz's  theory  of  vowel 
sounds  is  still  under  discussion.  Most  interest- 
ing work  on  audition  has  been  done  in  recent 
years  by  Rudolf  Kdnig  of  Paris,  and  Professor 
Mayer  of  Hoboken. 

Many  of  the  physical  properties  of  sound  are 
matters  of  common  experience  and  can  readily 
be  appreciated.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  well 
known  that  an  interval  of  time  elapses  between 
the  vibration  of  the  body  and  the  perception  of 
the  resulting  sound  if  the  vibrating  body  is  at 
a  considerable  distance ;  thus  the  flash  of  a  gun 
is  seen  before  the  sound  is  heard.  It  was  shown 
by  Otto  von  Guericke  that  if  a  bell  is  set  ringing 
in  a  glass  jar  from  which  the  air  has  been  ex- 
hausted no  sound  is  heard;  so  that  the  presence 
of  some  material  medium  between  the  vibrating 
body  and  the  ear  is  essential  for  the  production 
of  sound.  This  medium  need  not  be  air,  but 
may  be  water,  or,  in  fact,  any  gas,  liquid,  or 
solid  which  can  carry  waves.  The  '•^hole  mecha- 
nism is,  then,  as  follows:  The  vibiations  of  the 
body,  e.g.,  a  drum-head,  produce  waves  in  the 
medium  in  contact  with  it,  e.g.,  the  air;  these 
waves  spread  out  through  the  medium  and,  after 
a  certain  interval  of  time,  reach  the  ear;  in  the 
ear  the  waves  produce  motions  of  the  ear-drum 
and  corresponding  effects  in  the  internal  ear 
where  the  auditory  nerves  have  their  endings. 
It  should  be  noted  that  not  every  vibration  will 
produce  waves  in  a  fluid  medium;  because  if  the 
number  of  vibrations  per  second  is  too  small,  the 
fluid  will  simply  flow  around  the  body  as  it 
vibrates,  and  so  will  not  be  compressed;  conse- 
quently, in  order  to  produce  waves  in  a  fluid,  the 
frequency  of  the  vibrations  of  the  body  must 
exceed  a  certain  number,  which  depends  upon  the 
viscosity  and  density  of  the  fluid.  Further,  it 
is  evident  that,  since  fluids  c^an  carry  only  corn- 


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A00tr8TI0&  ( 

pressSonal  (i.e.,  longitudinal)  wayes,  the  pro- 
duction of  the  sound-sensation  is  due  to  waves  of 
this  kind.  The  difference  between  the  longitu- 
dinal and  the  transverse  wave  can  be  appreciated 
by  reference  to  the  accompanying  diagram,  fig.  1. 


• 

2 

a, 

•  •  • 

•            • 

•  •  • 

•            • 
•  •  • 

r  '  '  '  i        ■  "I 

•       • 
•  •  • 

i 

no.  1. 

In  this  illustration  1  represents  a  row  of  par- 
ticles at  rest;  these  particles  displaced  to  form 
a  simple  transverse  wave  are  shown  in  2,  while 
a  longitudinal  wave  is  shown  in  3.  Here  each 
particle  moves  to  and  fro  in  the  direction  of  the 
line  of  propagation  of  the  wave,  and  the  ampli- 
tude of  the  wave  is  the  distance  that  each  par- 
ticle moves  from  its  position  of  rest,  while  the 
wave-length  is  the  distance  between  similar 
points  of  condensation  and  rarefaction,  as  from 
.4  to  4.  Although  sound  is  produced  by  longi- 
tudinal waves,  there  is  no  reason,  however,  for 
believing  that  all  compressional  waves  will  pro- 
duce sounds;  some  may  be  too  long  or  too  short 
to  affect  the  nerves  of  the  ear. 

Our  sense  of  hearing  distinguishes  between 
two  great  classes  of  sounds:  noises  and  musical 
notes.  A  noise  is  recogriized  as  being  abrupt, 
discontinuous,  and  exceedingly  complex;  a  musi- 
cal note  is  smooth,  continuous,  and  with  a  definite, 
regular  character.  We  distinguish,  further,  be- 
tween different  musical  notes  as  being  simple  or 
complex,  meaning,  by  the  latter,  a  note  in  which 
we  can  recognize  the  presence  of  several  simple 
tones.  Thus,  if  a  piece  of  paper  is  torn,  or  two 
blocks  of  wood  struck  together,  we  call  the  re- 
sulting sound  a  noise.  The  vibrations  of  a  tun- 
ing-fork cause  a  simple  musical  note;  while  if 
a  banjo  string  is  plucked  we  hear  a  complex 
note.  Complex  notes  differ  greatly  in  their 
character.  They  are  said  to  have  "quality"  or 
"timbre;"  thus,  a  sound  produced  by  an  organ- 
pipe  has  a  quality  entirely  different  from  one 
produced  by  a  piano  or  by  a  drum.  Simple  notes 
may  differ  in  loudness  and  in  shrillness  or 
"pitch;"  thus,  a  note  of  a  definite  pitch  may  be 
loud  or  feeble,  and  the  pitch  of  a  piccolo  note 
is  quite  different  from  that  of  a  note  produced 
by  a  fiute. 

Waves  and  Vibrations.  Since  the  direct 
cause  of  a  sound  is  the  reception  into  the  ear  of 
waves  in  the  air,  it  is  necessary  to  analyze  the 
nature  of  these  waves.  We  may  have  an  irregu- 
lar, isolated  disturbance,  which  is  analogous  to 
a  "hump"  passing  along  a  stretched  rope,  or  to 
the  effect  of  dropping  several  stones  at  random 
intervals  into  a  pool  of  water ;  or  we  may  have  a 
regular  continuous  succession  of  waves  identical 
in  all  respects,  which  is  called  a  "train  of 
waves."  The  simplest  kind  of  train  of  waves 
is  what  is  called  a  "simple  harmonic"  train, 
such  as  is  produced  in  any  medium  by  a  simple 
harmonic  vibration  of  the  body  which  is  causing 
the  waves.  (Vibrations  of  a  pendulum  are  simple 
harmonic.)  Such  a  train  of  waves  is  character- 
ized by  its  "wave-number"  and  "amplitude;" 
the  wave-number  being  the  number  of  individual 
waves  which   pass  a  given  fixed  point  in  one 


2  ACOUSTICS. 

second,  while  the  amplitude  is  the  extent  of  the 
path  of  vibration  of  any  particle  of  the  medium 
through  which  the  waves  are  passing.  The 
velocity  of  waves  of  a  definite  character,  e.g., 
compressional  ones,  in  any  definite  homogeneous 
medium  depends  upon  the  properties  of  the  me- 
dium itself,  not  on  the  wave-number  or  ampli- 
tude of  the  waves.  So,  if  A  is  the  wave-length, 
i.e.,  the  distance  from  one  point  in  the  medium 
to  the  next  point,  measured  in  the  direction  of 
advance  of  the  waves,  where  the  conditions  are 
identical  with  those  at  the  first  point;  and,  if  S 
is  the  wave-number,  the  velocity  of  the  waves  F 
is  given  by  the  formula: 

Consequently,  if  "N  is  known,  X  can  be  calculated^ 
and  vice  verad;  and  the  characteristics  of  the 
simple  harmonic  train  of  waves  may  be  said  to 
be  its  wave-length  and  its  amplitude.  If  sev- 
eral trains  of  waves  are  passing  through  the 
same  medium  at  the  same  time,  the  resulting 
waves — called  a  "complex"  train — is  simply  the 
sum  of  the  individual  waves,  the  motion  of  any 
particle  of  the  medium  being  the  geometrical 
sum  of  the  motions  which  it  would  have,  owing 
to  each  of  the  separate  trains  of  waves.  (This 
is  rigidly  true  only  if  the  amplitudes  of  these 
separate  trains  are  very  small  compared  with 
their    wave-lengths,    as    in    general    they    are.) 


FIO.  s. 

This  is  shown  in  fig.  2,  where  A  and  B  are  two 
sets  of  simple  harmonic  waves  which  form  the 
resultant  wave  C,  This  wave  is  obtained  by 
taking  the  algebraic  sum  of  the  motion  of  the 
particles.  The  point  6"  is  obtained  by  taking 
a"6",  equal  to  the  sum  of  a  5  and  a'b',c'*  d"  is 
the  sum  of  o  d  and  c'd',  the  latter,  as  it  occurs  be- 
low the  axis,  considered  as  having  a  negative 
sign.  Conversely,  it  may  be  shown  that  any  com- 
plex train  of  waves  may  be  analyzed  into  simple 
harmonic  trains.  Therefore,  complex  trains  of 
waves  may  differ  in  several  ways:  1.  The  num- 
ber of  the  component  simple  harmonic  trains. 
2.  Their  wave-numbers  and  amplitudes.  3. 
Their  relative  "phases,"  for  two  waves  are  in 
different  phase  if  the  maximum  displacement  due 
to  one  train  does  not  coincide  in  position  with 
that  due  to  the  other;  or,  looked  at  in  another 
way,  the  component  trains  may  have  been 
started  at  irregular  intervals.  Since  waves  are 
due  to  the  vibrations  of  some  elastic  body  (e.g.. 
a  tuning-fork,  the  air  in  an  organ-pipe  or  horn), 
it  is  necessary  next  to  analyze  the  nature  of 
vibrations.  We  may  have  an  irregular  vibra- 
tion, consisting  of  only  a  few  to  and  fro  motions, 
then  a  sudden  change  into  another  vibration  of 
a  different  character,  the  whole  motion  lasting 
only  a  short  time,  e.g.,  when  a  piece  of  stiff 
paper  is  torn  or  when  a  scratching  pen  is  used 
in  writing;  or  we  may  have  a  regular  continuous 


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83 


ACOUSTXCa. 


periodic  vibration.  The  simplest  possible  peri- 
odic vibration  is  like  that  of  a  simple  pendulum, 
and  it  is  called  **  simple  harmonic/'  It  is  char- 
acterized  by  a  definite  number  of  vibrations  per 
second,  i.e.,  its  "frequency,"  and  by  the  extent 
of  the  swing,  i.e.,  its  '*  amplitude."  If  a  second 
pendulum  is  suspended  from  the  bob  of  the  first, 
and  a  third  from  the  bob  of  the  second,  the  vi- 
bration of  the  third  and  lowest  bob  is  no  longer 
simple  harmonic  in  general.  Its  vibration  is 
called  ** complex;"  and  It  is  evident  that  it  is 
the  sum  of  the  vibrations  of  the  separate  pen- 
dulums. Complex  vibrations  may,  therefore, 
differ  in  the  number  of  the  component  vibrations, 
and  in  their  frequencies,  amplitudes,  and  rela^ 
live  phases. 

Sound  Seksatio?!'.    It  would  be  expected  that 
there  should   be  some   connection  between   the 
nature  of  the  vibrations  of  the  vibrating  body, 
that  of  the   waves   produced,  and  that  of  the 
sound  heard.    Such  is  the  case.    A  noise  is  al- 
ways produced  by  an  irregular,  disconnected  dis- 
turbance in  the  air;  and  this  in  turn  is  due  to 
an  irr^ular  succession  of  vibrations,  each  last- 
ing for  a  brief  interval.    A  simple  musical  note 
is  always   due   to   a  simple   harmonic   train    of 
waves;  and  this,  to  a  simple  harmonic  vibration. 
The  loudness  of  the  note  varies  directly  with  the 
amplitude  of  the  waves;  whatever  increases  the 
amplitude  of  the  waves  increases  the  loudness  of 
the  sound,  and  vice  versa.    It  is  increased,  there- 
fore, by  an  increased  amplitude  of  the  vibration; 
and  it  decreases  as  the  distance  from  the  ear  to 
the  vibrating  body  is  increased.    (It  should  not 
be  thought,  however,  that  numerical  values  can 
be  given  the  loudness  of  a  sound,  or  that  there 
is  any  fixed  numerical  relation  between  the  am- 
plitude of  the  waves   and  the  intensity  of  the 
sensation.)    The  pitch  of  the  note  depends  upon 
the  wave-number  of  the  waves  entering  the  ear; 
whatever  increases  the  wave-number  ** raises"  the 
pitch,  and  vice  versa.    Therefore,  if  the  ear  and 
the  vibrating  body  are  at  a  fixed  distance  apart, 
and  at  rest  with  reference  to  their  positions  in 
space,  the  pitch  will  vary  directly  with  the  fre- 
quency of  the  vibrating  body,  thus  we  often  use 
the  expression,   "a  pitch  of  300,"  meaning  the 
pitch  of  a  sound  produced  by  a  vibrating  body 
which  makes  300  complete  vibrations  in  one  sec- 
ond.    If,    however,    the   vibrating   body   is   ap- 
proaching the  ear,  or  if  the  ear  is  approaching 
the  vibrating  body,  the  number  of  waves  enter- 
ing the  ear  is  greater  than  it  would  be  if  there 
were  no  such  motion;  and  so  the  wave-number 
is  greater  than  the  frequency  of  the   vibrating 
body,  and  the  pitch  of  the  sound  is  raised.    Sim- 
ilarly, if  the  distance  between  the  ear  and  the 
vibrating  body  is   increasing,  the   wave-number 
is  less  than  the  frequency  of  the  vibration,  and 
the  pitch  is  lowered.    This  change  of  pitch,  due 
to  the  relative  motions  of  the  ear  and  the  vibrat- 
ing body  in  the  surrounding  medium,  is  known 
as  Doppler's    Principle  (q.v/),  and  is  illustrated 
by  the  sudden  drop  in  pitch  if  one  stands  on  the 
platform  of  a  railway  station  and  listens  to  the 
whistle  of  a  locomotive  passing  at  a  high  si>eed. 
A  complex   musical  note  is  always   due  to  a 
complex  train  of  waves,  and  this,  in  turn,  to  a 
complex  vibration,  if  there  is  only  one  vibrating 
body.    Further,  two  notes  which  differ  in  qual- 
ity may  be  shown  to  be  due  to  complex  trains 
of  waves  which  differ  in    complexity.     But   it 
should  be  noted  that  all  experimental  evidence 
points  to  the   idea  that  differences   In   relative 


phases  of  the  component  trains  of  waves  do  not 
cause  differences  in  the  quality  of  the  sound 
heard.  In  other  words,  two  complex  trains  of 
waves  made  up  of  the  same  simple  waves  will 
produce  the  same  sound,  regardless  of  the  phases 
in  the  two  trains.  This  may  be  explained  by 
saying  that  the  ear  automatically  resolves  a 
complex  train  of  waves  into  its  simple  harmonic 
component  trains,  hears  the  simple  tones  due  to 
each  of  these,  and,  therefore,  has  a  complex  sen- 
sation. This  statement  is  called  **  Ohm's  law  for 
sound-sensation.' ' 

Fundamental,  Partial,  and  Combinational 
Vibrations.  Musical  instruments  may  be  di- 
vided roughly  into  two  classes,  wind  and  string 
instruments.  In  the  former  class  are  included 
orga-npipes,  horns,  flutes,  etc.;  in  the  latter, 
pianos,  violins,  harps,  etc.  In  all  wind  instru- 
ments a  column  of  air  inclosed  in  a  metal  or 
wooden  tube  is  set  in  vibration  by  suitable 
means,  and  this  vibrating  mass  produces  the 
waves  in  the  surrounding  air.  In  string  in- 
struments, flexible  strings  are  stretched  between 
pegs  fastened  to  a  solid  frame— in  general  a 
wooden  board — and  they  are  set  in  transverse 
vibration  by  bowing,  plucking  or  striking.  As 
a  result  of  the  vibration  of  the  string,  the  frame 
holding  the  pegs  is  itself  set  in  vibrations  of  the 
same  frequency,  and  it,  as  well  as  the  string 
itself,  produces  the  waves.  The  importance  of 
the  so-called  sounding-board  is  at  once  evident. 


Fio.  8. 

A  stretched  flexible  string,  A  B,  can  vibrate  in 
many  waves:  as  a  whole,  with  its  middle  point 
its  point  of  greateflit  amplitude,  as  in  1  (fig.  3); 
in  two  parts,  with  its  middle  point,  6,  at  rest, 
and  the  two  halves  vibrating  like  separate 
strings  in  opposite  phases,  as  in  2  (fig.  3);  in 
three  parts,  with  two  points,  c  and  6,  at  rest,  di- 
viding the  string  into  three  equal  vibrating  seg- 
ments, as  in  8  (fig.  3),  etc.  The  frequencies  of 
these  differfflit  modes  of  vibration  are  in  the 
ratios  of  1:2:8:4,  etc.  The  vibration  of  the 
string  as  a  whole  is  called  the  ** fundamental;" 
the  others,  the  "upper  partials."  The  frequency 
of  the  transverse  vibrations  of  a  stretched  flex- 
ible string  is  given  by  the  formula: 


"-Ai^i 


Where  T  is  the  stretching  force  or  tension,  m 
is  the  mass  of  each  unit  length  of  the  string;  L 
is  the  length  of  the  vibrating  segment.  Thus, 
in  the  fundamental,  L  is  the  length  of  the  string; 
in  the  first  upper  partial  it  is  one-half  the  length 
of  the  string,  etc.  When  the  string  is  set  vi- 
brating by  a  random  blow  or  bowing,  it  will 
make  complex  vibrations,  resulting  from  the 
combination  of  the  fundamental  and  some  of 
the  upper  partials,  the  number  and  relative  in- 
tensities of  these  depending  largely  on  the  point 
where  the  blow  is  struck,  or  the  bow  applied, 
and  on  the  character  of  the  impulse.    So,  when- 


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ACOUSTICS. 

ever  a  muBical  tx>ne  is  produced  by  a  string 
instrument,  the  ear  can  recognize  in  the  complex 
sound  simple  tones  due  to  the  fundamental  and 
the  upper  partials;  and  differences  in  the  qual- 
ity of  sounds  caused  by  different  string  instru- 
ments, which  have  fundamentals  of  uie  same 
frequency,  are  due  to  differences  in  the  number 
and  character  of  the  upper  partials,  which  de- 
pend in  turn  on  the  material  of  the  string,  the 
point  where  the  impulse  is  applied  to  set  the 
string  in  motion,  and  the  character  of  this  im- 
pulse. Similarly,  the  vibrating  column  of  air  in 
organ-pipes,  horns,  etc.,  can  vibrate  in  different 
ways;  and  in  a  complex  vibration  there  is  a 
fundamental  and  upper  partials  whose  frequen- 
cies are  in  the  ratios  of  1:2:3:4,  etc.  The 
frequency  of  the  vibrations  of  the  fundamental 
in  an  open  organ-pipe  is  given  by  the  formula : 


84 


ACOUSTICS. 


y= 


2  L 


where  V  is  the  velocity  of  waves  in  the  gas 
which  fills  the  pipe,  and  h  is  the  length  of  the 
pipe  approximately.  The  similar  formula  for  a 
"stopped"  pipe  is: 

(In  stopped  organ-pipes  the  vibrations  are  in 
the  ratios  1:3:5:7,  etc.)  In  other  in- 
struments than  wind  and  string  ones,  such  as 
drums,  cymbals,  etc.,  there  are  upper  partials 
besides  the  fundamental;  but  there  is  no  simple 
mathematical  relation  between  their  frequencies. 
When  two  organ-pipes  on  the  same  wind-chest 
are  "sounded"  loudly,  the  resulting  waves  in  the 
air  are  not  due  simply  to  each  fundamental  and 
its  upper  partials,  but  also  to  certain  extra  vi- 
brations due  to  the  combined  action  of  the  two 
vibrating  columns  of  air  on  the  surrounding  air. 
Thus,  if  the  fundamentals  of  the  two  pipes  have 
frequencies  1000  and  600,  there  will  be  present 
waves  showing  the  existence  of  vibrations  whose 
frequencies  are  1000  +  COO  and  1000—600.  The 
sounds  heard  owing  to  these  vibrations  are  called 
"summational"  and  "differential"  tones,  or,  in 
general,  "combinational"  tones;  they  are  always 
difficult  to  hear.  The  existence  of  both  partial 
and  combinational  vibrations  may,  however,  be 
established  by  means  of  resonators  (q.v.). 

Harmony  and  Discord.  If  two  organ-pipes 
whose  frequencies  do  not  differ  much  are  sounded 
together,  the  ear  observes  a  fluctuation  in  the 
•  loudness  of  the  resulting  soiind.  It  is  first  loud, 
then  weak,  loud  and  weak,  etc.,  giving  rise  to 
what  are  called  "beats,"  the  number  of  beats 
per  second  being  equal  to  the  difference  in  the 
frequencies  of  the  pipes.  Thus,  two  pipes  of 
frequencies  280  and  285  produce  5  beats  per 
second.  The  explanation  of  the  phenomenon 
lies  in  the  superposition  of  the  two  resulting 
trains  of  waves;  for,  if  the  wave-number  of  one 
train  exceeds  that  of  the  other  by  five,  it  will 
happen  five  times  in  the  course  of  a  second  that 
when  one  train  of  waves  reaches  the  ear  in  a 


certain  phase,  the  other  train  will  reach  the  ear 
in  an  exactly  opposite  phase;  and  so  the  two 
waves  will  tend  to  neutralize  each  other's  action 
and  thus  make  the  sound  weak;  whereas,  in  be- 
tween these  instants  of  weakness  there  will  be 
others  when  the  two  waves  reach  the  ear  in  the 
same  phase,  and  so  reinforce  each  other  and  thus 
make  the  sound  loud.    This  is  shown  diagram- 
matically  in  fig.  4,  where  there  are  two  trains  of 
waves  of  unequal  wave-number  which  interfere 
and  produce  beats.    Tfie  wave-length  of  one  set 
is  A  d,  which  is  four-fifths  of  A  J,  the  wave 
length  of  the  other.    The  two  waves  at  A  are  in 
the  same  phase,  and  there  is  increased  soimd; 
but  as  the  motion  progresses,  one  train  loses  with 
respect  to  the  other,  until  they  are  in  opposite 
phase,  as  at  (7  and  D,  where  silence  ensues.  Beats 
are  disagreeable  to  hear,  for  the  same  reason 
that  a  fiashing  light  is  unpleasant  to  see,  or  a 
tickling  feather  to  feel,  namely,  the  nerves  being 
first  stimulated,  then  allowed  to  partially  re- 
cover, then  again  stimulated,  etc.,  are  disagree- 
ably affected.    The  degree  of  unpleasantness  de- 
pends in  part  on  the  number  of  beats,  but  also 
on  the  pitch  of  the  note,  whose  intensity  is  fluc- 
tuating.    Beats  can  be  formed  by  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  upper  partials  as  well  as  by  the  fun- 
damentals, and  by  the  combinational  vibrations 
also.    Thus,   if  two  organ-pipes   of  frequendes 
500  and  252  are  sounded  together,  the  first  upper 
partial  of  the  pipe  whose  fundamental  is  252, 
i.e.,  a  note  of  frequency  504  will  beat  with  the 
other  fundamental  whose  frequency  is  500.    If, 
however,   two    organ-pipes    are    sounded  whose 
fundamentals  are  such  that  there  are  no  beats 
except  between  the  upper  partials  of  high  or- 
ders, the  sensation  should  be  a  pleasant  one; 
and  such  is  observed.    To  secure  such  a  condi- 
tion it  is  evident  that  the  ratios  of  the  frequen- 
cies of  the  fundamentals  must  be  simple  frac- 
tions,  1:1,   1:2,   1  :  3,  2  :  3,   1:4,   3  :  4,  etc. 
Such  combinations  of  two  notes  produce  what  is 
called  "harmony."    On  the  other  hand,  whenever 
beats  can  be  expected  between  two  notes  or  their 
partials,  or  their  combinational  notes,  an  un- 
pleasant sensation  called  "discord"  is  observed, 
it  being  possible  to  predict  the  degree  of  the  dis- 
cord from  the  number  of  beats  which  most  oc- 
cur.   This  explanation  of  harmony  and  discord 
is  due  to  Helmholtz.    The  explanation  of  "mel- 
ody," that  is,  the  pleasant  sensation  perceived 
when  notes,  suitably  chosen,  are  sounded  consec- 
utively, is  undoubtedly  psychological,  not  physi- 
cal.   For  the  discussion  of  the  formation  of  musi- 
cal scales  based  on  these  simple  harmonies,  see 
Musical  Scales. 

Limits  of  Hearing.  Atrial  waves  of  all  wave- 
numbers  do  not  affect  the  auditory  nerves  of  the 
normal  human  ear,  it  being  found  by  trial  that 
wave-numbers  less  than  30  do  not  produce  a 
musical  tone,  and  wave-numbers  exceeding  about 
20,000  do  not  produce  sound  at  all.  For  musi- 
cal purposes  the  extremes  are  about  40  and  4000. 
To  study  waves  whose  wave-numbers  exceed 
10,000  (and  in  fact  for  those  of  much  less  num- 


rio.  4. 


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AGOVSTICa 

ber)  the  best  instrument  is  the  "sensitive  flame," 
which  consists  ordinarily  of  an  ignited  jet  of  sas 
escaping  from  a  small  circular  orifice  under  high 
pressure,  thus  giving  a  more  or  less  cylindrical 
flame  about  a  foot  high.  When  waves  of  a  great 
wave-number  fall  upon  such  a  flame  the^  break 
through  the  inclosing  envelope  separating  the 
gas  from  the  air,  thus  causing  the  jet  to  "flare" 
out  like  a  fan. 

Velocity  of  Sound.  The  waves  produced  in 
the  air  by  vibrating  bodies  are  often  called 
""sound  waves,"  although  the  name  is  not  a  good 
one.  Similarly,  compressional  waves  in  any  me- 
dium, solid,  liquid,  or  gas,  are  called  "sound 
waves"  in  these  media.  These  waves  spread  out 
from  the  vibrating  body  into  the  surrounding 
medium  with  a  velocity  called  the  **velocity  of 
sound,"  which  depends  alone  upon  the  elasticity 
of  the  medium  with  respect  to  a  compression  and 
upon  its  density,  if  the  medium  is  homogeneous. 
Like  all  waves,  they  may  experience  reflection, 
e.g.,  echoes;  refraction,  as  when  passing  from 
cold  air  to  hot  air,  or  dense  air  to  rare;  disper- 
sion; interference.  Reference  should  be  made 
to  a  paper  by  Professor  R.  W.  Wood  in  the  Philo- 
sophical Magazine,  Volume  XLVIII.,  p.  218, 1899, 
for  a  description  of  a  most  interesting  series  of 
experiments  on  these  properties  of  atrial  waves. 

The  best  determinations  of  the  velocity  of 
these  waves  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Cfasea  at  0*  (7. 

Air  (dry) 331.36  metres  per  second 

Hydrogen    1286. 

Oiygen    317.  "  "         " 

Carbon  dioxide.     262. 

Solids  and  Liquids, 

Aluminium 6104.  «         «        « 

Steel    4990. 

Glass,  about....  6600. 
Water    1436. 

The  velocity  of  compressional  waves  varies 
greatly  with  the  temperature.  For  a  gas  the 
veloci^  at  f*  C.  equals  that  at  0"*  G.  multiplied 


/ 


273 -ht 


273 

When  waves  pass  from  a  r^on  where  the  air 
is  cold  into  one  where  it  is  warm,  reflection 
takes  place  at  the  bounding  surface,  and  thus 
the  entering  waves  are  not  only  reft-acted  but 
also  weakened  in  intensity.  The  presence  of  fog 
by  itself  in  the  air  has  very  little  eflfect  upon  the 
waves,  unless  there  are  currents  or  layers  of 
hot  or  cold  air.  The  velocity  of  waves  in  air 
is  practically  independent  of  the  intensity  of  the 
vibration,  although  the  waves  produced  by  a  sud- 
den explosion  travel  at  flrst  slightly  faster  than 
do  ordinary  waves. 

AcouBTio  Pboperties  of  Halls.  When  an 
organ-pipe  or  any  elastic  body  is  sounded  in  a 
room  and  then  suddenly  stopped,  it  is  noticed 
that  the  sound  does  not  instantly  cease,  but  con- 
tinues for  several  seconds.  This  is  called  rever- 
beration; and  the  acoustic  success  of  a  room  de- 
pends largely  upon  its  duration.  It  should  not 
(xceed  two  seconds  by  more  than  a  few  tenths  of 
a  second  if  the  room  is  to  be  used  as  a  music 
hall  or  opera  house.  It  is  found  that  the  rever- 
beration in  a  given  room  is  practically  inde- 
pendent of  the  place  where  the  vibrating  body  is 


85  AGQUISmON. 

situated,  or  of  the  position  of  the  hearer;  it  de- 
pends upon  the  volume  of  the  room,  upon  the 
material  of  the  walls  and  floors,  upon  the  cush- 
ions, the  audience,  etc.,  and  to  a  certain  extent 
upon  the  intensity  of  the  sound.  The  following 
approximate  formula  has  been  developed  by  Pro- 
fessor Sabine  of  Harvard  University: 

(a  -f  5j  »i  +  6,  a?,  -f  etc.)  t  =  0.164  V 

Where  a  is  a  constant  depending  upon  the  ab- 
sorbing power  of  the  walls  of  the  room. 

b  is  a  coefficient  of  "absorption"  for  one 
square  metre  of  a  definite  material  put 
anywhere  in  the  room,  the  standard  of 
comparison  being  the  absorption  of  one 
square  metre  of  open  window. 

w  is  the  number  of  square  metres  of  the 
material. 

i  is  the  duration  of  reverberation. 

V  is  the  volume  of  the  room  in  cubic 
metres. 

The  absorption  coeflicients  for  some  substances 
are  as  follows: 

Hard  pine  wood-sheathing 0.061 

Plaster  on  wood- lath 0.034 

Plaster  on  wire-lath 0.083 

Audience  (per  square  metre) ....  0.96 

Isolated  woman 0.54 

Isolated  man 0.48 

Carpet   rugs 0.20 

House  plants 0.11 

Upholstered  chairs 0.30 

Hair  cushions  (per  seat) 0.21 

The  duration  of  reverberation  in  certain  music 
halls  and  auditoriums  is  as  follows: 

Old  Music  Hall,  Boston,  Mass 2.44 

New  Music  Hall,  Boston,  Mass 2.31 

Gewandhaus,  Leipzig,  Germany 2.30 

Sanders'  Theatre,  Cambridge,  Mass 3.42 

BiBLiooRAFHT.  Raylcigh,  Theory  of  Bound,  2 
volumes  (London,  1896) ;  a  mathematical  treat- 
ment, but  with  several  descriptive  chapters; 
Helmholtz,  Sensations  of  Tone,  translated  by 
Ellis  (London,  1895),  the  standard  authority  on 
harmony  and  music;  Sabine,  Architectural 
Acoustics  (Boston,  1900),  which  contains  the 
only  satisfactory  treatment  of  this  important 
Question;  Thomson  and  Poynting,  Sound  (Lon- 
don, 1899)  ;  a  text-book  for  schools  and  colleges, 
and  a  storehouse  of  accurate  information. 

ACQUI,  a^w6  (ancient  Aquw  Statiellce),  An 
episcopal  city  of  northern  Italy,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Bormida,  37  miles  northwest  of  €Jenoa 
(Map:  Italy,  C  3).  Every  winter  more  than 
6000  persons  take  the  cure  at  the  hot  and  cold 
sulphur  springs  that  gave  it  its  name.  It  has 
a  Gothic  cathedral  of  the  eleventh  century,  a 
seminary,  a  college,  and  the  ruins  of  a  Roman 
aqueduct.  The  chief  trade  is  in  silk,  lace«  rope, 
and  wine.    Pop.,  1901,  13,786. 

ACQUISFTION.  In  law,  a  term  which  has 
the  double  meaning  of  the  acquirement  of  ter- 
ritory by  the  state,  and  of  title  to  real  or  per- 
sonal property  by  the  individual.  In  the  case 
of  the  state  it  is  effected  in  three  ways :  ( 1 )  By 
occupation,  (2)  by  treaty  and  convention,  and 
(3)  by  conquest  (q.v.).  As  referrinc  to  the 
origin  of  title  to  lands  or  goods,  acquisition  is 
either  original  or  derivative.  The  former  com- 
prehends occupation,  accession,  and  prescription 


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ACQUISITION. 

or' limitation  (q.v.)  ;  the  latter,  the  more  usual 
modes  of  acquiring  title,  as  alienation  by  gift 
or  sale,  exchange,  inheritance,  and  transfer  by 
will  (qq.v.)-  In  the  Enelish  and  American  law 
of  real  property  the  whme  subject  is  dealt  with 
under  the  head  of  title  (q.v.).  Consult:  Black- 
stone,  Commeniariea  on  the  Laws  of  England; 
Kent,  Commentaries  on  American  Law. 

ACQTJIT^AL  (O.  F.  aquifer ,  from  Lat.  ad, 
to  +  quietare,  to  quiet).  In  criminal  law,  the 
judicial  discharge  of  the  accused.  It  may  result 
from  some  technical  defect  in  the  proceedings, 
or  from  a  verdict  in  the  accused's  favor  on  the 
merits.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  not  a  bar  to 
a  second  prosecution  for  the  same  offense;  in 
the  latter  case,  it  is  a  bar,  as  well  b^  common 
law  as,  in  this  country,  by  constitutional  pro- 
vision.    See  AuTRFEOis  Acquit  and  Jeopardy. 

ACBA^NIA  (Gk.  h,  a,  priv.  +  Kpaviov,  kran- 
ion,  skull).  A  group  of  vertebrates  having 
no  skull  or  heart,  and  represented  only  by  the 
lancelets.     See  Amphioxub. 

ACBA^SIA.  A  beautiful  enchantress  in 
Spenser's  Faerie  Queen.  Her  name  (Gk.  aKpaaia, 
akrasia,  intemperance)  denotes  her  character. 
She  dwells  in  a  "Bower  of  Bliss,"  on  a  floating 
island  of  sensuous  delight,  and  the  fairy  queen 
sends  Sir  Guyon  to  make  an  end  of  her  seductive 
abode. 

ACBA^ES.  A  male  character  in  Spenser's 
Faerie  Queen,  typifying  intemperance  in  the 
pursuit  of  pleasure  (Gk.  iucpanj^,  akratSs,  in- 
temperate). 

A^CBE.  A  word  identical  with  Lat.  ager,  Gk. 
aypdg,  agro8,  a  field,  and  the  Ger.  Acker,  which 
means  both  a  field  and  a  measure  of  land.  Most 
nations  have  some  measure  nearly  correspond- 
ing; originally,  perhaps,  the  quantity  which  one 
could  plow  in  a  day;  uniformity,  therefore,  is 
not  to  be  looked  for. 

The  English  statute  acre  consists  of  4840 
square  yards.  The  chain  with  which  land  is 
measured  is  22  yards  long,  and  a  square  chain 
will  contain  22  X  22,  or  484  yards;  so  that  10 
square  chains  make  an  acre.  The  acre  is  divided 
into  4  roods,  a  rood  into  4  perches,  and  a  perch 
contains  3014  square  yards.  The  Scotch  acre 
is  larger  than  the  English,  and  the  Irish  than 
the  Scotch.  One  hundred  and  twenty-one  Irish 
acres  =196  English  nearly;  48  Scotch  acres  = 
61  English.  The  following  table  shows  the 
values  of  the  more  important  corresponding 
measures  compared  with  the  English  acre.  The 
German  Morgen  below  are  becoming  obsolete, 
as  the  German  empire  has  adopted  the  French 
metrical  system. 

English   acre    1.00 

Scotch        "       1.27 

Irish  "       1.C2 

Austria,  joch   1.42 

Baden,    morgen 0.89 

Belgium,  hectare  (French) 2.47 

Denmark,   toende    5.05 

France,  hectare  (=100  ares) 2.47 

France,  arpent  (common) 0.99 

Holland,       "  2.10 

Naples,  moggia   0.83 

Portugal,  geira   1.43 

Prussia,  little  morgen 0.63 

Prussia,  great  morgen 1.40 

Russia,  desyatina 2.70 

Saxony,  morgen    1.36 


gg  ACBOBAT. 

Spain,  fanegada 1.06 

Sweden,  tunneland  1.13 

Switzerland,  faux  1.62 

"  Geneva,  arpent 1.27 

Tuscany,  saccata 1.22 

United  States,  English  acre 1.00 

WOrttemberg,  morgen 2.40 

Roman  iugerum    (ancient) 0.66 

Greek  pleUiron    (ancient) 0.23 

ACBE,  a'ker  or  a'ker,  or  St.  Jean  d'Acre. 
A  seaport  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  a  few  miles 
north  of  Mount  Carmel.  It  has  about  7000 
inhabitants.  The  harbor  is  partly  choked  with 
sand,  yet  is  one  of  the  best  on  this  coast 
Acre  is  the  Accho  of  the  Bible,  and  has  been 
known  at  different  periods  as  Acco,  Akka,  Aeon, 
Accaron,  and  in  Roman  times  Ptolemats.  It  is 
Arst  mentioned  in  a  dispatch  sent  by  King  Bur* 
raburiash  of  Babylon  to  Amenhotep  TV.  (UOO 
B.C.?).  It  was  taken  by  the  Assyrians  under 
Sennacherib  and  given  by  Esarhaddon  to  the 
King  of  Tyre,  with  which  it  came  subsequently 
into  the  possession  of  the  Seleucid  kings  of 
Syria.  The  Romans  made  it  a  colony.  In  638 
the  town  was  captured  by  the  Arabs.  In  1104 
it  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders;  in  1187  it  was  re- 
captured by  the  sultan  Saladin,  and  in  1191  fell 
once  more  into  the  hands  of  the  Crusaders,  and 
became  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  of  the  Order  of 
St.  John.  It  was  the  last  stronghold  of  the 
Crusaders  in  Palestine,  being  surrendered  to  the 
Saracens  in  1291,  after  an  obstinate  defense  by 
the  crusading  orders..  In  1617  it  was  captured 
by  the  Turks.  In  1799  it  was  besieged  by  the 
French  under  Napoleon  Bonaparte  for  sixty-one 
days,  but  was  successfully  defended  by  the  garri- 
son, aided  by  a  body  of  English  sailors  and 
marines  under  Sir  Sydney  Smith.  In  1832  it 
was  stormed  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  son  of  the  vice- 
roy of  Egypt,  and  continued  in  his  possession 
till  it  was  Dombarded  and  taken  in  1840  by  a 
combined  English,  Austrian,  and  Turkish  fleet 
See  Egypt;  Seleucib^. 

ADOBES,  Bob.  A  character  in  Sheridan's 
Rivals,  He  appears  as  a  somewhat  rustic  gen- 
tleman, of  bombastic  manners  and  ludicrous  cow- 
ardice, noted  particularly  for  what  he  calls  his 
"oath  referential  or  sentimental  swearing." 

ACBI,  a'kr*.  A  city  in  Calabria,  southern 
Italy,  13  miles  northeast  of  Cosenza  (Map:  Italy, 
L  8).  The  neighboring  country  is  beautiful, 
healthful,  and  fertile,  and  produces  oil,  wine, 
fruit,  and  cotton.     Pop.,  about  4000. 

AC'BIDI^JE.  See  Gbasshoppeb.  • 
AC^BOBAT  (Gk.  one  walking  on  tiptoe,  from 
d«cpof,  akros,  highest,  +  ^alvnv,  hainein,  to 
go).  The  presence  of  the  word  in  very  early 
times  in  most  European  languages  may  be  taken 
to  indicate  the  remote  origin  of  the  exer- 
cise which  called  the  term  into  use.  Originally 
it  was  doubtless  used  to  denote  the  acrobatic 
feats  of  the  rope-dancers,  but  in  the  course  of 
centuries  its  meaning  has  extended  so  that  it  in- 
cludes many  things  which  were  unknown  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  as  familiarly  as  were  the 
rope-dancers,  who,  as  Terence  in  his  prologue  to 
Becyra  complains,  distracted  the  attention  of 
the  public  from  his  play;  and  so  does  history 
repeat  itself,  a  writer  in  the  Tatler  expresses 
his  surprise  at  finding  so  small  an  audience  at 
the  opera,  because  the  rope-dancer  was  not  in 
the  bill  that  night.    The  most  recent  celebrated 


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ACBOBAT. 


87 


ACBOSTIC. 


exponent  of  the  ori^nal  art  was  Blondin,  who 
crossed  Niagara  Falls  on  a  rope,  carrying  a  man 
on  his  back.  But  this  was  no  unheard-of  feat, 
for  when  Isabel  of  Bavaria,  Queen  to  Charles  VI. 
of  France,  made  her  entry  into  Paris,  says  Frois- 
sart,  who  was  an  eye  witness,  a  cord  was 
stretched  from  the  highest  house  on  the  bridge 
of  St.  Michel  to  the  topmost  gallery  of  the 
Church  of  Our  Lady  and  an  acrobat  carried  two 
boys  holding  lighted  candles  over  it.  From  be- 
ing a  rope-dancer,  or  rather  balancer  only,  the 
acrobat  gradually  added  to  his  exhibits  other 
balancing  and  tumbling  acts.  Vaulting  and  jug- 
gling and  contortions  became  part  of  the  enter- 
tainments of  the  Middle  Ages.  Edward  III.  paid 
jugglers  handsomely  for  exhibiting  their  acro- 
batic skill  and  the  flexibility  of  their  bodies.  The 
austere  Queen  Mary  even  relaxed  at  their 
pranks;  and  when  Queen  Elizabeth  attended  the 
revels  at  Kenilworth  Castle,  which  Sir  Walter 
S<-ott  has  immortalized,  she  was  vastly  enter- 
tained by  acrobatic  tumblers.  Even  the  wonder- 
ful balancing  feats  of  the  Japanese  with  ladders 
at  right  angles,  up  and  down  which  a  second 
man  climbs  in  apparent  defiance  of  the  laws  of 
equilibrium,  had  their  prototypes,  if  not  equals, 
amongst  the  European  acrobats  of  two  hundred 
years  ago,  whilst  modern  somersault- throwing 
and  leaping  through  hoops  are  illustrated  in 
manuscripts  as  far  back  as  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. The  more  liberal  interpretation  of  the 
word  now  includes  performances  on  the  trapeze, 
the  horizontal  bar,  and  the  other  pieces  of  appa- 
ratus usually  found  in  gjrmnasiums  for  the  de- 
velopment of  the  suppleness  of  the  body.  Con- 
sult: I^  Roux  and  Gamier,  Acrobats  and 
Mountebanks,  translated  by  A.  P.  Morton,  illus- 
trated (London,  1890). 

ACrBLOCEBJLVnstlA  (literally,  "Thunder- 
Heigbts,"  from  Gk.  4*pof,  akros,  highest,  + 
Ktpawog^  keraurws,  thunderbolt).  The  north- 
wefttern  promontory  of  Epirus,  which  forms  the 
termination  of  the  Ceraunian,  or  Acroceraunian, 
Mountains.  It  was  a  dangerous  point  for  sail- 
ors, and  was  named  from  the  frequent  thunder- 
storms that  occurred  there.  It  is  the  modem 
Cape  Glossa. 

ACBOCOBINTHUS  (Gk.  ^AKpoKdptvOoc, 
Akrokorinthos) .  A  steep  hill  2000  feet  in 
height  which  was  the  citadel  of  ancient  Corinth, 
and  is  still  crowned  by  ruined  Byzantine  fortifi- 
cations.   The  hill  commands  a  superb  view. 

ACEOLBIN,  A-krO^Mn  (Lat.  acer,  sharp,  -(- 
alere,  to  smell ) ,  C^HaCHO.  A  colorless  liquid  hav- 
ing an  extremely  irritating  odor.  It  is  produced 
in  the  incomplete  combustion  of  fats  and  when 
ordinary  glycerine  is  distilled  with  sulphuric 
acid  or  other  dehydrating  agents.  Some  acrolein 
is  produced  when  fats  are  overheated  in  cooking, 
and  when  the  wick  of  a  candle  just  blown  out  is 
left  smoldering.  Its  reactions  show  that  it 
contains  the  atomic  group  CHO;  it  is,  there- 
fore, classed  with  the  aldehydes.  Bromine  adds 
itself  directly  to  acrolein,  forming  an  "additive 
product"  of  the  composition,  C^HaBrjCHO ;  which 
shows  that  acrolein  must  be  classed  with  the  un- 
saturated organic  compounds. 

ACKBOLITHS  (Gk.  oKpoc,  akros,  highest,  ex- 
treme, -f  A/8of,  lithos,  stone).  In  the  early 
development  of  Greek  art  there  came  a  period 
^'hen  the  ideal  of  the  Hellenes  no  longer  permit- 
ted them  to  look  upon  a  god  as  a  mere  idol,  but 
^  a  being  endowed  with  mind  and  conscious- 


ness. Therefore,  instead  of  a  tawdry  repi^esenta- 
tion,  they  conceived  a  worthier  image  carved  in 
wood.  'JThe  body  was  ornamented  with  a  thin 
armor  of  gold;  the  head  and  lower  extremities 
were  formed  of  stone  or  marble.  The  figures  so 
constructed  were  called  acroliths. 

ACBOMEGKALT  (Gk.  dxpog,  akros,  high- 
est, extreme,  +  fiiyac,  megas,  great).  A 
chronic  nervous  disease  characterized  by  a  grad- 
ual and  permanent  enlargement  of  the  head,  tho- 
rax, hands,  and  feet,  and  by  a  curvature  back- 
ward of  the  spine.  It  was  first  described  in  1880 
by  Marie.  It  occurs  in  both  men  and  women,  be- 
ginning apparently  about  the  age  of  eighteen 
or  twenty.  Some  pains  and  functional  disturb- 
ances, as  well  as  anaemia,  accompany  its  on- 
set. Both  soft  tissues  and  bones  are  enlarged, 
the  lower  jaw,  tongue,  lips,  and  nose  being  very 
greatly  hypertrophied.  T?he  hand  sometimes 
reaches  8  inches  in  length,  the  foot  12  inches, 
while  the  circumference  of  the  head  may  reach 
26  inches.  The  cause  of  this  perversion  of  nutri- 
tion is  unknown.  Consult:  Dana,  Text-hook  of 
Nervous  Diseases  (New  York,  1901). 

A'CBON  (Gk.  'AKfMv,  Akr(in),  A  physician 
of  the  fifth  century  B.C.,  native  of  Agri- 
gentum  in  Sicily.  Tradition  says  that  he  suc- 
cessfully combated  the  great  plague  in  Athens 
in  430  B.C.  by  building  large  fires  to  purify  the 
air.  The  Empiricists  claimed  him  as  the  father 
of  their  school.  His  medical  works  are  wholly 
lost. 

ACBOP^OLIS  (Gk.  &Kpoc,  akros,  highest,  -f 
ffrf^f,  polls,  city).  Originally  the  fortified  ref- 
uge of  a  district,  usually  containing  the  pal- 
ace of  the  chief.  For  this  purpose  a  natural 
stronghold  was  selected  and  strengthened  by  arti- 
ficial defenses.  Around  the  acropolis  a  city  fre- 
quently arose,  and  when  this  was  defended  by  a 
wall  the  acropolis  sometimes  lost  its  military 


il— Parthenon. 

J9— Foundation  of  Early 

Temple. 
C— Mofieom. 
2>— Terrace. 
J^Erecthenm. 


G^Precinct  of  Artemis 

Brauronia. 
^—Temple  of  Victory. 
7— AiH'ippa  Pedestal. 
•7^— Pmacotheca. 
JT— Altar  to  Rome  and 

Anfnistus  Casar. 


character  and  was  given  over  to  temples,  as  hav- 
ing been  the  centre  of  the  oldest  cults.  The 
acropolis  of  Athens  is  the  best  example  of  this 
change,  and  is  also  the  most  celebrated.  (See 
Athens.)  Other  noteworthy  acropolises  are 
the  Larissa  at  Argos,  Acrocorinthus  at  Corinth, 
Mount  Ithome  at  Messene,  and  the  Cadmea  at 
Thebes.  The  name  is  frequently  applied  to  any 
fortified  hill  commanding  an  ancient  site;  so  at 
Troy,  MyceiMB,  Tiryns,  Pergamum,  Priene,  etc. 

ACBOSTIC  (Gk.  &Kpov,  akron,  extremity, 
end,  +  oTixoc,  stichos,  line,  verse).  A  Greek 
term  for  a  number  of  verses,  the  first  letters  of 


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ACBOSnC. 


88 


ACT. 


which  follow  some  predetermined  order,  usually 
forming  a  word — most  commonly  a  name — or  a 
phrase  or  sentence.  Sometimes  the  final  letters 
spell  words  as  well  as  the  initial,  and  the  pe- 
culiarity will  even  nin  down  the  middle  ot  the 
poem  like  a  seam.  Sir  John  Davies  composed 
twenty-six  Eymna  to  Astrea  (Queen  Elizabeth), 
in  every  one  of  which  the  initial  letters  of  the 
lines  form  the  words  £lisabetha  Regina. 

In  the  acrostic  poetry  of  the  Hebrews  the  initial 
letters  of  the  lines  or  of  the  stanzas  were  made  to 
run  over  the  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  their  or- 
der. Twelve  of  the  psalms  of  the  Old  Testament 
are  written  on  this  plan.  The  119th  Psalm  is 
the  most  remarkable.  It  is  composed  of  twenty- 
two  divisions  or  stanzas  (corresponding  to  the 
twenty-two  letters  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet ) ,  each 
stanza  consisting  of  eight  couplets,  and  the  first 
line  of  each  couplet  in  the  first  stanza  begins  in 
the  original  Hebrew  with  the  letter  aleph,  in  the 
second  stanza  with  beih,  etc.  The  divisions  of  the 
psalm  are  named  each  ajfter  the  letter  that  begins 
the  couplets,  and  these  names  have  been  retained 
in  the  English  translation.  With  a  view  to  aid 
the  memory  it  was  customary  at  one  time  to 
compose  verses  on  sacred  subjects  after  the  fash- 
ion of  those  Hebrew  acrostics,  the  successive 
verses  or  lines  beginning  with  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  in  their  order.  Such  pieces  were  called 
Abecedarian  Hymns, 

ACBOTITBION  (Gk.  aKfxjT^piav,  akr6t&- 
rion,  the  summit  or  extremity).  A  term  in  archi- 


ACBOTEUION. 

tocture  for  a  statue  or  other  ornament,  often  a 
palmette,  placed  on  the  apex  or  at  one  of  the 
lower  angles  of  a  pediment. 

ACT  (Lat.  actu8,  the  doing  or  performing  of 
a  thing;  actum,  a  public  transaction,  record). 
A  term  of  law  applied  to  the  written  expression 
of  the  will  of  the  legislature  formally  declared. 
As  commonly  employed,  it  is  synonym(ftis  with 
statute  (q.v.).  The  term  is  derived  from  the 
acta  of  Roman  public  life,  which  comprehended 
all  public  official  procedure  as  well  as  the  offi- 
cial record  thereof.  An  act  of  one  legislature 
cannot  tie  the  hands  of  its  successors,  unless  it 
amounts  to  a  contract,  so  that  its  repeal  would 
come  within  the  constitutional  inhibition  upon 
legislative  acts  which  impair  the  obligation  of 
contracts.  In  England  even  this  exception  does 
not  exist,  each  parliament  being  an  absolutely 
sovereign  legislature.  Still,  certain  acts  of  par- 
liament have  been  passed  in  the  hope,  if  not 
with  the  intention,  of  arresting  "the  possible 
course  of  future  legislation;"  and  some  of  them 
have  commanded  a  respect  almost  equal  to  that 
accorded  in  this  country  to  written  constitutions. 
To  this  class  belong  the  Bill  of  Rights    (q.v.)  ; 


the  Act  of  Settlement  (12  and  13  Will  lU., 
c.  2)  fixing  the  descent  of  the  crown;  the  Acts 
Of  habeas  corpus  (q.v.)  ;  the  Acts  of  Union 
with  Scotland  (1  James  I.,  c.  1),  and  with  Ire- 
land (30  and  40  Geo.  III.,  c.  67),  and  the  Sep- 
tennial Act  of  1716  limiting  the  life  of  a  parlia- 
ment to  seven  years.  "Act"  is  used  in  connection 
with  other  words  in  a  number  of  familiar 
phrases.  For  example,  act  of  honor^  the  accept- 
ance by  a  stranger  of  protested  paper  for  the 
honor  of  some  party  thereto;  act  of  €hd,  an 
inevitable  accident  resulting  from  superhuman 
causes,  such  as  lightning,  tempest,  or  floods;  act 
of  state y  act  done  or  commanded  by  the  govern- 
ment of  a  foreign  state,  for  which  the  person  in- 
jured has  no  redress  in  the  courts  of  his  own 
country,  but  must  seek  redress  through  the  dip- 
lomatic agencies  of  his  government. 

ACT.  In  the  drama,  the  name  for  one  of  the 
principal  parts  of  a  play.  In  performance  the 
acts  are  commonly  separated  by  intervals,  during 
which  the  dropped  cui'tain  conceals  the  stage. 
An  act  which  may  in  turn  be  subdivided  into 
scenes  should  be  in  a  certain  sense  complete  in 
itself,  and  at  the  same  time  should  form  an  es- 
sential part  of  the  whole  drama.  As  every  dra- 
matic plot  naturally  divides  itself  into  three 
parts — the  exposition,  the  development,  and  the 
conclusion  or  catastrophe — a  division  into  three 
acts  seems  most  natural;  but  practically  this 
would  often  require  undue  condensation,  and 
the  well-known  classic  custom  defined  by  Hor- 
ace in  his  Ars  Poctica  is  that  a  play  should  be 
in  five  acts.  Normally,  the  first  act  indicates 
the  general  nature  of  the  drama,  introduces  the 
characters,  and  begins  the  action.  The  second 
act  leads  up  to  the  third,  which  develops  the 
crisis  of  the  plot.  In  the  fourth  the  conclusion 
or  catastrophe  is  prepared,  but  should  by  no 
means  be  anticipated  so  as  to  weaken  the  effect 
of  the  d^ouement^  which  is  reserved  for  the  fifth 
act.  The  Greeks  did  not  make  the  formal  dis- 
tinction of  acts  in  their  drama,  though  Greek 
tragedies  are  subjectively  capable  of  division 
into  parts  or  episodes,  which  are  indeed  prac- 
tically separated  by  the  lyrical  parts  of  the  per- 
formance. (See  Chorus.)  In  modern  drama 
the  requirement  for  five  acts  began  early  to  be 
neglected,  especially  in  comedy.  (See  MoLifeBE-) 
On  the  present  stage  plays  are  common  in  any 
number  of  acts  below  five.  The  four-act  play  is 
most  common. 

ACT,  or  Ceremony  op  "Inception."  The 
commencement  or  degree-taking  formerly  in 
use  in  English  universities,  but  now  discon- 
tinued (save  as  a  form  in  Cambridge).  The 
student  or  "respondent"  who  "keeps  the  act" 
reads  a  thesis  in  Latin  which  he  defends  against 
three  "opponents**  named  by  the  proctors.  Some 
such  practice  survives  in  most  German  universi- 
ties. In  a  quaint  pamphlet  on  New  Englan^s 
First  Fruits,  published  in  1643,  there  is  an  ac- 
count of  the  late  commencement  at  Harvard  in 
which  the  word  "acts"  is  familiarly  employed, 
as  one  may  see  from  this  extract:  "The  Students 
of  the  first  Classis  that  have  beene  these  foure 
yeeres  trained  up  in  University-Learning,  for 
their  ripening  in  the  knowledge  of  the  Tongues 
and  Arts,  and  are  approved  for  their  manners, 
as  they  have  kept  their  publick  Acts  in  former 
yeares.  our  selves  being  present  at  them,  so  have 
they  lately  kept  two  solemne  Acts  for  their 
Commencement,    when    the    Governour,    Magia- 


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ACT. 

trates,  and  the  Ministers  from  all  parts,  with  all 
sorts  of  Schollars,  and  others  in  great  numbers 
were  present,  and  did  heare  their  Exercises." 

ACTA     (DiUBNA,    POPITLI,    UBBA.NA,    Or    PUB- 

LiCA,  acts,  daily,  popular,  municipal,  or  public). 
A  sort  of  daily  chronicle  of  events  published  in 
ancient  Rome  giving  summaries  of  the  principal 
legal  and  ])olitical  orations,  the  decisions  of  the 
courts,  news  from  the  army  and  the  latest  gossip 
of  the  town.  They  seem  also  to  have  contained 
accounts  of  the  transactions  of  the  assemblies  of 
tlie  people,  also  of  births,  deaths,  marriages,  and 
divorces,  accidents,  prodigies,  and  the  like,  all  of 
which  were  preserved  as  sources  of  future  his- 
tory. When  Antony  offered  Caesar  a  crown  on 
the  feast  of  the  Lupercalia,  Csesar  ordered  it  to 
be  noted  in  the  Acta  Diurna.  The  Acta  are  fre- 
quently said  to  have  been  introduced  by  Julius 
Ca»ar,  but  others  believe  them  to  have  existed 
long  before  Cesar's  time,  and  to  have  supplanted 
the  Antiales,  which  fell  into  disuse  about  the 
year  131  b.g.  The  Latin  scholar  Httbner  has  ad- 
vanced strong  arguments  in  support  of  the  for- 
mer view,  although  it  was  the  practice  before 
Csesar's  time  for  scribes  to  compile  a  manu- 
script chronicle  of  public  events  in  the  city  of 
Rome,  wliich  was  often  forwarded  with  private 
letters  to  absent  friends.  The  Annales  took  note 
only  of  the  most  important  events,  whereas  mat- 
ters of  far  less  importance  were  included  in  the 
Acta  Diurna.  The  material  for  the  Acta  was 
gathered  by  reporters  called  actuarii,  and  the 
Acta  were  exposed  in  public  places  to  be  read  or 
copied  by  any  who  chose  to  do  so.  After  a  rea- 
sonable period  of  time  they  were  taken  down  and 
preserved  with  other  public  documents.  Persons 
in  Rome  were  accustomed  to  keep  their  friends 
who  were  sojourning  out  of  town  informed  of  the 
progress  of  events  and  of  the  news  generally,  as 
gathered  from  the  Acta  Diurna.  A  passage  in 
Petronius  (cap.  53)  gives  an  imitation  of  the 
Acta.  From  this  it  would  appear  that  the  style 
was  very  simple  and  that  only  the  bare  facts 
were  stated.  Consult:  Le  Clerc,  Dea  foumausB 
Chez  lea  Romains  (Paris,  1838),  a  treatise  to  be 
read  with  caution ;  and  Hdbner,  De  aenatua  pop- 
ulique  Romani  (tctia   (Leipzig,  1860). 

ACT2Ei^A  (Gk.  'cucTea,  aktea,  elder  tree) .  A  ge- 
nus of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Ranunculacese. 
Actfea  apicata,  the  Baneberry  or  Herb  Christo- 
pher, is  a  native  of  the  north  of  Europe,  found 
in  bushy  places  in  some  parts  of  England.  It  is 
a  perennial  herbaceous  plant,  about  1  to  2  feet 
high,  with  tritemate  leaves,  and  the  leaflets  deep- 
ly cut  and  serrated,  the  flowers  in  racemes, 
the  berries  black  and  poisonous.  A  variety  of 
Act^a  spicatavar  rubra  with  red  berries,  and 
Act«a  Alba  with  white  berries  are  common  in 
the  United  States,  where  they  are  known  as  Red 
and  White  Baneberry. 

ACTJWOISI  (Gk.  *AKraiuv,  AktaiCn).  A 
mythical  personage,  a  grandson  of  Cadmus.  He 
was  trained  as  a  hunter  by  Chiron.  Having  of- 
fended Artemis,  he  was  changed  by  her  into  a 
stag  and  torn  in  pieces  by  his  own  dogs.  The  sin 
of  Action  is  variously  stated.  According  to 
Euripides,  Artemis  was  jealous  because  Actseon 
had  boasted  that  he  excelled  her  in  hunting.  The 
most  popular  version  in  later  times  was  that  ha 
bad  come  upon  the  goddess  while  bathing. 

AG^A  WRTTDlT^yBJJUL  (Lat.  Proceedings 
of  the  Learned).  A  Latin  monthly  and  the  flrst 
German    literary    serial     (117    volumes,    1682- 


89  ACTIKIABIA. 

1782).  It  was  founded  by  Professor  Otto 
Mencke  of  Leipzig,  and  was  owned  by  his  fam- 
ily till  1764,  after  which  it  rapidly  deteriorated. 
The  series  contains  a  record  of  the  progress  of 
science  to  1776. 

A<yTA  XAB^YBTJX  (Lat.  Acts  of  the 
Martyrs).  A  name  given  by  the  ancient  Church 
to  the  records  of  the  trials  and  deaths  of  the 
martyrs  which  were  kept  for  the  edification  of 
the  faithful.  The  oldest  extant  refer  to  the 
death  of  St.  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  who  died  about 
the  year  107.  St.  Augustine  (fifth  century) 
speaks  of  these  records  as  being  read  to  the  peo- 
ple on  their  festival  days.  Eusebius,  the  church 
nistorian  (died  about  340),  collected  the  Acta 
Martyrum  in  his  two  works,  De  Martyribua  Pal- 
csatinw  and  Synagoge  Martyrum,  the  latter  of 
which  has  perished,  but  the  former  is  the  appen- 
dix to  the  eighth  book  of  his  Church  Hiatory, 
See  McGifferfs  translation  (New  York,  1890). 

ACTTA  PILA^TI  (Lat.  Acts  of  Pilate).  An 
account  of  the  trial  and  death  of  Jesus  Christ, 
purporting  to  have  been  written  by  Pontius 
Pilate  or  under  his  direction.  Although  Justin. 
Martyr  (Apol.  i.,  76-86),  Tertullian  (Apol.  v., 
21),  and  Eusebius  (ii.,  2)  allude  to  some  ac- 
count rendered  by  Pilate  to  the  Emperor  Ti- 
berius, the  Acta  now  extant  in  the  Vatican  li- 
brary, as  well  as  the  so-called  Report  of  Pilate 
to  the  emperor  and  the  alleged  Epistola  Pilati 
describing  the  resurrection,  are  admittedly  spuri- 
ous. Consult:  Lipsius,  Die  Pilatuaacten  (Kiel, 
1871).  Various  English  translations  have  been 
published,  e.g.,  Acta  Pilati  ( Shelbyville,  Ind., 
1879)  ;  and  also  one  in  the  Ante-Nicene  library. 

ACTTA  SANGTCKBUX,  or  MAB'TYBUX 
(I^at.  Acts  of  the  Saints  or  Martyrs).  The  col- 
lective title  given  to  several  old  writings  respect- 
ing saints  and  martyrs  in  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Catholic  churches,  but  now  applied  especially 
to  one  extensive  collection  begun  by  the  Jesuita 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  and  intended  to 
serve  as  a  better  arrangement  of  the  materials 
found  in  ancient  works.  This  great  undertak- 
ing, which  was  conunenced  by  the  Jesuit  Heri- 
bert  Rosweyde,  of  Antwerp,  has  considerable 
importance,  not  only  in  a  religious  and  ecclesias- 
tical point  of  view,  but  also  with  regard  to  his- 
tory and  archaeology.  After  Rosweyde's  death 
in  1629,  Johannes  Bolland  was  commissioned  by 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits  to  continue  the  work, 
and  with  the  assistance  of  Godfried  Henschen  he 
prepared  two  volumes,  which  appeared  in  1643. 
After  the  death  of  this  editor  (1605)  the  work 
was  carried  on  by  a  society  of  learned  Jesuits, 
who  were  styled  '"Bollandists,"  until  1794,  wheu 
its  further  progress  was  prevented  through  the 
invasion  of  Holland  by  the  French.  In  recent 
times  the  undertaking  has  been  resumed,  and  in 
1845  the  fifty-fourth  volume  was  published  at 
Brussels.  Several  additional  volumes  have  ap- 
peared since.  The  lives  are  arranged  in  the  or- 
der of  the  calendar.  A  new  edition  of  the  first 
fifty-four  volumes  appeared  in  1863-69.  The  six- 
ty-fifth volume  appeared  in  1892.  For  notices 
of  other  and  similar  collections,  see  Saints; 
Mactyb  and  Mabtybolooy. 

ACTLAU  (ak'shan)  GAMES.    See  Actium. 

ACTINIA^BIA  (Gk.  oKxtc,  akiia,  ray).  A 
group  of  anthozoan  ccelentetates  comprising  the 
sea-anemones.  They  differ  ixtm.  all  other  antho- 
zoans  in  the  complete  abs^^v^    oi  a  skeleton  and 


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ACTINIABIA. 

in  the  large  size  of  the  iiidividuals,  which  rarely 
form  a  colony.  See  Anthozoa  and  Sea-Anem- 
one. 


90 


ACTINOMOBPHY. 


Fie.  1. 


no.  2. 


ACTINIARIA. 


1.  Vertical  aspect  of  an  Actinlarian,  showing  month  and 
tentacles.  3.  Sectional  view  :  a,  simple  digestiyo  sac ;  b, 
stractore  of  the  body-wall,  showing  septa. 

ACTIN^OGBAPH  (Gk.  ajcr/f,  aktia,  ray-(- 
yp&^eiv^  grapheifiy  to  write).  An  inatniment 
for  recording  automatioally  the  chemical  effects 
of  radiations  from  any  source,  especially  the 
sun.  Formerly  the  actinic  or  chemical,  the 
visual  or  optic,  and  the  thermal  or  heat  rays 
were  spoken  of  as  the  components  of  a  beam  of 
sunshine  as  though  all  kinds  of  rays  were  bound 
up  therein.  But  we  now  know  that  the  sun 
radiates  an  immense  variety  of  so-called  waves 
or  rays  of  different  wave-lengths  and  that  appar- 
ently any  one  of  these  waves  may  produce  chem- 
ical, visual,  or  thermal  effects,  and  perhaps  elec- 
trical, depending  upon  the  molecular  nature  of 
the  object  that  it  strikes.  Thus  the  same  wave 
that  produces  a  special  blue  light  in  the  solar 
spectrum  will  produce  a  little  heat  if  it  fall 
upon  a  delicate  thermometer,  or  a  great  effect 
resulting  in  intense  heat  and  light  if  it  fall  upon 
a  proper  mixture  of  chlorine  and  hydrogen  or 
other  chemicals.  It  is  no  longer  proper  to  speak 
of  the  sun's  actinic  rays,  but  the  actinic  effects 
of  the  solar  radiation.  The  simplest  forms  of 
actinograph  are  those  that  expose  standard 
photographic  plates  or  films  (iodides,  chlorides, 
or  bromides  of  silver)  to  the  sun's  action  for 
short,  definite  periods  of  time.  Those  that  util- 
ize the  action  of  sunshine  to  cause  the  union  of 
chlorine  and  hydrogen  (Draper's  and  Bunsen's), 
or  the  precipitation  of  gold  from  a  solution  of 
the  chloride  of  gold  and  oxalic  acid,  or  the 
evolution  of  oxalic  acid  from  a  solution  of  ferric- 
oxalate  and  chloride  of  iron  require  complex 
measuring  arrangements  that  do  not  easily  lend 
themselves  to  graphic  self-registration. 

ACTIN'OLITE  (Gk.a/cr/f,  «i/.ft«,  ray  +  A/Oof, 
lithos,  stone).  A  calcium-magnesium-iron  am- 
phibole  (q.v.)  that  includes  the  varieties  neph- 
rite, asbestos  (q.v.),  smaragdite,  and  uralite. 
Actinolite  varies  in  color  from  a  bright  green 
to  a  gravish  green,  and  usually  occurs  in  the 
form  of  long,  slender  crystals  in  metamorphic 
rocks,  commonly  in  talc. 

ACTINOLITE  -  SCHIST,  or  Grunerite- 
sciiiST.  A  rock  with  a  banded  or  foliated  struc- 
ture, which  contains  a  considerable  quantity 
of  actinolite.  Commonly  the  actinolite  lies  in 
single  crystals  or  in  sheaf-like  aggregates  in  a 
fine  grained  ground -mass  of  quartz  or  of  quartz 
and  feldspar,  and  its  common  associate  is  iron 
oxide,  particularly  in  the  form  of  magnetite, 
although  many  other  minerals  may  be  present 
in  smaller  quantities.  The  actinolite-schists  are 
common  alteration  products,  under  deep-seated 


conditions,  of  iron  carbonate  or  ferrous  silicate 
rocks,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of  igneous 
masses.  The  famous  iron-bearing  formations  of 
the  Lake  Superior  country  were  originally 
mainly  iron  carbonate  or  ferrous  silicate,  and,  by 
their  alteration,  have  yielded  iron  ore  on  the  one 
hand  and  actinolite-  or  grOnerite-schists  on  the 
other.  The  term  ''schist"  as  applied  to  these  rocks 
is  frequently  a  misnomer.  Schists  show  a  paral- 
lel dimensional  arrangement  of  their  constitu- 
ents, but  commonly  the  actinolite  crystals  in 
so-called  actinolite-schists  show  but  a  slight  de- 
gree, if  any,  of  parallelism.  The  parallel  struc- 
ture is  really  a  more  or  less  faint  banding  duo 
to  the  segregation  of  different  kinds  of  minerals 
into  layers.     See  Schistosity. 

ACTINOK'ETEB  (Gk.  aKrlg,  aktis,  ray + 
^rr/>ov,me*ron, measure) .  An  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  effect  of  the  sun's  rays  in  producing 
chemical,  i.e.,  actinic  effects.  As  originally 
devised  by  Sir  John  Herschel,  this  title  was 
applied  by  him  to  a  thermometer  whose  bulb 
was  filled  with  a  blue  solution  of  ammonia  and 
sulphate  of  copper;  the  expansion  of  this  solu- 
tion by  absorbing  the  sun's  rays  was  supposed 
to  measure  the  quantity  of  blue  light  or  chemical 
rays  in  the  beam  of  sunshine.  At  the  present 
time  it  is  known  that  actinometers,  properly  so 
called,  measure  only  the  effects  of  the  energy 
transmitted  to  us  in  specific  portions  of  the  solar 
spectrum.  In  some  arrangements  this  ener^rr 
is  all  turned  into  heat  and  measured  by  its 
expansion  effect.  In  other  forms  of  apparatus 
it  does  molecular  work  of  a  chemical  nature  and 
is  measured  by  these  effects,  as  when  a  mixture 
of  chlorine  and  hydrogen  is  converted  into  hydro- 
chloric acid  and  the  quantity  of  acid  that  is 
formed  in  years  of  time  is  the  measure  of  the 
intensity.  This  includes  the  basis  of  the  methods 
of  Draper  and  Bunsen  and  Roscoe.  When  a 
mixture  of  ferric-oxalate  and  chloride  of  iron 
dissolved  in  water  is  exposed  to  sunshine  it 
gives  out  carbonic  acid  gas;  this  is  the  basis 
of  Marchand's  apparatus.  A  photographic  plate 
exposed  for  a  short  time  receives  an  impression 
whose  intensity  may  be  measured  on  a  scale  of 
tints  or  shades  and  made  the  basis  of  a  deter- 
mination of  the  intensity  of  the  sunshine.  Thi.^ 
method  has  been  worked  out  by  Bigelow  and 
others.  In  general  any  apparatus  for  measuring 
the  chemical  effects  of  radiation  from  any  source 
constitutes  an  actinonieter  properly  so  called, 
but  the  name  is  often  improperly  applied  to 
apparatus  that  measures  the  total  heating 
effect,  as  was  the  case  in  Herschel's  apparatus: 
it  is  even  now  applied  to  the  Arago-Davy  and 
the  Chwolson  apparatus,  all  of  which  are,  prop- 
erly speaking,  forms  of  pyrheliometer,  and  will 
be  found  described  under  that  head. 

AC'TINOM'ETBY.  The  general  subject  of 
the  measurement  of  either  the  relative  or  the 
absolute  effect  of  sunshine  or  other  radiation 
either  by  visual,  thermal,  or  chemical  methods. 
This  term  is  now  being  replaced  by  the  more 
proper  word  radiometry  ( q.v. ) . 

AC'TINOMOBTHY  (Gk.  o/cr/f.  aktis,  ray 
-\- floppy  morjihi,  form,  shape).  In  botany,  a 
term  of  symmetry  used  chiefly  in  connection  with 
flowers.  In  an  actinomorphic  flower  the  mem- 
bers of  each  set  are  similar  and  arranged  about 
a  common  centre,  as  are  the  parts  of  a  radiate 
animal.  If  there  are  five  petals,  they  are  alike 
and  are  evenly  distributed  about  the  centre  of 


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ACTINOMOBPHT.  91 

.the  flower,  as  are  the  spokes  of  a  wheel  about 
the  hub.  Technically  defined,  an  actinomorphic 
flower  is  said  to  have  as  uianv  planes  of  sym- 
metry as  there  are  members  in  a  cycle.  This 
means  that  if  an  imaginary  plane  be  run  through 
each  sepal  or  petal  or  stamen  and  the  common 
centre,  the  two  resulting  halves  of  the  flower  will 
be  similar.  More  commonly  such  flowers  are 
spoken  of  as  "regular."    See  Fr/)WEH. 

ACTINOMYCCKSIS  (Gk.  Urif,  aktia,  ray, 
beam  +  //v«^c,  muk^s,  mushroom,  fungus,  ex- 
crescence) ,  Lumpy  Jaw,  or  Big  Jaw.  A  specific, 
infectious  disease  produced  by  a  parasitic  micro- 
organism known  as  the  Ray  fungus  (Actinomy- 
ces hovis).  The  micro-organism  causes  local 
affections  in  the  form  of  tumors  {ActinomycO' 
mata)  of  the  bone  and  other  tissues.  The  dis- 
ease is  usually  of  sooradic  occurrence,  but  some- 
times takes  the  form  of  an  enzooty.  It  is  most 
frequently  found,  in  cattle,  but  affects  also 
horses,  pigs,  sheep,  deer,  llama,  guanaco,  and 
man.  Actinomycotic  tumors  in  cattle  have  been 
recognized  since  1825,  although  they  have  fre- 
quently been  mistaken  for  cancerous,  tubercuT 
lous,  and  other  kinds  of  tumors.  Tlie  disease 
occurs  in  all  parts  of  Europe  and  North  and 
South  America.  The  Ray  fungus  is  found  in 
all  tumors  and  abscesses  of  this  disease,  wher- 
ever situated,  and  its  presence  may  be  detected 
by  the  form  of  small  yellow  spots  in  the  muscles 
and  soft  tissues  of  affected  animals.  When 
slightly  magnified  these  spots  are  seen  to  consist 
of  a  radiating  structure,  which  is  qharacteristic 
of  the  growth  of  the  ray  fungus.  In  cattle  the 
seat  of  the  disease  is  usually  in  the  inferior 
maxillary  bones,  submaxillary  salivary  glands, 
in  the  tongue,  pharynx,  and  oesophagus.  The 
common  names,  Big  Jaw,  Lumpy  Jaw,  Big  Head, 
and  Wooden  Tongue  are  descriptive  of  the  most 
frequent  forms  of  actinomycosis  in  cattle  and 
horses.  When  the  maxillary  bones  are  affected, 
a  large  bone  tumor  is  formed  which  shows  a 
highly  vacuolated  cancellate  structure.  Statis- 
tics collected  in  Russia  show  that  in  99%  of 
cases  actinomycosis  was  located  in  the  head. 
In  a  small  percentage  of  cases  the  lungs  and 
intestines  are  affected.  Maxillary  tumors  in 
cattle  are  almost  invariably  due  to  the  Ray 
fungus,  and  therefore  actinomycosis  may  be 
readily  diagnosed. 

Considerable  difference  of  opinion  prevails 
regarding  the  systematic  position  of  the  Ray 
fungus.  It  has  been  supposed  that  the  organism 
has  a  plant  host  on  which  it  passes  part  of  its 
life  cycle.  The  agency  of  various  grasses  (espe- 
cially such  as  have  sharp-pointed  awns)  in 
transmitting  actinomycosis  can  hardly  be  ques- 
tioned. About  500  cases  of  this  disease  in  man 
have  been  reported  in  the  medical  journals,  the 
greater  number  of  cases  having  occurred  as  a 
result  of  eating  raw  meat. 

Actinomycosis  is  peculiar  in  that  it  yields  to 
a  direct  specific  treatment.  In  1885  Thomassen 
showed  that  recent  cases  of  the  disease  could  be 
cured  by  the  internal  administration  of  potas- 
sium iodide.  In  treating  actinomycosis  in  cattle 
the  ordinary  practice  is  to  give  daily  doses  of 
€ight  to  twelve  erams  of  potassium  iodide  for 
yfeeklv  periods,  alternating  with  shorter  periods, 
in  order  that  the  animals  may  recover  from  the 
symptoms  of  iodism.  Actinomycosis  follows  a 
alow  chronic  course  of  development. 

The  relationship  of  the  disease  to  the  public 
health  has   been  much   discussed.    Apparently 


ACTION. 


infection  most  frequently  takes  place  in  man 
and  cattle  through  diseased  teeth  or  abrasions 
of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  mouth.  The 
identity  of  actinomycosis  in  man  and  cattle  is 
admitted  by  nearly  all  investigators,  but  most 
authorities  hold  that  its  direct  transmission 
to  man-  through  eating  the  meat  of  affected 
animals  is  of  rare  occurrence.  Whether  an  ani- 
mal affected  with  actinomycosis  should  be  used 
for  human  food  is  a  question  the  answer  to  which 
depends  upon  a  variety  of  circumstances.  It 
may,  however,  be  safely  asserted  that  animals 
in  which  the  disease  has-  become  generalized 
should  be  condemned.  For  details  concerning 
actinomycosis  consult  D.  E.  Salmon,  "Investiga- 
tions Relating  to  the  Treatment  of  Lumpy  Jaw, 
or  Actinomycosis,  in  Cattle,"  U.  8.  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Animal  Industry, 
Bulletin  2  (Washington,  1893)  ;  D.  E.  Salmon 
and  others,  "Special  Report  on  Diseases  of 
Cattle  and  on  Cattle  Feeding,"  Report  of  U.  8. 
Department  of  Agriculture  for  1892,  Bureau  of 
Animal  Industry  (Washington,  1892)  ;  "Tumeurs 
des  mftchoires  observ^es  dans  Tesp^e  bovine." 
Journal  de  Mddicine  VitSrinaire   (Paris,  1826). 

AC'TINOZO^A.     Same  as  Anthozoa    (q.v.). 

ACTION  (Lat.  actio,  a  doing,  performing, 
an  action,  suit,  process).  A  term  which,  in  its 
broadest  sense,  includes  every  lawful  proceeding 
in  a  court  of  justice  for  the  enforcement  or 
protection  of  a  right,  the  redress  or  prevention 
of  a  wrong,  or  the  punishment  of  a  public 
offense.  Formerly  the  term  was  confined,  in 
English  law,  to  an  ordinary  proceeding  in  a 
common  law  court,  while  the  word  suit  was 
applied  to  a  proceeding  in  equity.  By  the 
reformed  procedure  in  many  of  our  States,  all 
distinction  between  actions  at  common  law  and 
suits  in  equity,  as  well  as  between  the  different 
forms  of  common  law  actions,  have  been  abol- 
ished, and  only  a  single  civil  action  is  recog- 
nized. If  the  prosecution  is  not  instituted  and 
carried  on  by  one  party  against  another,  it  is 
denominated  by  some  statutes  a  special  proceed- 
ing (q.v.).  The  earliest  classification  of  com- 
mon law  actions  was :  ( 1 )  real  actions,  or  those 
based  on  the  plaintiff's  right  of  property  in 
specified  lands,  so  called  because  the  res,  or  prop- 
erty itself,  was  sought  to  be  recovered;  (2) 
mixed  actions,  such  as  those  for  partition  of 
lands,  for  ejectment  or  for  waste;  (3)  personal 
actions,  or  those  again$>t  a  particular  person 
for  a  money  judgment.  The  distinction  between 
real  and  personal  actions  is  the  foundation  of 
the  classification  of  property  as  real  and  per- 
sonal. (See  Property.)  This  third  class  was 
subdivided  into  actions  ew  contractu,  such  as 
debt  (q.v.)  and  covenant  (q.v.),  and  actions 
ex  delicto,  such  as  trespass  (<}.v.)  and  detinue 
(q.v.).  Again,  actions  are  divided  into  local 
and  transitory,  according  as  they  must  be 
brought  in  a  certain  county  or  state,  or  as  they 
may  be  brought  wherever  the  defendant  is  found. 
An  action  for  trespass  to  land  is  local,  and  it 
must  be  brought  in  the  State  where  the  land  is 
situated;  while  an  action  for  slander  of  title 
(q.v.)  to  that  land  is  transitory.  (See  the  author- 
ities referred  to  under  the  various  titles  above 
named. )  The  action  of  account  at  common  law  was 
used  much  earlier  than,  and  is  distinct  from,  the 
action  upon  an  account  stated,  which  came  into 
the  law  as  a  common  count  (q.v.).  The  action 
of  account  would  lie  at  comttioTV  \aw,  and  by  early 
English  statute  against  ou^  acting  in  a  fiduciary 


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ACTION. 

capacity  other  than  a  trustee,  or  against  one 
whose  duty  it  was  to  render  an  account  to  the 
plaintiff,  to  compel  the  defendant  to  render  an 
account  and  to  pay  the  amount  due  on  such 
accounting. 

ACTION.  In  psychology,  a  term  used 
broadly  to  cover  all  forms  of  muscular  move- 
ment. We  speak,  e.g.,  of  the  action  of  the 
heart,  or  reflex  action,  etc.,  as  well  as  of  impul- 
sive or  voluntary  action.  There  is,  however,  a 
growing  tendency  to  reserve  the  word  action 
for  such  bodily  movements  as  have  conscious 
antecedents  and  concomitants  (movements  for 
which  there  are  conscious  motives,  and  of  which 
we  are  conscious,  as  they  run  their  course  in 
time),  and  to  employ  the  general  term  "move- 
ment" for  movements  which  are  of  an  uncon- 
scious, purely  physiological,  character.  We 
shall  therefore  speak  in  this  article  of  impulsive 
and  voluntary  action,  but  of  reflex  movement. 

The  problem  which  action  sets  to  psychology 
is  twofold.  We  have,  in  the  first  place,  to  trace 
the  genesis  and  development  of  action;  and  in 
the  second  to  analyze  the  active  consciousness, 
to  determine  the  constituent  processes  in  the 
various  forms  of  motive. 

1.  There  are  two  opposed  theories  of  the  gen- 
esis of  action.  The  first  asserts  that  all  conscious 
actions  have  developed  from  reflex  movements. 
The  reflex  movement  is  the  direct  and  definite 
response  of  the  organism  to  a  particular  stim- 
ulus. A  frog  whose  brain  and  medulla  have 
been  removed  will  draw  up  its  leg  if  the  foot 
be  pinched ;  the  pupil  of  the  human  eye  contracts 
under  the  influence  of  light,  and  expands  again 
as  the  light  is  diminished.  Mechanical*  and 
unconscious  movements  of  this  kind  are,  the 
theory  holds,  older  than  consciousness.  When 
mind  appears,  it  finds  such  movements  ready  to 
its  hand;  it  avails  itself  of  them  for  conscious 
purposes.  So  the  animal's  movements,  at  first 
automatic  and  simple,  grow  more  and  more  com- 
plex, and  have  more  and  more  of  the  element 
of  consciousness  imported  into  them.  The  main 
arguments  for  the  position  are  as  follows.  <a) 
Spontaneous  movements  are  to  be  observed  in 
children  and  young  animals:  movements  that 
are  neither  reflex  movements  nor  voluntary 
actions,  but  random  discharges  of  the  excess  of 
energy  stored  in  the  healthy  organism.  These 
movements  furnish  a  varied  supply  of  active 
experience,  certain  items  of  which  must,  by  the 
law  of  chance,  prove  to  be  positively  pleasur- 
able, while  others  will  at  least  be  less  unpleasant 
than  the  experiences  preceding  them.  When- 
ever active  experience  and  pleasure  are  thus  coin- 
cident, attention  is  drawn  to  the  movement, 
which  is  elaborated  into  voluntary  action.  (6) 
From  the  physiological  point  of  view,  the  move- 
n^ents  of  the  lowest  organisms,  as  well  as  the 
movements  carried  out  by  means  of  the  lower 
nerve-centres  of  higher  organisms,  are  of  the 
reflex  type.  And  even  the  most  complex  of 
voluntary  actions  can  be  assimilated  to  this  type 
on  the  neural  side;  for  the  physical  correlate 
of  such  action  is  simply  the  reflex-arc,  with  its 
central  portion  made  longer  and  more  circuit- 
ous. 

Neither  of  these  arguments  is,  however,  free 
from  objections.  In  the  first  place,  different 
observers  differ  as  to  the  range  and  scope  of 
the  spontaneous  movements  of  infancy.  Some 
restrict  them  within  very  narrow  limits,  where 
the  play  of  chance  coincidence  would  be  incon- 


92  ACTION. 

siderable;  others  assert  that  they  can,  one  and 
all,   be  reduced  to  incipient  voluntary  actions 
and    imperfect    hereditary    reflexes.     Moreover, 
the  'theory  presupposes  that  the  sensations  and 
perceptions  aroused  by  moving  appear,  in  point 
of  time,   before   the  pleasure   achieved   by  the 
movement  or  the  voluntary  impulse  toward  it 
But  this  means  that  mind  is  built  up  piecemeal, 
whereas    there    is    reason    to    think    that    con- 
sciousness is   a  single  tissue,  every   strand  of 
which  is  given  with  every  other.     Again,  it  is 
difficult  to  understand  the  mechanism  by  which 
pleasurable   movements    are    selected.     Granted 
that   a    movement    chances    to    bring    pleasure, 
how  is  its  repetition  brought  about?     Can  we 
form   any  clear   idea   of   the  way   in   which  a 
motive  is  prefixed  to  the  sensation  series?    As 
for    the    second    argument,    it    is    asserted    as 
evident  that  the  simplest  form  of  sensory-motor 
coordination  need  not  be  the  earliest.     There  is 
a  primitive  simplicity:  but  there  is  also  a  sim- 
plicity of  reduction  and  refinement.    Again,  the 
statement  that   the   movements   of  the    lowest 
organisms  are  refl€|x  in  character  is  said  to  beg 
the  question:   the  original  theory  assumes  out- 
right that  there  is  a  strict  parallel  between  the 
growth  of  the  race  and  the  growth  of  the  indi- 
vidual,  between   phylogeny   and   ontogeny,   and 
does  not  take  into  account  the  fact  that   the 
individual  comes  into  the  world  endowed  with 
a  rich  inheritance  of  neuro-muscular  coordina- 
tions.  And,  lastly,  even  if  the  neural  substrate 
of  voluntary  action   be   in   structure   no   more 
than  a  highly  complex  reflex-arc,  still  the  oppo- 
nents of  the  theory  point  out  functional  differ- 
ences: the  reflex  is  unconscious,  while  the  func- 
tioning of  the  central  cells  of  the  voluntary  arc 
is  accompanied  by  consciousness.     So  we  come 
face  to  face  once  more  with  our  original  problem. 
The   alternative  theory,   which   we  may   now 
examine,  affirms  that  the  earliest  organic' move- 
ments    are,    in    principle,     voluntary     actions. 
Mind,  according  to  this  theory,  is  as  old  as  life. 
and  the  first  movements  of  living  matter   are 
impulsive  actions,  i.e.,  actions  prompted  by   a 
single     determining     motive.    The     arguments 
which  this  position  brings  into  the  field  are  as 
follows,     (a)  All   reflex   and   instinctive  moTe> 
ments  show  signs  of  adaptation;  they  subserve 
a  particular  end  or  purpose;  they  are  definite 
and   appropriate   responses   to   certain    circum- 
stances of  the  animal's  environment.    Now,   in 
the  first  place,  primitive  movements  should  be 
vague  and  purposeless ;  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
of  a  movement  that  should  be  at  once  rudiment- 
ary and  economical.    And,  in  the  second  place, 
our  best  criterion  of  the  presence  of  mind  in  a 
living    creature    is    the   creature's    capacity    of 
adaptation,  of  learning.     The  reflex,  pointing  as 
it  does  to  a  process  of  adaptation  in  the  past, 
points  also  to  the  existence  of  a  past  mind.     In 
a  word,  reflex  movements  appear  to  be  degen- 
erate,  mechanized  impulsive  actions.      (6)  There 
can   be   no   doubt   that    such    mechanization    is 
possible.     We  are  constantly  in  the  course  of 
our  everyday  life  reducing  voluntary  actions  to 
"secondary  reflexes":  our  pen  dips  itself  in  the 
accustomed   inkstand,   our   coat   buttons    itself, 
our  bicycle  balances  itself,  without  any  of  the 
conscious  attention  that  we  gave  them  'when  the 
movements   were   new.    Further,   what   we    see 
happening  here  in  the  course  of  a  few  days  or 
weeks  has  happened  also  in  the  life  of  the  race. 
We  wince  when  we  are  ashamed,  and  jump  when 


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ACTION. 


93 


we  are  startled;  and  the  jump  and  wince  are 
inexplicable  unless  they  are  the  degenerate 
descendants  of  voluntary  actions,  the  last  reflex 
remnants  of  the  cowering  and  shrinking  and 
leaping  aside  of  the  frightened  animal. 

The  only  point  of  fact  which  this  second  point 
of  view  leaves  unexplained  is  the  mode  of  origin 
of  the  first  impulse.  How  and  under  what  condi- 
tions the  primeval  organism  became  conscious 
of  the  impulse  to  move,  and  organic  movement 
appeared  in  the  natural  world,  we  cannot  say. 
But  neither  is  psychology  called  upon  to  say. 
No  science  explains  its  own  data;  it  takes  them 
for  granted.  As,  therefore,  the  physicist  as- 
siunes  the  mechanical  universe,  and  the  biolo- 
gist the  phenomena  of  life,  so  may  the  psychol- 
ogist assume  without  cavil  the  existence  of  mind. 
Granted  the  starting-point,  and  the  rest  follows 
easily  enough.  The  first  organic  movement  is 
an  ^'action  upon  presentation,"  an  action  whose 
motive  (the  impulse)  is  given  with  the  presen- 
tation to  the  animal  of  a  pleasantly  or  unpleas- 
antly toned  stimulus.  Out  of  this  grows  impul- 
sive action  proper,  an  action  whose  motive  is 
blended  of  three  ideas:  that  of  the  stimulus, 
the  original  motive-idea;  that  of  the  result  of 
movement,  of  pleasurable  accomplishment;  and 
that  of  the  moving  itself,  the  '^active  experience" 
of  the  first  theory.  The  course  of  development 
beyond  impulsive  action  takes  two  directions. 
Upward,  toward  greater  mentality,  it  rises  to  the 
more  complex  forms  of  voluntary  action:  to 
selective  action,  in  which  there  is  a  conflict  of 
impulses,  a  period  of  deliberation,  resulting  in 
the  victory  of  some  one  (the  actual)  motive 
over  other  less  strong  (potential)  motives;  and 
to  volitional  action,  in  which  the  conflict  is  not 
between  impulse  and  impulse,  but  between  an 
impulse  to  movement  on  the  one  hand  and  a 
group  of  ideas  prompting  to  no-action  on  the 
other.  Downward,  toward  less  mentality,  the 
impulsive  action  degenerates  into  the  reflex 
movement.  Selective  and  volitional  action,  as 
we  have  seen,  may  also  degenerate;  choice  and 
resolve* become  automatic;  the  complex  action 
slips  back,  first  of  all  into  an  impulsive  act, 
and  finally  into  a  secondary  reflex.  Note  the 
light  which  this  view  of  the  development  of 
action  throws  upon  the  problems  of  animal 
psychology  (q.v.).  Bethe  thinks  that  ants  and 
bees  are  automata,  while  popular  psychology 
dowers  them  with  all  sorts  of  conscious  motives 
and  purposes.  Now,  ants  and  bees  prove,  on 
trial,  to  be  unintelligent;  they  cannot  learn  to 
make  new  adaptations.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
adaptations  which  they  have  already  learned 
are  of  an  extremely  complicated  character.  It 
has  been  assumed,  therefore,  by  certain  author- 
ities that  these  creatures  represent  the  final 
stage  in  a  retrogressive  development  from  a 
fairly  high  level  of  mentality.  According  to 
this  theory  popular  psychology  is  right,  in  that 
ants  and  bees  once  possessed  a  good  deal  of 
mind;  it  is  wrong  in  interpreting  their  present 
movements  as  voluntary  actions.  If  it  be  object- 
ed that  the  unicellular  organisms,  the  most 
primitive  forms  of  life,  should  (on  the  present 
theory)  show  signs  of  rudimentary  impulsive 
action,  and  that  Jennings's  paramecia  proved,  on 
the  contrary,  to  be  as  automatic  as  Bethe's  ants, 
the  reply  is  that  these  protozoa,  simple  as  they 
are,  have  as  long  a  line  of  ancestry  as  we  have 
ourselves;  and  that  the  less  mind  there  is  to 
start  with  the  less  will  be  the  fall  from  impulse 


ACTION. 

to  the  reflex.  It  is  asserted  strongly  by  the 
supporters  of  this  hypothesis  that  if  a  sound 
view  of  mental  evolution  is  to  be  attained,  the 
investigator  must  accept  the  proposition  that 
all  animals  have  had  mind.  Whether  or  not 
they  have  it  now  depends  upon  the  direction 
which  their  development  has  taken  —  upward, 
toward  physiological  adaptability  and  elabora- 
tion of  mental  process,  or  downward,  toward 
specific  adaptation  and  the  lapse  of  conscious- 
ness. 

2.  We  have  already  said  something  by  way  of 
analysis  of  the  "typical"  motive  to  action,  the 
impulse.  On  its  intellectual  side,  this  motive, 
in  complete  form,  contains  the  three  ideas  (1) 
of  the  object  which  evokes  the  movement,  (2) 
of  the  movement  itself,  and  (3)  of  the  result 
which  the  movement  accomplishes.  The  affect- 
ive accompaniment  of  this  group  of  ideas 
may  be  pleasurable  or  unpleasurable,  but  must 
always  be  the  one  or  the  other;  we  may  jump 
for  joy  or  from  fright,  but  we  do  not  jump 
when  our  mood  is  that  of  indifference.  The 
essential  thing  in  the  active  consciousness,  how- 
ever, is  an  apperception  of  (attention  to)  some 
one  of  the  ideas  contained  in  the  motive.  (See 
Apperception;  Attention.)  (a)  In  the  case  of 
primitive  action  (action  upon  presentation)  we 
must  suppose  that  the  idea  of  object  is  the  idea 
that  stands  in  the  focus  of  attention ;  the  impul- 
sive action  is  indistinguishable  from  the  move- 
ment that  expresses  emotion.  (See  Expkessive 
Movements.)  As  Wundt  puts  it:  "The  univer- 
sal animal  impulses — ^the  impulses  of  nutrition, 
of  revenge,  of  sex,  of  protection,  etc. — ^are  in- 
dubitably the  earliest  forms  of  emotion."  The 
hungry  animal  perceives  food:  its  attention  is 
held  by  this  perception;  it  is  pleasurably  moved 
by  the  perception;  and  bodily  movement  toward 
the  food-supply  results.  (6)  As  the  organism 
grows  in  experience  of  movement,  the  impulse 
becomes  more  complex,  and  the  focus  of  atten- 
tion shifts  to  the  idea  of  our  own  movement 
(action  upon  representation)  ;  so  that  we  may 
lay  it  down  as  a  law  of  analytical  psychol- 
ogy that  the  condition  of  voluntary  action  is 
an  apperception  of  the  movement-idea.  We 
think  of  ourselves  as  moving,  and  find  that  we 
have  moved,  (c)  At  a  still  later  stage,  when 
the  voluntary  action  is  taking  the  downward 
path  toward  the  secondary  reflex,  the  idea  of 
movement  fuses  with  the  idea  of  result  into  an 
indissoluble  whole.  It  is  now  the  idea  of  result 
that  holds  the  attention.  We  feel  a  draught, 
and  rise  at  once  to  close  the  window,  thinking 
neither  of  the  object  of  movement,  the  window, 
nor  of  the  muscular  movements  that  take  us 
to  it,  but  simply  of  the  result  of  the  action, 
the  avoidance  of  a  cold.  So  the  emphasis  shifts 
from  term  to  term  of  the  threefold  complex; 
from  idea  of  object  to  idea  of  movement,  and 
from  that  again  to  idea  of  result.  But  the 
motive  remains  in  principle  the  same  thing:  an 
affectively  toned  group  of  sense-material,  given 
in  the  state  of  attention. 

The  conscious  antecedents  of  the  higher  forma 
of  voluntary  action  are  naturally  more  compli- 
cated. In  place  of  the  triad  of  simple  ideas  we 
have,  in  the  conflict  of  impulses  that  precedes 
volitional  and  selective  action,  elaborate  systems 
or  constellations  of  ideas,  representations  of  the 
total  "situation"  in  which  we  find  ourselves.  In 
place  of  the  simple  pleasantness  or  unpleasant- 
ness of  the  impulse,  we  ha\e  equally  elaborate 


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ACTION. 


94 


ACT  OF  PABLIAKENT. 


affective  formationa— emotions  and  sentiments; 
the  feelings  of  obscurity,  of  contradiction,  of 
resolve,  of  decision ;  the  characteristic  oscillatory 
emotion  of  doubt;  the  emotions  of  reliei,  of 
satisfaction  or  dissatisfaction,  of  hope,  of  disap* 
pointment;  the  sentiments  of  power,  olf  pride,  of 
aesthetic  fitness,  of  moral  rightness,.  (See  Emo- 
tion.) And  in  place  of  the  passive  attention 
which  the  single  impulse-motive  commands,  we 
have  an  active,  effortful  attention  divided  among 
the  various  potential  motives  contained  in  the 
•^situation."  It  is  the  business  of  descriptive 
psychology  to  unravel  the  processes  of  these 
motive-consciousnesses,  and  to  trace  the  single 
pattern  (the  impulse  pattern)  that  runs  through 
them  all.  It  is  the  business  of  experimen&l 
psychology  to  examine  the  impulse  under  stand- 
ard conditions;  to  build  it  up  from  the  given 
elements,  and  to  construct  artificial  selective 
and  volitional  actions  from  a  number  of  simple 
impulses.  This  task  it  accomplishes  by  aid  of 
the  reaction  experiment  (q.v.) .  Consult;  A.  Bain, 
The  Emotions  and  the  Will  (London,  1880) ; 
H.  Spencer,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New  York, 
1881)  ;  W.  Wundt,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (Leip- 
zig, 1897)  ;  Human  and  Animal  Psychology 
(London,  1896);  Physiologische  Psychologie 
(Leipzig,  1893) ;  Vdlkerpsychologie  (Leipzig, 
1000). 

AC^nXK,  &k'shl-tim,  now  Akbi.  A  town  and 
promontory  on  the  west  coast  of  Greece  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Ambracian  Gulf,  now  the  Gulf  of 
Arta.  It  is  memorable  for  the  sea  fight  which 
took  place  near  it  September  2d,  31  B.C.,  between 
Octavius  (afterward  the  Emperor  Augustus)  and 
Marcus  Antonius.  These  two  had  for  some  time 
ruled  the  Roman  world  jointly,  the  former  in  the 
west,  the  latter  in  the  east.  It  now  came  to  a 
struggle  for  the  sole  soverei^ty.  The  two  armies 
were  encamped  on  the  opposite  shores  of  the  gulf. 
Octavius  had  80,000  infantry,  12,000  cavalry, 
and  260  ships  of  war;  Antony,  100,000  infantry, 
12,000  cavalry,  and  220  ships.  Antony's  ships 
were  large  and  well  provided  with  engines  for 
throwing  missiles,  but  clumsy  in  their  move- 
ments: Octavius's  were  smaller  and  more  agile. 
Antony  was  supported  by  Cleopatra,  Queen  of 
Egypt,  with  sixty  vessels,  who  induced  him, 
against  the  opinion  of  his  most  experienced  gen- 
erals, to  determine  upon  a  naval  engagement. 
The  battle  continued  for  some  hours  undecided; 
at  last  Agrippa,  who  commanded  Gctavius's  fleet, 
succeeded  by  a  skillful  manoeuvre  in  compelling 
Antony  to  extend  his  line  of  battle,  the  compact- 
ness of  which  had  hitherto  resisted  all  attempts 
of  the  enemy  to  break  through.  Cleopatra,  whose 
ships  were  stationed  behind  Antony's  line,  ap- 
prehensive of  that  line's  being  broken,  took  to 
flighc  with  her  auxiliary  fleet,  and  Antony  reck- 
lessly followed  her  with  a  few  of  his  ships.  The 
deserted  fleet  continued  to  resist  bravely  for 
some  time,  but  was  finally  vanquished;  the  land 
army,  after  waiting  in  vain  seven  days  for  An- 
tony's return,  surrendered  to  Octavius.  As  a 
memorial  of  the  victory  that  had  given  him  the 
empire  of  the  world,  and  out  of  gratitude  to  the 
gods,  Octavius  enlarged  the  temple  of  Apollo 
at  Actium,  dedicated  the  trophies  he  had  taken, 
and  instituted  games  (Ludi  Actiaci)  to  be  cele- 
brated every  five  years.  He  also  built  on  the 
spot  where  his  armv  had  been  encamped  the 
town  of  Nicopolis  (city  of  victory),  near  where 
Prevesa  now  stands.  The  battle  of  Actium  is  de- 
scribed in  Greek  by  Plutarch   {Life  of  Antony) 


and  by  Dion  Cassius    (bk.  i).     See  AinoNT; 
AuouBTUS;  Cleopatba. 

ACT  OF  FAITH.    See  Auro-DA-Ffi. 

ACT  OF  PARLIAMENT,  pllrai-m«nt  A  res- 
olution or  law  passed  by  all  the  three  branches 
of  the  English  legislature,  the  king  (or  queen), 
lords,  and  commons;  or,  as  it  is  formally  ex- 
pressed, "by  the  King's  Alajesty,  by  and  \inth  the 
advice  and  consent  of  the  Lords  Spiritual  and 
Temporal,  and  Commons,  in  Parliament  assem- 
bled, and*  by  the  authority  of  the  same."  An 
act  of  parliament  thus  made  is  the  highest  le- 
gal authority  acknowledged  by  the  constitution. 
It  binds  every  subject,  and,  with  a  few  excep- 
tions, every  alien  in  the  land,  and  even  the  sov- 
ereign himself,  if  named  therein.  And  in  England 
it  cannot  be  altered,  amended,  dispensed  with, 
suspended,  or  repealed  but  in  the  same  forms 
and  by  the  same  authority  of  parliament.  In 
Scotland,  however,  a  long  course  of  contrary 
usage  or  of  disuse  may  have  the  efifect  of  depriv- 
ing a  statute  of  its  obligation ;  for  by  the  Scotch 
law  a  statute  may  become  obsolete  by  disuse 
and  cease  to  be  legally  binding.  It  was  formerly 
held  in  England  that  the  King  might  in  many 
cases  dispense  with  statutes,  especially  such  as 
were  of  a  penal  character;  but  by  the  statute 
1  W.  and  M.  st.  2,  c.  2,  it  is  declared  that  the 
suspending  or  dispensing  with  laws  by  royal  au- 
thority without  consent  of  parliament  is  illegal. 

An  act  of  parliament  is  either  public  or  private. 
A  public  act  regards  the  whole  empire  or  one  of 
its  main  subdivisions,  in  which  case  it  is  gen- 
eral; or  a  subordinate  part,  in  which  case  it  is 
local;  but  the  operation  of  a  private  act  is  con- 
fined to  particular  persons  and  private  concerns. 
As  the  Lsiw  till  lately  stood,  the  courts  of  law 
were  bound  ex  officio  to  take  judicial  notice,  as 
it  is  called,  of  public  acts — ^that  is,  to  recognize 
these  acts  as  knoyn  and  published  law,  wi&out 
the  necessity  of  their  being  specially  pleaded  and 
proved;  but  it  was  otherwise  in  regard  to  pri- 
vate acts,  so  that  in  order  to  claim  any  advan- 
tage under  a  private  act  it  was  necessary  to 
plead  it  and  set  it  forth  particularly.  But  now, 
by  the  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  21,  s.  7,  every  act  of 
parliament  is  to  be  taken  to  be  a  public  one,  and 
iudicially  noticed  as  such  unless  the  contrary 
oe  expressly  declared. 

An  act  of  parliament  begins  to  operate  from 
the  time  when  it  receives  the  royal  assent,  un- 
less sqme  other  time  be  fixed  for  the  purpose  by 
the  act  itself.  The  rule  on  this  subject  in  Eng- 
land was  formerljr  different,  for  at  common  law 
every  act  of  parliament  which  had  no  provision 
to  the  contrary  was  considered  as  soon  as  it 
passed  (i.e.,  received  the  royal  assent)  as  hav- 
ing been  in  force  retrospectively  from  the  first 
day  of  the  session  of  parliament  in  which  it 
passed,  though  in  fact  it  might  not  have  re- 
ceived the  royal  assent,  or  even  been  introduced 
into  parliament,  until  long  after  that  day;  and 
this  strange  principle  was  rigidly  observed  for 
centuries.  The  ancient  acts  of  the  Scotch  par- 
liament were  proclaimed  in  all  the  county  towns, 
burghs,  and  even  in  the  baron  courts.  This 
mode  of  promulgation  was,  however,  gradually 
dropped  as  the  use  of  printing  became  common, 
and  in  1581  an  act  was  passed  declaring  publi- 
cation at  the  Market  Cross  of  Edinburgh  to  be 
sufficient.  British  statutes  require  no  formal 
promulgation,  and  in  order  to  fix  the  time  from 
which  they  shall  become  binding  it  was  enacted 


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ACT  OF  PABLIAICENT. 

by  the  33  CJeo.  III.,  c.  13,  that  every  act  of  par- 
liament to  be  passed  after  April  8,  1793,  shall 
commence  from  the  date  of  the  indorsement  by 
the  clerk  of  parliament  stating  the  day,  month, 
and  year  when  the  act  was  passed  and  received 
the  royal  assent  unless  the  commencement  shall 
in  the  act  itself  be  otherwise  provided  for. 

Acts  of  parliament  are  referred  to  by  the  year 
of  the  sovereign's  reign,  and  the  chapter  of  the 
statutes  for  that  year.  They  were  first  printed 
in  the  reign  of  Richard  III.,  originally  in  Latin, 
but  since  the  fourth  year  of  Henry  Vllt,  in  Eng- 
lish. Tlie  collective  body  of  such  acts  constitute 
the  Statutes  of  the  Realm.  See  Statutes;  Par- 
liament, and  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

ACT  OF  SET'TLEMEHT.  The  second  chap- 
ter of  Statute  12  and  13,  William  III.  of  Great 
Britain  ( 1701 ) ,  which  provided  that  the  crown,  in 
default  of  issue  to  Anne  Stuart,  William's  pre- 
sumptive successor,  should  descend  to  the  House 
of  Hanover,  and  which  excluded  Roman  Catholics 
from  the  throne.  See  Elizabeth  Stdabt  (Queen 
of  Bohemia). 

ACT  OP  TT'NIPOB'MITY.  The  English  stat- 
ute of  13  and  14  Car.  II.,  c.  4,  1662,  which  pro- 
vides that  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  as  then 
recently  revised,  should  be  used  in  every  parish 
church  and  other  place  of  public  worship  in  Eng- 
land, and  that  every  school-master  and  person 
instructing  youth  should  subscribe  a  declaration 
of  conformity  to  the  liturgy,  and  also  to  the  ef- 
fect of  the  oath  and  declaration  mentioned  in 
the  act  of  13  Car.  II.,  st.  2,  c.  1.  It  further  en- 
acted that  no  person  should  thenceforth  be  cap- 
able of  holding  any  ecclesiastical  promotion  or 
dignity,  or  of  consecrating  or  administering  the 
8}icrament,  till  he  should  be  ordained  priest  ac- 
cording to  Episcopal  ordination,  and  with  respect 
to  all  ministers  who  then  enjoyed  any  ecclesi- 
astical benefice  it  directed  that  they  should, 
within  a  certain  period,  openly  read  morning 
and  evening  service  accordmg  to  the  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  and  declare  before  the  congre- 
gation their  unfeigned  assent  and  consent  to  the 
u>e  of  all  things  therein  contained,  upon  the  pain 
of  being  deprived  of  their  spiritual  promotions. 
Two  thousand  of  the  clergy  who  refused  to  com- 
ply were  deprived  of  their  preferments.  Acts  to 
becure  imiformity  were  passed  under  Edward  VI. 
(1549)  and  Elizabeth  (1559). 

ACTOH,  ftk^ton.  A  suburb  of  London,  Eng- 
land. During  the  Civil  Wars  it  was  one  of  the 
strongholds  of  Puritanism,  and  has  been  at  vari- 
ous times  the  place  of  residence  of  many  famous 
personages,  such  as  the  great  jurist  Sir  Matthew 
Hale,  the  novelist  Henry  Fielding,  and  the  ac- 
tress Mrs.  Barry.  Pop.,  1891,  24,200;  1901, 
37.700. 

ACTON,  John  Ekebich  Edwabd  Dalbebg, 
firht  baron  (1834-1902).  An  English  historian, 
born  at  Naples.  He  studied  under  Dr.  (after- 
ward Cardinal)  Wiseman  at  St.  Mary's  Oscott, 
but  received  his  education  chiefly  from  Dr.  Dttl- 
linger,  whose  "Old  Catholic"  views  he  adopted, 
and  zealously  opposed  the  dogma  of  papal  infal- 
libility. He  is  regarded  as  the  leader  of  the 
*"Liberal  Roman  Catholics"  in  England.  As  Sir 
John  Acton,  he  was  a  member  of  Parliament 
for  Carlow  (1859-65).  In  1869  he  was  raised 
to  the  peerage.  He  has  edited  and  contributed 
articles  to  magazines,  and  won  a  high  reputation 
both  for  learning  and  for  vigor  of  expression. 
He  has  received  the  degree  of  LL.D.  ana  D.C.L., 


95 


ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES. 


and  in  1895  he  was  appointed  regius  professor  of 
modern  history  at  Cambridge.  His  inaugural 
address  was  published  under  the  title.  Lecture 
on  the  Study  of  History  (1895). 

ACTON,  Sib  John  Fbancis  Edwabd  (1737- 
1811).  Prime  minister  of  Naples  under  Ferdi- 
nand IV.  He  was  born  at  Besangon,  France,  the 
son  of  an  English  physician.  He  served  in  the 
Tuscan  navy,  commanding  a  frigate  in  the  expe- 
dition against  Algiers  in  1775.  He  showed  such 
ability  that  he  was  invited  to  reorganize  the 
Neapolitan  navy,  and  soon  became  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  sea  and  land  forces,  then  minister  4 
of  finance,  and  finally  prime  minister.  His 
measures  were  intolerant,  and  ultimately  caused 
a  reaction  against  the  royal  family  of  Naples 
and  in  favor  of  the  French  party  and  the  Car- 
bonari. When  the  French  entered  Naples  in 
1806  he  fled  to  Sicily,  where  he  died. 

ACTON,  Thomas  Coxan  (1823-98).  An 
American  financier  and  administrator.  He  was 
bom  in  New  York  City,  and  served  as  assistant 
deputy  county  clerk  (1850-53)  and  as  deputy 
register.  He  was  a  police  commissioner  of  the 
Ne>y  York  metropolitan  police  in  1860-69,  and 
during  the  last  seven  years  was  president  of  the 
board.  His  most  valuable  ser\'ice  while  in  that 
office  was  during  the  draft  riots  in  1863,  when 
for  a  week  he  personally  commanded  the  entire 
police  force  of  the  city. 

ACTS,  Spubious  or  Apocjbyphal.  See  Apoc- 
BYPHA;  New  Testament,  and  Pseudepigbapha. 

ACTS  OP  HOSTH/ITT.  Acts  which  may  in- 
volve nations  in  war.  The  tremendous  cost  of 
modem  war,  both  in  blood  and  treasure,  is  now 
so  keenly  felt  that  war  is  rarely  resort^  to  ex- 
cept as  the  court  of  last  resort.  The  growing 
and  widespread  demand  for  universal  arbitra- 
tion is  also  tending  to  limit  the  causes  which 
may  produce  war,  and  the  strength  of  this  ten- 
dency was  evidenced  by  the  call  of  the  Czar  of 
Russia  for  an  international  .conference,  which 
was  held  in  1899,  and  is  known  in  history  as 
the  Hague  Peace  Conference.  Acts  of  hostility 
may  be  of*  a  diplomatic,  commercial,  civil,  or 
military  character.  The  angry  nature  of  the 
French  ambassador's  (Count  Benedetti,  q.v.) 
interview  with  the  King  of  Prussia  at  Ems  in 
1870  is  an  example  of  a  hostile  diplomatic  act. 
The  French  embargo  on  British  ships  after  the 
peace  of  Amiens  (q.v.)  is  an  example  of  the  com- 
mercial phase ;  the  firing  at  an  armed  vessel  of  a 
friendly  nation,  or  the  invasion  of  territory,  is 
a  military  example;  and  the  detention  of  non- 
belligerents,  citizens  of  a  friendly  nation,  as  in 
the  case  of  France  and  England  (1803),  is  an 
example  of  a  civil  act  of  hostility. 

ACTS  OF  PIOjATE.    See  Apocbypha. 

ACTS  OP  THE  APOSTLES  (Gk.  TI pa^etc 
T13V  *AnoaT62.uVf  PrtKoeis  t6n_  Apo8tol6n),  The 
fifth  book  of  the  New  Testament,  the  composition 
of  which  is  ascribed  by  tradition  and  by  the 
general  consent  of  critics  to  the  same  author  as 
tbat  of  the  Third  Gospel,  to  which  book  it  forms 
a  sequel.  As  the  Gospel  was  written  after  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem  (70  a.d.),  the  date  of 
Acts  is  still  later,  bein?  not  before  75  A.D.,  and 
not  after  95  a.d.,  most  likely  about  80  a.d.  Its 
place  of  composition  is  not  possible  to  determine. 
Its  purpose  is  apparent  from  the  plan  on  which 
its  material  is  selected  and  arranged,  when  com- 
pared with   the  declared   purpose   and  evident 


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ACTS  OF  THE  ABOSTLE&  96 

plan  of  its  antecedent  book.  (See  Lttkb,  Qospkl 
OF.)  It  is  to  place  before  Theophilus,  who  was 
either  a  convert  from  paganism,  or,  if  yet  a 
pagan,  well  on  the  way  toward  an  acceptance  of 
Christianity  (see  Theofhilus),  the  develop- 
ment of  the  religion  of  Jesus  from  its  old  life 
in  Judaism  to  its  new  life  in  Gentilism  as  provi- 
dentially directed  and  so  originally  intended  by 
its  divine  founder.  There  may  have  been  a  sec- 
ondary purpose,  to  show,  by  the  favorable  re- 
ception and  treatment  which  this  religion  re- 
ceived from  Roman  officials,  that  there  was  no 
disposition  on  the  part  of  the  Grovernment  to 
consider  Christianity  in  a  hostile  light.  Such 
a  secondary  purpose  would  be  the  more  likely 
if  Theophilus  were  yet  himself  a  pagan  and  the 
book  were  composed  in  the. early  Flavian  r^ime, 
when  Christianity  was  under  imperial  suspicion. 
(See  Pebsecutions.) 

The  material  of  the  book  is  derived  partially 
from  outside  sources,  both  oral  and  written,  the 
presence  of  which  is  specially  evident  in  the 
first  twelve  chapters,  which  treat  of  the  experi- 
ence of  the  early  church  in  Jerusalem  and  Judea, 
and  partially  from  personal  notes  of  the  mission- 
ary experiences  of  Paul  and  his  companions, 
taken,  as  the  critical  facts  in  the  case  would 
seem  to  make  clear,  by  the  author  himself,  who 
thus  becomes  a  companion  of  Paul.  As  to  the 
identity  of  this  companion  there  would  seem  to 
be  no  valid  reason  against  the  tradition  that  he 
was  Luke,  mentioned  in  Paul's  epistles  as  stand- 
ing in  close  relationship  to  the  Apostle.  (See 
Colossians  iv  :  14;  II.  Timothy  iv  :  11 ;  Phile- 
mon, verse  24.)  This  is  the  general  opinion  of 
criticism. 

Two  schools  of  criticism  have  attempted  to  dis- 
parage the  credibility  of  Acts,  the  Tiibingen 
School  (1845),  which  held  it  to  be  a  tendency 
writing,  so  manipulating  the  narrative  in  the 
interests  of  the  union  movement  of  the  Church 
in  the  second  century,  as  to  destroy  all  accuracy 
of  facts,  and  the  Documentary  School  (1890), 
which  held  it  to  be  a  complex  composite  writing, 
made  up  of  such  variant  documents,  of  such  va- 
ried origins,  and  of  such  differing  degrees  of 
reliability  as  to  hopelessly  obscure  the  actual 
facts  of  the  history.  Neither  of  these  attempts 
has  proved  successful.  At  present  there  is  an 
effort  among  critics  to  subject  it  to  the  same 
process  of  literary  criticism  as  has  been  so 
largely  employed  in  the  Old  Testament.  This 
would  present  it  as  a  writing  which  not  only 
gives  us  a  history  of  the  early  times  of  which  it 
tells,  but  in  the  way  in  which  it  gives  that  his- 
tory so  reflects  the  later  times  in  which  it  was 
written  as  to  give  us  a  picture  of  its  own  age. 
By  these  critics  it  is  held  to  be  a  composite  writ- 
ing of  not  earlier  origin  than  the  reign  of  Do- 
mitian  (81-90  a.d.),  compiled  by  a  Gentile 
Christian,  not  Luke  or  any  companion  of  Paul, 
and,  outside  of  the  personal  diary  sections  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  book,  which  may  have 
come  from  Luke,  of  no  necessary  historical  ac- 
curacy. 

Professor  Blass  of  Halle  has  suggested  that 
it  was  written  originally  in  two  texts,  a  longer 
and  a  shorter  one,  the  former  being  the  earlier, 
and  represented  in  the  text  of  the  peculiar 
Codex  Bezse  (D),  the  shorter  being  the  later 
and  represented  in  the  canonical  text  of  the 
Testament. 

Bibliography.  Commentaries:  H.  Meyer  (ed- 
ited by  Wende,  GRJttingen,  1899)  ;  W.  de  Wette 


AGUPITHCTXTBE. 

(Leipzig,  1860) ;  Ewald,  Die  drei  enten 
Evangelien  und  die  Apastelgeechichte  (Grfittin- 
gen,  1872)  ;  F.  C.  Cook,  in  Bible  [Speaker's] 
Commentary  (New  York,  1881);  F.  N6sgen, 
(Leipzig,  1882)  ;  O.  Zdckler,  in  Strack  md 
Zdckler  Kommentar  (Munich,  1894) ;  H.  J. 
Holtzmann  in  Hand-Kommentar  zum  Neuen  Tes- 
tament (Freiburg,  1892) ;  R.  Knowling,  in  Ex- 
positor's Greek  Testament  (London,  1900).  In- 
troductions, Hilgenfeld  (Halle,  1876);  Holtz- 
mann (Freiburg,  1892) ;  Salmon  (London, 
1894) ;  Weiss,  English  translation  (Edin- 
burgh, 1888)  ;  A.  JOlicher  (Leipzig,  1901);  Th. 
Zahn  (Leipzig,  1900)  ;  B.  W.  Bacon  in  Vevi  Tes- 
tament Handbook  Series  (New  York,  1900);  J. 
Moffatt,  The  Historical  New  Testament  (New 
York  and  Edinburgh,  1901).  General  works: 
A.  Neander,  Planting  and  Training  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  English  translation  in  Bohn's  Ser- 
ies (London,  1842-46)  ;  F.  C.  Baur,  Paul,  Eng- 
lish translation  (London  1872-75)  ;  A.  RitschI, 
Die  Entstehung  der  Altkatholischen  K%reh€ 
(Bonn,  1857)  ;  Th.  Lewin,  Life  and  Epistles  of 
8t.  Paul  (London,  1875) ;  C.  Weizsftcker,  Tfee 
Apostolic  Age,  English  translation  (Edinburgh, 
1894)  ;  W.  M.  Ramsay,  The  Church  in  the  Roman 
Empire  Before  170  a.d.  (New  York,  1893);  8t. 
Paul  the  Traveler  and  the  Roman  Citizen  (New 
York,  1895)  ;  F.  J.  A.  Hort,  Judaistic  Christim- 
ity  (Cambridge,  1894)  ;  J.  Weiss,  Veber  die 
Absicht  und  den  literarischen  Character  der 
Apostelgesehichte  (G5ttingen,  1897). 

ACTTTTA^L^L  SOCIETY  OF  AMERICA. 
An  organization  for  the  promotion  of  actuarial 
science.  It  was  founded  in  1889  and  in  1900 
had  123  members  and  associates. 

ACTXTABT.  Actuarius,  in  ancient  Rome, 
meant  a  clerk  who  recorded  the  a<!ta  (q.v.)  of 
the  senate  and  other  public  bodies,  and  also  an  ac- 
countant. In  recent  times,  a  term  applied  to  the 
ofRcers  of  life  insurance  companies  and  cognate 
enterprises,  who  supply  the  calculations  upon 
which  their  business  rests.  As  these  calculations 
involve  questions  of  the  probable  duration  of 
human  lite,  as  well  as  those  of  interest  and  costs, 
the  function  of  the  actuary  might  be  briefly  de- 
fined as  the  application  of  the  doctrine  of  proba- 
bilities to  the  affairs  of  life.    See  Pbobabiu- 


ACOnPRES'STJBE  (Lat.  acus,  needle  +  pres- 
sura,  pressure).  A  mode  of  arresting  hemor- 
rhage from  bleeding  vessels.  A  needle  is  pas^ 
through  the  flaps  or  sides  of  the  wound,  or  the 
tissues  at  the  sides  of  the  vessel,  so  as  to  cross 
over  and  compress  the  orifice  of  the  bleeding 
artery,  just  as  in  putting  a  flower  in  the  lapel 
of  one's  coat  one  crosses  over  and  compresses 
the  flower-stalk  with  a  pin  pushed  twice  through 
the  lapel.  Surgeons  now  seldom  use  acupres- 
sure. 

ACriTPTJNCTaJBE  (Lat.  acus,  needle  + 
punctura,  a  pricking).  A  very  ancient  remedy, 
and  one  practiced  extensively  in  the  east,  for 
the  relief  of  pain,  swelling,  or  dropsy.  Steel 
needles  are  made  use  of,  about  three  inches  long, 
and  set  in  handles.  The  surgeon,  by  a  rotatory 
movement,  passes  one  or  more  to  the  desired 
depth  in  the  tissues,  and  leaves  them  there  from 
a  few  minutes  to  an  hour.  The  relief  to  pain 
afforded  by  this  simple  operation  is  sometimes 
astonishing,  and  the  wounds  are  so  minute  as 
to  be  perfectly  harmless.    The  needles  are  some- 


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ACXJPUNCTUBK  97 

times  used  as  conductors  of  the  galvanic  current 
to  deep-seated  parts,  for  the  destruction  of  naevi, 
moles,  birthmarks,  etc.,  and  are  sometimes  made 
hollow  to  allow  of  a  small  quantity  of  some 
sedative  solutions  being  injected  into  the  tissues 
by  which  pain  may  be  almost  immediately  re- 
lieved.   See  Neuralgia. 

ADA,  dd'd.  A  town  of  the  kingdom  of  Hun- 
ipiry,  situated  on  the  Theiss,  about  30  miles 
south  of  Szegedin  (Map:  Hungary,  G  4).  The 
inhabitants  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  grain  and  cattle  raising.  Pop.,  1890, 
11,000. 

ADAQIO,  A-da'j6  (Ital.  leisurely,  from  ad 
cgio,  at  ease) .  ( See  Agio.)  In  music,  primarily 
u  slow  tempo  intermediate  between  largo  or  grave 
and  andante.  The  term  is  further  applied  to  the 
slow  movement  (usually  the  second)  of  a  musical 
composition,  as,  e.g.  of  a  symphony,  sonata,  con- 
certo, or  overture.  It  serves  as  a  contrast  with 
the  rapid  and  energetic  preceding  (allegro)  and 
following  (scherzo)  movements  of  the  work,  and 
affords  scope  for  a  flowing  and  expressive  slow 
melody  with  a  gracefully  varied  accompaniment, 
which  breaks  up  the  monotony  of  the  adagio  and 
heightens  its  effect.  A  clear  and  erpressive  exe- 
cution of  an  adagio  is  an  unfailing  test  of  the 
artistic  standing  of  a  performer,  as  it  demands 
a  pure  and  beautiful  intonation,  a  true  reading 
and  phrasing  of  the  cantilena  even  in  its  most 
minute  details,  and  a  careful  attention  to  all 
points  of  effect.  The  old  masters,  Haydn,  Mo- 
zart, and  Beethoven,  have  left  in  their  works  the 
finest  specimens  of  the  adagio. 

ADAIB,  &-d&r^,  James.  An  Indian  trader 
and  author.  He  lived  for  almost  forty  years 
among  the  southern  Indians,  and  chiefly  amon^ 
the  Chickasaws,  and  in  1776  published  a  val- 
uable work  entitled  The  History  of  the  Indian 
TriheSj  Particularly  Those  Nations  Adjoining  the 
Mississippi,  East  and  West  Florida,  Georgia, 
South  and  North  Carolina,  and  Virginia. 
Though  impaired  in  value  by  the  author's  zeal- 
ous advocacy  of  the  Jewish  origin  of  the  Indian 
race,  this  book  gives  one  of  the  best  first-hand 
accounts  ever  written  of  the  habits  and  character 
of  the  native  tribes,  besides  containing  an  incom- 
plete but  valuable  vocabulary  of  various  Indian 
dialects.  Adair's  theory  of  the  origin  of  the 
Indians  was  adopted  and  elaborated  by  Dr.  Ellas 
Boudinot  in  his  Star  of  the  West,  or  An  Attempt 
to  Discover  the  Long-Lost  Tribes  of  Israel 
(1816). 

ADAIBy  John.  (1759-1840).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  in  Chester  County,  S.  C, 
but  removed  to  Kentucky  in  1787.  He  served 
as  major  in  Greneral  St.  Clair's  Indian  expedi- 
tion of  1791,  and  was  defeated  by  "Little  Tur- 
tle" in  November.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Ken- 
tucky Constitutional  Convention  ( 1792) ,  and  was 
a  United  States  senator  from  1805  to  1806.  He 
served  as  volunteer  aid  to  General  Shelby  in  the 
battle  of  the  Thames  (October  5,  1813),  and, 
as  brigadier-general  of  militia,  commanded  the 
Kentucky  troops  at  New  Orleans  in  1815.  He 
was  governor  of  Kentucky  (1820-24),  and  a 
member  of  Congress  (1831-33). 

ADAIR,  RoBi:!7.      See  Robin  Adaib. 

ADATi,  k'dJiV.  A  narrow  tract  of  land  in  East 

Africa  extending  along  the  Red  Sea  from  the 

Oulf  of  Tajura  to  Massowah  (Map:  Africa,  J  3). 

The  larger  part  is  included  in  the  present  Italian 

VoL.L-T 


ATlATff. 

colony  of  Eritrea  (q.v.),  while  the  southern  end, 
bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Tajura,  is  under  the 
protectorate  of  France.  Its  inhabitants  are  the 
Danakil. 

AIVALBEBT  (?  —  1072).  A  German 
prelate.  He  was  made  Archbishop  of  Bremen  in 
1043  by  Henry  III.,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Rome,  where  he  declined  the  proposed  candidacy 
for  the  papacy,  when  he  might  have  been  elected. 
Leo  IX.  made  him  his  legate  in  the  north.  Dur- 
ing the  minority  of  Henry  IV.,  Adalbert  a^d 
Archbishop  Hanno,  of  Cologne,  usurped  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  empire;  but  he  became  ob- 
noxious to  the  princes  and  they  succeeded  in 
separating  him  from  the  Emperor.  He  soon  after 
regained  his  influence,  however,  and  kept  it  as 
long  as  he  lived.  His  dream  was  to  unite  Ger- 
many, England,  and  Scandinavia  into  a  patriar- 
chate independent  of  Rome. 

ADAIiBEBT  Saint  (?  —  997).  A  Bo- 
hemian prelate  improperly  styled  "the  apostle 
of  the  Prussians,"  whose  original  Bohemian  name 
was  Voitech  (comfort  of  the  host).  He  was 
was  educated  at  Magdeburg,  and  in  983  was 
chosen  Bishop  of  Prague,  but  soon  wearied  of 
the  perpetual  strife  with  the  essentially  heathen 
Bohemians  and  retired  to  a  monastery  near 
Rome.  He  went  back  to  Prague  in  992,  but  again 
retired  in  discouragement,  and  finally  went  as  a 
missionary  to  the  Poles  and  Prussians,  and  was 
murdered  by  a  heathen  priest  April  23,  997.  He 
was  first  buried  at  Gnesen,  and  then  transferred 
to  Prague  and  put  in  a  vault,  where  his  bones 
were  discovered  in  1880,  and  deposited  in  the 
cathedral.  For  his  life,  consult  C.  Heger  (KOn- 
igsberg,  1897),  H.  G.  Voigt  (Berlin,  1898). 

ATiATTA^  &-d&n^&  (ancient  Attalia).  The 
chief  seaport  of  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Konieh, 
situated  on  the  southern  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  in 
lat.  36**  52'  N.,  long.  30**  45'  E.,  about  200  miles 
southeast  of  Smyrna  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  D 
4).  The  streets  rise  like  the  seats  of  a  theatre 
up  the  slope  of  the  hill.  The  town,  built  on  a 
rocky  hill,  w^ith  its  streets  rising  in  terraces  and 
studded  with  and  surrounded  by  beautiful  gar- 
dens of  orange,  fig,  and  mulberry  trees,  is  very 
picturesque.  It  has  a  considerable  trade  in  tim- 
ber, wheat  and  other  agricultural  products.  Pop., 
about  30,000,  including  about  7000  Greeks. 

AIXAM.  The  name  given  in  the  book  of  Gene- 
sis to  the  first  man.  The  word  Adam  is  orig- 
inally a  common  noun  applied  both  to  a  single 
human  being  and  to  mankind  in  general;  hence, 
as  a  designation  for  the  first  man  the  Old  Testa- 
ment almost  invariably  attaches  the  article  to 
adam,  which  thus  becomes  Ha-adam;  that  is, 
"the  man."  According  to  the  critical  school 
the  creation  of  Adam  and  Eve  has  come  dowoi 
to  us  in  two  recensions  of  Genesis,  the  first. 
Genesis  i  :  26-30,  forming  part  of  the  so-called 
Elohistic  record  of  creation  ( see  Creation  )  ;  the 
second,  Genesis  ii  :  5-24,  embodied  in  the  Yahwis- 
tic  version.  According  to  the  former,  male  and 
female  are  created  at  the  same  time  (Genesis 
V  :  27 ) .  The  word  is  somewhat  ambiguous,  so 
that  it  is  not  certain  whether  only  a  single  hu- 
man pair  is  referred  to  or  mankind  in  general, 
just  as  according  to  this  version  the  animal  world 
in  general  is  created  at  the  beginning.  In  the 
Yahwistic  version,  however,  a  single  male  indi- 
vidual alone  is  formed  by  Grod,  who  moulds  a 
man  out  of  the  "dust  of  tVi^  ground"  and 
breathes  into  the  mass  the  "br^atVv  ot  ^^®*'  (Gen- 


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ADAM. 


98 


A-nAUff. 


esis  ii  :  7 ) .  The  word  used  for  "ground"  is 
adamahy  and  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  there  is 
evidently  a  close  connection  between  this  word 
and  Adam.  A  common  meaning  for  the  Hebrew 
stem  adarny  from  which  adamah  is  derived,  is 
*'red;"  but  while  this  furnishes  a  satisfactory 
explanation  for  the  word  "ground,"  it  does  not 
lollow  that  the  implied  biblical  etymology  for 
"adam"  as  man  is  correct.  The  stem  adam  oc- 
curs in  various  of  the  Semitic  languages,  and  ex- 
hibits a  variety  of  meanings,  such  as  "pleasant," 
"to  make,"  "to  attach  oneself"  (hence,  to  be  so- 
ciable), and  scholarly  opinion  vacillates  between 
assuming  one  or  the  other  of  these  significations 
as  furnishing  the  explanation  of  the  name 
"Adam."  If  any  conclusion  may  be  drawn  from 
ben  or  ibn,  which  is  the  common  Semitic  word 
for  son  and  child,  and  which  is  derived  from  a 
stem  signifying  "build,"  the  weight  of  evidence 
would  be  in  favor  oi  connecting  adam  with 
"make."  In  Assyrian  w^e  have  a  word  "admu" 
(the  equivalent  of  the  Hebrew  Adam),  which 
actually  occurs  as  one  of  the  synonyms  of  "child" 
(see  Delitzsch,  Assyrischea  Worterhuch,  p.  25). 
Coming  back  to  the  two  versions  of  creation, 
it  will  be  found  that  they  differ  in  many  re- 
spects; b,ut  it  is  by  the  combination  of  the  two 
that  we  obtain  the  views  held  by  the  Hebrews 
regarding  the  first  man.  In  the  first  version, 
where  the  work  of  creation  is  distributed  among 
six  days,  humanity  is  created  on  the  last  day. 
Man  is  made  in  the  image  of  God,  and  given 
dominion  over  all  the  animals,  and,  indeed,  the 
entire  earth.  In  the  second  version  it  is  stated 
that  man  was  placed  in  a  garden  situated  in 
Eden  ((lenesis  ii  :  8),  known  as  the  "Garden  of 
Eden,"  in  which  all  manner  of  trees  were  planted. 
(See  Eden.)  Man  is  put  there  to  till  the  ground 
and  to  keep  guard  over  it.  He  is  permitted  to 
eat  of  the  fruit  of  all  the  trees  with  the  ex- 
ception of  one,  known  as  the  "tree  of  knowledge 
of  good  and  evil,"  and  which  he  is  not  to  touch 
under  penalty  of  death.  A  woman  is  created 
as  a  helpmate  to  Adam  out  of  one  of  his  ribs, 
who  is  called  Eve,  a  name  subsequently  explained 
as  "the  mother  of  all  living."  The  close  attach- 
ment between  Adam  and  Eve  (see  Eve)  is  em- 
phasized, and,  although  not  distinctly  stated,  the 
narrative  implies  that  she  is  included  in  the 
prohibition  not  to  eat  of  the  one  tree  singled 
out.  Through  the  serpent,  who  assures  the 
woman  that  she  and  Adam  will  not  die,  the  wo- 
man is  beguiled  into  eating  of  the  fruit  and 
gives  of  it  to  Adam.  The  first  consequence  of 
the  act  was  that  the  pair  recognized  their  naked 
state  and  made  loin  coverings  of  fig  leaves.  Adam 
pleads  in  extenuation  that  the  woman  gave  him 
of  the  fruit, .  and  the  woman  pleads  that  the 
serpent  beguiled  her.  All  three  are  punished, 
the  serpent  by  becoming  the  cursed  one  among 
the  animals,  the  woman  by  increase  of  her  trou- 
bles and  pain,  particularly  in  child-bearing,  and 
the  man  by  being  obliged  henceforth  to  secure 
his  sustenance  by  the  sweat  of  his  brow  in  tilling 
the  ground.  God  makes  garments  of  skin  for 
the  pair,  and  in  fear  lest  they  eat  also  of  the 
"tree  of  life"  which  is  in  the  garden,  and  which 
U  to  secure  immortality,  he  drives  Adam  and 
Eve  out  of  their  first  habitation  and  places 
cherubim  with  flaming  swords  to  guard  the  way 
to  the  tree  of  life. 

In  the  continuation  of  the  narrative  (Chapter 
iv  :  1-2),  the  birth  of  two  sons,  Cain  and  Abel, 
is  recounted;  but  beyond  that  we  learn  nothing 


further  of  Adam  and  Eve  until  we  reach  a  totally 
different  document,  a  genealogical  list  in  Chapter 
V,  in  which,  after  a  re-statement  of  the  creation 
of   humanity   and   the   assigning   of   the   name 
Adam  (Genesis  v  :  2)  to  mankind  in  general,  the 
birth  of  Seth,  in  the  130th  year  of  Adam's  life, 
is  recounted,  no  mention  being  made  of  Cain  or 
Abel.    Adam  is  stated  to  have  died  at  the  age 
of  930  years,   after   having  begotten   sons   and 
daughters.      In  the  narrative  about  Adam  thua 
pieced  together  from  various  documents,  a  further 
distinction  must  be  made  between  the  story  as 
told  in  the  first  three  chapters  of  Genesis  and 
the  notes  in  the  fifth  chapter.    The  genealogical 
list  appears  to  be  in  reality  a  list  of  dynasties, 
drawn  up  on  the  basis  of  a  tradition  which  be- 
longs  to   the   sarne  category  of   semi-l^endary 
lore,  as  the  lists  preserved  by  Eusebius  and  Syn- 
cellus  of  early  Babylonian  rulers  who  lived  be- 
fore the  fiood  (see  Rogers'  History  of  Babyl4>nia 
and  Assyria,  i.,  p.  328)  ;   whereas  the  story  of 
Adam   and  Eve  in  the  first  three  chapters   of 
Genesis   is   a   composite   production   embodying 
various  popular  tales  of  myths,  some  elements  of 
which  revert  to  tradition  held  in  common  at  one 
time  by  Hebrews  and  Babylonians,  but  which, 
having  passed  through  an  independent  develop- 
ment among  the  Hebrews,  have  been  interpreted 
in  the  light  of  the  monotheistic  conception  of  the 
universe,  and  preserved  as  an  effective  means  of 
illustrating  the  specifically  Jewish  document  of 
the  creation  of  man  and  of  his  fall  from  divine 
grace,  as  an  explanation  of  the  toil  and  ills  with 
which  human  existence  is  filled.    .  It  is  this  dis- 
tinctly theological  conception  of  Adam  which  be- 
comes uppermost  as  the  religious  ideas  of  the  Old 
Testament  become  fixed  in  men's  minds.      The 
story  of  Adam  becomes  with  the  growth  of  Chris- 
tian  theology   the   most   important   source    for 
the  doctrine  of  the  origin  of  sin,  and  over  against 
him  is  put  the  second  Adam,  the  first  being  the 
fountain  of  sin,  the  second  the  source  of  salva- 
tion.   This  conception  is  fully  brought  out  in  the 
teachings  of  St.  Paul  (see  especially  Romans  v  : 
12-21;    I.   Corinthians  xv  :  22,   and  45-49).      In 
Jewish   theology   proper  the   doctrinal    develop- 
ment in  general  is  arrested  after  the  separation 
from  Judaism  of  the  new  sect  made  up  of  the  fol- 
lowers   of    Jesus.      The    predominant    position 
henceforth  occupied  in  Judaism  by  obedience  to 
the  minute  ceremonial  prescriptions  brings  about 
a  concentration  of  Jewish  thought  on  theoretical 
discussions  of  the  intricacies  of  biblical  and  tal- 
mudical  laws,  while  in  place  of  doctrinal  elabora- 
tion we  have  the  homiletical  interpretation  of 
the  narrative  in  Genesis,  which  leads  to  numer- 
ous additions  to  rabbinical  literature  of  the  bib- 
lical narrative  of  Adam  and  of  the  creation  in 
general,  as  \vell  as  of  the  stories  of  the  patri- 
archs in  the  Book  of  Genesis.  These  stories  about 
Adam    are   collected    in    the    so-called    Midrash 
Rabba  to  Genesis,  a  German  translation  of  which 
was  published  by  Wunsche  {Der  Midrasch  Rahba 
zu  Genesis,  1882).     From  the  Jews  the  stories 
made  their  way  to  the  Arabs,  and  snatches  of 
them*  are  embodied  in  the  Koran.     Consult  Sale's 
Translation  of  the  Koran  and  notes    (London, 
1877),  especially  to  Suras  15  and  17. 

ADAM.  In  Shakespeare's  As  You  lAke  It 
(q.v.),  an  old  servant  who  foUoA^^s  the  fortunes 
of  Orlando.  His  age,  he  apologetically  says,  "is 
as  a  lusty  winter,  frosty  but  kindly"  (Act  II., 
Scene  3).'  The  part  is  one  which  Shakespeare 
himself  is  traditionally  said  to  have  played. 


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ADAM. 

ADAM.  The  name  of  a  distinguished  family 
of  British  architects  of  the  eighteenth  century. 
WiLUAM  Adam  ( T — 1748)  was  the  author  of  the 
library  and  university  of  Glasgow  and  of  many 
public  and  private  buildings  at  Dundee  (town 
hall)  and  Edinburgh.  His  four  sons,  especially 
KoBERT  (1727-92)  and  James  (T — 1794),  were 
prolific  and  successful  architects,  and  under 
Robert's  leadership  did  a  great  deal  to  remodel 
London.  Robert's  studies  in  Italy  and  Dalmatia 
preceded  his  settling  in  London,  and  his  book 
on  Diocletian's  palace  at  Spalato  increased  his 
reputation,  as  also  did  the  publication  of  en- 
gravings of  the  brothers'  designs.  The  Adelphi 
Terrace  and  buildings  are  by  Robert,  as  are  also 
the  Register  House  at  Edinburgh,  Kedleston 
Hall,  near  Derby,  Lansdowne  House,  and  many 
blocks  of  London  houses,  to  whose  interior  deco- 
ration and  arrangement  the  brothers  paid  great 
attention. 

ADAM,  &'d&lT^  Adolphs  Chables  (1803-56). 
A  French  composer  of  operas.  He  was  bom  and 
died  in  Paris.  Though  originally  intended  for 
a  scientific  career,  he  entered  the  conservatory  in 
1817  and  studied  composition  under  Boieldieu, 
mainly  writing  transcriptions  for  the  piano. 
In  1829  his  one-act  opera,  Pierre  ei  Catherine, 
was  produced  with  success,  and  fifty-two  more 
followed,  of  which  Le  chdlet  and  Le  poatillon  de 
Longjumeau  (1836)  are  the  most  famous.  The 
latter,  and  his  Cantique  de  Noel,  and,  besides, 
the  ballets  Faust  and  Le  Corsairey  are  his  best 
known  works  in  the  United  States.  His  chief 
merits  are  the  characteristic  French  daintiness 
and  finish.  He  was  made  professor  of  compo- 
sition at  the  conservatory  in  1849.  His  auto- 
biography and  souvenirs  were  published  (Paris, 
1860).  Consult:  A.  Pouzin,  Adolphe  Adam,  aa 
vie,  etc.  (Paris,  1876). 

ADAM,  Book  of.    See  Apocbtpha  and  PsEU- 

DEPIGRAPHA. 

ADAM,  Sir  Frederick  (1784-1853).  An 
English  general.  He  was  educated  at  Woolwich 
military  academy  and  greatly  distinguished  him- 
self in  the  Peninsular  campaign.  Although  se- 
verely wounded  at  the  battle  of  Alicante,  he 
reentered  the  service  upon  his  recovery.  He 
repelled  the  last  charge  of  the  French  guards  at 
Waterloo. 

ADAM,  Graeme  Mercer  ( 1839 — ) .  A  Cana- 
dian author  and  editor.  He  was  born  at  Loan- 
head,  Midlothian,  Scotland.  After  some  experi- 
ence with  the  Blackwoods,  he  emigrated  to  To- 
ronto, where  he  became  a  partner  in  a  success- 
ful publishing  house.  In  1876  he  opened,  in 
conjunction  with  John  Lovell  of  Montreal,  a 
branch  house  in  New  York,  which  has  since  de- 
veloped into  the  John  W.  Lovell  Publishing  Com- 
pany. Returning  to  Toronto  in  1878,  he  subse- 
quently edited  the  Canadian  Bookseller; 
founded,  in  conjunction  with  Goldwin  Smith, 
the  Canadian  Monthly  (1872);  started  the 
Canadian  Educational  Monthly  (1879)  ;  and  was 
for  several  years  connected  with  the  Bystander 
as  assistant  to  <3oldwin  Smith,  and  contributed 
extensively  to  other  periodicals.  Coming  again 
Ui  Xew  York  (1892),  he  became  identified  with 
several  publishing  houses  as  "reader;"  wrote  re- 
views and  compiled  several  books.  In  1896  he 
removed  to  CHiicago  to  become  editor  of  Sclf-Cul- 
^^re.  Among  Adam's  numerous  separate  publi- 
cations are  The  Canadian  North-West  (1895); 
Outline  History  of  Canadian  Literature  (1886)  ; 


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ADAM. 


topographical  and  descriptive  books  of  Canada, 
encyclopedias,  and  school  books.  In  collabora- 
tion with  Ethelwyn  Wetherald  he  wrote  a  suc- 
cessful historical  romance  entitled  An  Algonquin 
Maiden  (1886). 

ADAM,  Jean  (1710-65).  A  Scotch  poet. 
She  was  born  near  Greenock.  In  her  earlier  life 
she  was  a  teacher,  but,  compelled  to  give  up  her 
school,  she  became  a  street  vendor.  She  lived  a 
joyless  life,  and  died  in  the  Glasgow  poor  house. 
She  published  a  volume  of  religious  poems  in 
1734.  By  some  she  is  believed*  to  be  the  author 
of  There's  nae  Luck  Ahoot  the  House j  a  beautiful 
lyric.  (See  Mickle,  William  Julius.)  Con- 
sult: Ward's  English  Poets  (London,  1880). 

ADAM,  ft'dfiN',  Mme.  Juliette  (1836—). 
A  Parisian  writer  and  editor.  She  was  bom  at 
Verberie  (department  of  Oise),  October  4,  1836. 
Her  first  book,  Le  sidge  de  Paris,  journal  d'une 
Parisienne,  is  an  account  of  her  experiences  in 
1870-71,  when  her  husband  (died  1877)  was  pre- 
fect of  police.  Her  Nouvelle  Revue,  founded  in 
1879,  and  her  salon,  have  both  been  politically  in- 
fluential. She  has  written  much  for  periodicals 
on  politics,  literature,  education,  and  the  posi- 
tion of  women.  Her  fiction,  e.g.,  Laide  (1878), 
Orecque  (1879),  Pa'ienne  (1883),  is  militantly 
hedonistic,  a  passionate  protest  against  what  she 
would  call  the  anti-natural,  and  others,  the  su- 
pernatural, in  Christianity.  The  most  note- 
worthy of  her  works  are:  Souvenirs  personnels, 
La  patrie  hongroise  (1884) ,  and  Le  g4n4ral  Sko- 
heleff  (1886).  Manv  of  her  books  appeared  un- 
der the  pen  names  of  Juliette  Lamber  and  Comte 
Paul  Vasili. 

ADAM,  Lambeet  Sigisbebt  (1700-59).  A 
French  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Nancy  and 
was  educated  at  the  School  of  the  Academic, 
Paris,  where  he  received  the  Prix  de  Rome  in 
1723.  During  his  sojourn  at  the  Academic  de 
France  he  executed  for  Pope  Clement  XII.  a 
bas-relief  representing  the  apparition  of  the  Vir- 
gin to  St.  Andrew  Corsini,  for  which  he  received 
the  title  Acad^mioien  de  St.  Luc.  His  subse- 
quent artistic  career  in  Paris  was  very  success- 
ful. Some  of  his  best  known  works  are:  "La 
Seine  et  la  Marne"  (Palace  of  St.  Cloud)  ;  "Nep- 
tune et  Amphitrite"  (Versailles,  1740)  ;  "V^nus 
au  Bain"  (designed  for  the  Chateau  de  Choisy, 
1742)  ;  "La  Chasse  et  La  PCche"  (Potsdam)  ; 
"Neptune  calmant  les  Flots"  (Mus^  du  Louvre, 
1737).  He  published:  Recueil  de  Sculptures 
antiques  Orecques  et  Romaines. 

ADAM,  Paul  (1862 — ).  A  French  author. 
Born  in  Paris.  He  participated  in  the  Boulangist 
movement  (1889),  and  was  an  unsuccessful  can- 
didate for  a  seat  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies. 
His  earliest  appearance  in  literature  was  made 
with  Chair  molle  (1885).  Others  of  his  works 
of  fiction,  chiefly  in  the  manner  of  the  "symbol- 
ist" school,  are  Robes  rouges  (1891),  le  Myst^e 
des  foules  (2  volumes,  1895),  and  la  Bataille 
d'Uhde  (1897).  With  J.  Mor^aa  he  wrote  la 
Th^  chez  Miranda  (1887).  In  addition  to  the 
above,  his  drama,  VAutomne  (1893;  with  G. 
Mowrey),  may  be  mentioned. 

ADAM,  QuiBiN  FBANgois  Lxjowfi   ^1»33 — ), 
A   French  magistrate  and  philewA      -at     "^^  ^?'* 
born    at   Nancy.     Among   his    yT^S^toUft  "^'^^^^ 
on    philology,    some    of    whiQYv^^\VV^I    ^\^  ^  \ 
languages  of  the  native  trib^J'      <\C^V.pt\<^*^  ^St,, 
the  dialects  of  Lorraine,  *^    ^    --    ^^^    .^te  tAv«i 


'^\\( 


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ADAMNAN. 


most  important:  Orammaire  de  la  Langue 
Mandohoue  (1873);  Eaquiase  d*un€  Orammaire 
Comparde  du  Cr6e  et  du  Chipp6way  (second  edi- 
tion, 1876) ;  Etudes  8ur  six  Langues  AmMoaines 
(1878);  Les  Patois  Lorraine  (1881);  Les 
Idiomes  Nigro-Aryens  et  Malio-Aryens   (1883). 

AIVAM,  Testambztt  of.  See  Apocrypha,  Old 
Testament. 

ADAM,  WuxiAM  (175M839).  A  British 
lawyer.  He  was  born  in  Scotland  and  in  1774 
entered  Parliament,  where  he  attached  himself 
to  the  party  of  Lord  North.  Four  years  after- 
ward he  fought  a  duel  with  Fox  (1778),  in 
which  Fox  was  wounded.  He  took  an  important 
part,  however,  in  effecting  the  coalition  between 
Fox  and  North,  and  Shelbume,  and  was  one  of 
the  few  to  maintain  his  allegiance  to  his  former 
adversary  at  the  time  of  the  French  Revolution. 
He  was  one  of  the  managers  appointed  by  the 
Commons  to  conduct  the  impeachment  of  Warren 
Hastings  (1788).  He  presided  over  the  Civil 
Jury  Court  in  Scotland  from  the  time  of  its  es- 
tablishment (1816)  until  his  death.  Consult: 
his  Life,  by  G.  L.  Craik,  in  the  Dictionary  of  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge. 

AJVAMAKT  (Gk.a,  a,  priv.  +  dafidv,  daman, 
to  tame).  The  name  of  any  substance  of  ex- 
traordinary hardness.  The  name  was  attached  to 
a  supposed  stone,  or  mineral,  as  to  the  properties 
of  which  vague  notions  long  prevailed.  It  was 
identified  with  the  lodestone  or  magnet,  and  often 
used  as  synonymous  with  it  by  early  writers. 
This  confusion' ceased  with  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, hut  the  word  for  a  long  time  had  currency 
among  scientific  writers  as  a  synonym  with  dia- 
mond. The  use  of  the  term  to  denote  the  lode- 
stone  seems  to  have  been  due  to  the  early  Latin 
medical  writers,  Mho  apparently  derived  the 
word  from  the  Latin  adamare,  "to  have  an  attrac- 
tion for." 

AD'AMAN^INE  SPAB.    See  Corundum. 

ADAMAWA,  a'dA-ma'wA,  or  Fumbina. 
One  of  the  subordinate  States  of  the  Sokoto  Em- 
pire which  constitutes  the  greater  portion  of 
Northern  Nigeria  (Map:  Africa,  F  4).  Its 
boundaries  are  uncertain,  but  its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  about  50,000  square  miles.  The  coun- 
try is  elevated  in  its  southern  part,  where  some 
of  the  mountains  reach  an  altitude  of  about 
8000  feet.  It  is  traversed  by  the  River  Benue 
and  several  other  streams,  and  its  soil  is  very 
fertile.  The  climate  and  the  flora  and  the 
fauna  are  tropical.  Politically,  Adamawa  is 
more  or  less  autonomous,  and  is  ruled  by  a 
native  sultan.  The  eastern  part  of  Adamawa,  as 
far  as  the  confluence  of  the  Faro  with  the  Benue, 
is  included  in  the  German  Kamerun,  while  the 
western  part,  including  the  capital,  Yolo,  forms 
a  part  of  northern  Nigeria.  The  principal  settle- 
ments are  Yolo,  with  a  population  estimated  at 
from  12,000  to  20,000;  Banjo,  the  centre  of  the 
ivory  trade,  and  Nganudere.  The  population 
of  Adamawa  is  estimated  at  over  three  million, 
but  these  figures  are  mere  conjecture.  The  pre- 
dominant part  of  the  population  consists  of 
Fulbe.  (See  Fulahs.)  The  first  European  to 
visit  Adamawa  was  Dr.  Barth  in  1851.  Con- 
sult: S.  Passarge,  Adamaua  (Berlin,  1895). 

AJVAM  BEDE.  The  title  of  a  novel  by  Georpe 
Eliot  (see  Evans,  Maby  Ann),  published 
in  1859.  The  name  is  that  of  its  principal 
character,  a  young  English  workingman  of  in- 


tellectual tastes  and  a  keen  conscience.  He  is 
the  lover  of  Hetty  Sorrel,  but  in  the  end  marrieB 
Dinah  Morris. 

AD^AM  CXT^ID.  A  name  applied  to  Cupid 
in  Shakespeare's  Romeo  and  Juliet,  Act  II., 
Scene  1.  According  to  Upton  there  was  an 
archer  named  Adam,  whose  skill  was  famous  in 
Shakespeare's  time,  so  that  the  significance  of 
the  epithet  is  evident.  Upton  cites  in  confinna- 
tion.  Much  Ado  About  Nothing,  Act  I.,  Scene  1: 
"And  he  that  hits  me  let  him  be  clapped  on  the 
shoulder  and  called  Adam."  Other  critics  main- 
tain that  the  original  was  "Abram,"  a  corruption 
from  Auburn,  since  the  early  folios  and  quartos 
give  "Abraham"  in  the  passage. 

ADAM  DE  LA  HALLE,  k'd&y^  de  1&  ^1'. 
(1235-1287?).  One  of  the  early  founders  of 
the  French  drama.  His  Play  of  Adam,  or  Le 
jeu  de  la  feuille,  as  it  was  also  called,  written 
for  citizens  of  his  native  Arra.9  for  popular  per- 
formance is  the  earliest  French  comedy.  Adam 
de  la  Halle  was  also  a  musician,  and  his  Rohin 
et  Marion  is  the  first  European  comic  opera. 
His  musical  compositions,  chiefly  songs  and  mo- 
tets, form  a  connecting  link  between  the  work  of 
the  French  di^chanteurs  and  the  Flemish  contra- 
puntists. His  works  are  edited  by  Coussemaker 
(Paris,  1872).  Consult:  Ambros,  Oeschichte 
der  Musik,  Volume  II.  (Breslau,  1862). 

AJVAMIy  John  Geobok  (1862  — ).  An  Eng- 
lish pathologist.  He  was  bom  at  Manchester; 
was  educated  at  Owens  College,  Manchester,  and 
Christ's  College,  Cambridge,  and  studied  at 
Breslau,  Paris,  and  Manchester.  He  became  house 
physician  to  the  Manchester  Royal  Infirmary,  and 
demonstrator  of  pathology  at  Cambridge  in  1887. 
In  1891  he  was  elected  fellow  of  Jesus  College, 
Cambridge,  and  in  1892  professor  of  pathology 
at  McGill  University  in  Montreal,  Canada.  He 
has  also  been  at  the' head  of  the  pathological  de- 
partment of  the  Royal  Victoria  Hospital  at  Mon- 
treal since  1894,  and  in  1896  became  Middleton 
Goldsmith  lecturer  to  the  New  York  Pathological 
Society.  He  has  published  numerous  papers  on 
pathological  topics,  and  articles  on  inflammation 
lor  Allbutt's  System  of  Medicine. 

AJVAMITES.  ( 1 )  An  obscure  and  probably 
non-existent  sect  mentioned  by  Epiphanius  ( Har, 
52)  as  extant  in  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  so  called  because  they  imitated  Ad- 
amic  simplicity  in  going  without  clothing  while 
at  worship.  They  are  said  to  have  practiced  abso- 
lute continence.  ( 2 )  A  sect  of  fanatics  founded  by 
a  certain  Picard,  who  became  numerous  in  Bo- 
hemia and  Moravia  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  but  had  no  connection  with  the  Hus- 
sites. Picard  styled  himself  Adam,  the  son  of 
(rod,  rejected  the  sacrament  of  the  supper  and 
the  priesthood,  and  advocated  the  community  of 
women.  After  his  death  his  followers  increased 
in  Bohemia  under  several  leaders.  They  even 
fortified  themselves  on  an  island  in  a  tributary 
of  the  Moldau  and  committed  various  depreda- 
tions. They  were  detested  as  much  by  the  fol- 
lowers of  Hub  as  by  the  Catholics.  Ziska  made 
war  against  them  and  slew  great  numbers, 
but  they  were  never  entirely  rooted  out.  In 
fact,  it  is  said  that  in  1849  a  similar  sect  ap- 
peared in  Austria. 

AD'AMNAN,  Saint  (625-704).  An  Irish 
abbot,  properly  Adam,  of  which  Adamnan  is  a 
diminutive.     He  was  born  at  Drumhome,  south- 


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ADAMS. 


west  Donegal,  the  extreme  northwest  county, 
about  the  year  625,  but  entered  the  monastery 
of  lona.  His  father,  Ronan,  was  the  great- 
great-grandson  of  the  uncle  of  St.  Columba, 
and  also  claimed  kin  with  many  Irish 
kin^.  The  paternal  grandfather  was  Tinne, 
from  whom  came  the  patronymic  Ua  Tinne,  or 
grandson  of  Tinne,  an  appellative  which  is  occa- 
sionally found  coupled  with  Adamnan's  name. 
Ronnat,  the  mother  of  Adamnan,  was  descended 
from  Enna,  son  of  Niall,  whose  race,  the  Cincl 
Enna,  possessed  themselves  of  the  tract  lying  be- 
tween the  channels  of  the  Foyle  and  Swilly, 
which  was  called  the  Tir  Enna,  or  Land  of  Enna, 
and  answers  to  the  modern  barony  of  Raphoe. 
In  the  year  697  he  was  elected  abbot  of  lona. 
His  rule  over  that  community  was  not,  however, 
destined  to  be  peaceful  and  fortunate.  The  Irish 
Church  then  held  the  Oriental  views  about 
dates  for  observing  Easter  and  the  form  of 
the  tonsure.  In  his  intercourse  with  the  Saxon 
Church,  Adamnan  had  adopted  the  Roman  or 
orthodox  views,  as  they  are  termed,  and 
endeavored  to  put  them  in  practice  in  his 
own  community.  He  was  thwarted  in  this 
object,  and  it  is  said  that  mortification  at 
the  failure  caused  his  death.  He  died  in  lona, 
September  23,  704.  lie  left  behind  him  an  ac- 
count of  the  Holy  Land,  containing  matters 
which  he  says  were  communicated  by  Arculfus, 
a  French  ecclesiastic  who  had  lived  in  Jerusa- 
lem, which  is  valuable  as  the  earliest  informa- 
tion we  possess  of  Palestine  in  the  early  ages  of 
Christianity.  But  far  more  valuable  is  his  Vita 
Sancti  Columho!,  his  life  of  St.  Columba,  the 
converter  of  the  Picts,  and  founder  of  lona. 
Along  with  miracles  and  many  other  stories 
palpably  incredible,  this  book  reveals  a  great 
deal  of  distinct  and  minute  matter  concerning 
the  remarkable  body  to  which  both  the  author 
and  his  hero  belonged.  The  standard  edition  of 
the  book  is  that  of  William  Reeves,  D.D.,  edited 
in  1857  for  the  Bannatyne  Society  of  Edinburgh, 
and  the  Irish  Archseological  Society  (Dublin, 
1857),  which,  with  an  English  translation,  forms 
the  sixth  volume  of  Historians  of  Scotland 
(Edinburgh,  187 4->,  reissued  with  additional 
notes  by  J.  T.  Fowler  (Oxford,  1895).  Nearly 
all  the  infomiation  to  be  had  about  the  early 
Scoto-Irish  Church  is  comprised  in  that  voliune. 
AD'AM  or  BREMEN.  A  German  his- 
torian. He  was  born,  probably,  at  Meissen,  Sax- 
ony (the  date  uncertain),  and  came  to  Bremen 
in' 1067  from  Magdeburg,  and  became  a  canon 
of  the  cathedral,  and  in  1008  principal  of  the 
cathedral  school.  He  won  perpetual  fame  by 
writing  (between  1072  and  1076)  from  all  avail- 
able sources,  including  the  oral  testimony  of 
Svend  Estridson,  Kin^  of  Denmark,  to  see  whom 
he  made  a  special  journey,  a  history  of  the 
Hamburg  Church,  which  is  one  of  the  most  pre- 
cious of  mediaeval  histories.  The  best  edition 
of  this  great  work,  Gesta  Hammahurgensis  Eo- 
cUsuE  Pontificum,  is  by  Lappenberg  (Hanover, 
1876).  The  third  edition  of  the  German  trans- 
lation, by  J.  C.  M.  Laurent,  appeared  in  the  series 
Die  Oeachichtschreiher  der  Deutschen  Vorzeit 
(fieri in,  1893).  Aa  the  appendix  to  the  third 
and  last  book  Adam  gives  a  general  account  of 
the  lands  belonging  to  the  Danes  and  Swedes,  and 
of  Norway.  In  it  occurs  this  interesting  passage 
referring  to  America:  "Besides  this  he  (Svend 
Kfltridson,  King  of  Denmark)  told  of  still  an- 
other island  that  had  been  found  by  many  in 


that  ocean  (the  Atlantic).  It  is  called  Wine- 
land,  because  vines  spring  up  there  spontane- 
ously, producing  excellent  wine.  (I  mention 
this  confidently)  for  I  have  learned  from  no  fab- 
ulous rumor,  but  through  definite  information 
from  Danes,  that  crops  also  grow  there  in  abun- 
dance without  having  been  sown."  (Cap.  247, 
or  §  38 ) .  In  his  book  Adam  quotes  from  preced- 
ing chroniclers,  from  Cicero,  from  the  Latin 
poets,  Vergil,  Horace,  Lucan,  Juvenal,  and  Per- 
sius;  from  the  Latin  Fathers,  Jerome,  Ambrose, 
Gregory  the  Great:  from  Bede,  Cassiodorus  and 
Paulus  Diaconua.  But  the  style  is  defective 
and  the  Latin  difficult  and  faulty,  notwithstand- 
ing that  he  took  Sallust  as  his  master.  Al- 
though the  day  of  his  death,  October  12,  is  known 
from  the  church  record  of  Bremen,  the  year  is 
not,  but  probably  it  was  about  1076. 

ADAM  OF  ST.  VIC'TOB  (— <;.1192) .  A  mo- 
nastic poet  of  France.  Nothing  is  known  of  him 
except  that  he  died  in  the  abbey  of  St.  Victor 
in  Paris.  Yet  he  was  "the  most  prominent  and 
prolific  of  the  Latin  hymnists  of  the  Middle 
Ages."  His  works — complete  as  far  as  discov- 
ered, but  doubtless  far  from  being  really  so— 
were  edited  by  "Ldoji  Gautier  (third  edition, 
Paris,  1894;  English  translation,  London,  1881, 
3  volumes).  Consult:  Julian's  Dictionary  of 
Eymnology  (1888);  French,  Sacred  Latin  Po- 
etry (1874)  ;  and  Duffield,  Latin  Hymns  (1888). 

AJVAMS.  A  town,  including  the  villages  of 
Renfrew,  Maple  Grove,  and  Zylonite,  in  Berk- 
shire Co.,  Mass.,  16  miles  north  of  Pittsfield,  on 
the  Hoosac  River  and  the  Pittsfield  and  North 
Adams  branch  of  the  Boston  and  Albany  Rail- 
road (Map:  Massachusetts,  A  2).  Within  the 
town  limits  is  Greylock  Mountain  (3535  feet) 
the  highest  point  in  Massachusetts.  The  town 
has  a  public  library  of  over  7000  volumes,  and 
manufactures  cotton  and  woolen  goods,  paper, 
foundry  products,  shirts,  etc.  Laid  out  and  set- 
tled as  "East  Hoosuck"  in  1749,  Adams  was  in- 
corporated under  its  present  name  (in  honor  of 
Samuel  Adams)  in  1778.  It  originally  included 
both  North  and  South  Adams.  The  government 
is  administered  by  town  meeting.  Pop.,  1890, 
9213;  1900,  11,1.34.  Consult:  J.  G.  Holland, 
History  of  Western  Massachusetts  (Springfield, 
1855). 

ADAMS,  Abigail  Smith  (1744-1818).  The 
wife  of  John  Adams,  second  President  of  the 
United  States,  and  daughter  of  Rev.  William 
Smith,  minister  of  the  Congregational  church  at 
Weymouth,  Mass.  She  was  born  at  Weymouth, 
Mass.,  and  died  at  Quincy,  Mass.  Through  her 
mother,  Elizabeth  (Juincy,  she  was  descended 
from  the  Puritan  preacher,  Thomas  Shepard  of 
Cambridge,  and  though  of  defective  education, 
delicate  health,  and  nervous  temperament,  she 
was  one  of  the  most  influential  women  of  her  day, 
and  one  of  its  most  vigorous  and  elegant  stylists, 
owing  little  to  teaching  but  much  to  influence 
and  environment.  During  and  after  the  Revolu- 
tionary War,  she  was  at  times  separated  from  her 
husband,  who  was  a  delegate  to  Congress  and  who 
afterward  engaged  in  diplomatic  business  in  Eu- 
rope. Joining  him  in  France  in  1784,  she  accom- 
panied him  to  London,  where  she  had  unpleasant 
social  experiences.  From  1789  to  1801  she  lived  at 
Washington,  then  till  her  death  at  Braintree, 
in  what  is  now  Quincy.  The  Familiar  Letters 
of  John  Adams  and  His  Wife,  published  with 
a  memoir  by  C.  F.  Adams    (1876),  show  her 


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to  have  been  a  woman  of  keenness,  sagacity,  and 
geniality,  and  throw  very  valuable  light  on  the 
history  and  social  life  of  her  time. 

ADAMS,  Alvin  (1804-77).  The  founder  of 
Adams  Express  Company  of  America.  He  was 
born  at  Andover,  Vt.,  and  in  1840  established 
between  New  York  and  Boston  an  express  route 
which,  subsequently  extended,  led  in  1864  to  the 
incorporation  of  the  Adams  Express  Company. 
Consult:  Stimson,  History  of  the  Express  Busi- 
ness (New  York,  1881). 

ADAMS,  Bbooks  (1848  — ).  An  American 
lawyer  and  social  essayist.  He  was  born  at 
Quincy,  Mass.,  a  son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams 
(q.v.).  He  was  educated  in  Quincy,  in  Wash- 
ington, and  in  Europe,  according  to  the  changes 
of  his  father's  residence.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard in  1870,  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and  prac- 
ticed law  till  1881.  He  has  since  contributed 
much  to  magazines,  and  has  published  The  Qold 
Standard,  The  Emancipation  of  Massachusetts 
(1887),  a  study  in  the  evolution  of  religious 
freedom,  an  historical  essay,  The  Law  of  Civili- 
zation  and  Decays  and  America's  Economic 
Supremacy  (1900).  His  works  are  character- 
ized by  subtlety  and  originality. 

ADAMS,  Charles  Bakes  (1814-53).  An 
American  naturalist.  He  was  born  at  Dorches- 
ter, Mass.  He  graduated  at  Amherst;  assisted 
Prof.  Edward  Hitchcock  in  the  geological  survey 
of  New  York;  became  tutor  at  Amherst,  1836; 
professor  of  chemistry  and  natural  history  in 
Middlebury  College,  Vermont,  1838  to  1847,  and 
was  professor  of  astronomy  and  zo51ogy  at 
Amherst  from  1847  till  his  death.  From  1845 
to  1847  he  was  State  geologist  of  Vermont.  He 
went  several  times  to  the  West  Indies  in  the 
interest  of  science;  wrote  on  conchology,  and 
with  the  assistance  of  Prof.  Alonzo  Gray,  of 
Brooklyn,  published  an  elementary  work  on 
geology. 

ADAMS,  CuABLES  FoLLEX  (1842 — ).  A 
humorous  dialect  poet.  He  was  born  at  Dorches- 
ter, Mass.,  and  was  educated  in  the  common 
schools.  He  served  in  the  Civil  War,  and  was 
wounded  and  captured  at  Gettysburg.  In  1872 
he  began  poetic  production,  cultivating  the  bal- 
lad in  German  dialect.  His  verses  are  collected 
under  the  titles  Leedle  Yawcoh  Straiiss  and 
Other  Poems  (1878),  and  Dialect  Ballads  {ISS7 ) . 

ADAMS,  Charles  Francis  (1807-8C).  An 
American  diplomat  and  statesman,  the  son  of 
President  J.  Q.  Adams.  He  was  born  in  Boston ; 
spent  the  years  1809  to  1817  with  his  father  in 
Europe,  chiefly  in  Russia  and  England;  prepared 
for  college  at  the  Boston  Latin  School,  and  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1825.  He  then  spent  sev- 
eral years  in  Washington,  and  later  studied  law 
in  the  office  of  Daniel  Webster  (at  Boston)  from 
November,  1828,  to  January,  1829,  when  he  was 
admitted  to  the  bar,  though  he  never  practiced. 
During  the  next  ten  years  he  devoted  himself 
chiefly  to  literary^  pursuits,  contributing  many 
papers  to  magazines,  writing  an  able  political 
pamphlet  entitled.  An  Appeal  from  the  New  to 
the  Old  Whigs  (Boston,  1835),  and  editing  the 
Letters  of  Abigail  and  John  Adams  (1840-41). 
From  1841  to  1846  he  was  a  member  of  the 
State  Legislature,  serving  three  years  in  the 
House  and  two  in  the  Senate;  and  from  1846 
to  1848  he  was  editor  of  the  Boston  Whig,  and  as 
Buch  was  the  leader  of  that  wing  of  his  party 


called  the  "Conscience  Whigs."    In  1848  he  pre- 
sided over  the  Free  Soil  Convention  at  Buffalo, 
and  was  unanimously  nominated  for  vice-presi- 
dent, but  after  the  election  retired  to  Quincy, 
Mass.,  and  spent  several  years  in  editing  the 
Works  of  John  Adams    (10  volumes,  1850-56). 
In  1858  he  was  elected  to  Congress  as  a  Republi- 
can, and  served  with  marked  ability  until  May, 
1861,  when  he  was  sent  as  United  States  Minis- 
ter to  England.     Here  he  remained   for  seven 
years,  and  during  the  Civil  War  rendered  inval- 
uable services  to  his  government.     In  face  of 
the  pronounced  sympatiiy  for  the  South  mani- 
fested by  the  aristocracy  and  the  upper  social 
classes  generally  and  of  the  favoritism  at  times 
of  the  British  government  itself,  he  presen^ed 
throughout  a  dignified  demeanor  and  performed 
his  duties  with  such  ability  as  to  earn  for  him- 
self a  place  second  only  to  that  of  Franklin  in 
the    history   of   American    diplomacy.     Indeed, 
many  years  later  Lowell  said:  "None  of  our  gen- 
erals in  the  field,  not  Grant  himself,  did  us  better 
or  more  trying  service  than  he  in  his  forlorn  out- 
post in  London."    He  returned  to  America  in 
1868,  and  was  elected  to  the  presidency  of  Har- 
vard in  the  following  vear,  but  declined  to  serve. 
In  1872  he  barely  failed  of  a  nomination  to  the 
presidency  at  the  hands  of  the  Liberal  Bepub- 
licans.     He  was  the  arbitrator  for  the  United 
States  at  Geneva  in  1871  and  1872  (see  Alabama 
Claims),  and  to  him  is  due  in  great  part  the 
credit  for  the  successful  settlement  of  all  difficul- 
ties with  England  growing  out  of  the  controversy 
of  the  Civil  War.     On  his  return  he  was  engaged 
for  several  years  in  editing  the  Diary  of  John 
Quincy  Adams  (12  volumes,  1874-77).     Both  in 
politics  and  diplomacy  Mr.  Adams  was  austere, 
dignified,  eminently  sincere,  and  independent  to  a 
fault.    As  an  authoritative  biography  consult  C. 
F.  Adams,  Jr.,  Life  of  Charles  Francis  Adams 
(Boston,    1900),    in    the    American    Statesman 
Series. 

ADATWS,  Charles  Francis,  Jr.  (1835—). 
An  American  soldier,  financier,  and  writer.  He 
is  a  son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams,  and  was 
born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  May  27,  1835.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard  in  1856,  studied  law  in  the 
office  of  Richard  Henry  Dana,  Jr.,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1858.  He  entered  the 
Union  Army  as  first  lieutenant  in  a  Massachu- 
setts cavalry  regiment  in  1861,  became  a  captain 
in  1862,  served  as  chief  of  squadron  at  Gettys- 
burg, and  at  the  close  of  the  war  was  in  com- 
mand, as  colonel,  of  a  regiment  of  colored  cav- 
alry. In  May,  1865,  he  was  brevetted  brigadier- 
general  in  the  regular  army,  and  in  July  retired 
from  active  service.  From  1884  to  1890  he  was 
president  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad  Com- 
pany. From  1893  to  1805  he  was  chairman  of  the 
Massachusetts  Park  Commission,  and  as  such 
took  a  prominent  part  in  planning  the  present 
park  system  of  the  State.  Since  about  1874  he 
has  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  the  study  of 
American  history,  and  in  recognition  of  his  work 
in  this  field  was  chosen  president  of  the  Massa- 
chusetts Historical  Society  in  1895,  and  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  in  1901.  His 
writings  and  addresses  both  on  problems  of  rail- 
way management  and  on  historical  subjects  are 
marked  by  a  sin^lar  clarity  of  statement  and 
a  degree  of  intellectual  independence  that  has 
frequently  given  rise  to  widespread  controversy. 
He  has  written:  Railroads,  Their  Origin  and 
Problems  (New  York,  1878) ;  Ifotes  on  Railway 


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ADAMS. 


Accident  a  (New  York,  1879) ;  Richard  Henry 
Dana:  A  Biography  (Boston,  1891) ;  Three  Epi- 
sodes of  Massachusetts  History  (Boston,  1892), 
a  work  which  gives  an  account  of  the  settlement 
of  Boston  Bay,  of  the  Antinomian  controversy, 
and  of  church  and  town  government  in 
early  Massachusetts;  Maasaohuseiis :  lis  Histo- 
rians and  Its  History  (Boston,  1893),  an  excel- 
lent Life  of  Charles  Francis  Adams  (Boston, 
1900),  in  the  American  Statesmen  Series,  and 
Lee  at  Appomattox^  and  Other  Papers  (1902). 
In  collaboration  with  his  brother,  Henry  Adams, 
he  also  published  Chapters  of  Erie,  and  Other 
Essays  (New  York,  1871). 

ADAMS,   Charles  Kendall,  LL.D.,  J.U.D. 
<  1835-1902).    An  American  educator  and  histo- 
rian.   He  was  born  in  Derby,  Vt.;   removed  to 
Iowa  in  1855,   and   in   1861   graduated  at  the 
University  of  Michigan,  where  he  was  assistant 
professor   of   Latin   and   history   from    1863   to 
1867,  and  full  professor  of  history  from  1867  to 
1885.     Having  studied  in  Germany,  France,  and 
Itely  in  1867  and  1868,  he  followed  the  German 
method  of  instruction,  and  in   1869   and   1870 
established  an  historical  seminary  which  proved 
of  great  value  in  promoting  the  study  of  history 
and   political    science.     In    1881    he   was   made 
non-resident  professor  of  history  at  Cornell,  and 
in  1885  succeeded  Andrew  D.  White  as  president 
of  that  university.    This  position   he  resigned 
in  1892,  and  from  then  until  1902  was  president 
of  the  University  of  Wisconsin.    In  1890  he  was 
president  of  the  American  Historical  Association. 
He   was  editor-in-chief  of  Johnson's   Universal 
Cyclopaedia    (now    the    Universal    Cyclopcedia) 
from    1892    to    1895.     Among   his    publications 
are  Democracy  and  Monarchy  in  France  (1872)  ; 
a    valuable    Manual    of    Historical    Literature 
(1882);   British  Orations    (1884),  and  Christo- 
pher Columbus,  His  Life  and  Work  (1892).. 

ADAMS,  Charles  R.  (1848-1900).  An  Amer- 
ican dramatic  tenor.  He  was  born  at  Charles- 
town,  Mass.  He  studied  in  Vienna,  and  sane 
for  three  years  at  the  Royal  Opera,  Berlin,  and 
for  nine  years  at  the  Imperial  Opera,  Vienna. 
Thoueh  he  was  an  American,  his  reputation, 
especially  as  a  Wagnerian  singer,  was  earned 
chiefly  abroad.  In  1879  he  took  up  his  residence 
in  Boston,  where  he  was  highly  esteemed  as  a 
teacher. 

ADAMS,  Edwin  (1834-77).  An  American 
actor.  He  was  born  in  Massachusetts,  and  first 
appeared  at  the  Boston  National  Theatre,  August 
29,  1853,  as  Stephen  in  The  Hunchback.  He 
played  Hamlet  with  Kate  Bateman  and  J.  W. 
Wallack  at  the  New  York  Winter  Garden  in 
1860,  and  then  starred  in  all  the  principal  cities; 
reappeared  in  New  York  in  1866,  as  Robert 
Landry  in  The  Dead  Heart;  was  in  the  company 
when  Booth's  Theatre  opened,  February  3,  1867, 
and  played  Mercutio,  lago,  and  Enoch  Arden  in 
that  house.  It  was  in  the  latter  character  that 
he  attracted  the  most  attention.  He  visited  Aus- 
tralia, where  his  health  failed. 

ADAMS,  Frederick  W.  (1787-1859).  An 
American  physician  and  violin-maker.  He  was 
horn  at  Pawlet,  Vt.,  studied  at  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, and  practiced  with  much  success  as  a 
physician.  He  made  a  number  of  excellent 
violins  of  wood  selected  by  himself  from  the 
forests  of  Vermont  and  Canada.  He  published 
Theological  CHticism   (1843). 


ADAMS,  Haxnah  (1755-1832).  One  of  the 
earliest  American  women  writers.  She  was  the 
author  of  Views  of  Religious  Opinions  (1784) ; 
History  of  Neto  England  (1799);  Evidences  of 
Christianity  (1801)  and  a  History  of  the  Jews 
(1812),  all  of  which  brought  fame,  but  little 
money.     Her  home  was  in  Brookline,  Mass. 

ADAMS,  Henry  (1838 — ).  An  American 
historian,  third  son  of  Charles  Francis  Adams 
(q.v.).  He  was  born  in  Boston  and  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1858.  He  was  private  secretary  to 
his  father  when  the  latter  was  Minister  to  Eng- 
land, assistant  professor  of  history  at  Har- 
vard from  1870  to  1877,  and  editor  of  the 
North  American  Review  from  1875  to  1876.  One 
of  the  fruits  of  his  original  methods  of  instruc- 
tion was  a  volume  of  Essays  on  Anglo-Saxon 
Law  (1876),  of  which  he  wrote  the.  first,  on 
Anglo-Saxon  Courts  of  Law.  The  others  were 
by  H.  C.  Lodge,  E.  Young,  and  J.  L.  McLaugh- 
lin. He  subsequently  made  his  home  in  Wash- 
ington, and  devoted  himself  to  a  stud^  of  the 
administrations  of  Jefferson  and  Madison,  the 
results  of  which  appeared  in  nine  volumes  as  a 
History  of  the  United  States  from  1801  to  1817 
(1889-90),  a  work  of  original  research.  He 
previously  edited  the  writings  of  Albert  Gal- 
latin (3  volumes,  1879),  and  wrote  a  life  of  John 
Randolph  (1882:  second  edition,  1898)  for  the 
American  Statesmen  Series. 

ADAMSy  Henrt  Carter  (1852 — ).  An 
American  economist.  He  was  bom  in  Davenport, 
la.,  and  was  educated  at  Iowa  College  and  Johns 
Hopkins  University.  He  was  statistician  to  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  and  special 
agent  of  the  eleventh  census,  in  charge  of  the 
department  of  transportation,  and  is  professor 
of  political  economy  and  finance  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Michigan.  His  publications,  besides  re- 
ports, include:  Taxation  in  the  United  States, 
1789-1816  (1884);  Public  Debts  (1887);  Rela- 
tion of  the  States  to  Industrial  Action  (1887)  ; 
Relation  of  American  Municipalities  to  Quasi- 
Public  Works  (1888). 

ADAMS,  Herbert  Baxter  (1850-1901).  An^ 
American  educator  and  historian.  He  was  born 
at  Amherst,  Mass.,  and  educated  at  Amherst 
College.  He  took  his  doctor's  degree  at  Heidel- 
berg and  then  became  connected  with  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University  at  its  inception  in  1876. 
He  was  made  associate  professor  of  history  m 

1883  and  professor  in  1891.    Owing  to  ill  health 
he   resigned    in    1901.    He   edited   the  valuable 
Johns    Hopkins    Studies    in    History    and    Po- 
litical Science  from  the  beginning,  and  an  im- 
portant series  of  monographs  on  American  edu- 
cational history  published  by  the  United  States 
Bureau  of  Education.     Among  his  many  mono- 
graphs may  be  cited:    The  Germanic  Origin  of 
the  New  England  Towns,  Maryland's  Influence 
Upon  Land  Cessions  to  the  United  States,  and 
Thomas   Jefferson   and   the    University   of   Vir- 
ginia.   His  most  important  Wotk  is  TKc  Life  and 
Writings  of  Jared  Sparks     (^  -ooVumea,  1^^^). 
Dr.  Adams's  influence  upon  V?  . ^AcaV  B^^^^^^a  }}^ 
America,  especially  through,   v^^     ^^ttv€tow^  V^^^* 
whom  he  trained,  has  beeix      ^^^  Ltve^<^^^^*    ^4 
took  great  interest  in  univ^^V^^  V^'^'^ro^^NX^^^ 
the  work  of  the  American  \^  ^\v<^    \  K**^    k"^"  '^^ 
of  which  he  was  secretary  ^"X  XVj  »  a^  io>^^\  ^i^!^» 

1884  until  1900,  when  he  >^>^^  \\,^^i^**^ 
first  vice-president.  ^'W^^c^V^ 


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ADAMS. 


ADAMS,  Isaac  (1803-83).  An  American 
inventor.  He  was  born  at  Rochester,  N.  H.  He 
was  at  first  an  operative  in  a  cotton'  factory  and 
afterward  a  cabinet  maker,  and  in  1824  began 
work  in  a  Boston  machine  shop.  In  1828  he  in- 
vented the  printing  press  now  known  by  his 
name,  and  in  1834  greatly  improved  it.  The 
original  feature  of  the  press  was  the  elevation 
of  a  flat  bed  against  a  stationary  platen.  Mr. 
Adams  was  a  member  of  the  senate  of  Massachu- 
setts in  1840. 

ADAMS,  John  (1735-1826).  The  second 
President  of  the  United  States.  He  was  born 
at  Quincy,  Mass.,  October  30,  1735,  of  a  family 
descended  from  Henry  Adams,  a  Puritan  emi- 
grant who  settled  in  Massachusetts  about  1640. 
He  graduated  from  Harvard  in  1755,  and,  after 
an  interval  of  teaching,  studied  law,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1758.  In  1764  he  married 
Abigail  Smith,  daughter  of  the  minister  at  Wey- 
mouth, a  woman  who  herself  became  con- 
spicuous, and  whose  influence  and  assistance 
were  important  factors  throughout  the  entire 
career  of  her  husband.  (See  Adams,  Abigail.) 
Soon  after  he  went  into  politics,  and,  although 
not  a  resident  of  Boston,  was  selected  to  act  as 
counsel  with  Gridley  and  Otis  in  presenting  to 
the  governor  a  memorial  against  the  Stamp  Act 
(q.v.).  Adams  then  took  the  bold  stand  that  the 
act  was  void  because  Parliament  had  no  right  to 
tax  the  colonists,  and  that  such  statutes  could 
have  no  possible  force  over  persons  who  had  not 
consented  to  the  passage  thereof.  In  1768  he 
moved  to  Boston,  and  soon  after  was  offered,  and 
declined,  the  position  of  advocate-general  in  the 
Court  of  Admiralty,  an  office  which  would  have 
greatly  Increased  his  professional  opportunities, 
though  it  would  have  placed  him  under  embar- 
rassing obligations  to  the  Royalist  politicians. 
Two  years  afterward  he  was  able,  without  prej- 
udicing himself  among  the  patriot  party,  to  ren- 
der the  unique  service  of  defending  Captain 
Preston  in  the  Boston  Massacre  case  and  secur- 
ing his  acquittal.  He  had  already  written  on 
taxation  for  the  Boston  Oazette,  and  he  again 
published  articles  at  the  time  of  the  controversy 
over  the  independence  of  the  judiciary,  collabo- 
rated in  the  authorship  of  the  reply  to  Hutchin- 
son in  1773,  and  later  produced  the  "Novanglus" 
articles  in  reply  to  the  Tory,  Leonard.  He  was 
closely  associated  with  Samuel  Adams  in  the 
political  leadership  of  Massachusetts,  especially 
in  the  legislative  crisis  of  June,  1774,  and  then 
was  chosen  by  the  House  of  Representatives  as 
one  of  their  five  delegates  to  the  Continental 
Congress.  In  that  body  his  energy  was  de- 
voted to  the  adoption  of  a  comprehensive  pro- 
gramme having  three  distinct  elements — the  or- 
ganization of  commonwealth  governments  on  an 
independent  basis,  the  formation  of  a  national 
confederate  government,  and  the  establishment 
of  diplomatic  relations  with  foreign  powers. 
The  first  victory  was  gained  when  the  Congress 
passed  the  resolutions  of  May  10  and  15,  1776, 
recommending  to  all  colonies  the  formation  of 
State  governments  on  a  basis  such  as  to  serve 
them  if  permanently  independent.  This  made 
natural,  if  not  inevitable,  the  formal  Declaration 
of  Independence  (q.v.),  the  original  motion  for 
which  was  seconded  by  Adams,  who  now  was 
placed  on  the  committee  which  drafted  that 
document. 

For  three  years  he  was  a  most  arduous  worker 
in  advancing  the  plans  of  Congress  and  in  per- 


fecting the  details  of  the  new  national  govern- 
ment, serving  on  numberless  committees,  and 
being  placed  at  the  head  of  several  important 
ones  at  a  time  when  the  congressional 
committees  were  the  heads  of  the  undeveloped 
executive  departments.  Especially  in  the  War 
Department,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  the 
Navy  Department,  was  his  influence  great  and 
hia  work  attended  with  quite  permanent  results, 
while  his  membership  of  the  committee  on  for- 
eign relations  enabled  him  to  become  equipped 
for  the  service  by  which  later  he  attained  dis- 
tinction. In  1778  he  was  sent  to  France  to  super- 
sede Silas  Deane;  but  his  stay  was  brief,  the 
treaty  between  that  country  and  the  United 
States  having  been  concluded  just  before  his  de- 
parture from  Boston.  During  his  attendance 
upon  the  Continental  Congress  he  continued  to  be 
an  active  counselor  of  the  leaders  in  Massachu- 
setts, although  he  declined  the  office  of  chief  jus- 
tice of  the  State.  He  was  an  active  member 
of  the  committee  of  three  which  drafted  the  first 
constitution  of  Massachusetts.  To  that  work  he 
came  almost  directly  from  his  first  mission  to 
France,  and  from  it  he  proceeded  at  once  to  un- 
dertake his  further  duties  of  securing  from  Hol- 
land support  for  the  national  finances,  and  of 
negotiating,  with  the  other  commissioners,  terms 
of  peace  with  England. 

His  success  in  efl'ecting  a  loan  in  Holland  was 
preceded  by  several  months  of  difficult  diplo- 
macy, the  result  of  which  was  that  in  ApriU 
1782,  the  Dutch  Government  formally  recognized 
Adams  as  the  minister  of  an  independent  na- 
tion. Stimulated  by  this  notable  accomplish- 
ment and  by  the  realization  that  upon  his  ex- 
ertions depended  the  New  Englanders*  rights  in 
the  Newfoundland  fisheries,  Adams  enter^  upon 
the  negotiations  at  Paris  with  a  spirit  of  inde- 
pendence and  of  determination  which,  although 
seeming  to  occasion  rather  than  to  allay  em- 
barrassments, contributed  much  to  the  success- 
ful issue. 

The  post  of  minister  to  Great  Britain  was 
next  occupied  by  Adams,  but  the  relations  be- 
tween the  countries  were  still  such  as  to  make 
the  life  irksome  to  one  of  Adams's  temperament, 
especially  as  his  desire  to  be  recalled  was 
strengthened  by  his  belief  that  the  service  he 
was  rendering  was  bringing  no  particular  bene- 
fit to  his  country.  Accordingly,  in  the  spring 
of  1788,  he  returned,  having  already  shown  in 
detail  his  views  on  American  affairs  in  his  elabo- 
rate Defence  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  (3  volumes,  London,  1787).  He  was 
elected  vice-president  at  the  first  election  under 
the  new  constitution  and  served  for  two  terms, 
exercising,  in  the  formative  years  of  political 
parties  and  in  the  time  of  nearly  equal  division 
of  the  Senate  between  them,  a  power  seldom 
possessed  by  a  vice-president.  Where  matters 
of  foreign  policy  raised  the  questions  at  issue, 
Adams  sympathized  with  England,  and  thus  was 
thro>vn  into  opposition  to  the  friends  of  France, 
led  by  Jefferson.  In  matters  of  internal  policy, 
also,  he  supported  the  programme  of  Hamilton, 
and  where  party  lines  were  finally  drawn  he  was 
recognized  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Federal- 
ists. By  them  he  was  advanced  to  the  presi- 
dency at  the  same  time  that,  under  the  system 
then  prevailing,  the  leader  of  the  opposing  party 
became  vice-president.  Jefferson's  success  in 
1800,  was  made  possible,  however,  largely  by  the 
developments  of  Federalist  policy  and  of  factional 


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controversy  within  the  party.  Upon  Adams's 
accession  to  office,  relations  with  France  had 
been  complicated  by  the  Directory's  refusal  to 
receive  Pinckney,  and  when  finally  the  joint  mis- 
sion of  Pinckney,  Marshall,  and  Gerry  met  with 
highly  questionable  treatment,  the  prospect 
seemed  dubious.  (See  X.  Y.  Z.  Ck}RBESPOND- 
ENCE.)  War  seemed  imminent,  and  indeed  there 
were  hostile  encounters  on  the  water.  Prepara- 
tions for  the  struggle  were  coupled  with  the  ef- 
fort to  repress  the  violent  opposition  to  the  policy 
of  the  administration  through  the  harsh  means 
of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  (q.v.). 

War  having  been  averted,  it  was  at  once  recog- 
nized that  the  Federalists  in  these  statutes  had 
gone  too  far  in  restraining  the  rights  of  the  in- 
dividual and  in  encroaching  upon  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  States.  Certain  it  was  that  in  his 
thoroughness  Adams  had  given  his  opponents  a 
very  welcome  and  a  very  powerful  means  of  at- 
tack, of  which  they  promptly  and  vigorously  took 
advantage,  and  at  once  began,  by  such  steps  as 
the  Virginia  and  Kentucky  resolutions  (q.v.), 
the  campaign  which  finally  established  the  party 
of  the  opposite  doctrine.  This  establishment 
was  made  easy  also  by  the  internal  weakening 
of  the  Federalist  party  in  the  bitter  fight  for 
leadership  between  Adams  and  Hamilton.  The 
retirement  of  Adams  thus  occurred  amid  the 
hostility  of  his  enemies  and  the  hatred  of  those 
who  were  his  party  associates.  Nor  was  it  pos- 
sible to  expect  any  relief  from  the  painfulness 
of  such  a  situation  when  the  defeated  one  pos- 
sessed a  manner  and  a  temperament  such  as  were 
Adam's.  Consequentlty,  aside  from  intermittent 
criticism  and  counter  criticism,  and  aside  from 
service  in  the  Massachusetts  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1820,  this  retirement  continued 
unbroken.  He  died  July  4,  1826,  on  the  same 
day  as  Jefferson.  President  John  Quincy  Adams 
was  his  son. 

Consult:  His  Works,  with  a  biography,  edited 
by  C.  F.  Adams,  10  volumes  (Boston,  1850-56)  ; 
also  his  biography,  J.  T.  Morse  (Boston,  1884) ; 
The  Letters  of  Abigail  and  John  Adams  (Boston, 
1840-41),  and  Familiar  Letters  of  John  Adam^ 
and  His  Wife  During  the  Revolution;  With  a 
Memoir  of  Mrs.  Adams,  edited  by  C.  F.  Adams 
(New  York,  1876). 

ADAMS,  John  (1760-1829).  The  assumed 
name  of  Alexander  Smith,  one  of  the  mutineers 
of  the  English  ship  Bounty,  With  eight  sailors 
and  some  men  and  women  from  Tahiti  he  landed 
on  Pitcairn  Island  and  formed  a  government,  of 
which  he  was  the  head.  In  1800  he  was  the  only 
surviving  Englishman.  He  established  worship 
and  such  a  school  as  was  possible.  In  1808,  Cap- 
tain Folger,  an  American,  landed  there  and 
brought  the  world  the  first  news  of  this  strange 
settlement.  Adams  had  not  heard  a  word  from 
civilized  countries  for  twenty  years.  England 
never  sought  to  punish  him,  and  he  died  in  peace, 
leaving  a  prosperous  and  religious  people.  See 
I*iTCA.iRN  Island. 

ABAHS,  John  (1772-1863).  An  American 
teacher.  He  was  born  in  Connecticut,  gradu- 
ated at  Yale,  1795,  and  after  teaching  for  fifteen 
years  in  secondary  schools  in  New  Jersey  and 
ni8  native  State,  became  principal  of  Phillips 
Academy,  Andover,  Mass.  That  place  he  filled 
for  twenty- three  years,  resigning  in  1833.  Beside 
having  built  up  one  of  the  historic  schools  of 
^ew  England,  Dr.  Adams  is  remembered  as  the 


schoolmaster  of  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes,  and 
the  subject  of  the  lines: 

"Uneasy  lie  the  heade  of  all  that  rale— 
His  most  of  all  whose  kingdom  is  a  school.'* 

Consult:  M.  E.  B.  and  H.  G.  B.,  The  Story  of 
John  Adams,  a  New  England  Schoolmaster 
(1900). 

ADAMS,  John  Couch  (1819-02).  An  Eng- 
lish astronomer.  He  was  born  near  Launceston, 
in  Cornwall,  and  early  manifested  an  aptitude 
for  mathematics.  After  the  usual  amount  of 
school  training  he  was  sent  to  St.  John's  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  attained  the  honor  of  senior 
wrangler,  and  became  a  mathematical  tutor.  In 
1843  he  attempted  to  ascertain  by  mathematical 
calculation  whether  certain  observed  irregulari- 
ties in  the  motion  of  Uranus  could  be  explained 
on  the  hypothesis  of  perturbation  (q.v.)  exer- 
cised by  an  exterior  planet.  The  problem  at 
issue  was  the  inverse  of  the  usual  perturbation 
problem.  Instead  of  computing  the  effect 
brought  about  by  a  planet  of  known  mass  pur- 
suing a  known  orbit,  it  was  required  to  deter- 
mine the  unknown  cause  of  a  known  effect.  By 
1845  Adams  had  solved  this  new  problem,  and 
was  able  to  assign  to  the  hypothetical  planet, 
the  now  well  known  Neptune,  a  ]>osition  differing 
less  than  two  degrees  from  its  actual  place  in 
the  sky.  But  a  careful  telescopic  search  was  at 
the  time  postponed  or  neglected,  so  that  the  honor 
of  the  great  discovery  completing  Adams's  math- 
ematical researches  by  an  observational  verifi- 
cation was  lost  to  Great  Britain.  Leverrier, 
of  Paris,  had  been  making  an  independent  inves- 
tigation, and  by  August  31,  1840,  he  too  had 
determined  Neptune's  place  in  the  sky.  He 
wrote  to  Galle  at  Berlin,  and  the  latter  found 
the  planet  on  September  23  of  the  same  year. 
This  mathematical  discovery  of  Neptune  is  justly 
counted  among  the  greatest  triumphs  of  science. 

ADAltS,  John  Quincy  (1767-1848).  The 
sixth  President  of  the  United  States  and  son 
of  the  second  President,  John  Adams.  He  was 
born  in  Quincy,  Mass.,  July  11,  1767.  In  1778 
he  was  taken  abroad  by  his  father  when  the 
latter  visited  Paris  on  a  diplomatic  mission,  and 
only  three  years  later,  after  studying  for  brief 
periods  at  Paris,  Leyden,  and  Amsterdam,  the 
youth  was  appointed  private  secretary  to  Francis 
Dana,  the  American  minister  to  Russia.  After 
some  service  at  St.  Petersburg,  Adams  again 
joined  his  father,  then  negotiating  the  final 
peace  at  Paris;  but  when,  after  the  conclusion 
of  that  important  work  the  elder  Adams  was 
rewarded  with  the  English  mission,  the  younger 
Adams  adopted  the  significant  and  even  remark- 
able course  of  returning  home  and  entering  Har- 
vard College. 

Upon  his  graduation  there  in  1787  he  began 
the  study  of  law  with  Theophilus  Parsons  (q.v.)^ 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1790.     He  con- 
tributed to  the  political  liteTaturc  o!  the  time, 
discussing  the  theories  of  T^Qtrv  Pa^^^®»  *^^^  ^" 
pecially  the  Genet  incident     (opc  O^^^*^!  ^-  ^-^ » 
and   our   relations   with    :6>  *     «p     ^^*  \Mv\i8\ia\ 
opportunities  and  trainirvr>^^^    1  tefl^AWy  yecog- 
nized,   and   in    1794   Wa^^     ^^^\  %e^^  ^^^  .^^ 


minister  to  The  Hague,     r  K\^AP^  <^t>.*  ^-^^^  w 
to  the  Portuguese  "l^^^^SSx^!  \)^^^'^^^^^ 
entered  upon^he  duties    ^\^^\<^    ^N^^^V^^  ^"^ 


had   become   President 
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ADAMS. 


ister  to  Prussia.  His  father  recalled  him  in 
1801,  in  order  that  his  successor  in  the  presidency 
might  he  under  no  embarrassment.  In  the  year 
following  his  return  Adams  was  sent  to  the 
State  Senate,  and  in  1803  the  Massachusetts 
legislature  sent  him  to  the  United  States  Senate 
in  preference  to  Timothy  Pickering  (q.v.). 

While  in  the  Senate  he  gave  his  support  to  the 
purchase  of  Louisiana  (q.v.),  although  he  dis- 
agreed with  the  administration  upon  some  of  the 
ensuing  problems,  and  also  approved  the  policy 
of  the  embargo  and  the  non-importation  acts. 
The  result  was  that  the  former  Federalist  and 
the  representative  of  a  strongly  Federalist  State 
became  a  hearty  advocate  of  the  Republican 
administration,  and  in  consequence  the  atti- 
tude of  his  constituents  became  so  critical  that 
in  1808  Adams  resigned  his  seat.  He  was,  how- 
ever, so  identified  with  the  party  in  power  that 
in  1800  President  Madison  appointed  him  Min- 
ister to  Russia.  While  there  he  was  named  as 
one  of  the  commissioners  who  were  to  act  in  con- 
nection with  the  mediation  proposed  by  Russia, 
but  which  was  made  impossible  by  the  declina- 
tion of  England.  He  was  soon  appointed,  how- 
ever, one  of  the  five  negotiators  who  concluded 
the  Treaty  of  Ghent  (q.v.)  at  the  close  of  the 
War  of  1812. 

From  that  work  Adams  proceeded  to  London, 
where  he  served  as  Minister  to  England  until  his 
varied  and  remarkable  diplomatic  career  was 
ended  in  1817  by  his  appointment  by  President 
Monroe  to  the  post  of  Secretary  of  State.  His 
work  as  secretary  was  concerned  with  the  diffi- 
cult negotiations  which  in  1819  ended  in  the  pur- 
chase of  Florida,  the  more  delicate  relations 
with  England  with  reference  to  the  fisheries 
convention  of  1818  and  the  conflicting  claims 
in  the  Columbia  River  basin,  and  the  more  far- 
reaching  steps  taken  to  counteract  the  encroach- 
ments of  the  Holy  Alliance,  in  connection  with 
which  was  announced  the  Monroe  Doctrine  (q.v.) , 
so  that  some  credited  the  latter  to  Adams.  As 
a  member  of  the  cabinet,  aside  from  matters  of 
diplomacy,  he  took  a  unique  position  in  uphold- 
ing General  Jackson  for  his  conduct  in  the 
Florida  War,  and  in  rendering  a  highly  valuable 
service  to  his  later  antagonist. 

By  virtue  of  his  position,  the  friends  of  Adams 
expected  that  in  1824  he  would  be  advanced  in 
the  same  manner  as  Madison  and  Monroe,  who 
had  each  in  turn  passed  from  the  state  de- 
partment to  the  presidency.  The  nominations, 
however,  were  still  made  by  the  congressional 
caucus,  which  at  this  time  was  controlled  by 
Crawford.  Moreover,  the  newly  formed  trans- 
Alleghany  States  were  pressing  their  claims 
for  recognition,  so  that  the  revolt  against  the 
old  nominating  system  and  the  crystallizing 
of  the  various  factions,  within  the  one  great 
party  alone  remaining  active  led  to  the  candi- 
dacy of  four  Republicans  in  1824.  Of  these, 
Jackson  received  99  electoral  votes,  Adams  84, 
Crawford  41,  and  Clay  37.  When  the  vote, 
according  to  the  Constitution,  was  thus  given  to 
the  House  of  Representatives,  choosing  from 
among  the  three  highest,  the  Clay  interests 
joined  with  those  of  Adams  and  effected  the 
defeat  of  Jackson.  Adams,  upon  his  accession, 
made  Clay  his  Secretary  of  State,  and  not  only 
brought  upon  himself  charges  of  corruption,  but 
also  secured  the  vigorous  enmity  of  the  rapidly 
increasing  Jackson  wing  of  the  Republican 
party.    To  offset  this,  Adams  was  not  qualified 


to  exert  the  influence  usually  attaching  to  a 
political  leader,  nor  was  he  able  so  to  make  use 
of  his  office  as  to  build  up  an  Adams  faction 
that  could  hope  to  wage  a  successful  warfare 
with  the  embittered  Jacksonians.  It  was  nat- 
ural, therefore,  that  after  four  troublous  and  not 
particularly  profitable  years,  Adams  should  be 
overwhelmed  in  the  election  of  1828.  Instead 
of  going  into  retirement,  he  adopted  the  unpre- 
cedented course  of  returning  to  Washington 
as  a  member  of  the  House  of  Representatives, 
and  in  that  capacity  rendered  still  further 
and  conspicuous  service  to  the  nation  from 
1830  until  his  death.  Being  practically  above 
party  restraints,  he  was  free  to  do  a  work 
which  made  notable  the  later  jrears  of  "the 
old  man  eloquent."  The  slavery  issue  appeared 
in  Congress  in  two  forms,  involving  the  question 
of  the  right  of  the  government  or  of  its  officials  to 
exclude  abolitionist  literature  from  the  mails, 
and  involving  the  question  whether  petitioners 
to  the  House  of  Representatives  might  demand 
that  their  petitions  should  be  read,  even  if  not 
considered.  The  former  problem  provoked  a  long 
and  severe  dispute,  while  the  second  controversy 
was  made  acute  by  the  introduction  of  the  "Gag 
Laws"  (q.v.),  which,  Adams  contended,  substan- 
tially destroyed  the  right  of  petition,  and  against 
which  he  labored  vigorously,  and  in  the  end 
successfully.  Late  in  1846  he  was  stricken  with 
paralysis,  and  early  in  1848  he  was  again  strick- 
en, while  in  his  seat  in  the  House,  and  died  two 
days  later,  on  February  23,  1848. 

Adams  followed  the  example  of  his  father  in 
keeping  an  extensive  diary,  which  is  included  in 
his  Memoirs,  edited  by  C,  F.  Adams  ( 12  volumes, 
Philadelphia,  1874-77).  For  his  biography  con- 
sult: W.  H.  Seward,  Life  of  Adams  (Auburn, 
1849),  and  Quincy,  Memoir  (Boston,  1858) ;  or, 
for  the  most  recent  work,  Morse,  John  Quincy 
Adams  (Boston,  1882). 

ADAMS^  JoHx  QiTTNCY,  2d  (1833-94).  An 
American  politician.  He  was  born  in  Boston, 
■  the  grandson  of  President  J.  Q.  Adams  and  son 
of  Charles  Francis  Adams.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1853,  and  became  a  lawyer.  He  served 
three  terms  in  the  Massachusetts  Legislature, 
and  was  an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  governor 
on  the  Democratic  ticket  in  1867  and  1871.  In 
1872  he  was  nominated  for  the  vice-presidency  on 
the  ticket  with  Charles  O'Conor  by  those  Demo- 
crats who  would  not  support  Horace  Greeley. 

ADAMS,  Julius  Walker  (1812-99).  An 
American  civil  engineer.  He  was  born  at  Bos- 
ton. Mass.,  studied  for  two  years  at  the  United 
States  Military  Academy,  and  from  1833  to  1869 
was  connected  as  engineer  with  various  railways 
and  public  works.  From  1869  to  1878  he  was 
chief  engineer  of  the  Brooklyn  board  of  city 
works,  and  from  1878  to  1889  consulting  engi- 
neer of  the  board  of  public  works  of  New  York 
City.  A  suggestion  of  his  led  to  the  formation 
of  a  company  which  eventually  had  charge  of 
building  the  first  bridge  over  the  East  River  at 
New  York.  During  the  Civil  War  he  for  a  time 
commanded  the  First  Long  Island  Volunteers, 
and  during  the  New  York  draft  riots  of  1863 
commanded  the  troops  at  Printing  House  Square. 

ADAMS,  Maude  Kiskadde^t  (1872 — ).  A 
popular  American  actress.  She  was  bom  at 
Salt  Lake  City,  November  11,  1872,  and  is  the 
daughter  of  an  actress.  She  first  appeared  on 
the  stage  in  the  West,  in  children's  parts,  when 


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very  young.  At  sixteen  she  joined  E.  H. 
Sothern's  company  in  New  York,  and  played  in 
The  Midnight  Bell.  Afterward  she  was  a  mem- 
ber of  Charles  Frohman's  stock  company.  With 
John  Drew  in  The  Masked  Ball  (1892)  she  made 
an  extraordinary  advance  in  public  favor. 
She  became  a  star  as  Lady  Babbie  in  The 
Little  Minister,  produced  in  New  York 
U898),  where  in  1899  she  played  Juliet  to  the 
Komeo  of  William  Faversham.  In  1900  and 
1901  she  won  another  popular  success  as  the 
Due  de  Reichstadt  in  Rostand's  UAiglon,  which 
was  also  played  in  New  York  the  same  season  by 
Sara  Bernhardt.  The  next  season  she  appeared 
in  a  more  characteristic  part,  as  Miss  Phoebe  in 
Barrie's  new  comedy  of  Quality  Street.  Consult: 
Clapp  and  Edgett,  Players  of  the  Present,  in 
Dunlap  Society  Publications  (New  York,  1899). 

ADAMS,  Nehemiah  (1806-78).  An  Ameri- 
can Congregational  clergyman.  He  was  born 
in  Salem,  Mass.,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1826, 
and  three  years  later  at  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  He  then  became  pastor  in  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  and  from  1834  was  pastor  of  the  Essex 
Street  Church,  Boston.  After  a  winter  spent  in 
Georgia  for  his  health,  he  published  A  South  Side 
View  of  Slavery  (1854).  His  praise  of  the  effect 
of  slavery  on  the  religious  character  of  the  ne- 
groes provoked  much  hostile  criticism.  He  pub- 
lished several  controversial  works  and  a  Life  of 
John  Eliot. 

ADAMS,  OscAB  Fat.  ( 1855  — ) .  An  Amer- 
ican editor  and  author.  He  was  bom  at  Wor- 
cester, Mass.,  was  educated  in  secondary  schools, 
taught  classes  in  English  literature,  and  since 
1880  has  written  much  for  periodicals.  He  has 
edited  Through  the  Year  With  the  Poets  (12 
volumes,  1886),  and  published  The  Story  of  Jane 
Austen's  Life  (1891;  second  edition,  1896),  The 
Archbishop's  Unguarded  Moment,  and  Other  Sto- 
ries (1899),  a  Dictionary  of  American  Authors 
(revised  edition,  1901),  and  several  other  com- 
pilations. 

ADAMS,  Parson  Abraham.  A  leading  char- 
acter in  Fielding's  novel,  Joseph  Andrews.  He 
is  a  country  curate,  a  very  learned  scholar, 
skilled  in  dead  and  living  languages  but  excess- 
ively simple-minded  and  unfamiliar  with  the 
ways  of  the  world.  In  spite  of  his  poverty,  his 
generosity  and  native  dignity  command  respect; 
his  oddities,  however,  and  his  absence  of  mind 
bring  him  into  many  quaint  adventures. 

ADAMS,  Samuel  (1722-1803).  One  of  the 
leading  men  in  the  promotion  of  the  American 
Revolution.  He  was  born  in  Boston,  Mass.,  Sep- 
tember 27,  1722,  of  an  aristocratic  family,  and, 
like  John  Adams,  the  second  President  of  the 
United  States,  was  descended  from  Henry 
Adams,  a  Puritan  emigrant.  He  fitted  for  col- 
lege at  the  Boston  Latin  School,  and  entered 
Harvard  in  1736.  On  leaving  college  in  1740,  he 
entered  a  law  office;  but  the  law  proving  dis- 
tasteful, he  next  entered  a  counting-house,  and 
*oon  became  a  merchant  himself,  but  failed. 
Subsequently  he  became  a  partner  with  his 
father  in  a  brewery,  and  failed  after  the  latter's 
death.  As  a  business  man,  he  seems  throughout 
to  have  been  a  complete  failure ;  and  the  burden 
thus  thrown  on  the  other  members  of  the  family 
>^as  increased  later  by  the  complete  absorption 
with  which  he  devoted  his  time  and  energy  exclu- 
jjjely  to  political  affairs  and  public  service. 
When  a  candidate  for  the  degree  of  A.M.  at 


Harvard  College,  he  had  maintained  in  his  thesis 
the  affirmative  of  the  question:  Whether  it  be 
lawful  to  resist  the  supreme  magistrate,  if  the 
commonwealth  cannot  ^be  otherwise  preserved. 

He  was  early  engaged  in  the  activities  of  town 
politics  in  Boston;  and  the  overthrow  of  the 
tiand  Bank,  with  the  incidental  destruction  of 
his  father's  estate,  brought  him  into  contact 
with  provincial  affairs  and  decisively  influenced 
his  general  attitude  toward  the  home  government. 
His  formal  entry  into  politics  was  in  his  election 
as  a  tax  collector  of  Boston  in  1763,  an  office 
which  he  held  for  two  years.  His  careless,  or  at 
all  events  unsuccessful,  performance  of  the  duties 
of  that  office  soon  afforded  his  opponents  the 
basis  for  a  vigorous  though  ineffectual  attack, 
but  both  his  personal  integrity  and  political 
uprightness  remained  above  suspicion.  By  him 
were  drafted  the  important  instructions  given 
by  the  town  of  Boston  to  its  representatives  in 
the  assembly  in  1764,  and  in  these  was  put  forth 
one  of  the  earliest  protests  against  the  minis- 
terial plan  of  colonial  taxation. 

Likewise  in  1765  Adams  drafted  the  Boston 
instructions  to  representatives,  and  in  the  same 
year  he  himself  was  sent  to  the  Legislature. 
Being  elected  clerk  of  the  House  in  1766,  and 
also  serving  on  many  committees,  it  was  natural 
that  he  should  be  the  author  of  many  of  the  most 
important  State  documents  of  the  pre-revolu- 
tionary  period.  Instructions  to  the  political 
agent  in  London,  addresses  to  the  governor, 
appeals  to  the  ministry,  and  proposals  or  exhor- 
tations addressed  to  fellow  colonists,  in  great 
number  issued  from  the  Massachusetts  House  of 
Representatives,  and  in  many  instances  came 
from  the  pen  of  Adams.  Thus  the  very  influen- 
tial circular  letter- of  February,  1768,  as  well 
as  the  True  Sentiments  of  America,  issued  in 
the  same  year,  and  the  widely  read  Appeal  to 
the  World  of  1769,  have  been  traced  to  the 
authorship  of  Adams.  Later,  in  1772,  he  pre- 
pared for  the  town  of  Boston  the  very  telling 
pamphlet  on  The  Rights  of  the  Colonists  as  Men, 
as  Christians,  and  as  Subjects.  Very  important 
as  were  all  these  contributions  to  the  movement 
toward  revolution,  the  most  effective  literary 
work  of  Adams  was,  undoubedly,  the  great  nuni- 
ber  of  newspaper  articles,  over  various  pseudo- 
nyms, in  the  patriotic  Boston  Gazette.  In  these 
he  made  plain  the  cause  of  the  colonists,  exposed 
the  impracticability  of  any  reconciliation,  con- 
verted the  hesitating  and  inspired  the  Radicals, 
and  exerted  a  very  far-reaching  influence  in 
preparing  the  popular  mind  for  revolution  and 
m  hastening  the  approach  of  the  crisis.  In  . 
practical  politics  as  well,  he  was  recognized  as 
a  leader  not  only  in  Massachusetts  but  in  the 
other  colonies.  He  bore  the  burden  of  the  long 
series  of  controversies  with  the  governors  of 
Massachusetts  over  the  presence  of  troops,  the 
salaries  of  judges,  and  the  place  of  meeting  of 
the  legislature;  and  at  the  time  of  the  Boston 
Massacre  of  March,  1770,  headed  the  committee 
which  demanded  from  Hutchinson  the  immediate 
withdrawal  of  the  troops.  ;g^^  ^^a  conspicuous 
in  planning  the  local  "con:nw:?.  ^^a  ot  correapoii- 
dence:"  and  when  finally,  >^^^tvTve>  VI^V^^^ 
Massachusetts  legislature^  V^^^  \\^x^^ '^  ^^^^ 


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work  of  Adams  had  been  completed.  He  had  been 
the  ideal  representative  of  the  town-meeting  sys- 
tem, the  extreme  defender  of  the  "natural"  rights 
of  man,  and  the  irrepressible  advocate  of  inde- 
pendence. His  work  during  the  Revolution  was 
less  noteworthy,  and  was  at  times  open  to  crit- 
icism. Thus,  he  was  one  of  the  strongest  sup- 
porters of  the  committee  system  of  national 
administration,  and  one  of  those  who  delayed 
unnecessarily  and  unfortunately  the  organiza- 
tion of  executive  departments  under  single  heads. 
In  the  politics  of  his  native  State  he  always  took 
an  active  and  effective  interest.  He  was  one  of 
the  committee  which  prepared  the  present  con- 
stitution of  the  State,  the  only  constitution  of 
the  revolutionary  period  still  in  force.  He 
served  on  the  executive  council  of  the  State,  was 
for  several  years  lieutenant-governor,  and  three 
times  was  elected  governor.  He  was  considered 
an  opponent  of  the  federal  constitution  in  17S8, 
but  on  his  finally  giving  his  voice  in  favor  of 
adoption,  with  the  proposal  of  amendments,  its 
ratification  was  assured.  He  died  in  Boston,  Oc- 
tober 2,  1803.  For  his  biography  consult:  W.  V. 
Wells,  3  volumes  (Boston,  1865) ;  J.  K.  Hosmer 
(Boston,  1885). 

ADAMS,  Sabah  Fuller  Floweb  (1805-48). 
An  English  poetess.  She  was  born  at  Great  Har- 
low, Essex,  and  married  William  Bridges  Adams 
in  1834.  Her  longest  work  is  Vivia  Perpetua, 
A  Dramatic  Poem  (1841).  having  as  its  subject 
the  early  life  of  the  Christians,  it  is  a  noble 
lyrical  arama.  Vivia 's  monologue  on  forswear- 
ing Jupiter  is  especially  impressive.  Mrs.  Adams 
was  the  author  of  several  beautiful  hymns, 
among  which  are  "Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee"  and 
**Tie  sendeth  sun,  He  sendeth  shower."  She  was  a 
Unitarian. 

ADAMS,  Suzanne  (1873 — ).  An  American 
lyric  soprano.  She  was  bom  in  Cambridge,  Mass., 
November  28, 1873.  She  studied  with  Marchesi  in 
Paris,  and  made  her  d^but  at  the  Paris  Opera  in 
1894  as  Julieci«  in  Gounod's  Romdo  et  Juliette. 
She  remained  at  the  Opera  three  years,  then 
went  to  Nice.  In  the  summer  of  1898  she  ap- 
peared at  Covent  Garden,  London,  and  during 
the  season  of  1898-99  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera 
House,  New  York.  In  1898  she  was  mar- 
ried to  Leo  Stern,  the  violoncellist.  She  has 
sung  Juliette,  Marguerite,  Gilda,  Queen  in  Lea 
HuguenotSy  Queen  of  the  Night  in  the  Magic 
Flute,  Mimi,  Micaela,  and  other  soprano  rOles. 
Her  voice  is  of  beautiful  quality  and  great  com- 
pass, but  is  rather  slender. 

ADAMS,  Thomas.  An  English  preacher  in 
the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  called 
by  Southey  "the  prose  Shakespeare  of  Puritan 
theologians  .  .  .  scarcely  inferior  to  Fuller 
in  wit  or  to  Taylor  in  fancy."  He  was  minister 
at  Willington,  Wlngrave,  and  London,  and  "ob- 
servant chaplain"  to  Sir  Henry  Montague,  the 
lord  chief  justice.  Adams  was  a  Puritan  within 
the  Church  of  England,  as  distinguished  from 
the  nonconformist  Puritans  who  left  the  church. 
He  published  a  large  number  of  sermons,  the 
quaint  titles  of  two  of  which  are:  Heaven  and 
Earth  Reconciled,  and  The  DeviVs  Banquet.  It 
is  likely  that  John  Bunyan  read  and  was  influ- 
enced by  these  writings.  They  have  been  repub- 
lished in  NichoPs  Puritan  Divines  (3  volumes, 
1862). 

ADAMS,  William  ( T1576-T1620).  The  first 
Englishman  in  Japan,  whose  romantic  story  is 


closely  connected  with  the  opening  of  tkat  em- 
pire.   He  was  born  in  Kent,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Thames.    Having  entered  the  service  of  some 
Dutch   merchants,  he  sailed,   in  1598,  for  the 
east,  from  the  Texel,  as  the  chief  pilot  of  a  fleet 
of  five  small  ships.    After  a  severe  voyage,  the 
Charity,  in  which  Adams  was  sailing,  anchored 
off  the  coast  of  Bungo  (Kiushiu).    ly^yasu  had 
recently   come  to   power,   and  Adams,  after  a 
brief  imprisonment,  was  taken   into  his  favor 
and  employed  in  the  government  service,  to  it» 
great  advantage.    He  built  vessels  and  gave  help- 
ful information  in  respect  to  the  intrigues  of 
the  Spanish  and  Portuguese.    At  a  later  day  he 
received  the  revenues  of  the  village  H^mi,  near 
Yokosuka,    the    modern    imperial    dockyard  in 
Yeddo  Bay.    In  1613,  the  Clove,  an  English  ship, 
brought  other  Englishmen  to  Firando,  and,  with 
Adams,  they  proceeded  to  establish  a  factory, 
of   which   Richard   Cocks   was   chief.     In  1615 
ly^yasu  died  and  foreigners  soon  fell  into  dis- 
favor.    Not  being  allowed  to  return  to  his  wife 
and  children  in  England,  Adams  married  a  Japa- 
nese wife,  and  their  descendants  are  still  living. 
He  died  May  16,  1620,  and  was  buried  on  a  hill 
above  H^mi-Mura,  where  his  tomb  and  that  of 
his  Japanese  wife  were  discovered  in  1872  by 
James  Walter,  an  American.    A  street  in  Yeddo 
was  named  after  him,  and  a  celebration  is  still 
held  in  his  honor.     Letters  of  Adams  may  be 
found  in  Purchaa  his  Pilgrimes,  and  in  the  pub- 
lications of  the  Hakluyt  Society.     Consult:  The 
Diary  of  Richard  Cocks,  from  1615-22  (London, 
1883)  ;     Hildreth,    Japan    as    It    Was    and   U 
(Boston,  1865),  and  Griffis,  The  Mikado's  Em- 
pire (New  York,  1876). 

ADAMS,  William  (1814-48).  An  English 
allegorist.  He  was  educated  at  Eton  and  at  Mer- 
ton  College,  Oxford,  where  he  beesime  tutor  and 
fellow  in  1837.  Appointed  vicar  of  St.  Peter'a-in- 
the-East,  Oxford,  in  1840,  he  resigned  because  of 
his  ill  health,  and  passed  the  last  four  years  of 
his  life  at  Bonchurch,  Isle  of  Wight.  Adams 
was  the  author  of  several  popular  religious  alle- 
gories, most  of  which  were  written  during  the 
years  when  he  was  slowly  dying.  They  com- 
prise :  Silvio,  The  Shadow  of  the  Cross,  Pall  of 
Crossus,  The  Old  Man's  Home,  and  the  Kin^s 
Messengers.  They  are  all  of  interest,  and  the 
Old  Man's  Home  is  likely  long  to  survive,  be- 
cause of  its  natural  grace  and  charm.  Adams  is 
also  the  author  of  a  boy*s  story  entitled  Cherry 
Stones,  reprints  of  which  are  still  frequent. 

ADAMS,  William  (1807-80).  An  American 
Presbyterian  clergyman.  He  was  born  at  Col- 
chester, Conn.,  graduated  at  Yale  in  1827,  and 
at  Andover  Theological  Seminary  in  1830.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Congregational  church, 
Brighton,  Mass.,  in  1831,  and  of  the  Broome 
Street  Presbyterian  church  in  New  York  City 
in  1834  (out  of  which  the  Madison  Square  Pres- 
byterian church  was  formed  in  1853),  and  there 
he  ministered  till  in  1873  he  became  president 
of  Union  Theological  Seminary  (New  York)  and 
professor  of  sa-cred  rhetoric.  He  died  at  Orange 
Mountain,  N.  J.,  August  31,  1880.  He  was  mod- 
erator of  the  New  School  Presbyterian  General 
Assembly  in  1852.  He  published  several  vol- 
umes of  discourses. 

ADAMS,  William  Davenport  (1851— )• 
An  English  journalist  and  author,  the  son  of 
W.  H.  Davenport  Adams.  He  was  educated  at 
Edinbur^^    University    and    began    newspaper 


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work  in  1870.  Ho  became  literary  editor  of  the 
London  Olohe  in  1885,  and  is  also  well  known  as 
a  dramatic  critic.  He  has  published  many  col- 
lections of  poetry,  several  books  about  books,  and 
edited  a  Dictionary  of  English  Literature  ( 1877 ) 
and  a  Dictionary  of  the  Drama  (1899). 

ADAKS,  William  Grtlls  (1836 — ).  An 
English  physicist.  He  was  born  at  Laneast,  Corn- 
wall, and  was  educated  at  Cambridge  University, 
where  he  was  made  a  fellow  of  St.  John's  Col- 
lege. In  1863  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
natural  philosophy  and  astronomy  in  King's 
College,  London,  and  has  carried  on  many  in- 
Testigations  in  addition  to  giving  instruction. 
Professor  Adams  has  served  as  vice-president 
and  president  of  the  Physical  Society  of  London, 
as  president  of  the  Society  of  Electrical  Engi- 
neers, as  president  of  the  mathematical  and 
physical  section  of  the  British  Association,  and 
is  a  member  of  the  Royal  Society.  He  devised  a 
new  form  of  polariscope  which  could  be  used  to 
measure  the  optical  axes  of  crystals.  Among  his 
more  important  investigations  which  have  been 
publish^  are  on  Simultaneous  Magnetic  Dis- 
turbances, Action  of  Light  on  Selenium,  Alter- 
nate Current  Machines,  and  the  Testing  of  Dy- 
namo Ma/)hin€S. 

ADAMS,  William  Taylor  (1822-97).  An 
American  educator  and  writer  of  juvenile 
fiction,  popularly  known  as  "Oliver  Optic." 
He  was  born  at  Medway,  Mass.  For  twenty 
years  he  taught  in  Boston  public  schools;  for 
fourteen  years  he  was  a  member  of  the  Dor- 
chester School  Committee,  and  he  was  once 
elected  to  the  Legislature.  His  first  book,  Hatchie, 
the  Guardian  Slave  (1853),  was  followed  by 
more  than  a  hundred  volumes  of  juvenile  fic- 
tion, contributed  in  large  part  to  Oliver  Optic's 
Magazine,  of  which  he  w^as  the  editor.  These 
stories  appeared  in  scries,  of  which  the  most 
popular  were:  The  Boat  Club,  Young  America 
Abroad^  The  Starry  Flag,  Onicard  and  Upward, 
and  The  Yacht  Club.  He  published  also  two 
novels,  The  Way  of  the  World,  and  Living  Too 
Fast. 

ADAM-SALOMON,  &'dllN'-s&'l^'m6N^  An- 
tony Samuel  (1818-81).  A  French  sculptor 
of  Jewish  extraction.  He  was  born  at  La  Fert4- 
80US  Jouarre  (Seine  et  Marne).  After  a  short 
mercantile  career  he  became  a  modeler,  and  made 
such  progress  that  he  was  provided  with  a 
scholarship  by  the  authorities  of  his  department 
and  sent  to  Paris.  His  bust  of  B^ranger,  which 
he  completed  in  his  twentieth  year,  and  which  is 
said  to  have  been  largely  executed  from  memory, 
established  his  reputation-  Among  his  other 
works  were  busts  of  Lamartine,  Rossini,  Hal^vy, 
Littr^,  George  Sand,  Marie  Antoinette,  Delphine 
Gay,  and  others;  medallions  of  Amyot,  Coper- 
nicus, and  Iklarchand  Ennery,  a  bas-relief  of 
Charlotte  Corday;  and  the  tomb  of  the  Duke  of 
Padua. 

AD'AM'S  APPOiE  (Lat.  Pomum  Adami), 
TTie  projection  seen  on  the  front  of  the  neck 
nearly  midway  between  the  summit  of  the  breast- 
bone and  the  bone  of  the  chin.  It  is  particularly 
viiiible  in  males,  but  rarely  noticeable  in  females, 
&nd  then  only  at  a  late  period  of  life.  Its  name 
<n'iginated  from  the  superstition  that  a  portion 
<rf  the  apple  given  to  our  first  parent  stuck  in 
^U  throat,  and  that  the  enlargement  thus  caused 
^  been  transmitted  to  the  race.     It  is  pro- 


duced by  the  convergence  of  the  two  quadrilateral 
plates  of  the  thyroid  cartilage  of  tne  larynx. 

ADAM'S  BBIDOE.  A  chain  of  shoals  ex- 
tending across  the  Gulf  of  Manaar,  between 
Ceylon  and  the  peninsula  of  Hindustan  (Map: 
India,  C  7).  It  is  cut  by  several  chann^s 
through  which  small  boats  can  pass. 

AD'AMSON,  Patrick  (1537-92).  A  famous 
Scotch  prelate  and  writer,  originally  known  as 
Conston,  Constant,  Consteane,  or  Constantine. 
He  was  born  at  Perth.  He  studied  law  at  the 
University  of  St.  Andrews  and  in  1560  went  to 
France  as  a  tutor,  where  he  underwent  six 
months'  imprisonment  for  referring  to  the  son  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  as  King  of  France  and 
England,  in  a  Latin  ]>oem  he  wrote  on  the  occa- 
sion of  the  prince's  birth.  He  narrowly  escaped 
death  during  the  Paris  massacre,  and,  obliged 
to  live  in  concealment  for  seven  months,  he  em- 
ployed his  time  in  writing  Latin  poetical  ver- 
sions of  the  Book  of  Job  and  of  the  tragedy  of 
Herod.  In  1573  he  returned  to  Scotland,  took 
orders,  and  became  minister  at  Paisley.  In 
1576  he  received  the  appointment  of  Archbishop 
of  St.  Andrews  from  his  patron,  the  Earl  of 
Morton,  Regent  of  Scotland,  and  entered  into 
frequent  polemics  with  the  Presbyterians  con- 
cerning episcopacy.  In  1588  he  was  excommu- 
nicated on  various  charges,  and  died  in  great  pov- 
erty and  affliction  at  St.  Andrews,  February  19, 
1592.  Consult:  P.  Adamson,  Poemata  Sacra 
(London,  1619)  ;  Baillie,  The  Recantation  of 
Patrick  Adamson  (Glasgow,  1646). 

ADAMSON,  Robert  (1852—).  An  English 
educator  and  philosophical  writer.  He  was  at 
one  time  professor  of  logic  and  mental  philos- 
ophy at  Owens  College  (Victoria  University), 
and  in  1895  was  appointed  professor  of  logic 
and  rhetoric  at  the  University  of  Glasgow.  He 
is  regarded  as  an  important  representative  of  the 
so-called  Neo-Hegelian  movement  in  English  phi- 
losophy. Among  his  writings  may  be  mentioned: 
The  Philosophy  of  Science  in  the  Middle  Ages 
(1876);  On  the  Philosophy  of  Kant  (1879); 
the  article  on  Kant  in  the  Encyclopcedia  Britan- 
nica,  and  Fichte  (1881). 

ADAM'S  PEAK  (native,  Samanhela).  A 
mountain  in  the  south  of  Ceylon,  7420  feet  high, 
terminating  in  a  narrow  platform,  in  the  middle 
of  which  is  a  hollow  five  feet  long,  having  a  rude 
resemblance  to  a  human  footprint  (Map:  India,  - 
D  7).  Mohammedan  tradition  makes  this  the 
scene  of  Adam's  penance,  after  his  expulsion 
from  Paradise;  he  stood  1000  years  on  one  foot, 
and  hence  the  mark.  To  the  Buddhists,  the  im- 
pression is  the  sripada,  or  sacred  footmark,  left 
by  Buddha  on  his  departure  from  Ceylon;  while 
the  Hindus  claim  it  as  the  footprint  of  their  god 
Siva.  Over  the  sacred  spot  stands  a  wooden  can- 
opy, and  multitudes  of  devotees,  Buddhist, 
Hindu,  and  Mohammedan,  frequent  it. 

ADANA,  &-dft^nA.    The  capital  of  the  Turkish 
vilayet  of  Adana  (14,359  square  miles;  pop.  403,- 
400)    (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  F  4).    It  is  situated 
in  the  southeast  of  Asia  Minor  on  the  Seihun 
(ancient  Sams)  about  42  n\\\e3  northeast  of  the 
seaport  of  Mersina,  with  \y\^\ch  it  is  connected 
by  rail.     Its  position   ne^^  ^e,  V«t*»«8  oi  the 
Taurus    gives    it    stratej»^_*  ^   -^^^oTtance.    The 
river  is  very  deep,  and  A^/^^^   .«  ^e  seat  ol  con- 
siderable trade  in  cotton^   ^W^-  ^  ^t^M^'  '^^^  ^^t' 
The  town  has  a  large  aiL^N\^^^  ^\TLft-tftVV\.    Ita 


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ADANA. 


110 


ADDAX. 


population  is  about  45,000,  including  a  large 
number  of  Armenians  and  Greeks.  Adana  was 
an  important  place  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 
After  a  period  of  decline  its  prosperity  revived 
under  the  caliph  Harun-el-Rashid. 

ADANG,  A-dftng'.  A  Malay-Negrito  people 
in  Ilocos  Norte  province,  Luzon.  See  Philip- 
pines. 

ADANSON,  A'daN'sON'  Michel  (1727-180«). 
A  French  naturalist  and  physicist.  He  was 
born  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  He  studied  the  natu- 
ral and  physical  sciences  under  Reaumur  and 
Jussieu  in  Paris,  and  journeyed  to  Senegal  in 
1749,  where,  during  a  period  of  five  years,  he 
engaged  in  researches  in  botany,  electro-physics, 
and  meteorology,  and  made  collections  of  plants 
and  animals.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  recog- 
nize the  electrical  nature  of  the  lightning  stroke, 
and  he  demonstrated  also  the  similarity  of  the 
shock  from  the  electric  eel  {Oymnotua  electri- 
cus)  to  the  discharge  from  the  Leyden  jar.  He 
was  also  one  of  the  earliest  to  describe  the  mode 
of  transportation  and  deposit  of  beach  sands 
along  oceanic  coasts.  On  his  return  to  Paris  from 
Senegal  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academy 
of  Sciences.  His  most  important  work,  however, 
was  in  botany,  and  he  published  many  important 
monographs  on  various  groups  of  plants  and  de- 
vised several  schemes  of  classification,  none  of 
which  latter  has,  however,  received  any  considera- 
ble amount  of  recognition.  Among  his  more  im- 
portant works  are:  Histoire  naturelle  du  S^n^gal 
(Paris,  1857;  German  edition,  Leipzig,  1773); 
Families  des  plantea  (2  volumes,  Paris,  1763)  ; 
Histoire  de  la  hotanique  et  plan  des  families 
naturelles  des  plantes,  a  posthumous  work 
edited  by  his  son,  A.  Adanson,  and  by  Payer  (2 
volumes,  Paris,  1864).  For  further  particulars 
concerning  his  life  and  works  consult  Cuvier, 
Eloge  historique  (Paris,  1819). 

AiyANSCyNIA.  A  genus  of  the  natural  or- 
der MalvaceoB,  named  by  Linneeus  in  honor  of  the 
botanist  Adanson  (q.v.).  The  best  known  spe- 
cies, Adansoni  digitata,  the  Baobab,  also  called 
the  Monkey-bread  tree,  is  a  native  of  the  tropi- 
cal parts  of  western  Africa,  but  now  introduced 
into  the  East  and  West  Indies.  It  is  one  of  the 
largest  known  trees — ^not,  indeed,  rising  to  a 
very  great  height,  but  exceeding  most  other  trees 
in  the  thickness  of  its  trunk  (20  to  30  feet). 
Even  its  branches  (60  to  70  feet  long)  are  often 
as  thick  as  the  stems  of  large  trees,  and  they 
form  a  hemispherical  head  of  120  to  150  feet  in 
diameter,  their  outermost  boughs  drooping  to 
the  ground.  The  leaves  are  5-to  7-parted;  the 
flowers  are  white  and  extremely  large,  on  droop- 
ing peduncles  of  a  yard  in  length.  The  fruit. 
Monkey-bread,  is  of  the  size  of  citron.  The 
bruised  leaves  (Lalo)  are  mixed  with  the  food 
of  the  inhabitants  of  tropical  Africa,  and  Euro- 
peans in  that  country  employ  them  as  a  remedy 
for  diarrhea,  fevers,  and  diseases  of  the  urinary 
organs.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit,  which  is  slightly 
acid  and  pleasant  to  the  taste,  is  eaten  with  or 
without  sugar;  and  the  expressed  juice  mixed 
with  sugar  is  much  esteemed  as  a  beverage, 
being  very  refreshing,  effectual  in  quenching 
thirst,  and  regarded  as  a  specific  in  putrid  and 
pestilential  fevers.  Tlie  {lark  is  said  to  be  power- 
fully febrifugal.  A  second,  Australian,  species, 
Adansonia  gregorii,  is  recognized  by  some  bota- 
nists aa  distinct  from  Adansonia  digitata.     A 


third   species   is   found   in   Madagascar   and  a 
fourth  in  East  Africa. 

AB'APTATION  (I^t.  ad,  to  -f  ap tore, to  fit). 
In  plants,  the  adjustment  of  an  organ  or  an 
organism  to  its  environment  or  surroundings, 
as  shown  in  its  structural  form,  e.g.,  a  thick- 
skinned  leaf  is  an  adaptation  to  a  dry  environ- 
ment. The  state  of  a  perfectly  adapted  plant 
is  sometimes  called  "epharmony,"  but  this  con- 
dition is  rarely  found,  and  the  adaptations  of 
most  plants  may  be  regarded  as  more  or  less 
imperfect.     See  Ecology;  Natural  Selection. 

A'DAJt.  The  twelfth  month  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical, and  the  sixth  month  of  the  civil,  Jewu^h 
year,  coinciding  with  February-March  of  the 
common  year.  The  7th  of  Adar  became  a  fast 
for  the  death  of  Moses;  the  9th  another  on 
account  of  the  dissension  of  Hillel  and  Shammai ; 
but  more  important  is  the  13th,  which  is  called 
the  fast  of  Esther,  in  memory  of  the  fasting  of 
Mordecai,  Esther,  and  the  Jews,  whose  destruc- 
tion was  threatened  by  Haman  (Esther  iv  :  15- 
16).  The  fast  is  followed  by  the  feast  of  Purim, 
celebrated  on  the  14th  and  15th,  in  commemora- 
tion of  the  escape  of  the  Jews  of  Persia  from  the 
fate  designed  for  them  by  Haman,  the  cruel 
counselor  of  Ahasuerus.     See  Esther. 

ADDA,  ftd^d&  (Lat.  Adua).  A  tributary  of 
the  Po  (q.v.),  rising  in  the  Rhoetian  Alps,  on 
the  northern  borders  of  Italy  above  Bormio 
(Map:  Italy,  D  2).  After  traversing  the  Val- 
tellina,  it  flows,  or  rather  expands,  into  the  Lake 
of  Como.  Below  Lecco  it  traverses  the  plain  of 
Lombardy  in  a  direction  south-southeast,  passing 
Lodi  and  Pizzighetone,  and  falls  into  the  Po 
about  8  miles  above  Cremona.  Total  length, 
about  180  miles ;  navigable  for  75  miles. 

AJVDAMS,  Jane  (I860—).  A  social  settle- 
ment worker.  She  was  born  at  Cedarville,  111., 
September  6,  1860.  She  graduated  at  Rockford 
Female  Seminary  in  1881,  and,  together  with 
Miss  Ellen  G.  Starr,  established  (m  1889,  at 
Chicago)  the  Hull  House,  the  leading  social  set- 
tlement  in  the  United  States,  of  which  she  became 
the  head  worker  and  guiding  spirit.  Miss  Addams 
has  less  sympathy  with  theoretical  studies  of  the 
social  problem  than  with  everyday  experience 
with  all  sorts  and  conditions  of  people.  Her 
practical  common  sense,  great  executive  ability, 
and  fine,  unselfish  spirit  have  made  her  the 
natural  leader  of  the  settlement  movement  in 
this  country.  She  has  been  a  frequent  contribu- 
tor to  current  periodical  literature  on  the  na- 
ture of  the  social  settlements,  their  relation  to 
the  labor  movement,  and  to  philanthropy,  and 
various  other  topics  suggested  by  her  work  in 
this  field.  See  Hull  House;  Social  Settle- 
ments. 

AjyDAX,  or  ADa)AS  (Lat.,  of  African 
origin).  A  hippotragine  antelope  {Addas  naso- 
maculatus)  of  northeastern  African  deserts,  re- 
lated to  the  oryx.  It  is  about  three  feet  in 
height  at  the  shoulders,  robust  in  form,  nearly 
white  in  color,  tinged  with  reddish-brown  for- 
ward, and  having  a  white  blaze  upon  the  no»e, 
and  black  hoofs,  large  and  rounded  for  treading 
upon  the  desert  sands.  It  has  long  ears,  a  long, 
tufted  tail,  shaggy  forehead  and  throat,  and  both 
sexes  have  high,  spirally  twisted  horns,  alluded 
to  by  Pliny  when  he  described  the  antelope  under 
the  name  strepiceros.  Its  habits  are  similar  to 
those  of  the  oryx,  and  it  is  hunted  by  the  Arabs 


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ABDAX. 


Ill 


ADDISON. 


with  greyhounds.  Consult:  A.  E.  Pease,  Pro- 
ot/edings  Zoological  Society  of  London  (1896, 
page  810),  who  says  that  it  is  called  by  the 
French  of  Algeria  "antilope  du  sud;"  by  the 
Arabs,  "begra  el  Oouash"  or  "meha,"  and  by  the 
Tuaregs,  '^tameeta."  See  plate  of  Large  Ante- 
IX)PES,  in  Volume  1. 

AlVDEB  (an  adder  by  mistake  for  a  nadder, 
A.  S.  nceddre,  Goth,  nadro,  (Jer.  Natter,  a  snake) . 
A  common  name  applied  both  to  certain  poison- 
ous snakes,  mostly  of  the  family  Viperidae,  and 
to  certain  harmless  snakes  of  the  family  Colu- 
bridsD.  In  the  former  case  it  is  practically  a 
synonym  of  Viper  (q.v.).  Several  venomous  ser- 
pents are  known  as  puff-adders  and  death- 
adders,  under  which  names  they  will  be  found 
described  and  illustrated  elsewhere.  Various 
harmless  snakes  of  the  genus  Tropidonotus  are 
known  as  adders  both  in  Europe  and  America, 
as  well  as  the  American  Copperhead  (q.v.),  the 
water  "adder"  (see  Moccasin),  and  the  spread- 
ing or  blo^-ing  "adder"  (see  Hognose),  which, 
under  provocation,  assumes  somewhat  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  viper.  Specifically,  in  English  lit- 
erature, the  word  usually  means  the  common 
viper  iVipera  herus)  of  Europe,  the  only  veno- 
mous snake  of  Great  Britain. 

ADa)IGKS,    John    Edwabd    (1841—).     An 
Anieriean  capitalist.     He  was  born  in  Philadel- 
ph'ia.    Pa.,    November    21,    1841.     He    acquired 
large  interests  in  the  flour  trade  of  that  city, 
and  subsequently  became  prominent  in  the  pro- 
motion of  the  manufacture  of  illuminating  gas. 
In  1884  he  organized,  and  was  made  president  of, 
the  Bay  State  Gas  dlompany  of  Boston,  Mass., 
and  in  1892  obtained  the  control  and  the  presi- 
dency of  the  Brooklyn    (N.  Y.)    Gas  Company. 
He  was  a  candidate  in  1895  for  the  United  States 
senatorship  for  Delaware,  and,  although  he  him- 
self failed  of  election,  was  able  to  prevent  that 
of  his  rival,  H.  A.  du  Pont.    The  ex-speaker  of 
the     State    Senate,    having    become    governor 
through    the    death '  of    Governor    Marvel,    was 
permitted  to  cast  a  ballot  in  the  legislative  con- 
vention, and  opportunity  was  thus  obtained  for 
contesting  the  election  of  du  Pont,  whom  the 
Democrats  and  Populists  refused  to  seat.    In  1896 
a  quarrel  arose  in  the  Republican  State  Conven- 
tion, assembled  to  elect  delegates  to  the  national 
convention  of  that  year,  and  two  sets  of  dele- 
gates, representing  respectively  the  du  Pont  and 
Addicks    factions,   were    thereupon   sent   to   St. 
Ijouis.    The  committee  on  credentials  having  de- 
cided in  favor  of  the  du  Pont  delegates,  the  fac- 
tion represented  by  these  became  known  as  the 
"regular"  Republican  party,  while  the  Addicks 
faction  assumed  the  name  of  Union  Republican. 
When,  in  1899,  a  new  senator  from  Delaware  was 
to  be  elected  upon  the  expiration  of  the  term  of 
George  Gray,  Democrat,  a  deadlock  ensued,  and 
the  senatorship    remained   vacant.     Again,    in 
1900,  two  sets  of  delegates  from  Delaware  were 
sent  to  the  Republican  National  Convention,  and 
on  this  occasion   the  committee  on  credentials 
ultimately  decided  in  favor  of  the  Addicks  rep- 
resentatives.   Despite  the  fact  that  he  was  thus 
placed  in  charge  of  the  party  organization   in 
that  State,  Addicks  was  in  1901  once  more  de- 
feated in  the  senatorial  election.     But  at  this 
time  there  were  two  senators  to  elect,  so  that 
the  adjournment  of  the  Legislature  in  March 
left  Delaware  totally  unrepresented  in  the  Sen- 
ate of  the  United  States. 


AJyDINOTON,  Henby,  first  Viscount  Sid- 
mouth  (1757-1844).  An  English  Tory  states- 
man. He  was  born  at  Reading.  He  graduated 
at  Brasenose,  Oxford,  in  1778,  studied  law,  and 
was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1784.  Persuaded  by 
his  college  mate  and  friend,  the  younger  Pitt, 
he  enter^  Parliament  in  1783.  Subsequently  he 
filled  the  positions  of  speaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  1789-1801,  and  premier  and  chancellor 
of  the  exchequer,  1801-4.  Owing  to  the  opposi- 
tion to  his  war  policy,  he  resigned  in  1804,  but 
the  King  raised  him  to  the  peerage  as  first  Vis- 
count Sidmouth,  and  made  him  president  of  the 
Council  (1805).  He  was  lord  privy  seal  in 
1806,  and  again  president  of  the  Council  from 
180fi  to  1807.  He  was  home  secretary  from 
1812  to  1822,  and  member  of  the  cabinet  from 
1822  to  1824.  Although  a  man  of  benevolent  dis- 
position, he  became  very  unpopular  through  his 
coercive  measures  and  retired  into  private  life 
in  1824.  He  died  at  Richmond  Park,  February 
15,  1844.  Consult:  G.  Pellew,  Life  and  Corre- 
spondence of  the  Right  Hon.  E,  Addington,  first 
Viscount  Sidmouth   (London,  1847). 

ADa>IS,  William  E.  (1844—).  An  English 
clergyman.  He  was  born  at  Edinburgh  and  was 
educated  at  Merchiston  Castle  School,  Glasgow 
College,  and  Balliol  College,  Oxford.  He  became  a 
Roman  Catholic  in  1866,  and  was  parish  priest  of 
Sydenham,  1878  to  1888,  an  assistant  clergyman 
at  Melbourne,  1888  to  1892,  and  Minister  of  the 
High  Pavement  Chapel  (Unitarian),  Nottingham, 
from  1893  to  1898.  In  1898  he  became  professor 
of  Old  Testament  criticism  in  Manchester  College, 
Oxford.  He  is  the  author  of  the  following  works : 
Catholic  Dictionary,  written  in  conjunction  with 
Thomas  Arnold  (fourth  edition,  1884)  ;  Docu- 
ments of  the  Hexatcuch  (2  volumes,  1893-98)  ; 
Christianity  and  the  Roman  Empire  (1893). 

ADDIS  ABEBA,  lidM^s  t-h^nok.  The  capital 
of  Abyssinia,  situated  in  the  province  of  Shoa, 
in  about  lat.  9**  N.  and  long.  39°  E.  (Map: 
Africa,  H  4).  It  occupies  an  extensive  area 
and  is  picturesquely  situated  at  an  altitude  of 
over  8000  feet.  In  its  general  appearance 
it  resembles  more  a  camp  than  a  capital  city. 
The  town  is  absolutely  without  any  streets 
and  is  intersected  in  several  parts  by  deep 
ravines.  The  royal  palace  is  situated  on  an  emi- 
nence and  consists  of  a  number  of  buildings  of 
cheap  and  flimsy  architecture  surrounded  by  sev- 
eral walls.  The  permanent  population  is  esti- 
mated at  50,000,  and  the  floating  population  at 
30,000.  Addis  Abeba  was  the  scene  of  the  signing 
of  the  treaty  of  peace  between  Italy  and  Abys- 
sinia on  October  26,  1 896,  in  which  Italy  resigned 
her  claim  to  a  protectorate  over  Abyssinia. 

ADa)ISON^  Joseph    (1672-1719).     An  Eng- 
lish poet  and  essayist.    He  was  the  son  of  Lance- 
lot Addison,  a  clergjman  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  was  born  at  Milston,  near  Amesbury, 
in  Wiltshire,  May  1,  1672.    After  attending  the 
Charterhouse    and    other    schools,    he    entered 
Queen's   College,   Oxford,   in    1687.     Two   years 
later  he  passed  to  Magdalen  College.    At  Oxford 
he  was  distinguished  for  the  ease  with  which  he 
wrote  Latin  verse.     By   1697   he  wa^  TeceWing 
high   compliments   from   Dryden.      |:ig  ^roti   the 
favor    of   Montagu    (afterward   LovA   Ha^^^^^^' 
and  Lord   Somers,  through   whom    v      ^V^ilV^'^^^' 
in     1699,    a    pension    of     £300  ^v^  ^^       'tVve 

pension  was  probably  intended  t^^  "S^^  Vv\tCV^ 

prepare  himself  for  diplomacy  b^    ^>\^^\t^'' 


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ADDISON. 


112 


ADDITION. 


At  any  rate,  he  left  England  toward  the  close  of 
1699  for  a  continental  tour.  While  in  France  he' 
became  familiar  with  the  language  of  the  coun- 
try. On  the  outbreak  of  the  Spanish  War  of  the 
Succession  he  went  to  Italy,  where  he  wrote  the 
most  successful  of  his  poems,  the  Letter,  ad- 
dressed to  Lord  Halifax.  In  the  autumn  of  1703 
he  returned  home  by  way  of  Switzerland  and 
Germany;  but  in  his  expectations  of  place  he  was 
disappointed,  for  the  Whigs  were  out  of  office. 
The  battle  of  Blenheim,  however,  which  occurred 
the  next  year,  presented  a  brilliant  opportunity, 
which  he  did  not  fail  to  make  the  most  of.  The 
ministry  wished  the  victory  commemorated  in 
verse,  and  Addison  was  appointed  to  do  it.  Lord 
Oodolphin,  the  treasurer,  was  so  pleased  with  the 
first  half  of  the  poem  that  before  The  Campaign 
was  finished  he  made  Addison  a  commissioner  of 
appeals. 

The  poet  was  now  fairly  involved  in  politics. 
He  became  under-secretary  of  state  in  1706,  ac- 
companied Halifax  to  Hanover  the  next  year,  and 
in  1709  went  to  Ireland  as  secretary  to  the  lord- 
lieutenant,  where  he  also  obtained  the  ofiice  of 
keeper  of  the  records,  worth  £300  a  year.  In  the 
same  year  Sir  Richard  Steele  began  the  Tatler, 
to  which  Addison  soon  became  a  frequent  con- 
tributor. He  also  wrote  a  number  of  political 
articles  in  the  Whig  Examiner.  On  March  1, 
1711,  appeared  the  first  number  of  the  Spectator, 
which  continued  as  a  daily  till  December  6,  1712. 
In  1714  it  was  revived  as  a  tri- weekly.  In  1713 
appeared  the  Tragedy  of  Cato,  the  popularity  of 
which,  considering  its  total  want  of  dramatic 
power,  is  amazing.  It  was  generally  understood 
to  have  a  political  as  well  as  a  poetical  inspira- 
tion; but  so  skillfully  had  Addison  expressed 
himself,  that  both  parties,  Whig  and  Tory,  re- 
ceived its  cold  declamations  with  rapture.  It 
was  translated  into  several  European  languages; 
and  even  the  prince  of  French  criticism,  Vol- 
taire, held  Shakespeare  a  barbarian  in  tragedy 
compared  with  Addison.  In  1716  Addison  mar- 
ried the  Dowager  Countess  of  Warwick.  The 
marriage  was  "uncomfortable."  He  reached  his 
highest  political  position  when  he  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  State  in  1717.  For  this  place  he  was 
not  at  all  suited,  and  he  resigned  the  next  year. 
Addison's  health  had  been  poor  for  some  time, 
and,  after  an  illness  of  a  few  months,  he  died 
at  Holland  House,  Kensington,  on  June  17,  1719, 
three  years  after  what  Thackeray  calls  "his 
splendid  but  dismal  union." 

Thomas  Tickell,  whom  Addison  had  appointed 
his  literary  executor,  published  his  works  two 
years  later  in  four  volumes,  including,  besides 
those  already  mentioned,  papers  Addison  had 
written  for  the  Ouardian  and  the  Freeholder,  a 
play  entitled  The  Drummer,  Dialogues  on  Medals, 
and  several  poems.  The  most  delightful  and  ' 
original  of  Addison's  productions  is  that  aeries 
of  sketches  in  the  Spectator,  of  which  Sir  Roger 
de  Coverley  is  the  central  figure  and  Sir  Andrew 
Freeport  and  Will  Honeycomb  the  lesser  ones.  Sir 
Roger  himself  is  an  absolute  creation;  the  gentle, 
yet  vivid  imagination,  the  gay  and  cheerful  spirit 
of  humor,  the  keen,  shrewd  observation,  and  fine 
raillery  of  foibles  which  Addison  has  displayed 
in  this  character  make  it  a  work  of  pure  genius. 
In  prose,  Addison  is  always  excellent.  He  gave 
a  delicacy  to  English  sentiment  and  a  modesty 
to  English  wit  which  it  had  never  known  before. 
Elegance,  which  in  his  predecessors  had  been  the 
companion  of  immorality,  now  appeared  as  the 


advocate  of  virtue.  His  style,  too,  is  admirable. 
There  are  many  nobler  and  grander  forms  of 
expression  in  English  literature  than  Addison's, 
but  there  are  none  comparable  to  his  in  propriety 
and  natural  dignity.  "Whoever  wishes,"  says 
Dr.  Johnson,  "to  attain  an  English  style,  fa- 
miliar but  not  coarse,  and  elegant  but  not  os- 
tentatious, must  give  his  days  and  nights  to 
the  volumes  of  Addison."  His  various  writings, 
but  especiallv  his  essays,  fully  realized  the  pur- 
pose which  he  constantly  had  in  view,  "to  en- 
liven morality  with  wit,  and  to  temper  wit  with 
morality."  He  also  did  more  than  any  other  man 
of  his  time  toward  creating  a  wide  public  for 
nterature.  Consult :  Johnson,  Lives  of  the  Poets 
(many  editions) ;  Macaulay, "Essay  on  Addison," 
Edinburgh  Review  (1843)  ;  Aiken,  Life  of  Addi- 
son (London,  1843)  ;  Courthope,  Addison  (New 
York,  1884),  and  Beljame,  Le  public  et  les  horn- 
mes  de  lettres  en  Angleterre  (second  edition, 
Paris,  1897). 

ADa>ISON'S  DISEASE.  A  disease  char- 
acterized pathologically  by  pi^entation  of  the 
skin  and  by  certain  changes  m  the  suprarenal 

? [lands.  The  pigmentation  of  the  skin  varies 
rom  a  light  yellowish  brown  to  a  dark  brown 
or  blackish  color.  Various  changes  have  been 
described  in  the  suprarenals,  the  most  common 
being  tuberculous  inflammation.  Fatty  and  waxy 
degenerations  and  carcinoma  have  also  been 
described.  The  suprarenal  glands,  or  adrenal 
bodies,  were  little  understood  till  1855,  when  Dr. 
Thomas  Addison,  of  Guy's  Hospital,  London, 
published  his  work  on  their  diseases.  Tlie  most 
important  of  these  is  the  one  called  after  Dr. 
Addison.  Its  leading  syinptoms  are  aniemia. 
general  languor  and  debility,  remarkable  feeble- 
ness of  the  heart's  action,  irritability  of  the 
stomach,  and  the  peculiar  bronzing  (melasma) 
to  which  reference  has  been  made.  It  is  a  rare 
disease,  more  common  among  the  poor,  far  more 
frequent  in  males  than  in  females,  and  generally 
occurs  between  the  ages  of  thirty  and  fifty  years. 
There  may  be  profuse  diarrhea,  also  rheumatoid 
pains  in  the  loins  and  abdomen,  and  the  tempera- 
ture is  subnormal,  except  in  those  rare  cases  in 
which  delirium,  loss  of  consciousness,  and  con- 
vulsions occur.  The  bronzing  is  more  pro- 
nounced on  the  face,  neck,  and  backs  of  the 
hands,  and  upon  points  of  pressure.  The  dis- 
ease lasts  from  eighteen  months  to  a  few  years. 
No  curative  treatment  is  known.  Tonics,  gen- 
erous diet,  proper  climate,  and  the  internal 
administration  of  suprarenal  extract  are  bene- 
ficial.   See  SiTPRARENAL  Capsules. 

ADDISON'S  WALK.  In  the  grounds  of 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  a  tree-bordefed  walk 
to  which  Joseph  Addison  is  said  to  have  fre- 
quently resorted  when  he  was  a  "demy"  in  that 
college. 

ADDITION.  The  process  of  uniting  two  or 
more  number  gi'oups  into  -a  single  group.  In 
elementary  arithmetic,  which  deals  with  natural 
numbers,  the  process  of  addition  is  simply  count- 
ing all  the  units  of  two  or  more  collections  into 
a  single  collection.  The  different  groups  added 
are  called  the  addends  and  the  result  is  called  the 
sum.  Since  there  is  one  and  only  one  unit  in 
the  sum  for  every  unit  in  the  addends  taken  to- 
gether, there  is  said  to  be  a  1 — 1  correspondence 
between  the  sum  and  the  addends.  From  this 
it  appears  that  the  sum  is  the  same  in  whatex^er 
order   the   addends   are   taken   or   in   whatever 


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JOSEPH    ADDISON 

AFTER    PAINTING   BY    KRAEMER 


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ADDITION. 


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ADELPHI  COLLEGE. 


groups  they  may  be  placed.  The  former  fact 
is  expressed  by  saying  that  addition  is  commu- 
tative, and  the  latter  by  saying  that  addition  is 
associative.  See  articles,  Associative  Law  and 
Commutative  Law. 

AIXDLED  PABOilAMENT,  The.  A  name 
given  to  the  second  parliament  of  James  I.  of 
England,  1614,  because  it  did  not  produce  a 
single  statute.  It  holds,  nevertheless,  a  note- 
worthy place  in .  the  history  of  constitutional 
liberty.  Its  members  were  chosen  at  a  contested 
election,  the  first  which  had  occurred  for  many 
years.  The  principle  at  issue  was  the  right  of 
parliament  to  grant  all  supplies.  The  patri- 
otic party  was  victorious.  It  is  significant  that 
three  hundred  members,  or  about  two-thirds  of 
the  entire  number,  were  then  elected  for  the  first 
time.  Among  these  new  men  were  John  Pym 
and  Sir  Thomas  Wentworth,  each  destined  to 
take  a  leading  part  in  the  coming  struggle. 
After  a  two-months'  session  the  parliament  was 
dissolved  by  the  King,  because  it  declined  to  grant 
him  a  supply  of  money  without  a  proper  settle- 
ment of  the  question  of  the  imposts. 

ADDBESS',  FoBMS  of.  See  Fobms  of  Ad- 
dress. 

Aa)EE,  Alvey  Augustus  (1842 — ).  An 
American  official.  He  was  born  at  Astoria,  N.  Y. 
In  1870  he  was  appointed  secretary  of  lega- 
tion at  Madrid,  and  in  1878  chief  of  the  diplo- 
matic bureau  at  Washington.  He  served  from 
1882  to  188^  as  third  assistant  secretary  of 
state,  and  in  the  latter  year  was  promoted  to 
he  second  secretary.  He  was  acting  Secretary 
of  State  during  a  portion  of  the  Chinese  trouble 
in  1900. 

AIKELAAB  (Norw.  The  Eagle).  An  appel- 
lation of  Curt  Sivertsen  (1622-76),  one  of  the 
greatest  naval  commanders  of  the  seventeenth 
century.  He  was  born  at  Brevig,  in  Norway, 
and  in  his  twentieth  year  was  employed  in  the 
naval  service  of  Venice  against  the  Turks.  On 
one  occasion  he  broke  through  a  line  of  sixty- 
seven  Turkish  galleys  which  surrounded  his  ship, 
sank  fifteen,  and  burned  several  others.  Fred- 
eric III.  engaged  him  as  admiral  of  the  Danish 
fleet;  and  in  1675,  under  Christian  V.,  he  took 
the  command  of  the  whole  of  the  Danish  naval 
force  against  Sweden,  but  died  suddenly  at 
Copenhagen  before  the  expedition  set  out.  Con- 
sult: Brunn,  Curt  Sivertsen  Adelaar  (Copen- 
hagen, 1875). 

AjyETiATDE.  The  capital  of  South  Aus- 
tralia, on  the  Torrens,  7  miles  by  rail  from  its 
harbor,  Port  Adelaide,  on  the  Gulf  of  St.  Vin- 
^nt,  and  508  miles  northwest  of  Melbourne 
(Map:  Australia,  F  6).  It  has  a  large  trade 
in  agricultural  produce  and  wool ;  lead  and  cop- 
per are  mined  in  the  vicinity,  and  its  industries 
include  iron  foundries,  potteries,  tanneries,  brew- 
eries, woolen,  starch,  and  soap  factories.  The 
Torrens,  artificially  converted  into  a  fine  river, 
spanned  by  several  bridges,  divides  the  town 
into  north  and  south  Adelaide.  The  streets  are 
broad  and  regularly  laid  out.  The  chief  public 
buildings  are  the  government  buildings,  parlia- 
ment houses,  town  hall,  post  office,  the  South 
Australian  Institute,  and  governor's  residence. 
It  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consular  agent, 
the  see  of  Anglican  and  Catholic  bishops,  con- 
tains numerous  churches,  a  university  with 
three  colleges,  a  meteorological  observatory,  and 
extensive  1x>tanical  gardens,  including  a  museum 
Vol.  I.-8 


of  economic  botany.  The  town  is  encircled  by 
the  reserved  park  lands  half  a  mile  wide.  Large 
waterworks  and  reservoirs,  from  six  to  seven 
miles  distant,  which  abundantly  supply  the  city, 
are  the  property  of  the  South  Australian  gov- 
ernment, which  also  owns  the  Adelaide  ceme- 
teries. The  city  owns  abattoirs,  four  markets 
yielding  an  annual  income  of  $160,000,  main- 
tains its  parks,  which  cover  2300  acres,  and 
supports  a  fire  brigade.  Founded  in  1836,  the 
city  was  named  after  Adelaide,  queen  of  Wil- 
liam IV.  Pop.,  1891,  37,800,  including  suburbs 
133,000;  1901,  39,200,  including  suburbs,  162,200. 
Port  Adelaide,  its  port,  protected  by  two  forts, 
has  a  safe  and  commodious  harbor,  with  a  dock 
of  five  acres  for  ocean  steamers,  and  a  quayage 
of  12,993  feet.  It  is  a  port  of  call  for  European 
vessels.  Pop.,  5000.  Consult:  G.  T.  Ellery, 
''Greater  Adelaide,"  in  Municipal  Extension 
(Adelaide,  1899)  ;  "City  of  Adelaide,"  in  Muni- 
cipal Journal,  IX.,  237   (London,  1900). 

ADELAIDE,  A'd&a&'M^  Eugenie  Louise 
(1777-1847).  Princess  of  Orleans,  sister  of  Louis 
Philippe.  Proscribed  in  the  Revolution  as  an  6mi' 
gr^e,  she  sought  refuge  in  the  Netherlands,  Swit- 
zerland, and  Germany  (1793).  Ten  years  later 
she  met  her  brother  in  Spain,  and  was  with 
him  until  the  Restoration,  using  her  infiuence 
to  induce  him  to  accept  the  crown.  From  1830 
to  1847  she  played  an  infiuential  part  in  politics. 

AIXEIiABDy  or  JETH^LHABD,  OF 
BATH.  An  English  philosophical  writer  who 
lived  about  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century. 
He  is  said  to  have  studied  at  Tours  and  Laon. 
His  works  include  Perdifficiles  Qu(estiones  Nat- 
urates  (printed  toward  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century);  De  Eodem  et  Diverso  (before  1116), 
an  allegory  in  which  worldliness  and  philosophy 
are  represented  as  endeavoring  to  win  the  soul 
of  man;  and  a  Latin  translation  of  Euclid 
(printed  1482),  made  at  a  time  when  that  work 
was  almost  unknown  in  western  Europe.  He 
also  translated  and  wrote  several  other  treatises 
on  mathematical  and  medical  subjects  which  are 
to  be  seen  in  MSS.  in  the  libraries  of  Corpus 
Christi  and  Trinity  Colleges,  Oxford. 

AD^LBEBT  COLOiEGE.  See  Western 
Reserve  University. 

AD'ELOCHOBa)A,     or     HEl['ICHORa>A 

(Gk.  iStf^oCt  ad€los,  unclear,  invisible,  and  ^fii, 
hSmi,  half  -f  Lat.  chorda,  a  cord,  a  dorsal  nerv- 
ous cord).  A  sub-class  of  the  Chordata,  includ- 
ing Balanoglossus  and  its  allies.  See  Balano- 
GLOSSus,  and  Plate  of  Ascidians. 

ADEL'PHI,  The  (Gk.  aM<f>oi,  adelphoi,  bro- 
thers; see  below).  A  locality  in  London  between 
the  Strand  and  the  Thames  Embankment,  a  little 
distance  east  of  Charing  Cross.  The  name 
came  from  the  fact  that  the  Adelphi  Terrace, 
which  lies  in  it,  was  laid  out  in  1708  by  the 
brothers  Adam,  whose  names  appear  in  Adam 
Street,  James  Street,  William  Street,  John 
Street,  and  Robert  Street. 

ADELPHI  COI/LEOE.  An  American  col- 
lege, situated  at  66  St.  James  Place,  Brooklyn, 
New  York  City.  It  was  incorporated  1896, 
grants  the  degrees  A.B.  and  B.S.,  and  maintains 
subordinate  normal,  art,  and  musical  depart- 
ments, besides  a  preparatory  academy.  It  has 
a  library  of  8000  volumes;  faculty,  1901,  34; 
students,  166  collegiate,  22  normal,  199  art,  and 
30  music. 


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ABENEZ. 


I 


ADELPHI  THE^ATBE.  A  theatre  on  the 
Strand,  London,  more  fully  designated  the  Royal 
Adelphi  Theatre.  It  dates  from  1806,  but  was 
rebuilt  on  a  larger  scale  in  1858.  It  was  known 
chiefly  for  its  melodramas  and  farces. 

ADEI/PHCE,  or  ADELPHI.  The  latest  of 
the  six  extant  comedies  of  Terence  (q.v.).  It 
was  produced  in  160  B.c.  at  the  funeral  games 
of  L.  ^milius  Paulus,  and  was  derived  chiefly 
from  the  'AdeA^o/,  Adelphoi  ("Brothers")  of 
Menander,  but  also  in  part  from  the  Iwanod- 
vifCKovreg,  Synapothn^kontes  ("Dying  Togeth- 
er") of  Diphilus.  Mpli^re  is  said  to  have  owed 
to  it  the  idea  of  his  Bcole  des  maris. 

ADELSBEBG, &Mels-b«rK  (Sloven, Postojna) . 
A  small  market  town  of  the  Austrian  cro^m- 
land  of  Camiola,  about  50  miles  east-northeast 
of  Trieste  by  rail.  It  is  famous  for  its  wonder- 
ful stalactite  cavern,  the  largest  in  Europe  and 
one  of  the  finest  known.  It  may  be  explored  for 
more  than  two  miles,  and  is  penetrated  for  about 
800  yards  by  the  river  Poik,  which  then  dis- 
appears in  the  bowels  of  the  earth.  The  cav- 
ern consists  of  several  different  chambers.  The 
largest  is  the  Franz  Josef  and  Elisabeth 
grotto,  223  yards  in  length  by  214  yards  in 
breadth.  The  stalactite  and  stalagmite  forma- 
tions are  particularly  notable  for  their  beauty 
and  variety. 

ADELUNG,  aMe-lvng,  Fbiedbich  von  (1768- 
1843).  A  German  philologist.  He  was  born  at 
Stettin,  studied  philosophy  and  jurisprudence  at 
Leipzig,  went  later  on  to  Russia,  and  was  tutor 
to  the  grand  duke,  later  Czar  Nicholas.  In  1824 
he  was  appointed  director  of  the  Oriental  Insti- 
tute, at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1825  president  of 
the  Academy  of  Sciences.  He  is  chiefly  known 
for  his  researches  respecting  foreign  sources  for 
Russian  history,  the  most  important  results  of 
which  are  embodied  in  the  Kritischlitterariache 
Ueheraicht  der  Reisenden  in  Ruaaland  his  1100 
{ 1846) .  He  also  wrote  on  Sanskrit  language  and 
literature  such  volumes  as  Versuch  einer  Litter- 
atur  der  Sanskritsprache  (1830). 

ADELUNG,  JoHANN  Chbistoph  (1732- 
1806).  A  distinguished  German  linguist  and 
lexicographer.  He  was  born  at  Spantekow, 
Pomerania;  was  a  journalist  and  author  at 
Leipzig,  from  1761  to  1787,  and  from  1787  until 
his  death  chief  librarian  of  the  electoral  library 
at  Dresden.  He  is  principally  known  for  his 
historico-critical  studies  of  the  German  language. 
His  chief  works  are  his  Worterhuch  der  Hoch- 
deutschen  Mundart  (Dictionary  of  High  Ger- 
man, 1774-1802),  in  which  he  took  Dr.  Johnson 
as  his  model;  and  his  Ueher  den  Deutschen  8til 
(1785-86). 

ADEICP^ION  (Lat.  adimere,  to  take  away). 
The  destruction  of  a  legacy  either  by  voluntary 
act  of  the  testator,  or  by  loss  or  destruction  of 
the  thing  bequeathed.  Tlie  term  is  properly 
used  only  in  connection  with  legacies,  although 
it  is  sometimes  used  interchangeably  with  ad- 
vancement (q.v.),  and  some  courts  also  treat 
the  term  as  synonymous  with  satisfaction.  If  a 
testator  in  loco  parentis^  before  his  death,  made 
a  gift  to  his  legatee  of  the  same  kind  as  the 
legacy,  the  presumption  is  that  the  gift  was 
made  as  part  of,  or  in  place  of,  the  legacy;  and 
it  is,  therefore,  adeemed  pro  tanio.  Specific 
legacies  may  be  adeemed  by  the  sale  or  aliena- 
tion of  the  property  bequeathed,  or  by  its  loss  or 


destruction,  and  general  legacies  may  be  adeemed 
by  lack  of  sufficient  assets  to  pay  them.  See  the 
authorities  referred  to  under  Leoact. 

ADEN,  .%^den  or  ftMen.  A  peninsula  and  town 
near  the  southwestern  end  of  Arabia,  situated  in 
lat.  12''  N.,  and  long.  45''  5'  E.,  and  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  narrow  sandy  isthmus 
(Map:  Arabia,  R  13).     In  a  broader  sense  the 
name  of  Aden  is  applied  to  the  whole  British 
territory  in  that  part  of  Arabia,  which  includes, 
besides  the  peninsula  and  the  isthmus,  also  & 
small  strip  of  territory  on  the  mainland  with  & 
total  area  of  about  75  square  miles.    The  penin- 
sula proper  is  of  volcanic  origin  and  reaches  in 
the  peak  of  Jebel  Shan-shan  an  altitude  of  1775 
feet  above  the  sea.     The  climate  of  the  region 
is  healthful,  but  the  scarcity  of  rain  makes  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  impossible,  so  that  all  the 
necessaries  of  life  have  to  be  imported.     Water 
is   obtained  partly  from   the  wells  within   the 
crater  in  which  the  town  of  Aden  is  situated,  and 
partly  from  the  hills,  where  it  is  collected  dur- 
ing the  rainfall  and  conducted  into  cisterns.    The 
town  of  Aden  is  strongly  fortified.     The  most 
populous    settlements    are    Steamer    Point    and 
Shaikh  Othman  on  the  mainland.    There  are  two 
harbors,  but  only  one  of  them,  Aden  Back  Bay, 
on  the  western  side  of  the  peninsula,  is  of  any 
commercial  importance.     Owing  to  its  favorable 
location,  Aden  was  of  considerable  importance 
already  in  Roman  times,  when  it  was  an  entrepot 
for  the  trade  between  the  Roman  Empire  and  the 
east.    In  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century 
it  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  who  were  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Turks  in  1535.     From  the  seven- 
teenth   century    until    the    British    occupation, 
Aden  was  under  the  rule  of  the  Sultan  of  Sena 
and  some  native  chiefs.    In  1839  it  was  captured 
by  the  British  as  a  punishment  for  the  maltreat- 
ment to  which  the  crew  of  a  shipwrecked  British 
vessel  had  been  subjected  by  the  natives  in  1S37. 
Together  with  the  island  of  Perim,  Aden   con- 
stitutes a  dependency  of  the  Bombay  presidency, 
and  is  now  regarded  as  a  very  important  coaling 
station.    The  population  of  Aden,  which  was  at 
one  time  reduced  by  internal  disorder  to  less  than 
1000,  is  now  over  41,000,  and  the  import  trade 
amounted  to  over  $16,000,000  in  1898-99,  while 
the  value  of  the  exports  for  the  same  year  was 
about  $13,000,000.     The  chief  articles  of  export 
are  coffee,  gums,  hides,  skins,  piece  goods,  and 
tobacco.    The  administration  of  the  territory  is 
in  the  hands  of  a  political  Resident,  who  is  also 
the  military  commander.    An  extensive  territory 
in  Arabia,  officially  reckoned  a  British  protector- 
ate, the  Somali  coast,  and  the  island  of  Socatra 
are  administrated  from  Aden.     Consult:    F.  M. 
Hunter,  Aden  (London,  1877). 

ADENEZ,    A'd'-n&^    or    ADANS    Ii£    BOI, 

i'dftN'  \e  Tw^^,  also  written  Aden&s  and  Adenet. 
A  trouvfere  of  the  thirteenth  century.  He  is 
first  known  as  a  minstrel  at  the  court  of  Henry 
III.,  Duke  of  Brabant,  whose  reign  ended  in  1261. 
Later  he  was  for  a  time  in  the  service  of  Guy  de 
Dampierre,  Count  of  Flanders;  then  he  went  to 
France,  where  he  was  in  high  favor  with  the 
royal  family.  His  surname  of  le  Roi  is  commonly 
understood  to  have  come  from  the  authority 
which  he  exercised  as  leader  of  the  minstrels  at 
the  Brabantine  court.  His  greatest  work  is  the 
CUomadds  (of  which  an  edition  was  published 
in  two  volumes,  Brussels,  1863-66),  a  long,  poeti- 
cal romance.    Previously  he  had  written,  on  the 


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basis  of  chansons  de  gestes  from  the  epic  cycle 
of  Charlemagne,  Les  enfancea  Ogier  (edited 
Brussels,  1874),  and  Berte  aus  grans  pies 
(edited  Paris,  1832),  and  also  Budves  de  Com- 
marchis  (edited  Brussels,  1874). 

ADENIS-COLOMBEAXT,  JL'd'n^^yifiN'by, 
Jules  (1821 — ).  A  French  dramatist.  He  was 
born  at  Paris  and  was  educated  at  the  College 
Bourbon  (Lyc^  Condorcet).  He  has  written  a 
large  number  of  comedies  and  vaudevilles,  as 
well  as  libretti  to  comic  operas  and  operettas. 
Among  his  independent  works  are:  Philanthropie 
et  Repeniir  (Paris,  1865)  ;  Une  Crise  de  Manage 
(Paris,  1857);  Les  Chasseurs  et  la  Laiti^re 
(comic  opera  in  cne  act,  music  by  Gevaert,  Op4ra 
Comique,  Paris,  1865);  Les  Trois  Seuhaits 
(comic  opera  in  one  act,  music  by  Poise,  Op4ra 
Comique,  1873).  In  collaboration  with  Plouvier, 
Decourcelle,  Tourte,  Granvallet,  Rostaing,  and 
others,  Adenis-Colombeau  has  produced  works, 
of  which  the  following  are  the  more  important: 
Madame  Pygmalion  (Bouffes  Parisiens,  1863)  ; 
La  Jolie  Fillc  de  Perth  (opera  in  four  acts, 
music  by  Bizet,  Theatre  Lyrique,  1867)  ;  La 
Czarine  (drama  in  five  acts,  Ambigu,  1868)  ; 
Ln  Fie  des  Bruy^es  (Brussels,  1877)  ;  Les  Tern-' 
pliers  (opera  in  five  acts,  Brussels,  1886). 

ADENITIS^  ftd'^nnis,  or  LYMPHADE- 
NITIS, llm'f&d-  (Gk.  adiiv,  ad€n,  gland;  Lat. 
lympha,  water).  A  term  used  in  medicine  to 
indicate  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic  glands. 
Lymphangitis  is  inflammation  of  the  lymphatic 
vessels  which  lead  into  and  connect  together 
these  glands.  In  both  structures  the  inflamma- 
tion may  assume  an  acute  or  chronic  form. . 
Acute  lymphadenitis  and  Ijnnphangitis  usually 
have  their  origin  from  a  wound  or  from  some 
form  of  sore  on  the  skin  or  a  mucous  membrane. 
The  inflammatory  process  extends  from  the  in- 
itial lesion  along  the  chain  of  lymphatic  vessels, 
and  its  presence  is  indicated  by  bright  red  lines 
over  the  course  of  the  lymphatic  vessels  leading  • 
from  the  wound,  and  by  heat,  swelling,  pain,  and 
tenderness  in  the  glands  with  which  these  ves- 
sels communicate.  If  infective  micro-organisms. 
Bacteria,  are  present  at  the  time  of  the  injury, 
or  subsequently  find  their  way  into  the  tissues, 
a  suppurative  inflammation  results,  and  pus  is 
formed  in  and  around  the  affected  glands.  Where 
the  inflammation  is  severe,  or  the  infection  in- 
tense, such  general  symptoms  as  fever,  headache, 
vomiting,  and  prostration  are  apt  to  be  present. 
The  chronic  forms  of  adenitis  are  usually  due 
either  to  tuberculosis  or  syphilis.  In  addition 
to  the  local  enlargement  of  the  glands,  and  the 
iwftening  and  suppuration  that  often  follows, 
are  usually  found  the  general  symptoms  of  the 
two  diseases  named.  The  treatment  of  the  acute 
form  of  adenitis  consists  in  putting  the  affected 
part  at  perfect  rest,  using  such  bandages  and 
supports  as  may  be  necessary,  the  application  of 
moist  antiseptic  dressings,  the  use  of  an  un- 
atiniulating  diet  and  of  laxatives.  If  suppura- 
tion ensues,  an  incision  must  be  made  and  the 
pus  allowed  to  escape.  The  chronic  forms  of 
adenitis  are  met  by  tonic  and  constitutional 
treatment,  and  in  some  cases  by  removal  of  the 
affected  glands. 

ABEBBAIJAN,  rder-bt-j&n^  or  ADEBBI- 
JAS.    See  Azerbijan. 

ABEBNd,  a'dgr-nd'.  A  city  of  Sicily,  23  miles 
northwest  of  Catania,  southwest  of  Mount  Etna, 
and  1840  feet  above  the  sea  (Map:  Italy,  J  10). 


The  quadrangular  castle  erected  by  Roger  I.  is 
now  used  as  a  prison  and  the  interior  is  very 
dilapidated.  In  the  chapel  are  remains  of  fres- 
coes showing  his  granddaughter,  Adelasia,  in 
the  act  of  taking  the  veil.  The  convent  of  Santa 
Lucia  was  founded  by  him  in  1157.  The  ancient 
Hadranum  was  celebrated  for  the  temple  of 
Hadranos,  guarded  by  1000  dogs,  and  the  tourist 
can  see  fragments  of  it  outside  the  town  at  Cas- 
tellemi.  In  the  valley  of  the  Simeto,  a  couple  of 
miles  west  of  Adernd  are  the  remains  of  a  Roman 
aqueduct.  Adernd  is  the  market  town  of  a  con- 
siderable agricultural  district.  Pop.,  1901, 
25,859. 

ABEBSBACH  BOCKS,  ftMers-b&o.  A  group 
of  sandstone  rocks  near  the  village  of  Aders- 
bach,  in  Bohemia.  They  are  about  four  miles 
long  and  over  one  mile  in  width,  and  rise  in 
some  parts  over  200  feet.  They  are  remarkable 
for  their  fantastic  form,  which  has  been  produced 
by  the  rain,  frost,  and  other  atmospheric 
changes.  During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  the 
miserable  people  of  Bohemia  often  found  refuge 
in  this  locality. 

ADHEB^AL.  Eldest  son  and  one  of  the  heirs 
of  Micipsa,  King  of  Numidia,  who  died  118  b.c. 
He  was  killed  by  order  of  Jugurtha  (q.v.)  six 
years  later. 

ADHE^SION  (Lat.  adhaesio,  a  sticking  to, 
from  ad,  to  +  haerere,  to  stick).  The  phenome- 
non observed  when  two  bodies  are  brought  into 
close  contact,  viz:  they  become  so  attached  to 
each  other  that  it  requires  force  to  separate  them. 
Adhesion  is  seen  in  the  case  of  two  solid  bodies 
when  their  polished  surfaces  are  pressed  to- 
gether, as  in  the  case  of  the  two  lead  disks 
shown  in  the  figure  at  A ;  but  it  is  more  evident 
between  solids  and  fluids,  owing  to  their 
intimate  contact  (see  B  and  C).  We  have 
instances    of    this    in    the    film    of    water   ad- 


hering  to  a  piece  of  glass  which  is  dipped 
in  water  and  then  removed.  The  adhesion 
of  gases  to  the  surface  of  solids  plays  an  im- 
portant part  in  many  processes.  A  condensed 
atmosphere  of  gases  surrounds  every  body,  and 
every  particle  of  a  powdered  or  porous  body 
has  its  own  surface  layer  of  gases.  This  prop- 
erty of  powdered  bodies  to  retain  gaseous  atmos- 
pheres in  a  state  of  great  condeivaatioTi  is  called 
adsorption. 


fers 


ADHESION,  In  Pathouhiv     fVve  ^™  3f 
rs     to    the    closing    of    1^^-     ^\      11    t\ve 


^ONX"^^ 


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ADIBONDACX. 


granulating  surfaces  (see  Granulation)  be 
kept  in  contact,  the  opposite  granulations 
may  fuse  together  and  the  wound  unite  by 
secondary  adhesion.  Serous  membranes,  such 
as  the  pleura,  the  pericardium,  and  the  peri- 
toneum, \vhen  inflamed  often  become  adherent. 
After  operation  involving  any  of  these  mem- 
branes similar  inflammatory  adhesions  may  oc- 
cur. In  inflammations  of  the  appendix  vermi- 
formis  (see  Appendicitis)  and  the  pelvic  or- 
gans (see  Uterus;  Ovaries  and  Fallopian 
Tubes),  more  or  less  extensive  adhesions  are 
apt  to  occur,  interfering  with  the  free  motion  of 
the  organs  or  actually  drawing  them  out  of 
proper  position.  Such  adhesions  are  often  the 
cause  of  chronic  conditions  following  acute  in- 
flammations of  these  parts. 

ADHESION,  In  Plants.  The  term  is  some- 
times applied  to  an  apparent  coalescence  of  adja- 
cent cycles,  e.g.,  stamens  which  seem  to  be  borne 
upon  the  tube  of  the  corolla  are  called  "ad- 
herent."    The  term  is  now  passing  into  disuse. 

AiyiANTUM.    See  Maiden-haib. 

AD'IAPH^OBISTS  (Gk.  a,  a,  priv.  +  d/o^ 
opo^,  diaphoroa,  different).  The  name  given  to 
Melanchthon  and  those  who  agreed  with  him  in 
submitting,  in  "things  indifferent,"  to  an  impe- 
rial edict.  When,  in  1548,  Charles  V.  issued  an 
edict  called  the  Augsburg  Interim,  relating  to 
disputed  religious  doctrines,  Melanchthon  drew 
up  the  Leipzig  Interim,  in  which  he  yielded 
several  doctrinal  and  liturgical  points  as  adiaph- 
ora,  "things  indifferent."  This  stirred  up  a 
vigorous  controversy,  which  lasted  till  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Formula  of  Concord  (1577),  which 
lays  down  the  law  on  the  matter. 

ADI- BUDDHA,  ftM«-b55dM&  (Skr.  the 
primordial  Buddha).  A  conception  of  the  su- 
preme deity  which  arose  as  late  in  the  history 
of  Buddhism  as  about  the  tenth  century,  and 
prevails  especially  among  the  northern  Bud- 
dhists. He  is  the  original  spiritual  source  out 
of  whom  through  successive  emanations  of  the 
five  Dhyani  Buddhas  (q.v.)  and  their  less  perfect 
Bodhisattvas  (q.v.)  came  all  the  visible  creation. 
The  similarity  of  this  view  of  the  universe  to 
some  of  the  theories  of  the  Gnostics  has  sug- 
gested that  it  may  have  indirectly  been  affected 
by  contact  with  eastern  Christianity.  See  Bud- 
dhism. 

ADIGE,  a'd^-jA  (ancient  Athesis),  A  river 
of  Austria-Hungarv  and  Italy,  rising  in  the 
Rhaetian  Alps  of  Tyrol  (Map:  Italy,  F  2).  It 
is  formed  by  the  union  of  numerous  streamlets 
near  Glarus,  where  it  is  called  Etsch,  a  name 
by  which  the  entire  river  is  known  in  Germany. 
It  flows  in  a  general  southern  direction  past 
Meran  and  Trent,  entering  Italy  midway 
between  Roveredo  and  Verona.  A  few  miles 
above  the  latter  town  it  turns  southeast  and 
enters  the  Adriatic  above  the  Po.  Its  total 
length  is  250  miles,  for  180  of  which  it  is  navi- 
gable, although  not  without  difficulty,  owing  to 
its  swift  current.  It  is  connected  with  the  Po 
by  a  small  navigable  canal  called  Adigctto.  Its 
most  important  tributaries  are  the  Eisack  and 
the  Avisio.  The  Adige  is  a  transit  river  for  the 
trade  of  Germany  and  Italy. 

ADI-GBANTH,  JiMA-grHnth  (primal  book). 
The  Bible  of  the  Sikh  religion  (see  Sikhs).  It 
consists  largely  of  poems  and  legends  originating 
with  Nanak    (14G9-1538   A.D.),  the  founder   of 


the  sect,  and  the  "gurus"  ("divine  revealers") 
who  immediately  succeeded  him,  its  materials 
having  been  collected  by  Arjun  (1584-1606),  the 
fifth  of  these  successors.  Many  of  its  passa*^ 
show  a  very  elevated  conception  of  the  deity, 
and  deal  with  such  problems  as  predestination, 
the  freedom  of  the  will,  etc.  Its  ethical  teach- 
ings are  notably  such  as  combat  the  sins  of  per- 
sonal selfishness  and  attachment  to  the  pleasures 
of  the  world.  A  second  granth  (book),  known 
as  the  "Granth  of  the  Tenth  Reign,"  was  com- 
posed in  1696  under  the  direction  of  Govind 
Singh,  the  last  of  the  ten  gurus.  This  more 
especiallv  exalted  the  martial  virtues  and  added 
further  legends  of  the  incarnation  of  €rod.  The 
sacred  4x)oks  are  treated  with  great  veneration 
in  the  assemblies  of  the  Sikhs. 

A'DIPIC  ACID,  C,H.(COOH,).  A  dibasic 
acid  similar  to  oxalic  acid.  It  is  often  obtained 
in  the  oxidation  of  fats  by  nitric  acid. 

ADIPOCEBE,  &d'T-p6-s$r^  (Lat.  adeps,  fat  + 
cera,  wax).  A  peculiar  mixture  of  fatty  acids 
resulting  from  the  decomposition  of  animal 
bodies  buried  in  moist  places.  Human  bodies 
have  been  found,  on  disinterment,  reduced  to 
this  state. 

ADIPOSE  STTB^STAKCES  (Lat.  adeps,  fat, 
grease).    Same  as  fats  (q.v.). 

AJyiPOSE  TISSUE.  A  peculiar  kind  of 
animal  membrane  or  tissue  consisting  of  an 
aggregation  of  minute  spherical  vesicles  of 
areolar  tissue  filled  with  fat  or  oil.  The  tissue 
itself  is  organic  and  vital,  the  vesicles  secreting 
the  fatty  matter  from  the  capillary  blood-vessels 
with  which  they  are  surrounded;  the  secreted 
product — the  fat — is  unorganized  and  devoid  of 


ADIPOSB  T188UB  (MAeNIFIBD). 

vitality.  The  adipose  tissue  differs  from  cellular 
or  filamentous  tissue  in  having  the  vesicles 
closed,  so  that  the  fat  does  not  escape  even  when 
fluid.  A  dropsical  cfTusion,  which  infiltrates  the 
filamentous  tissues,  does  not  affect  the  adipose 
tissue.  There  is  a  considerable  layer  of  adipose 
tissue  immediately  under  the  skin;  also  around 
the  large  vessels  and  nerves,  in  the  omentum 
and  mesentery,  around  the  kidneys,  joints,  etc. 
See  Fats. 

AD'rEU)Ka)ACKS.  The  name  of  a  group  of 
mountains  in  northeastern  New  York.  They  lie 
west  of  the  main  axis  of  the  Appalachians,  as 
represented  in  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont, 
and  constitute  quite  an  independent  mountain 
§ystem.  The  name  Adirondack  is  applied  in  a 
wider  sense  to  that  area  embracing  about  12,500 
square  miles  contained  between  the  valley  of  I^ko 
Champlain,  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  Mohawk 
rivers.  The  counties  of  Essex,  Clinton,  Frank- 
lin, St.  Lawrence,  Lewis,  Herkimer,  Hamilton, 


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ADIBONDACK. 


Warren  lie  partly  or  wholly  within  its  lim- 

The  more  mountainous  portion  is  on  the 

,  and  the  higher  peaks  are  chiefly  within  Es- 

County.  From  northeast  to  southwest  the 
vidual   mountains   become  less   pronounced, 

the  surface  grades  into  a  plateau  of  1500  to 
)  feet  altitude.     Two  peaks,  Mount  Marcy 

Mount  Mclntyre,  are  above  5000  feet  in  ai- 
de, while  several  others,  Whiteface,  Dix, 
it,  Haystack,  Skylight,  and  the  Gothics, 
ely  approximate  this  height.  The  mountains 
grouped  in  minor  ranges,  which  run  a  little 

of  north,  and  which  are  separated  by  deep, 
Q  narrow,  valleys,  as  the  depressions  of  Lake 
rge,  of  the  Schroon-Boquet  rivers,  of  the 
?as-Ausable,  and  other  rivers.  The  ranges 
*oach  Lake  Champlain,  en  Echelon,  and  pro- 
^  on  the  lake  shore  a  succession  of  bold, 
y  headlands,  and  open,  receding  bays  and 
ivs.  As  a  rule,  the  mountains  are  dome-shaped 
iieir  outlines;  but  some  sharp  peaks,  like 
teface,  exist.     Precipitous  escarpments  over 

feet  high  are  common.  Thus  picturesque 
es  occur  which  are  a  delight  to  travelers. 

best  known  are  Wilmington  Notch,  Indian 
\,  and  Avalanche  Pass.  Deer's  Leap  and 
?r*8  Rock  on  Lake  George  are  similar. 
hainaoe.  Tlie  mountains  constitute  the 
;r-shed  between  the  Hudson  and  the  St.  Law- 
e  drainage  systems,  but  the  actual  divide  is 
ry  irregular  line  that  is  due  to  the  glacial 
:.  Thus  Lake  Champlain  and  Lake  George 
far  to  the  south  and  discharge  into  the  St. 
rence;  small  ridges  of  drift  alone  separate 
1  from  the  Hudson,  which  rises  a  hundred 
s  to  the  northwest  of  the  heads  of  their 
ns,  and  flows  around  their  southern  ends, 
he  heart  of  the  mountains  rocky  divides  of 
r  date  separate  the  streams.  The  main  tribu- 
'8  of  the  Hudson  are  the  Sacondaga,  Schroon, 
as,  and  Indian  rivers.    The  Mohawk  receives 

and  West  Canada  Creeks.  The  Black  River 
les  to  Lake  Ontario  the  contributions  of  the 
se,  Beaver,  and  several  minor  streams.  The 
an,  Oswegatchie,  Grass,  Racquette,  St.  Regis, 
ion,  and  Chateaugay  flow  into  the  St.  Law- 
B.  The  Chazy,  Saranac,  Ausable,  and  Boquet 
large  into  Lake  Chaiilplain.  In  the  eastern 
ion  all  these  streams  follow  the  northeast- 
hwest  structural  lines  until  they  can  break 
9s  the  ridges  to  the  great  lines  of  drainage. 
IKES.  The  region  has  many  lakes.  The 
est  are  lakes  Champlain  and  George,  but 
Ireds  of  smaller  ones  add  an  indescribable 
m  to  the  scenery.     The  greater  number  are 

to  barriers  of  glacial  drift  that  block  the 
ims.  Often  they  run  in  chains,  apparently 
:;ating  former  great  lines  of  drainage.  The 
on  chain,  Racquette,  Forked,  Long,  and 
inac  lakes  are  strung  out  in  a  northeast  and 
hwest  series,  and  are  familiar  summer  re- 
si. 

EOLOGY.  The  Adirondack  region  is  formed 
>st  entirely  of  ancient  Pre-Cambrian  crystal- 
rocks.  Gneisses  and  coarsely  crystalline 
ous  varieties  abound,  and  many  smaller 
s  of  crystalline  limestones  and  quartzitea  are 
ent.     The  gneisses  and  crystalline  limestones 

without  doubt  equivalents  of  the  Grenville 
es  of  Canada.  The  most  abundant  igneous 
^s  are  anorthosites,  or  labradorite  rocks,  and 
lites.     All  the  higher  peaks  are  formed   of 

labradorite  rocks."  Basaltic  and  trachytic 
Bs,  usually  but  a  few  feet  wide,  often  inter- 


sect these  older  rocks.  On  the  borders  of  the  an- 
cient crystallines,  and  on  the  southeast,  as  rare 
exposures  from  25  to  40  miles  from  their  edgp;*, 
are  the  Paleozoic  sediments,  beginning  with  the 
Potsdam  sandstone  of  the  Cambrian  system  and 
terminating  with  the  Utica  slate  of  the  Ordo* 
vician.  All  the  Paleozoic  rocks  dip  at  low  angli'^, 
and  while  small  folds  may  be  sometimes  seen, 
the  strata  usually  appear  in  faulted  blocks.  No 
rocks  are  found  between  the  Utica  slate  and  the 
glacial  deposits  of  the  Pleistocene  period,  so  tli^it 
the  geological  history  of  this  long  space  of  tiine 
can  only  be  imperfectly  inferred  from  the  phys^i- 
ography.  The  great  ice  sheet  moved  from  the 
northeast  to  the  southwest,  and  covered  the  higli- 
est  summits.  It  spread  a  mantle  of  sand  and 
boulders  all  over  the  region.  On  its  melting 
many  temporary  lakes  were  formed,  of  whith 
beaches  and  deltas  are  often  found.  During  the 
Champlain  submergence,  clays  were  deposited 
in  great  quantities  in  the  Champlain  Valley. 

Flora.  The  flora  is  of  a  pronounced  northern 
character  as  compared  with  that  of  southern 
New  York,  but  it  naturally  varies  with  the  alti- 
tude. On  the  higher  summits  many  small  boreal 
plants  remain  as  relics  of  the  glacial  epoch.  T]ie 
tree  distribution  is  significant.  Chestnuts  pene- 
trate only  the  southern  and  lower  and  more 
open  valleys,  whereas  the  spruce  is  found  only 
at  1000  feet  and  more  above  the  sea. 

Fauna.  The  animals  are  likewise  those  of 
the  North.  Moose,  though  once  abundant,  are 
now  exterminated.  Black  bears  are  frequent, 
and  deer  are  numerous  because  protected  by 
game  laws.  The  smaller  animals  are  tho^e 
characteristic  of  the  North.  Of  flah,  black  basa 
and  brook  trout  are  most  sought,  and  in  the 
larger  lakes,  lake  trout  are  frequent.  Salmon 
are  now  extinct. 

Resources.  The  Adirondacks  contain  va^t 
deposits  of  iron  ore,  chiefly  magnetite,  which  is 
extensively  produced  near  Port  Henry,  on  Lake 
Champlain,  at  Lyon  Mountain  on  the  north,  and 
at  the  Benson  mines  on  the  west.  The  region 
was  once  the  home  of  the  bloomery  process,  bvit 
almost  all  the  old  forges  are  in  ruins.  At  the 
head  waters  of  the  Hudson  on  Lake  Sanford  there 
are  immense  bodies  of  titaniferous  magnetilc 
not  as  yet  utilized.  Building  stone  in  the  form 
of  green  granite  has  been  quarried  near  Kee^e- 
ville,  and  a  highly  prized  and  very  hard  pink 
sandstone  is  produced  near  Potsdam  on  tlie 
northwest.  Marble  is  found  near  Gouverneur 
on  the  west,  and  to  some  extent  in  the  Cham- 
plain Valley.  Talc  is  extensively  mined  near 
Gouverneur. 

The   products   of  the   forests   form   the  most 
important  industries.    For  lumber,  the  pine  trees 
have  been  practically  exhausted:   spruce  is  the 
chief  wood  sought.     The  paper-pulp  mills,  how- 
ever, consume  much  more  than  do  the  saw-mil l-«. 
They  take  either  spruce  or  poplar.     The  fornnr 
is  stripped  from  the  mountains,  where  it  moy 
not  grow  again,  but  the  latter  rapidly  renews 
itself  upon  the  sandy  barrens.     After  the  tim- 
ber has  been  cut  off,  and  more  especially  in  ear- 
lier years,  when  the  outer  mountains  were  strii» 
ped  for  charcoal,  the  owners  often  allowed  t^^e 
taxes  to  remain  unpaid  until  the  trnoU  were  9A*\d 
by  the  State  at  public  auction.     Tv    L  te  ^^^'''^^ 
has   at   these   times   acquired    ^xT.^^  ,       r)0*^'^" 
sions.  to  which  it  adds  yearly   ^^T\si^'®   Y^^^   ^^^ 
preaervinff  the  waterways  an^i*    \u\y  a  ^^  fli^'A^ 
public   park   for   the  people.        *     ^'^         ^   ^ 


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ADIROITDACK. 


118 


ADJUSTMENT. 


are  also  held  by  private  individuals  and  clubs 
as  recreation  grounds.  Forestry  has  received 
much  attention  from  the  State  authorities. 

Summer  Resorts.  The  Adirondack  region  is 
one  of  the  most  important  places  for  summer 
recreation  for  the  dwellers  in  cities  of  the  north- 
eastern United  States,  and  many  thousands  turn 
annually  to  it.  Lake  George,  Schroon  Lake, 
Lake  Placid,  the  Saranacs,  the  Fulton  chain, 
Long  Lake,  the  Keene  Valley,  and  dozens  of 
other  localities  attract  their  habitual  visitors. 
The  climate  is  especially  adapted  to  the  treat- 
ment of  pulmonary  complaints.  Saranac  Lake, 
with  its  well-known  sanitarium,  is  the  chief  re- 
sort. The  establishment  of  State  sanitariums 
has  received  favorable  consideration  from  the 
State  government. 

Bibliography.  For  geology  and  mineral  re- 
sources, see  Reports  of  the  New  York  State  Oeol- 
ogiatj  and  Bulletins  of  the  New  York  State  Mu- 
seum, especially  those  since  1888,  containing 
papers  by  J.  F.  Kemp,  C.  H.  Smyth,  Jr.,  H.  P. 
Gushing,  and  others.  For  botany,  see  Reports 
of  the  State  Botanist,  and  especially  Bulletin 
28  of  the  State  MiMeum.  For  forestry,  see  Re- 
ports of  the  State  Forestry  Commission,  All 
these  are  published  at  Albany. 

AIXIT  (Lat.  aditus,  access,  approach).  A 
nearly  horizontal  passage  opened  for  the  pur- 
pose of  draining  a  mine.  Incidentally,  an  adit 
may  also  serve  in  exploring  the  rock  through 
which  it  passes.  Filled  with  water,  adits  are 
often  used  as  canals,  by  which  the  products  of 
mines  may  be  transported.  Water  raised  from 
a  depth  greater  than  that  reached  by  the  adit 
is  discharged  through  it,  saving  the  cost  of 
raising  it  still  farther  to  the  top  of  the  shaft. 
An  adit  in  Cornwall  opens  at  the  level  of  the 
sea,  and  extends  inland  about  30  miles,  draining 
the  district  of  Gwennap.  It  meets  some  shafts 
at  the  depth  of  400  feet.  The  Ernst  August 
adit  in  the  Hartz  Mountains  completed  in  1864, 
is  13  miles  long.  The  Joseph  II.  adit  at  Sehem- 
nitz,  in  Hungary,  is  10  feet  high,  5%  feet  wide, 
extends  10  miles  to  the  valley  of  the  Gran,  and 
is  used  as  a  canal  and  railway  passage.  The 
Sutro  tunnel  draining  the  Comstock  lode  in 
Nevada  is  4  miles  long. 

ADIVW,    The  Tibetan  fox.    See  Fox. 

AiyJECTIVE  (Lat.  adiectivum,  from  ad,  to 
-f-  iacere,  to  throw,  add,  literal  translation  of 
the  Gk. eiri^eriKOv,  epithetikon,  something  added) . 
One  of  the  parts  of  speech  in  grammar,  a  word 
joined  to  a  substantive  to  extend  its  meaning 
and  to  limit  its  application.  When  tall  is  joined 
to  man  there  are  more  properties  suggested  to 
the  mind  by  the  compound  tall  man  tlian  by  the 
simple  name  man :  but  tall  man  is  not  applicable 
to  so  many  individuals  as  many  for  all  men  that 
are  not  tall  are  excluded.  Adjectives  are  vari- 
ously classified.  The  following  classification  is 
simple  and  sufficiently  complete:  Descriptive 
adjectives,  or  adjectives  of  quality  and  of  quan- 
tity, and  pronominal  adjectives.  The  articles 
(q.v.)  are  sometimes  included  in  this  class.  Noims 
or  names  of  things,  arc  often  used  in  Knglish  as 
adjectives;  thus,  we  say  a  silver  chain,  a  stone 
walL  In  such  expressions  as  "income-tax  assess- 
ment bill,"  ificotnc  plaj's  the  part  of  an  adjective 
to  tax,  which  is,  in  the  first  place,  a  noun ;  the 
two  together  then  form  a  sort  of  compound  adjec- 
tive to  assessment ;  and  the  three,  taken  together, 
a  still  more  compound  adjective  .to  bill,  which. 


syntactically,  is  the  only  noun  in  the  expression. 
Languages  differ  much  in  their  way  of  using 
adjectives.  In  English  the  usual  place  of  the 
adjective,  when  it  is  not  in  the  predicate,  is 
before  the  noun.  This  is  also  the  case  in  Ger- 
man; but  in  French  and  Italiau  it  may  follow. 
In  these  languages,  again,  the  adjective  is  varied 
for  gender  and  number,  and  in  the  German  for 
case  also.  In  English  it  is  now  invariable,  and 
in  this  simplicity  there  is  a  decided  superiority; 
for  in  modern  languages  these  changes  in  the  ad- 
jective serve  no  purpose.  The  only  modification 
of  which  the  modern  English  adjective  is  capable 
is  for  degrees  of  comparison. 

ADJECTIVE  COL^OKS.  Those  colors  in 
dyeing  which  are  fixed  by  a  base  or  mordant  to 
render  them  permanent,  as  distinguished  from 
substantive  colors,  in  which  the  dye  in  its  nat- 
ural hue  is  fixed  without  the  use  of  a  mordant. 

ABJECTIVE  IiAW.  The  term  applied  to 
the  rules  of  law  relating  to  procedure,  as  distin- 
guished from  substantive  law  (see  Substaxtive 
Law),  which  is  the  term  applied  to  the  common 
law  rules  of  right  which  courts  are  called  upon 
to  enforce.  Thus,  the  rule  that  the  owner  of 
real  estate  is  entitled  to  recover  damages  for 
trespass  upon  it  is  a  rule  of  substantive  law; 
but  the  rules  determining  to  which  court  he 
should  apply  for  relief  and  the  method  he  should 
adopt  to  obtain  it  are  rules  of  adjective  law. 
Adjective  law  thus  comprehends  the  law  of  the 
forum,  including  the  conflict  of  laws,  pleading, 
evidence,  rules  regulating  admission  to  the  bar, 
and  rules  for  the  conduct  of  cases  in  and  out  of 
court.  Consult :  Holland,  The  Elements  of  Juris- 
prudence  (ninth  edition,  London,  1900;  first 
American  edition.  New  York,  1896). 

ADJXT'DICA'TION  (Lat.  '  adiudioare,  to 
adjudge).  The  judicial  determination  of  a  ques- 
tion; applied  most  frequently  in  English  law  to 
the  decision  that  a  person  is  a  bankrupt.  In  the 
Federal  Bankruptcy  Act  of  1898  it  is  defined  as 
**the  date  of  the  entry  of  a  decree  that  the  de- 
fendant, in  a  bankruptcy  proceeding,  is  a  bank- 
rupt." It  is  often  used  also  in  the  phrase 
"former  adjudication,"  the  rule  being  that  per- 
sons shall  not  relitigate  a  matter  which  has  been 
the  subject  of  a  former  adjudication  between 
them.  See  Judgment  and  Res  Judicata,  with 
the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

ADJTJST^MENT.  In  the  law  of  insurance, 
the  act  of  ascertaining  the  exact  amount  of  in- 
demnity which  the  party  insured  is  entitled  to 
receive  under  the  policy,  and  of  fixing  the  pro- 
portion of  the  loss  to  be  borne  by  each  under- 
writer. The  nature  and  amount  of*  da  mage  being 
ascertained,  an  indorsement  is  made  on  the  back 
of  the  policy,  declaring  the  proportion  of  loss 
falling  on  each  underwriter,  and  on  this  indor-'e- 
ment  being  signed  by  the  underwriters  the  loss 
is  said  to  have  been  adjusted.  There  has  been 
some  diflference  of  opinion  as  to  the  nature  of 
the  obligation  incurred  bj'  the  underwriter  upon 
agreeing  to  and  subscribing  to  the  adjustment; 
but  it  is  now  settled  that  the  act  is  not  abso- 
lutely conclusive  upon  him,  but  creates  only  a 
contract  obligation,  from  which  he  may  free 
himself  upon  proof  of  fraud,  mistake,  misrepre- 
sentation, etc.  For  the  particular  applications 
of  the  doctrine  to  marine  insurance,  where  it  is 
of  most  importance,  see  Average.  Consult 
Arnould  On  Marine  Insurance  (London,  1901). 
See  Average,  Insurance. 


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ADJUTANT. 


119 


ABLER. 


MyjVTANT  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  iutare,  to  assist, 
Ip).  A  ftaff  oflficer.  In  the  United  States 
my,  generally  a  regimental  officer  of  captain's 
ik  appointed  by  the  regimental  commanding 
cer  to  assist  him  in  the  training,  discipline, 
1  duties  of  his  command,  together  with  the 
leral  supervision  of  its  interior  economy, 
ladron  or  battalion  adjutants,  appointed  from 
'■  lieutenants,  have  similar  duties  in  a  more 
lited  degree  and  sphere.  Post,  garrison,  or 
gade  adjutants  have  similar  relationship  to 
ir  respective  commanding  officers.  The  duties 
the  position  are  practically  the  same  through- 
;  the  armies  of  all  the  great  powers.  In  the 
ited  States  the  regimental  adjutant  is  ap- 
nted  for  a  term  of  four  years  and  the  squad- 
i  or  battalion  adjutants  two  years.  Such  of- 
rs  are  not  eligible  for  re-appointment.  For 
iescription  of  their  duties,  consult  the  United 
ites  Army  Regulations. 

U>JUTANT  (For  origin  of  name,  see  above), 
arge  East  Indian  stork  (Leptoptilus  argala), 
lut  6  feet  high  and  14  feet  across  the  wings, 
is  chiefly  white,  but  the  back  and  wings  are 
te-colored,  and  the  head  and  neck  bare  and 
h -colored,  marked  with  black.  From  the 
at  of  the  neck  hangs  a  long  pouch,  which  is 
nected  with  the  respiratory  system,  and  pos- 
ly  serves  as  an  air-reservoir  under  special 
ditions.  "Adjutant"  is  really  a  nickname 
?n  to  these  birds,  because  of  an  absurd  re- 
iblance  at  certain  times  to  a  self-important 
ly  officer.  The  adjutant  is  very  voracious, 
I  though  it  is  especially  fond  of  fresh  meat, 
chief  source  of  food  is  in  carrion  and  offal. 
8,  therefore,  an  efficient  scavenger,  and  since 
Iso  eats  many  of  the  smaller  noxious  animals, 
is  protected  by  law  in  India.  Although  so 
fe  a  bird,  its  powers  of  flight  are  considerable, 

it  is  said  to  soar  to  great  heights,  mingling 
h  vultures  in  its  search  for  food.  The  ad- 
eint  is  found  in  India  and  southeastern  Asia, 
mailer  species  occurring  in  the  East  Indies, 
closely  allied  species,  the  Marabou  (q.v.), 
abits  Africa.  Both  furnish  the  Marabou 
thers   of  commerce,  their   lengthened  under- 

and  under-wing  coverts  being  of  unusual 
uty. 

LIKJTJTANT-GEN'BBAIi.  A  military  staff 
>er,  the  chief  assistant  of  a  commanding  gen- 
[  in  the  execution  of  his  military  duties,  as 
issuing  and  executing  orders,  receiving  and 
istering  reports,  regulating  details  of  the 
fc'ice,  and  so  forth.  In  the  United  States 
ny  all  officers,  acting  as  above,  except  the  ad- 
int-general,  are  designated  as  assistant 
utant-generals.  The  adjutant-general  is  an 
►ortant  officer  of  the  war  department  (see 
AY  Organization),  having  the  rank  of 
jor-general,  his  duties  including  also  the  man- 
ment  of  the  recruiting  service,  the  collection 
military  information,  and  the  preparation  of 
lual  returns  of  the  militia.  Most  of  the  in- 
idual  States  also  have  adjutant-generals, 
forming  similar  duties  with  respect  to  the 
itia  of  their  several  States. 

LIVLEB  ( Oer,  pron.  adl5r ) .  Cyrus  ( 1863--) . 
mder  of  the  American  Jewish  Historical 
iety.  He  was  born  September  13,  1863,  at 
n  Buren,  Ark.,  and  after  graduating  at  the 
iversity  of  Pennsylvania  (1883),  entered  the 
ins  Hopkins  University,  where  he  became  as- 
iate  ( 1892 )  in  Semitic  languages.    As  special 


commissioner  for  the  World's  Columbian  Expo- 
sition at  Chicago,  he  spent  fifteen  months  in 
Egypt,  Turkey,  Servia,  and  Persia,  in  1890-fiI, 
and  obtained  most  of  the  Oriental  collections  for 
that  exhibit.  He  has  published,  among  other 
works.  The  Shofar,  Its  Use  and  Origin  (1893). 
and,  with  Allan  Ramsay,  Told  in  the  Coffcv 
House  (1898),  a  series  of  folk  tales  collected  in 
Constantinople. 

ADLEB,  Felix  (1851 — >.  A  German- 
American  educator  and  reformer.  He  was  born 
August  13,  1851,  at  Alzey,  Germany,  and  came 
to  the  United  States  in  1857,  where  Jiis  father 
had  been  called  to  the  ministry  of  Temple  Emanu- 
El  at  New  York.  After  graduating  at  Co- 
lumbia College  in  1870,  he  studied  philosophy 
and  economics  at  the  universities  of  Berlin  and 
Heidelberg,  receiving  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in  187  ;i. 
On  his  return  to  New  York  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  Hebrew  and  Oriental  literature  at 
Cornell  University,  and  held  this  position  from 
1874  to  1876,  when  he  organized  at  New  York 
the  Society  for  Ethical  Culture  (q.v.),  with 
which  his  name  has  since  been  identified.  Pro- 
fessor Adler  is  widely  known  as  a  lecturer  and 
writer.  His  principal  literary  works  are:  Creed 
and  Deed  (New  York,  1877);  The  Moral  In- 
struction of  Children  (New  York,  1898). 

ADLEB,  Friedricu  (1827 — ).  A  German 
architect  and  art  historian.  He  was  born  at 
Berlin;  studied  at  the  architectural  academy 
there  and  later  traveled  widely.  He  designed 
several  church  structures,  including  St.  Thomas  "a 
at  Berlin  and  St.  Paul's  at  Bromberg.  He  has 
made  extensive  study  of  the  architecture  of  an- 
cient times  and  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  h»A 
taken  an  active  interest  in  the  excavations  nt 
Olympia.  Besides  contributions  to  official  re- 
ports, he  has  published:  Mittelalterliche  Back- 
steinhauwerke  des  Preussischen  Staats  (1859- 
69)  ;  Die  Baugeschichte  von  Berlin  (1861)  ;  Bau- 
geschichtliche  Forschungen  in  Deutschland 
(1870-79),  and  other  works. 

ADLEB,  Georo  (1863 — ).  A  German  econ- 
omist and  author,  born  at  Posen.  He  lectured  as 
extraordinary  professor  of  sociology  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Basel,  Switzerland,  and  afterward  be- 
came professor  of  political  economy  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Freiburg,  Germany.  His  writings  on 
economic  and  sociological  questions,  in  which  ho 
usually  advocates  moderation  as  opposed  to 
revolutionary  agitation,  include:  Karl  Mar^- 
sche  Kritik  (1886)  ;  Intemationaler  Arheiter- 
schutz  (1888);  Social- Reform  und  Theater 
(1891)  ;  Staat  und  Arbeitslosigkeit  (1894)  ;  Die 
Social-Reform  im  Altertum  (1898);  Geschichte 
des  Socialismus  und  Communismus   (1900). 

ADLEB,  George  J.  (1821-68).  A  German- 
American  philologist.  He  was  born  in  Germany, 
and  at  the  age  of  twelve  came  to  New  York, 
He  graduated  at  the  University  of  New  York  in 
1844,  and  in  1846  was  appointed  professor  of 
German  in  that  institution,  which  position  ho 
held  until  1854.  He  is  the  author  of  the  follow- 
ing works:  German-English  Dictionary  (New 
York,  1848;  frequently  reprinted^  "  Oermnn 
Grammar  (New  York,  1868)  ;  "pr/'ilicltn.  von 
Humboldt's  Linguistic  Studies  |^/»w  York, 
1868),  and  a  translation  of  Faurlr^y  tlistorV  *^f 
Provencal  Poetry.  V^ft  " 


Provencal  Poetry. 

ADLEB,  Hermann    (1839 


6 


of  the  united  Hebrew  congrega^'  n       ^^^  \x\i' 


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ABLER. 


120 


ABMIKISTSATIOH. 


ish  Empire.  He  was  bom  at  Hanover,  Germany, 
and  was  I  educated  at  London,  Prague,  and  Leip- 
zig, where  he  received  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  in 
1S62.  Soon  after  the  rabbinical  diploma  had 
been  conferred  on  him  at  Prague  he  was  ap- 
pointed principal  of  the  Jews'  College,  London 
(1863),  where,  notwithstanding  his  appointment 
as  minister  of  the  Bayswater  Synagogue  in  1864, 
he  remained  as  tutor  of  theology  until  1879,  and 
upon  his  unanimous  election  as  chief  rabbi  of 
the  united  congregations  of  the  British  Empire 
in  1891  he  became  president  of  the  college  with 
which  he  had  so  long  been  associated.  After- 
ward he  became  minister  of  the  Cathedral  Syna- 
gogue in  Duke's  Place.  Dr.  Adler  has  published 
a  large  number  of  essays,  such  as  Ihn  Gabriel 
and  his  Relations  to  SchoUistic  Philosophy  ( Uni- 
versity College  Essays,  1864),  and  Can  Jews  he 
Patriots f  (a  reply  to  Goldwin  Smith,  Nine- 
teenth Century,  1878). 

ABLER,  Nathan  Mabcu.s  (1803-90).  Chief 
rabbi  of  the  united  Hebrew  congregations  of 
the  British  Empire.  He  was  bom  in  Hanover, 
and  educated  at  the  universities  of  GOttingen, 
Erlangen,  and  Wtlrzburg.  He  was  appointed 
chief  rabbi  of  Oldenburg  (1830^,  of  Hanover  and 
the  provinces  a  year  later,  and  in  1845,  chief 
rabbi  of  the  British  Empire.  He  was  one  of 
the  organizers  of  Jewish  schools  in  London  and 
the  provinces;  he  joined  Sir  Moses  Montefiore 
in  his  appeal  for  the  Holy  Land,  by  which 
£20,000  was  raised;  was  one  of  the  founders  of 
the  "United  Synagogue,"  a  federation  of  the 
principal  synagogues,  and  founder  and  first 
president  of  the  Jews'  College,  London.  He 
published  several  important  Hebrew  works, 
among  them  Netinah  la-Ger^  a  commentary  on 
the  Targum  of  Onkelos,  besides  several  volumes 
of  sermons,  including  Sermons  on  tJie  Jewish 
Faith. 

ABLEB,  Samuel  (1809-91).  A  German- 
American  rabbi  and  author,  born  at  Worms,  Ger- 
many. He  studied  at  the  universities  of  Bonn 
and  Giessen,  and  from  1842  to  1857  was  rabbi  of 
congregations  in  Alzey  and  vicinity.  From  1857 
to  1874  he  was  rabbi  of  the  congregation  Emanu- 
El  of  New  York  City.  He  was  a  learned  Tal- 
mudic  scholar  and  an  earnest  progressionist. 
His  works  include  Jewish  Conference  Papers 
(1880),  Benedictions  (1882),  and  Kobez  *al  Tad 
{Collections,  1886). 

ABLEBBEBG,  ad1er-b?rK,  Vladimir  Fiodo- 
RoviCH,  Count  (1790-1884).  A  Russian  states- 
man, born  in  St.  Petersburg.  Tn  1817  he  was 
adjutant  to  the  Grand  Duke  Nicholas,  and  later, 
for  his  devotion  during  the  Decembrist  revolu- 
tion in  1825,  became  major-general,  accompany- 
ing the  Emperor  during  the  Turkish  campaign 
in  1828.  Made  postmaster-general  in  1841,  he 
distinguished  himself  by  many  reforms  in  the 
service.  He  was  made  general  of  infantry  in 
1S43,  count  in  1847,  and  in  1852  minister  of 
the  imperial  household,  in  constant  attendance 
on  the  emperor,  and  kept  the  position  under 
Alexander  II.,  retiring  in  1872  on  account  of 
old  age. 

ABLEBCBEUTZ,  ad^?r-kroits,  Karl  Johan, 
Count  (1757-1815).  A  Swedish  general  and 
statesman,  born  in  Finland.  He  was  defeated 
in  Finland  by  the  Russians  in  1808  and  his 
estate's  were  confiscated.  With  Oeorg  Adler- 
sparre  he  brought  about  the  overthrow  of  Gusta- 
vus   IV.,   who   was   succeeded   on   the    Swedish 


throne  by  Charles  XIII.  Later  the  two  generals 
quarreled,  and  Adlersparre  was  disgraced,  while 
Adlercreutz  remained  in  favor  and  was  made  a 
count  in  1814. 

ABLEBSPABBE,  ftd'iers-p&^re,  Geobg, 
Count  (1760-1835).  A  Swedish  general  and 
statesman.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Upsala.  Entering  the  army,  he  took  part  in 
the  war  against  Russia  in  1788  and  then  in  the 
campaigns  against  Norway.  After  the  death  of 
Gustavus  III.  he  withdrew  from  the  army  and 
devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  political  econ- 
omy. He  reentered  military  service  in  1808  and 
fought  against  Russia;  and  the  next  year  joined 
with  Adlercreutz  in  the  movement  to  elevate 
Charles  XIII.  to  the  Swedish  throne.  In  1810, 
finding  himself  succeeded  in  the  new  king's  favor 
by  his  rival  Adlercreutz  (q.v.),  he  withdrew 
from  court.  In  1831  he  was  fined  for  publish- 
ing secret  State  papers,  including  his  correspon- 
dence with  Charles  XIII. 

AB  UB^TXnC  (Lat.  at  will,  Ital.  a  piaeere^ 
a  piacimento).  In  music,  a  term  indicating 
that  the  part,  accompaniment,  embellishment, 
or  instrument  may  be  omitted  or  retained  at 
the  discretion  or  taste  of  the  performer.  Thus, 
a  song  written  with  'cello  accompaniment  ad 
libitum  may  be  sung  to  the  piano  accompaniment 
alone  or  with  the  'cello  added.  The  term  also^ 
denotes  liberty  in  tempo  and  rhythm.  See 
Accompaniment. 

ABMEAS^TJBEMENT.  See  Measurement 
OF  Ships. 

ABMEASTTBEMENT  OF  BOW^B  (Lat 
adf  to -{- measurement) .  In  English  law,  an 
ancient  writ  by  which  an  heir  could  obtain 
redress  against  the  widow  of  his  ancestor  in  case 
the  heir  or  his  guardian  had,  during  the  heir's 
minority,  assigned  to  her  more  land  as  her  dower 
than  she  was '  entitled  to.  The  writ  has  been 
superseded  by  simpler  forms  of  action;  but  the 
remedy,  often  under  the  same  title,  still  remains 
wherever  the  common  law  principle  of  dower 
(q.v.)  is  recognized.  Consult:  Scribner,  Treat- 
ise on  the  Law  of  Dower  (Philadelphia,  1883) ; 
and  Roper,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Property 
Arising  from  the  Relation  Between  Husband  and 
Wife   (Philadelphia,  1841). 

ABKE^TTS  (Gk.  'A Woe.  Admftos).  A 
mythical  king  of  Pherae,  in  Thessaly.  He  wa» 
in  the  Calydonian  hunt  and  the  Argonautic  expe> 
dition.  By  the  aid  of  Apollo,  who  was  his 
herdsman  during  a  year  of  banishment  from 
Olympus,  he  won  Alcestis,  daughter  of  Pelias. 
Apollo  also  procured  him  a  prolongation  of  life^ 
if  another  would  die  in  his  stead.  Alcestis  con- 
sented, but  was  sent  back  from  the  lower  world 
by  Persephone,  or  rescued  by  Heracles  from 
death  at  the  tonib  itself.  The  story  forms  the 
subject  of  a  celebrated  drama  by  Euripides  (q.v.) 
which  is  still  extant.  Compare  Bro^^Tiing,  Bal- 
auction's  Adventure  (London,  1871). 

AB^m.     Cuvier's  gazelle.     See  Gazeixe. 

AB'MINISTBA^ION  (Lat.  ad,  to -f  mint- 
sirare,  to  attend,  manage).  In  general,  the  man- 
agement or  conduct  of  any  business;  especially, 
in  politics,  executive  government.  In  its  broad- 
est sense,  in  public  affairs,  it  means  the  full  ac- 
tivity of  the  government  engaged  in  the  practical 
exercise  of  its  authority  in  conformity  with  the 
constitution  of  the  nation.  But.  according  to 
a  usage  quite  general,  administration  refers  only 


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ADMINISTBATIOH. 


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ABMINISTBATIVE  LAW. 


lose  functions  of  the  government  exercised 
igh  the  executive  and  judicial  departments. 
>mprehends  all  the  activities  of  the  State 
)t  those  relating  to  the  making  of  laws  by 
egislature.  The  organization  of  administra- 
may  be  divided  into  two  kinds,  centralized 
localized.  In  small  States  the  administrative 
m  must  necessarily  have  a  municipal  rather 

a  Federal  character.  Thus,  in  the  States 
ncient  Greece  and  Rome  and  of  mediaeval 

we  find  the  system  suited  to  the  wants  of  a 
e  town.  When  the  State  expanded  beyond 
dimensions,  the  municipality  was  trans- 
ed  into  a  centralized  form  of  government, 
inistration  in  American  politics  is  a  gen- 
term  given  to  the  Federal  or  a  State  execu- 
^overnment.  Our  national  administration  is 
osed  of  the  President  and  his  Cabinet.     The 

does  not  always  cover  the  actions  of  the 
rity  in  the  legislative  branches,  as  fre- 
tly*  this  majority  is  antagonistic  to  the 
nistration.  We  speak  of  Washington's  ad- 
ktration,  meaning  the  Federal  executive  gov- 
ent  during  the  time  in  which  he  was  Pres- 
;  and  of  the  policy,  acts,  omissions,  errors, 
of  the  administration  of  the  nation  or  of 
State.  The  supporters  of  the  officials  at 
ime  in  power  are  called  the  administration 
^  The  term  is  used  in  England  and  on  the 
nent  in  somewhat  similar  manner,  but  in 
and,  the  administration,  which  is  repre- 
d  by  the  premier  and  his  cabinet,  is  always 
osed  of  members  of  the  party  having  the 
ative  majority. 

MINISTRATION,  In  Law.  A  term  applied 
he  management  and  disposal  of  a  de- 
d  person's  estate.  It  includes  payment  of 
,  getting  in  of  credits  and  choses  in  action 
ging  to  the  deceased  person,  and  the  distribu- 
ji  his  personal  estate  to  his  legatees  or  next 
in.  Anciently,  the  king  as  parens  patrii 
aistered  decedent's  estate  through  his  offi- 
By  the  statute  of  Westminster  II.   this 

was  delegated  to  the  ordinary  ( q.v. ) ,  and 
ter  statute  he  was  directed  to  grant  admin- 
bion  to  the  husband  or  wife  or  next  of  kin 
le  decedent.  To-day  the  jurisdiction  over 
ents'  estates  is  committed  in  England  to 
•ourt  of  Probate,  and  in  the  United  States 
mrt«  variously  known  as  probate  courts, 
•gates'  courts,  and  orphans'  courts.  The  of- 
of  administration,  if  appointed  by  will,  is 
1  an  executor;  if  not  nominated  by  will  and 
inted  by  the  court  having  jurisdiction  over 
ent's  estates,  he  is  called  an  administrator, 
dministrator  may  be  temporary^  when  he  is 
inted  pending  litigation  upon  the  question 

w^ho  is  entitled  to  administer  upon  the  es- 

or  irith  the  will  annexed^  when  the  will 
i  to  name  an  executor,  or  the  executor 
id  fails  to  qualify  for  his  office;  or  de  bonis 
that  is,  to  administer  upon  the  goods  not 
nistered  by  a  prior  administrator,  who  no 
T  retains  his  office  because  of  death  or  re- 
il.  Administration  may  also  be  ancillary, 
hich  case  the  officer  of  the  administration 
id  to  be  an  ancillary  executor  or  adminis- 
►r.  The  distinction  is  a  consequence  of  the 
that  the  place  of  administration  is  the  domi- 
Df  the  decedent,  and  that  the  administrative 
r  has  no  authority  outside  the  jurisdiction 
e  he  is  appointed  or  confirmed.  Thus,  when 
cedent  leaves  property  in  two  jurisdictions, 
istate  should  be  administered  in  the  juris- 


diction of  his  domicile,  and  the  administrutive 
officer,  in  order  to  act  in  the  other  jurisdicUon, 
should  obtain  an  appointment  ancillary  to  his 
appointment  in  the  domiciliary  jurisdiction.  It 
is  then  his  duty  to  transmit  the  assets  to  the 
jurisdiction  of  domicile,  to  be  there  adminif^ttrtd. 
By  the  canon  law,  the  administrator  or  exeiuLor 
becomes  vested  with  title  to  the  decedent's  per- 
sonal property.  This  is  still  the  rule  by  stj&iule 
in  most  jurisdictions.  In  addition  to  the  dutioii 
already  referred  to,  special  duties  might  be  im- 
posed upon  an  executor  by  the  will.  In  nuKst 
jurisdictions  the  administrator,  and  in  sonic  the 
executor,  is  required  to  give  a  bond  for  the  fuith- 
ful  performance  of  his  duties.  He  remains  bunnd 
on  his  obligation,  and  subject  to  the  direction 
of  the  court,  until  his  final  accounting  and  dis- 
charge by  order  of  the  court.  See  Schoiiler, 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Executors  and  Adminis- 
trator s,  third  edition  (Boston,  1901);  WcM^rner, 
Treatise  on  the  American  Law  of  Admin iHtra- 
tion,  second  edition  (Boston,  1899)  ;  Williams, 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Legal  Represent  a  li  vis 
(London,  1899). 

Administration,  Military.  A  form  of 
government  which  takes  the  place  of  the  civil 
governing  powers  in  regions  placed  under  niiir- 
tial  law.  The  city  of  Paris,  during  the  war 
with  Germany,  1870-71,  and  Cape  Colony,  Suuth 
Africa,  during  the  recent  Boer  War,  are  case*!  In 
point.    See  Martial  Law. 

ADMIN^STBA'TIVE  LAW.  That  part  of 
the  law  which  regulates  the  enforcement  of  the 
will  of  the  State  as  expressed  by  the  authoritipti 
which  are  permitted  by  the  governmental  sys- 
tem to  express  that  will,  particularly  the  lej^is- 
lature.  Since  it  is  necessary  under  all  govern- 
mental systems  that  authorities  be  formed  for 
the  purpose  of  enforcing  the  law,  administrative 
law  treats,  in  the  first  place,  of  the  organization 
of  the  administrative  authorities.  This  port  ion 
of  the  administrative  law  determines  the  orga- 
nization of  the  administrative  authorities,  both 
those  having  jurisdiction  over  the  entire  State 
(who  are  known  as  central  administrative 
authorities),  and  those  having  jurisdiction  over 
only  a  portion  of  the  State,  who  are  known  a* 
local  authorities.  In  the  United  States,  o.^j;., 
the  administrative  law  treats:  of  the  President; 
the  heads  of  the  Federal  executive  departitipiitrt 
and  their  subordinates  (both  at  Washington  mid 
in  the  districts  into  which  the  country  is  diviilcd 
for  purposes  of  Federal  administration,  siu-h  as 
the  customs  and  internal  revenue  distri (■(>*)  ; 
the  State  governor  and  State  officers  generally; 
or  the  county,  town,  and  city  officers.  Sim-e  no 
administrative  officer  may  legally  take  any  ac- 
tion which  he  is  not  authorized  by  the  hiu  to 
take,  the  administrative  law  treats,  in  the  sRiond 
place,  of  the  powers  and  duties  of  administrii(iv« 
officers:  in  other  words,  of  administrative  func- 
tions. Finally,  since  there  is  no  use  in  di^liiiiit- 
ing  by  law  the  powers  and  duties  of  adminis- 
trative officers,  unless  some  means  is  provided  of 
preventing  them  from  exceeding  their  powei>  nnd 
forcing  them  to  perform  their  duties,  administra- 
tive law  treats  of  the  remedies  afforded  in  oai^e 
of  an  excess  of  power  or  viola  ^\on  ^^  duty. 
American  administrative  law  thvi^  pynbract!^  cer- 
tain well  defined  minor  branches  ^  ^v^e  Aii^'?'^^"^^^^ 
law,  such  as  the  law  of  officers,  ^^^  ,  ^  of  imuiv- 
cipal  corporations,  the  law  of  \^V\C  .  •,  1)h^  law 
of  public   nuisances    ( whether  ^XvH^^i^'    \a\v  o^ 


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ABMIKISTBATIVE  LAW. 


122 


A-miirrR.AT. 


statutory),  the  law  of  extraordinary  legal  reme- 
dies (such  as  mandamus,  prohibition,  certiorari, 
quo  warranto,  and  habeas  corpus),  as  well  as 
tne  law  of  equitable  remedies,  so  far  as  they  are 
applicable  to  public  authorities. 

BiBLiOGBAPHY:  On  the  general  subject.  Good- 
now.  Comparative  Administrative  Law,  2  vol- 
umes (New  York,  1893) ;  on  special  parts  of 
the  subject,  Mechem,  Lato  of  Offices  and  Officers 
(New  York,  1890)  ;  Dillon,  Law  of  Municipal 
Corporations  (Boston,  1881);  (IJooley,  La-  of 
Taxation  (Chicago,  1883)  ;  Prentice,  Police 
Powers  (New  York,  1894)  ;  High,  Extraordinary 
Legal  Remedies  (Chicago,  1884). 

AIWIBABLE  CBICH^ON,  kn^'ton.  See 
Cbichton,  James. 

AD^MIBABLE  DOCXTOB.  A  translation  of 
the  Latin,  Doctor  Admirahilis,  a  title  given  to 
Friar  Roger  Bacon  (1214-94)  on  account  of  his 
extensive  knowledge. 

AIVMTBATj.  The  title  of  a  naval  officer  of 
the  highest  rank.  The  word  is  derived  from  the 
Arabic  amir,  or  emir-al  (lord,  or  chief  of 
the),  forming  the  first  part  of  manv  compound 
words,  such  as:  amir-al-mumenim,  "commander 
of  the  faithful;"  amir-al-omra,  "commander  of 
the  forces;"  amir-al-hahr,  "commander  of  the 
sea;"  amir*l  asker  dureea,  "commander  of  the 
naval  armaments."  The  term  appears  to  have 
been  introduced  into  Europe  during  the  Cru- 
sades, and  to  have  been  first  used  in  a  definite 
sense  by  the  Sicilians  and  afterward  by  the 
Genoese.  In  French  the  word  is  preserved  with- 
out change,  as  amiral;  in  Spanish  and  Portu- 
guese it  lias  developed  into  almirante,  and,  in 
Italian,  into  ammiraglio.  The  early  English 
form  was  doubtless  similar  to  that  of  the  French, 
as  we  find  it  spelled  amyrell  and  admyrall.  It 
was  Latinized  in  England  as  admiraliuSy  and  as 
early  as  the  time  of  Edward  III.  was  Anglicized 
as  admyrall.  The  first  English  "admiral  of  the 
seas"  of  whom  there  is  any  record  was  William 
de  Leybourne,  1297.  His  office,  however,  was  not 
that  of  a  commander  of  sea  forces,  but  embraced 
those  general  and  extensive  powers  afterward 
associated  with  the  title  of  lord  high  admiral  of 
England;  that  is,  both  the  administrative  func- 
tions now  vested  in  the  lords  commissioners  of 
the  admiralty  (five  in  number)  and  the  judicial 
authority  belonging  to  the  present  high  court  of 
admiralty.  The  office  of  lord  high  admiral  was 
last  filled  by  the  Duke  of  Clarence,  afterward 
William  IV.  Upon  his  resignation  in  1828  it 
was  put  in  commission,  reverting  to  a  previous 
practice.  The  duties  of  the  office  were  adminis- 
tered by  a  board  of  commissioners  from  1632  to 
about  i650,  from  1685  to  1702,  and  from  1708 
to  1827,  while  under  the  commonwealth  they 
were  performed  by  a  committee  of  Parliament. 

In  the  United  States  Navy  the  grades  of  ad- 
miral, vice-admiral,  and  rear-admiral  were  es- 
tablished by  act  of  Congress,  primarily  for  the 
purpose  of  conferring  exceptional  distinction 
upon  the  great  naval  commander,  Captain  David 
Glasgow  Farragut  (q.v.).  The  lowest  of  these 
grades,  that  of  rear-admiral,  was  established  in 
1862,  as  was  also  that  of  commodore;  though  the 
latter  had  previously  existed  as  a  courtesy  title 
without  authority  of  law.  The  number  of  rear- 
admirals  on  the  active  list  was  limited  to  nine. 
In  1864  the  President  was  authorized  to  appoint 
one  of  the  rear-admirals  a  vice-admiral.  Under 
the  laws.  Captain  Farragut  became  the  first  com- 


modore, first  rear-admiral,  and  first  vice-admiral. 
In  1866  Congress  provided  for  an  active  list  of 
one  admiral,  one  vice-admiral  and  ten  rear-ad- 
mirals. Farragut  was  promoted  to  be  admiral, 
and  Rear- Admiral  David  B.  Porter  to  be  vice- 
admiral.  On  the  death  of  Farragut  (1870), 
Porter  became  admiral  and  Rear-Admiral  Steph- 
en Clegg  Rowan  was  promoted  to  be  vice-admiral. 
With  the  death  of  Porter  (1891)  and  Rowan 
(1890),  the  grades  of  admiral  and  vice-admiral 
became  extinct.  In  1899  the  grade  of  admiral 
was  reestablished,  and  Rear-Admiral  George 
Dewey  was  promoted  to  fill  the  vacancy  in 
recognition  of  his  services  in  the  battle  of 
Manila  Bay,  and  of  his  judicious  management 
of  the  difficult  international  situation  follow- 
ing the  defeat  and  destruction  of  the  Span- 
ish fieet.  In  1882  Congress  reduced  the  number 
of  rear-admirals  on  the  active  list  to  six  and 
the  number  of  commodores  to  ten;  but  in  1899 
the  number  of  rear-admirals  was  increased  to 
eighteen  and  the  grade  of  commodore  on  the 
active  list  abolished.  In  addition,  the  chiefs  of 
the  bureaus  of  the  navy  department  have  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  during  their  term  of  office. 
Under  the  original  act  of  Congress  (November 
15,  1776),  looking  to  the  establishment  of  the 
ranks  of  admiral,  vice-admiral,  and  rear-admiral, 
the  first  named  ranked  with  the  general  of  the 
army,  the  second  with  a  lieutenant-general,  and 
the  last  with  a  major-general.  Since  1862  va- 
rious acts  have  confirmed  these  provisions;  but 
the  act  of  1899,  which  abolished  the  rank  of 
commodore,  provided  that  the  first  nine  rear- 
admirals  should  rank  with  major-generals  and 
the  second  nine  with  brigadier-generals.  The 
act  of  1899  fixed  the  pay  of  fiag  officers  as  fol- 
lows: Admiral,  $13,500  at  sea  or  on  shore; 
senior  nine  rear-admirals,  $7500  while  at  sea, 
or  on  shore  duty  beyond  seas,  and  $6375  while  on 
shore  duty;  junior  nine  rear-admirals,  $5500 
while  at  sea,  or  on  shore  duty  beyond  seas,  and 
$4675  while  on  shore  duty.  The  pay  of  officers 
on  the  retired  list  is  seventy- five  per  centum  of 
their  active  pay  at  time  of  retirement  The 
number  in  1902  on  this  list  was  forty-three. 
The  flag  of  the  admiral  is  a  rectangular 
blue  flag  with  four  white  stars,  and  is  flown  at 
the  main ;  that  of  the  vice-admiral,  flown  at  the 
fore,  is  a  similar  flag,  with  three  stars.  The 
flag  of  a  rear-admiral,  flown  at  the  mizzen,  is 
similar  in  shape,  has  two  stars,  and  is  usually 
blue  in  color,  but  in  case  two  or  more  rear-ad- 
mirals are  in  company  the  senior  flies  a  blue 
flag,  the  second  in  rank  a  red  flag,  and  the  junior 
a  white  flag.  For  illustration  of  admirals'  flags, 
see  Flags  of  thb  United  States. 

In  the  British  Na\7  the  admirals  are  dis- 
tinguished into  three  classes:  Admirals,  vice- 
admirals,  and  rear-admirals;  the  admiral  carry- 
ing his  colors  at  the  main,  the  vice-admiral  at 
the  fore,  and  the  rear-admiral  at  the  mizzen, 
masthead.  In  former  times  each  grade  was  sub- 
divided into  three  sections,  known  as  admirals 
(or  vice  or  rear-admirals)  of  the  red,  of  the 
white,  and  of  the  blue,  respectively.  The  flap 
hoisted  by  the  admiral  (thence  called  a  flag  offi- 
cer) agreed  in  color  with  his  section;  and  all 
the  ships  under  his  command  carried  ensign  and 
pennant  of  the  same  hue ;  but  the  distinction  was 
otherwise  without  practical  effect  and  is  now 
abolished.  Admiral  of  the  fleet  is  a  higher  rank, 
conferred  at  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  The  rates 
of  full  or  sea  pay  of  flag  officers  are  as  follows: 


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ADMIRALTY  LAW. 


ral  of  the  fleet,  per  day,  £(5;  admiral,  £6; 
dmiral,  £4;  rear-admiral,  £3.  An  admiral 
anding-in-chief  receives  £3  a  day  additional 
me  and  £4  lOs.  abroad,  as  table  money.  In 
there  were  seventy-three  flag  officers  on  the 
i  list  in  the  British  Navy :  viz.,  five  admirals 
e  fleet,  ten  admirals,  twenty-one  vice-ad- 
8,  and  thirty-seven  rear-admirals;  and  on 
d  and  reserved  pay,  two  admirals  of  the 
seventy-two  admirals,  and  one  hundred  and 
rear-admirals.  The  admiral  of  the  fleet 
rank  with  a  field  marshal,  admirals  with 
Ells,  vice-admirals  with  lieutenant-generals, 
ear-admirals  with  major-generals. 

)MIBAL.  1.  In  entomology,  any  of  sev- 
lymphalid  butterflies,  ordinarily  the  "red" 
al  {Pyrameis  atalanta) ,  common  through- 
lOrth  America,  Europe,  northern  Asia,  and 
I.  It  has  an  expanse  of  about  2%  inches, 
i  brown,  the  hinder  wings  broadly  margined 
red,  including  a  row  of  four  dark  dots;  the 
color  forms  a  curved  diagonal  band  across 
)re  wings,  beyond  which  the  angle  of  the 
is  spotted  with  white  and  edged  with  pur- 
See  plate  of  American  Butterflies.  The 
>illar  is  1%  inches  long,  brown  and  spinous; 
irysalis  is  brown,  naked,  and  suspended  to 
3od-plant.  upon  which  the  larva  has  fed, 
ly  some  species  of  nettle,  hop,  or  related 
Butterflies  of  the  related  genus  Basilar- 
ire  called  white  admirals. 
In  conchology,  a  cone   {Conus  ammiralia) 

I  shell  was  formerly  rare  and  valuable. 

"DfflRALTY,  The.  In  England,  the  state 
tment  which  exercises  the  administrative 
ons  of  the  lord  high  admiral,  and  which, 
lingly,  has  the  management  of  all  matters 
rning  the  British  Navy  and  the  royal 
les.  These  functions  of  the  lord  high  ad- 
have  been  transferred  to  and  vested  in  a 
of  commissioners.  (See  Admiral.)  The 
itution  and  functions  of  this  body  will  now 
3cribed. 

i  board  of  admiralty,  as  at  present  const i- 
,  comprises  five  lords  commissioners  of 
admiralty,  who  decide  collectively  on  all 
tant  questions.  Besides  this  collective 
^rporate    action,    each    commissioner    has 

II  duties  assigned  to  him.  There  are  two 
or  political  lords,  and  three  naval  or  sea 

The  first  lord,  who  is  always  a  cabinet 
ter,  besides  a  general  control,  has  the  man- 
?nt  of  naval  estimates,  finance,  political 
8,  slave-trade  prevention,  appointments, 
>romotions.  The  first  naval  lord  manages 
cm  position  and  distribution  of  the  fleet, 
discipline,  appointment  of  inferior  officers, 
issioning  ships,  general  instructions,  sail- 
rders,  and  the  naval  reserve.     The  second 

lord  attends  to  armaments,  manning  the 
the  coast-guard,  the  marines,  marine  artil- 
and  naval  apprentices.  The  third  naval 
las  control  over  the  purchase  and  disposal 
res,  victualing  ships,  navy  medical  affairs, 
ports,  convicts,  and  pensioners.  The  junior 
lord  attends  to  accounts,  mail-packets, 
wich  hospital,  naval  chaplains,  and  schools. 
1  architecture,  the  building  and  repairing  of 

steam  machinery,  and  new  inventions  are 
intended  by  the  controller  of  the  navy,  who 
t  a  member  of  the  board,  but  is  directly 
risible  to  the  flrst  lord.  Under  the  lords 
;he    first    secretary    (parliamentary),    the 


second  secretary  (permanent),  and  the  nnval 
secretary  (professional),  who  manage  the  daily 
office  work.  The  lords  all  resign  when  the  prime 
minister  resigns,  and  those  who  have  seatb  in 
Parliament  are  replaced  by  others. 

ADMIRALTY  INLET.  The  central  and 
main  passage  of  Puget  Sound  (q.v.),  forming 
in  its  southern  part  the  eastern  branch  of  the 
arm  of  the  sea  which  here  penetrates  the  State  of 
Washington.  The  width  varies  from  one  to  ten 
miles,  and  the  channel  is  obstucted  by  relativL'ly 
few  islands.  The  coast  line  is  marked  by  a  suc- 
cession of  projecting  points  of  land  and  receillng 
minor  inlets,  which  render  the  form  as  a  wliole 
exceedingly  irregular.  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and 
Port  Townsend  are  the  chief  cities  on  the  Inlet. 
llie  channel  has  usually  a  depth  of  several  hun- 
dred feet,  and  thus  offers  valuable  facilities  for 
transportation. 

ADMIRALTY  ISOJLND  (Map:  Alaska,  J 
4 ) .  An  island  about  80  miles  long,  well  wooded 
and  watered,  included  in  Alaska  (q.v.). 

ADMIRALTY  ISLANDS.  A  group  of  about 
40  islands,  constituting  a  part  of  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago  (q.v.),  lying  to  the  northeaat  of 
New  Guinea,  between  2®  and  3°  S.  lat.  and 
146**  18'  and  147**  46'  E.  long. (Map:  East  Tniiia 
Islands,  L  5).  The  largest  is  about  50  nules 
long  from  east  to  west,  and  is  covered  with  rich 
vegetation.  They  abound  in  cocoanut  trees  and 
are  inhabited  by  savages.  They  were  discovered 
by  the  Dutch  in  1616  and  became  a  German  pro- 
tectorate in  1885. 

ADMIBALTY  LAW.  The  system  of  law 
and  procedure  relating  to  maritime  transactions. 
It  owes  its  name  to  the  fact  that  originally  it 
was  administered  in  England  by  the  lord  high 
admiral.  Not  only  its  rules  of  substantive  law 
but  its  procedure  were  adopted  from  the  civil 
law,  and  from  such  sea  codes  as  those  of  Rhodes 
(q.v.)  and  Oleron  (q.v.).  This  fact,  and  its 
adaptability  to  new  causes  of  action,  which  led 
suitors  to  resort  to  the  admiralty  ratlier  than  to 
the  common  law  courts,  aroused  the  hostility  of 
the  common  law  bench  and  bar.  The  contest 
between  the  partisans  of  the  two  systems  ivlitch 
followed  resulted  in  contracting  the  jurisdiction 
of  English  admiralty  courts  to  very  narrow 
limits.  Modern  statutes  have  extended  it.  and 
have  also  made  the  Court  of  Admiralty  a  part 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Judicature,  forminj:c  it, 
with  the  courts  of  probate  and  divorce,  into  the 
probate,  divorce,  and  admiralty  division.  At 
present  the  ordinary  jurisdiction  of  Eniilij^b 
admiralty  courts  embraces  actions  to  recnver 
possession  of  a  ship,  to  recover  damages*  for 
injuries  to  shipping,  to  recover  seamen's  wa^e?, 
for  salvage,  for  necessaries  supplied  to  a  sltip, 
for  bottomry,  respondentia  (q.v.),  and  morlf^ajre, 
for  pilotage  and  towage,  for  restoration  of  ^^cmkIh 
taken  by  pirates,  and  for  assaults  or  batteries 
on  the  high  seas. 

By  the  United  States  constitution  (Article 
III.,  §2),  the  cognizance  of  "all  cases  of  admir- 
alty and  maritime  jurisdiction"  is  granted  to 
the  Federal  judiciary.  The  limits  of  this  j_n  riiit 
of  judicial  authority  were  in  doubt  for  tnnny 
years.  On  the  one  hand  it  was  insisted  tliat 
the  admiralty  jurisdiction  of  the  Federal  courts 
was  confined  to  the  cases  ^f^Rni^nWg  by  ^^^  V^^^^- 
lish  admiralty  when  our  Stat^'  narated  fn>m 
the  mother  country.  On  the  r.]^  *^\.«ttfl  vt  wa^ 
argued  that  the  broad  langvx^^v.\\eV  "^^^  Jo^^iitu- 

^^  oi  ^^^ 


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ADOLF. 


lion  extended  this  jurisdiction  to  all  cases  of 
maritime  law.  The  latter  view  has  prevailed, 
and  to-day  the  Federal  courts  of  admiralty  have 
cognizance  of  all  maritime  cases  arising,  not 
only  on  the  hi^h  seas  and  great  lakes,  but  on 
almost  all  navigable  rivers  and  canals  within 
the  United  States.  While  we  have  no  court 
whose  duties  and  jurisdiction  are  confined  to 
admiralty  cases,  the  United  States  district 
courts  possess  exclusive  original  jurisdiction 
over  all  admiralty  and  maritime  cases.  From 
their  final  decisions  appeals  may  be  taken  to  the 
Circuit  Court  of  Appeals  and  to  the  Supreme 
Court.  The  Federal  courts  sitting  in  admiralty 
have  criminal  as  well  as  civil  jurisdiction;  but 
their  practice  in  criminal  cases  is  similar  to 
that  01  common  law  courts,  including  trial  by 
jury.  The  State  courts  of  this  country  have  no 
admiralty  jurisdiction.  Consult:  Benedict,  The 
American  Admiralty,  Its  Jurisdiction  and  Prac- 
tice (Albany,  1900)  ;  and  Roscoe,  Treatise  on  the 
Jurisdiction  and  Practice  of  the  Admiralty  Divi- 
sion of  the  High  Court  of  Justice  (London, 
1882). 

ADMIRALTY  SOUND.  A  southern  exten- 
sion of  the  Strait  of  Magellan  near  its  middle 
part,  penetrating  Tierra  del  Fuego  to  a  distance 
of  nearly  100  miles.  Its  mouth  is  partially 
blocked  by  Dawson  Island.  In  the  last  60  miles 
of  its  extent  its  width  varies  from  5  to  10  miles. 
The  coast  land  is  elevated. 

ADMIS^SION.  In  the  law  of  evidence,  a 
confession  or  acknowledgment  of  a  party  to  an 
action,  made  at  any  time,  as  to  the  existence  of 
a  fact.  They  are  admissible  in  evidence  against 
him  at  the  trial  of  the  action,  but  never  in  his 
favor  in  any  case  when  the  existence  of  the  fact 
is  relevant  to  the  issue  at  the  trial.  The  com- 
petency of  this  class  of  evidence  constitutes  a 
well  settled  exception  to  the  so-called  "hearsay 
evidence"  rule,  that  statements  not  made  under 
oath  and  not  subjected  to  the  test  of  cross-exam- 
ination at  the  trial  shall  not  be  permitted  to  be 
given  in  evidence.  While  admissions  admissible 
in  evidence  are  most  frequently  made  by  a  party 
to  the  action,  they  may  be  made  by  one  acting 
by  his  authority  or  by  one  identical  in  interest 
with  him.  Thus,  admissions  made  by  an  agent, 
or  servant,  or  by  the  husband  or  wife  of  a  party, 
will  be  received  in  evidence  against  him  if  actu- 
ally or  impliedly  authorized  by  him.  Admissions 
made  by  one  claiming  under  the  some  title  or 
interest  as  the  party  are  also  admissible  in  evi- 
dence against  him.  For  example,  admissions 
made  by  a  deceased  person  during  his  lifetime 
are  admissible  against  his  executor  or  admin- 
istrator, and  admissions  made  by  the  owner  of 
real  estate  with  reference  to  his  title  are  com- 
petent evidence  against  his  grantee,  when  the 
grantee  is  a  party  to  an  action  in  which  his 
title  is  in  issue.  In  England  the  doctrine  of 
admissions  made  with  reference  to  title  to  real 
property  has  been  extended  to  apply  to  cases 
of  admissions  made  with  reference  to  title  of 
personal  property  and  negotiable  paper  indorsed 
before  due;  but  in  the  United  States  the  ten- 
dency has  been  to  limit  the  application  of  the 
rule  to  admissions  made  with  reference  to  real 
property. 

In  criminal  law  admissions  of  guilt  by  one 
accused  of  a  crime  are  technically  known  as 
confessions.  At  common  law  confessions  were 
held  not  to  be  competent  evidence  against  the 


prisoner  when  obtained  by  threats  or  promise 
of  favor,  and  modern  statutes  have  generally 
still  further  limited  the  admissibility  of  confes- 
sions in  evidence. 

Admission  should  be  distinguished  from  ad- 
mission against  interest,  a  term  which  embraces 
a  distinct  class  of  evidence.  Admissions  against 
interest  are  written  statements  or  book  entries 
made  by  one  against  his  financial  or  proprietary 
interest,  and  are  admissible  in  evidence  in  any 
action  in  which  the  truth  of  the  matter  stated 
in  the  admissions  is  in  issue,  provided  the  person 
making  the  admission  be  dead  at  the  time  it  is 
offered  in  evidence.  The  person  making  the 
statement  need  not  represent  or  be  in  privity 
with  a  party  to  the  action  or  have  acted  by  his 
authority.  See  the  works  referred  to  under  the 
title  Evidence. 

AD^ONI^IONISTS.  A  name  applied  to 
the  partisans  of  An  Adm^mition  to  the  Parlia- 
ment, published  in  1572  by  two  Puritan  clergy- 
men, and  of  the  Second  Admonition  to  the  Par- 
liam,ent,  in  which  Thomas  Cartwright  (q.v.), 
the  leader  of  the  sect,  likewise  advocated  the 
Presbyterian  system  of  church  government  and 
the  aoolition  of  bishops  and  similar  dignitaries. 

ADOBE,  k'dm>k  (Spanish).  A  Spanish- 
American  name  applied  to  sun-dried  bricks  made 
from  any  suitable  material  which  becomes  hard- 
ened on  exposure  to  the  sun.  Such  bricks,  em- 
ployed largely  in  the  arid  and  semi-arid  districts 
of  North  America,  are  usually  made  in  two  sizes, 
the  approximate  dimensions  of  which  are  18  by  9 
by  4  inches,  and  16  by  12  by  4  inches.  Those  of 
the  latter  size  when  laid  alone  are  used  as 
"headers,"  i.e.,  with  the  greatest  dimension  cross- 
wise to  4;he  length  of  the  wall,  though  a  much 
stronger  wall  results  from  a  combination  of  the 
larger  size  as  headers,  with  the  smaller  as 
"stretchers,"  or  lengthwise  to  the  direction  of  the 
wall.  The  process  of  baking  consists  in  first  ex- 
posing the  newly  molded  adobes  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  for  a  day,  then  turning  them 
for  exposure  of  the  under  face  and  continuing 
the  exposure  for  from  seven  to  fourteen  days, 
eventually  stacking  the  finished  product  under 
cover  till  required  for  use.  Because  of  the  lack 
of  coherency  of  such  sun-baked  bricks,  adobes 
can  be  employed  only  in  regions  of  limited  rain- 
fall. Many  of  the  bricks  made  in  ancient  E^^ 
Assyria,  and  Babylonia  were  made  of  clay  mixed 
with  straw  and  baked  in  the  sun. 

Adobe  Soil.  A  term  applied  to  certain  clay 
soils  in  the  southwestern  portions  of  the  United 
States,  which,  when  moist,  are  of  exceeding  plas- 
ticity, and  when  dry  are  of  such  coherency  as 
to  prohibit  easy  tillage.  These  soils  may  be 
rendered  tillable  and  very  fertile  by  plowing 
into  the  moist  clay  considerable  quantities  of 
sand  loam.    See  Clay  and  Brick. 

ADOLF,  King  of  Germany.    See  Adolphus. 

ADOLF,  ilMAlf ,  I.  (  T— 1220) .  Archbishop  of 
(Jologne  from  1194  to  1206.  He  aimed  at  the 
aggrandizement  of  feudalism  at  the  expense 
of  the  royal  prerogative,  and  endeavored  to 
frustrate  the  plan  of  the  Emperor,  Henry  VI.,  to 
make  the  royal  succession  hereditary.  He  was 
one  of  the  foremost  opponents  of  the  Hohen- 
staufen  dynasty,  and  despite  his  oath  of  faalty 
to  Frederick  II.,  and  in  defiance  of  the  will  of 
the  majority,  he  nominated  Otto  IV.  of  Bruns- 
wick, and  crowned  him  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  June 


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ADONIS. 


)8.  Although  he  commended  Otto  to  the 
ition  of  Pope  Innocent  III.,  he  forestalled 
ipal  influence  upon  the  imperial  election, 
rhen  finally  Otto  revealed  his  inability  to 
t  his  adherents  against  Philipp  of  Suabia. 
forsook  the  cause  of  his  former  prot^d 
rowned  his  opponent  (1206).  He  was  ex- 
Linicated  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  in  1205, 
jposed  the  same  year. 

OLF  I.  (1.353-90).  Archbishop  of  Mainz; 
the  most  turbulent  and  aggressive  princes 
Church.  In  1371  he  was  appointed  Arch- 
of  Speyer,  and  two  years  later,  after  the 
of  his  rival,  John,  succeeded  to  the  see  of 
When,  at  the  instigation  of  Charles  IV., 
ith  the  consent  of  the  Pope,  the  landgrave 
iringia  sought  to  bring  about  his  deposi- 
A.doIf  firmly  maintain^  his  ground,  and 
the  outbreak  of  a  schism  in  the  Church 
ed  the  papal  sanction  of  both  Clement  VII. 
pope)  and  Urban  VI.  His  crafty  policy 
ally  secured  for  him  an  extraordinary  in- 

3LP,  WiLHELM  August  Kabl  Friedrich 
— ).  Grand  Duke  of  Luxemburg,  previous- 
ke  of  Nassau,  the  eldest  son  of  Duke 
ra  of  Nassau  by  his  first  wife,  Princess 

of  Saxe-Hildburghausen.  He  succeeded 
:her,  as  Duke  of  Nassau,  August  20,  1839. 
ti- progressive  policy  led  in  1848  to  a  revolt 

however,  was  speedily  suppressed.  In 
st  Schleswig-Holstein  War  he  commanded 
ide  of  German  troops.  In  the  war  of  1866, 
ed  with  Austria,  and  as  a  result  was  de- 

of  his  territory.  During  the  illness  of 
rVilliam  III.  of  the  Netherlands,  Adolf,  as 
f  kin,  succeeded  to  the  government  of  the 
Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  tne  ruler  of  which 
;ame  upon  the  death  of  William  III. 
mber  23,   1890). 

>LFHE,  A'd61f'.  An  important  novel  by 
ain  Constant  de  Rebecque,  published  in 
It  is  an  analytical  romance,  based  upon 
nt's  own  intimate  but  finally  unhappy 
ns  with  Madame  de  StaCl,  whom  the  hero- 
l^nore,  somewhat  resembled.  In  the  hero, 
le,  is  found  an  even  more  realistic  pres- 
»n  of  the  author's  own  sentimental  ex- 
re.  An  edition  of  the  book  in  1890  was 
led  by  Anatole  France. 

>L'PHTTS,  or  ADOLFH,  of  Nassau 
98).  King  of  Germany.  He  was  the  son 
ram,  Count  of  Nassau.  He  was  elected  to 
I  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg,  and  was  crowned 
if  the  Romans  (June  24,  1292).    Adolphus 

to  assist  England  in  her  way  with  France 
arge  subsidy,  but  failed  to  fulfill  his  part 

contract.  For  certain  high-handed  acts 
;  summoned  before  the  college  of  electoral 
*.  He  refused  to  appear,  and  was  formally 
d  in  June,  1298,  the  crown  being  trans- 
to  Rudolph's  son,  Albert.  Both  took  the 
1  person,  and  Adolphus  was  killed  in  the 
battle.  Consult:  Preger,  Albrecht  von 
reich,    und    Adolf   von    Nassau    (Leipzig, 

3LFHTJS  FBEDEBICK  (1710-71).  Duke 
latein-Gottorp,  and,  later,  King  of  Sweden. 
L9  elected  successor  to  the  Swedish  throne 
3,  and  became  king  in  1751,  but  the  royal 
rity  was  so  circumscribed  by  the  council  of 
ales  that  he  was  only  a  nominal  king.    In 


1769  he  offered  to  resign,  but,  on  some  conces- 
sions by  the  nobles,  was  induced  to  retain  the 
throne  till  his  death,  when  his  son,  Gustavua 
III.,  succeeded  him. 

ABOLFHUS,  John  (1768-1845).  An  Enjr- 
lish  historian  and  lawyer,  born  in  London.  He 
was  celebrated  in  criminal  practice,  and  gained 
much  credit  in  the  defense  of  Arthur  Thistle- 
wood,  charged  with  treason  in  the  Cato  Street 
conspiracy  in  London,  1820.  His  best  known 
work  is  the  History  of  England  from  the  Acces- 
sion of  George  III.  (7  volumes,  1802-45). 

ADONAI,  5d'6-nfl'l  or  &-d5^nt  (Heb.  lord,  or 
my  lord,  in  the  sense  of  master ) .  A  term 
adopted  in  the  Old  Testament  as  the  conven- 
tional pronunciation  of  the  name  of  God,  which 
is  written  with  four  consonants,  Y  H  W  H, 
and  which  was  probably  read  Yahweh.    See  Jf. 

HOVAH. 

ADO'NAI.     See  Adonis. 

AD'OKA^S.  The  title  of  an  elegy  written 
by  Shelley  in  1821  upon  the  death  of  the  popt 
Keats,  who  is  therein  likened  to  Adonis  in  his 
untimely  end. 

AD'ONA^  SHCVMO.     See  Communistic  So 

CIETIES. 

ADCKNI  BE^EK.    See  Adoni-Zedek. 

ADONIC  VEBSE.     A  dactyl   and  spondee 

( — WW' I ),or   dactyl    and   trochee    ( — ^ 

^-'1  — "w  I ),  adapted  to  light,  lively  versiflcatioii, 
as  in  the  famous  hymn: 

"  Plaudlte  copII  ; 
Kldeat  stber,"  etc. 

ADONIJAH,  fid'A-nl^jft  (Heb.  Yahweh  is 
Lord).  A  son  of  David  and  Haggith  (II.  Kings 
ii  :  21 ) ,  born  at  Hebron.  After  Absalom's  death 
he  was  the  natural  heir  to  the  throne,  and  was 
supported  by  Joab  and  Abiathar.  He  called  t(»^ 
gether  his  sympathizers  at  a  sacred  stone  m^ir 
Jerusalem  (I.  Kings  i  :  9) ,  but  Benaiah,  the  cap- 
tain of  the  bodyguard,  Zadok,  the  priest,  attd 
Nathan,  the  prophet,  succeeded  by  the  aid  of 
Bathsheba  in  getting  the  king's  consent  to  the 
immediate  enthronement  of  Solomon.  Adonijalr 
sought  refuge  at  the  horns  of  the  altar.  Solom<_m 
saved  his  life;  but  when  he  afterward  demanded 
Abishag,  David's  concubine,  for  a  wife,  it  was 
considered  a  plot  for  the  throne,  and  Solomon 
ordered  Benaiah  to  kill  him. 

ADOOITS  (Gk.  'Afiuvig).  A  youthful  hunter, 
beloved  by  Aphrodite,  but  slain  by  a  boar  sent, 
according  to  one  version,  by  the  jealous  Are*'. 
Aphrodite  descended  to  the  lower  world  and  won 
from  Persephone  permission  for  her  favorite  !'► 
return  to  the  light  for  a  time  every  year. 
Another  and  seemingly  older  myth  makes  Aphro- 
dite and  Persephone  quarrel  for  the  possession  of 
the  beautiful  infant.  Zeus  finally  decided  thai 
he  should  spend  four  months  with  each  of  the 
goddesses  and  four  months  as  he  chose.  The 
legends  about  Adonis  have  sprung  from  the  ritcR 
of  the  Adonia,  a  festival  celebrated  in  midsum- 
mer. On  one  day  the  loving  union  of  Aphrodite 
and  Adonis  was  represented,  and  on  the  othor 
the  sorrow  caused  by  his  death.  All  the  funeral 
rites  were  performed  by  women  about  litth^ 
images  of  Adonis.  A  special  feature  was  thi" 
"gardens  of  Adonis,"  potsherds  filled  with  eartli, 
in  which  quick-growing  plants,  ^^^^\^  as  lettuc-e 
and  fennel,  were  sown.  After  tVp  burial  ^^ct^<^ 
were  thrown  into  springs.     Th^    .  1^ -^a  ^^^  ^ 


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ADONI& 


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ADOPTION. 


woman's  festival,  and  seems  to  have  been  cele- 
brated chiefly  by  courtesans  and  others  associ- 
ated in  the  worship  of  Aphrodite.  It  is  obvi- 
ously the  worship  of  a  spirit  of  vegetation,  who 
is  believed  to  have  a  short  life,  die,  and  then  rise 
again  to  renewed  life  for  a  season.  Similar  rites 
were  widely  spread,  and  in  Phoenicia  were  associ- 
ated with  Thammuz.  The  theory  that  the  name 
and  worship  of  Adonis  are  Semitic  is  not  proved, 
though  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  form  of  the 
earlier  Greek  cult  was  powerfully  influenced  by 
the  ecstatic  and  orgiastic  rites  of  the  eastern 
^Mediterranean  peoples. 

ADONIS.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Ranuneulaceae.  The  species  are  all  herba- 
ceous— some  of  them  annual  and  some  perennial. 
Several  are  natives  of  Europe,  but  only  one, 
Adonis  autumnalis,  sometimes  called  Pheasant's 
Eye,  is  a  doubtful  native  of  Great  Britain,  where 
it  occurs  as  a  weed  in  wheat  fields.  It  has 
become  sparingly  naturalized  in  several  places  in 
the  United  States.  Its  bright  scarlet  petals 
have  obtained  for  it  the  name  of  Flos  Adonis, 
their  color  having  been  fancifully  ascribed  to 
their  being  stained  with  the  blood  of  Adonis.  It 
is  a  well  known  ornament  of  our  gardens,  in 
which  also  Adonis  aestivalis  frequently  appears, 
and  Adonis  vernalis,  a  perennial  species  common 
upon  the  lower  hills  of  the  middle  and  south  of 
Germany,  with  early  and  beautiful  flowers. 

ADO'NI-ZEa)EK  (Heb.  Zedek  is  lord).  A 
king  of  Jerusalem  who  opposed  resistance  to  the 
invasion  of  southern  Palestine  by  tribes  after- 
ward forming  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Judah 
about  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century  B.C. 
Zedek  was  a  god  worshipped  in  Syria  and  south- 
em  Arabia.  The  account  in  Judges  i  is  more 
credible  than  that  in  Joshua  x.  Adoni-bezek  is 
probably  a  scribal  error  for  Adoni-zedek.  No 
place  called  Bezek  has  been  found,  and  "Lord  of 
Bezek"  would  not  be  a  natural  name.  No  god 
by  the  name  of  Bezek  is  known.  On  the  other 
hand,  Adoni-zedek  reminds  one  strongly  of  Mel- 
chizedek,  "Zedek  is  king,"  another  ruler  of 
Jerusalem  (Genesis  xiv). 

ADOPTIAN  CONTBOVEBSY,  The.  An 
echo  of  the  Arian  controversy.  It  originated 
toward  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  in  Spain, 
the  country  in  which  the  doctrine  of  Arius  had 
longest  held  out.  Elipandus,  Archbishop  of  Tole- 
do, and  Felix,  the  learned  bishop  of  Urgel, 
advanced  the  opinion  that  Christ,  in  respect  of 
his  divine  nature,  was  doubtless  by  nature  and 
generation  the  Son  of  God;  but  that  as  to  his 
human  nature,  he  must  be  considered  as  only 
declared  and  "adopted"  through  the  divine  grace 
to  be  the  first-born  son  of  God  (Romans  viii  : 
29),  just  as  all  holy  men  are  to  be  adopted  as 
sons  of  God,  although  in  a  less  lofty  sense.  The 
flame  of  controversy  thus  kindled  spread  into 
the  Frankiah  Empire,  the  special  domain  of 
"Catholic"  Christianity,  and  gave  occasion  to 
tAvo  synods,  one  held  at  Ratisbon  ( 792 ) ,  and 
another  at  Frankfort  (794),  in  which  Charle- 
magne took  part  in  person,  and  which  con- 
demned Adoptianism  as  heresy.  The  Catholic 
doctrine  of  the  unity  of  the  two  natures  of  Christ 
in  one  divine  person  and  the  consequent  impos- 
sibility of  there  being  a  twofold  Son — ^an  origi- 
nal and  an  adopted — was  upheld  by  Alcuin  and 
the  other  learned  men  of  Charlemagne's  court. 
At  the  synod  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (799),  Felix, 
yielding   to  compulsion,   recanted  his  opinions, 


without,  as  it  would  seem,  being  convinced.  Eli- 
pandus adhered  fanatically  to  his  views,  which 
were  in  after  times  defended  by  Folmar  (1160), 
Duns  Scotus  (died  1308),  Durandus  (died  1334), 
the  Jesuit  Vasquez  (1606),  and  the  Protestant 
divine  Calixtus  (died  1656). 

ADOPTION  (Lat.  adoptio,  a  taking  or  re- 
ceiving of  one  in  place  of  a  child,  from  o^i,  to  + 
opt  are,  to  choose,  select).  A  legal  institution  of 
much  importance  in  early  society,  because  of  the 
importance  attached  to  the  perpetuation  of 
household  worship  (particularly  the  worship  of 
deceased  ancestors)  ;  also  because  before  the  in- 
troduction of  testaments,  an  heir  could  be  cre- 
ated only  by  adoption.  In  Roman  law  there  were 
two  forms  of  adoption:  viz.,  adrogation  and 
adoption,  in  the  strict  sense.  Adrogation  was  the 
earlier  form.  It  was  possible  only  where  the 
person  to  be  adopted  was  an  independent  person 
{sui  iuris),  i.e.,  was  not  under  the  authority  of 
a  father  or  grandfather.  It  took  place  origin- 
ally in  the  patrician  assembly  {comitia  curiaia) 
with  the  cooperation  of  the  pontifices.  Under 
the  emperors  it  was  effected  by  an  imperial  re- 
script. Adoption  in  the  strict  sense  was  the 
transfer  of  a  person  from  the  authority  of  his 
father  or  grandfather  into  the  paternal  author- 
ity of  the  adoptive  father.  It  was  accomplished 
by  formal  acts  in  the  presence  of  a  magistrate. 
It  was  usually  requisite,  alike  in  adrogation  and 
adoption,  that  the  adoptive  father  should  have 
no  children  at  the  time,  and  no  reasonable  pros- 
pect of  having  any.  He  was  also  required  to  be 
eighteen  years  older  than  the  person  adopted. 
Females  could  not  be  adrogated,  nor,  until  the 
third  century,  could  they  adrogate.  They  could 
be  adopted,  but  they  could  not  adopt.  The  effect 
of  adrogation  was  to  place  the  adopted  person 
in  the  same  legal  position  for  nearly  all  pur- 
poses as  a  child  bom  in  wedlock.  The  same  re- 
sults originally  attached  to  adoption,  but  Jus- 
tinian introduced  important  restrictions.  Adop- 
tion was  unknown  to  the  law  of  the  Teutonic 
nations;  and  though  most  of  the  States  of  the 
continent  have  borrowed  it,  with  some  modifica- 
tions, from  the  Roman  law,  it  has  never  existed 
as  an  institution  in  England  or  Scotland,  either 
at  common  law  or  by  statute. 

As  English  common  law  made  no  provision 
for  the  adoption  of  children,  the  subject  is  regu- 
lated by  statute  in  manjr  States  of  the  United 
States.  While  State  legislation  upon  this  topic 
differs  in  detail,  its  characteristic  features  are 
as  follows:  Any  inhabitant  of  the  State,  of 
legal  age,  and  competent  to  contract,  may  adopt 
a  child,  provided  that  the  spouse  of  a  married 
adopter,  the  living  parents  of  the  adopted,  and 
the  child,  also,  if  above  a  certain  age  (usually 
twelve  or  fourteen  years),  consent  in  writing 
to  the  adoption.  In  some  States  the  transac- 
tion is  consummated  by  an  order  of  court,  in 
others  by  a  deed  duly  acknowledged  and  re- 
corded. As  the  claims  of  an  adopted  child 
are  in  derogation  of  the  common  law  rights 
of  the  heirs  and  next  of  kin  of  the  adopter, 
our  courts  are  disposed  to  put  a  strict  con- 
struction on  these  statutes,  and  to  treat  as 
invalid  an  adoption  which  has  not  been  made 
in  a  manner  which  conforms  to  every  stat- 
utory requirement.  As  a  rule,  the  legal  relation 
between  adopting  parents  and  adopted  children 
is  that  of  natural  parent  and  child,  including  the 
powers  of  parental  control,  the  duties  of  filial 
obedience,    and    reciprocal    property   rights   by 


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ADOPTION. 


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ADBAHMELECH. 


tance.  In  a  few  States,  however,  the 
ng  parent  does  not  inherit  from  the  adopt- 
Id.  Consult:  Stimson,  American  Statute 
Boston,  1886)  ;  Sohouler,  Treatise  on  the 
yf  Domestic  Relations  (Boston,  1900)  ; 
uff.  Selection  of  Cases  on  Domestic  Rela- 
nd  the  Law  of  Persons  (New  York,  1897) ; 
e  Pabent  and  Child. 

ORA^nON.  A  term  originally  applied 
the  Romans  to  an  act  of  homage  or  wor- 
^rformed  by  raising  the  hand  to  the  mouth 
ad  OS,  whence  the  word),  kissing  it,  and 
raving  it  toward  the  object  of  reverence. 
3  natural  to  extend  to  great  men  the 
adoration  at  first  paid  only  to  deities, 
e  Roman  emperors  were  saluted  by  bowinff 
?eling,  touching  the  imperial  robe,  and 
:  the  hand  that  did  so.  In  eastern  coun- 
he  form  of  adoration  was  to  fall  on  the 
&t  a  prince's  feet,  strike  the  forehead  on 
mnd,  and  kiss  the  floor.  On  the  same  prin- 
:  may  be  said  that  the  modern  practice  of 
:  a  sovereign's  hand  is  a  form  of  adora- 
md  similarly  the  custom  at  Rome  of  kiss- 
j  cross  embroidered  on  the  Pope's  slipper, 
the  term  adoration  is  very  general fy  em- 
nowadays  to  express  a  mental  attitude 
God,  it  may  be  well  to  remember  that 
b  and  the  similar  term  worship  had  a 
nore  limited  sense:  thus,  in  the  English 
ge  service  the  bridegroom  says  to  the 
"With  my  body  I  thee  worship  and  with 
worldly  goods  I  thee  endow."  Thus,  too, 
natter  of  theological  terms,  the  Roman 
ie  Church  makes  a  distinction  between 
the  worship  due  to  (jrod  alone,  and  dulia, 
ven  to  the  Blessed  Virgin  and  other  saints. 

ORATION    OF    THE    IMMAC^XTLATE 

!,  The.  a  celebrated  altar  painting  in 
hedral  of  Ghent,  Belgium,  by  the  Flemish 
Hubert  and  Jan  van  Eyck.  It  represents 
surrounded  by  the  saints,  and  on  the 
anels  the  sacrifice  of  the  lamb. 
»RATION  OF  THE  MA^GI.  The  wor- 
•  the  infant  Christ  by  the  wise  men,  a 
it  subject  in  religious  art.  Among  the 
lown  works  with  this  title  are  pictures 
following  artists: 
mni    Bellini,    in    the    National    Gallery, 

ro  Botticelli,  a  painting  on  wood   (date 
480)  in  the  Uffizi  Gallery,  Florence.     His 
ise  men  have  the  faces  of  Cosimo,  Giuli- 
d  Giovanni  de'  Medici, 
•t  Dttrer  (1504),  also  in  the  Uffizi. 
mico  Ghirlandajo,  in  the  church  of  Santa 
degli    Innocenti,    Florence    (1488),    and 
,  on  wood,  in  the  Uffizi   (1487). 
re  Pisano,  in  the  Berlin  Gallery. 
>randt    (1667),    in    Buckingham    Palace, 

ns,  who  produced  a  number  of  paintings 
subject,  for  various  churches,  the  mag- 
€  of  costume  which  it  permitted  in  the 
ings  being  well  suited  to  his  taste.  Not- 
long  them  is  the  one  now  in  the  museum 
jsels,  representing  the  child  as  held  erect 
mother.  Others  are  in  the  Antwerp 
1  and  in  the  Louvre,  Paris, 
doma  (Giovanni  Antonia  Bazzi),  an  altar 
ti  the  church  of  San  Agostino.  at  Siena, 
[lan  Lochner,  in  his  famous  triptych,  the 
ild,"  in  the  cathedral  of  Cologne. 


Tintoretto,  in  the  Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  Veniee, 
a  picture  especially  praised  by  Ruskin. 

Paolo  Veronese  (Cagliari),  by  whom  there  are 
paintings  with  this  title  in  the  National  Galloiy, 
London,  in  the  Brera,  Milan,  and  notably  one 
in  the  gallery  at  Dresden. 

ADOUBy  k'dSor^.  A  river  in  France,  rising 
near  Tourmalet,  in  the  department  of  Hauti^- 
I*yr^n^s  (Map:  France,  E  8).  It  flows  through 
the  department  of  Gers  and  the  fertile  part  of 
the  department  of  Landes,  and  enters  the  At* 
lantic  below  Bayonne,  after  a  course  of  200  miles. 
It  receives  several  tributaries,  and  is  navigable 
to  the  extent  of  80  miles.  Bagn^res-de-Bigorre, 
celebrated  for  its  hot  baths,  is  situated  on  the 
Adour. 

ADOWA,  a^dft-ft,  or  ADXTA,  tt'd?5?5-&.  The 
capital  of  the  Abyssinian  province  of  Tigr6,  situ- 
ated in  14**  12'  N.  lat.  and  39*»  3'  E.  long.  (Map: 
Abyssinia,  H  3 ) .  It  has  an  excellent  climate  <m 
account  of  its  elevated  location,  and  was,  prior 
to  the  Italian  campaign  of  1890,  one  of  the  be^t 
built  cities  of  Abyssinia.  At  present  a  con- 
siderable part  of  it  is  in  ruins,  but  it  will 
probably  be  soon  restored  to  its  former  con- 
dition, as  the  town  is  an  important  commer- 
cial centre  and  is  on  the  route  of  the  proposed 
railway  line  from  Massowa  to  Gondar.  Its  pop- 
ulation was  formerly  about  3000,  but  is  probably 
less  now.  Adowa  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat 
of  the  Italian  troops  under  General  Baratieri 
by  the  Abyssinians  on  March  1,  1896.  Consult: 
Setetin,  "La  bataille  d'Adoua:  Etude  tactiqiie/* 
in  volumes  IX.  and  X.,  Journals  des  Scietm  v 
Militaires  (Paris,  1901). 

ADRAy  ftMr&.  A  seaport  town  of  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Granada,  49  miles  southeast  i>f 
Granada.  It  is  situated  on  the  shore  of  the 
Mediterranean,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Adra  (Map: 
Spain,  D  4).  The  ancient  Abdera,  founded  by 
the  PhCBnicians,  was  on  a  hill,  at  the  base  of 
which  th^  modern  town  stands,  in  a  situation 
unheal thful  on  account  of  swamps.  The  pui  t 
is  not  good,  being  much  exposed  to  the  weat. 
Lead  mines  in  the  neighborhood  give  employ- 
ment to  many  of  the  inhabitants  and  trade  to 
the  port.  Among  other  exports  are  grapes, 
wheat,  and  sugar.     Pop.,  1900,  11,246. 

ADBAIN^  RoBEBT  (1775-1843).  An  Irish- 
American  mathematician,  born  at  Carrickfergus, 
During  the  Irish  rebellion  of  1798  he  was 
wounded  and  escaped  to  America,  where  he 
became  a  teacher  of  mathematics  and  occupied 
chairs  at  Rutgers  (1810-13),  Columbia  (1813- 
25),  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  (1827- 
34).  lie  was  editor  of  the  Mathematical  Dinrtf 
(1825-29),  and  prepared  an  edition  of  Hutton'a 
Mathematics,  His  original  work  includes  papers 
on  the  shape  and  size  of  the  earth  and  on  gravity. 

ADBAM^MELECH(Babyl.  Adar-malik.  Aclar 
is  king) .  1.  A  god  worshipped  by  the  inhabitants^ 
of  Sepharvaim  after  they  had  been  deported 
to  Samaria  by  Sargon  (II.  Kings  xvii  :  24,  31 K 
Sepharvaim  has  been  supposed  to  be  the  Babylo- 
nian Sippar,  and  Adran^melech  a  divinity  Adar- 
malik.  But  Sepharvaim  is  more  likely  to  be 
the  Shaba ra 'in  of  the  Babylonian  chronicle,  the 
Sibraim  of  Ezekiel  xlvii  :  16,  a  city  «aar  Damas- 
cus. Shamash,  not  Ninib  or  Adat>  the  god 
of  Sippar.  Adar  is  known  to  k  *  ^^^  ^  wor- 
shipped    in     Phoenicia.     The     i^^\c  ^^f-nti    o^ 


Adaf  with  a  Melech,  or  Milk,  d'^>\t\ftca^^?^Ttjatt 


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128 


ADBZAH. 


sacrifices,  also  points  to  Syria  rather  than  to 
Babylonia,  where  there  is  no  evidence  that  such 
sacrifices  were  oflFered. 

2.  A  son  of  Sennacherib  who,  tc^ether  with 
his  brother  Shar-ezer,  killed  his  father  while 
he  was  worshipping  in  the  temple  of  Nisroch, 
his  god,  and  then  fied  to  Ararat  ( II.  Kings  xix  : 
37).  The  Babylonian  chronicle  {Kcilinschrift' 
liche  BibliotJiek,  II.,  281)  mentions  only  one  son. 
It  is  possible  that  a  letter  to  "Shar-itir-Ashur, 
king  of  the  world,"  gives  us  the  throne  name  of 
this  son,  abbreviated  in  the  Hebrew  as  Shar- 
ezer,  who  held  the  throne  from  the  20th  Tebet 
to  the  2d  Adar,  681,  and  that  Adad-malik,  cor- 
rupted Adar-nialik,  was  his  private  name.  The 
murder  undoubtedly  took  place  in  Babylon, 
according  to  a  statement  of  Ashur-banipal,  and 
the  temple  was  then  the  Id-zagila  of  Morduk, 
the  name  of  this  god  having  been  intentionally 
distorted,  as  in  the  case  of  Abd-nego  for  Aba- 
nebo.  Consult :  Winckler  in  Schrader's  Die  Keil- 
inschriften  und  das  Alte  Testament  (Leipzig, 
1902). 

ADBAB,  ft-dr&r^.  A  region  in  the  western 
part  of  Sahara,  west  of  the  Spanish  possession 
of  Rio  de  Oro,  of  which  it  formerly  constituted 
a  part  (Map:  Africa,  0  2).  Its  area  is  esti- 
mated at  about  30,000  square  miles,  and  it  con- 
tains a  considerable  portion  of  fertile  land  on 
which  grain  and  dates  are  raised.  Its  position 
on  the  caravan  route  of  Morocco  gives  it  consid- 
erable commercial  importance.  The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  Berbers.  In  accordance  with  the 
agreement  of  1892  it  forms  at  present  a  part  of 
French  Sahara.  The  chief  town  is  Wadan,  with 
a  population  of  about  4000. 

ADBASTEy  &'drftst^  The  hero  of  Molidre's 
comedy  Le  Sicilien,  ou  Vamour  peintre  (q.v.), 
from  whose  disguise  as  an  artist  comes  the  sub- 
title of  the  piece. 

AD'BASTEFA  (Gk.  *ASpaaTeia\  In  Grecian 
mythology,  the  Cretan  nymph  oy  whom  the 
infant  Zeus  was  cared  for  in  the  cave  on  Mount 
Bicte,  at  his  mother's  request.  The  name  is 
also  applied  to  Rhea  herself  and  to  Nemesis. 

ADBAS^ITS  {QkrASpa<rroc,Adrast08),  King 
of  Argos,  who  gave  bis  daughter  in  marriage  to 
Polynices,  son  of  OCdipus  (q.v.),  and  led  the 
expedition  of  the  "Seven  against  Thebes"  to 
restore  Polynices  to  the  throne.  As  was  predict- 
ed by  Amphiarafls  (q.v.),  Adrastus  alone  escaped 
alive.  A  later  story  makes  him  die  of  grief 
at  the  death  of  his  son  in  the  successful  war  of 
the  Epigoni  against  Thebes.  Adrastus  was  wor- 
shipped at  Sicyon,  Megara,  Athens,  and  probably 
Argos  and  in  the  Troad.  See  Epigoni;  Eteo- 
0T.E8,  and  Polynices. 

ADBETS,  ft'drft',  Francois  de  Beaumont, 
baron  des  (1513-87).  A  French  Protestant  sol- 
dier, from  1502  prominent  for  persecuting?  the 
Catholics  of  DauphinC*  and  Provence.  He  was 
bom  at  the  ChAtenu  do  la  Frette,  Dauphin^,  early 
entered  the  army,  and  during  the  wars  of  the 
League  achieved  a  reputation  for  cruelty  on  the 
Haguenot  side  corresponding  to  that  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise  or  the  notorious  Monthic  among  the 
Catholics.  His  acts,  however,  appear  to  have  been 
dictated  less  by  religious  fanaticism  than  by 
predilection  for  the  career  of  brigand  and  bravo. 
Having  assumed  the  style  of  lieutenant-general 
of  the  King,  he  organized  pillage  and  murder  on 
a    large    scale,    and,    as    Martin    {Histoire    de 


France)  testifies,  he  left  among  the  simple  peas- 
antry a  name  repeated  for  centuries  as  synony- 
mous with  destruction.  Many  interesting  tales 
regarding  him  are  still  preserved.  Ultimately  he 
accepted  the  Roman  faith.  For  a  detailed  ac- 
count of  his  doings,  consult  Besa,  Histoire 
eocUsiastique  des  EgUses  RdfwrmSes  (edited  by 
Baum,  Cunitz  and  R.  Reuss,  Paris,  1883-89,  3 
volumes). 

ADBIAy  &^dr^&  (ancient  Adna^  Atria, 
Hadria,  or  H atria).  An  episcopal  city  of  Italy, 
province  of  Rovigo,  16  miles  southwest  of  Venice 
(Map:  Italy,  G  2).  It  was  originally  an  island, 
and  in  the  time  of  the  Romans  was  a  station  for 
the  fleet  and  a  flourishing  port.  After  the  fall  of 
the  empire  frequent  inundations  of  the  Po  and 
the  Adige,  cau^  by  the  bad  state  of  the  dikes, 
brought  down  alluvial  soil  and  gradually  extend- 
ed the  land  until  Adria  attached  itself  to  the 
continent.  It  is  now  14  miles  from  the  Adriatic 
The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  that  was  sacked  and 
burned  by  the  Venetians  in  the  fifteenth  century 
are  south  of  the  present  city  and  several  metres 
below  the  surface.  The  chief  trade  is  in  wine, 
cattle,  grain,  silk,  linen,  leather,  and  pottery. 
Pop.,  1900,  15,649. 

A^BIAN.    Roman  emperor.  See  Hatwtan. 

A^BZAH.  The  county  seat  of  Lenawee  Ca, 
Mich.,  on  the  Raisin  River,  at  the  intersection 
of  the  Wabash,  Lake  Shore,  Detroit  and  Detroit 
Southern  railroads,  33  miles  from  Toledo  and 
60  miles  from  Detroit.  It  was  settled  in  1825, 
incorporated  as  a  village  1828,  and  as  a  cily 
1853.  The  city  has  go^  public  schools  and  is 
the  seat  of  Adrian  College,  a  Methodist  Protest* 
ant  institution,  and  of  the  State  Industrial  Home 
for  girls.  Adrian  has  important  industrial  in- 
terests, including  extensive  wire  fence  works, 
electrical  works,  steel  post  works,  piano  and 
organ  works,  manufactures  government  mail 
boxes  and  mail  box  posts,  etc.  It  is  governed  by 
a  charter  adopted  in  1861  and  revised  in  1897, 
which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  annually, 
and  a  city  council  of  ten  members.  Adrian  car- 
ries on  its  public  works  by  city  labor  under  city 
supervision.    Pop.,  1890,  8756;  1900,  9654. 

ADRLAK.  The  name  of  six  popes,  two  of 
them  of  considerable  interest.  Adrian  I.,  Po[|e 
772-795,  invited  Charlemagne  to  enter  Italy.  His 
letters  are  in  Migne,  Pat.  Lat,  XCVIII.  Anw- 
AN  II.,  Pope  867-872.  His  letters  are  in  Miene, 
Pat,  Lat,  CXXIL  and  CXXIX,  Adkiak  III. 
( Agapetus ) ,  Pope  884-885.  He  was  the  first  occu- 
pant of  the  papal  chair  to  change  his  name  on  elec- 
tion. Adrian  IV.  (Nicholas  Brakspere),  Pope 
1 154-59.  He  was  by  birth  an  Englishman,  the  only 
one  of  that  nation  who  ever  sat  in  the  papal 
chair.  His  father  became  a  monk  in  the  Bene- 
dictine monastery  of  St.  Albans,  and  so  Adrian 
was  in  early  life  thrown  on  the  world.  He  be- 
came first  a  lay  brother  or  servant  in  the  mon- 
astery of  St.  Rufus,  about  50  miles  south  of 
Lyons,  France,  then  successively  regular  monk, 
prior,  and  in  1137  was  elected  abbot.  His  xeal 
for  strict  discipline  raised  a  combination  to  de- 
fame his  character,  and  he  had  to  appear  before 
Eugenius  III.  at  Rome  Here  he  not  only 
cleared  himself  of  all  charges,  but  gained  the 
esteem  of  the  Pope,  who  appointed  him  Cardinal- 
bishop  of  Albano  in  1146,  and,  later,  delegate  to 
Scandinavia.  On  the  death  of  Anastasius  IV. 
in  1154,  he  was  raised  to  the  papal  see.  Adrian 
had  great  trouble  with  the  Romans,  who  disliked 


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his  pretensions,  and  were  influenced  by  Arnold  of 
Brescia,  whom  he  caused  to  be  put  to  death.  He 
was  on  friendly  terms  with  the  Emperor  Freder- 
ick I.,  until  his  high  notions  of  the  papal  supre- 
macy, which  he  carried  as  far  as  even  Gregory 
VII.,  led  to  the  beginning  of  that  long  contest  of 
the  popes  against  the  house  of  Hohenstaufen, 
which  ended  in  the  destruction  of  the  dynasty. 
He  was  living  away  from  Rome  in  practical  exile, 
and  was  about  to  excommunicate  Frederick  when 
he  died  at  Anagni,  September  1,  1159.  His  most 
remarkable  pontifical  act  was  giving,  in  1154, 
Ireland  to  Henry  II.,  which  he  claimed  he  had 
the  right  to  do  because  all  islands  which  had 
been  Christianized  belonged  to  the  Holy  See. 
Consult:  S.  Malone,  Adrian  IV,  and  Ireland 
(London,  1899).  His  letters  are  in  Migne,  Pai. 
hat,  CLXXXVIII.  Adrian  V.,  Pope  July  12- 
August  18,  127C  (Otto  buono  de'  Fieschi),  and  a 
cardinal-deacon  when  elected;  he  died  before  he 
had  been  consecrated  a  bishop.  Adrian  VI., 
Pope  January  9,  1522,  to  September  14, 1523.  His 
family  name  was  (probably)  Dedel,  his  birthplace 
Utrecht  ( 1450) ,  his  first  teachers  the  Brothers  of 
the  Common  Life;  his  professional  studies  were 
made  at  Louvain,  and  there  he  became  professor 
of  theology.  He  was  appointed  tutor  to  Charles 
of  Hapsburg  (the  future  Emperor  Charles  V.), 
1507;  was  made  Bishop  of  Tortosa,  Spain,  1516; 
cardinal,  1517.  Charles  made  him  regent  of 
Spain,  1520,  but  the  Spaniards  resented  the  rule 
of  a  foreigner  and  embittered  his  life.  His 
troubles  did  not  cease  when  elected  Pope,  but  he 
inspired  respect  by  his  uprightness.  He  con- 
fessed to  serious  corruptions  in  the  Church,  but 
died  before  he  could  do  anything  for  its  reform. 
Consult  the  lives,  by  H.  Bauer  (Heidelberg, 
1876),  and  by  A.  Lepltre  (Paris,  1880). 

Aa)BIAN  BE  CASTELOiO,  or  ADBIANO 
DI  CASTELO,  rdr^a^nd  d6  k&s-t^Hd  (c.1460- 
C.1521).  An  Italian  scholar  and  ecclesiastic. 
He  was  born  in  Tuscany  and  went  to  England  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  who  made  him  his 
agent  at  Rome  and  gave  him  the  bishopric  of 
Hereford  (1502),  whence  he  was  translated  to 
that  of  Bath  and  Wells  (1505).  He  was  made 
cardinal  by  Pope  Alexander  VI.  (1503).  In 
1517,  however,  he  was  implicated  in  the  con- 
spiracy of  Cardinals  Petrucci,  De  Sauli,  and 
Eiario  to  poison  Leo  X.  and  was  deprived  of  his 
cardinalate  and  dignities  in  England  (1518). 
\Miat  became  of  him  afterward  is  uncertain. 
It  is  thought  that  he  lived  in  retirement  at 
Venice  and  was  murdered  while  on  his  way  to 
Rome,  after  the  death  of  Leo  X.  in  1521.  His 
writings  include:  YenatiOy  a  poem  (1505);  De 
yera  Philoaophia  (1507),  and  De  Sermone 
Latino  et  Modo  Latine  Loquendi  (1513). 

ADRIANCyPLE  (Gk.  *ASpiav6iroy.ig,  Hadria- 
n(jpoli8j  the  city  of  Hadrian,  Turk.  Edimeh). 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Europe,  F  4).  A  city  of  Eu- 
ropean Turkey,  in  ancient  Thrace.  It  is  situated 
on  the  Maritza  (the  ancient  Hebrus) ,  where  that 
river  is  joined  by  the  Arda  and  the  Tunja,  about 
140  miles  northwest  of  Constantinople,  with 
vhich  it  is  connected  by  a  state  railway  line.  Its 
position  at  the  confluence  of  three  navigable 
rivers,  and  at  the  meeting  of  several  routes, 
makes  it  a  place  of  considerable  commercial  im- 
portance. It  was  formerly  fortified  by  a  strong 
▼all,  of  which  only  a  few  fragments  are  left.  The 
place  is  now  defended  by  an  extensive  circle  of  re- 
doubts. Since  the  last  Russian-Turkish  war  the 
Vol.  1.-9 


town  has  been  in  a  state  of  decline,  and  its  com- 
merce has  fallen  off  to  a  large  extent.  It  has  two 
fine  bazaars,  a  palace,  numerous  inns,  churches, 
and  schools.  The  population  is  about  80,000,  about 
half  of  whom  are  Turks  and  the  remainder  Bul- 
garians, Armenians,  and  Jews.  It  is  the  seat  of 
several  European  consuls.  A  very  ancient  town 
of  Thrace,  it  was  rebuilt  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian, 
who  gave  it  his  name.  It  was  the  scene  of  an 
important  battle  between  the  Goths  and  the  Ro- 
mans in  378  A.D.,  in  which  the  former  were  vic- 
torious and  broke  through  the  Roman  frontier, 
effecting  a  settlement  within  the  limits  of  the 
empire.  The  city  was  conquered  from  the  Byz- 
antines by  Amurath  (Murad)  I.  in  1361,  and 
was  the  residence  of  the  Turkish  sultans  from 
that  time  down  to  1453.  The  Russian  general 
Diebitsch  occupied  Adrianople  in  1829.  By  the 
treaty  signed  here  on  September  14  of  that  year 
Russia  forced  Turkey  to  reliquish  to  her  the 
northeastern  coast  land  of  the  Black  Sea  and 
to  allow  her  to  establish  her  sway  over  the  tribes 
of  the  Caucasus;  to  cede  to  her  the  district  of 
Akhaltsikh ;  to  accord  to  her  a  protectorate  over 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia;  and  to  recognize  the 
independence  of  Greece.  After  the  capture  of  the 
Turkish  army  defending  the  Shipka  Pass,  in 
January,  1878,  the  Russians  entered  Adrianople 
unopposed.  The  occupation  of  the  city  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  cessation  of  hostilities  and  the  con- 
clusion of  the  treaty  of  San  Stefano.  Adrianople 
is  the  capita]  of  the  vilayet  of  the  same  name, 
with  an  area  of  about  15,000  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  about  1,000,000. 

Aa)BIAN'S  WALL.     See  Roman  Wall. 

ADBLATIC  SEA,  fi'drl-ftt^k  or  ftd'rl-  (From 
the  Etruscan  city  Hatria,  modern  Adria,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Padus  or  Po).  A  large  arm 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  separating  Italy  from 
the  Balkan  peninsula,  and  communicating  with 
the  Ionian  Sea  by  the  Strait  of  Otranto.  It  is 
500  miles  long,  and  about  130  miles  in  its  great- 
est width  (Map:  Italy,  J  4).  Its  depth  varies 
from  over  5000  feet  near  Durazzo  at  its  southern 
end,  to  only  about  500  feet  in  north.  Its  western 
coast  is  almost  unbroken,  while  the  eastern  is 
lined  with  numerous  rocky  islands,  belonging  to 
Istria  and  Dalmatia.  The  main  gulfs  of  the  Ad- 
riatic Sea  are  Manfredonia  on  the  west,  Venice 
and  Trieste  on  the  north,  and  Quarnero  on  the 
northeast.  The  only  considerable  rivers  empty- 
ing into  it  are  the  Adige  and  the  Po,  and  that 
accounts  for  the  great  salinity  of  its  water.  The 
most  important  commercial  points  are  Trieste, 
Venice,  Fiume,  and  Brindisi.  The  navigation  of 
the  Adriatic  is  generally  safe,  although  there  are 
some  dangerous  points  off  the  eastern  coast.  The 
commercial  importance  of  the  Adriatic  Sea  was 
greatly  impaired  by  the  opening  of  the  sea  route 
to  India ;  but  with  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal 
it  has  regained  some  of  its  former  commerce.  Con- 
sult: C.  E.  Yriarte,  Lea  bords  de  VAdriatique 
(Paris,  1878)  ;  G.  L.  Faber,  The  Fish  and  Fish- 
eries of  the  Adriatic  (London,  1883). 

ADBIENNE  LECOUVBETTB,  &'drl-en^  le- 
kSjyvrer'.  The  title  of  a  five-act  French  drama 
by  Scribe  and  Legouv^,  based  on  the  tragic  his- 
tory of  the  noted  actress.  ( See  Lecotttreub,  Ad- 
RTENNE.)     It  was  produced  April  14,  1849. 

ADBIFT^  Floating  at  random.  The  state 
of  a  boat,  vessel,  buoy,  or  other  floating  object 
which  has  parted  or  lost  its  lines  or  moorings 
and  is  driven  about  by  the  tide,  sea,  or  wind; 


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ADX7LTEBATI0N. 


also  the  condition  of  a  sail,  gun,  or  other  object 
which  has  broken  loose  from  its  fastenings. 

ADTTA,  &M<^-&.     See  AoowA. 

AD'TTATOTCI  or  ADTJATICI.  A  people  of 
Belgic  Gaul,  dwelling  in  Julius  Caesar's  time 
near  the  River  Sambre,  and  conquered  by  him 
57  B.C.  See  his  Bellum.Oallicum,  Book  II.  They 
were  descended  from  survivors  of  the  Cimbri  and 
Teutones  after  their  defeat  by  C.  !Marius,  102- 

^01   B.C. 

ADXTOIiE  (Gkr ASo^Xjj,  Adoul&),  An  ancient 
Ethiopian  town  on  the  Red  Sea,  near  the  modern 
Zula.  It  was  an  important  trading  post,  espe- 
cially for  fine  ivory.  It  is  noted  chiefly  on  ac- 
count of  an  inscription  of  some  importance  rela- 
tive to  the  ancient  geography  of  those  regions, 
the  Monumentum  Adulitanum,  really  two  in- 
scriptions, one  celebrating  the  victories  of  Ptol- 
emy Euergetes,  the  other  the  much  later  con- 
quests of  a  native  kins.  Both  are  of  value  for 
ancient  geography,  and  were  first  published  in 
the  sixth  century  in  the  Topographia  Christiana 
of  Cosmos  Indicopleustes. 

ADUI/LAH.  A  city  in  the  lowlands  of 
Judfea,  which  was  the  abode  of  a  Canaanite 
king  before  the  conquest  of  the  country  by  the 
Israelites  (See  Joshua  xii  :  15),  and  continued 
to  be  an  inhabited  town  at  least  as  late  as  the 
Maccabees.  Its  locality  has  been  identified  with 
that  of  the  modern  Dier  Dubban,  some  distance 
west  of  Bethlehem,  and  by  other  scholars  with 
that  of  Aid-el-ma,  a  few  miles  northeast  of 
Hebron. 

ADXTL^AMy  Cave  of.  A  cavern  in  southern 
Judaea,  noted  as  a  retreat  of  David  while  he  was 
in  hiding  with  his  band  of  four  hundred  outlaws 
from  King  Saul  ( see  I.  Samuel  xxii ) ,  and  later 
when  as  king  he  was  fighting  the  Philistines 
(I.  Chronicles  xi  :  15).  It  was  perhaps  near 
the  town  of  the  same  name,  some  ten  miles 
northwest  of  Hebron. 

ADUL^AMITES.  A  term  applied  in  Eng- 
lish history  to  those  seceding  liberals  who  voted 
with  the  Conservative  party  when  Earl  Russell 
and  Mr.  Gladstone  sought  to  extend  the  elective 
franchise  in  18(56.  The  designation  of  Adullam- 
ites  was  fastened  on  the  new  party  by  Mr. 
Bright,  who,  in  the  course  of  debate,  likened 
them  to  the  political  outlaws  who  took  refuge 
with  David  in  the  cave  of  Adullam  (I.  Samuel 
xxii  :  1,  2).  The  comparison  was  taken  up  by 
Iiord  Elcho,  who  humorously  .replied  that  the 
band  congregated  in  the  cave  was  hourly  increas- 
ing, and  would  succeed  in  delivering  the  house 
from  the  tyranny  of  Saul  (^Ir.  Gladstone)  and 
his  armor-bearer  (Mr.  Bright).  The  group  of 
seceders  was  also  known  as  "The  Cave,"  and 
as  "The  Cave  of  Adullam." 

ADUL'TEBA'TION  (Lat.  adiiltcrare,  to  de- 
file, to  falsify).  The  act  of  intentionally  debas- 
ing articles  offered  for  sale,  by  abstracting  from 
them  some  valuable  constituent,  or  by  adding  to 
them  some  worthless,  more  or  less  deleterious, 
foreign  substance.  Adulteration  has  been  prac- 
ticed throughout  the  civilized  world  since  early 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  and  unfortunately  the  meth- 
ods and  devices  used  by  unscrupulous  men  of 
commerce  in  adulterating  commodities  in  com- 
mon use  have  kept  pace  with  the  progress  of 
the  useful  arts.  The  immediate  objects  of  adul- 
teration are  briefly  as  follows :  ( 1 )  To  increase 
the  weight  or  the  bulk  of  a  given  article;    (2) 


to  improve  the  appearance,  especially  the  color, 
of  a  low-grade  article  and  thereby  to  raise  its 
apparent  pecuniary  value;  (3)  to  impart  to  a 
low-grade  article  the  flavor  and  other  properties 
characteristic  of  a  higher  grade,  though  the 
quality  of  the  eiven  article  may  not  thereby  be 
really  improved;  (4)  to  abstract  from  a  given 
article  of  good  quality  some  valuable  constituent 
without  apparently  lowering  the  value  of  the 
given  article.  Amone  the  commodities  often 
sold  in  an  adulterated  state  may  be  mentioned 
milk,  butter,  cheese,  bread  and  flour,  confection- 
ery products,  cofl'ee,  tea,  cocoa  and  chocolate, 
honey,  jellies,  mustard,  pepper,  cinnamon  and. 
other  spices,  ale  and  beer,  wine  and  spirits,  oils, 
vinegar,  pickles,  drugs,  tobacco  and  snuff,  textile 
fabrics,  colors  and  dyes,  etc. 

The  sale  of  a  spurious  article  under  the  name 
of  the  genuine  article  for  which  it  is  intended 
to  pass  is  a  common-law  cheat,  and  modern 
legislation  is  extending  the  scope  of  this  crime 
with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  health  and  the 
promotion  of  honest  and  fair  business  dealings. 
By  selling  an  adulterated  article  under  the  ordi- 
nary commercial  name,  the  seller  breaks  his  con- 
tract and  is  bound  to  take  the  article  back  or 
pay  damages,  even  though  he  may  have  been 
Ignorant  of  the  adulteration.  The  following  are 
some  of  the  common  forms  of  adulteration  and 
some  of  the  simpler  methods  of  detecting  them. 

Milk  is  adulterated  mainly  in  two  ways:  by 
dilution  with  water  and  by  withdrawal  of  cream. 
The  addition  of  water  may  be  detected  by  the 
use  of  the  lactometer ,  a  form  of  hydrometer  used 
to  determine  rapidly  the  specific  gravity  of  milk. 
The  lowest  normal  specific  gravity  is  of  course 
known  from  a  large  number  of  experiments  in 
which  samples  of  undiluted  milk  have  been  exam- 
ined with  the  lactometer.  In  using  the  lactom- 
eter it  must  be  remembered  that  skim  milk  has 
a  specific  gravity  considerably  higher  than  whole 
milk;  and  if  the  lactometer  indicates  a  normal 
specific  gravity,  while  the  milk  has  a  watery 
appearance  and  taste,  the  conclusion  is  pretty 
safe  that  more  or  less  cream  has  been  removed 
from  the  milk.  Skimming  may  also  be  detected 
by  determining  the  opacity  of  milk  with  the  aid 
of  the  apparatus  called  the  lactoftcope,  the  opacity 
being  the  greater  the  more  cream  is  contained  in 
the  milk.  In  using  the  lactoscope,  Avater  is 
added  to  a  layer  of  milk  of  a  certain  depth 
until  some  object,  or  a  black  line  drawn  on  a 
white  surface,  becomes  visible  through  it.  The 
amount  of  Avater  thus  required  depends,  of 
course,  on  the  opacity  of  the  sample  under  exam- 
ination, and  hence  shows  how  much  cream  is 
contained  in  the  milk.  The  dilution  of  milk 
Avith  water  and  the  withdrawal  of  cream  are 
doubtless  among  the  important  factors  of  infant 
mortality  in  large  cities,  and  do  unspeakable 
harm  to  the  community  in  general.  The  nefari- 
ous practice  of  adding  water  is  often  aggravated 
by  the  fact  that  the  water  used  is  dangerously 
bad.  Thus,  in  Paris  milkmen  have  been  caught 
using  stale  water  from  street  fountains,  and  in 
New  York,  water-snakes,  frogs,  and  all  manner 
of  dirt  have  been  found  in  milk  brought  to  the 
market.  It  is  thus  that  milk  may  be  a  source 
of  typhoid  fever  and  of  other  dangerous  diseases. 
On  the  other  hand,  skimmed  milk  contains  a 
large  amount  of  blood-making  protein  matter, 
and  is,  as  a  source  of  such  matter,  very  cheap. 
Its  sale  under  a  proper  label  cannot,  therefore, 
be   objected   to   on   any   ground   whatever.    Of 


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ADULTERATION. 


se,  it  is  unfit  for  infants  and  often  for 
lids.  Milk  is  also  sometimes  adulterated 
he  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda,  common 
borax,  or  of  coloring  substances  like  arnotto 
).  Formaldehyde  is  the  most  dangerous  of 
adulterants    used    for    the    preservation    of 

and  other  articles  of  food,  and  its  use 
Id  be  strictly  forbidden  by  law.  Chalk, 
is'  brains,  and  similar  adulterants  are  not 
'n  to  be  used  anywhere  at  present,  and  have 
ips  never  been  used  at  all.  The  methods 
tecting  adulteration  which  are  noted  above 
apid  and  sufficient  for  ordinary  purposes  of 
-oiling  the  supply  of  milk.  When,  how- 
it  is  required  to  determine  precisely  the 
re  and  extent  of  adulteration,  quantitative 
ical  analysis  alone  can  furnish  the  desired 
mation.  The  most  important  steps  in  the 
'sis  are  the  determination  of  total  solids 
;he  determination  of  fat.     To  determine  the 

solids,  the  chemist  weighs  out  10  grams 
e  milk  in  a  platinum  dish,  adds  30  grams 
eshly  ignited  sand,  evaporates  on  a  water- 

and  dries  the  residue  in  an  oven  kept  at 
:  lOS**  C.  (221**  F.).  On  cooling,  he  weighs 
dry  residue  and  thus  finds  how  much 
%  and  hence  how  much  solids,  was  contained 
B  10  grams  of  milk  employed.  To  determine 
Bits,  a  known  quantity  of  milk  is  treated  with 
ary  ether,  which  is  an  excellent  solvent  for 

on  evaporating  the  ethereal  solution,  the 
remain  behind  and  may  be  weighed  directly, 
alitative  examination  for  nitrates  is  useful, 
ise  pure  milk  contains  none  of  these  salts, 
!  natural  waters,  especially  if  bad,  contain 

in  considerable  quantities,  and  thus  the 
eration  of  milk  with  natural  waters  may 

be  readily  detected.  TTic  skimming  of 
has  often  been  masked  by  the  addition  of 
^n  animal  fats,  the  detection  of  which  may 
matter  of  considerable  difficulty.  The  nutri- 
value  of  some  such  fats  is  much  inferior  to 
of  the  natural  fat  of  milk,  and  hence  this 
of  fraud  is  no  less  damnable  than  the  other 
3  referred  to  above. 

iter  is  adulterated  by  the  mechanical  ad- 
ure  of  a  variety  of  substances,  including 
r,  buttermilk,  foreign  animal  and  vegetable 
cheese,  flour,  chalk,  common  salt,  gypsum, 
.  glucose,  borax,  boracic  and  salicylic  acids, 
ing  matters  like  aniline  yellow,  butter  yel- 
and  certain  natural  dyes.  The  amount  of 
r  in  unadulterated  butter  does  not  exceed 

the  amount  of  salt  in  salt-butter  should 
?xceed  5%.  Adulteration  in  butter  cannot 
lly  be  detected  except  by  chemical  analysis, 
principal  step  of  which  is  the  determination 
ts  by  extraction  with  ordinary  ether.  Oleo- 
•arine  is  not  a  bad  product,  but  should  be 
ifully  labelled  when  brought  to  the  market, 
also 'Butter;  Butter-Color;  and  Butter- 
ing. 

ecse  (Swiss  cheese)  is  often  found  adul- 
ed  with  foreign  fats,  potato  flour,  and  cer- 

coloring  substances.  The  fraud  can  be 
led  by  a  chemical  examination.  See  Cheese. 
ead  is  often  adulterated,  for  the  purpose  of 
oving  its  color,  with  alum  or  with  sulphate 
pper.  The  presence  of  these  substances  may 
etected  by  digesting  a  sample  of  the  bread 

water,  and  leaving  a  strip  of  pure  gelatine 
lontact  with  this  for  several  hours.  On 
)lving  the  gelatine  in  wood  alcohol  con- 
ing logrwood  and  ammonium  carbonate,  the 


presence  of  alum  is  shown  by  the  appearance  of 
a  blue  coloration.  The  presence  of  copper  sul- 
phate is  similarly  revealed  by  the  logwood  solu- 
tion turning  green.  The  addition  of  alum  may 
mask  the  unwholesome  qualities  of  poor  bread, 
and  may  thus  be  a  source  of  considerable  danger. 
On  the  other  hand,  its  normal  presence  in  bak- 
ing-powders is  considered  by  some  authorities  us 
entirely  free  from  objection  because,  according 
to  them,  the  alum  is  during  the  baking  process 
converted  into  an  insoluble,  and  hence  harmless, 
aluminum  phosphate. 

Flour  is  often  adulterated  by  the  addition  of 
cheaper  cereals,  and  the  presence  of  these  may 
be  detected  microscopically.  The  addition  of 
gypsum  and  other  mineral  matter  is  practiced 
much  more  extensively  in  the  European  coun- 
tries than  in  the  United  States.  The  presence  of 
such  adulterants  may  be  revealed  by  determin- 
ing the  amount  of  ash  left  on  burning  a  known 
quantity  of  flour. 

Confectionery  has  been  adulterated  with  a 
variety  of  coloring  substances,  poisonous  as  well 
as  harmless;  with  starch,  sawdust,  artificial 
"fruit  oils,"  crude  benzaldehyde,  and  a  variety 
of  other  substances.  Within  recent  years,  how- 
ever, the  adulteration  of  confectionery  has 
greatly  diminished. 

Coffee,  when  sold  in  the  ground  state,  is  often 
adulterated  with  considerable  amounts  of  chic- 
ory, roasted  beans  or  peas,  tanbark,  sawdust, 
stove-rust,  etc.  The  presence  of  adulterants 
may  be  detected  by  chemical  analysis,  the  prin- 
cipal steps  of  which  consist  in  the  determination 
of  the  percentage  of  matter  soluble  in  water, 
and  the  determination  of  sugars  before  and  after 
treatment  with  hot  mineral  acids.  The  latter 
cause  a  considerable  increase  of  sugar  in  pure 
coffee,  while  they  have  no  effect  on  the  amount 
of  sugar  contained  in  chicory. 

Tea  is  often  adulterated  with  the  leaves  of 
linden,  sage,  strawberry,  and  other  plants.  The 
presence  of  these  may  be  detected  microscopi- 
cally, or  else  by  determining  chemically  the 
amount  of  caffeine,  which  is  hardly  ever  les^^ 
than  1%  in  pure  tea.  "Spent  tea"  is  often  sold, 
and  to  make  the  infusion  appear  stronger  than 
it  really  is,  iron  salts  are  added  to  the  leaves. 
See  Tea. 

Cocoa  and  chocolate  are  often  found  to  con- 
tain flour,  potato  meal,  sawdust,  mutton  tallow, 
vegetable  oils,  and  a  variety  of  other  substance?. 
The  presence  of  adulterants  is  detected  by  deter- 
mining the  amounts  of  theobromine,  fat,  dextrin, 
starch,  and  inorganic  matter. 

Suqar^  that  is,  ordinary  white  cane  sugar,  is 
usually  very  pure.  Glucose,  terra  alba,  sand, 
and  certain  other  substances  are  sometimes, 
though  rarely,  used  as  adulterants.  On  tlm 
other  hand,  brown  sugars  often  contain  consid- 
erable amounts  of  glucose  and  other  adulterant r^. 
Pure  cane  sugar  has  a  dry,  white  appearance 
and  a  pure,  sweet  taste;  when  burned  it  leaver 
very  little  ash.  It  has  been  held  that  the  pres- 
ence of  4?/  of  sand  in  Manila  sugar  is  almost 
unavoidable.  If,  however,  it  is  possible  to  prove 
that  the  percentage  of  sand  has  been  intention- 
ally raised  by  the  seller  to  that  amount,  tlu* 
latter  is  punishable  criminally  under  modern 
statutes. 

Honey  is  often  largely  adulterated  ^^^^  syrup, 
meal,  corn-starch,  cane  sugar  »>«aT>e  svigar,  etc. 
The  fraud  can  only  be  det^^!,*  M  dvemVcaV 
analysis. 


^  I 


t^^'uiM 


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ADTTLTEBATION. 


Jellies  and  jama  are  often  adulterated  with 
gelatine,  glue,  and  with  more  or  less  injurious 
coloring  substances  and  artificial  "fruit  oils." 
The  adulteration  can  be  detected  only  by  a  care- 
ful chemical  examination.  Considerable  quan- 
tities of  zinc  oxide  have  been  found  in  preserved 
fruits. 

Miutard  is  seldom  sold  unadulterated.  The 
common  adulterant  being  flour  or  some  similar 
farinaceous  product,  the  fraud  can  usually  be 
detected  by  means  of  iodine,  which  reveals  the 
presence  of  starch  by  yielding  an  intense  blue 
eoloration.  The  microscope,  too,  is  useful  in 
examining  mustard. 

Pepper,  cinnamoHy  and  other  spices  are  adul- 
terated with  a  variety  of  substances,  the  presence 
of  which  can  usually  be  detected  by  the  use  of 
the  microscope.  Substances  passing  for  pepper 
have  sometimes  been  found  to  contain  no  pepper 
at  all,  and  to  be  made  up  entirely  of  mustard- 
husks,  powdered  capsicum,  starch,  gypsum,  sand, 
etc. 

Beer  has  been  found  to  contain  potash,  vitriol, 
alum,  licorice,  linseed,  tartar,  poppy  heads, 
chamomile,  pine  sprouts,  chicory,  henbane,  wild 
cherries,  picric  acid,  salicylic  acid,  etc.,  some 
of  these  substances  being  more  or  less  injurious 
to  health.  The  deleterious  qualities  of  poor  beer 
have  often  been  masked  by  the  addition  of  sali- 
cylic acid.  The  latter  substance  itself  is  com- 
paratively harmless,  though  large  amounts  of 
it  may  be  very  injurious;  its  use  in  Germany 
has  been  prohibited  by  law  mainly  because  it 
serves  to  conceal  the  properties  by  which  foul 
beer  may  otherwise  be  readily  recognized. 
Arsenic,  too,  has  been  found  in  samples  of  beer, 
and  in  Manchester,  England,  several  deaths  have 
been  reported  due  to  beer  thus  adulterated. 

Wines  are  adulterated  with  a  variety  of  sub- 
stances, most  of  which,  it  must  be  observed,  are 
harmless.  The  addition  of  such  substances  as 
water,  alcohol,  glycerin,  salicylic  acid,  potato 
syrup,  artificial  flavoring  substances,  natural  as 
well  as  artificial  coloring  substances,  cream  of 
tartar,  gypsum,  etc.,  is  extensively  practiced. 
Sugar  is  often  added  to  the  must,  so  as  to 
increase  the  amount  of  alcohol  in  the  resulting 
wine.  The  most  injurious  of  these  adulterants 
are  salicylic  acid  (if  present  in  large  quantities 
— as  is  often  the  case)  and  gypsum.  Salicylic 
acid  is  added  so  as  to  prevent  the  wine  from 
souring.  Gypsum  is  added  for  the  purpose  of 
precipitating  out  certain  organic  substances,  the 
presence  of  which  may  in  time  cause  the  wine 
to  become  turbid.  The  harm  done  by  the  addi- 
tion of  gypsum  is  due  to  the  transformation 
of  this  substance  into  acid  potassium  sulphate, 
considerable  quantities  of  which  are  injurious 
to  health.  Natural  coloring  substances  like 
cochineal,  huckleberry  juice,  cherry  juice,  etc., 
are  mostly  harmless.  On  the  other  hand,  arti- 
ficial coal-tar  colors  like  fuchsine  and  magenta, 
which  are  sometimes  detected  in  wine,  may  be 
quite  injurious  to  health.  The  presence  of  such 
colors  may  be  suspected  if  a  piece  of  woolen 
fabric  dipped  in  the  wine  is  dyed  pink,  though 
this  may  also  be  efl'ected  by  the  harmless  cochi- 
neal. Adulteration  of  wines  may  be  detected 
by  chemical  analysis,  the  principal  steps  of 
which  consist  in  determinations  oi  alcohol  and 
of  the  total  acidity,  and  in  an  examination  of 
the  residue  left  on  evaporating  a  known  quantity 
of  wine. 

Spirituous     liquors.    Whisky,     brandy,     and 


rum  are  sometimes  made  by  entirely  artificial 
processes.  Rum,  for  instance,  is  made  by  mix- 
ing dilute  alcohol  with  sugar,  caramel,  and  an 
artificial  "rum-ether;"  brandy  is  made  not  from 
wine,  but  by  mixing  dilute  alcohol  with  caramel 
and  a  little  syrup,  etc.  An  injurious  ingredient 
often  left  by  careless  or  unscrupulous  manufac- 
turers, in  genuine  as  well  as  in  artificial  spirits, 
is  the  well  known  fusel  oil,  whose  presence  may 
be  revealed  by  the  peculiar  odor  observed  on 
evaporating  a  few  drops  of  impure  ^irits  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand. 

Oils  and  fats.  The  adulteration  of  butter  has 
already  been  noted  above.  Olive  oil  is  often 
adulterated  with  cotton  seed  oil,  sesame  oil, 
ground-nut  oil,  etc.  The  presence  of  these  oils 
may  be  revealed  by  two  methods:  (1)  the  addi- 
tion of  strong  sulphuric  acid  to  a  given  quantity 
of  oil  causes  a  smaller  elevation  of  temperature 
in  the  case  of  pure  than  of  adulterated  olive  oil ; 
(2)  the  addition  of  nitric  acid  to  adulterated 
olive  oil  produces  a  distinct  coloration,  while 
pure  olive  oil  remains  unaffected.  With  some 
experience  on  the  part  of  the  operator,  these 
tests  are  quite  reliable. 

Vinegar  is  often  adulterated  by  the  addition 
of  water  and  of  cheap  mineral  acids,  like  sulphu- 
ric or  hydrochloric.  The  fraud  may  be  readily 
detected  chemically. 

Pickles  and  canned  articles  of  food  are  often 
found  to  contain  large  quantities  of  preservatives 
and  of  metallic  salts.  Salts  may  be  derived  from 
the  metals  of  the  can  or  of  the  solder,  in  which 
case  their  presence  may  be  due  to  criminal  care- 
lessness. Sometimes,  however,  metallic  salts  are 
added  by  traders  on  purpose;  green  copper  salts, 
for  instance,  are  often  found  in  French  peas  and 
in  pickles,  to  which  they  are  added  for  the  pur- 
pose of  improving  their  color.  The  presence  of 
salts  and  of  preservatives  may  be  aetected  by 
chemical  analysis.  It  may  also  be  mentioned 
here  that  careless  canning  may  result  in  putre- 
faction and  the  formation  of  highly  poisonous 
organic  substances,  for  the  effects  o]^  which  the 
manufacturers  must  be  considered  responsible. 

Drugs  are  sometimes  adulterated  by  the  addi- 
tion of  substances  resembling  the  genuine  arti- 
cles in  outward  appearance  but  having  none  of 
their  valuable  physiological  effects.  The  prac- 
tice can  not  be  denoun^  too  strongly  or  pun- 
ished too  severely.  The  fraud  can  usually  be 
detected  only  by  careful  chemical  examination. 

Tobacco  is  often  adulterated  with  artificial 
coloring  substances  and  fruit  oils,  the  presence 
of  which  may  be  detected  by  analysis  and  is  often 
revealed  by  the  aroma.  Suuff  is  often  found  to 
contain  considerable  amounts  of  lime  and  of  lead 
chromate. 

Colors  and  dyes  are  often  adulterated  with 
cheap  coloring  substances.  The  fraud  can  be 
detected  by  a  careful  expert  examination. 

Textile  fabrics  are  often  found  adulterated 
with  cheap  fibres,  with  salts,  and  with  excessive 
amounts  of  coloring  substances.  The  true  value 
of  a  fabric  can  be  revealed  by  chemical  analysis. 
Supposing  a  given  fabric  to  consist  of  silk,  wool, 
and  cotton,  the  following  facts  are  taken  advan- 
tage of  for  the  purpose  of  analysis :  The  coloring 
matter  of  fabrics  is  soluble  in  boiling  dilute 
hydrochloric  acid;  silk  fibre  is  soluble  in  a  boil- 
ing solution  of  basic  chloride  of  zinc:  wool  is 
soluble  in  a  solution  of  caustic  soda;  cotton 
fibre  is  practically  insoluble  in  these  reagents. 
Evidently,  by  treating  the  given  fabric  succes- 


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ADVANCE   GIJABD. 


)\y  with  the  several  reagents  just  mentioned, 

relative  amounts  of  its  constituents  may  be 
lily  revealed. 

'recious  metals  and  coins  have  been  debased 
the  admixture  of  cheap  metals,  the  presence 
which  may  be  readily  detected  by  a  syste- 
:ic  chemical  analysis.  Such  adulteration  has 
ays  been  regarded  legally  as  a  very  grave 
nse. 
onsult:  In  English,  Richards,  Food  Materials 

their  Adulterations  (Boston,  1886)  ;  Batter- 
[\,  Food  Adulteration  and  Its  Detection  (New 
k,  1887)  ;  Wedderburn,  A  Popular  Treatise 
the  Extent  and  Character  of  Food  Adultera- 
w  (Washington,  1890)  ;  Wedderburn,  Special 
iort  on  the  Extent  and  Character  of  Food 
ilterationSy  Including  State  and  Other  Laws 
ating  to  Foods  and  Beverages  (Washington, 
2)  ;  Wiley,  Richardson,  Crampton,  and  Spen- 

Foods  and  Food  Adulterants,  7  parts  (Wash- 
ton,  1887-92)  ;  Wedderburn,  Report  on  the 
ent  and  Chara<;ter  of  Food  and  Drug  Adul- 
ition  (Washington,  1894)  ;  Bower,  Simple 
\hods  for  Detecting  Food  Adulterations  (Lon- 
,  1895).  In  French,  BuTcker,  Traits  des 
nfications  et  alterations  des  substances  ali- 
itaires  et  des  boissons  (Paris,  1892)  ;  Bellen- 
,  Manuel  de  VInspecteur  des  denries  alimen' 
-es  (Paris,  1894)  ;  Chevallier  et  Baudriroont, 
tionnaire  des  alterations  et  falsifications  des 
stances  alimentaires^  medicamenteuses  et 
imercialeSy   avec   Vindication   des   moyens   de 

reconnaitre  (Paris,  1893-97).  In  German, 
essmayer.  Die  Verfdlschung  der  wi<^htigsten 
hrungS'  und  Oenussmittel  vom  chemischen 
ndpunkte  in  populdrer  Darstellung  (Augs- 
g,  1881);  Dammer,  Illustrirtes  Lexikon  der 
-fdlschungen  und  Verunreinigungen  der  Nahr- 
js-  und  Genu^ssnUtiel,  der  Kolonialwaaren, 
\guen,    geicerhlichen    Produkte,    Dokumente, 

(I/cipzig,  1886).     For  further  bibliography. 

United  States   Internal  Revenue,   Series   7, 

15  (Washington,  1888). 
LDUI/TEBY  (Lat.  adulterium,  the  violation 
another's  bed,  from  ad,  to -\- alter,  other), 
le  voluntary  sexual  intercourse  of  a  married 
son  with  a  person  other  than  the  offender's 
iband  or  wife."  By  the  canon  law,  the  hus- 
id  and  wife  were  placed  on  the  same  footing; 
I  this  view  has  been  adopted  by  all  the  nations 
modern  Europe.  In  America  it  has  never 
n  doubted  that  the  offense  necessary  to  found 

sentence  of  divorce  is  committed  by  unlaw- 

sexual  intercourse  equally  whether  the  par- 
'ps  criminis  were  married  or  j*ingle.  In  Rome, 

Julian  law,  enacted  in  the  time  of  Augustus 
'  B.C.),  revised  the  previous  legislation  on  the 
iject,  and  imposed  special  penalties,  consist- 

of  forfeiture  of  goods  and  banishment,  both 
the  adulteress  and  the  paramour.  The  hus- 
id,  in  certain  cases,  was  permitted  to  kill  the 
ter,  and  the  father  might  sometimes  kill  both, 
constitution  of  Constantine,  the  authenticity 
which  has  been  doubted,  made  adultery  a 
>ital  offense  on  the  man's  part.  Whatever 
[i<itantine's  law  was,  it  was  confirmed  by  Jus- 
ian,  who  further  condemned  the  wife  to  be 
ipped,  and  imprisoned  in  a  convent  for  the 
i  of  her  days,  unless  relieved  by  her  husband 
thin  two  years  {Novel.  134,  c.  10).  The 
ense  was  visited  in  Athens  with  punishments 
•sely  resembling  those  of  the  earlier  Roman 
rislation.  In  many  Continental  countries  adul- 
7  is  still  treated  as  a  criminal  offense,  but  in 


none  of  them  does  the  punishment  now  exceed 
imprisonment  for  a  limited  period,  which  is  fre- 
quently accompanied  with  a  fine.  Lord  Coke 
says  that  by  the  law  of  England  in  early  timps 
adultery  was  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment. 
During  the  Commonwealth  it  was  made  a  capital 
offense,  but  this  law  was  not  confirmed  at  the 
Restoration.  In  Scotland  the  records  of  the 
court  of  justiciary  show  that  capital  punishment 
was  frequently  inflicted.  At  the  present  day  it 
is  punisnable  in  Great  Britain  only  by  ecclesi- 
astical censure,  and  even  this  may  be  regarded 
as  in  desuetude.  But  when  committed  by  the 
wife  it  was  regarded  as  a  civil  injury,  and,  till 
the  passing  of  the  stat.  20  and  21  Vict.  c.  85 
and  59,  formed  the  ground  of  an  action  of  dam- 
ages for  criminal  conversation  ( commonly  known 
as  an  action  of  crim.  con.)  by  the  husband 
against  the  paramour.  No  corresponding  action 
was  competent  to  the  wife,  either  in  England 
or  America,  until  recently,  and  her  only  remedy 
consisted  in  obtaining  a  separation  or  divorce. 
In  some  of  the  United  States  adultery  is  made 
criminal  bv  speeial  law,  in  some  the  act  itself 
is  not  a  crime,  but  open  and  continued  adultery^ 
amounting  to  a  public  nuisance,  is.  Some  stat* 
utes  define  the  crime,  some  only  state  the  pun- 
ishment; and  this  leaves  a  wide  margin  for 
interpretation  by  courts,  giving  rise  to  grent 
diversity  of  opinions  and  decisions.  Some  hold 
that  if  only  one  of  the  parties  be  married,  tlm 
other  does  not  commit  criminal  adultery;  some 
that  a  married  man  with  a  single  woman  doo^ 
not  commit  criminal  adultery,  because  the  aet 
cannot  impose  spurious  issue  on  a  husband  or 
wife.  See  Divorce,  and  the  authorities  there 
referred  to. 

AD  VALOREM  (Lat.,  according  to  the 
value).  A  phrase  used  in  customs  legislation 
to  designate  taxes  measured  by  the  value  of  the 
imi>orted  article;  i.e.,  a  certain  percentage  of 
the  value.  Such  duties,  inasmuch  as  they  fall 
with  just  proportion  upon  the  different  grades 
of  goods,  cheap  as  well  as  expensive,  are  in  thi?- 
ory  the  most  satisfactory.  They  involve,  however, 
a  cumbrous  and  often  ineflicient  machinery  iof 
the  ascertainment  of  values,  and  from  the  stand- 
point of  customs  administration  are  deemed 
inferior  to  specific  duties,  which  levy  a  definite 
tax  upon  a  given  unit  of  measure  ( pound,  bushel, 
gallon,  etc.)  of  the  imported  articles.  The  tar- 
iffs of  the  United  States  embrace  both  kinds  of 
duties,  and  sometimes,  especially  in  the  case  of 
woolen  goods,  combine  them. 

ADVANCE'  GUABD.  Troops  on  the  march 
are  in  a  formation  in  which  they  cannot  fi^dit» 
and  when  they  come  upon  the  enemy  they  must 
first  deploy.  This  takes  time,  especially  in  lar^'e 
columns,  consequently  such  columns  require  (h»- 
tachments  to  protect  them  against  surprise, 
which  in  an  advance  are  placed  ahead  of  th** 
column  and  are  called  advance  guards.  G(wn\ 
reconnaissance  by  the  cavalry  screen  in  front  of 
the  army  is  the  best  protection,  but  this  cavalry 
may  at  any  time  be  beaten  by  the  enemy  and 
forced  off  to  one  flank,  or  it  ttyov  have  been 

he 


drawn  off  in  pursuit  of  the  etxe^w^v's  cavalry, 
hence  immediate  protection  for  tW  heft^^  ^^  ^^^^ 
columns  is  still  a  necessity.  Th^^^^  ^^  oi  'Lhe 
advance  guard  depends  on  the  ^W^^.^^  ot  ^^* 
screening  cavalry,  but  should  hr^^r\i\^^  k,  i^t*' 
sary  on  account 'of  the  arduous  vLa  \^^\  fft^^^^*^^" 
at  the  same  time  the  units  shcw^  ^  v^    \k  4  .    .^leii 


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ADVANCE  GXTABD. 


134 


ADVAKCE3lfl:ENT  OF  SCIENCE. 


A  company  or  squadron  requires  only  a  cavalry 
patrol  in  front  of  it  as  advance  guard,  and 
stronger  columns  would  demand  greater  forces, 
depending  on  the  circumstances.  In  the  first 
place,  the  cavalry  division  belongs  to  the  ad- 
vance guard,  but  in  this  case  its  duty  is  more 
security  and  protection  than  reconnaissance; 
consequently  it  remains  nearer  than  in  screen- 
ing, and  fights,  rather  than  avoids,  the  enemy's 
patrol.  In  the  case  of  a  mixed  column  of  all 
arms,  the  advance  guard  must  have  infantry,  but 
how  much  depends  on  circumstances.  An  in- 
fantry division  usually  requires  a  regiment,  but 
a  battalion  is  often  sufficient.  Artillery  is  also 
assigned  to  it,  usually  only  a  battery,  at  most  a 
battalion.  Engineers  are  usually  attached,  with  a 
bridge  train;  often  also  a  balloon  section.  The 
advance  guard  is  divided  into  the  main  guard 
and  the  vanguard;   the  latter  consisting,  for  a 


CAYALRT  BCRKKN 

OUT  IN  FRONT. 


CAYALRT 
POINT. 


ABOUT  1000  TARD8. 

666666666  inkantrt 

66  POINT. 


8  COMPANTS8. 
BNOINSSBB. 

1000  YARDS. 


I    ARTILLBRT 

r 

I    BATTALION. 

J 

BATTALION. 

BRIDGS  TRAIN. 
AMBULANOB. 

ARTILLERY 
2d  ECHKLON. 


FORMATIOX   OF  ADVANCE   GUABD. 

(According  to  Meckel.) 

regiment,  of  a  battalion;  for  a  battalion,  of  a 
company  of  infantry,  with  the  engineers  and  a 
part  of  the  cavalry  present;  the  artillery  is  in 
the  main  guard.  Before  the  vanguard  marches 
the  infantry  point,  and  before  the  latter  the  cav- 
alry point,  or  the  cavalry  of  the  vanguard  with 
its  point,  consisting  of  three  or  four  men  under 
a  non-commissioned  officer.  The  infantry  point 
marches  on  the  road  in  closed  or  dispersed  order, 
and  does  not  stop  to  reconnoitre  small  places. 
For  observation  of  the  surrounding  country  the 
cavalry  point  is  designed.  It  looks  up  observa- 
tion points,  moves  rapidly  from  one  to  the  other, 
and  keeps  touch  to  the  rear  by  means  of  sepa- 
rate horsemen.  The  infantry  point  keeps  touch 
to  the  rear  by  means  of  single  infantrymen  or 
cvclists.     If  the  main  column  halts  for  a  con- 


siderable time  the  advance  guard  takes  up  tem- 
porarily the  duties  of  outposts,  but  must  keep 
up  reconnaissance.  Every  column  of  march  mu<t 
also  be  protected  on  the  flanks  by  patrols,  and, 
wlien  these  small  bodies  are  not  sufficient,  a  flank 
guard  must  be  organized. 

In  a  retreat  a  rear  guard  is  formed,  and 
since  the  latter  cannot,  as  a  rule  (like  the  ad- 
vance or  flank  guard),  count  on  the  immediate 
support  of  the  main  body,  it  must  be  stronger 
than  either  of  the  others,  and  requires  more  ar- 
tillery, and  also  cavalry,  the  latter  playing  the 
part  of  mounted  infantry  in  this  case.  All  Euro- 
pean armies,  except  the  German,  have  a  small 
rear  guard  besides  the  advance  guard  in  an  ad- 
vance. France  and  Russia  have  very  strong 
advance  guards  and  send  them  far  out  to  the 
front.  See  Outpost,  Reconnaissaj7ce,  Battle 
and  Tactics,  Military. 

ADVANCE^MENT.  In  law,  a  gift  by  a 
parent  to  a  child  of  all  or  a  portion  of  the 
share  of  the  parent's  personal  property  to  which 
the  child  would  be  entitled  upon  the  death  of 
the  advancer  intestate.  An  advancement  has 
the  effect  of  redi/bing  by  its  amount  the  dis- 
tributive portion  that  would  come  to  the  receiver 
upon  the  death  of  the  parent.  The  doctrine  of 
advancement  is  applicable  only  to  gifts  from 
parent  to  child,  but  has  been  extended  to  gifts  to 
others  by  statute  in  some  States.  An  advance- 
ment is  not  required  to  be  made  in  any  particu- 
lar form.  Any  such  gift  is  presumptively  an 
advancement,  but  the  contrary  may  be  shown. 
The  subject  is  now  generally  regulated  by  stat- 
ute, and  in  many  jurisdictions  real  estate  may 
be  given  by  M'ay  of  advancement  to  the  heir. 
(See  Ademption.)  Considt:  Thornton,  L<i\c 
Relating  to  Gifts  and  Advancements  (Philadel- 
phia, 1893). 

ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCI'ENCE,  Associa 
tions  for  the.  Important  bodies  of  scientific 
men  in  America,  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
other  countries.  The  purpose  of  these  associa- 
tions is  to  emphasize  the  solidarity  and  unity 
of  interests  among  workers  in  all  branches  of 
science,  to  give  a  stronger  impulse  to  scientific 
research,  both  theoretical  and  practical,  and  to 
gain  for  scientific  achievement  a  more  imme- 
diate recognition  and  a  wider  usefulne*?. 
through  the  means  of  financial  bequests,  the 
publication  of  Reports,  and  the  offering  of  spe- 
cial facilities  for  the  prosecution  of  original  and 
difficult  scientific  work.  The  organization  of  the 
societies  was  one  of  the  numerous  manifesta- 
tions of  the  scientific  spirit  of  the  nineteenth 
century;  and  the  continued  growth  of  this  spirit 
was  shoA^Ti  at  a  joint  meeting  of  the  British  and 
French  associations  in  September,  1899,  when 
plans  were  formulated  for  an  international  asso- 
ciation for  the  advancement  of  science,  art.  and 
education.  The  first  meeting  of  this  interna- 
tional association  was  held  in  Paris  during  the 
exposition  of  1900.  The  American  Association 
for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  now  one  of  the 
most  noted  scientific  societies  of  America,  was 
founded  in  1847  as  an  outgrowth  of  the  associa- 
tion of  American  geologists  and  naturalists. 
The  association  is  organized  in  ten  sections,  each 
of  which  holds  its  own  convention  at  the  annual 
meeting  of  the  association  during  the  summer. 
The  sections  embrace  the  following  departmenU 
of  science:  A,  mathematics  and  astronomy;  B, 
physics;    0,   chemistry;    D,   mechanical  science 


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ADVANCEMENT  OF  SCIENCE. 


135 


ADVENTISTS. 


engineering;  E,  geology  and  geography;  F, 
ogy;    6',  botany;   //,  anthropology;   /,  social 

economic  science;  A',  physiology  and  ex- 
mental  medicine.  The  association  also 
es  as  a  centre  for  the  meeting  of  a  number 
important  special  scientific  societies  which 
?  become  connected  with  it.  The  association 
lishes  annually  a  volume  of  proceedings,  and 
1901  became  affiliated  with  the  journal 
ncc,  making  it  the  semi-official  organ  of  the 
?ty.  The  membership  of  the  society  is  about 
).  The  British  Association  for  the  Ad- 
?ement     of    Science    was    founded    in     the 

of  York  in  1831,  under  the  leadership  of 
id  Brewster  and  with  the  cooperation  of 
y  of  the  most  prominent  men  of  the  time, 
annual  meetings  of  the  association  are  held 
a  week  each  summer,  and  consist  mainly  of 
Ts  read  before  the  several  sections  of  the 
?ty  and  of  conferences  following  them.  The 
?ty  is  divided  into  ten  sections,  each  having 
)wn  president  and  governing  committee.  The 
»ty    sets    aside    yearly    a    large    sum    for 

prosecution  of  scientific  researches  which 
ire  special  apparatus  ond  the  employ- 
t  of  assistants.  The  membership  of  the 
ciation      is     about     5500.       Reports     have 

published  since  1831.  The  French  Associa- 

for  the  Advancement  of  Science  {L^Asso- 
on  Frangaise  pour  Vavanvement  des  set- 
8)  was  formed  in  1865  at  Lille  and  now 
ides  nearly  all  French  scientists  of  promi- 
e.  The  work  of  the  society  is  carried  on 
ugh  general  meetings,  publications,  and  the 
>wal  of  prizes  for  brilliant  scientific  work, 
four  sections  into  which  the  society  is  di- 
i  are  those  of  the  mathematical,  the  phys- 
and  chemical,  the  hatural,  and  the  economic 
ices.  Records  of  its  proceedings  and  of  the 
itific  work  accomplished  under  its  guidance 

been  published  since  the  association's  or- 
zation. 

IKVENT  (Lat.  adventus,  the  approach, 
ng),  or  TIME  OF  ADVENT.  A  term  ap- 
l  by  the  Christian  Church  to  certain  weeks 
re  Christmas.  In  the  Greek  Church  the  time 
Advent  comprises  forty  days;  but  in  the 
an  Church  and  those  Protestant  churches  in 
h  Advent  is  observed,  only  four  weeks.  The 
n  of  this  festival  as  a  church  ordinance  is 
?lear.  A  synod  ai  Saragossa,  Spain,  in  380, 
ined  that  every  one  must  attend  church 
;  December  17  to  Epiphany;  but  not  till 
sixth  century  was  Advent  fully  adopted  as 
urch  season.  The  four  Sundays  of  Advent, 
bserved  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  and 
Church  of  England,  were  probably  intro- 
d  into  the  calendar  by  Gregory  the  Great, 
as  cqmmon  from  an  early  period  to  speak  of 
coming  of  Christ  as  fourfold:  his  "first 
ng  in  the  flesh;"  his  coming  at  the  hour  of 
h  to  receive  his  faithful  followers  (accord- 
to  the  expressions  used  by  St.  John)  ;  his 
ng  at  the  fall  of  Jerusalem  (Matthew  xxiv  : 

and  at  the  day  of  judgment.  According  to 
fourfold  view  of  Advent,  the  "gospels"  were 
en  for  the  four  Sundays,  as  was  settled  in 
veatera  church  by  the  Homilarium  of  Charle- 
'e.  The  season  of  Advent  is  intended  to 
d  ill  spirit  with  the  object  celebrated.  As 
An^  were  once  called  upon  to  prepare  them- 
s  lor  the  personal  coming  of  Christ,  so,  ac- 
ing  to  the  idea  that  the  ecclesiastical  year 
lid  represent  the  life  of  the  founder  of  the 


Church,  Christians  are  exhorted,  during  this  Rea- 
son, to  look  for  a  spiritual  advent  of  Chrij^t. 
The  time  of  the  year  when  the  shortening  days 
are  hastening  toward  the  solstice — which  sil- 
most  coincides  with  the  festival  of  the  Nutiviiy 
— is  thought  to  harmonize  with  the  strt^in  of 
sentiment  proper  during  Advent.  In  opposition, 
possibly,  to  heathen  festivals,  observed  by  an- 
cient Romans  and  Germans,  which  took  pliiee  at 
the  same  season,  the  Catholic  Church  onUiined 
that  the  four  weeks  of  Advent  should  be  kept  as 
a  time  of  penitence;  according  to  the  words  of 
Christ:  "Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is 
at  hand."  During  these  Aveeks,  therefore,  puhliij 
amusements,  marriage  festivities,  and  dunring 
were  prohibited,  fasts  Avere  appointed,  and  nom- 
bre  garments  Avere  used  in  religious  cereinonioH. 
The  Protestant  Church  in  Germany  has  also  alt- 
stained  from  public  recreations  and  celebrntionrt 
of  marriage  during  Advent.  In  the  Greek  Church 
the  season  dates  from  a  period  much  later  thi\n 
in  the  Latin,  perhaps  not  till  the  tenth  century. 
AIXVENTISTS.  A  family  of  religiouH  de- 
nominations which,  accepting  the  inspiration  of 
the  Scriptures,  taking  the  Bible  as  their  rule  of 
faith,  and  holding  to  the  fundamental  doctrinps 
of  the  Christian  churches  generally,  expet't  the 
near  approach  of  the  end  of  the  world  and  the 
personal  second  coming  of  Christ.  They  arose 
from  the  preaching  of  William  Miller,  wiio 
taught,  from  1831  on,  as  the  results  of  his 
studies  of  the  prophetic  books  of  the  Bible, 
that  the  end  of  the  world  would  come  in 
1843,  and  be  followed  by  the  coming  of  Christ 
and  the  installation  of  the  millennium.  \\  lien 
1843  had  passed  the  date  was  changed  to  Ot*to- 
ber,  1844.  Mr.  Miller  was  joined  by  other 
preachers,  and  several  thousand  followers  were 
gathered  from  many  churches.  The  Advent  i -its 
now,  as  a  rule,  simply  await  the  second  advt^nt 
without  attempting  to  fix  a  date  for  it.  A 
declaration  adopted  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1845, 
set  forth  a  belief  in  the  visible  personal  coming 
of  Christ  at  an  early  but  indefinite  time:  I  lie 
resurrection  of  the  dead,  both  the  just  and  the 
unjust,  and  the  beginning  of  the  millenniuui 
after  the  resurrection  of  the  saints;  but  denying 
that  there  is  any  promise  of  the  world's  conver- 
sion, and  that  the  saints  enter  upon  their  in- 
heritance at  death  The  Ad  vent  i  sis  baptize  by 
immersion;  and,  except  the  Seventh  Day  bnineli 
and  the  Church  of  God,  are  congregational  in 
polity. 

1.  The  Evangelical  Adventists.  The  Ameri- 
can Millennial  Association  was  formed  in  LS45 
for  the  publication  and  circulation  of  denoiiii' 
national  literature.  The  Evangelical  AdventisU 
began  to  call  themselves  by  that  name  in  1S45. 
They  believe  that  all  the  dead  will  be  raised,  tbe 
saints  first,  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  milleniiiul 
reign  with  Christ  and  eternal  bliss  after  the 
judgment,  and  the  wicked  last,  to  be  sent  into 
everlasting  punishment,  and  that  the  dead  in 
Hades  are  conscious.  They  have  about  34  min- 
isters, 30  churches,  and  1147  members.  LiVni- 
ture:  H.  F.  Hill,  The  Saints*  Inheritance  (Ben- 
ton, 1852);  D.  T.  Taylor,  The  J^^ign  of  Chri.^t 
(Boston,  1889)  :  J.  Litch,  Z)tVi/.s8jQ|t  on  tho  M d- 
lennium    (Boston,  between  1860  ^-^  1865 "►■ 

2.  Advent  Christians.  The  p^a^  an^^ix 'na- 
tion of  this  body  was  formed  iv^^^^^l'    The  Ad- 


vent Christians  believe  that 


.'^^^l 


^^6\. 


fA  Uv 


immortality,  but  forfeited   it     ^  wjvft  ^     ^(v,  mw\ 
can  become   partner   of  the    -:i  ^,V     ,t(A^      f*^  ^^^^^ 


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ADVSHTIST& 


136 


ADVEBB. 


live  forever  only  through  faith  in  JesuB  Christ; 
that  death  is  a  condition  of  unconsciousness  to 
all  till  the  resurrection  at  Christ^s  second  com- 
ing, when  the  righteous  will  receive  everlasting 
life  and  the  wicked  will  be  punished  w*ith  com- 
plete extinction  of  being;  and  that  salvation  is 
free  to  all  who  in  this  life  will  accept  the  condi- 
tions. They  have,  in  different  parts  of  the 
United  States,  912  ministers,  610  churches,  and 
26,500  members,  with  a  Bible  institute.  The 
principal  publication  society  is  in  Boston.  The 
missionary'  society,  with  a  total  annual  income  of 
about  $14,500,  sustains  foreign  missions  in  Eng- 
land, the  Cape  Verde  Islands,  India,  and  China. 
In  home  missions,  it  is  aided  by  the  £a8tern,West- 
ern,  and  Southern  Boards,  and  by  the  woman's 
society  called  "the  Helper's  Union.'*  It  also  has 
charge  of  a  church  extension  fund.  The  five  lead- 
ing periodicals  are:  The  World*8  Crisis,  and  all 
Sunday  school  publications  (Boston)  ;  All  Na- 
tions' Monthly  (missionary)  (Rockland,  Me.), 
and  other  journals.  Literature:  J.  G.  Wellcome, 
History  of  the  Second  Advent  Message  (Yar- 
mouth, Me.),  1874)  ;  Charles  L.  Ives,  The  Bible 
Doctrine  of  the  Soul  (Philadelphia,  1877);  E. 
A.  Stockman,  Our  Hope  (Boston,  1884)  ;  Mrs. 
L.  C.  McKinatrey,  The  World's  Great  EmpiYes 
(Haverhill,  Mass.,  1887);  Rev.  H.  Constable, 
Hades,  or  the  Intermediate  State  of  Man  (Bos- 
ton, 1885). 

3.  Se\'enth  Day  Adventists.  The  doctrine  of 
the  obligation  of  the  seventh  day  as  the  Sabbath 
was  adopted  by  a  body  of  Adventists  at  Wash- 
ington, X.  H.,  in  184*5.  A  journal  started  at 
Paris,  Me.,  was  removed  to  Battle  Creek,  Mich., 
and  a  publishing  house  was  established  there  in 
1860.  The  general  conference  has  declared  the 
belief  that  the  cleansing  of  the  sanctuary  and 
the  beginning  of  the  investigative  judgment  were 
the  events  marked  in  the  prophecies  for  1843-44, 
which  came  to  their  fulfillment  then.  The  Sev- 
enth Day  Adventists  hold  that  the  dead  sleep  un- 
til the  judgment  and  the  unsaved  are  destroyed; 
apply  the  vision  of  the  two-horned  beast  in 
Revelations  to  the  United  States;  believe  that  the 
gift  of  prophecy  still  abides,  and  that  the  revela- 
tions of  Mrs.  Ellen  G.  White  were  inspired; 
insist  on  total  abstinence  and  the  care  of  health 
as  religious  duties;  are  vegetarians,  and  practice 
tithing.  They  had,  in  1900,  386  ministers,  1494 
churches,  and  57,539  members,  with  seven  pub- 
lishing houses  in  America,  Europe,  and  Aus- 
tralia, health  institutes  or  sanitariums  and  edu- 
cational institutions  in  several  States,  and  a 
missionary  society  which  has  extended  its  work 
into  nearly  every  quarter  where  missionaries  go, 
and  has  built  up  church  organizations  in  sev- 
eral countries.  The  general  conference  is  their 
chief  and  supreme  court.  The  district  confer- 
ences were  grouped  by  the  general  conference  of 
1901  into  six  union  conferences  co<)perating  with 
the  general  conference.  Periodicals:  The  Advent 
Review  and  Sabbath  Herald  (weekly),  (Battle 
Creek,  Mich.)  ;  The  General  Conference  Quarterly 
(Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  1870)  ;  Spirit  of  Prophecy, 
Liberty,  monthly  (New  York)  ;  26  periodicals 
in  six  languages,  14  in  the  United  States.  Lit- 
erature: J.  N.  AndrcAvs,  History  of  the  Sabbath 
and  First  Day  (Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  1873); 
Mrs.  Ellen  G.  White,  The  Great  Controversy 
(Battle  Creek,  Mich.,  1870)  ;  Spirit  of  Prophecy, 
Testimonies  (1870)  ;  Elder  James  White,  Ser- 
mons; Uriah  Smith,  Thoughts  on  Daniel  and 
the  Revelation  (1882). 


4.  The  Chubgh  of  God.  It  was  formed  after 
a  division  among  the  Seventh  Day  Adventists, 
1864-65,  concerning  the  acceptance  of  the  revela- 
tions of  Mrs.  E.  G.  Wliite  as  inspired  and  the 
application  of  Revelation  zii  :  11-17  to  the 
United  States.  It  holds  to  the  mortality  of  man 
and  unconsciousness  in  death;  resurrection  of 
the  righteous  to  everlasting  life  and  of  the 
wicked  to  judgment  and  final  extinction;  ob- 
serves the  seventh  day  and  practices  tithing. 
The  general  conference  is  the  head  of  its  work 
and  the  State  conferences  are  subordinate  to  it 
It  has  19  ministers,  26  churches,  and  647  mem- 
bers, with  a  publishing  house  at  Stanberry,  Mo., 
and  a  sanitarium  at  White  Cloud,  Mich.  Peri- 
odicals: The  Bible  Advocate,  The  Sabbath  School 
Missionary  (Stanberry,  Mo.).  Literature:  A. 
P.  Dugger,  Bible  Sabbath  Defended  (Marion,  la., 
1881);  Jacob  BrinkerhofT,  Kingdom  of  Heaven 
Upon  Earth  (1882)  ;  W.  C.  Long,  The  End  of 
the  Ungodly  (1886). 

6.  Life  and  Advent  Union.  Organized  1860. 
The  distinctive  feature  of  its  belief  is  that  those 
who  die  in  sin  have  no  resurrection  but  are 
doomed  to  sleep  eternally,  while  the  righteous 
rise  to  immortality.  A  general  conference  meets 
every  year,  and  quarterly  conferences  have  been 
instituted  in  some  places.  Four  camp-meetings 
are  held  every  year — in  New  England  and  Vir- 
ginia. The  missionary  work  is  carried  on,  in  the 
home  field  only,  by  two  societies,  one  of  which  is 
organized  among  the  young  people.  The  Union 
has  in  the  United  States  60  ministers,  28 
churches,  and  3800  members.  Periodicals:  The 
Herald  of  Life,  weekly  (Springfield,  Mass.). 
Literature:  O.  S.  Halstead,  The  Theology  of  the 
Bible  (Newark,  N.  J.,  1860)  ;  Discussion  Bettceen^ 
Miles  Grant  and  J,  T.  Curry  (Boston,  1863); 
Pile,  W.  N.,  The  Doctrine  of  Conditional  /mmor- 
tality  (Springfield,  Mass.)  ;  Th^  Coming  King- 
dom of  God  (Springfield,  Mass.);  Brown,  Wm. 
E.,  The  Divine  Key  of  Redemption  (Springfield, 
Mass. )  ;  **A  Disciple,"  Redemption  ( Springfield, 
Mass.). 

6.  The  CnrRCHES  of  God  (Age-to-Come  Ad- 
ventists) believe  in  the  final  restitution  of  all 
things;  the  establishment  of  the  kingdom  of 
God  on  the  earth,  with  Christ  as  king  of  kings 
and  the  immortal  saints  joint  heirs  with  him; 
the  restoration  of  Israel;  the  final  destruction 
of  the  wicked,  and  eternal  life  only  through 
Christ.  The  journal,  the  Restitution^  \vas  begun 
in  1851,  and  a  general  conference  representing 
thirteen  States  was  formed  in  1888.  The 
Churches  have  94  ministers,  95  churches,  and 
2872  members  in  the  United  States,  and  churches 
in  Canada.  Periodicals:  The  Restitution  (Ply- 
mouth, Ind.)  ;  The  Rock,  and  Words  of  Cheer 
(both  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.).  Literature:  J.  P. 
Weethee,  The  Coming  Age    (Chicago,   1884). 

ADVEN'TIVE  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  venire,  to 
come).  A  plant  which  is  but  incompletely  nat- 
uralized (see  Naturalization)  is  said  to  be 
adventive.  Most  adventive  plants  are  spontane- 
ous for  a  few  years  and  then  disappear,  while  a 
few  species  become  more  and  more  numerous 
and  ultimately  become  naturalized. 

ADVENTURES  OP  AN  AT'OM,  The.  A 
satire  by  Tobias  Smollett,  published  in  1769,  and 
treating,  under  a  Japanese  disguise,  of  English 
politics  during  the  preceding  fourteen  years. 

AD'VEBB  (Lat.  adverbium,  from  ad,  to  + 
verbum,  word,  verb,  "the  word"  of  a  sentence 


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ADVEKB. 


137  ADVEBTISEliENTS  OF  ELIZABETH. 


excellence.  A  literal  translation  by  the 
an  grammarians  of  the  Gk.  kni^fia^  epir- 
la,  from  f r/,  epi,  at  +  /^."o.  rh€ma,  word, 
).  As  an  adjective  is  joined  to  a  noun/ so 
1  adverb  joined,  for  analogous  purposes,  to 
rb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb.  From 
frequency  with  which  adverbs  are  joined 
*rbs,  only  the  adverbs  of  degree  modifying 
■  parts  of  speech,  they  get  their  name.  An 
rb  caanot  be  the  subject,  the  copula,  or  the 
icate  of  a  proposition;  and  is,  therefore,  a 
idary  part  of  speech,  logically  speaking, 
rding  to  their  signification,  adverbs  may 
ivided  into  (1)   adverbs  of  place  and  direc- 

as  where f  towards;  (2)  of  time,  as  ever, 
diately;  (3)  of  degree,  as  very,  almost ;  (4) 
lanner,  a^  tfiMSf  wisely;  (5)  of  belief  or 
t,  as  perhaps,  no,  etc.     It  is  commonly  said 

"some  adverbs  admit  of  comparison;"  as 

this  respect  they  differed  from  adjectives, 
truth  is  that  adverbs  admit  of  comparison 
r  the  same  limitations,  neither  more  nor 
that  restrict  the  comparison  of  adjectives. 
,  soon  is  compared  as  naturally  as  hard, 
»U7  or  thus  cannot  be  compared,  neither  can 
?n  nor  circular;  and  in  both  cases  for  the 

reason — the  sense  forbids  it.  The  laws  of 
ony  prevent  alike  miserable  and  miserably 

being  compared  grammatically,  i.e.,  by  the 
:ion  of  er  and  est;  but  both  admit  of  logical 
larison  by  the  use  of  more  and  most,  A 
I  class  of  adverbs  in  English  are  formed 
adjectives  by  annexing  the  syllable  ly, 
b  is  derived  from  the  word  like.  Most  lan- 
es have  some  such  means  of  distinguishing 
idverb  from  the  adjective,  but  in  Grerman 

are  alike.  Adverbs  in  general  may  be 
^d  upon  as  abbreviations  of  phrases;  thus, 
=  in  this  place,  then  =  at  that  time,  wisely 
:e  a  toise  man.  Combinations  of  words  that 
thus  be  represented  by  a  single  adverb,  and 
combinations  that  are  analogous,  though 
may  have  no  single  word  equivalent  to  them, 
tailed  adverbial  expressions. 
3^EBSE  POSSESSION.  The  possession 
nds  under  a  claim  of  title  inconsistent  with 

of  the  true  owner.  It  originates  in  the 
izin  (q.v.)  or  ouster  of  the  freehold  tenant, 

if  continued  for  the  statutory  period  of 
ation,  results  in  the  acquisition  of  a  corn- 
title  by  the  adverse  possessor  or  disseizor, 
rder  to  constitute  a  good  adverse  possession 
5  must  be  an  actual  occupancy  (pedis  pos- 
!>)  of  the  premises  claimed,  and  an  exclu- 
of  the  rightful  owner  from  the  whole  there- 
The  possession  must  be  open  and  notorious, 
^ntinued  withotlt  interruption  for  the  requi- 
period.  It  need  not  be  continued  by  one  and 
»ame  person,  however;   a  subsequent  occu- 

who  claims  by  descent,  devise,  or  grant  from 
mer  occupant  being  entitled  to  tack  his  pos- 
on  to  that  of  his  predecessor  in  order  to  make 
he  requisite  period  of  adverse  holding.  In 
(  of  the  United  States  it  is  not  even  necessary 

the  subsequent  occupant  shall  show  a  legal 
sfer  of  the  property  to  him  in  order  to  con- 

his  possession  with  that  of  the  original 
iizor  in  order  to  tack  the  two  periods.  The 
n  of  title  required  of  the  adverse  possessor 
3t  an  assertion  of  a  legal  right,  but  only  an 
ous  intention  to  hold  as  owner.  This  may 
innocent,  as  under  a  will  or  deed  which 
'es  to  be  void,  or  unintentional,  as  by  the 
dental  inclusion  of  another's  land  with  that 


of  the  occupant,  or  it  may  be  with  the  delibernte 
intention  of  gaining  for  one's  self  land  belonging 
to  another.  The  existence  of  the  requisite  inten- 
tion, or  claim  of  title,  is  a  question  of  fact  to 
be  determined  from  the  circumstances  of  the 
occupancy.  In  some  of  the  United  States  cer- 
tain acts  (as  fencing,  improvement  of  the  prem- 
ises, or  actual  residence)  have  been  prescribed 
by 'statute  as  reauisite  to  prove  the  intention. 
In  general  the  claim  of  the  adverse  posscsnor 
is  limited  to  the  land  actually  occupied;  but 
where  the  claim  is  under  color  of  title  (ij?., 
under  a  deed,  will,  or  other  instrument  despril>- 
ing  a  definite  parcel  of  land)  the  actual  occupa- 
tion of  a  part  may  be  extended  by  construction 
to  the  whole  parcel  so  described.  This  doctrine 
of  "constructive  adverse  possession'*  is  a  modern 
addition  to  the  law  of  disseizin,  and  is  peculiar 
to  the  United  States.  The  period  of  time  re- 
quired to  ripen  an  adverse  possession  into  a 
valid  and  indefeasible  title  varies  greatly,  but 
it  is  usually  fixed  by  statute  at  twenty  year!?, 
(See  Limitation  of  Actions.)  The  subject  ia 
fully  considered  in  all  the  leading  treatises  on 
real  property.  Stephen  M.  Leake  and  Joshua 
Williams  are  the  modern  English  authoritit^s ; 
Emory  Washbume  is  the  leading  Amerlcitn 
writer,  but  his  treatise  should  be  read  with 
caution. 

ADVES^SITT  HUME.  A  nickname  givon 
to  the  parliamentarian  Joseph  Hume  (q.v J, 
who  was  noted  for  his  attention  to  financial 
abuses  in  the  government,  and  whose  predictions 
of  a  crisis  were  justified  in  1825. 

ABVEB^ISEMENT.  In  legal  phraseology, 
a  process  resorted  to  whenever  actual  notice  is 
necessary  but  is  legally  or  physically  impossible 
(as  by  reason  of  a  want  of  jurisdiction  of  Urn 
parties  to  be  notified,  or  ignorance  of  thoir 
whereabouts).  Publication  must  be  made  in  a 
newspaper  published  at  or  as  near  as  possible 
to  the  place  where  the  persons  to  he  affeoled 
when  last  heard  of  resided.  Such  advertisenieiit 
in  law  is  construed  to  have  the  same  effect  a  a 
actual  service  of  the  notice,  as,  for  example,  in 
proceedings  brought  to  foreclose  a  mortgage  or 
other  lien  or  real  property.  An  attempt  to 
notify  personally  all  parties  affected  would  often 
only  result  in  delay,  if  not  miscarriage,  of  ju-^- 
tice.  For  advertisement  in  business,  see  Adver- 
tising. 

ADVEBTISEMENTS    OF    ELIZ'ABETH. 

A  series  of  enactments  issued  by  Parker  (q,\M, 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  in  15GG,  for  thti 
purpose  of  establishing  "due  order  in  the  public 
administration  of  Common  Prayer  and  usiiifj 
of  Holy  Sacraments.*'  Enforcing  as  it  did  the 
wearing  by  the  clergy  of  the  surplice  and  coHp^^g 
cap,  and  of  the  cope  in  cathedrals  and  collegiate 
churches,  it  was  in  harmony  with  Eliza beth'^ 
love  for  decency  and  order  in  public  worship: 
but  after  waiting  more  than  a  year  for  Ik^f 
official  sanction,  and  long  correspondence  with 
Cecil,  Parker  was  obliged  to  issue  it  on  his  owu 
responsibility.  During  the  latter  half  of  the 
nineteenth  century  there  was  mue]^  controversy 
as  to  the  exact  force  of  the  »<iverti^p^p|^t9»  wl^^'^^^ 
came  to  a  head  in  the  Ridsdale      ..   -^  ca^^  '^^ 

of 


1877.     Lord  Selborne  (q.v.)  hel^    "^^Ve^ 
an   absolute   and   authoritative      \\\at    ,^\\ 


,tio^ 


the  vestments  to  be  worn,  cotif^  \^YP«.cV^t^«t  ^^^^? 
were  the  "other  order"  ment;^\\  j-  rt  ^^  vp  >^<^^ 
of  Uniformity  as  to  be  takevv^oW      V^^    ^^e 


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ADVERTISEMENTS  OF  ELIZABETH.   138 


ADVOCATE. 


High  Church  party,  ably  represented  by  James 
Parker,  considered  them  as  merely  archiepiscopal 
injunctions  intended  to  enforce  a  minimum  of 
ritual.  Consult:  Strype,  Life  and  Acta  of  Mat- 
thew Parker  (Oxford,  1821). 

AD^EBTIS'ING  (Lat.  advertere,  to  turn 
[the  mind]  to,  to  notice) .  The  method  bjr  which 
the  producer  of  commodities  disseminates  infor- 
mation regarding  them.  For  the  producer  it 
has  the  value  of  an  automatic  process,  since 
it  makes  it  possible  to  reach  thousands  of  people 
through  printed  words,  where  formerly  the  seller 
was  limited  to  his  vocal  organs.  For  the  con- 
sumer it  has  the  value  of  a  system  of  education, 
since  it  keeps  him  in  touch  with  the  invention 
of  new  commodities,  the  improvement  of  old, 
and  the  constant  advance  in  industry. 

In  tracing  back  the  history  of  advertising, 
signs  and  criers  are  found  in  Palestine,  Greece, 
and  Rome,  where  they  were  used  for  public 
announcements  and  a  few  private  purposes. 
Pompeii  has  furnished  us  with  many  wall  in- 
scriptions in  red  and  black,  as  well  as  the  famil- 
iar Roman  signs,  the  amphora  and  two  slaves 
for  a  wine  shop,  a  goat  tor  a  dairy,  or  a  boy 
being  whipped  for  a  school.  Quaint  signs  pre- 
vailed throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  and  the 
public  crier  was  an  important  institution  in 
towns.  It  was,  however,  the  advent  of  printing 
and  later  of  the  newspaper  which  provided  an 
adequate  medium  for  advertising,  although  it 
was  not  until  the  industrial  changes  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  had  revolutionized  production, 
creating  innumerable  new  commodities  and  stim- 
ulating new  wants,  that  advertising  could  become 
an  important  feature  of  commercial  life.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  small  advertisements 
appear  in  the  newspapers  for  books,  tea,  coffee, 
or  medicine.  The  chief  advertisements  for  a 
hundred  years  or  more  are  curiously  illustrative 
of  the  crude  social  customs.  A  heavy  stamp 
tax  hampered  the  growth  of  newspapers  and 
advertising  in  England  until   1855. 

America  is  par  excellence  the  country  of  the 
advertiser.  In  the  colonial  papers,  advertise- 
ments furnish  material  for  history.  Brief  no- 
tices tell  of  new  goods  just  imported  from  Eng- 
land, coffee,  slave  sales,  runaway  slaves  and  ser- 
vants, or  lost  cattle.  Advertising  has  grown 
with  the  newspapers.  In  1795  there  were  200 
newspapers  in  the  United  States;  in  1850,  2526; 
find  in  1895,  20,217.  NeAvspaper  advertising  on  a 
large  scale  dates  from  the  establishment  of  the 
New  York  Sun  in  1833,  followed  shortly  by  the 
New  York  Herald,  the  Philadelphia  Public 
Ledger,  and  the  New  York  Tribune.  Estimates 
of  the  amount  anually  spent  on  advertising  in 
the  United  States  are  as  high  as  $500,000,000. 
The   mediums    for    advertising   are   as   follows: 

( 1 )  The  newspapers,  magazines,  and  trade 
journals,  which  carry  about  75%  of  the  business; 

(2)  occasional  literature,  such  as  catalogues, 
booklets,  circulars,  almanacs,  calendars,  or  hand- 
bills; (3)  street  advertising,  including  bill- 
boards (see  Poster),  stereopticona,  signs,  and 
street-cars;  (4)  salesmen;  and  (5)  personal 
advertising.  Tlie  past  twenty  years  nave  so 
increased  the  importance  of  advertising  that 
specialization  has  become  imperative.  Agencies 
with  large  capital  provide  the  mediums  and 
suggest  the  methods,  talented  writers  are  in 
demand,  effective  illustration  is  being  devel- 
oped, and  advertising  magazines  dij*cuss  the 
theory  and  practice  of  advertising.    Business  men 


now  begin  to  appreciate  that  advertising  is  no 
mere  incident  of  competition,  but  frequently  the 
most  important  department,  upon  whose  skillful 
management  the  growth  and  success  of  the  busi- 
ness depends. 

Efforts  to  Prevent  Abuses  in  Adverhsijtg. 
The  choice  of  farmers'  barns  and  fences,  and 
more  especially  of  rocks  and  prominent  scenic 
effects  for  the  placing  of  advertisements,  has  led 
to  various  efforts  to  stop  such  abuses.  A  num- 
ber of  London  societies  interested  in  preserving 
historical  sites  or  beautiful  places  incidentally 
make  efforts  in  this  direction.  The  Society  for 
Checking  Abuses  in  Public  Advertising —^  now 
generally  known  as  "Scapa"  (q.v.)  —  is  the 
leader  in  this  work.  It  publishes  circulars  and 
asks  for  parliamentary  action.  Dr.  G.  Alder 
Blumer,  Superintendent  of  the  State  Asylum  at 
Utica,  N.  Y.,  started  a  crusade  in  1898' to  pre- 
serve the  rural  scenery  in  that  vicinity.  He 
obtained  farmers*  addresses  from  the'  Good 
Roads  League  and  sent  them  scapa  circulars. 
The  New  York  Central  Railroad  has  made  an 
effort  to  get  rid  of  unsightly  advertising  along 
its  line.  The  nuisance  of  circulars  has  been 
met  in  some  cities,  as  in  Philadelphia,  by  ordi- 
nances forbidding  their  distribution. 

Bibliography.  Quarterly  publications  of 
American  Statistical  Association,  VII.,  New 
Series,  No.  52  (Boston,  1000):  files  of  adver- 
tising journals  (list  given  in  above,  page  30) ; 
files  of  commercial  journals  (occasional  article<ii : 
Journal  of  Political  Economy,  IX.,  218  (Chi- 
cago) ;  Chauncey  M.  Depew.  One  Hundred  Years 
of  American  Commerce,  Volume  I.  (New  York. 
1891). 

ADVICE'.    See  Bill  of  Exchange. 

AD'VOCATE  (Lat.  advocatus,  one  called  to 
aid,  from  ad,  to  +  vocare,  to  call ) .  In  the  time 
of  Cicero  the  term  advocatus  was  not  applied  to 
the  patron  or  orator  who  pleaded  in  public,  but 
rather,  in  strict  accordance  with  the  etymology 
of  the  word,  to  any  one  who  in  any  piece"  of  busi- 
ness was  called  in  to  assist  another.  Ulpian  de 
fined  an  advocate  to  be  any  person  who  aids  an- 
other in  the  conduct  of  a  suit  or  action  (I)igp<t 
60,  title  13),  and  in  other  parts  of  the  digest  it 
is  used  as  equivalent  to  an  orator  (see  also 
Tacit.  Annal.,  x.  6),  so  that  the  word  would 
seem  gradually  to  have  assumed  its  modern 
meaning.  The  office  of  the  advocate  or  barrister 
who  conducted  the  cause  in  public  was,  in  Rome, 
altogether  distinct  from  that  of  the  procurator, 
or  attorney,  or  agent  who  represented  the  per- 
son of  the  client  in  the  litigation,  and  furnished 
the  advocate  with  information  regarding  the 
facts  of  the  case.  The  distinction  between  the«e 
two  occupations  is  still  observed  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, but  in  many  of  the  states  of  Germany,  in 
Geneva,  in  the  United  States,  and  in  some  of  the 
British  colonies,  as,  for  example,  in  Canada, 
they  are  united  in  the  same  person.  In  England 
and  Ireland  advocates  are  called  barristers,  un- 
der which  title  will  be  found  a  statement  of  the 
duties  and  responsibilities  which  the  advocate 
undertakes  to  his  client,  and  of  the  state  of  the 
profession  in  these  countries.  In  Scotland,  as  in 
Prance,  the  more  ancient  name  has  been  retained. 
In  France  the  avocat  and  avou^  correspond  very 
nearly  to  the  barrister  and  attorney  in  England. 
The  French  advocate  is  simply  a  free  man  who 
has  graduated  in  law  and  possesses  the  privi- 
lege of  addressing  the  tribunals.  The  advocates 
who  practice  in  each  court  form  a  separate  col- 


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ADVOCATE. 


139 


AEBY. 


admission  to  which  can  be  obtained  only 
the  approval  of  those  who  are  already  mem- 

The  French  advocate  possesses  the  same 
leges  as  to  irresponsibility  for  his  advice, 
for  the  facts  contained  in  his  instructions, 
h  belong  to  members  of  the  corresponding 
;h  of  the  legal  profession  in  Great  Britain, 
e  has  no  action  for  his  fees,  they  are  re- 
d  to  be  paid  in  advance.  His  functions 
spond  to  those  of  the  counsel,  as  distin- 
led  from  the  attorney-at-law,  in  the  United 
«.  In  Belgium,  in  Geneva,  and  also  in  those 
B  German  States  in  which  the  Code  Napoleon 
►een  adopte<l.  the  organization  and  discipline 
is  branch  of  the  legal  profession  are  similar 
ose  which  prevail  in  France.  In  the  other 
lan  States,  with  the  exception  of  Saxony, 
ormation  of  the  advocates  into  a  body  has 
perseveringly  resisted  by  the  governments. 
Vttobney-at-Law. 

)VOCATE,  Lord.  The  public  pergecutor  of 
is  in  Scotland,  senior  counsel  for  the  crown 
vil  causes,  and  a  political  functionary  of 
importance  in  the  administration  of  Scot- 
affairs.  He  may  issue  warrants  of  arrest 
imprisonment  in  any  part  of  Scotland,  is 
led  to  plead  within  the  bar,  and  possesses 
'  otheif  discretionary  and  indefinite  powers, 
i  a  member  of  Parliament,  and,  as  first  law- 
r  of  the  crown  for  Scotland,  is  expected  to 
er  all  questions  relating  to  the  business  of 
and,  and  to  take  the  superintendence  of 
ation  for  that  portion  of  the  United  King- 

The  corresponding  office  in  the  English 
m,  that  of  the  king's  or  queen's  advocate, 
of  equal  dignity  and  importance,  has  lately 
ne  obsolete,  and  its  functions  devolve  upon 
attorney-general  (q.v.)  and  the  solicitor- 
al  (q.v.).  In  some  of  the  English  colonies 
n  the  Indian  presidencies,  however,  the  title 
rate  is  retained  to  describe  the  chief  law 
r  of  the  crown.  Consult:  Bell,  Dictionary 
Digest  of  Law  of  Scotland  (Edinburgh, 
I. 

yVOCATES,  Faculty  of.  An  incorporated 
ty  in  Scotland,  composed  of  about  four  hun- 
lav\'yers  who  practice  in  the  highest  courts, 
icants  for  admission  are  required  to  pass  an 
iination  following  a  prescribed  course  of 
r.  From  the  membership,  vacancies  on  the 
I  are  supplied. 

[yVOCATUS  DIAB'OLI  (Lat.  the  devil's 
?ate).  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  when 
proposed  that  a  sanctified  person  shall  be 
nized,  an  examination  of  his  past  life  takes 
'.  In  this  process  one  party  holds  the  office 
f^user,  or  advocatus  diaboli,  and  it  is  his  duty 
ring  forward  all  possible  objections  against 
[>roposed  canonization;  while,  on  the  other 
the  advocatus  Dei  (God's  advocate)  under- 
^  the  defense.  Hence  the  term  advocatus 
3li  has  been  applied  to  designate  any  person 
brings  forward  malicious  accusations.    See 

ON  IZ  ATION. 

DVOWSON  (A.  Fr.  advoeson,  O.  F.  avoe- 
patronage,  from  Lat.  advocation  legal  assist- 
).  In  English  law,  the  right,  as  patron,  to 
ent  or  appoint  a  curate  to  a  church  or 
'siastical  benefice.  Advowsons  are  either 
>ndant  or  in  gross.  Ix»rds  of  manors  were 
inally  the  only  founders  and  the  only  pa- 
s  of  churches,  and  the  advowsons,  when  cre- 
i,  were  usually  made  an  incident  or  appurte- 


nance to  the  manorial  estate,  which  would  pass 
with  it  upon  alienation.  So  long  as  the  ad  vow - 
son  continues  annexed  or  appended  to  the  manor , 
it  is  called  an  advowson  appendant.  Such  rights 
are  conveyed  with  the  manor  as  incident  theri'tu 
by  a  grant  of  the  manor  only,  without  adding' 
any  other  words.  But  where  the  advowson  i-i 
created  independently  of  the  manor,  or  has  beeit 
once  separated  from  the  property  of  the  manor 
by  legal  conveyance,  it  is  called  an  advowson  in 
gross  or  at  large.  It  is  thus  no  longer  incident 
to  the  property  of  the  manor,  and  may  be  con- 
veyed and  disposed  of  independently  of  it.  Ad- 
vowsons are  classed  by  Blackstone  as  the  first  of 
the  incorporeal  hereditaments,  and  they  still 
constitute  in  England  an  important  class  at 
property  interests.  They  do  not  exist  in  thi' 
United  States.  Consult:  Stephen,  New  Commen- 
taries on  the  Laws  of  England  (thirteenth  edi- 
tion, London,  1899),  and  Phillimore,  EcclesiaH- 
tical  Law  of  the  Church  of  England  (second  edi- 
tion, London,  1895). 

ADYE,  a'di.  Sib  John  Miller  (1819-1900). 
An  English  soldier.  He  was  educated  at  tin- 
Royal  Military  Academy,  Woolwich,  entered  tln^ 
royal  artillery  in  1836,  and  was  assistant  adju- 
tant-general of  the  royal  artillery  in  the  CrimeaTi 
War.  He  also  served  during  the  Indian  mutiny 
in  several  important  actions,  and  in  various 
other  Indian  campaigns.  He  was  director-genernl 
of  artillery  from  1870  to  1875,  and  from  187.> 
to  1880  governor  of  the  Royal  Military  Academy 
at  Woolwich.  He  was  promoted  in  1879  to  bt* 
lieutenant-general,  and  was  governor  of  Gibraltar 
from  1883  to  1886,  when  he  retired  from  activo 
serv'ice.  He  published  The  Defense  of  Caumporr 
(1858);  Sitana :  a  Mountain  Campaign,  Recol- 
lections of  a  Military  Life  (TiOndon,  1895),  and 
Tndian  Frontier  Policy  (1897). 

AIKYTUM(Lat.  from  Gk.  advrov,  adyton,\hv 
innermost  sanctuary,  from  o,  a,  priv.  +  ^^ftt , 
dyein^  to  enter) .  The  most  sacred  part  of  a  build- 
ing, usually  associated  with  secrecy  and  darkne^^, 
because  in  Greek  and  Egyptian  temples,  with 
which  the  term  originated,  it  designated  a  fur- 
thermost recess  not  accessible  to  the  people.  See 
Temple. 

ADZE.     See  Axe. 

iEACIDES,  ^-asl-dez  (Gk.  Aia/cMj;?,  Ainki- 
d^s) .  A  patronymic  of  Achilles,  as  the  descend 
ant  of  ^Eacus,  his  grandfather. 

JE^ACUS  (Gk.  hlaKo^,  Aiakos).  The  fabled 
son  of  Zeus  and  .^gina,  and  king  of  .^gina ;  thu 
father  of  Telamon  and  Peleus.  He  was  so  re- 
nowned for  justice  that  not  only  men  but  the  gods 
sought  for  his  decisions.  After  death,  Plvilo 
made  him  one  of  the  judges  in  Hades. 

AEBY,  e'b^,  Christoph  Tiieodor  (1835-85). 
A  Swiss  anatomist  and  anthropologist,  born  near 
Pfalzburg,  Lorraine.  He  studied  medicine  at 
Basel  and  Giittingen.  In  1863  he  was  made  pro 
fcssor  of  anatomy  at  Bern,  and  in  1884  at  th<' 
University  of  Prague.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
contributions  to  anthropology,  which  includp  a 
new  and  valuable  craniometric  method.  He  al^<i 
demonstrated  the  influence  of  atrnof^pheric  pres- 
sure on  the  several  joints  of  the  hUTtlft^  body. 
His  published  works  include:  ^7  ^onc^^'^J''  ^^ 
iiher  die  Fortpflanzungsgeschx^  y\f{i  d"" 
Reizung     in     der     quergestreift^^l^i'^^     ]i€^^'^* 


(Brunswick,  1862):  Eine  neue    ^i\     M^^ 
stimmung  der  Schddelform   t?(       *^ 


SllT" 


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AEBY. 


140 


jEonrA. 


Saugetieren  (Bninswick,  1862)  ;  Die  BchUdel 
formen  des  Menachen  und  der  Affen  (Leipzig, 
1867)  ;  Veher  das  Verhaltnia  der  Mikrokephalie 
zum  Atavismus  (Stuttgart,  1878). 

JECIIXIOMTCE'TES  {cecidiumy  see  below) 
+  Gk.  nom.  pi.  fiiiKfjTec,  myk^tes,  mushrooms, 
fungi ) .  A  name  formerly  .applied  to  certain 
forms  of  the  "rusts."  At  present  the  name  is 
but  little  used.    See  Ubedinales. 

iECIIXIUM  (Dimin.  of  Gk.  aUia,  aikia,  in- 
jury) or  CLUSTER  CUP.  One  form  of  fruit 
of  the  parasitic  fungi  called  "rusts."  See  Uredi- 

DI2VALES. 

iEDICOTLA  (Lat.  a  small  building,  dimin. 
of  cpdea,  building).  In  Roman  literature,  a  des- 
ignation for  a  small  house  or  for  part  of  a 
house.  It  is  used  especially  for  clmpels,  shrines, 
or  free-standing  niches  containing  statues,  and 
for  sepulchral  monuments  in  the  form  of  little 
temples  or  chambers.  In  the  large  temples  this 
name  was  given  to  architectural  apses  or 
niches  surmounting  statues,  and  even  to  little 
portable  models  given  as  votive  offerings.  Dur- 
ing the  Middle  Ages  the  founders  of  churches 
were  often  represented  in  sculptures  or  paintings 
holding  the  model  of  the  church;  such  models 
were  termed  a  e^dicula. 

iE^ILES.  In  ancient  Rome,  a  sort  of  com- 
missioners of  public  works,  with  general  super- 
vision over  the  public  buildings  (cedes) ^  the 
cleansing  and  repair  of  the  streets,  the  public 
games  and  spectacles,  the  inspection  of  weights 
and  measures,  and  the  market  regulations.  At 
first  there  were  only  two  lediles,  both  plebeians, 
and  their  name  was  derived  from  their  head- 
quarters, the  .Edes  Cereris.  Afterward,  two 
others,  styled  -Ediles  Curules,  were  chosen  from 
the  patricians  (366  D.c).  and  Julius  Csesar  ap- 
pointed a  new  order  of  .-Ediles  Cereales  to  take 
charge  of  the  public  granaries. 

MJyni  or  "HMJyjJl,  a  people  of  Gaul,  be- 
tween the  SaOne  and  the  Loire,  the  first  Gallic 
tribe  that  formed  an  alliance  with  the  Romans, 
who  therefore  called  them  "Brothers  of  the 
Roman  People"  {Cwsar  B.  (?.,  i.  33).  Their 
chief  town  was  Bibracte  (Mont-Beuvray),  which 
they  later  abandoned  for  Augustodunum  (Au- 
tun) . 

MQAiyiAN  ISLANDS  (ancient  jEoa'tes). 
A  group  of  three  small  islands  situated  directly 
off  the  western  coast  of  Sicily  and  forming  a 
part  of  the  Italian  province  of  Trapani  (Map: 
Italy,  G  10).  They  consist  of  the  islands  of 
Favignana,  the  largest  and  best  populated  of  the 
group;  Marittimo,  and  Levanzo.  The  total  area 
is  about  16  square  miles.  The  island  of  Favig- 
iiana  is  very  fertile  and  has  good  timny  fisheries. 
The  population  of  the  group  is  about  0000,  of 
Avhom  nearly  5000  are  found  on  the  island  of 
Favignana.  In  241  B.C.  the  Romans,  under  Luta- 
tius  (T'atulus,  achieved  a  great  naval  victory  over 
the  Carthaginians  off  these  islands,  which 
brought  the  first  Punic  War  to  a  close. 

JEGJEOUf  ^-j§'6n  (Gk.  Alyaiuv,  Aigaion) .  In 
Greek  mythology,  the  name  by  which,  according 
to  Iliad  I.,  403,  Briareus  (q.v.)  was  known 
among  men. 

.ffiGA^GBUSy  or  ^aore.  The  paseng.  See 
Goat. 

.ffiGE^AN  SEA.    See  Archipelago. 

JEGE^ON.  In  Shakespeare's  Comedy  of  Er- 
rors (q.v.),  the  merchant  of  Syracuse. 


JE'OEBIIDJB.     A    family   of  moths.    See 
Clearwixo. 

JB^OETTB  (Gk.  Alyevg,  Aigeus),  Kins  of  Ath- 
ens, son  of  Pandion.  He  was  the  father  of 
Theseus  (q.v.),  and  by  the  latter  was  re- 
stored to  the  throne  of  Athens,  of  which 
he  had  been  deprived  by  his  brother  Pallas. 
When  Theseus  set  out  for  Crete  to  deliver 
his  country  from  the  tribute  it  had  to  pay  Minos, 
he  agreed  in  case  of  success  to  exchange  the 
black  sail  of  his  ship  for  a  white  one.  On 
approaching  the  coast  of  Attica  he  forgot  his 
promise,  and  ^Egeus,  believing  his  son  lost, 
threw  himself  into  the  sea,  which,  according  to 
tradition,  was  named  "JEgean"  after  him.  .^us 
is  supposed  to  have  introduced  the  worship  of 
Aphrodite  into  Athens,  where  he  himself  was 
honored  with  a  heroon,  or  shrine. 

maiDA,  fi-ge'dA,  Ludwio  Karl  (1825—).  A 
German  jurist,  politician,  and  author,  bom  at 
Tilsit  and  educated  at  the  universities  of  K5- 
nigsberg,  Berlin,  and  Heidelberg.  He  was  editor 
of  the  Konstitutionelle  Zeitung  until  January, 
1861,  and  extraordinary  professor  at  Erlangen 
from  1857  to  1859.  During  the  Italian  war  he 
published,  while  in  the  service  of  the  Russian 
ministry,  the  famous  anti-Austrian  pamphlet 
entitled,  Pretisaen  und  der  Friede  von  VUla- 
franca  (Berlin,  1859).  which  was  followed  by 
Suum  Cuigue:  Denkschrift  uber  Preussen  (Leip- 
zig, 1859),  and  Der  Deutsche  Kern  der  Italien- 
ischen  Frage.  He  has  since  been  professor  at  the 
universities  of  Hamburg,  Bonn,  and  Berlin,  and 
has  been  a  member  of  the  Prussian  Chamber  of 
Deputies  (1867-67,  1873-93),  and  councillor  of 
legation  in  the  foreign  office.  He  has  published 
numerous  writings,  among  which  the  following 
is  perhaps  the  most  important:  Das  Staatsar- 
chiv,  Sammlung  der  offiziellen  Aktenstucke  zur 
Oeschichte  der  Oegenwart  (in  collaboration  with 
Klauhold,  Hamburg,  1861-71 ;  afterward  con- 
tinued by  Hans  Delbrtlck,  and  since  1894  by  6. 
Roloff). 

iEOHyiTTS.     See  Giles,  St. 

JEGI^A  (Gk.  Alytva,  Aigina) ,  Now  Bgina. 
An  island  forming  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece, 
about  32  square  miles  in  extent,  in  the  ancient 
Saronicus  Sinus,  now  the  Gulf  of  .^gina.  It  is 
mountainous,  with  deep  valleys  and  chasms, 
and  the  coast  affords  only  one  haven,  on  the 
northwest.  The  modern  town  of  Egina  stands 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  town,  at  the  north- 
west end  of  the  island.  The  island  contains 
about  7000  inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  occupied 
in  trade,  navigation,  and  agriculture.  The  soil 
produces  the  best  almonds  in  Greece,  with  wine, 
oil,  corn,  and  various  fruits.  An  ancient  legend 
derived  the  name  of  the  island  from  the  nymph 
.^^gina,  who  was  brought  to  it  by  Zeus,  by  whom 
she  became  the  mother  of  ^^acus,  famed  for  his 
piety.  The  ancient  Achaean  population  was 
driven  out  by  Dorians  from  Epidaurus,  w^ho  built 
up  one  of  the  richest  trading  cities  in  Greece. 
The  .'Eginetans  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
defeat  of  the  Persians  at  Salamis,  but  with  the 
growth  of  the  Athenian  power  they  were  fir>t 
forced  to  become  tributary,  and  in  431  B.C. 
expelled  from  the  island.  They  were  later 
restored  by  Lysander,  but  the  island  never  recov- 
ered its  old  position. 

JEGINA,  or  AIGINA,  Gulf  of  (the  ancient 
Sabonic  Gulf).     An  arm  of  the  ^Egean  Sea,  be- 


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-ffiGINA, 


141 


^QOSFOTAMOS. 


n  the  P(?lopf»nnt'Kim  and  Attica,  and   wpar- 

froiii  tlie  friilf  of  Coiintb  by  the  1  isthmus  (if 
]th  uMiip:  Qreoct!,  D  (i)./!!!  the  Gulf  of 
Ui  are  the  isliuirJs  of  f^nlaiiiiFi  and  .E^nua. 
G'INE'TA,  l^^ULrs  {Gk.  UaiAo^)  I  Sev^ 
i-e 1 1 1 1 1  ly  A  ji . ) .  _\  <  1  ree k  j>h ys i c i a n ,  bor n  in 
shmd  rif  .Ej^ina,  from  wliith  Ite  took  liin 
,  Of  the  details  of  hi^  life  little  h  kiiowu. 
ihat  be  was  a  threat  traveler;  hi^  iiiediml 
■i  were  hi^ihly  prized,  tbriii«!:b  they  were  little 
tbaii  eoiiipilations  fnkiij  earlier  writer;?, 
■luef  of  tber^e  is  still  extant,  Dr  Rp  .Utdifit 

*'ep trut,  la st  ed i H^d  1  >y  B r i a n  \,  Ta r i h,  1 8 ,1  o  ) . 

work  wati  translated  into  Arabic;  there 
n     Enijlisk     version     by     Adams     (London, 

.     8ee  K r u ni ba e b e r ;  i?//;?« nii h Ur he  Lift c iv/ - 
iirhichte,  juiges  ♦(14,  61  ti   (^Innieh,  181»7). 
I'INE'TAN   SCULP'TUKES,     Tbe  smalt 
I    of    .Kirinji    bnlds    an    important    position 
p  history  of  eirrly  (ireeian  art,  an   tbe  seat 

famous    school    of    bronze    workers,    whi^se 

eelebr«ted  artist  was  Onatas  labont  4!I0- 
!.€,).  Tbe  sehool  wa.^  espeeially  noted  for 
atues  of  athlete:^,  and  »eenir^  to  be  eonneett?d 
the  Peloponneirian  art.  On  an  eininenee  in 
lortboastern   pcirt   of  tlie   island   stand   the 

of  a  temple,  where  in  ISll  exeavation-' 
leted  by  t'oekerell,  It  n  Her,  P'o;?.ter,  and 
h  bronirlit  to  light  fragments  of  sculpture, 
^^ere  Innifrht  Uy  tbe  t'rown  Prince,  Louis 
ivaria,  and  after  re-^toration  l  not  alwav.s 
■t)   by  Tliorwalds<?n,  j^et  u]>  in  the  Ulyj>to- 

at    ^lunieli.     Tbe    statue-*    are    somewhat 

life  Bize,  and  once  deeo rated  the  pedinienls 
•  temple*  ¥y,uh.  i:^i'ou[}  represented  a  battle 
I  fallen  warrior  in  the  pre^^ence  of  Athena, 
it  it*  probable  that  one  represented  the 
n  expedition  of  Heraeles.  tbe  other  that  of 
enintin,  as  in  both  of  tbeni  .Eginetan 
K  Tebmupn  and  Ajax.  were  prominent.  Tliese 
mcmg  the  best  works  of  arehaie  tireek  art, 
ieb  they  wt-rf^  for  a  lou<:  time  almost  the 
examples,  Tbe  artist  was  evidently  used 
rking  in  bronze,  and  his  teebnique  is  more 
priate  to  nietal  than  stiiie.  The  anatomy 
e  titfure*  is  carefully  modeled,  but  the 
nent   is   somewhat  dry  and   hard,   in   spite 

evident  effort  to  give  a  realistic  character 
e  ^roupH.  The  sculptures  of  the  eatitein 
lent  show  a  decided  superiority  in  this 
•t,  and  in  particular  have  nearly  lost  tbe 
aic  smile"  which  appears  in  the  companion 
.  In  iOOl,  Professor  A.  Furtw angler  hc;;an 
excavations  on  this  site  in  behalf  of  the 
?  Regent  of  Bavaria*  These  exravatii>ns 
yieble<i  a  number  of  important  fragments 
?  pediment  neulptures,  as  well  as  of  {>ther 
?s  and  some  inseriptions,  of  whieh  one 
Ltes  that  the  temple  was  not  dedicated  to 
la,  a-i  bad  been  believed,  but  to  an  yKgin- 
?oddesi4,  Aphffa,  of  whom  little  is  otherwise 
ti,  hut  who  is  shown  by  the  discoveries  to 

been   worshipped   b}'   women    as   a    special 

r  in  need  and  as  a  guardian  of  little  cliil- 

Other  buildings  beside   the   temple  have 


been  found,  including  traces  of  an  enrlier  sanc- 
tuary* It  is  clear  tiiat  tl\e  place  was  a  seat  of 
^\or-liip  froni  the  Mycenaan  age,  but  was  aban- 
doned in  the  Hellenir^tic  and  Roman  times.  Con- 
sult fnr  an  actc^unt  of  the  ne\i  excavations:  Coek- 
erell.  Thv  Tvufpits  of  .LV;in«  rnif/  B^i^Hsa*  jfjondtm, 
Lst;oi;  Furtwilngler,  httrz*  Iirs{^hnnbuntf  tier 
(ilifptufhcl  (Munich.  L^dOi,  and  MSitztniffshcrichle 
ilt  r  lift  fff  r is<  h  i'li  A  ku  ff  v m  ir   {  I  DO  1 1 . 

^GIRf  A'jir.  A  Norse  deity  who  presides 
over  stormy  oeeans  and  entertains  the  gods  with 
foandng  ale.  His  wife  is  Kan,  who  ha^  ebargo 
f>f  those  lost  at  sea.  They  have  nine  daughters, 
the  waves  of  the  sea,  whose  names  suggest  the 
diderent  appearances  of  the  ocean. 

JE'QIS  Hik*  n'tyic,  aiifis,  ii  rushing  storm,  from 
ftifr/jfii^  fffs.scui,  to  move  violently,  or  tuyn:,  aigis. 
a  goat-skin  J.  In  tbe  Oreek  efdc,  tbe  shield  of 
Zeus,  wliich  Inul  been  fa^liiouefl  by  Jfeidiiestus. 
Later  writers  ex|>lained  it  as  the  skin  of  tbe 
^■oat  Amalthca,  which  hud  sm  kled  Zeus,  and 
with  the  (iorgon's  head  in  the  centre,  (See  CfOR- 
<.0N.)  In  works  of  art  it  is  sianetimes  lx>rne 
liy  Zeus,  and  is  a  regular  attrilmte  of  Athena, 

JEGIS'THUS  {Uk.  Atyttr&i^,  Aiffi'ithos),  The 
sou  i>f  Thyotc^.  adopted  son  of  At  reus.  During 
the  ah'-HUce  of  Aganieuuion  at  Troy  he  seduced 
ClytemncMtra*  wife  of  Agamc anion,  and  on  the 
return  of  Agamenuion  tbe  guilty  ]»air  murdered 
him,  .Kgisthus  was  subMspjcutly  killed  by 
Agamenuion's  son  Orestes.  The  story  forms  tbe 
subject  of  the  (Drestean  trilogy  of  ^Esehylus. 
8if   AtKO'S;   Ar.AMFMMiX;   OUKSTt.S. 

-ffi'GItTM  (Ok,  Alyior,  Aitjion).  A  town  of 
Achtiia,  near  tlie  coast  find  west  of  the  mouth 
of  tbe  St'linns  River.  According  to  one  legentl 
it  was  the  birtbphxee  of  Zeus,  who  was  the  prin- 
cipal divinity  of  the  place.  After  the  destrue- 
tion  of  lieliee,  .Egium  became  the  chief  <  ity  of 
the  Achsran  League,  and  the  delegates  of  the 
league  had  their  ]jlace  of  meeting  in  a  grove 
near  the  triwn.  The  modern  town  is  VostitzUt 
ollicia Hy  tnlled  by  its  ancient  name. 

^'GLE,  e'gle  (Ok.  Alyl^,  Aifflr,  Eadianee,  a 
Orrek  divinity),  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  nat- 
ural order  Kutacea'.  vEgle  marmelos,  tlie  tree 
which  produces  the  bhcl  fruit  o(  Imiia,  ba.s  ter- 
nate,  iielirdate.  ohloug-ovate  leaves,  and  the 
llov\crr.  in  tianicle>.  It  is  found  from  the  south 
of  India  to  the  base  of  tlie  Hiniahiya  ^bnintains. 
The  fruit  is  delicious,  fragrant,  ar>d  nutritiotJs. 
In  ajj  imperfectly  ri[>ened  state  it  is  an  astrin- 
gent of  great  etrect  in  cases  of  diarrhea  and 
dyM?nlerv.  and  as  such  has  lately  I  teen  introduced 
into  English  mediciil  ])ractiie.  Tlie  root,  bark, 
and  leaves  are  also  used  as  medicinals.  The 
Dutch  in  Ceylon  prepare  a  perfume  from  the 
rind  of  the  fruit,  and  tlie  mucus  of  the  seed  is 
employed  as  a  cement  for  many  [lurpor-es, 

-S;' GO  SPOT 'AM  OS  iGk.  Ah/6^;,  Aifjos,  gen.  of 
ni^f  aix,  she-goat -r  iroratto^,  pottimos,  river). 
A  river  and  tmvn  on  the  eastern  coast  of  tlie 
Thracian  Cbersonese,  The  Lioeda'mnuians  un- 
der Lysander  here  surprised  and  captured  the 


WBSTCRN   PEDIMENT   OF  THE  TKSieLE  OF  FALLAI3   AT  .tGtSA 


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iENEAS. 


Athenian  fleet  in  405  B.C.,  and  thus  brought  the 
Peloponnesian  war  to  an  end.  The  ndme  is  also 
written  .'Egospotami.  The  ancient  town  was 
near  the  modern  village  of  JumalikOi. 

.fflOYP^XJS  (Gk.  Alyvirro^,  Aigyptoa).  In 
Greek  legend,  a  brother  of  DanaUs  and  King  of 
Arabia,  who  conquered  the  region  to  which  he 
gave  the  name  of  Egypt.  His  fifty  sons  pursued 
their  fifty  cousins,  the  daughters  of  DanaUs,  to 
Argos,  and,  with  the  exception  of  Lynceus,  were 
murdered  by  their  brides.     See  Danaus  ;  Egypt. 

.SLFBIC   (ftKfrIk)    THE  QBAMMA'SIAN 

(about  950-1021).  The  author  of  some  of  the 
best  Old  English  prose  extant.  The  only  ma- 
terial— ^and  it  is  slight — for  constructing  the 
life  of  this  scholar  is  contained  in  his  own  works. 
The  place  of  his  birth  is  unknown,  but  the  date 
of  it  must  have  been  somewhere  between  950 
and  955.  After  studying  with  a  poorly  educated 
**mass-priest,''  he  entered  the  Benedictine  school 
at  Winchester  (about  972),  where  he  remained 
"many  years."  In  987,  then  "a  monk  and  mass- 
priest,"  he  was  summoned  to  rule  over  the  abbey 
of  Cernel  in  Dorset.  There  he  was  engaged  in 
preaching  and  in  giving  instruction  to  monks 
and  to  young  men.  Afterward,  probably  in 
1006,  he  was  made  abbot  of  Eynsham,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Thames  above  Oxford.  It  is  con- 
jectured that  he  died  between  1020  and  1025. 
.Elfric  is  best  known  by  his  HomilivSy  written  in 
pure  and  vigorous  English.  Among  his  other 
works  are:  A  Treatise  on  the  Old  and  Neio 
Testaments,  the  Heptateuchus,  an  abridged 
translation  of  the  first  seven  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  a  Latin  grammar  and  glossary,  writ- 
ten in  English  for  the  boys  of  England,  and  the 
Colloquium,  which  was  designed  to  teach  them  to 
speak  liatin  correctly.  Because  of  these  last 
two  books  he  is  accorded  the  title  of  gramma- 
rian. For  the  best  account  of  .Elfric  and  a  bib- 
liography of  his  works  and  of  critical  editions, 
consult  C.  L.  White,  JElfric,  a  new  study  of  his 
life  and  writings  in  Yale  Studies  in  English 
(Boston,  1808). 

JELFTHBYTH,  flirthrlth  (Latinized  El- 
frida  (c.  l)4o-1000).  An  Anglo-Saxon  queen, 
mothor  of  .Kthelred  II.  Her  first  husband  was 
.Ethelwiild,  the  oaldorman  of  the  East  Anglians, 
and  twfter  his  death  she  married  King  Eadgar,  the 
father  of  .Ethclred  II.  She  is  said  to  have  in- 
stigated the  murder  of  her  stepson,  Eadward,  at 
Corfe.  in  order  to  secure  the  accession  of  ^Ethel- 
red  II. 

iE'LIA  CAP'ITOLFNA.  The  name  given  to 
Jerusalem  by  the  emporor  Hadrian  (.Elius 
Hadrianus),  wlio  expelled  the  Jews  after  the  in- 
surrection of  132-135  A.D.,  and  colonized  the 
city  with  Romans.  Tlie  name  continued  until  the 
time  of  the  Clnislian  emperors. 

MIjIK  gens.  One  of  the  plebeian  gentes 
(see  Gens)  at  Rome,  to  which  belonged  -^Elius 
Sejanus,  and  the  emperors  Hadrian  and  the  An- 
tonines.  It  included  also,  among  others,  the  fam- 
ilies of  Gallus,  Lamia,  Paetus,  and  Tubero. 

iE'LIA'NUS,  Claudius.  A  writer  who  was 
born  at  Pra^ncste  in  Italy  and  flourished  about 
200  A.D.  He  wrote  exclusively  in  Greek  in  an 
entertaining  fashion,  but  the  information  con- 
tained in  his  writings  was  drawn  most  uncriti- 
cally from  the  works  of  his  predecessors.  His 
extant  writings  are:  On  the  Nature  of  AnimalSy 
in  seventeen  books,  filled  with  curious  accounts 


of  the  nature  and  ways  of  animals,  and  with 
moral  reflections  on  the  same,  and  his  Miif^l- 
laniea  (Vc^-ia  Historia),  in  fourteen  books.  This 
is  preserved  only  in  an  abbreviated  form,  and  is 
almost  wholly  a  collection  of  anecdotes  and  mar- 
velous tales  relating  to  men.  The  twenty  Rustic 
Letters  current  under  his  name  are  generally 
reckoned  spurious.  His  works  are  best  edited  by 
Hercher  (1858  and  1804)  ;  the  editions  of  the 
Varia  Bistoria,  by  Perizonius  (1701),  and  Ik 
Animalium  Natura,  by  Jacobs  (1831),  desen-e 
mention. 

AEL'LO  (Gk.  *AeXXu,  storm-swift,  from  ma?ux 
aella,  whirlwind).  In  Greek  mythology,  the 
name  of  one  of  the  Harpies  (q.v.). 

AELST.    See  Alost. 

AELST,aist,  Evert  VAX  (1602-58).  A  Dutch 
painter  of  still  life,  which  he  depicted  with  great 
care  and  close  fidelity  to  nature.  He  was,  how- 
ever, surpassed  by  his  nephew.  William  Van 
Aelst  (1626-83),  who  is  especially  noted  for  his 
skill  in  reproducing  the  lustre  of  gold,  silver, 
crystal,  and  mother-of-pearl. 

^'LXJBOia)EA.     See  Carxivora. 

AEMIL^IA.    A  division  of  Italy.  See  Emilia. 

AEMII/IA  OENS.  A  famous  patrician  gens 
at  Rome  (see  Gens),  to  which  belonged  the 
family  of  Aemilius  Lepidus,  Mamercus,  Paulus, 
Scaurus,  and  other  well  known  names. 

iEMII/IAN  WAY  (Lat.  Aemilia  Via).  A 
national  highway  in  ancient  Italy.  It  was  built 
by  the  consul  Marcus  Aemilius  Lepidus,  in  187 
B.C.,  to  afford  easy  communication  with  Trans- 
padane  Gaul,  as  a  part  of  the  great  centralizing 
schemes  of  Home  in  her  imperial  march  north- 
ward. It  began  at  Ariminum  (Rimini)  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  where  the  Flaminian  Way  termi- 
nated, and  ran  through  Bononia  (Bologna)  to 
Mutina  (Modera)  and  Parma,  crossed  the  Po  at 
Plaeentia  (Piacenza),  and  ended  at  Mediolanum 
(Milan).     Its  total  length  w^as  about  185  miles. 

JEH/LTL^VB  PAUOiUS  (second  centur\'  B.C.). 
A  Roman  general,  son  of  the  consul  .Emilius 
Paulus,  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Cannie,  216 
B.C.  Young  yEmilius  inherited  his  father's 
valor  and  enjoyed  an  unwonted  degree  of  public 
esteem  and  confidence.  In  1G8  B.C.  he  was  elected 
consul  for  the  second  time,  and  intrusted  with 
the  war  against  Perseus,  King  of  Macedon,  whom 
he  defeated  in  the  battle  of  Pydna,  which  left 
Macedonia  a  Roman  province. 

iENE^AS  (Gk.  Alveiac,  Aineias) .  The  hero 
of  Vergil's  ,Encid.  He  was,  according  to  Homer, 
the  son  of  Anchises  and  Aphrodite  (Venus),  and 
was  ranked  next  to  Hector  among  the  Trojan 
heroes.  The  traditions  of  his  adventures  before 
and  after  the  fall  of  Troy  are  various  and  dis- 
cordant. Vergil  gives  the  following  version: 
.Eneas,  though  warned  by  the  ghost  of  Hector  in 
the  night  when  the  Greeks  entered  Troy  to  take 
his  household  gods  and  flee  from  the  city,  re- 
mained in  the  contest  until  Priam  fell,  wiien,  tak- 
ing with  him  his  family,  he  escaped  from  the 
Greeks,  but  in  the  confusion  of  his  hasty  flight 
lost  his  wife.  Creiisa.  Having  collected  a  fleet  of 
twenty  vessels,  he  sailed  to  Thrace,  where  he  be- 
gan building  the  city  of  ^-Enos,  but  was  terrifietl 
by  an  unfavorable  omen,  and  abandoned  his  plan 
of  a  settlement  here.  A  mistaken  interpretation 
of  the  oracle  of  Delphi  now  led  him  to  Crete,  but 
from  this  place  he  was  driven  by  a  pestilence. 


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rig  the  promontory  of  Actium,  he  came  to 
IS,  and  then  continued  his  voyage  to  Italy 
round  Sicily  to  the  promontory  of  Dre- 
n  on  the  west,  where  his  father,  Anchises, 
A  storm  afterward  drove  him  to  the  coast 
rica,  and  landing  near  Carthage,  he  was 
»bly  received  and  entertained  by  Queen 
His  marriage  with  Dido  was  prevented  by 
;r,  who  sent  Mercury  with  a  command  that 
B  must  proceed  to  Italy.  Accordingly,  he 
away,  leaving  the  disappointed  queen,  who 
itted*  suicide.  During  his  stay  in  Sicily, 
he  celebrated  the  anniversary  of  his 
■'s  death  with  games,, the  wives  of  his  com- 
is  and  seamen,  weary  of  long  voyages  with- 
rtainty  of  finding  a  home,  made  an  attempt 
n  his  fleet.  After  building  the  city  of  Acesta, 
led  for  Italy.  On  landing  there  he  visited 
byl  at  Cumse.  She  conducted  him  into  the 
ai  regions,  where  he  saw  Anchises,  and  re- 
intimations  of  his  future  destiny.  Then, 
f  along  the  Tiber,  and  landing  on  the  east 
t  the  river,  he  found  himself  in  the  country 
inus,  king  of  the  Aborigines.  Lavinia,  the 
ter  of  Latinus,  had  been  destined  to  marry 
Dger,  but  her  mother  had  promised  to  give 
marriage  to  Tur'nus,  king  of  the  Rutuli. 
arried  i^neas,  and  war  ensued,  which  ter- 
?d  in  the  death  of  Turnus.  JEneas  Silvius, 
n  of  ^Eneas  by  Lavinia,  as  the  ancestor  of 
ngs  of  Alba  Longa,  and  hence  of  Romulus 
emus,  was  regarded  as  the  founder  of  the 
1  Empire.  See  Rome. 
'E'AS  SIL'VIXJS.    See  Pnrs  II. 

n/ID  (Lat.  JEneis),  Vergil's  great  epic, 
ch  the  ancestry  of  Rome  is  traced  to  Troy. 
:bgil. 

TESIDE^MUS  (Gk.  AlvrtalArff^og,  AinSai- 
(  ?80-60  B.C. ) .  A  Greek  philosopher  of  Al- 
ia, a  contemporary  of  Cicero.  He  was  born 
)s.sus,  in  Crete.  He  is  well  known  as  the 
►le  author  of  the  Ten  Tropes^  which  Sex- 
npiricus  enumerates,  saying  that  they  had 
5  traditional  property  of  the  skeptics 
of  his  day.  Tropes  (Gk.  rpdrroi,  tropoi) 
nethods  of  proving  the  validity  of 
eism.  These  arguments  are  based  ( 1 ) 
ferences  in  the  constitution  of  sentient 
,  which  involve  differences  in  per- 
is and  conceptions  of  tlie  world;  (2)  on 
nces  of  human  beings;  (3)  on  differences 
se-organs;  (4)  on  differences  in  circum- 
i  under  which  perception  occurs;  (5)  on 
nces  of  location  and  distance  of  objects 
red;  (6)  on  the  confusion  of  one  object 
nother;  (7)  on  differences  in  a  sensation 
►  different  combinations  in  which  it  ap- 
(8)  on  the  relativity  of  knowledge  in 
1;  (9)  on  differences  in  perception 
)  familiarity  .or  unfamiliarity  with  the 
;  (10)  on  differences  observed  between  the 
Eitions,  morals,  laws,  superstitions,  and 
)phical  theories  of  different  peoples.     See 

IVITY. 

1XA.^ES.  An  Achaean  tribe  of  northern 
.  In  historic  times  they  lived  in  the  moun- 
Bv-est  of  Thermopylae.  They  were  members 
Delphian  Amphictyony  and  of  the  ^tolian 

B. 

S'ON  (explained  in  the  New  Testament  as 
'  springs'*).  A  locality  mentioned  in  John 
}  as  a  place  where  John  the  Baptist  was 


baptizing.  It  is  characterized  as  being  '^near 
Salim"  and  as  having  an  abundant  water  suji' 
ply.  Two  sites  have  been  proposed  as  comply- 
ing with  this  description.  (1)  A  town  calJed 
Ainun,  in  the  valley  that  leads  up  toward 
Shechem,  about  seven  miles  from  the  ancient 
town  of  Salem,  where  there  are  extensive  ruins 
and  many  springs.  ( 2 )  On  the  basis  of  statemenln 
in  Eusebius  and  Jerome,  a  place  called  Silvin 
(=Salem?),  about  eight  Roman  miles  south  of 
Scythopolis,  the  old  Bethshean.  The  former 
identification  seems  preferable. 

MiyiAAN  ACCXJ'MUI^^IONS  (from 
^olus,  the  god  of  the  winds).  Dust,  fine  par- 
ticles of  soil,  and  even  sand  grains  of  a  diameter 
of  two  millimeters  are  transported  by  the  wind 
and  brought  together  in  sheltered  places,  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  these  particles  are 
transported  and  deposited  by  water.  Such 
SBolian  accumulations  occur  in  both  humid  and 
arid  regions,  though  they  attain  a  more  pr(>- 
nounced  degree  of  development  in  those  regions 
of  litle  rainfall,  where  the  scant  vegetation  per- 
mits the  usually  powerful  winds  to  exert  a  con- 
siderable erosive  action  upon  the  much  weath- 
ered rocks  and  dry  soil.  In  humid  regions  de- 
posits of  this  nature  may  be  found  along  the 
coasts  of  seas  and  ocean  and  also  upon  uplaud 
plains,  where  the  superficial  layers  of  the  earth's 
crust  consist  of  loose  sand  that  may  be  easily 
blown  away,  to  be  accumulated  elsewhere  q.a 
sand-dunes.  In  arid  regions,  dust  and  sand  arc 
being  continually  transported  and  deposited  in 
distant  places,  there  to  form  teolian  deposits 
which  are  often  of  considerable  geological  and 
also  of  economic  importance.  Desert  sands  tra- 
verse wide  areas,  burying  vegetation  that  may  be 
in  the  way,  even  sometimes  destroying  forests. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  fine  calcareous  dust  blown 
over  the  prairies  of  the  west  settles  in  the  gras^ 
and  adds  tb  the  fertile  covering  of  soil.  The 
fertility  of  many  regions  of  the  Missouri  Valley 
is  undoubtedly  due  to  these  wind-deposited  solln, 
which  are  knowii  under  the  name  of  "loess;'* 
some  of  the  loess  is,  however,  of  aqueous  origrin. 
^olian  accumulations  have  been  recognized  also 
in  ancient  rock  formations  of  various  geological 
systems,  notably  the  Cambrian,  Devcmian,  Juras- 
sic, etc.  For  description  of  the  erosive  and 
transporting  power  of  wind,  and  for  the  charai"- 
ters  and  distribution  of  the  various  kinds  of 
aeolian  deposits,  see  the  articles  on  Desert; 
Dune;    Sand;    Shore;    and   Wind,   GEOLOGirAL 

ACTIOTT  OF. 

iEQLIAN  HABP.  A  musical  instrument, 
consisting  of  a  number  (usually  8  or  10)  of 
catgut  strings  of  varying  thickness  tuned  to 
produce  the  same  fundamental  tone,  and 
stretched  over  a  narrow,  oblong  box.  When 
placed  in  a  current  of  air  the  iEolian  Harp  pro- 
duces full  chords,  composed  of  the  harmonics  of 
the  common  fundamental.  The  sounds  change 
from  a  breezy,  fairy-like  pianissimo  to  an  im- 
posing forte,  which  again  dies  away  with  the 
passing  of  the  gust.  For  illustration,  see  Musi- 
cal Instruments. 

.SOLI AN  ISLES.     See  Lipari  XsLA^IDS. 

iEO^IANS  (Gk.  AioAe/f,  /lioZei  v  Tbe  namo 
borne  by  the  Greeks  of  the  islati^  ' '  ^  r»sbOft  ^^^^ 
the  coast  of  Asia  Minor  north   rw*^t  ''^        T^^^ 


traced   their   descent   to   a   myt^t  rs^^'  \^^^  *A 
Thessaly.     Later  writers  extenri^Vti  V  ^^^  .«r  *t> 


as  to  include  all   races  not 


X" 


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a£bated  watebs. 


The  stories  of  the  Ili<id  seem  to  have  originated 
among  the  iEolians.  At  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century  b.c,  on  the  island  of  Lesbos,  in  the 
po«ms  of  Alcseus  and  Sappho,  the  personal  Ivric 
reached  its  highest  development.  The  .^Eohans 
shared  the  fate  of  the  other  Grecian  colonies 
in  Asia  Minor.  First  tributary  to  the  Lydian 
kings,  then  subjected  to  the  domination  of  the 
Persians,  they  became  a  portion  of  the  great 
(empire  founded  by  Alexander,  and  after  passing 
through  a  stage  of  subjection  to  the  dynasty  of 
the  Seleueidae,  were  ultimately  absorbed  in  the 
Eoman  Empire.    See  Lyric  Poetry. 

^OL^IPILE,  or  JBOL^PYLE  (commonly 
explained  as  from  Lat.  /Eoli  pila,  the  ball  of 
/Eolus).  An  invention  of 
Hero  of  Alexandria,  often 
described  as  the  first  steam 
engine.  It  consists  of  a 
hollow  metal  sphere  mount- 
ed on  trunnions,  through 
one  of  which  steam  is  in- 
troduced. Short  bent  tubes 
issue  from  this  ball  at  dia- 
metrically opposite  points, 
from  which  steam  escapes 
and  causes  the  globe  to  re- 
volve.   A     similar     device 

U  filled  with  water  or  alcohol,  as  a  blow-pipe  for 
lump  flame.  Consult:  Gerland  and  TraumtiUer, 
(ieschichte  der  Physikalischen  Experimentier- 
kufist  (Leipzig,  1899),  for  a  description  of  this 
imd  other  early  apparatus;  also  W.  Schmidt, 
Heron  von  Alexandria  (Leipzig,  1899).  It  is  also 
described  in  R.  H.  Thurston's  Cfrowth  of  the 
*Stmm  Engine  (New  York,  1878). 

£^OLIS  (Gk.  AtoXic,  Aiolis),  A  district  on 
the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  extending  from  the 
Hellespont  to  the  river  Hermus.  There  were 
about  thirty  Greek  cities  in  this  district,  of 
^vhich  twelve  in  the  southern  part  formed  a 
league  in  early  times. 

.a/OLUS  (Gk.  AtoAoc,  Aioloa).  (1)  A  friend 
of  the  gods  and  controller  of  the  windjs.  In  the 
Odyssey  he  rules  a  floating  island.  In  the 
^Eneid  he  keeps  the  winds  confined  in  a  cave 
and  releases  them  as  he  wills.  He  was  also  sup- 
posed to  dwell  in  a  vast  cave  in  the  i^olian 
Islands,  keeping  the  winds  in  bags,  and  letting 
them  out  as  demanded  by  Poseidon.  (2.)  Son  of 
Hellen,  brother  of  Dorus,  and  father  of  Sisyphus. 
He  ruled  in  Thessaly,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
the  founder  of  the  .iolic  branch  of  the  Greek 
rare.  Originally  both  (1)  and  (2)  were  prob- 
ably the  same. 

^^ON  (Gk.  aluv,  aiOn,  an  age,  long  space  of 
time,  eternity).  A  term  used  by  the  Gnostics, 
i  n  a  peculiar  sense,  to  designate  powers  that 
bad  emanated  from  God  before  the  beginning  of 
time,  and  existed  as  distinct  entities  or  spirits. 
They  were  called  seons  either  as  partaking  of 
the  eternal  existence  of  God  or  because  they 
were  thought  to  preside  over  the  various  ages 
and  transformations  of  the  world.  See  Gnos- 
tics. 

AEPI^TJS,  Franz  Maria  Ulrich  Theodor 
(1724-1802).  A  German  phjrsicist,  born  at  Ros- 
tock. He  first  studied  medicine,  but  afterward 
devoted  himself  to  physics,  of  which  he  became 
professor  in  St.  Petersburg  in  1757.  He  discov- 
ered the  electric  properties  of  the  mineral  tour- 


maline, improved  the  microscope,  and  performed 
numerous  original  experiments  in  frictional  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism,  devising  the  method  of 
magnetizing  known  as  "double  touch."  He,  in 
common  with  Benjamin  Franklin,  held  the  single 
fluid  theory  of  electricity,  in  opposition  to  many 
men  of  his  time  who  believed  that  there  were 
two  kinds  of  electricity.  He  published  Tentamftn 
Theoriae  Electricitatis  et  Magnetismi.  Cath- 
erine II.,  Empress  of  Russia,  made  him  teacher 
to  her  son  Paul  and  inspector-general  of  the 
normal  schools  which  she  propos^  to  establish. 

iETYOB'NIS  (Gk.  aiirvc,  aipys,  high  +  ocvic, 
ornis,  bird).  An  extinct  group  of  ratite  birds 
which  inhabited  Madagascar  within  recent,  but 
undetermined,  geological  time,  and  three  species 
of  which  are  known  from  fossil  remains;  no 
evidence  exists  that  it  survived  to  the  time 
of  man,  although  it  is  frequently  referred  to 
as  the  "roc."  It  resembled  an  ostrich  in  gen- 
eral structure  and  appearance,  but  was  perhaps 
taller,  and  had  no  wings  suitable  for  flight, 
resembling  in  this  respect  its  close  still  living 
ally,  Apteryx,  and  the  extinct  Dinornis  and  Meg- 
alapteryx,  of  New  Zealand.  Many  of  its  huge 
eggs  have  been  exhumed  from  the  drifting  sands 
of  southern  Madagascar.  They  measure  about 
nine  by  thirteen  inches,  and  are  very  large  pro- 
portionately, since  they  are  double  the  dimen- 
sions of  ostrich  egffs,  and  much  exceed  those  of 
the  moa.  For  a  circumstantial  account  of  the 
collecting  of  its  bones  and  eggs,  in  Madagascar, 
see  Proceedings  Zoological  Society  of  London 
(1894). 

JE^QJJl,  An  ancient  warlike  tribe  of  central 
Italy,  obstinate  enemies  of  the  early  Romans, 
against  whom  they  made  alliances  with  the 
Volsci.  They  were  defeated  by  Camillus,  389 
B.C.,  and  in  304  B.C.  were  flnally  subdued.  Mount 
Algidus  was  one  of  their  strongholds,  whence 
they  raided  on  Rome. 

JEBJL^BJJLNB  (Lat.  aerarii,  persons  pertain- 
ing to  the  treasury,  aerarium,  i.e.,  paying  taxes, 
but  having  no  rights).  A  class  in  early  Rome 
having  no  social  position  now  definable  and 
having  no  civil  rights  beyond  the  mere  protection 
of  the  state.  For  bad  conduct  any  citizen  might 
be  degraded  to  this  condition,  but  not  for  life. 
Persons  declared  infamous  became  of  this  class, 
and  it  probably  included  itinerant  retail  mer- 
chants. They  were  taxed,  but  were  not  subject 
to  military  service. 

JE'RA^ITTM.  (Lat.  from  aes,  bronze,  money). 
The  public  treasury  of  ancient  Rome,  containing 
the  money  and  accounts  of  the  state.  The  tem- 
ple of  Saturn,  at  the  foot  of  the  capitol,  was  the 
place  of  deposit.  Besides  this  common  treasury, 
replenished  by  general  taxes  and  charged  with 
ordinary  expenditures,  there  was  a  reserve  treas- 
ury,  maintained  by  a  tax  of  5%  on  the  value  of 
manumitted  slaves,  which  was  not  to  be  resorted 
to  or  even  entered  except  in  extreme  necessity. 
In  addition  to  the  treasuries,  the  Emperor  had  a 
fiscuSf  or  separate  exchequer.  Augustus  estab- 
lished a  military  trieasury  to  contain  all  money 
for  the  maintenance  of  the  arm^.  Later  emper- 
ors had  separate  private  serariums,  containing 
the  moneys  appropriated  to  their  private  use. 

A^BA'TED  BBEAD.    See  Bread. 

AEBATED  WATEBS.  Waters  impregnated 
with  carbon  dioxide  gas,  and  frequently  con- 
taining mineral  salts.    Such  waters  are  exten- 


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ijively  used  to  quench  thirst,  and  are  commonly 
called  soda  waters.  The  carlK>nic  acid  used  in 
making  the  common  artificial  aerated  waters  is 
prepared  by  treating  a  mineral  carbonate,  as 
chalk  or  lime-stone,  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid. 
The  gas  thus  obtained  is  forced  into  bottles  or 
siphons  containing  water,  yielding  a  brisk, 
sparkling  liquid  with  a  pungent  but  pleasant 
acidulous  taste.  Artificial  waters,  similar  to 
seltzers,  vichy,  and  other  well  known  mineral 
waters,  are  produced  by  dissolving  the  known 
ingredients  of  the  mineral  water  in  distilled 
water  and  then  impregnating  them  with  carbon 
dioxide  ga«*.  The  carbonic  acid  water  mixed 
with  fruit  syrups  is  the  ordinary  soda  water  of 
the  pharmacy.  Formerly  carbonic  acid  water 
was  made  on  a  small  scale  in  an  apparatus  called 
«  gazogene    or    seltzogene    (see   accompanying 


figure) ,  in  which  sodium  bicarbonate  was  decom- 
pof»ed  by  tartaric  acid  in  the  presence  of  water. 
A  recent  invention  is  the  use  of  capsules  contain- 
ing liquefied  carbon  dioxide.  The  liquid  which 
it  in  desired  to  impregnate  with  the  gas  is  placed 
in  a  specially  constructed  bottle,  the  top  of  which 
is  provided  with  a  receptacle  for  the  capsule 
containing  the  liquefied  gas ;  the  covering  of  the 
wpsule  is  then  ruptured,  setting  free  the  acid, 
which  is  absorbed  by  the  liquid  in  the  bottle. 
Aerated  waters  may  also  be  said  to  occur  natu- 
rally, for  water  taken  from  a  spring  contains 
gases,  such  as  oxygen,  nitrogen,  and  carbon  diox- 
ide, dissolved  in  it.  Similarly,  running  waters, 
such  as  rivers  and  rain  waters,  absorb  gases 
from  the  atmosphere,  which  may  be  expelled 
by  boiling.  See  A  Treatise  on  Beverages,  by  C. 
H.  Sulz,  and  the  articles.  Carbonated  ob  Acid- 
ULoi'8  Waters,  and  Mineral  Watebs. 

ATSBATION  (Lat.  aer,  air).  In  botany, 
the  exchange  of  gases  between  living  plant  tissue 
and  the  surrounding  medium.  This  exchange  is 
manifested  by  two  processes.  In  one  of  these, 
viz.,  the  manufacture  of  certain  foods  (see 
Photosynthesis),  carbon  dioxide  is  required  by 
the  plant  and  oxygen  must  be  eliminated.  On 
the  contrarv,  in  the  other  process,  viz.,  Respira- 
tion (q.v.),  oxygen  is  necessary  and  carbon  diox- 
ide must  be  eliminated.  The  former  process  is 
confined  to  green  plants;  the  latter  is  essential 
to  all  except  a  few  of  the  lowest  and  simplest 
tj-pe  (anaerobic  bacteria).  Among  the  smaller 
plants,  and  those  whose  bodies  are  made  up  of 
interwoven  filaments  (Fungi),  the  gaseous  ex- 
changes can  take  place  directly,  since  almost 
every  part  of  the  bciiv  is  in  contact  w^ith  the  air 
or  with  \!vater.  In  tfie  former  case,  the  outside 
gases  dissolve  in  the  constituent  water  of  the 
cell-wall  and  are  then  free  to  enter;  or,  arising 
Vol.  I.-10 


within  the  cell,  and  being  already  dissolved, 
thej  pass  off  into  the  air.  In  water  plants 
the  free  inward  or  outward  migration  of  dis- 
solved gases  depends  on  the  relative  amounts 
inside  and  outside  the  body.  (See  Absobption.) 
In  the  larger  land  plants  the  greater  number 
of  cells  and  the  more  compact  structure  make 
it  impossible  for  the  cells  more  distant  from  the 
surface  to  conduct  the  necessary  changes  at  an 
adequate  rate.  Such  plants  have  therefore  devel- 
oped an  extensive  aerating  system  (fig.  1),  con- 


a£ration.— FIO.  1. 

Diagrammatic  cross-eection  of  a  leaf,  showing  the 
intercelhilar  spaces  in  the  interior,  i,  and  in  the  epi- 
dermis (=  stomata),  9. 

sisting  of  irregular  passages,  t,  between  the  inte- 
rior cells,  which  communicate  with  the  outer  air 
through  microscopic  openings,  «,  between  the  sur- 
face cells  (see  Stomata),  or  through  larger  breaks 
in  the  corky  layers  of  tissue  on  the  surface  of  the 
stems.    ( See  Lenticels.  )     The  intercellular  pas- 


AftRATION.— FIG.  2. 

Part  of  a  cross-section  of  the  root  of  Jnssiiea,  show- 
ing aSrcncbyma,  with  enormous  intercellular  spaces, 
the  cells  being  a  mere  scaffolding  between  the  sarface 
(not  shown)  and  the  central  cylinder  (at  the  lower 
margin). 

sages   and   stomata  are  formed  by  the  partial 
separation  of  the  cells  as  they  mature.    In  land 


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plants  they  are  most  abundant,  and  largest  in 
the  green  parts,  because  the  gas  exchanges  in 
food-making,  Photosynthesis,  exceed  those  in 
respiration.  In  water  plants,  however,  whose 
opportunity  for  securing  gases  from  the  air  is 
more  limited,  the  aSrating  system  reaches  its 
highest  development.  (See  Hydbophttes.)  The 
tissues  mav  present  to  the  eye  a  spongy  appear- 
ance, and  m  some  cases  the  canals  in  stems  and 
leaf  stalks  may  even  be  large  enough  to  be  easily 
jifen  with  the  naked  eye  (fig.  2).  The  internal 
atmosphere  pervading  these  canals  is  voluminous 
t^nough  to  permit  both  considerable  exchanges 
between  it  and  the  adjacent  tissues  and  the  freer 
diffusion  of  gases  entering  from  the  restricted 
iirea  of  organs  exposed  to  the  air.  The  compo- 
siition  of  the  internal  atmosphere  is  always  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  outer  and  varies  from 
time  to  time.  During  the  day  the  internal  at- 
mosphere contains  less  carbon  dioxide  and  more 
oxygen  than  the  external  atmosphere,  at  night 
the  reverse  being  the  case.  At  all  times  the  in- 
ternal atmosphere  contains  a  larger  amount  of 
water  vapor,  because  the  wetness  of  the  cell-wall, 
which  is  necessary  for  gaseous  exchanges,  per- 
mits evaporation.    See  Transpibation. 

A^BA'TOB  (Literally,  "airer,"  from  Lat. 
(ter,  air).  In  dairying,  an  apparatus  for  a^rat- 
inp;  milk  to  remove  the  animal  and  barn  odors. 
The  milk  is  usually  caused  to  run  or  ripple  in  a 
thin  layer  over  an  exposed  surface,  being,  in 
many  forms  of  apparatus,  cooled  at  the  same 
time.  In  some  forms  of  apparatus  the  cooling 
is  effected  by  the  use  of  ice;  in  others,  ice  water 
or  cool  water  from  wells  or  springs  is  used.  The 
object  of  cooling  milk  is  to  remove  the  animal 
heat  from  it  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  milked, 
!<o  that  the  conditions  may  be  less  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  the  micro-organisms  which  cause 
iioiiring  and  other  changes.  Cream  also  is  often 
cot)led  when  it  is  to  be  sold  for  household  pur- 
poses, especially  separator  cream.  Cooling  is, 
further,  a  very  important  step  in  the  process  of 
pasteurizing  milk  or  cream.  The  practice  of 
aerating  and  cooling  is  comparatively  new. 

AEBENCHYMA,  a'er-eu'kl-mi\  (Gk.  aj^p. 
a^,  air  -\-  tvxvfia,  enchyma,  infusion,  in  the 
Honse  of  a  tissue).  In  plants,  a  loose,  spongy 
tissue,  which  is  especially  common  in  water 
plants  (see  Hydrophytes),  and  which  is  sup- 
posed to  facilitate  aeration — whence  the  name. 
Aerenchyma  is  typically  composed  of  more  or  less 
radially  arranged  arms  of  thin-walled  cells  in- 
closing large  air  spaces.  For  illustration,  see 
Aeration,  lig.  2. 

A^^BIAL  FAXJ^A,  See  Distribution  of 
Animals. 

AEBIAL  PLANTS  AND  BOOTS.  See 
Epiphytes;  Roots. 

AEBIAL  POFSONS.    See  Miasma. 

A^BLANS,  ft-e'ri-anz.  A  Christian  sect 
founded  in  the  fourth  century  by  A^rius  of  Pon- 
tu9.  He  opposed  prayers  for  the  dead  and  the 
keeping  of  Easter  and  all  set  fasts,  and  asserted 
the  equality  between  a  bishop  and  a  presbyter. 
John  Glass  (q.v.)  wrote  a  scholarly  monograph 
on  the  so-called  heresy  of  A^rius  (Perth,  1745), 
which  so  strikingly  antedates  reformation  doc- 
trine. 

A'EBOCLI'NOSCOPE  ( Gk.  a^p,  a<?r,  air  + 
xAlvetv,  klincitif  to  incline  -f  aKoneiv,  skopein,  to 
watch,  examine).     An  instrument  invented  by 


Bujrs  Ballot  and  used  in  Holland  and  elsewhere 
as  a  storm  signal.  It  consists  of  a  vertical 
axis,  turninff  on  a  pivot,  and  carrying  at  the  top 
a  horizontal  arm  whose  inclination  can  be  va- 
ried. One  end  of  this  arm  is  painted  red  and  the 
other  white,  and  when  weather  conditions  are 
normal  it  rests  at  a  horizontal  position.  In  case 
of  falling  barometer  the  arm  is  rotated  so  that 
the  red  end  points  in  the  direction  of  the  storm, 
the  amount  of  inclination  indicating  the  degree 
of  change  in  the  barometer. 

A'EBODYNAM^CS  (Gk.  a^p,  a^  air  -f- 
Svvafiic,  dynamia,  power).  That  branch  of  sci- 
ence which  treats  of  the  properties  of  air  and 
other  gases  in  motion.  It  is,  therefore,  a  branch 
of  pneumatics   (q.v.). 

A'fiBOLITE  (Gk.  ajfp,  a&r,  air  -f  ?.idof,  H<fc- 
o«,  stone),  Meteoric  Stone,  Fireball.  Uraxo- 
LITH,  or  Shootino-Star.  a  solid  body  reaching 
the  earth  from  unknown  points  beyond  the  earth's 
atmosphere.  When  seen  at  night,  aerolites  usually 
consist  of  a  luminous  head  or  fireball,  followed 
by  a  bright  train  of  incandescent  matter.  Some- 
times there  are  visible  explosions,  and  even  loud 
detonations  are  occasionally  heard.  In  the  day- 
time the  light  of  both  fireball  and  train  is  largely 
lost  against  the  sky  background ;  it  is  said,  how- 
ever, that  visible  clouds  at  all  times  replace  the 
luminous  train. 

There  are  numerous  records  and  stories  in  all 
ages  and  countries  of  the  fall  of  stones  from 
the  sky,  but  until  comparatively  recent  times 
they  were  treated  by  scientific  men  as  instances 
of  popular  credulity  and  superstition.    It  was 
not  till  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century 
that  the  fact  was  established  beyond  a  doubt. 
According  to  Livy,  a  shower  of  stones  fell  on 
the   Alban   mount,   not   far   from   Home,  about 
654  B.C.     The  fall  of  a  great  stone  at  .Egospo- 
tami,  about  407  B.C.,  is  recorded  in  the  Parian 
Chronicle  (see  Arundel  Marbles),  and  by  Plu- 
tarch and  Pliny.     It  was  still  shown  in  the  days 
of  Pliny  (died  79  a.d.),  who  describes  it  as  the 
size  of  a  wagon  and  of  a  burned  color.    In  the 
year  1492  a.d.  a  ponderous  stone  weighing  260 
pounds   fell   from   the   sky  near   the  village  of 
Ensisheim,  in  Alsace;   part  of  it  is  still  to  be 
seen   in   the  village  church.     An   extraordinary 
shower  of  stones  fell  near  L'Aigle,  in  Normandy, 
on  April  26,  1803.    The  celebrated  French  physi- 
cist, M.   Biot,  was   deputed  by  the   government 
to  repair  to  the  spot  and  collect  the  authentic 
facts,  and  since  the  date  of  his  report  the  reality 
of   such   occurrences   has   no   longer   been  ques- 
tioned.    Nearly  all  the  inhabitants  of  a  large 
district  had  seen  the  cloud,  heard   the  noises, 
and  observed  the  stones  fall.     Within  an  ellip- 
tical area  of  seven  miles  by  three,  the  number 
of  stones  that  had  fallen  could  not  be  less  than 
two  or  three  thousand;  the  largest  were  seven- 
teen pounds  in  weight.     These  are  only  a  few 
out  of  hundreds  of  instances  on  record" 

As  is  natural  with  objects  of  such  mysteri- 
ous origin,  meteoric  stones  have  always  been 
regarded  with  religious  veneration.  At'  Emesa, 
in  Syria,  the  sun  was  worshipped  under  the 
form  of  a  black  stone,  reported  to  have  fallen 
from  heaven.  The  holy  Kaaba  of  Mecca,  and 
the  great  stone  of  the  pvTamid  of  Cholula,  in 
Mexico,  both  have  a  similar  history.  The  exist- 
ence of  such  bodies  once  admitted  led  to  assign- 
ing a  meteoric  character  to  strange  ferruginous 
masses  found  in  different  countries,  and  which 


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no  history,  or  were  only  adverted  to  in 
\  tradition.     Of  this  kind  is  the  immense 

seen  by  Pallas  in  Siberia,  now  in  the 
ial  museum  in  St.  Petersburg.  The  largest 
n  is  one  in  Brazil,  estimated  at  14,000 
is. 

i  constant  characteristic  of  meteoric  stones 
I  fused  black  crust,  like  varnish,  with  which 
urface  is  coated.  From  the  circumstance 
is  coat' being  very  thin,  and  separated  from 
finer  mass  by  a  sharply  defined  line,  it  is 
:ht  to  indicate  some  rapid  action*  of  heat 
I  has  not  had  time  to  penetrate  into  the 
ance  of  the,  stone.  This  view  is  favored 
e  fact  that  the  stones  are  found  in  a  strong- 
ated  but  not  incandescent  state  when  they 

Their  specific  gravity  ranges  from  two  to 

or  eight  times  that  of  water.  Chemically, 
leteoric  stones  have  the  same  constitution 
r  earth,  the  chief  constituent  being  nickel- 
which  occurs  in  variable  proportions.  No 
element  has  been  found  in  them,  and  only 
.  twenty-five  of  those  already  known.  These 
lements  are  often  combined  in  a  different 
er  to  form  new  minerals  not  yet  known  in 
irth. 

lides  these  solid  masses  of  considerable 
lumerous  instances  are  on  record  of  showers 
ist  over  large  tracts  of  land;  and  it  is 
rkable  that  such  dust  has  generally  been 
[  to  contain  small,  hard,  angular  grains  re- 
ing  augite.  Stories  of  the  fall  of  gelatinous 
?s  from  the  sky  are  ranked  by  Humboldt 
g  the  mythical  fables  of  meteorology.  It 
)een  supposed  that  such  fables  may  have 
lated  in  the  very  rapid  growth  of  gelatinous 

as  N 08 toe  (q.v.). 

ehalls  and  Shooting-stars.  —  From  their 
t  and  apparent  diameter,  the  actual  diam- 
of  the  largest  fireballs  was  estimated  by 
^Idt  to  vary  from  500  to  2800  feet;  others 
a  diameter  of  about  a  mile.  In  most 
of  luminous  meteors,  a  train  of  light  many 

in  length  is  left  behind.  One  or  two  in- 
es  are  on  record  where  the  train  of  the  fire- 
ontinued  shining  for  half  an  hour  after  the 
disappeared.     This  remarkable  phenomenon 

yet  unexplained;  it  cannot  be  attributed 
nably  to  incandescence  due  to  heat  alone. 
xeights  of  shooting-stars  are  found  to  aver- 
rom  74  to  50  miles  at  the  points  at  which 
begin  and  cease  to  be  visible.  Their  veloc- 
vary  from  18  to  36  miles  in  a  second. 
?  of  the  most  remarkable  facts  connected 
shooting-stars  is,  that  certain  appearances 
em  are  periodic.  On  most  occasions  they 
poradic — that  is,  they  appear  singly,  and 
rse   the    sky    in    all    directions.     At  other 

they  appear  in  swarms  of  thousands,  mov- 
arallel ;  and  these  swarms  are  periodic,  or 

on  the  same  days  of  the  year.  Attention 
irst  directed  to  this  fact  on  occasion  of  the 
gious  swaiTTi  which  appeared  in  North 
ica  between  November  12  and  13,  1833,  de- 
;d  by  Professor  Olmsted,  of  New  Haven.  The 

fell  on  this  occasion  like  flakes  of  snow, 
e  number,  as  was  estimated,  of  240,000,  in 
pace  of  nine  hours,  varying  in  size  from  a 
ig  point  or  phosphorescent  line  to  globes 
le  moon's  diameter.  The  most  important 
vat  ion  made  was  that  they  all  appeared 
oceed  from  the  same  quarter  of  the  heavens, 
icinity,  namely,  of  the  star  y,  in  the  con- 
Ltion    Leo;    and    although    that    star    had 


changed  greatly  its  height  and  direction  during 
the  time  that  the  phenomenon  lasted,  they  con- 
tinued to  issue  from  the  same  point.  It  wa-^ 
afterward  computed  by  Encke  that  this  point 
was  the  very  direction  in  which  the  earth  was 
moving  in  her  orbit  at  the  time.  Attention 
being  directed  to  recorded  appearances  of  the 
same  kind,  it  was  observed  with  surprise  that 
several  of  the  most  remarkable  had  occurred 
on  the  same  day  of  November,  especially  that 
seen  by  Humboldt  at  Cumana  in  1799,  and  by 
other  observers  over  a  great  extent  of  the  earth. 
The  November  stream  was  again  observed  in  the 
United  States  in  1834,  between  November  i:i 
and  14,  though  less  intense.  Though  oft^n 
vague,  and  in  some  years  altogether  absent,  thin 
phenomenon  has  recurred  with  such  regularity, 
both  in  America  and  Europe,  as  to  establish  its 
periodic  character. 

Another  periodic  swarm  of  considerable  regu- 
larity is  that  appearing  between  August  9  and 
14,  and  noticed  in  ancient  legends  as  the  "fiery 
tears"  of  St.  Lawrence,  whose  festival  is  on  the 
tenth  of  that  month.  There  are  other  period! r 
appearances,  and  the  following  epochs  are  espt^- 
cially  worthy  of  remark:  April  20,  July  28, 
August  10,  November  14,  November  24,  December 
11. 

It  remains  to  notice  briefly  the  various  opiri- 
ions  that  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  origin  of 
aerolites  and  the  theory  of  meteors  in  generrtl. 
The  hypotheses  that  have  been  formed  in  answer 
to  the  question,  Whence  come  those  solid  masse-^ 
that  fall  upon  the  earth?  are  of  two  kinds:  somn 
ascribing  to  them  a  telluric  origin,  and  other.^ 
making  them  alien  to  the  earth.  Of  the  first 
kind  is  the  conjecture  that  they  may  be  stones 
ejected  from  terrestrial  volcanoes,  revolving  for 
a  time  along  with  the  earth,  and  at  last  return- 
ing to  it.  Another  theory,  which  at  one  time 
found  considerable  favor,  supposed  that  the  mat- 
ter of  which  aerolites  are  composed  existed  in 
the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of.  vapor,  and  wa'^ 
by  some  unknown  cause  suddenly  aggregated 
and  precipitated  to  the  earth.  These  conjec- 
tures are  untenable  in  the  face  of  the  phenom- 
ena stated  above,  and  are  now  completely  given 
up. 

In  seeking  a  source  beyond  the  earth,  the 
moon  readily  presented  itself.  Olbers  was  the 
•first  to  investigate  (1795)  the  initial  velocity 
necessary  to  bring  to  the  earth  masses  projected 
from  the  moon.  This  "ballistic  problem,"  as 
Humboldt  calls  it,  occupied  during  ten  or  twelve 
years  the  geometricians  Laplace,  Biot,  Branded, 
and  Poisson.  It  was  calculated  that,  settint: 
aside  the  resistance  of  air,  an  initial  velocity  of 
about  8000  feet  in  a  second,  which  is  about  three 
or  four  times  that  of  a  cannon  ball,  would  suffice 
to  bring  the  stones  to  the  earth  with  a  velocitv 
of  35,000  feet.  But  Olbers  showed  that  to 
account  for  the  actual  measured  velocity  of  mete- 
oric stones  the  original  velocity  of  projection 
must  be  fourteen  times  greater  than  the  above. 

The  discussion  of  hypotheses  as  to  the  genesis 
of  the  recognized  planets  out  of  portions  of  the 
gradually  contracting  vaporous  ma^sa  of  th^  *^^ ' 
the  continued  discovery  of  hith^..^  unobserved 
planets  between  the  orbits  of  Mt^v        \  Jupiter ; 


the    countless    multitudes    of 


^c^ 


^H  an^ 


t\v^V 


ivre 


observed  traversing  our  system  i  ^e^^    T  nct^oi^'=^ 

on/1      iin/lAt*rr/>inrr      a  nfki^o/iioKI  a      _  '«    ^Vw  .«     A\X^        .         „■ 


and  undergoing  appreciable 
consistency   and   orbit — all 
idea  that  matter  may  exist  i^ 


iS^f 


ot 


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AEBOLITE. 


148 


aMbonaxjtics. 


spaces  in  every  variety  of  form  and  condition. 
To  account  for  the  phenomena  of  meteors  as 
above  described,  we  must  suppose  that  there  are 
both  detached  masses,  each  revolving  in  an  inde- 
pendent orbit,  and  giving  rise  to  sporadic  mete- 
ors, and  also  connected  systems,  forming  rings 
or  zones  around  the  sun.  The  intersection  of 
the  earth's  orbit  by  such  zones  or  streams  would 
account  for  the  periodic  swarms  of  meteors ;  and 
if  we  suppose  the  asteroids  composing  it  to  be 
irregularly  grouped,  we  see  a  reason  why  the 
same  stream  should  not  be  always  of  equal 
intensity.  There  might  even  be  periodicity  in 
this  respect  too. 

What  causes  the  luminous  and  ignited  condi- 
tion of  aerolites?  Terrestrial  magnetism  was 
at  one  time  suggested  as  the  exciting  cause.  It 
is  now  recognized,  however,  that  the  atmosphere 
extends  to  a  very  great  height,  and  the  ignition 
is  believed  to  be  caused  by  friction  between  the 
rapidly  moving  body  and  the  air.  As  to  mete- 
orites that  do  not  fall  on  the  earth,  we  may 
suppose  that  some  are  merely  deflected  from 
their  path  by  the  proximity  of  the  earth,  are 
rendered  luminous  through  a  short  arc,  and 
continue  their  course  with  altered  orbit,  while 
the  greater  part  are  soon  burnt  up  and  fall  to 
the  earth  in  impalpable  dust.    See  Meteors. 

A^'BOMAN'CY.    See  Supebstition. 

A'SBONAXJTICS  (Gk.  a^p,  a(hr,  air  +  vairtjq, 
nauU'8,  sailor).  The  art  of  atrial  navigation. 
It  is  of  comparatively  recent  development,  as 
the  ancients  seem  to  have  been  convinced  that 
the  navigation  of  the  air  was  impossible  to 
human  beings,  and  to  have  made  no  attempt  to 
accomplish  it.  Grecian  mythology,  however, 
furnishes  us  the  fable  of  Daedalus,  who  made 
wings  of  feathers  cemented  with  wax  for  himself 
and  his  son  Icarus,  and  endeavored  to  escape  by 
flight  from  King  Minos.  The  story  of  how  Icarus, 
by  forgetting  the  injunctions  of*  his  father  and 
soaring  so  high  that  the  sun  melted  the  wax 
of  his  wings,  was  precipitated  into  the  sea, 
while  Daedalus  accomplished  his  flight  in  safety, 
is  familiar  to  all  as  a  fanciful  legend  of  ancient 
mythology.  A  more  comprehensible  tale,  but 
yet  one  which  is  based  entirely  on  tradition, 
is  that  told  of  the  wooden  dove  invented  by  the 
Greek  mathematician  Archytas.  According  to 
the  tradition,  this  dove  could  maintain  sus- 
tained flight  and  was  set  in  motion  by  "hidden 
and  inclosed  air."  Passing  to  the  Middle  Ages, 
we  find  the  field  scarcely  more  fruitful  in  facts 
relating  to  a^^rial  navigation.  There  are  record- 
ed a  few  actual  and  usually  disastrous  attempts 
at  gliding  flight,  which  will  be  noted  further  on, 
but  generally  speaking  the  consideration  of  the 
problem  of  flight  by  human  beings  was  conflned 
mostly  to  surmise  and  speculations  which  in 
many  cases  were  nearly  as  fanciful  as  the  earlier 
Grecian  fables.  The  statement  of  these  meagi-e 
facts  brings  us  to  the  invention  which  for  the 
first  time  placed  the  art  of  aerial  navigation 
upon  a  more  practical  basis  than  mere  specula- 
tion, namely,  the  discovery  of  the  balloon. 

Balloons.  The  germ  of  the  invention  of  bal- 
loons is  to  be  found  in  the  discovery  by  the  Eng- 
lish chemist  and  physicist,  Henry  Cavendish,  in 
176G,  of  the  remarkable  lightness  of  hydrogen 
gas,  then  called  inflammable  air.  Professor 
Black,  of  Edinburgh,  seems  to  have  been  the  flrst 
who  conceived  the  idea  that  a  light  envelope  con- 
taining this  gas  would  rise  of  itself.     He  request- 


ed Dr.  Monro,  the  professor  of  anatomy,  to  give 
him  some  thin  animal  membrane  for  the  ex|)eii- 
ment;  but  for  some  reason  or  other  the  experi- 
ment was  never  made.  The  first  practical  at- 
tempts were  made  by  Cavallo,  who  in  1772  filled 
swine's  bladders  and  paper  bags  with  the  gas, 
but  found  the  former  too  heavy  and  the  latter 
too  porous,  and  only  succeeded  in  raising 
soap-bubbles  infiated  with  the  gas.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  balloon  is  due  to  the  two  brothers 
£tienne  and  Joseph  Montgolfier,  paper-makers 
at  Annonay,  in  France,  whose  names  are  as  dis- 
tinguished in  the  development  of  their  own 
industry  as  in  the  history  of  aeronautics.  It 
occurred  to  these  brothers,  on  reading  Caven- 
dish's Different  Kinds  of  Air,  that  the  air  could 
be  rendered  navigable  by  inclosing*  a  light  gas 
within  a  covering  of  inconsiderable  weight.  Led 
by  their  vocation,  they  fixed  upon  paper  as  the 
most  fitting  material  for  the  purpose,  and  first 
attempted  to  make  balloons  of  paper  filled  with 
inflammable  air.  Finding  that  these  emptied 
themselves  almost  as  soon  as  they  were  filled, 
instead  of  abandoning  the  paper  as  an  unsuit- 
able covering  for  the  gas,  they  sought  after  an- 
other gas  more  suited  to  the  paper.  They  thought 
that  the  gas  which  resulted  from  the'  combus- 
tion of  slightly  moistened  straw  and  wool  would 
answer  the  purpose,  since  it  had,  as  they  imag- 
ined, an  upward  tendency,  not  only  from  its 
being  heated,  but  from  its  electrical  properties, 
which  caused  it  to  be  repelled  from  the  ground. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  this  so-called 
Montgolfier  gas  possessed  no  advantages  for 
raising  balloons  other  than  that  possessed  by 
heated  air  of  any  kind;  in  fact,  the  abundant 
smoke  with  which  it  was  mixed,  by  adding  to  its 
weight,  rather  detracted  from  its  merits.  At 
Avignon,  in  November,  1782,  Etienne  Montgol- 
fier first  succeeded  in  causing  a  silk  parallelopi- 


:  ,  uH  ^  ^  u 


^. 


KONTGOLFIEB  BALLOON. 


ped,  of  about  50  cubic  feet,  to  rise  to  the  ceiling 
of  a  room.  Encouraged  by  this  success,  the 
brothers  made  experiments  on  a  larger  scale  at 
Annonay  with  an  equally  happy  result:  and 
finally,  in  June,  1783,  in  the  presence  of  the 
assembly  of  the  estates  of  Vivarais  and  of  an  im- 


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AIRSHIPS    AND    FLYING-MACHINES 


1.  DIRIGIBLE    BALLOON    OF    CX)UNT  ZEPPELIN,  8.  LILIENTHAL'S  APPARATUS   FOR   SOARING   FLIGHT. 

In  flight,  July  2,  1900.  4-5.  CHANUTE'S  APPARATUS   FOR   SOARING   FLIGHT. 

2.  LANGLEY'S   AERODROME,  in  flight.  6.  SANTOS-DUMONT'S  AIRSHIP. 


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I 


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AEBONAUTICS. 


149 


AEBONAUTICS. 


i  multituae,  they  raised  a  balloon  35  feet  in 
ter  to  a  height  of  1500  feet.  This  balloon, 
r  spherical  in  shape,  was  made  of  packeloth, 
;d  with  paper,  and  was  heated  by  a  small 
frate  placed  beneath  it,  in  which  ten  pounds 
ist  straw  and  wool  were  burned. 
I  news  of  this  extraordinary  experiment 
reached  Paris,  where  it  produced  a  great 
ion.  A  commission  was  appointed  by 
Lcademy  of  Sciences  to  report  upon  it. 
;  curiosity,  however,  could  not  await  the 

decision  of  this  body,  and  accordingly  a 
'iption  was  raised  to  defray  the  expense 
peating  the  Annonay  experiment.  Such 
he  excitement  that  the  subscription  was 
in  a  few  days,  and  the  construction  of  the 
n  was  intrusted  to  the  brothers  Robert, 
9  philosophical  instrument  makers  of  the 
and  to  Professor  Charles,  a  young  but 
enced  physicist.  As  the  detailed  account 
!  Annonay  ascent  had  not  reached  Paris, 
\  nothing  was  therefore  known  of  the  Mont- 
gas,  Charles  fixed  upon  hydrogen  as  the 
ost  likely  to  insure  success.  It  was,  how- 
a  formidable  undertaking  to  produce  it 
ficient  abundance  for  a  balloon,  as  it  was 
t  time  only  prepared  in  small  quantities  in 
jture  room  and  laboratory.  By  ingenuity 
erseverance  combined  he  triumphed  over 
ifficulty,  and  succeeded  in  filling,  in  the 

of  four  days,  a  silk  globe  12  feet  in 
ber.  This  balloon  was  transferred  to  the 
3s  de  Mars,  the  largest  open  space  in  Paris, 
',  on  August  27,  1783,  it  ascended  in  the 
ce  of  300,000  spectators,  half  the  popula- 
f  the  city.  At  the  instance  of  the  commis- 
ilready  referred  to,  ^^tienne  Montgolfier 
acted  a  fire-balloon  72  feet  high  and  41 

diameter.  It  ascended  before  the  commis- 
D  September  12,  1783,  but  being  held  cap- 
was  much  injured  by  a  violent  wind  which 
it  the  time,  and  after  it  descended  it  was 

broken  up  by  heavy  rains.  Another  was 
of  nearly  the  same  dimensions,  which  as- 

on  the  nineteenth  of  the  same  month  at 
lies,  the  king  and  royal  family  witnessing 
►ectacle.  This  ascent  is  worthy  of  note, 
:he  fact  that  a  sheep,  a  cock,  and  a  duck 
)laced  in  an  osier  basket  attached  to  the 
part  of  the  balloon,  and  that  these  first 

voyagers   reached   the   ground   again   in 

balloon  was  now  an  accomplished  fact, 
began  to  be  discussed  whether  it  might 
serviceable  as  an  airship  for  bearing  men 
is  passengers.  The  solution  of  this  ques- 
ras  first  given  by  Pilfttre  de  Rozier.  In 
itgolfi^re,  as  the  heated  air-balloon  was 
74  feet  high  and  48  feet  in  diameter,  sup- 
g  at  its  base  a  gallery  of  wicker-work,  he, 
ipany  with  the  Marquis  d'Arlandes,  made 
rst  aerial  voyage,  November  21,  1783. 
remained  in  the  air  twenty-five  minutes, 
liled  across  the  Seine  and  over  a  consider- 
art  of  Paris.  The  year  1783,  so  fertile  in 
anals  of  aeronautics,  witnessed  an  addi- 
.  and  even  more  satisfactory,  triumph. 
?cember  1,  Professor  Charles,  along  with 
b,  rose  from  the  Tuileries  gardens  with  a 
^n  ballo<m — then  called  a  Charli^re — 
with  the  proceeds  of  a  public  subscription. 
^>alloon  was  made  of  alternately  red  and 
'  gores\  of  silk  sewed  together  and  coated 
caoutchouc  varnish.    It  was  covered  with  a 


net  which  supported  the  car,  and  was  furnislied 
with  a  valve,  a  barometer,  and  sand-ballast,  nnd 
was,  in  fact,  a  complete  atrial  machine.  In  ci>n- 
seauence  of  the  danger  attending  the  use  of  tire- 
balloons,  and  the  engrossing  attention  which 
they  demand  of  the  aeronaut,  they  have  now  en- 
tirely given  way  to  the  hydrogen  or  coal-gas  bal- 
loons for  long  voyages.  Before  they  becaitie 
obsolete  several  remarkable  voyages  were  niiide 
in  them.  The  same  Pilfttre  de  Rozier  made  30 
leagues  in  one  of  them,  the  longest  voyage  ever 
executed  in  a  montgolfi^re.  Among  the  names 
of  the  first  professional  aeronauts,  those  of 
Lunardi,  Blanchard,  and  Garnerin  deserve  spe- 
cial note.  Lunardi  was  the  first  who  made  an 
ascent  in  Great  Britain;  and  Blanchard,  ahmg 
with  an  American,  Dr.  Jeffries,  crossed  the  Eng- 
lish channel  from  Dover  to  Calais  in  circum- 
stances of  almost  unparalleled  danger,  Januiiry 
7,  1785.  Garnerin  first  descended  from  a  balloon 
by  a  parachute  (q.v.),  October  22,  1797.  It  la 
much  to  be  rejgretted  that  the  first  aeronaut, 
Pilfttre  de  Rozier,  fell  a  victim  to  a  blind  de- 
votion to  his  art.  In  order  to  outvie  Blanchard, 
he  constructed  a  compound  machine,  consisting 
of  a  hydrogen  balloon  above  and  a  montgolfi^re 
below,  and  started  from  Boulogne,  accompanii^d 
by  a  young  physicist  named  Romain,  on  the 
morning  of  June  5,  1785.  He  had  not  ascended 
many  minutes  when,  as  it  afterward  appeared, 
on  attempting  to  open  the  valve  of  the  hydroju^^n 
balloon  by  the  rope  attached  to  it,  he  causeil  a 
rent  of  several  yards  in  it,  so  that  it  emptied 
itself  almost  immediately,  and  fell  on  the  mont- 
golfi^re  beneath.  The  fire  in  the  latter  not  being 
kindled,  the  whole  machine  fell  with  a  frightful 
rapidity  to  the  earth,  and  the  ill-fated  aeronauts 
perished  on  the  spot  whence  they  had  arisen. 

As  stated  above,  the  second  balloon  built  by 
Professor  Charles  embodied  all  the  essentiiila 
of  the  ordinary  balloon  of  the  present  day. 
Briefly  described,  the  balloon,  as  it  is  commonly 
employed,  is  a  large  pear-shaped  bag,  made  of 
any  pliable  cloth,  usually  alpaca  or  cotton, 
(though  silk  is  the  best),  covered  with  a  varnish, 
made  by  dissolving  caoutchouc  in  oil  of  turpen- 
tine, to  render  it  air-tight.  The  common  size  of 
this  bag  varies  from  20  to  30  feet  in  equatorial 
diameter,  with  a  4>roportionate  height.  The 
mouth  or  neck  of  this  bag  is  just  large  enough 
to  enable  a  man  to  get  inside  to  make  any  neces- 
sary repairs,  and  is,  of  course,  turned  downwt^rd 
when  the  balloon  is  inflated.  A  network  of 
hempen  or  cotton  twine  is  accurately  fitted  to 
the  balloon,  and  the  ends  of  the  separate  cords, 
of  which  it  is  formed,  are  tied  to  a  circular  hoop 
placed  a  few  feet  below  the  neck.  The  car,  ^gen- 
erally a  large  wicker-basket,  is  suspended  by 
ropes  from  this  hoop  and  hangs  at  a  consider- 
able distance  below,  so  that  the  aSronaut  nmy 
be  removed  from  the  vicinity  of  the  gas.  Tlie 
net- work  serves  to  distribute  the  weight  of  the 
car  and  its  charge  equally  over  the  whole  upper 
surface  of  the  balloon.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant requisites  in  the  construction  is  the  valve, 
which  is  introduced  into  the  top  of  the  balloon. 
It  consists  of  a  wooden  or  metial  clapper,  from 
one  foot  to  three  feet  in  diameter,  opening  in- 
ward, and  kept  closed  by  springs.  A  rope  at- 
tached to  this  valve  descends  through  the  neek 
into  the  car,  where,  to  prevent  accidental  open- 
ing, it  is  allowed  to  dangle  fr^^iy.  The  equip- 
ment of  the  car  comprises  th^  vVlast,  o^  sand- 
bags, by  emptying  which  the  l>^\i  "^^^g^y  be  VvA\i- 


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AfiBONAXJTICS. 


ened ;  the  barometer,  or  corresponding  apparatus 
for  tellinff  the  height  ascended,  or  the  upward  or 
dowDward  course  of  the  balloon;  the  map  and 
roTupass,  for  showing  the  direction  of  the  voyage; 
und  Ihe  grappling-iron,  tied  to  the  end  of  a  long 
rope,  for  anchoring  the  balloon  at  the  descent. 
During  his  flight  the  aeronaut  has  at  his  dis- 
ponaL  the  means  of  guiding  his  airship  only  in 
an  upward  or  downward  direction,  the  motion  of 
translation  being  wholly  dependent  on  the  wind 
by  which  it  is  borne.  If  he  wishes  to  ascend,  he 
throws  some  of  the  ballast  over  the  side  of  the 
ear^  and  if  to  descend,  he  pulls  the  valve-rope, 
Ro  that,  the  gas  rushing  by  virtue  of  its  specific 
lightness  through  the  passage  made  for  it  by 
tho  open  valve,  the  buoyant  material  may  be 
lessened.  It  is  evident  that  the  power  of  thus 
directing  his  machine  becomes  more  limited  after 
eai'h  discharge  of  ballast  or  gas,  for,  in  each  case, 
there  is  an  unrepaired  loss  of  the  means  neces- 
sary to  it.  In  ordinary  flights  the  mouth  of  the 
balloon  is  left  open,  so  that  there  is  no  danger 
of  explosion  arising  from  the  expansion  of  the 
gAH  in  the  rarer  regions  of  the  atmosphere.  The 
ijas  most  commonly  used  for  balloons  is  coal  gas. 
The*  diffusion  that  takes  place  through  the  open 
neck  is  inconsiderable  during  the  few  hours  that 
an  atrial  voyage  lasts.  Early  aeronauts,  who 
kept  their  balloons  closed,  frequently  ran  con- 
siderable risk  by  inattention  to  the  valve  when 
th«  imprisoned  gas  demanded  vent  for  its  ex- 
pansion. 

(~*aptive  balloons,  as  the  name  signifles,  are 
balloons  which  are  held  captive  to  the  earth  by 
means  of  a  cable.  The  cable  is  usually  arranged 
to  be  let  out  and  hauled  in  by  means  of  a  wind- 
In  h:^*  or  drum  operated  by  hand  or  by  mechanical 
power.  Captive  balloons  are  much  used  in  mili- 
tary operations  and  for  amusement  purposes, 
and  to  some  extent  for  scientiflc  observations. 
One  of  the  largest  captive  balloons  ever  em- 
ployed was  at  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1878, 
where  it  made  ascents  with  passengers  from  the 
Tuileries  quadrangle.  This  balloon  had  a  capac- 
ity' of  over  25,000  cubic  yards  and  was  made  of 
canvas. 

Dirigible  balloons  are  balloons  arranged  with 
steering  apparatus  or  propelling  machinery  by 
which  the  direction  of  their  flight  can  be  regu- 
lated at  will.  Various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  design  and  operate  dirigible  balloons,  but 
those  which  have  attained  the  grcjatest  success 
are:  The  experiments  of  M.  Gaston  Tissandier, 
made  in  1883;  the  French  army  tests,  made  a 
year  or  so  later,  and,  finally,  the  notable  experi- 
ments of  Count  Zeppelin,  made  in  the  summer  of 
1000,  and  of  M.  Santos-Dumont,  made  in  1901. 
Thii  balloon  with  which  experiments  were  made 
by  M.  Tissandier  was  91  feet  long  and  29  feet 
in  diameter,  built  in  the  shape  of  a  very  thick 
cigiir,  with  both  ends  pointed.  The  envelope  was 
made  of  thin  cloth  covered  with  an  impermeable 
varnish,  and  from  it  was  hung  by  means  of  the 
usual  netting  and  suspenders  a  car  containing 
an  electric  battery  supplying  current  to  an  elec- 
tric motor  which  operated  a  screw  propeller  9^ 
feet  in  diameter  and  having  two  blades.  A  tri- 
an/^far  silk  rudder  was  fitted  above  the  pro- 
peller in  much  the  same  relative  position  as  the 
rudder  of  a  steamship,  and  arranged  so  as  to  be 
operated  from  the  car.  The  total  weight  of  the 
propelling  machinery,  the  car  and  the  appurte- 
nances, exclusive  of  850  pounds  of  ballast,  was 
1200  pounds,  while  the  balloon  itself  weighed 


COO  pounds.     With  the  propeller  making  180  revo- 
lutions  per    minute   this   balloon   was  able  to 
maintain   its  position   against  a  wind  blowing 
6.8  miles  per  hour,  and  when  traveling  with  the 
wind  to  deviate  to  one  side  or  the  other  with 
ease.     The   French   Government  balloon,  whose 
construction  was  suggested  by  Tissandier's  ex- 
periments,  was   designed  by   MM.   Renard  and 
Krebs  on  similar  lines  to,  but  somewhat  longer 
in  comparison  with  its  diameter  than,  Tissan- 
dier's.     Seven  ascents  were  made  with  this  bal- 
loon during   1884-85,   with   the   following  prac- 
tical results :  In  five  of  the  ascents  the  voyagers 
were  able  to  return  to  their  starting  point,  and 
in  one  instance  a  velocity  of  13  miles  per  hour 
was  attained  .  independently  of   the  wind.    The 
airship    in    which    Count    Zeppelin    made   his 
notable  voyages  of   1900  consists   of  a  row  of 
seventeen  balloons,  confined  like   lozenges  in  a 
package,  in  a  cylindrical  shell  420  feet  long  and 
39  feet  in  diameter,  with  pointed  ends,    these 
balloons  serve  to  lift  the  structure  in  the  air, 
where    it   is    driven    forward    or    backward  by 
means   of   large   screw   propellers    operated  by 
benzine  motors.    A  pair  of  rudders,  one  forward 
and  one  aft,  serve  to  steer  the  "airship."    The 
crew    and    passengers    occupy    two    aluminum 
cars    suspended    forward    and    aft,    below   the 
body   of   the   balloon    shell.      From    these  ears, 
which  are  connected  by  a  speaking  tube,  all  the 
machinery   of   the   "airship"   is   operated.     The 
"airship"  is  made  to  run  on  a  horizontal  or  in- 
clined plane  by  means  of  a  weight,  which  can  be 
moved  back  and  forth,  on  a  cable  underneath  the 
balloon  shell.     When  the  weight  is  far  aft,  the 
bow  of  the  ship  points  upward  and  the  move- 
ment is  upward;   and  when  the  weight  is  far 
forward,  the  movement  is  downward,  and  when 
the  weight  is  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the  ship, 
the  travel  is  horizontal.     The  aluminum  cars  are 
each  20  feet  long  and  3%  feet  high.     The  frame- 
work of  the  shell  is  aluminum  wire  covered  on 
the    top    with    soft    ramie    fibre    protected   by 
pegamoid,  and  on  the  bottom  with   light  silk. 
The  seventeen  gas  bags,  made  of  a  s]>ecial  cotton 
material,  are  all  separate  from  one  another,  and 
there  is  a  safety  valve  for  each,  although  only  four 
have  outlet  valves.    The  Daimler  benzine  ei^nes, 
one  in  each  car,  are  of  16  horse- power  capacity 
each,  and  weigh  715  pounds  each.     The  screw 
propellers,  two  for  each  engine,  have  .four  blades 
and  are  3%  feet  in  diameter.    At  the  first  trial 
of  tne  Zeppelin  airship  on  July  2,  1900,  with  five 
persons  in  the  cars,  it  rose  1300  feet  above  Lake 
Constance  and  traveled  3%  miles  in  17  minutes 
in  the  direction  desired.    An  accident  to  the  slid- 
ing weight  and  to  one  of  the  rudders  caused  a  de- 
scent to  be  made,  which  was  accomplished  with 
perfect  ease.     At  a  succeeding  trial  on  October 
17,  the  airship  attained  a  height  of  nearly  2000 
feet,  and  there  remained  poised  for  45  minutes. 
It  then  made  a  series  of  tacks,  and  described  a 
circle  of  about  6  miles  circumference.     The  wind 
exceeded  a  velocity  of  about  7  miles  per  hour, 
and  the  airship  made  headway  against  this  wind 
for  a  considerable  distance.    After  remaining  in 
the  air  for  about  one  hour,  the  ship  descended 
to  the  lake  with  ^eat  ease,  and  was  towed  to 
its  shed.     In  steering,  stability,  and  equilibrium 
the  test  was  pronounced  very  successful. 

In  1901,  M.  Alberto  Santos-Dumont,  a  Bra- 
zilian gentleman  resident  in  Paris,  excited  wide- 
spread interest  through  his  experiments  with 
a    dirigible    balloon.     This  aeronaut    built    bis 


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,  balloon  in  1898.  It  was  in  the  form  of 
rlinder,  terminated  at  each  end  by  a  cone, 
was  82  feet  long  and  nearly  6  feet  in  dia- 
er,  with  a  capacity  of  6400  cubic  feet, 
basket  suspended  from  the  balloon  car- 
a  Ij/^  horse- power  gasoline  motor,  which 
rated  a  screw  propeller.  To  provide  the  neces- 
'  fore  and  aft  trim  for  ascent  and  descent 
n  under  way,  the  inventor  made  use  of  bags  of 
ist  which  could  be  attached  or  removed  at 
from  ropes  suspended  from  the  forward  and 
r  part  of  the  balloon  and  accessible  from  the 
:et  or  car.  With  this  balloon  M.  Santos- 
lont  made  an  ascent  in  the  autumn  of  1898 
?h  nearly  resulted  fatally  to  himself;  the 
ire  of  an  air-pump  to  work  resulted  in  a  par- 
collapse  of  the  balloon,  which  fell  1300  feet 
he  ground.  Aside  from  the  air-pump  acci- 
.,  the  success  of  this  trip  was  unusually  en- 
aging;  the  balloon  proved  perfectly  dirigible 
he  light  winds  prevailing  at  the  time  of  the 
A  second  balloon,  built  exactly  like  the 
,  but  larger,  was  never  used  by  M.  Santos- 
lont,  owing  to  the  fact  that  in  some  experi- 
ts  made  with  his  first  balloon  when  captive 
conclusion  had  been  forced  upon  him  that 
model  was  incorrect.  A  third  balloon, 
ter  and  very  much  thicker,  was  completed  in 
summer  of  1899.  This  balloon  was  6G  feet 
,  11^  feet  greatest  diameter,  and  17,600 
c  feet  capacity,  and  into  the  construction 
introduced  the  novelty  of  what  the  inventor 
led  a  keel.  This  keel  was  nothing  more  or 
than  a  bamboo  pole,  30  feet  long,  fixed 
thwise  to  suspender  cords  just  beneath  the 
jon,  which  supported  the  basket  and  other 
iratus.  The  most  notable  trip  made  with 
balloon  is  thus  described  by  the  inventor: 
November  13,  1899,  I  started  from  Lacham- 
i  atelier  in  Vaugirard  on  the  most  successful 
1  had  yet  made.  From  Vaugirard  I  went 
Ttly  to  the  Champs  de  Mars,  where  I  prac- 
l  describing  figure  8's.  The  airship  obeyed 
rudder  beautifully.  After  circling  around 
Eiffel  Tower  a  number  of  times,  I  made  a 
ight  course  to  the  Pare  des  Princes  at 
;uil;  then,  making  a  hook,  I  navigated  to 
manoeuvre  grounds  at  Bagatelle,  where  I 
ed."  M.  Santos-Dumont  found  that  this 
K)n  was  too  clumsy  and  the  motor  too  weak, 
he  built  a  fourth,  95  feet  long  and  9  feet  in 
leter,  elliptical  in  shape,  with  a  capacity  of 
)0  cubic  feet.  In  this  balloon  the  keel  was 
ig  framework  of  bamboo  and  wire,  which  ear- 
directly — ^there  being  no  suspended  car — 
horse-power  motor  with  its  propeller  and 
r  mechanism.  The  operator  managed  his 
line  seated  on  a  bicycle  saddle  attached  to 
keel.  With  this  balloon  M.  Santos-Dumont 
»  numerous  short  trips  during  the  Paris 
>sition  of  1900.  Balloon  No.  5  was  made 
utting  balloon  No.  4  in  half  and  inserting 
rlindrical  piece  sufficient  to  increase  its 
th  to  109  feet.  A  10  horse-power  motor  was 
►ted.  The  keel  was  a  60  foot  framework  of 
and  piano  wire,  and  into  it,  20  feet  from 
jtern,  was  fixed  the  motor,  while  the  operator 
pied  a  basket  23  feet  from  the  front  end  or 
I,  On  August  18,  1901,  M.  Santos-Dumont 
gated  this  balloon  from  St.  Cloud  to  and 
nd  the  Eiffel  Tof^er,  and  was  approaching 
starting  point  when  the  balloon  collapsed, 
the  whole  structure,  with  its  operator,  was 
ipitated  upon  the   roof   of   the   Trocadero 


Hotel,  where  it  hung,  the  keel  spanning  the 
space  between  the  two  roofs.  The  sixth  balloon 
of  M.  Santos-Dumont  was  like  the  previous  one, 
except  that  it  was  longer,  thicker,  and  more 
nearly  elipsodal  in  shape.  On  October  19,  1901, 
this  balloon  succeeded  in  making  a  trip  from  St. 
Cloud  to  and  around  the  Eiffel  Tower,  and  then 
back  to  the  starting  point,  in  30  minutes,  40 '/| 
seconds.  The  first  part  of  the  trip  to  the  towtr 
was  with  the  wind,  and  was  made  in  8  minutes, 
45  seconds,  but  the  return  trip  was  against  the 
wind,  and  required  20  minutes,  30  seconds  to 
complete.  The  remaining  1  minute  40 14  seconds 
were  consumed  in  descending.  The  trip  was  un- 
dertaken as  the  result  of  a  prize  of  100,000 
francs  offered  to  the  inventor  should  he  succeed 
in  making  the  journey  in  30  minutes.  Accord- 
ing to  the  newspaper  accounts,  the  balloon 
pitched  somewhat  when  going  against  the  wind, 
and  Santos-Dumont,  when  he  descended,  said  the 
motor  suddenly  stopped  while  the  balloon  was 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  tower.  He  thought 
he  might  have  to  descend;  but,  luckily,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  getting  the  machine  started  again. 
From  that  time  on,  the  motor  worked  satisfac- 
torily. 

In  closing  this  reference  to  dirigible  balloons, 
it  is  important  to  remember  that  the  successfuf 
trials  so  far  made  have  been  with  very  light 
winds  blowing.  Before  such  balloons  can  be 
considered  to  have  reached  a  practical  basis 
they  must  be  able  to  travel  at  a  speed  which 
will  overcome  at  least  all  ordinary  winds,  and 
also  have  a  steering  power  which  will  preserve 
their  position  in  variable  winds,  as  well  as  in 
winds  of  velocities  which  r2quire  the  full  power 
of  the  propelling  machinery  to  overcome.  These 
are  questions  regarding  which  there  is  much 
uncertainty. 

High  ascents  in  balloons  have  been  made  by  a 
number  of  aeronauts.  On  September  5,  1862, 
two  English  aeronauts,  Messrs.  Coxwell  and 
Glaisher,  starting  from  Wolverhampton,  Eng- 
land, ascended  37,000  feet,  or  fully  seven  mil»?B, 
At  a  height  of  blA  miles  one  of  the  aSronaut^ 
became  insensible  and  the  other  very  nearly 
so;  at  the  height  of  4  miles  lailway  trains  could 
be  heard,  but  at  a  height  of  6  miles  there  wna 
perfect  silence.  On  April  15,  1875,  M.  Tissan- 
dier,  the  inventor  of  the  dirigible  balloon  pre- 
viously described,  and  two  others  rose  from 
Paris,  PYance,  a  height  of  5^^  miles.  M.  Tissan- 
dier  alone  survived  the  trip,  his  companions 
dying  in  mid-air,  and  he  himself  being  rendered 
unconscious.  These  are  the  two  highest  balloon 
ascents  recorded  in  which  living  beings  were  pas- 
sengers. 

Scientific  research  by  means  of  balloons  has 
been  undertaken  in  a  number  of  instances,  the 
most  notable  attempt,  perhaps,  in  recent  years 
being  that  of  the  arctic  explorer  Andr^e  to  reach 
the  North  Pole  in  the  summer  of  1897.  As  is  well 
known,  the  explorer  and  his  companions  per- 
ished without  accomplishing  anything.  The 
most  fruitful  scientific  results  so  far  obtained 
by  ballooning  have  come  from  the  study  of  the 
magnetism,  humidity,  temperature,  and  chemical 
composition  of  the  air  at  high  altitudes.  The 
first  ascension  of  any  value  for  these  purpose?* 
was  that  of  Gay  Lussac,  in  1804,  from  Paris.  The 
balloon  rose  to  23,000  feet,  and  the  fall  in  tem- 
perature was  67°  F.,  or  1**  in  340  feet.  Spwi- 
mens  of  air  collected  at  the  higheat  "noint  s^o^'**'^ 
precisely  the  same  composition  aa    f  the  earth. 


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AEBONAUTICS. 


The  magnetic  force  did  not  experience  any  sen- 
sible variation  at  the  different  heights.*  The 
next  ascent  of  importance  was  that  of  Barral 
and  Bixto  in  July,  1850.  In  this  ascent,  at 
19,700  feet,  the  aeronauts  observed  a  tempera- 
ture in  a  cloud  of  15°  F.,  and  at  23,000  feet 
above  the  cloud  a  temperature  of  — 38**  F.  The 
ascent  of  James  Glaisher  in  1862  has  already 
been  noted  for  its  extreme  height,  and  there  have 
been  several  other  ascents  of  less  height  from 
which  fruitful  scientific  results  have  been  ob- 
tained. On  March  21,  1893,  a  balloon  19.7  feet 
in  diameter,  carrying  a  self-registering  barometer 
and  thermometer,  was  sent  up  from  Paris.  The 
records  made  by  these  instruments  were  exam- 
ined when  the  balloon  descended,  and  appeared 
to  show  that  the  balloon  rose  to  a  height  of 
45,020  feet,  when  the  ink  froze  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  — 32°  C,  and  the  record  was  discontinued 
until  at  a  height  of  52,490  feet  the  ink  was 
thawed  by  solar  radiation  and  the  record  was 
resumed.  The  accuracy  of  these  figures  has  l>een 
seriously  questioned,  but  if  they  are  accurate 
the  balloon  reached  a  height  of  nearly  10  miles. 

At  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1900,  competitive 
long  distance  balloon  trips  were  undertaken  by 
a  number  of  aeronauts  on  September  30,  and 
October  9.  In  the  first  trial,  or  race,  as  it  was 
popularly  termed,  there  were  twelve  starters,  of 
which  only  four  succeeded  in  making  records  of 
a  notable  character.  Starting  from  the  Vin- 
ccnnes  Field,  Paris,  Comte  de  Castillon  de  Saint- 
Victor,  in  the  Orient ,  reached  Cordof  in  Schles- 
wig-Holstein,  496  miles,  in  14  hours;  M.  Faure, 
in  the  Acro-Cluhy  reached  Mamlitz,  in  Posen, 
eastern  Prussia,  733  miles;  M.  Jacques  Balsan, 
in  the  Saint  Louis^  reached  Danzig,  eastern 
Prussia,  757  miles,  in  22  hours,  and  the  Comte 
de  la  Vaulx,  in  the  CentaurCf  reached  Wlocla- 
wek,  in  Russian  Poland,  766  miles,  in  21  hours 
and  30  minutes.  In  the  second  trial  of  October  9, 
there  were  six  starters,  of  whom  only  two  de- 
serve particular  mention,  namely,  the  Comte 
de  la  Vaulx,  in  the  Cmtatire,  and  M.  Jacques 
Balsan,  in  the  Saint  Loui^,  both  competitors  in 
the  first  trial.  Starting  from  Paris,  M.  le 
Comte  de  la  Vaulx  reached  Korostichev,  in  Rus- 
sia, 1193  miles,  in  36  hours  and  45  minutes. 
The  extreme  altitude  attained  was  18,810  feet. 
M.  Jacques  Balsan  reached  Radoni,  Poland, 
843  miles  from  Paris,  in  27  hours  and  25  min- 
utes. The  maximum  altitude  reached  was  21,582 
feet.  The  Centaure  of  the  Comte  de  la  Vaulx, 
which  made  the  best  record,  was  a  balloon  of 
1650  cubic  metres  capacity,  and  had  made  sev- 
eral notable  ascents  previous  to  its  record-break- 
ing voyage  beginning  October  9,  1900.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  previous  voyages  was  one 
from  Paris  to  Sweden,  824  miles.  In  the  famous 
1193  mile  journey  to  Russia,  the  Centaure  was 
filled  with  a  mixture  of  hydrogen  and  of  common 
illuminating  gas. 

Military  Ballooning.  The  first  use  of  bal- 
loons for  this  purpose  was  made  under  the  first 
French  Republic  bJ^'  the  chemist  Guyton  de  Mor- 
vcau,  and  two  companies  of  military  balloonists 
were  organized  under  the  command  of  De  Coutelle 
and  sent  to  the  field.  The  UEntreprenanty  a  bal- 
loon 27  feet  in  diameter,  was  at  Maubeuge,  June 
2,  1794,  doing  excellent  service  for  the  French, 
and  again  at  Charleroi,  from  June  21  to  25. 
The  balloons  used  were  of  the  captive  type,  held 
by  ropes.  During  the  battle  of  Fleurus,  the 
VEntreprenaoit  remained  ten  hours  in  the  air. 


and  gave  Greneral  Jourdan  all  details  of  the  Aus- 
trian movements.  During  the  Civil  War  in  the 
United  States,  La  Montain  reconnoitred  the  Con- 
federate position  from  a  captive  balloon  near 
Washington,  but  finding  his  observations  in- 
sufficient, he  cut  the  cable  which  held  the  balloon 
and  passed  over  the  enemy's  army.  Landing  in 
Maryland,  he  was  able  to  afford  General  Mc- 
Clellan  important  information  concerning  the 
enemy's  movements.  The  balloon  Rhode  Island, 
also  used  in  the  Civil  War,  was  the  first  used 
in  communicating  directly  with  a  military  post, 
by  means  of  a  wire  conductor  attached  to  the 
anchoring  cable,  and  thus  transmitted  observa- 
tions telegraphically  to  the  ground.  Later  in 
the  war,  from  a  balloon  before  Richmond,  at  an 
altitude  of  300  metres  (about  980  feet),  pano- 
ramic photographs  were  taken  of  the  terrain 
and  surrounding  country.  In  1870  the  Germans 
before  Strassburg  made  ineffectual  attempts  to 
utilize  balloons.  In  this  respect  the  French 
were  more  successful,  using  balloons  during  the 
siege  of  Paris  to  communicate  with  the  outer 
world.  A  school  of  aerostation  was  founded  in 
Grermany  in  1884,  under  command  of  Major 
Buchols.  Ascensions  were  made  at  the  manoeu- 
vres near  Cologne  in  1885,  and  these  experiments 
were  renewed  at  Mainz  in  1887.  The  German 
officers  also  made  experiments  with  luminous 
balloons  for  signaling,  using  an  electric  lamp 
in  the  interior  of  the  balloon.  By  means  of  .an 
electric  projector  carried  up  by  a  balloon,  they 
were  able  to  throw  light  on  the  terrain  at  a 
great  distance.  Optic  telegraphy  was  the  sub- 
ject of  experiments  and  study  in  Russia  in  1884. 
and  trials  were  made  with  arc  lights  suspended 
under  the  balloon  and  connected  with  the 
ground  by  conductors.  In  1879  the  English  or- 
ganized a  company  x)f  military  balloonists,  and 
a  park  of  construction  for  balloons  was  estab- 
lished at  Woolwich.  In  the  Egyptian  campaign 
in  1885  military  ballooning  was  used  to  advan- 
tage. The  balloon  section  was  used  in  South 
Africa,  1899-1901,  with  some  measure  of  suc- 
cess. . 

The  balloon  was  used  as  an  actual  means  of 
offense  at  the  siege  of  Verona,  1849,  by  the  Aus- 
trians,  who  transported  in  balloons  missiles  of 
war,  which  they  threw  down  upon  the  enemy. 
This  method  of  warfare,  w^hich  has  often  been 
proposed,  has  not  been  found  successful,  largely 
owing  to  the  difficulty  in  dropping  the  missiles 
accurately,  slight  wind  currents  deflecting  them. 

Mechanical  Flight.  Attempts  to  imitate 
the  flight  of  birds  by  mechanical  contrivances 
antedate  the  balloon  by  several  hundred  years. 
Several  very  early  instances  are  on  record  of 
persons  who,  apparently  by  some  parachute-like 
contrivance,  descended  obliquely  from  high  towers 
to  a  considerable  distance;  thus  in  the  thirteenth 
or  fourteenth  century,  Elmerus,  a  monk,  is  said 
to  have  flown  more  than  a  furlong  from  the  top 
of  a  tower  in  Spain,  but  the  distance  is  probably 
much  exaggerated;  and  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, Besnier,  a  locksmith  of  Sable,  in  France, 
after  experiments  from  windows  one  story 
high  ^7as  able  to  leap  safely  from  very  elevated 
positions,  and  to  pass  over  houses  or  over  rivers 
of  considerable  breadth.  The  first  properly 
authenticated  account  of  an  artificial  wing  was 
given  by  Borelli  in  1670,  and  his  investigations 
and  experiments  furnished  the  principal  basis 
for  experiments  until  1867.  In  this  year  Pro- 
fessor J.  B.  Pettigrew,  an  English  scientist,  pub- 


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aMbonautics. 


lished  the  results  of  an  elaboratp  and  careful 
series  of  studies  made  by  him  upoh  the  flight  of 
birds,  which  wrought  a  revolution  in  the  con- 
struction of  flying  machines.  Elastic  aeroplanes 
were  advocated  by  Mr.  Brown,  elastic  atrial 
screws  by  Mr.  Armour,  and  elastic  aeroplanes, 
wings,  and  screws  by  M.  P^naud.  The  latter 
constructed  models  to  fly  by  three  diff'erent  meth- 
ods—  ( 1 )  by  means  of  screws  acting  vertically 
upward;  (2)  by  aeroplanes  propelled  horizon- 
tally by  screws;  and  (3)  by  wings  which  are 
flapped*  in  an  upward  and  downward  direction. 
These  models  were  so  far  successful  as  to  make 
a  considerable  degree  of  progress  and  offer  hints 
for    future   guidance.     Mr.    Henson    designed    a 


can  produce  on  a  practical  scale  is  almost  sure 
to  be  less  than  one-seventh  of  that  figure;  in 
fact,  the  lift  with  the  lightest  engines  we  Ciin 
build  is  likely  to  be  but  little  if  any  more  than 
the  weight  of  the  machine  itself.  With  engine-i 
weighing  much  more  than  four  or  five  pounds  pt-r 
horse-power  it  is  asserted  that  practical  sueces* 
with  this  type  of  apparatus  is  not  possible.  Tlu* 
third  class,  or  the  beating  wing  machines,  are 
subject  to  the  same  disadvantages  in  regard  tr> 
the  enormous  power  required  as  those  of  the 
vertical  screw  type.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
problem  of  maintaining  a  stable  equilibrium  in 
windy  weather  still  further  seriously  complicatpH 
matters  so  much,  that  it  is  considered  that  there 


flying  machine  in  1841,  combining  atrial  screws     is  but  small  hope  of  practical  machines  operated 


with  extensive  supporting  structures.  Mr.  Wen- 
ham,  in  1867,  thinking  to  improve  upon  Mr. 
Henson,  invented  what  he  designated  his  aero- 
planes. Mr,  Stringfellow,  who  was  originally 
associated  with  Mr.  Henson,  and  constructed  a 
successful  flying  model  in  1847,  built  a  second 
model  in  1868,  in  which  Mr.  Wenham*s  aero- 
planes were  combined  with  aerial  screws.  This 
model  was  on  view  at  the  exhibition  of  the 
Aeronautical  Society  of  Great  Britain,  held  at 
the  Crystal  Palace,  London,  in  1868.  It  was 
remarkably  compact  and  light,  and  obtained  the 
$500  prize  of  the  exhibition  for  its  engine,  which 
was  the  lightest  and  most  powerful  ever  con- 
structed. The  machine  for  which  it  was  made 
was  not  successful.  In  1874  Mr.  Moy  invented 
an  aerial  steamer,  consisting  of  a  light,  powerful 
skeleton  frame  resting  on  three  wheels;  a  very 
efl'eetive  light  engine  constructed  on  a  new  prin- 
ciple, which  dispensed  with  the  old-fashioned 
cumbrous  boiler,  narrow  horizontal  aeroplanes, 
and  two  very  large  aerial  screws.  In  its  general 
features  ^Ir.  Moy*s  machine  resembled  that  of 
Mr.  Stringfellow. 

Summarizing  the  methods  of  flight  so  far 
attempted,  we  have,  therefore,  (1)  dirigible  bal- 
loons: (2)  those  forms  of  apparatus  which  were 
intended  to  sustain  or  lift  their  weight  by  screw 
propellers  revolving  on  vertical  axes;  (3)  those 
machines  which  were  intended  to  sustain  their 
weight  on  flapping  or  beating  wings ;  and  ( 4 )  the 
aeroplane  or  aerocurve  contrivances  which  have 
been  experimented  with  in  recent  years,  to  the 
practical  exclusion  of  all  other  classes  except 
the  dirigible  balloon.  To  understand  the  reason 
for  this  tendency  toward  the  aeroplane  or  gliding 
machine,  a  brief  comparative  discussion  of  the 
different  classes  of  flying  machines  is  necessary. 

As  already  stated,  the  future  utility  of  the 
dirigible  balloon  is  still  the  subject  of  differen-  s 
of  opinion.  Its  chief  drawbacks  are  great  bulk 
and  extreme  frailty,  which  seem  to  affect  its 
practical  advantages  in  other  respects.  Vertical 
M^revv  machines  have  much  to  recommend  them, 
but  they  present  drawbacks  which  more  than 
Wjunterbalance  the  advantages.  The  ability  to 
rise  directly  into  the  air  from  any  given  spot 
would  be  an  exceedingly  desirable  quality,  and 
hence  a  great  many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
develop  a  successful  vertical  screw  machine. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  stumbling  block  to  success 
Has  been  that  when  the  surfaces  which  form  the 
blades  of  the  screws  are  revolved  over  one  spot 
they  do  not  give  any  considerable  lifting  effect 
in   proportion   to    the   power    consumed.     It    is 


on  this  principle  being  produced.  In  conclussion, 
it  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  that  any  com- 
bination in  a  single  machine  of  the  salient  fea- 
tures of  two  or  more  of  the  classes  of  machines 
described  tends  to  complicate  rather  than  to 
improve  the  situation. 

After  thorough  investigation  and  experiment, 
the  objections  to  the  three  classes  of  ma- 
chines named,  which  have  been  briefly  out- 
lined above,  appear  so  formidable  to  ttio 
great  majority  of  the  foremost  workers  for 
mechanical  flight  to-day  that  there  now  appears* 
to  them  to  be  but  one  principle  left,  and  upon 
this  there  is  based  an  increasing  hope  that  flight 
will  be  accomplished.  This  principle  is  the  one 
which  underlies  the  aeroplane  or  aerocurve: 
which  is  that  when  a  thin  surface  is  drawn 
through  the  air  and  is  slightly  inclined  to  Itn 
path,  the  equivalent  of  a  pressure  is  developed 
on  the  side  which  is  exposed  to  the  air  current — 
that  is,  the  under  side — which  is  much  great  it 
than  the  driving  force  which  is  necessary  to  pro- 
duce it.  If  a  surface  arched  in  the  line  of  the 
motion  be  substituted  for  the  plane,  we  have  an 
aerocurve,  whose  chief  advantage  is  that  it  hits 
a  higher  efficiency.  Another  advantage  is  that 
it  is  not  necessary  to  incline  an  aerocurve  in 
order  to  develop  a  pressure  on  the  hollow  »id& 
when  it  is  moved  through  the  air.  The  one 
advantage  which  the  power  machine  of  the  a^m- 
curve  type  has  over  the  vertical  screw  is  the 
fact  that  it  can  for  the  reasons  just  stated  con- 
vert the  relatively  small  push  of  the  screw  pro- 
pellers into  a  much  larger  lifting  effect. 

Recent  experiments  with  aerocurves  may  he 
divided  into  two  classes:  (1)  F]xperiments  with 
models  and  (2)  experiments  with  large  device*i 
capable  of  carrying  a  man.  Perhaps  the  two 
most  notable  experimenters  with  models  have 
been  Sir  Hiram  Maxim  of  England  and  ProfeH?5f>r 
S.  P.  Langley  of  the  United  States.  Maxim's 
experiments  have  been  largely  with  various  fornix 
of  aerocurves.  with  the  purpose  of  deterraininy; 
the  most  efficient,  and  the  model  constructed  hy 
him  was  employed  in  testing  the  different  sur- 
faces. In  a  paper  written  in  1896,  Sir  Hiram 
Maxim  summarizes  some  of  the  principal  results 
of  his  experiments,  as  follows: 

'*My  experiments  have  certainly  demonstrate**! 
that  a  steam  engine  and  boiler  may  be  made 
which  will  generate  a  horse-power  for  every  six 
pounds  of  weight,  and  that  the  whole  motor, 
including  the  gas  generator,  the  water  supply, 
the  condenser,  and  the  pumps  may  be  all  made  to 
come   inside   of    11    pounds   to   the  horse-power. 


stated  by  high  authority  that  where  one  might  They  also  show  that  well-made  screw  propeller: 
from  theory  expect  a  lift  of  possibly  100  pounds  working  in  the  air  are  fairly  efliQi\p^^  and  thsit 
per   horse-power,    the   best   result   the   inventor     they  obtain  a  sufficient  grip  upon  +v      '*  *  ^«  ilrivc 

^ue  aiv  ^" 


"T 


AtiBONAUTICS. 


154 


AfiBONAVTICS. 


the  machine  forward  at  a  high  velocity;  thai 
very  large  aeroplanes,  if  well  made  and  placed 
at  a  proper  angle,  will  lift  as  much  as  2%  pounds 
per  square  foot  at  a  velocity  not  greater  than 
40  miles  an  hour;  also  tliat  it  is  possible  for  a 
machine  to  be  made  so  light  and  at  the  same 
time  so  powerful  that  it  will  lift  not  only  its 
own  weight  but  a  considerable  amount  besides, 
with  no  other  energy  except  that  derived  from  its 
own  engines.  Therefore  there  can  be  no  question 
but  that  a  flying  machine  is  now  possible  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  balloon  in  any  form." 

In  1891,  Professor  Langley  published  his  now 
famous  memoir  entitled  Experiments  in  Aerody- 
namics,  and  in  1893  his  equally  celebrated  book 
on  The  Internal  Work  of  the  Wind.  The  experi- 
ments upon  which  many  of  the  statements  in 
these  books  were  based  were  begun  in  1887,  and 
from  1891  to  1896  Professor  Langley  was  more  or 
less  constantly  at  work  perfecting  a  model  flying 
machine,  which  finally  culminated  in  his  aero- 
drome. This  machine  made  a  flight  of  three- 
quarters  of  a  mile  on  November  28,  1896,  and 
is  described  as  follows  in  the  Aeronautical  Annu- 
al,  1897: 

"The  weight,  with  fuel  and  water  suflicient 
for  the  flights  described,  is  about  30  pounds. 
The  weight  of  the  engine  and  boiler  together  is 
about  7  pounds.  The  power  of  the  engine  under 
full  steam  is  rather  more  than  one  horse-power. 
There  are  two  cylinders,  each  having  a  diameter 
of  V/^  inches.  The  piston  stroke  is  2  inches. 
The  two  screws  are  39  inches  from  tip  to  tip, 
,  and  are  made  to  revolve  in  opposite  directions; 
the  pitch  is  1 V4 ;  they  are  connected  to  the 
engines  by  bevel  gears  most  carefully  made; 
the  shafts  and  gears  are  so  arranged  that  the 
synchronous  movement  of  the  two  screws  is  se- 
cured. The  boiler  is  a  coil  of  copper  tubing ;  the 
diameter  of  the  coil  externally  is  3  inches;  the 
diameter  of  the  tubing  externally  is  %  inch; 
the  pressure  of  steam  when  the  aerodrome  is  in 
flight  varies  from  110  to  150  pounds  to  the 
square  inch.  The  flame  is  produced  by  the  aeoli- 
pile,  which  is  a  modification  of  the  naphtha 
"blow-torch"  used  by  plumbers;  the  heat  of  this 
flame  is  about  2000°  F.  Four  pounds  of  water 
are  carried  at  starting,  and  about  ten  ounces 
of  naphtha.  In  action  the  boiler  evaporates 
about  one  pound  of  water  per  minute." 

The  two  most  valuable  sets  of  experiments 
conducted  with  large  aorocurves  capable  of  car- 
rying one  man  are  those  of  Ilerr  Otto  Lilienthal 
of  Germany  and  Mr.  Octave  Chanute,  a  well 
known  American  engineer.  Practically  the  same 
methods  of  carrying  out  their  experiments  were 
employed  by  both  of  these  gentlemen,  although 
the  machines  experimented  with  were  quite  dif- 
ferent in  form;  and  they  are  briefly  described 
by  Mr.  Chanute,  as  follows: 

"The  method  of  carrying  on  these  adventures 
is  for  the  operator  to  place  himself  within  and 
under  the  apparatus,  which  should  preferably 
be  light  enough  to  be  easily  carried  on  the  shoul- 
ders or  by  the  hands,  and  to  face  the  wind  on 
a  hillside.  The  operator  should  in  no  wise  be 
attached  to  the  machine.  He  may  be  suspended 
by  his  arms,  or  sit  upon  a  seat,  or  stand  on  a 
dependent  running  board,  but  he  must  be  able  to 
disengage  himselif  instantly  from  the  machine 
should  anything  go  wrong,  and  be  able  to  come 
down  upon  his  legs  in  landing. 

'Tacing  dead  into  the  wind,  and  keeping  the 
front  edge  of  the  supporting  surfaces  depressed, 


so  that  the  wind  shall  blow  upon  their  backs  and 

Sress  them  downward,  the  operator  first  adjusts 
is  apparatus  and  himself  to  the  veering  wind. 
He  has  to  struggle  to  obtain  a  poise,  and  in  a 
moment  of  relative  steadiness  he  runs  forward 
a  few  steps  as  fast  as  he  may,  and  launches 
himself  upon  the  breeze,  by  raising  up  the  front 
edge  of  the  sustaining  surfaces,  so  as  to  receive 
the  wind  from  beneath  at  a  very  small  angle 
(2  to  4  degrees)  of  incidence.  If  the  surfaces 
and  wind  be  adequate,  he  finds  himself  thorough- 
ly sustained,  and  then  sails  forward  on  a  de- 
scending or  undulating  course,  under  the  com- 
bined effects  of  gravity  and  of  the  opposing 
wind.  By  shifting  either  his  body  or  his  wing*, 
or  both,  he  can  direct  his  descent,  either  side- 
ways or  up  or  down,  within  certain  limits:  he 
can  cause  the  aj)paratus  to  sweep  upward  so 
as  to  clear  an  obstacle,  and  he  is  not  infre- 
quently lifted  up  several  feet  by  a  swelling  of 
the  wind.  The  course  of  the  glide  eventiially 
brings  the  apparatus  within  a  few  feet  of  the 
ground  (6  to  10  feet),  when  the  operator,  by 
throwing  his  weight  backward,  or  his  wings  for- 
ward, if  they  be  movable,  causes  the  front  of 
the  supporting  surfaces  to  tilt  up  to  a  greater 
angle  of  incidence,  thus  increasing  the  wind 
resistance,  slowing  the  forward  motion,  and 
enabling  him,  by  a  slight  oscillation,  to  drop 
to  the  ground  as  gently  as  if  he  had  fallen  only 
one  or  two  feet." 

With  the  machine  shown  in  the  illustration 
Herr  Lilienthal,  starting  from  a  height,  was  able 
to  sail  several  hundred  feet — the  flight  in  some 
instances  being  against  a  wind  of  24  miles  per 
hour — and  to  make  turns  to  the  right  or  left 
with  considerable  certainty.  Mr.  Chanute's  ex- 
periments were  conducted  flrst  with  a  machine 
like  Herr  Lilienthal's  but  with  one  pair  of  wings 
only;  second,  with  a  machine  having  five  pairs 
of  wings,  one  above  the  other,  and  a  sixth  pair 
forming  a  tail;  third,  with  a  machine  consisting 
of  two  wings,  one  above  the  other,  and  without 
any  break  in  the  middle,  as  shown  in  the  first 
of  the  two  illustrations  of  his  apparatus;  and 
finally  with  a  large  bird-like  structiire  of  the 
form  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  greatest 
success,  perhaps,  must  be  credited  to  the  double- 
winged  machine,  which  made  numerous  flights, 
some  of  them  against  winds  of  from  10  to  31 
miles  per  hour.  The  longest  flight  made  was 
359  feet,  from  a  starting  point  62  feet  higher 
than  the  point  of  landing. 

Since  the  completion  of  Mr.  Chanute's  experi- 
ments in  1896,  and  the  death  of  Lilienthal  in  the 
same  year  in  one  of  his  experiments,  no  notable 
attempts  at  mechanical  flight  have  been  made. 

Bibliography.  Hattan  Tumor,  Astra  Castra: 
Kxperiments  and  Adventures  in  the  Atmosphere 
(London,  1865)  ;  T.  Glashier,  Voyages  A^riens 
(London,  1871);  Tissandier,  Les  Ballons  Diri- 
gibles (Paris,  1872)  ;  Coxwell,  My  Life  and  Bal- 
loon Experiences  (London,  1888)  ;  Pettigrew, 
Animal  Locomotion  (New  York,  1872)  :  S.  P. 
Langley,  Aerodynamics  and  Internal  Work  of  the 
Windy  Smithsonian  Institution  (Washington, 
1891 )  ;  O.  Chanute,  Progress  in  Plying  Machines: 
Proceedings  of  the  International  Conference  on 
Aerial  Navigation;  The  Aeronautical  Annual 
(London,  1895-97)  ;  the  Proceedings  of  the  Aero- 
nautical Society  of  Oreat  Britain;  the  Balloon 
Society  of  Great  Britain;  Acad6mie  d* Aerosta- 
tion of  France  and  the  German  Acron<iutical 
Society,    Among  the  periodicals  devoted  to  aiSro- 


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JESCHTLTTS. 


nautics,  the  best  known  are :  Zeitschrift  fiir  Luft- 
schifffahrt  und  Phyaik  der  Atrnosphare (Berlin)  ; 
The  Aeronautical  Journal  (London)  ;  L'Aero- 
naute  (Paris);  UAerophile  (Paris);  Revue  de 
VAeronautique  ( Paris ) . 

AEROPLANE.     See  Aeronautics. 

A'EBOSTAT^C  PRESS.  A  machine  used 
for  extracting  the  coloring  matter  from  dye- 
woods  and  other  materials.  A  vessel  is  divided 
by  a  horizontal  partition  pierced  with  small 
holes.  Upon  this  the  substance  containing  the 
color  is  laid,  and  a  cover,  also  perforated,  is 
placed  upon  it.  The  extracting  liquid  is  then 
poured  on  the  top,  and  the  air  t^ing  drawn  from 
the  under  part  of  the  vessel  by  an  air  pump,  the 
liquid  is  forced  through  the  substance  by  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  This  instrument 
was  used  in  place  of  the  modem  hydraulic  press. 

A'EBOSTAT^CS  (Gk.  a^p,  a^,  air  +<TTaT6c, 
statos,  standing).  That  branch  of  science  which 
treats  of  the  weight,  pressure,  and  equilibrium 
of  air  and  other  gases,  and  of  the  equilibrium 
of  solids  immersed  in  them.  It  is,  therefore,  a 
branch  of  pneumatics  (q.v.). 

AEBOT^OPISM  (Gk.  dr//),a^,  air  -\-TpoTrj}, 
trop^j  a  turn,  turning).  The  sensitiveness  of 
certain  plant  organs,  which  enables  them  to 
orient  themselves  with  reference  to  the  move- 
ments of  gases — usually  oxygen — dissolved  in  the 
medium  in  which  they  are  grown.  Agrotropism 
is  a  special  case  of  Chemotropism  (q.v.).  The 
pollen  tubes  of  many  plants  are  negatively 
agrotropic:  when  grown  in  sugar  solution  they 
grow  away  from  the  surface  of  the  medium 
which  is  in  contact  with  air,  and  from  which 
oxygen  molecules  are  difi'using.  Roots  of  maize 
are  positively:  a§rotropic  in  water.  They  curve  so 
as  to  remain  near  the  surface,  often  growing 
horizontally  for  long  distances,  in  spite  of  the 
stimulus  of  gravity  which  tends  to  cause  them 
to  grow  downward.  (See  Geotropism.)  If 
thrust  deeply  into  water  they  will  often  bend  up- 
ward and  seek  the  surface  where  oxygen  is  en- 
tering. 

.2SSCHINES,  (Gk.  Alaxli'vc,  AischinSs) 
(389-314  B.C.).  An  Athenian  orator,  second  only 
to  his  great  rival,  Demosthenes.  He  was  born 
at  Athens  in  humble  station,  served  as  a  soldier, 
then  became  a  clerk  to  some  of  the  lower  magis- 
trates, and  for  a  time  was  an  actor  in  smaller 
parts.  Finally,  he  became  secretary  to  two  dis- 
tinguished statesmen,  Aristophon  and  Eubulus, 
through  whose  influence  he  twice  obtained  elec- 
tion to  a  government  secretary's  office.  Then, 
through  his  eloquence,  grace,  and  legal  knowl- 
edge, he  rapidly  became  one  of  the  leading  men 
in  the  State.  Sent  as  a  member  of  the  embassy 
to  Philip  of  Macedon  in  347  B.C.,  he  was  won  over 
to  favor  the  Peace  of  Philocrates  (346),  and  then 
became  the  leader  of  the  peace  party  at  Athens 
as  against  Demosthenes,  who  headed  the  party 
which  believed  that  Philip  was  to  be  opposed  at 
every  point  and  at  any  cost.  In  345  he  was 
charged  with  treason  by  Demosthenes  and  Timar- 
chu3,  but,  with  the  aid  of  powerful  friends, 
defended  himself  successfully.  Again,  in  342, 
Demosthenes  revived  the  charges  in  his  famous 
speech  On  the  False  Embassy.  Again  JEs- 
chines  answered  successfully  in  a  speech  having 
the  same  title.  He  continued  to  favor  Philip 
actively,  and  no  doubt  contributed  to  the  spread 
of  Macedonian   supremacy.     His  fall  was  due, 


however,  to  his  hatred  of  Demosthenes,  whom 
Ctesiphon  had  proposed  to  reward  with  the  pub- 
lic gift  of  a  golden  crown  in  recognition  of  his 
services  to  the  State.  ^Eschines  thereupon 
charged  Ctesiphon  with  making  an  illegal  pro- 
posal, and  in  330  attacked  him  in  his  brilliant 
oration,  Against  Ctesiphon,  really  directed 
against  Demosthenes.  He  was  completely  de- 
feated by  Demosthenes*  speech.  On  the  Crown, 
and  so  failed  in  his  suit  against  Ctesiphon,  suf- 
fered atimia,  and  was  condemned  to  pay  1000 
drachmas  fine.  He  went  into  exile  at  Rhode?^, 
where,  tradition  says,  he  opened  a  school  of  ora- 
tory. He  died  at  Samos.  ^Eschines's  posthu- 
mous fame  is  due  to  his  three  extant  speeches, 
Against  Timnrchus,  On  the  False  Embassy y  and 
Against  Ctesiphon,  which,  according  to  Photiut^, 
were  called  in  antiquity,  "The  Three  Graces."  An 
anecdote  often  repeated  shows  the  esteem  in 
which  the  third  was  held.  On  one  occasion  he 
read  to  his  audience  in  Rhodes  his  oration 
against  Ctesiphon,  and  some  of  his  auditors  ex- 
pressing their  astonishment  that  he  should  have 
been  defeated  in  spite  of  such  a  powerful  display', 
he  replied:  "You  would  cease  to  be  astonished 
if  you  had  heard  Demosthenes."  The  speeches 
are  edited  by  Schultz  (1865)  ;  Weidner  (1872)  ; 
and  in  all  collections  of  the  Attic  Orators.  Con- 
sult especially,  Jebb,  Attic  Orators  (London, 
1870-80),  and  Blass,  Attische  Beredsamkrit 
(Leipzig,  1887-98).  The  twelve  letters  which 
bear  his  name  are  spurious. 

MWCELYLVS  (Gk.  At(T;t:i'^of,  Aischylos) 
(526-T466-6  B.C.).  The  first  of  the  three  great 
Athenian  tragic  poets.  He  was  born  in  Eleus^is, 
and  was  of  noble  descent,  being  the  son  of  « 
Euphorion.  He  fought  against  the  Persians  at 
Marathon  (490),  Salamis  (480),  and  Plat.^a 
(479)  ;  his  epitaph  celebrated  his  bravery  on  the 
field.  He  early  turned  to  tragic  composition, 
and,  according  to  tradition,  appeared  first  in 
497  as  a  rival  of  the  older  tragedians,  Pratinas 
and  Choerilus.  His  first  victory,  however,  wa^i 
not  won  until  486.  We  hear  also  that  he  wrote 
in  unsuccessful  competition  with  Simonides  an 
elegy  over  those  who  fell  at  Marathon.  He  un- 
dertook, apparently,  three  journeys  to  Syracu^^e; 
one  about  476-475,  when  he  composed  a  plav, 
The  .^tneans,  for  King  Hiero,  in  honor  of  the 
new  city,  ^tna,  founded  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Catana.  *  He  was  back  in  Athens  apparently  in 
472,  but  seems  to  have  been  again  in  Sicily 
between  471  and  469,  when  he  had  his  play.  The 
Persians,  repeated  there  at  Hiero's  request. 
Soon  after  458  he  left  his  native  city  for  Sicily 
for  the  last  time,  and  died  at  Gela  in  456-5.  The 
story  that  he  was  killed  by  the  fall  of  a  tortoise 
from  the  talons  of  an  eagfe,  which  had  mistakeii 
the  poet's  bald  head  for  a  rock  on  which  it  could 
crack  the  shell  of  its  prey,  is  probably  only  a 
popular  tale  applied  to  jEschylus,  although  it 
may  owe  its  origin  to  a  misinterpretation  of  n 
scene  on  his  monument.  The  citizens  of  Gehi 
erected  a  splendid  tomb  to  him;  by  a  decree  of 
the  Athenians  a  chorus  was  granted  for  his  playn 
alone  after  his  death,  and  in  the  fourth  century, 
at  the  proposal  of  the  orator  Lycurgus,  a  bronze 
statue  of  him,  as  of  Sophocles  aiiA  ^uTip^^^'^' 
was  erected  in  the  theatre. 

The  productiveness  of^schylus  1^  aIoTTD^^^^ 
than  forty  years,  during  which  he  ^^^t^^^  ^q  \vave 
written  ninety  plays,  of  whicK^^  ^^a^^^  vvtre 
satyr  dramas.     These  tragedies  \<cct^^^/vA\X«'-^^ 

in  groups  of  three,  "trilogies,"  V  \k  ^      0^       coU' 


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neeting  thread  of  motive  jor  interest,  and  each 
trilogy  was  followed  by  a  satiric  drama,  of  which 
gi'nre  Euripides'  Cyclops  is  the  only  extant  repre- 
tative.  We  know  seventy-nine  titles  in  all. 
anicing  them  thirteen  satiric  plays.  Only  seven 
trugii'dies  are  extant,  The  i^uppliantSy  The  Per- 
shniH^  The  Seven  Against  Thebes j  Prometheus 
B'nind,  and  the  trilogy,  Agamemnon,  Choephori 
nmi  Eumrnidvs.  .^sehylus  won  thirteen  vic- 
tories during  his  lifetime;  that  is,  he  was  sue- 
crr,sful  with  over  half  the  trilogies  he  presented. 

The  Supplwnts  is,  in  form,  the  earliest  of  the 
exuint  tragedies;  the  date  of  its  presentation  is 
unknown.  The  chorus  is  still  the  principal  fea- 
ture, the  choral  parts  standing  to  the  dialogue 
in  the  approximate  relation  of  1  :  2.  The  name 
i^  taken  from  the  chorus,  which  is  composed  of 
tl]<*  fifty  daughters  of  Danails,  who  have  fled 
fi^mi  Egypt  to  Argos  in  their  attempt  to  escape 
tluir  suitors,  the  sons  of  their  uncle  ^gyptus, 
and  there  beg  for  protection  from  the  Argive 
kiii^.  The  odes  set  forth  the  violence  of  the  sons 
of  *Kgj'ptus,  the  unholy  charaxiter  of  the  union 
\^liich  they  wish,  and  the  maidens'  fears.  The 
aetors  only  interrupt  these  odes  and  carry  the 
ai'tion  forward  but  slightly  in  our  modern  sense. 
\>t  the  play  has  dignity,  adequately  expresses 
Tio}jle  sentiments,  and  contains  choral  songs  of 
grt'at  beauty.  It  was  apparently  the  first  play 
of  the  trilogy;  the  other  tragedies  were  The 
K'ffjptianay  which  had  for  its  theme  the  marriage 
of  the  sons  of  ^^gyptus,  and  The  Danaids,  in 
whii'h  the  murder  of  the  bridegrooms  was  ac- 
complished, and  Hypermnestra  was  brought  to 
jiuli^ent  for  disobeying  her  father  in  sparing 
htT  husband. 

The  Persians  was  presented  in  472,  and  is  also 
veiy  simple  in  its  structure.  It  has  great  in- 
terest for  us,  since  it  is  the  earliest  extant  at- 
1 01  apt  of  the  Greeks  so  to  treat  contemporary  his- 
tory. The  subject  is  the  battle  of  Salamis,  in 
wliich  .^schylus  took  part.  The  scene  is  laid, 
however,  at  the  Persian  court,  where  the  dowager 
queen,  Atossa,  is  awaiting  the  return  of  Xerxes. 
T}ic  chorus  consists  of  Persian  elders,  who  give 
tln^ir  name  to  the  play.  The  story  of  the  Per- 
8 inns'  defeat  is  dramatically  .told  by  a  messen- 
j^cr ;  then,  at  the  advice  of  the  chorus,  Atossa 
aiimmons  the  shade  of  Darius,  in  the  hope  that 
his  wisdom  can  save  the  State;  but  he  can  only 
]>rrjphesy  the  defeat  at  Platwa.  The  appearance 
of  the  defeated  Xerxes,  and  an  ode  of  sorrow  for 
bifu  and  his  subjects,  close  the  play.  This  was 
tlui  ?iecond  of  the  trilogy;  the  first  was  Phincus, 
ttte  third  Olaucus,  but  the  plots  of  both  are  un- 
known to  us.    The  trilogj'  won  the  first  prize. 

The  Seven  Against  Thebes  handled  a  favorite 
.^itl>ject  drawn  from  the  cycle  of  Theban  myths. 
It  was  the  third  of  the  trilogy,  the  first  two 
bi'iriK  Laius  and  (Edipus ;  the  satiric  play  was 
The  Sphinx.  This  trilogy  was  presented  in  467, 
and  also  won  the  first  prize.  The  extant  play 
represents  the  conflict  between  Eteocles  and  Poly- 
nices  for  the  throne.  Oedipus,  ill-treated  by  his 
Mons  after  he  had  blinded  himself,  prayed  that 
they  might  divide  the  kingdom  with  the  sword. 
To  defeat  the  purpose  of  that  prayer,  the  brothers 
agreed  to  reign  alternate  years ;  but  Eteocles,  the 
elder,  once  upon  the  throne,  refused  to  surrender 
control  at  the  expiration  of  the  first  year.  Poly- 
niees,  having  raised  a  large  army  at  Argos,  where 
he  had  married  the  daughter  of  king  Adrastus, 
en  me  to  besiege  Thebes,  he  and  six  other  chief- 
tains    arraying   themselves    each     before    one 


of  the  seven  gates.  A  messenger  relates  to 
Eteocles  the  preparations  of  the  seven  and  their 
oath  to  die  rather  than  leave  Thebes,  and  then 
describes  the  appearance  of  each  chief;  when 
Polynices  is  reached,  Eteocles  can  no  longer  con- 
trol himself,  and  rushes  forth  to  slay  his  brother 
and  be  slain  himself. 

The  Prometheus  Bound,  produced  about  470 
B.C.,  was  the  first  of  a  trilogy,  of  which  the 
Prometheus  Loosed,  and  probably  Prometheus 
the  Fire-Carrier,  were  the  other  plays.  In  pun- 
ishment for  his  rebellion  in  stealing  fire  from 
heaven  for  mortals*  use,  Prometheus  is  chained  to 
a  crag  on  the  confines  of  the  world,  where  a  vul- 
ture sent  by  Zeus  is  to  feed  continually  on  his 
liver.  He  declines  the  proffered  assistance  of 
Oceamis,  boasts  of  his  services  to  men,  condoles 
with  lo,  who  comes  to  him  in  her  mad  wander- 
ings, and  prophesies  her  future,  and,  finally, 
when  visited  by  Hermes,  the  messenger  of  Zeus, 
bids  defiance  to  him.  and  amid  whirlwind  and 
earthquake  disappears  from  view.  In  the  fol- 
lowing play  Heracles  shot  the  vulture  and  re- 
leased Prometheus,  and  in  the  third  probably  the 
story  of  Prometheus  was  brought  into  relation 
with  a  local  Attic  cult  of  the  hero. 

The  remaining  three  plays,  Agamemnon, 
Choephori  and  Eumenides  formed  the  Oresteia 
trilogy.  In  the  first  play  Agamemnon  returns 
from  Troy  to  his  home,  where  his  unfaithful  wife, 
Clytemnestra,  is  living  with  her  paramour,  .Egis- 
thus,  by  whom  Agamemnon  is  treacherously 
murdered.  This  tragedy  is  not  only  the  greatest 
of  ^'Eschylus*  extant  works,  but  rivals  even  Soph- 
ocles' King  Q^dipus  for  the  first  place  among 
all  Greek  tragedies  in  the  minds  of  critics.  The 
Choephori  {The  Libation  Pourers)  is  named 
from  the  chorus  of  women  who  oflfer  libations  at 
Agamemnon's  tomb.  In  this  play  Agamemnon's 
son  Orestes  returns  to  Argos  to  avenge  his  fath- 
er's murder,  and  under  a  disguise  obtains  en- 
trance to  the  palace,  where  he  slays  his  mother 
and  .^gisthus.  This  impious  act*  of  matricide 
was  punished  by  the  Furies.  In  the  EumenidcSj 
Orestes  is  pursued  by  these  avenging  powers 
until  he  is  cleansed  from  his  blood  guilt  and  set 
free  through  the  aid  of  Athene  by  the  ancient 
court  of  the  Areopagus.  This  trilogy  represents 
the  maturest  work  of  -Eschylus,  and  we  may  well 
doubt  whether  a  greater  was  ever  written. 

The  best  critical  edition  of  the  text  is  by 
Wecklein  (1885)  ;  edition  with  English  notes  by 
Paley  (fourth  edition,  1879),  and  many  anno- 
tated editions  of  single  plays;  among  these  may 
be  named  Verrall's  Septcm  (1887)  ;  Agamemnon 
(1889)  ;  Choephori  (1893).  For  complete  trans- 
lations consult:  Potter,  Blackie,  and  Pluniptre; 
for  separate  plays,  Browning,  Agamemnoti  (Lon- 
don, 1887)  :  Fitzgerald,  Agamemnon  (London, 
1876)  ;  E.  B.  Browning,  Prometheus,  fourth  e<li- 
tion  (London,  1856),  and  Warr,  Oresteia  (1000) 

.ffiS'CULATIUS  (Lat.  form  of  the  Gk.'A(T«?.l^ 
iriSg,  Asklepios) ,  Among  Greeks  and  Romans,  a 
god  of  healing.  No  fully  satisfactory  derivation 
of  the  name  has  been  presented.  .Esculapius' 
worship  seems  to  have  originated  in  the  valley  of 
the  Peneus  in  Thessaly,  and  to  have  had  an  im- 
portant centre  at  Tricca.  From  this  region  it 
was  probably  carried  by  the  inhabitants,  as  they 
were  forced  southward  by  invading  tribes,  and 
thus  appears  in  Phocis,  Boeotia,  and  Peloponne- 
sus, where  were  celebrated  sanctuaries  at  Titane, 
Thelpusa,  and  above  all  at  Epidaurus,  whence 
the  worship  was  introduced  into  Athens  in  420 


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^SIB. 


B.C.  Colonists  carried  the  cult  of  yEsculapius 
far  and  wide;  at  Cos,  Cnidos,  and  Pergamon 
were  famous  temples.  In  consequence  of  a 
plague,  the  god  was  brought  to  Rome  in  293  B.C., 
and  his  temple  established  on  the  island  in  the 
Tiber,  ^^-^sculapius  had  temples  in  nearly  two 
hundred  places.  His  sanctuaries  were  sought  by 
the  sick,  and  his  priests  undertook  the  cure  of 
disease.  The  patient,  after  certain  religious 
ceremonies,  slept  in  a  hall  near  the  temple,  and 
during  the  night  the  god  was  believed  to  mani- 
fest himself  in  a  vision,  which,  when  interpreted 
by  the  priests,  furnished  directions  for  the  treat- 
ment. After  the  cure  the  patient  left  an  account 
of  his  case  and  an  offering  for  the  god.  It  seems 
likely  that  the  priests  had  acquired  considerable 
skill  in  treating  the  sick,  and  that  the  sacred 
sleep  was  merely  a  device  to  preserve  the  credit 
of  the  god.     See  Epidaubus. 

It  should  be  said  that  in  the  Iliad, 
iEsculapius  is  not  spoken  of  as  a  god,  and  his 
sons  Machaon  and  Podalirius  differ  from  the 
other  heroes  only  in  their  superior  skill  in  treat- 
ing wounds.  It  seems  evident,  however, that  he  was 
originally  a  divinity  who  later  became  subordi- 
nate to  the  great  Apollo  cult.  Much  points  to 
-^sculapius  as  a  chthonic  god,  though  many 
regard  him  as  connected  with  the  light.  What- 
ever his  nature,  .'Esculapius  early  became  fixed 
as  a  god  of  healing,  perhaps  losing  his  other 
functions  through  association  with  Apollo. 
His  sons  Machaon  and  Podalirius  play  a  consid- 
erable rdle  in  heroic  legend,  and  were  claimed 
as  ancestors  by  the  ^sclepiads  (q.v.).  His 
daughters,  Hygeia  (health).  Panacea  (all-heal- 
ing), laso,  Aigle,  and  others,  bear  names  that 
show  them  to  be  merely  personifications  of  ab- 
stract ideas  connected  with  healing. 

Tlie  myths  connected  with  the  life  of  iEscula- 
pius  varied  in  different  localities;  but  the 
one  which  has  become  canonical  appeared 
in  a  lost  Hesiodic  poem  (the  Eoeae),  and 
is  known  to  us  from  a  poem  by  Pindar  and 
some  scattered  allusions.  Apollo  loved  Coronis, 
daughter  of  Phlegyas,  but  she  proved  faithless 
and  wedded  the  Lapith,  Ischys.  The  news  was 
brought  to  Apollo  by  the  raven,  who  was  pun- 
ished for  his  message  by  being  changed  from 
white  to  black.  Apollo  slew  Ischys;  Artemis, 
Coronis;  but  while  her  body  was  on  the  funeral 
pile  Apollo  rescued  his  yet  unborn  son  and  took 
him  to  the  centaur  Chiron,  who  trained  him  in 
the  healing  art,  in  which  he  became  so  expert 
that  he  even  raised  the  dead.  For  this  presump- 
tion Zeus  slew  him  with  his  thunderbolt.  In 
art,  .Esculapius  is  usually  represented  as  a 
bearded  man,  wearing  a  mantle  which  leaves 
the  right  shoulder  and  breast  bare.  A  beauti- 
ful head  from  Melos  in  the  British  Museum 
is  probably  an  uEsculapius  of  the  Praxi- 
telean  school.  Consult:  Walton,  The  Cult  of 
Asklepios  (New  York,  1894)  ;  and  Wilamowitz- 
Mollendorf , /5i/Wo«  von  Epidauros  (Berlin,  1886). 

JEB^CWLVS,     See  Hobse  Chestnut. 

JESIRy  a'sir,  or  e'sir  (pi.  of  AS;  Icel.  ass, 
god,  demi-god).  The  gods  of  the  Northmen  of 
Scandinavia  and  Iceland.  There  were  eleven 
chief  gods  or  ^sir  besides  Odin  (the  "all- 
father"),  viz.:  Thor,  Balder,  Ty  or  Tyr,  Bragi, 
Heimdal,  H6d,  Vidar,  Vale,  Ull,  Forseti,  and 
Loki  or  Lopt.  To  these  may  be  added  Njord 
and  his  son  Frey,  who  were  not  ori^nally  ^'sir. 
The  naming  of  the  gods  diflTers  in  different  parts 


of  the  Younger  Edda  (q.v.).  The  chief  goddesst^s 
of  Asgard,  the  Scandinavian  Olympus,  were: 
Frigga,  Freyja,  Nanna,  Sif,  Saga,  Hel,  Grefion, 
Eir,  Hlin,  Lofn,  Vor,  and  Snotra.  These  names, 
considered  in  the  primary  old  Norse  signification 
of  the  words,  in  most  instances  allude  to  some 
characteristics;  yet  it  is  impossible  to  determine 
whether  they  personify  merely  certain  physiciil 
powers  of  nature,  or  were  originally  the  names 
of  individuals  in  the  prehistoric  period.  Prob- 
ably they  have  a  mixed  origin,  and  combine  real 
names  with  physical  powers.  The  principsil 
source  of  information  concerning  these  gods  i«» 
the  Eddas  (q.v.),  collections  of  the  oldest  songs 
and  traditions  of  the  people  of  Scandinavia. 

Thor,  son  of  Odin  and  Frigga  ("the  vivify- 
ing"), is  the  strongest  of  the  A^air.  He  seeni^ 
to  have  been  a  god  of  that  Phoenician  form  of 
nature  worship  which  was  superseded  in  Scan- 
dinavia and  northern  Germany  by  the  faith  of 
Odin.  From  Thor's  hammer  flashed  lightnin*,^ 
and  his  chariot  wheels  made  thunder  as  he  went 
through  the  air,  cleaving  mountains,  loosening 
frozen  streams  and  pent-up  rivers,  and  slayiii^ 
giants  and  monsters.  He  was  seldom  in  Asgard 
with  the  other  ^Esir,  but  dwelt  in  his  mansion 
Bilskirner,  in  the  densest  gloom  of  the  cloud ^i. 
With  his  hammer  he  consecrated  the  newly  wed- 
ded,  and  the  sign  of  the  hammer  was  made  by 
Northmen  when  they  took  an  oath  or  any  serious 
obligation.  The  early  Christian  missionaries  in 
Scandinavia,  finding  the  faith  in  Thor  too  strong 
to  be  suddenly  uprooted,  tried  to  transfer  many 
of  his  characteristics  to  their  zealous  convert. 
St.  Olaf,  who  was  said  to  have  resembled  the  olil 
Norse  god  in  his  comeliness  of  person,  his  bright 
red  beard,  hot,  angry  temper,  and  personal 
strength;  while  some  of  the  monks  of  a  later 
period  tried  to  persuade  the  Northmen  that  in 
Thor  their  forefathers  had  worshipped  Christ, 
and  that  his  mallet  was  a  rude  image  of  tlie 
cross.  Slaves  and  thralls  killed  in  battle  were 
believed  to  be  under  the  protection  of  Thor,  who. 
as  the  god  of  the  Finns  before  the  spread  of  the 
As  religion,  was  honored  as  their  special  guar- 
dian against  the  tyranny  of  their  old  masters. 

In  Balder  the  Norsemen  honored  the  beautiful, 
the  eloquent,  the  wise,  and  the  good,  and  he  was 
the  spirit  of  activity,  joy,  and  light.  His  name 
signifies  the  "strong  in  mind."  His  wife  Nannn 
reflected  these  attributes  in  a  less  degree.  On 
his  life  depended  the  activity  and  happiness  of 
all  the  ^sir  except  Loki,  the  "earthly  fire"  or 
incarnation  of  evil;  and  hence  Loki,  from  envy 
of  the  beauty  and  innocence  of  Balder,  accoiii- 
plished  his  death,  and  afterward  hindered  hi^ 
release  from  the  power  of  Hel,  the  goddess  of 
death.  As  the  death  of  Balder  was  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  the  fall  of  all  the  ^sir,  the  gods  hjnl 
caused  all  things  to  swear  not  to  injure  him. 
But  the  insignificant  mistletoe  was  overlooko<l 
or  thought  unimportant.  Loki  secured  an  arro\^' 
of  mistletoe,  and  when  the  gods  were  amusiiiLi 
themselves  by  shooting  at  the  invulnerable 
Balder,  Loki  gave  this  arrow  to  H(5d,  the  blind 
god,  and  directed  his  aim  so  as  to  hit  Balder, 
who  was  killed.  The  death  of  this  beneficent 
god  signifies  the  fading  of  summer  before  the 
blind  and  fierce  winter,  her  preordained  destroy- 
er. The  myth  continues:  After  Balder's  death, 
the  gods  captured  Loki  and  shut  V^yrn  "UP  ^^  ^ 
mountain,  where  he  will  remain  \x*vl.i  ♦he  earth 
and  all  therein  and  the  gods  thett^^*^^  sW^  ^^ 
destroyed  by  fire  (the  powers  of  ^^l^'^^vvft  ootu- 


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panion  and  liberator  of  Loki.  Odin  alone  will 
Hurvive,  and  then  a  new  and  purer  world  will 
arise  in  which  Balder  will  again  appear,  and 
Loki,  or  evil,  be  no  more  heard  of. 

At  first  Loki,  under  the  name  of  "Lodhur," 
or  "flame,"  and  as  the  foster  brother  of  Odin, 
liad  united  with  the  all-father  in  imparting 
blessings  to  the  universe.  Afterward  he  left 
the  council  of  the  gods  and  wandered  into  space, 
<tesolating  and  consuming  with  flame  all  things 
that  came  in  his  way.  In  the  under-earth,  where 
volcanic  fires  attest  his  presence,  he  consorted 
with  evil  giantesses  and  became  the  father  of 
IIol,  "pallid  death,"  of  Angurboda,  "announcer 
of  sorrow,"  the  wolf  Fenrir,  and  the  Midgard 
i<€Tpent,  who  ever  threatens  the  destruction  of 
the  world.  Loki  assumes  any  shape  at  will.  As 
"sensuality  he  courses  through  the  veins  of  men, 
(ind  as  heat  and  fire  pervades  nature  and  causes 
destruction.  After  the  establishment  of  Chria- 
liiinity,  the  attributes  of  Loki  were  transferred 
to  Satan;  but  in  Iceland  an  ignia  fatutis  is  still 
known  as  "Loki's  burning." 

Njord  and  his  children  Frey  or  Fricco, 
and  Freyja  appear  to  have  been  honored 
in  the  North  before  the  time  of  Odin. 
Xjord  is  said  to  have  lived  in  Vanaheim, 
and  to  have  ruled  over  the  Vanir,  or  elves  of 
lip:ht,  long  before  he  became  one  of  the  .Esir. 
He  is  the  god  of  oceans  and  controller  of  winds  . 
and  waves,  and  to  him  seafarers  and  fishermen 
raise  altars  and  make  prayers.  Frey,  his  son, 
is  the  god  of  rain  and  fruitfulness,  and  his 
worship  was  accompanied  with  phallic  rites. 
His  sister  Freyja,  who  holds  a  high  rank  among 
the  .-Esir,  is  the  goddess  of  love,  but  her  influence, 
unlike  her  brother's,  is  not  always  beneficent,  and 
varies  with  the  form  she  assumes  in  operating 
on  the  minds  of  men.  Her  chariot  is  drawn  by 
fiats,  who  are  emblems  of  fondness  and  passion; 
juid  a  hog,  implying  fructification  or  sensual 
enjoyment,  attends  upon  Frey  and  herself.  The 
Swedes  paid  especial  honor  to  Frey,  while  the 
Norwegians  worshipped  Thor. 

Ty  (Tyr),  the  Mars  of  the  Norsemen,  is  wise 
und  brave,  giving  victory,  fomenting  strife.  His 
name  lives  in  our  Tuesday  (Ty's  day),  as 
(Ines  the  name  of  Odin  in  Wednesday  (Woden's 
dixy),  Thor  in  Thursday  (Thor's  day),  and 
Freyja  in  Friday  (Freyja's  day).  Tyr's  name 
Hignifies  "honor,"  and  his  worship  was  widely 
spread  in  the  north.  Bragi  was  the  god  of  elo- 
fjuence  and  wise  sayings,  the  originator  of  the 
Skaldic  poems ;  and  when  men  drank  Bragi's  cup 
Hiey  vowed  to  perform  some  great  deed  worthy 
of  a  skald's  song.  Bragi 's  wife  was  Tdun,  who 
iruarded  the  casket  of  apples  that  gave  to  those 
wiio  ate  them  perpetual  youth.  She  was  abduet- 
t'd  by  the  giant  Thiassi,  and  by  Loki's  craft 
ri'Mioved  to  the  other  world.  Her  release  in 
spring  seems  analogous  to  the  myth  of  Proser- 
pine. Heimdal,  personified  by  the  rainbow,  is 
Hie  god  of  watchfulness,  the  doorkeeper  of  the 
Esir.  Vidar,  the  strongest  of  the  gods  except 
Thor,  is  the  personification  of  silence  and  cau- 
Uon.  Vale  is  the  brother  of  Balder  and  a  great 
marksman.  UU  decides  issues  in  single  combat; 
Forseti  settles  all  quarrels;  lovers  find  protec- 
1  ion  in  the  goddesses  Lofn  and  Var,  of  whom  the 
former  unites  the  faithful  and  the  latter  punishes 
the  faithless ;  Gefion  keeps  a  watch  over  maidens, 
and  knows  the  decrees  of  fate;  Hlin  guards  those 
whom  Frigga,  the  queen  and  mother  of  heaven, 
desires  to  free  from  peril.    The  queen  herself. 


as  Odin's  wife  and  mother  of  the  .^ir,  knows 
but  does  not  reveal  the  destinies  of  men.  Saga 
is  the  goddess  of  narration  and  history;  her 
home  is  in  Sokvabek,  the  abyss,  an  allusion  to 
the  abundant  streams  of  narrative,  from  which 
streams  Odin  and  Saga  daily  drink  and  pledge 
each  other.  Snotra  is  the  goddess  of  sagacity 
and  elegance,  from  whom  men  and  women  seek 
good  sense  and  refined  manners.  The  Norns  and 
the  Valkyr ias  are  closely  connected  with  the 
gods.  The  principal  Norns  are  Urd,  past  time; 
Verdandi,  present  time,  and  Skuld,  future  time. 
They  twist  and  spin  the  threads  of  destiny,  and 
make  known  what  has  been  decreed  from  the 
beginning  of  time.  The  Valkyrias,  of  whom 
there  are  over  a  dozen,  are  sent  by  Odin  to  the 
battle-fields  to  choose  the  slain. 

It  remains  t^  add  that  in  the  gods  here 
mentioned  the  Northmen  recognized  the  makers 
and  rulers  of  the  world  that  now  is  from 
whom  emanated  the  thought  and  the  life  that 
pervade  and  animate  nature.  With  Odin  and 
the  jEsir,  the  intellectual  life  of  the  northern 
people  began;  and  although  they  ascribed  to 
them  human  forms  and  acts,  these  were  seldom 
without  something  higher  and  nobler  than  per- 
tains to  mortals;  and  while  they  recognized  the 
existence  of  a  state  of  chaos  and  darkness  before 
the  world  began,  they  anticipated  the  advent  of 
another  state,  in  which  the  gods,  like  men, 
would  receive  their  reward  at  the  hands  of  a 
supreme  All-father.  See  Scandinavian  Myth- 
ology, and  the  separate  articles  on  the  gods. 
For  illustrations  of  the  gods,  see  Scandinavian 
Mythology. 

.ffi^SOP  {Gk,  Alounog,  Aisdpos) ,  The  name  of 
a  famous  Greek  writer  of  fables,  who  is  said 
to  have  been  born  a  slave  in  Samos  late  in  the 
seventh  century,  but  to  have  gained  his  freedom 
by  his  cleverness.  We  may,  however,  well  doubt 
whether  he  ever  existed ;  we  have  the  most  varied 
accounts  of  him,  many  of  which  on  their  face 
are  pure  inventions;  and  the  fables  which  passed 
under  his  name  were  certainly  not  written  until 
long  after  the  period  in  which  he  is  supposed 
to  have  lived.  Socrates  in  prison  turned  some 
of  the  current  .Esopic  fables  into  elegiac  verse; 
and  about  320  B.C.,  Demetrius  of  Phalerum  made 
a  prose  collection  of  the  fables  known  to  his  day. 
Whatever  the  facts  as  to  -c^sop's  existence,  it 
is  certain  that  his  soon  became  a  generic  name 
attached  to  those  beast-fables  which  are  part  of 
the  common  property  of  the  Indo-European 
peoples.  The  collection  which  now  bears  his  name 
is  for  the  most  part  prose  paraphrases  made  by 
Babrius  (q.v.).  edited  by  Halm  (second  edition. 
1860).  Consult:  Jacobs,  Introduction  to  the 
Fables  of  ^sop  (New  York,  1896)  ;  and  see 
Phaedrus. 

MSOT  (Lat.  yEsopus),  Clodius.  A  great 
Roman  tragedian,  contemporary  with  Roscius. 
Cicero  put  himself  under  the  direction  of  the?ic 
two  to  perfect  his  own  acting,  and  .^5sop  did 
many  friendly  services  to  Cicero  during  the  lat- 
ter's  banishment.  Msop  was  noted  for  sinking 
his  own  personality  in  the  character  he  repre- 
sented. He  made  his  last  appearance  in  55  b.c. 
at  the  dedication  of  Pompey's  theatre,  after 
which  his  voice  failed  him.  He  left  a  fortune 
to  a  worthless  son — the  ^Esop  who,  according  to 
a  well-known  story,  dissolved  in  vinegar  a  pearl 
valued  at  $40,000,  to  have  the  satisfaction  of 
swallowing  the  most  expensive  drink  ever  known. 


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AESTHETICS. 


JESTHE'SIOM^TEB.     See  Psychological 
Apparatus. 

ESTHETICS  (Gk.  ra  aio^nriKd,  ta  aiathCt- 
ka,  or  7  aiffi?j7r«j7,  h€  aisthftikf,  the  science  of 
:he  beautiful,  from  oitri^iyn/tof,  aisthCtikos,  per- 
•eptive,  sensitive,  alo^dveo^ai,  aisthanesthai, 
o  perceive,  apprehend  by  the  senses ) .  The  name 
low  generally  given  to  the  science  of  the  beau- 
iful,  the  sublime,  and  the  ludicrous.  The  his- 
ory  of  this  science  furnishes  us  with  a  striking 
llustration  of  the  truth  that  theory  always  fol- 
ows  practice.  It  was  not  till  the  noblest  period 
)f  art  in  Greece  had  passed  its  zenith  that 
iny  serious  attempt  was  made  to  ascertain 
he  nature  of  the  beauty  which  art  presents. 
Phe  Sophists  and  Deniocritus  seem  to  have  made 
ome  essays  in  this  direction,  but  we  know  prac- 
ically  nothing  of  the  results  they  reached.  It 
s  only  when  we  come 'to  Socrates  that  we  are 
)n  secure  historical  ground ;  and  even  in  his  case 
ye  know  only  enough  to  make  it  possible  to 
)egin  our  sketch  of  the  history  of  aesthetics  with 
lis  name.  He  seems  to  have  taught  that  beauty 
is  one  with  utility;  a  doctrine  which  is  thor- 
mghly  in  keeping  with  his  ethical  utilitarian- 
sm,  but  which  gives  no  distinctive  recognition 
:o  the  beautiful  as  in  any  way  differentiated 
from  the  good.  Plato,  in  one  respect,  follows  in 
lis  master's  steps.  While  we  cannot  say  that 
tie  identified  the  sesthetic  and  the  ethical, 
ret  in  his  most  serious  discussions  he  so  com- 
pletely subordinated  the  former  to  the  latter  as 
to  make  it  a  mere  handmaid  of  morality.  This 
attitude  is  unintelligible  to  any  one  who  does 
Dot  remember  that  Plato  lived  in  an  age  of 
decadence  in  art  and  in  art  appreciation.  The 
?reat  poets  in  the  Hellenic  world  were  not  in  his 
time  appreciated  so  much  for  their  beauty  as 
revered  for  their  infallibility  as  guides  in  faith 
and  practice.  A  quotation  from  Homer  would 
definitely  settle  a  question  in  policy  or  morals, 
and  a  "Thus  saith  Simonides"  was  a  ne  plus 
ultra  of  debate.  This  dogmatism  in  the  inter- 
pretation of  poetry  was  responsible  for  the  degra- 
dation of  the  poets  from  their  places  as  artists 
charming  and  inspiring  mankind,  to  the  position 
of  pedantic  pedagogues,  whose  deliverances  were 
open  to  question  on  the  gi'ound  of  fact  by  any 
one  who  had  the  temerity  to  deny  their  popu- 
larly conceded  inerrancy.  Such  a  one  was  Plato, 
who  proceeded  to  meet  this  dogmatization  of 
poetry  by  a  demand  for  its  moralization. 
Homer,  he  claimed,  must  be  expurgated  in  the 
interests  of  a  more  worthy  view  of  God  and  man. 
Other  arts  suffered  a  like  fate.  For  instance, 
only  such  music  as  could  directly  fit  a  man  the 
Hett<*r  for  a  life  of  courage  and  temperance  was 
to  be  tolerated  in  the  ideal  Platonic  State.  But 
this  insistence  upon  the  right  to  judge  art  by 
moral  standards  alone,  though  very  prominent 
on  the  surface  of  Plato's  thought,  does  not  rep- 
resent his  best  philosophy  of  the  beautiful.  Re- 
membering that  music  was  for  Plato  a  general 
term  for  all  the  human  interests  over  which  the 
Muses  presided,  and  that  training  in  music  was 
for  him  a  cultivation  of  a  proper  habitual  atti- 
tude toward  the  good,  and  that  a  scientific  edu- 
cation in  moral  values  was  to  follow  the  musical 
education  and  so  bring  habitual  attitude  to  in- 
sight, one  might  almost  sav  that  with  Plato  the 
Wautiful  is  the  form  in  wiiich  the  good  appears 
^  a  properly  trained  but  unreflective  conseious- 
^^^8,  a  view  quite  like  that  of  Hegel,  twenty- 
^wo  hundred  years  later.   And  as  the  good  is  the 


supreme  principle  of  unity  in  the  universe, 
beauty  is  itself  a  relatively  simple  unity  in 
variety.  This  variety,  however,  must  not  be  too 
complicated.  It  must  have  a  very  narrow  nmge, 
or  it  would  break  over  the  bounds  of  unity. 
Hence  only  those  works  of  art  which  are  severe 
in  their  classical  simplicity  were  considered  as 
true  embodiments  of  the  principle  or  "idea"'  of 
beauty.  Such  an  embodiment  was  technically 
called  an  "imitation."  This  term,  without  dt>ubt, 
meant  more  for  Plato  than  it  would  natiiially 
mean  for  us.  Imitation  was  symbolizaticm  as 
well  as  copy.  But,  for  the  most  part,  Plato 
was  unable  to  free  himself  from  the  concep- 
tion that  second-hand  reproduction  was  ehar- 
acteristic  of  all  art.  Hence  art  is  further 
from  reality  than  nature,  which  is  the  first 
embodiment  of  reality.  But  no  definite  atate* 
ment  of  Plato's  aesthetic  views  would  do  jus- 
tice to  the  unsystematic  many-sidedness  of 
his  thought  on  the  subject.  His  dialogues  con- 
tain many  stimulating  suggestions  as  to  the 
nature  of  beauty,  but  no  explicit  aesthetic  thc^ory, 
built  on  the  basis  of  these  suggestions,  could  be 
fairly  attributed  to  Plato. 

Aristotle,  being  himself  less  artistic  than 
Plato,  was  in  a  better  position  to  make  a 
more  scientific  study  of  aesthetics.  His  works 
on  rhetoric  and  poetics,  and,  in  a  more 
desultory  way,  many  of  his  other  writ- 
ings, were  the  first  inductive  studies  we 
know  of  the  principles  of  art.  He  different iiites 
the  good  from  the  beautiful:  the  good  i;^  dy- 
namic {ivirpd^ei, en  prcueei) ,  the  beautiful  nrny 
be  static  {iv  axivi^otg,  en  akinStois) .  The  good, 
being  thus  always  connected  with  action,  appeaU 
to  consciousness  in  the  form  of  desire  for  pos-^es- 
sion.  We  are  interestedly  concerned  in  the  gowl ; 
our  concern  in  the  beautiful  is  disintere-ted. 
For  Aristotle,  as  for  Plato,  a  beautiful  oljjt^ct 
is  a  unity  in  variety,  but  Aristotle  gives  a  wider 
scope  to  the  variety  than  his  predecessor.  Under 
the  proviso  that  a  thing  be  not  too  large  foi-  easy 
apprehension,  a  considerable  multiplicity  it>  it^i 
organization  was  regarded  as  conducive  to 
beauty,  and,  other  things  being  equal,  the  greater 
the  size  the  greater  the  beauty.  Among  the^e 
other  things  were  propriety  in  the  arrangement 
of  parts,  symmetry,  and  clearness  of  outline. 
Aristotle  followed  Plato  also  in  making  art  an 
imitation  of  inartificial  beauty,  but  he  refuj^ed 
to  follow  Plato  when  the  latter  depreciated  art 
for  this  reason.  While  Plato  put  the  fine  arts 
far  below  the  works  of  the  artisan,  Aristotle  put 
poetry,  in  one  passage,  above  theoretic  philoso- 
phy. This  position,  however,  dpes  not  accord  with 
the  rank  given  in  his  Ethics  to  the  life  of  philo- 
sophic contemplation.  The  value  Aristotle  attrib- 
uted to  art,  especially  to  the  drama,  was  due  to 
the  fact  that  it  "effects,  by  means  of  pity  and 
fear,  the  purgation  {Kd^apaig^  katharsis)  of  such 
emotions."  The  meaning  of  this  has  been  warmly 
debated.  If  purgation  is  taken  in  a  moral  si  use. 
then  Aristotle  has  relapsed  into  the  Sotiiitie 
position  that  art  is  not  differentiated  from  mo- 
rality. But  a  more  plausible  interpretation  is 
that  purgation  is  used  in  its  physiological  f^ig- 
nificance.  This  would  make  the  meaning  to  be 
that  drama  gives  free  and  healthy  discharire  to 
the  passions  of  pity  and  fear,  and  thus  primnts 
emotional  congestion.  Greek  speculation  on 
aesthetical  theorv  comes  to  a  close  ^^  Plot  inns 
(q.v.),  who  explains  beauty  ^  referring  it  to 
the  work  of  an  objective  rea^J^    ^hich  informs 


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dead  matter  so  as  to  make  it  become  an  expres- 
sion of  itself.  This  creative  reason  is  the  trans- 
cendental ly  beautiful;  matter  transformed  by  it 
is  the  empirically  beautiful.  Artistic  produc- 
tion is  not,  however,  necessarily  limited  to  the 
copying  of  the  natural  products  of  the  supreme 
reason.  The  human  reason,  by  virtue  of  its  par- 
ticipation in  the  divine,  may  so  transform  ob- 
jects that  they  shall  become  more  beautiful  than 
they  are  in  their  naturalness.  Art  is  thus  raised 
from  the  stage  of  imitation  to  that  of  idealiza- 
tion, although  idealization  is  taken  mystically. 
No  important  aesthetic  speculations  come  from 
mediaeval  writers.  Mr.  Bosanquet,  in  his 
History  of  .Esthetic,  has  satisfactorily  explained 
this  comparative  barrenness  of  the  Middle  Ages 
in  aesthetic  theory.  It  was  not  due,  as  the  tra- 
ditional view  of  mediaevalism  would  seem  to 
imply,  to  the  deadness  of  that  period  in  things 
intellectual  and  spiritual,  but  to  the  enormous 
tension  of  the  higher  life,  which  busied  itself  so 
absorbingly  in  practical  creative  activity  as  to 
leave  no  leisure  for  reflection  upon  its  own 
work.  Mediffivalism  was  engaged  in  the  problem 
of  building  the  foundations  for  a  new  life,  and, 
therefore,  for  a  new  art.  The  art  of  classical 
antiquity  was  comparatively  simple;  the  per- 
fection of  its  form  was  made  possible  so  early 
by  its  limited  ambition.  In  general,  it  sought 
to  do  justice  merely  to  the  beauty  of  form.  It 
was  a  successful  criticism  of  life,  only  because 
it  criticised  one  aspect  of  life,  leaving  the  rich- 
ness and  variety  of  its  contents  to  the  one  side. 
But  Romanticism  as  a  creative  principle  in  art 
began  to  work  early  in  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
wilder,  more  turbulent  spirit  of  the  Teutonic 
barbarians  would  not  brook  confinement  within 
the  narrow  lines  drawn  by  classic  masters,  and 
for  a  whole  millennium  was  wrestling  with  the 
practical  problem  of  making  art  richer  by  the 
incorporation  within  it  of  all  the  phases  of 
nature  and  of  human  life,  which  classic  art,  with 
true  instinct  for  its  own  essential  limitations, 
had  ignored;  and  just  as  ancient  aesthetic  theory 
was  not  constructed  until  the  returns  from  an- 
cient practice  \vere  all  in,  so  modem  aesthetic 
theory  could  not  be  supplied  with  its  data  till 
modern  art  had  become  to  a  great  extent  a  com- 
pleted achievement,  challenging  reflection  to 
concern  itself  with  the  discovery  of  the  principles 
involved.  Mr.  Bosanquet  is,  perhaps,  right  in 
representing  Shakespeare  as  being  the  last  of 
the  great  artists  in  the  long  succession  that  be- 
gan with  the  architect  of  St.  Sophia;  Shake- 
speare succeeded  in  the  great  common  endeavor 
to  render  into  art  life  and  nature  in  all  their 
infinite  complexity,  and  yet  to  make  the  rendi- 
tion as  unitary  in  its  effect  as  were  the  art 
products  of  the  golden  age  of  ^schylus  and 
Pheidias.  In  him  the  wheel  of  artistic  creation 
had  come  full  circle,  and  after  him,  therefore, 
the  wheel  of  aesthetic  theory  could  begin  to  turn. 
But  there  was  another  reason  why,  after  the 
time  of  Shakespeare,  aesthetic  theory  should  have 
become  a  great  need.  Not  only  did  all  the  rich- 
ness of  mediaeval  and  modern  artistic  achieve- 
ment challenge  the  theorist  to  study  it,  but  the 
art  of  classical  times  had  come  to  life  again  in 
the  great  archaeological  discoveries  of  the  eight- 
eenth century.  The  literary  renaissance  of  an- 
tiquity in  the  fifteenth  century  was  now  followed 
by  the  resurrection  of  the  plastic  arts  of 
Greece  and  Rome.  The  striking  contrast  between 
the  formal  severity  of  the  antique  and  the  free- 


dom of  the  modern  demanded  that  an  inquiry 
should  be  instituted  which  should  succeed  in 
correlating,  and,  by  correlating,  succeed  in  jus- 
tifying the  two  strikingly  .different  types.  This 
demand  that  theory  should  do  justice  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  beauty  incorporated  in  art  was  re- 
enforced  from  the  side  of  philosophical  specula- 
tion. 

The  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries 
were  a  time  of  tremendous  philosophical  energy; 
and  as  the  idealism  of  modern  philosophy  be- 
came more  and  more  concrete,  it  was  ineyitable 
that  aesthetic  quef^tions  should  force  themsehes 
more  and  more  upon  the  attention  of  philosophy. 
Thus,  as  we  find  Lessing  and  Winckehnann  rep- 
resenting predominantly  an  interest  in  art  for 
art's  sake,  so  we  find  Baumgarten  and  Kant 
representing  an  interest  in  art  for  philosophy's 
sake.  These  two  tendencies  united  in  working 
out  a  modern  (esthetic  theory,  which  was 
finally  to  be  based  on  solid  scientific  grounds 
with  the  aid  of  experimental  psychology. 
The  appreciation  of  the  aesthetic  significance 
of  all  these  contributions  cannot  be  at- 
tempted here.  Sufl[ice  it  to  say  that  Lessing 
made  an  important  addition  to  testhetic  theory 
by  marking  off  the  boundaries  of  poetry  from 
the  plastic  arts.  The  medium  of  the  former  is 
time,  and  that  of  the  latter  is  space.  The  former 
can  represent  action,  and  is,  therefore,  capable 
of  expressiveness,  whereas  the  plastic  arts  are 
limited  to  the  treatment  of  formal  beauty  and  of 
the  beauty  of  colors.  The  ugly  is  out  of  place 
in  the  plastic  arts,  because,  once  represented  in 

Citing  or  statuary,  it  gets  a  permanence  that 
mes  revolting.  This  thought  might  be  illus- 
trated by  referring  to  a  line  of  Keats's  Ode  on  a 
Grecian  Urn,  "Forever  wilt  thou  love  and  she 
be  fair."  There  is  a  subtle  but  powerful  delight 
ministered  by  this  insistence  upon  the  immor- 
tality of  youth  and  love,  caught  and  made  per- 
petual by  the  ceramic  art.  But  change  the 
motif ;  let  it  be:  "Forever  wilt  thou  loathe  and 
she  be  foul,^*  how  quickly  the  thought  of  the 
abidingness  of  the  unpleasant  creates  disgust 
with  the  pottery,  however  skillful  may  be  the 
representation  of  this  phase  of  life!"  Baum- 
garten's  significance  was  more  that  of  a  pioneer 
and  name-giver  than  that  of  an  important  con- 
tributor. Carrying  out  the  Cartesian  idea  that 
sense  is  confused  thought,  he  added  to  the 
Wolffian  (see  Wolff)  philosophical  encyclo- 
paedia, which  included  ontology,  cosmolog}'. 
ethics,  and  psychology — all  sciences  of  clear 
thought — a  new  discipline  dealing  with  obscure 
thought;  and  he  gave  to  the  work  in  which  he 
treats  this  new  subject  the  title  AUsihcixca- 
This  was  the  first  time  that  the  term  was  em- 
ployed to  designate  the  science  which  has  since 
Baumgarten's  day  quite  constantly  been  called  by 
this  name.  But  great  as  is  the*  convenience  of 
having  a  name  to  give  to  a  science,  an  advance 
in  the  way  of  a  satisfactory  handling  of  this 
science  could  hardly  he  expected  from  a  thinker 
who  appreciated  beauty  only  as  an  imperfect 
imaging  of  what  is  intellectual. 

Kant  (q.v.)  has  been  an  important  factor  in 
determining  the  speculations  of  modern  philo- 
sophical aesthetics,  although  w-hat  he  calls  aes- 
thetics in  his  famous  Critique  of  Pure  Reason 
is  something  entirely  different  from  what  to-day 
passes  under  that  name.  He  strikes,  in  ijis 
Critique  of  the  Faculty  of  Judgment^  a  dis- 
tinctly modern  note  in  emphasizing  the  affective 


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side  of  aesthetic  appreciations,  thus  exalting  the 
artistic  consciousness  from  the  position  of  being 
an  imperfectly  developed  logic  and  metaphysics. 
But  Kant's  views  are-  too  completely  determined 
by  the  idiosyncrasies  of  his  philosophy  ever  to 
have  become  generally  acceptable.  His  philo- 
sophy is  dominated  by  the  thought  of  a  great 
breach  between  noumena  and  phenomena.  (See 
Appearance.)  The  datum  of  philosophy  is  this 
apparent  breach,  but  the  problem  is  in  large 
measure  the  healing  of  it.  But  this  Kant  could 
never  succeed  in  effecting.  In  his  first  two 
Critiques — those  of  Pure  Reason  and  of  Prac- 
tical Reason — he  deals  with  phenomena  and 
noumena  in  their  antithesis  and  separation.  In 
his  Critique  of  the  Faculty  of  Judgment  (1790), 
he  attempts  to  bring  about  a  connection  and 
synthesis.  In  his  definition  of  beauty,  he  fol- 
lows his  division  of  categories  into  those  of 
ijuality,  quantity,  relation,  and  modality.  Quali- 
tatively, the  beautiful  is  the  disinterestedly 
pleasing;  quantitatively,  it  is  the  universally 
pleasing;  relationally,  it  is  that  which  has  the 
form  of  purposiveness  without  the  reality  of  pur- 
pose, and,  modally,  it  is  the  necessarily  pleasing. 
Thus,  disinterested,  universal,  and  necessary 
pleasure  in  simulated  design  is  for  Kant  the 
essence  of  beauty.  The  sublime  is  that  which 
pleases  because  of  a  reaction,  after  an  inhibition 
of  vitality, — a  reaction  which  gives  rise  to  a 
higher  degree  of  vitality.  The  ridiculous  is 
also  a  reaction  against  tension,  being  ''the  sudden 
change  of  a  tense  expectation  Into  nothingness." 
As  in  the  case  of  Kant,  so  in  those  of  Schelling 
(q.v.)  and  Hegel  (q.v.),  the  philosophy  of  the 
^>eautiful  has  its  part  assigned  to  it  in  accord- 
ance with  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  universe. 
Schelling's  absolute  was  one  of  utter  indifference 
)f  subject '  and  object.  Therefore,  in  artistic 
ippreciation  it  is  this  ultimate  unity  of  abso- 
ute  indifference  which  is  perceived  as  the  beau- 
tiful.' In  Hegel  the  absolute  is  not  the  indif- 
ferent, but  the  differentiated  unity  of  subject 
ind  object,  and  art  is  a  form  of  the  absolute 
consciousness,  i.e.,  it  is  such  an  attitude  of  con- 
<'iousness  toward  its  objects  as  does  not  eject 
hem  into  an  existence  independent  of  itself ;  yet 
t  does  not  fail  to  observe  the  distinction  be- 
Aveen  consciousness  and  objects.  There  are 
^ree  forms  of  absolute  consciousness,  of  which 
irt  is  the  first.  In  the  art-consciousness  the 
mity  of  subject  and  object  is  relatively  simple. 
Uthongh  subject  and  object  are  not  reflectively 
dentified,  they  are  not  held  apart,  as  in  scieri- 
ific  knowledge.  The  beautiful  is  thus  the  abso- 
ute  idea  immediately  perceived.  Hegel's  fol- 
owers  Rosenkrauz,  Schasler,  and  Vischer, 
worked  along  these  lines  and  elaborated  a  very 
letailed  aesthetics.  Schiller  (q.v.)  returns  to 
f^ant  and  differentiates  the  material  and  the 
formal  impulses,  which,  working  in  conjunction, 
produce  the  beautiful. 

In  England.  Shaftesbury  (q.v.)  worked  in  a 
Platonic  spirit,  and  Hutcheson  (q.v.)  makes 
"all  beauty  relative  to  some  mind  perceiving 
it."  The  mind  has  a  faculty,  "an  internal 
sense,"  which  is  capable  of  receiving  ideas  of 
*>eauty  from  all  objects  in  which  there  is  uni- 
formity in  variety.  Reid  (q.v.),  on  the  con- 
!^^^y»  gives  an  objective  value  to  beauty,  claim- 
ing that  it  exists  apart  from  our  perception  of 
it.  Henry  Home  calls  beauty  the  pleasure 
connected  with  sight  and  hearing.  Hogarth 
(q.v.)  makes  a  great  advance  in  paying  attention 
Vol.  I.~11 


to  details.  He  went  back  to  the  ultimate  sen- 
sitiveness of  the  mind  to  certain  geometrical 
forms  and  colors,  and  in  this  respect  was  the 
forerunner  of  recent  psychological  aesthetics; 
while  Burke  (q.v.)  goes  further  and  looks  for 
the  explanation  of  beauty  in  certain  physio- 
logical effects  produced  by  the  beautiful  object. 
The  relaxation  of  nerves  by  appropriate  stimuli 
has  a  soothing  effect,  which  is  the  basis  of  aes- 
thetic pleasure.  Hence  the  beautiful  must  be 
petite,  Alison  (q.v.)  is  distinguished  by  the 
thorough-going  way  in  which  he  applies  Associa- 
tionism  (q-v.)  to  the  explanation  of  pleasing 
aesthetic  effects.  The  delight  we  take  in  a  beau- 
tiful object  is  due  to  its  delightful  suggestions, 
Bain  (q.v.)  elaborates  this  Associationism  and 
differentiates  the  aesthetic  pleasures  from  others 
by  their  disinterestedness,  purity,  and  sympa- 
thetic value,  as  being  sharable  in  a  way  in  which 
others  are  not.  Spencer  (q.v.)  introduces  Evo- 
lutionism into  {esthetics,  and  thus  accounts  for 
the  esthetic  pleasures  that  in  the  individual 
seem  to  arise  from  congenital  dispositions,  b^ 
claiming  that  these  dispositions  are  the  survi- 
vals by  heredity  of  associations  formed  in  the 
history  of  the  race.  He  also  makes  much  of  the 
distinction  between  work  and  play.  Play  is  ac- 
tivity prompted  by  surplus  of  vigor,  and  the 
play  of  our  higher  faculties  gives  aesthetic 
pleasure.  Consult:  Gayley  and  Scott,  Guide  to 
the  Literature  of  Mathetics  (Berkeley,  Cal., 
1890)  ;  W.  Knight,  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful 
(New  York,  1891);  B.  Bosanquet,  History  of 
Esthetic  (London,  1892) ;  Walter,  Oeschichte 
der  .Esthetik  im  Altertum  (Leipzig,  1893). 

AESTHETICS,  Experimental.  Experiment 
made  its  way  into  the  field  of  aesthetics  from 
psychology  on  the  one  side  and  from  philosophy 
and  mathematics  on  the  other.  About  the  mid- 
dle of  the  last  century,  while  experiment  was 
young  in  psychology,  a  dispute  arose  among 
theoretical  writers  concerning  the  esthetic  val- 
ue of  simple  space-forms.  A.  Zeising,  professor 
of  philosophy  in  Munich,  urged  that  formal 
beauty  demands  a  simple  proportionality;  while 
others  saw,  in  both  nature  and  art,  a  prefer- 
ence for  equality,  balance,  or  the  relations  given 
by  the  vibration  ratios  of  consonant  musical 
intervals,  or  the  heptagon,  or  the  square.  Zeising 
carried  out  his  theory  most  methodically  of  all. 
He  meant  by  proportionality  the  division  of  an 
object  in  such  a  way  that  the  smaller  part,  the 
minor,  stands  to  the  greater,  the  major,  as  the 
greater  to  the  whole.  This  division  is  called 
the  Golden  Section.  Zeising  made  the  most 
extravagant  claims  for  the  importance  of  his  law. 
He  maintained  that  it  furnished  the  pattern  for 
the  humaM  body,  the  structure  of  plants,  the 
forms  of  crystals,  the  arrangement  of  planetary 
systems ;  and  that  it  determined  the  proportions 
of  buildings,  sculptures,  and  paintings. 

It  occurred  to  G.  T.  Feehner  (q.v.)  to  test 
the  claims  of  Zeising  and  his  opponents,  in  so 
far  as  sesthetical  preference  was  concerned,  by 
observing  series  of  divided  lines  and  of  simple 
forms — rectangles,  ellipses,  and  crosses — under 
experimental  conditions.  He  made  use  of  a  large 
number  of  persons,  asking  each  to  state  his  pref- 
erence within  each  series.  Feehner  also  per- 
formed an  important  service  in  discriminating 
between  the  associational  factors  in  the  aesthetic 
judgment  (those  furnished  by  the  use,  purpose, 
rareness  of  objects),  and  the  direct  effect  pro- 
duced upon  the  feelings  by  the  forx*^       vv^c  color 


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or  the  rhythm  itself.  It  is  to  this  latter  non-as- 
Bociational  element  that  experiment  has  directed 
its  attention.  It  offers  the  advantages  of  simple 
and  constant  conditions  and  of  a  direct  appeal 
to  the  undivided  judgment.  It  has  conflnedit- 
self  thus  far  to  the  elements  which  are  common 
to  all  individuals.  Within  this  limited  field  it 
may  fairly  be  said  to  have  been  successful. 

Methods  and  Results.  The  result  of  Fech- 
ner's  work  was  to  modify  the  assertions  of 
Zeismg  and  other  theoriste.  A  decided  prefer- 
ence for  the  proportion  of  the  Golden  Section 
was  found  with  certain  figures,  particularly  the 
rectangle.  For  the  simple  sectioning  of  a  line, 
on  the  other  hand,  preference  was  shown  for 
the  division  into  halves  and  thirds.  Fechner  is 
justly  called  the  founder  of  experimental  asthet- 
ics.  He  laid  out  the  field,  distinguished  the 
direct  and  the  associative  factors,  gave  the  meth- 
ods,  and  applied  them  successfully.  There  are 
three  chief  methods  now  used  in  experimental 
spsthetics:  (1)  choice,  (2)  construction,  and 
(3)  use.  In  the  method  of  choice,  series  of 
simple  figures,  tones,  or  colors  are  presented  to 
the  observer,  who  selects  the  one  most  pleasing 
in  its  own  right.  The  objects  may  be  given  in 
pairs  (method  of  paired  comparisons),  or  in 
a  progressive  series  (serial  method),  or  promis- 
cuously, according  to  the  material  used.  In  the 
method  of  construction  the  individual  is  given 
elements,  e.ff.,  two  narrow  strips  of  cardboard, 
and  is  asked  to  make  from  them  the  most  pleas- 
ing figure  (cross)  that  he  can.  The  method  of 
use  or  application  consists  in  collecting  the 
dimensions  of  simple,  common  objects,  as  visit- 
ing or  playing  cards,  envelopes,  vases,  newspa- 
pers, books,  windows,  facades,  in  order  to 
discover  the  usual  or  most  common  proportions. 
Tlie  value  of  the  last-named  method  rests  on  the 
supposition  that  the  proportions  most  used  are 
the  most  agreeable.  This  is  true  only  in  part; 
fitness,  cost,  use  to  which  an  object  is  put,  and 
custom  play  a  large  part;  for  these  reasons  the 
method  requires  caution.  The  second  method 
suffers  from  rather  narrow  limitations.  Both 
it  and  the  third,  however,  are  of  value  as  checks 
upon  the  method  of  choice,  which  is  the  most 
trustworthy  and  has  been  most  successfully 
employed. 

The  methods  named  have  been  used  chiefly 
with  spatial  forms;  rectangles,  crosses,  lines, 
angles,  circles,  ellipses,  and  triangles.  They 
have  succeeded  best  with  the  simpler  figures. 
Fechner's  early  results  have  been,  for  the  most 
part,  confirmed.  We  know  now  that  certain  divis- 
ions and  dimensions  are  aesthetically  pleasing 
for  their  own  sake ;  that  is,  with  no  specific  asso- 
ciation attaching  to  them.  The  most  agreeable 
are  expressed  by  the  ratio  1:1  and  (approxi- 
mately) 3:5,  the  last-named  ratio  standing  near 
the  relation  for  the  Golden  Section  given  above. 
For  example,  the  grand  average  from  twenty- 
three  series  in  which  various  forms  (lines,  angles, 
crosses,  and  ellipses)  were  used,  with  a  number 
of  observers,  gave  as  the  most  pleasing  ratio 
1:1.635,  with  an  extremely  low  fluctuation  for 
the  different  series.  We  conclude,  then,  that  the 
most  satisfying  combinations  are  those  in  which 
the  parts  are  alike  and  those  in  which  they  are 
moderately  similar.  One  is  tempted  to  point  to 
the  mathematical  relation  of  the  golden  section 
as  an  explanation  of  the  rosthetic  enjoyment 
found  in  proportion.  But  the  relation  is  in 
itself  no  explanation,  and,  even  if  it  were,  the 


deviations  from  it  which  many  individuals  show 
would  invalidate  it.  A  recent  explanation  of  the 
aesthetic  feelings  connected  with  space-fonns 
points  out  that  man  involuntarily  invests  spatial 
objects  with  the  activities — strains,  resistings, 
tensions — which  he  himself  feels  in  his  own 
body.  According  as  an  object — a  pillar,  a  statue, 
or  a  block  of  stone — gives  evidence  that  it  is 
capable  or  incapable  of  holding  its  own,  support- 
ing its  load  and  maintaining  its  own  integrity 
does  it  awaken  a  feeling  of  satisfaction  or  dis- 
satisfaction in  the  observer.  This  tendency 
shows  itself,  it  is  argued,  even  where  the  object 
is  reduced  to  a  mere  outline.  The  argument 
gains  part  of  its  weight  from  the  fact  that  it 
also  gives  a  reason  for  a  host  of  illusions  con- 
nected with  our  perception  of  spatial  relations. 
A  true  mathematical  square  is  not  seen  as  a 
square  at  all,  but  as  a  rectangle  whose  height 
is  greater  than  its  breadth;  a  bisected  vertical 
line  looks  longer  above  the  point  of  division 
than  below,  and  so  on.  The  allowance  made 
for  these  illusions  is  probably  the  most  impor- 
tant advance  in  method  since  the  days  of  Fech- 
ner. It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  explanation, 
which  we  may  call  a  dynamic  one,  brings  in  the 
associational  factor.  Yet  this  is  not  a  fatal 
objection,  for  the  associations  assumed  are 
generic,  so  to  speak,  and  thus  constant,  within 
limits,  for  all  individuals.  The  theory  must, 
however,  share  honors  with  a  psychophysical 
one,  which  accounts  for  the  elementary  esthetic 
feelings  in  terms  of  the  simplicity  'and  com- 
plexity of  psychophysical  processes  underlying 
them.  It  is  probable,  that  is,  that  the  facility 
with  which  certain  proportions  are  cognized 
affects  directly  the  excitability  of  the  nervous 
system  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  pleasure. 

The  method  of  choice  may  be  adapted  to  the 
determination  of  the  aesthetic  value  of  elemen- 
tary musical  combinations.  We  obtain  thus  a 
graded  series  of  pleasantnesses  for  tonal  inter- 
vals both  when  the  constituent  tones  are  given 
simultaneously  (see  Fusion),  and  when  they 
are  given  successively.  There  is  afforded  in  this 
way  an  opportunity  to  compare  directly  the 
result  of  experimentation  and  the  elements  of 
musical  composition  established  by  generations 
of  practice.  It  must  be  added  that  simple  musi- 
cal combinations  offer  a  particularly  good  field 
for  experimental  exploration  of  the  asthetic  feel- 
ings, because  the  direct,  sensuous  factor  plays 
a  much  more  important  rOle  here  than  in  spatial 
form,  and  the  associative  factor  is  correspond- 
ingly less  prominent.  This  is  especially  true  of 
rhythm. 

Finally,  aesthetic  preference  in  the  realm  of 
color,  saturation,  and  brightness  has  been  deter- 
mined by  the  method  of  paired  comparisons— the 
observer  comparing  in  turn  a  red,  then  a  green, 
then  a  blue,  etc.,  with  each  of  the  other  members 
in  a  series  of  colors,  and  also  by  passing  judg- 
ment on  those  visual  sensations  taken  singly. 
The  chief  results  are  these:  (1)  the  most  satu- 
rated colors  are  usually  preferred;  (2)  given 
likeness  of  saturation,  individual  preferences 
vary  from  color-tone  to  color-tone,  and  (3)  with 
colors  which  are  equally  pleasing,  the  combina-. 
tion  of  any  two  gives  greater  satisfaction  the 
more  unlike    (contrasting)    the  colors. 

Consult:  G.  T.  Fechner,  Zur  experimentatcn 
JEathetik  (I^ipzig,  1871);  Vorachule  der  ^^s- 
thetik  (Leipzig,  1870)  ;  T.  Lipps,  RaumcesthcHh 
und  geometrisch'Optische  Tauschungen   (Leipzig, 


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JESTHETICa 


163 


JETOLIAN  LEAOTTB. 


1897) ;  €r€orge  Santayana,  The  Sense  of  Beauty; 
Outlines  of  jEsthetic  Theory  (New  York,  1896). 
FESTIVAL,  es'tl-val  or  6s-tl'val,  or  ESTI- 
VAL  (Lat.  destivuSy  of  summer,  from  aestas, 
summer).  Plants  whose  conspicuous  functions, 
especially  the  blooming  of  the  flower,  occur  in 
summer,  are  said  to  be  ffistival.  Prairie  plants, 
especially  of  the  Composite  family,  are  largely 
spstival,  and  contrast  strongly  with  the  vernal 
plants  (q.v.)  of  the  woods,  such  as  many  mem- 
bers of  the  lily  family. 

-ffiS'TIVATION.  See  Floi^-eb;  and  Hibeb- 
XATioN  and  JEIstivatign. 

AETA,  a-a'tA.  The  woolly-haired,  dark  col- 
ored, dwarfish  aboriginal  folk  of  Luzon  and 
other  Philippine  islands;  also  called  Negrito. 
They  live  in  out-of-the-way  places  in  lower  sav- 
agery, and  are  supposed  to  number  20,000.  Ate, 
Eta,  Ita,  Mamanua,  etc.,  are  synonyms.  Con- 
sult: A.  B.  Meyer,  The  Negritos  (Dresden,  1899). 
See  PHiLiPPiJfES. 

JBTHEIi,  ath^el.  A  combining  form  which 
occurs  as  the  first  element  in  many  Anglo-Saxon 
names.  It  is  derived  from  A.  S.  cefel,  noble, 
and  is  akin  to  (xer.  Adelj  nobility,  edcZ,  noble; 
compare  Engl,  atlieling  (q.v.),  an  Anglo-Saxon 
prince  or  nobleman,  and  ethel,  noble.  "Hie  names 
in  which  this  combining  form  occurs  ( e.g.,  Ethel- 
bald,  "Noble  Bold,"  Ethehculf,  "Noble  Wolf," 
ptc),  when  given  in  the  present  work,  are  gen- 
erally to  be  found  under  the  more  modern  spell- 
ing Ethel',  which  is  that  adopted  in  Leslie  Ste- 
phen's Dictionary  of  National  Biography, 

iETHELBAXD,  ath^el-bflld.    See  Ethiixbald. 

^THELHABD,  ath^Sl-ard.    See  Aoelabd. 

JETHELINO,  ath'gl-Ing.    See  Atheling. 

iE'THIO^IS  (Gk.  AlOioKic).  The  name  of 
I  Greek  epic  in  five  books  by  Arctinus  of  Miletus, 
me  of  the  Cyclic  Poets  (q.v.).  It  relates  the 
Tents  of  the  Trojan  War  immediately  succeed- 
ing those  described  in  the  Iliad,  the  heroine  of 
he  poem  being  the  Amazon  queen,  Penthesilea 

(q.v.)^ 

iE^THBIOSCOPE  (Gk.  al^pia,  aithria,  clear 
iky  +  OKotreiv,  skopein,  to  observe,  watch ) .  An  in- 
trument  to  measure  the  temperature  effects  pro- 
luced  by  radiation,  invented  by  Sir  John  I^eslie 
n  1817,  and  described  in  the  Transactions  of  the 
loyal  Society  of  Edinburgh  for  the  following 
-ear.  It  consisted  of  a  concave  metallic  mirror, 
>r  cup,  containing  a  difierential  thermometer, 
^'ith  it  Leslie  hoped  to  discover  the  effect  of  the 
louds  upon  atmospheric  conditions,  and  to  ex- 
plain other  meteorological  phenomena. 

MTLOI/OQY.     See  Biology. 

AETION,  a-e'sM-on  (Gk.  ^Aeriuv).  A  Greek 
)ainter  who  lived  in  the  latter  half  of  the  fourth, 
>r  the  first  half  of  the  third,  century  b.c.,  and  is, 
Perhaps,  to  be  identified  with  the  sculptor 
V?tion.  He  was  highly  praised  for  his  techniaue, 
md  is  classed  with  such  painters  as  Nicomachus 
»nd  Apelles.  His  most  famous  painting  repre- 
sented the  wedding  of  Alexander  and  Roxana. 
scarcely  anything  is  known  of  his  life. 

AETITTS,  a-^shl-fis.  Called  "the  ungodly."  A 
fioman  theologian  who  lived  in  the  fourth  cen- 
ury.  He  was  bom  in  Antioch,  and  sold  into 
'lavery;  when  liberated,  studied  medicine  and 
neology  at  Antioch,  became  a  deacon,  and  devel- 
oped the  doctrines  called  the  A^tian  heresy, 
lender  the  Emperor  Constantius  he  was  banished 


(360),  but  recalled  in  361  by  Julian,  and  was 
shortly  after  made  bishop.  He  died  in  Coii8tan' 
tinople,  367. 

ASTITJS.  a  Roman  general,  born  about  :^00 
A.D.  He  long  defended  Gaul  from  tlie  bar- 
barians; with  Theodoric  he  compelled  Attila  to 
raise  the  siege  of  Orleans;  he  followed  the  Huns 
to  the  plains  of  Chalons,  and  defeated  them  m  & 
great  battle,  in  which  300,000  men  are  said  to 
have  been  slain.  The  Emperor  Valentin! an  HI, 
became  jealous  of  A^tius  and  slew  him  with  liis 
own  hand,  454  a.d. 

JET^A.  A  Latin  poem,  in  hexamct^^r^,  de- 
scribing Mount  iEtna  and  one  of  its  erii[»tiona» 
with  a  theory  as  to  their  cause.  The  work  used 
to  be  attributed  to  Vergil,  but  was  probably 
written  by  Seneca's  friend,  Lucilius  Junior,  wha 
was  a  procurator  in  Sicily.  Consult:  .^Ana^ 
edited  by  H.  A.  J.  Munro  (Cambridge,  1807). 

JEIVNA,  Mount.    See  Etna,  Mount. 

JETOOilA    (Gk.  Alr«A«i,  AitOlia),  A  di^^trict 
of  ancient  Greece,  lying  on  the  north  erjiit^t  of 
the  Gulf  of  Corinth.     The  ancient  -^toHa   was 
divided  from  Acarnania  on  the  west  by  the  river 
AcheloUs,  and    extended    as  far    as   the    river 
Daphnos,  where  it  was  bounded  by  Locris  and 
Doris;  on  the  north  it  bordered  on  Thessaly  and 
Epirus.     In  later  times  these  boundaries'  ^vere 
considerably    extended   to   the   north    and   oast. 
The   country   has    few   cities,    and   is   generally 
wild  and  barren,  though  the  southwest  portion 
(Old  ^tolia)  contains  two  marshy  but  iniitful 
plains,   one   on   the   coast,   the   other   north    of 
Mount    Zygos,    largely    occupied    by    the    Likes 
Apokuro  (Trichonis)   and  Zygos  (Hyria).     This 
was  the  ^tolia  of  the  Heroic  Age,  in  which  the 
-^tolians  play  a  conspicuous  part.     It  was   in 
Calydon,  that,  according  to  the  legend,  Meleager 
(q.v.)  slew  the  boar.    When  they  next  appear  in 
Greek  history,  at  the  time  of  the  Pelopoiine?^ijin 
War,  they  are  described  by  Thucydides  a;*  rude 
and  barbarous.     The  -^Etolian  confederacy ,   flrfjt 
mentioned  in  314  b.c,  but  of  unknown  orinrin, 
became   important  in  the   time  of  the  AtbiT-nn 
Ijeague.    (See  Achaia.)     The  supreme  authority 
was  the  general  assembly  of  all  -Etoliana,  which 
met  yearly  after  the  autumnal  equinox  at  Ther- 
mon,  and  elected  the  general  and  other  ofllcials. 
During  the  third  century  B.C.  the  League  stendtly 
increased  its  power,  in  conflict  with  the  Achfeans 
and  Macedon,  and,  finally,  in  pursuance  nf  its 
characteristically  selfish  policy,  entered  into  alli- 
ance with  the  Romans.    As  this  did  not  yi«^hl  all 
that    was    expected,    it    afterward    joined    An- 
tiochus  and  Perseus  in  their  wars  against  Rome. 
Tlie  political  influence  of  yEtolia  was  destroyed 
in   189  B.C.  by  the  Romans,  though  the  lertLrne 
existed   nominally   even   to   the   time   of    Sulla. 
With  Acarnania,  iBtolia  now  forms  aprovincc 
of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece.     Tlie   (!hipf 
rivers  of  ^tolia  are  the  Aspropotamo    (  Vrhe- 
lotts),  in  the  west,  the  Phidaris    (Eueno^).  in 
the  centre,  and  the  Marnos    (Daphnos),   in  the 
east.     The  people  in  the  plains  are  employed  in 
agriculture  and  fishing;  while  in  the  mountain 
districts  some  traces  of  the  rude  and  TTiEirtiiil 
character  of  ancient  .Etolia  may  still  be  found. 
The  chief  towns  are  Mesolonghi,  Lepanto   (q.v.), 
and  Agrinion.     Consult :  W.  J.  Woodhouse,  Mto- 
lia   (Oxford,  1897). 

^TO^LIAN  LEAGUE.    A  confederacy  of  the 
tribes  of  ^Etolia,  and  afterward  including  also 


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^TOLIAN  LEAaXTE. 


164 


ATFECnOH. 


parts  of  Acarnania,  J..ocris,  Thessaly,  etc.  Its 
executive  officers  were  chosen  at  a  yearly  meet- 
ing called  Pansetolicum.  It  was  formed  after 
the  battle  of  Chaeronea  (338  B.C.)  to  resist  the 
pncroachments  of  Macedon,  to  which,  after  the 
death  of  Alexander,  it  proved  a  serious  antago- 
nist, as  well  as  to  its  rival,  the  Achaean  League 
(q.v.).  Later,  for  a  time,  it  was  in  alliance 
with  the  Romans,  but,  having  taken  part  with 
Antiochus  III.  against  them,  it  lost  its  power 
upon  his  defeat,  189  B.C. 

APANASIEFP,  !i'f&-ntt^syef,  Alexandeb 
NiKOi^YEViCH  (1826-71).  A  famous  student  of 
Russian  folklore  and  national  poetry.  He  pub- 
lished a  collection  of  popular  tales  (4  volumes, 
1863;  third  edition,  2  volumes,  1897),  and  The 
Poetic  Views  of  Nature  Entertained  hy  the  An- 
cient Slavs  (3  volumes,  Moscow,  1866-69),  be- 
sides numerous  contributions  to  various  peri- 
odicals. 

APAB,  a^ffir.    See  Danakil. 

A^FER.     See  Abkobius. 

AFEBy  Cn.  Domitivs.  A  Roman  orator, 
teacher  of  Quintilian.  He  was  born  in  Gaul, 
15  B.C.  and  died  59  a.d.  He  was  made  a  consul 
by  Caligula. 

APFEC^nOH,  AFFECTIVE  PBOC^SSES 
(Lat.  affectio,  a  state  of  mind  produced  by  some 
influence,  from  afpcere^  to  do  something  to  one, 
ad,  to -\-facere,  to  do).  For  many  centuries 
psychologists  have  discussed  the  phenomena  of 
the  human  mind  under  the  three  headings  of 
Intellect,  Feeling,  and  Will.  (See  Psychology.) 
One  of  the  chief  aims  of  modern  psychology  is 
to  analyze  these  great  mental  functions  into 
their  simplest  component  processes,  and  so  finally 
to  reach  the.  mental  elements,  the  ultimate  and 
irreducible  constituents  of  mind.  The  various 
forms  of  intellectual  experience  (perception, 
idea,  association  of  ideas,  etc.)  reduce,  on  such 
analysis,  to  the  sensation  (q.v.)  ;  the  various 
forms  of  feeling  (emotion,  passion,  mood)  to  the 
affection;  while  the  simplest  will-processes  are 
found  to  contain  both  sensational  and  affective 
elements. 

Affection,  then,  is  the  mental  element  which 
t'haracterizes  all  varieties  of  our  emotional  life. 
It  is  the  last  result  of  the  analysis  of  joy 
and  sorrow,  love  and  hate,  anger  and  fear:  it 
forms  the  common  basis  of  the  sense-pleasures 
of  eating  and  drinking,  and  of  the  highest  jBsthet- 
ic  appreciation  of  music  and  painting.  Like 
sensation,  it  is  the  product  of  scientific  abstrac- 
tion; it  is  never  experienced  singly,  but  always 
in  connection  with  other  processes.  And,  like 
s^ensation,  it  cannot  be  reduced  to  anything  sim- 
pler than  itself.  Many  attempts  have  been  made, 
in  the  interests  of  scientific  economy,  to  derive 
it  from  sensation,  which  would  then  remain  as 
the  only  mind-stuff,  the  sole  material  of  which 
the  mind  is  built;  but  so  far  all  attempts  have 
failed. 

As  to  the  different  kinds  or  "qualities"  of 
affection,  modern  psychology  is  divided.  Some 
psychologists  maintain  that  the  manifold  forms 
of  affective  experience  are  traceable,  in  the  last 
resort,  to  the  two  typical  processes  of  pleasure 
and  pain,  or,  in  the  better  phraseology — since 
pain  (q.v.)  is  a  sensation,  with  a  definite  organ  in 
muscle  and  skin — to  pleasantness  and  unpleas- 
antness. Relief,  despair,  hope,  satisfaction, 
anxiety,  resentment  would  then  be,  in  pure  feel- 


ing and  at  any  given  moment  of  their  couriw, 
either  simply  pleasant  or  simply  unpleasant. 
There  are  two  principal  objections  to  this  view: 
(1)  that  it  does  not  do  justice  to  the  immense 
complexity  and  variety  of  the  emotions;  and  (2) 
that  it  confuses  the  lower  and  the  higher,  the 
pleasure  of  a  good  dinner  with  that  of  Beetho- 
ven^s  Ninth  Symphony.  The  latter  point  is  very 
differently  taken  by  different  psychologists.  One 
^y>»  e-g-y  that  the  unpleasurableness  of  a  tooth- 
ache, of  an  intellectual  failure,  and  of  a  tragical 
experience  is  so  patently  diverse  that  assertions 
to  the  contrary  require  no  criticism.  Another 
declares  as  positively  that  there  is  no  qualitative 
difference  discoverable  between  the  pleasantness 
of  a  color  and  that  of  a  successfully  concluded 
argument,  when  careful  abstraction  is  made 
from  the  very  wide  differences  in  their  attendant 
circumstances.  And  so  the  matter  rests.  The 
former  objection  has  suggested  a  more  elaborate 
classification  of  the  affective  qualities. 

According  to  this  second  view,  the  number  of 
affective  qualities  is  as  large  as — if  not  larger 
than — ^the  number  of  sensations.  We  have,  it  is 
true,  no  names  for  the  great  majority  of  them; 
but  that  is  because  language  has  been  developed, 
not  for  the  sake  of  a  scientific  psychology,  but 
for  purposes  of  practical  intercourse,  and  for  all 
practical  purposes  the  discrimination  of  the 
main  emotional  types  (anger,  fear,  and  the  rest) 
have  been  sufficient.  We  can,  however,  distin- 
guish three  main  trends  or  directions  of  the 
affective  consciousness,  within  each  of  which  a 
Iqng  series  of  ultimate  qualities  is  ranged  be- 
tween opposed  extremes.  These  directions  are 
those  of  (1)  pleasantness  -  unpleasantness :  (2) 
excitement  -  depression  (tranquilization,  inhibi- 
tion); and  (3)  tension  -  relaxation  (resolution). 
The  first  series  of  qualities  comprises  the  affec- 
tions of  the  present  time;  our  affective  state, 
as  determined  by  the  occurrence  of  any  given 
moment,  is  one  of  pleasure  or  displeasure.  The 
second  series  contains  all  the  shades  and  tints 


U 


AFrKCTIVE  PBOCB8SK8. 

Wundt'8  Scheme  of  the  Affective  Processes.  P,  U,  Plea8an^ 
neee.  Unpleasantness:  £,  D,  Excitement,  Depression:  S.  K. 
Strain,  Relaxation.  The  curved  line  represents  the  course  in 
conscioasness  of  an  actual  feeling. 

of  our  affective  anticipation  of  the  future;  we 
are  aroused  or  subdued  by  what  is  to  come.  And 
the  third  series  represents  the  effects  of  experi- 
ences just  past;  we  are  kept  on  the  stretch,  or 
relieved  from  our  tension,  by  what  has  just  hap- 
pened. Or — to  put  the  differences  from  another 
point  of  view — we  are  pleased  or  displeased  by 


k 


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AFFECTION. 


165 


AFFECTION. 


the  character  of  our  experience;  we  are  excited 
or  tranquilized,  according  as  it  is  more  or  less 
intensive;  and  we  are  held  on  the  strain  of  ex- 
pectation, or  relieved  from  this  strain,  according 
as  it  lasts  a  longer  or  a  shorter  time.  Affections 
of  all  three  types  are,  as  a  rule,  combined  in  the 
concrete  feeling,  in  "real"  affective  experience. 
Suppose,  e.g.,  that  one  is  looking  forward  to  a 
pleasant  event.  One  has,  at  first,  a  feeling  of 
tension,  to  which  are  soon  added,  in  succession, 
feelings  of  unpleasantness  and  of  excitement. 
All  three  affections  increase  gradually  in 
strength  until  the  expected  event  occurs.  At 
that  moment  the  unpleasantness  chauges  to 
pleasantness,  and  the  strain  to  relaxation,  while 
the  excitement  is  still  continued.  Presently  the 
excitement  dies  away.  Then  the  feeling  of  relax- 
ation or  satisfaction  fades  out;  and  finally  the 
effect  of  the  event  passes  off  altogether,  with  the 
fading  of  pleasure  to  its  indifference-point. 

It  would  seem,  then,  that  expert  Opinion  could 
hardly  be  more  sharply  divided.  On  the  one 
hand,  we  have  the  belief  in  two  and  only  two 
affective  qualities,  homogeneous  throughout  the 
affective  life;  on  the  other,  the  suggestion  that 
there  are  many  thousand  feelings,  each  of  which 
is  unique  in  quality,  though  the  whole  number 
fall  roughly  into  three  great  groups.  It  should, 
however,  be  said  that  these  conflicting  views  are 
held  tentatively,  not  dogmatically.  It  is  gen- 
erally agreed  that  we  do  not  as  yet  possess  the 
data  for  a  scientific  theory  of  affection.  The 
appeal  lies  to  experiment;  and  the  application  of 
experimental  method  in  the  sphere  of  feeling  is 
extraordinarily  difficult.  Nevertheless,  the  prob- 
lem stands  to-day  in  the  forefront  of  psychologi- 
cal inquiry,  and  much  may  be  expected  from  the 
near  future. 

We  have,  as  things  are,  two  principal  methods 
for  the  study  of  affection :  the  method  of  impres- 
sion and  the  method  of  expression.  The  former 
we  owe  to  Fechner  (q.v.)  ;  the  latter  to  the 
Italian  physiologist,  A.  Mosso.  (1)  The  method 
of  impression  in  its  original  form  is  also  known 
as  tne  seritl  method  or  the  method  of  selection. 
(See  .^^STHETics,  Experimental).  A  long  series 
of  graded  stimuli  (coloi-s;  textile  fabrics,  ovals, 
or  crosses)  is  laid  before  the  observer,  who  notes 
his  preference  for  particular  terms  in  the  series. 
From  these  preferences  a  curve  may  be  construct- 
ed, showing  the  relative  feeling-value  of  dull 
and  brilliant  colors,  of  rough  and  smooth  sur- 
faces, etc.  In  its  later  form,  the  method  is 
known  as  that  of  paired  comparisons.  The  stim- 
uli are  here  presented  to  the  observer  two  at  a 
time,  so  that  every  term  in  the  series  is  com- 
pared with  every  other  term.  The  experimenter 
records  the  number  of  preferences  that  each  term 
receives,  and  a  curve  is  platted  from  the  results. 
It  is  found,  e.g.,  in  work  with  colored  impressions 
that  saturated  colors  (red,  blue)  are  as  a  rule 
preferred  to  unsaturated  (pink,  brown,  sky  blue, 
nsivy  blue) ,  but  that  there  is  a  curious  uncertain- 
ty as  regards  yellow — some  observers  ranking 
this  color  very  high,  while  others  as  decidedly 
prefer  orange  (yellowish  red)  and  yellow  green. 
(2)  The  method  of  expression,  on  the  other  nand, 
seeks  to  reconstruct  the  affective  consciousness 
from  a  study  of  its  bodily  symptoms  or  mani- 
festations. It  is  a  matter  of  common  knowledge 
that  men  blush  with  shame  and  tremble  with 
fear.  The  bodily  indications  of  affection  are, 
indeed,  both  widespread  and  easily  observable, 
while  at  the  same  time  they  reflect  the  most 


subtle  and  delicate  phases  of  affective  process. 
Their  common  cause  is  to  be  found  in  eh  an  (res 
of  muscular  innervation;  the  whole  mu-^cumr 
system,  voluntary  and  involuntary,  answers  to 
those  changes  of  nervous  excitation  which  cor- 
respond, on  the  physical  side,  to  changes  in  mir 
state  of  feeling.  We  find,  e.g.,  that  the  pulse 
becomes  stronger  during  pleasant  stimuli tioiij 
and  weaker  during  unpleasant;  the  sphygmo- 
graphic  record  shows  that  there  is  a  chaii<|e  m 
the  innervation  of  the  heart.  We  find,  in  the 
same  way,  that  breathing  is  deeper  under  a 
pleasurable,  and  shallower  under  an  un pleasura- 
ble, stimulus;  the  pneumographic  record  shows 
a  change  in  the  innervation  of  the  respiratory 
muscles.  We  find  that  the  volume  of  a  limb  or 
member — of  the  finger  or  arm — increase^  with 
pleasantness  and  decreases  with  unpleasantness; 
there  is  a  change  of  innervation  of  the*  super- 
ficial blood-vessels,  and  therefore  of  the  aniount 
of  blood  contained  in  them;  the  plethysmo^raph- 
ic  curve  rises  and  falls  as  the  stimulus  varies. 
We  find  that  muscular  strength  evinces  a  like 
fluctuation;  our  squeeze  of  the  dynainonicter 
is  stronger  when  we  are  pleased  than  it  is  when 
we  are  displeased.  And  lastly,  we  hjive  the 
same  correlation  of  physical  and  mental  in  the 
case  of  involuntary  movement.  If  the  Inmd  is 
laid  upon  the  plate  of  a  planchette  wltilo  our 
mood  is  one  of  indifference,  the  pencil  will  make 
a  little  ragged  spot  upon  the  paper,  but  will 
take  no  definite  direction.  Let  a  pleasaiit  stim- 
ulus be  given  (a  fragrant  scent,  a  piece  of  good 
news),  and  the  arm  travels  away  from  the  body, 
as  if  the  organism  were  reaching  out  after  the 
pleasing  object;  the  pencil  traces  a  stead v  line 
outward.  Let  an  unpleasant  stimulus  be  |L;iv(!n. 
and  the  arm  comes  in  toward  the  trunk,  a»  if 
the  organism  were  withdrawing  into  itself, 
shrinking  from  the  displeasing  object;  the  pencil 
traces  a  steady  line  inward. 

Why  has  not  this  method  of  expression,  if  it 
be  so  delicate  as  is  here  stated,  settled  once  and 
for  all  the  question  of  the  number  of  affective 
qualities?  There  are  three  reasons.  In  the 
first  place,  the  method  is  still  very  youn^',  and 
the  technical  difficulties  involved  in  the  giving  of 
stimuli,  etc.,  have  not  yet  been  fully  over  rain  e. 
Secondly, the  method  presupposes  that  the  ^^ubjeet 
of  the  experiment  is,  at  the  outset,  in  a  normal, 
quiescent,  indifferent  state,  and  the  regulation  of 
this  state  is  exceedingly  difficult.  And  thirdly, 
knowledge  of  the  physiological  mechanism  of 
the  curve  variations  is  at  present  inconif>lcte: 
we  have  reason  to  believe  that  a  particular  ft^el- 
ing  must  always  be  connected  with  a  partic  iilur 
change  of  innervation,  but  we  know  also  tliat 
such  a  change  may  be  wrought  wholly  witliin 
the  physiological  (and  outside  of  the  p^^iycho- 
logical)  sphere.  Hence,  so  long  as  introspection 
gives  no  decided  verdict,  the  bodily  symptoms 
may  and  will  be  differently  interpreted.  We 
said  above  that  the  pulse  beats  higher  in  ])leas- 
antness  and  more  feebly  in  unpleasantne.^^,  A 
much  more  elaborate  correlation  has  been  sug- 
gested by  those  who  hold  the  alternative  theory, 
of  a  large  number  of  ultimate  affections.  Ti>  this 
view,  pleasantness  is  indicated  by  stronj,^  and 
slow,  unpleasantness  by  weak  and  rapid,  h**arl- 
beats ;  in  excitement  and  depression,  the  pubc  m 
simply  strong  and  weak  respectively;  while 
strain  manifests  itself  by  Wej^i^  and  slow,  relax- 
ation by  quick  and  strong,  pxju^tions.  We  can- 
not say  that  either  side  is   jr>^*^^  qx  Nwonrr;  we 


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must  suspend  judgment  until  further  eyidence  is 
submitted. 

A  third  method,  which  has  recently  been  pro- 
posed is  (3)  that  of  suggestive  disintegration 
of  the  affective  consciousness.  If  we  assume 
that  the  concrete  feeling  is  made  up  of  three 
elementary  affections,  one  from  each  of  the  three 
main  directions,  it  should  be  possible  (whether 
with  or  without  recourse  to  the  hypnotic  state) 
to  "suggest  away"  two  of  the  components,  and  so 
allow  the  third  to  come  to  its  full  bodily  expres- 
sion. This  method  has  not  as  yet  received  any 
extended  trial. 

It  remains  to  consider  the  nature  of  the  phys- 
iological processes  that  underlie  the  appearance 
of  an  affection  in  consciousness.  Sensations  are 
conditioned  directly  upon  the  excitation  of  a 
determinate  sense-organ.  Affections,  in  all  prob- 
ability, are  conditioned  by  excitatory  processes 
which  arise  indirectly,  by  way  of  reaction,  from 
these  first  processes.  The  secondary  excitations 
may  be  supposed  to  originate  within  the  cerebral 
cortex,  though  some  psychologists  have  referred 
them  to  the  medulla,  or  even  to  the  sympathetic 
system ;  but  whether  they  are  localized  ( Wundt ) 
or  diffused  (Meynert),  we  have  no  means  of 
deciding.  The  English  school  have  found  a  bio- 
logical sanction  for  their  traditional  doctrine  of 
pleasure-pain  in  the  law  that  whatever  is  pleas- 
urable tends  to  further  and  perfect  life,  and 
whatever  is  painful  to  disturb  or  destroy  it. 
The  law  appears  to  be  substantially  true.  Ex- 
pressed in  psychological  terms,  it  would  run 
somewhat  as  follows:  A  pleasant  stimulus  is  a 
stimulus  of  moderate  intensity,  permitting  the 
full  exercise  of  attention,  and  connecting  with 
the  organic  sensations  set  up  by  "anabolic" 
bodily  processes;  an  unpleasant  stimulus  is  one 
the  intensity  of  which  is  adverse  to  maximal 
attention,  and  which  connects  with  the  organic 
sensations  set  up  by  "catabolic"  bodily  processes. 
Pleasantness  and  unpleasantness  would  then  be 
conditioned,  in  the  last  resort,  upon  the  intensity 
of  stimulus:  a  result  which  accords  well  both 
with  the  results  of  experiment  and  with  the 
notion  of  a  diffused  cortical  reaction  as  sub- 
strate of  the  affective  process.  On  the  other 
hand,  as  we  have  seen,  later  theory  connects 
pleasantness  and  its  opposite  with  the  quality, 
excitement  -  depression  with  the  intensity,  and 
tension  -  relaxation  with  the  duration  of  stim- 
ulus. No  one  has  yet  attempted  to  work  out 
these  correlations  upon  the  biological  or  teleolog- 
ical  side.  Here,  as  before,  we  must  look  to  the 
future  for  a  settlement  of  the  questions  at  issue. 

Consult:  for  the  theory  of  the  three  affective 
directions,  W.  Wundt,  Outlines  of  Psychology, 
translated  by  C.  H.  Judd  (Leipzig,  1897)  ;  for 
methods,  O.  Kuelpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology 
(Leipzig,  1895);  E.  B.  Titchener,  Experimental 
Psychology  (New  York,  1901)  ;  for  the  teleo- 
logical  law,  H.  Spencer,  Principles  of  Psychology 
(New  York,  1881),  and  Principles  of  Ethics 
(New  York,  1892). 

AF'FIDA'VIT  (Perf.  of  Low  Lat.  afficUire, 
"he  has  made  an  oath,"  from  Lat.  ad,  to  +  fides, 
faith).  A  wTitten  declaration,  or  statement  of 
fact,  made  before  a  magistrate  or  other  person 
legally  authorized  to  administer  an  oath,  the 
truth  of  which  is  confirmed  either  by  an  oath 
sworn  or  a  solemn  affirmation.  The  name  and 
designation  of  the  party  making  the  affidavit 
are  >^Titten  at  length,  and  he  usually  signs  it 
at  the  foot.     When  the  paper  is  shown  to  him. 


he  is  required  to  swear  or  affirm  that  its  con- 
tents are  true,  and  that  the  name  and  handwrit- 
ing are  his,  and  it  is  thereupon  attested  by  the 
officer  before  whom  it  is  made.  Affidavits  in  all 
the  English  courts  must  be  taken  and  express 
in  the  first  person  of  the  deponent.  In  the 
United  States,  all  judges,  justices  of  the  peace, 
notaries,  commissioners,  and  some  special  off.- 
cers,  have  authority  of  law  to  take  aflBdavits. 
All  the  States  appoint  commissioners,  residing 
in  other  States,  to  exercise  the  power.  Gener- 
ally the  authority  of  foreign  officials  to  take 
affidavits  must  be  certified  or  verified  in  court. 
When  a  judge  takes  an  affidavit  in  court,  his  sig- 
nature must  be  authenticated.  Our  ministers 
and  consuls  abroad  have  power  to  take  affida- 
vits, and  so  have  British  consuls  and  nearly  all 
similar  officers.  No  particular  form  of  affi- 
davit is  prescribed.  An  affidavit  of  merits  is  one 
made  by  a  defendant,  w^hich  sets  forth  that  he 
has  stated  his  case  to  counsel  and  is  by  him 
advised  that  he  has  a  good  defense  to  the  pend- 
ing action  on  its  merits.  This  is  required  by 
statute,  or  a  rule  of  court,  to  protect  plaintiffs 
from  delav  by  frivolous  shows  of  defense,  but 
does  not  always  effect  the  purpose. 

AFFIL'IA^IOH  (Low  Lat.  affiliatio,  adop- 
tion as  a  son  or  daughter,  from  Lat.  ad,  to  4- 
filius,  son,  fHih,  daughter ) .  In  the  civil  or  Bo- 
man  law,  the  ascertainment  of  the  parentage 
and  determination  of  the  descent  of  a  person, 
either  through  the  mother  or  the  father.  In 
our  law  the  term  is  commonly  used  to  designate 
the  proceeding  for  the  judicial  determination  of 
paternity,  especially  of  the  paternity  of  bas- 
tards. (See  Bastard.)  In  cases  where  the  per- 
son seeking  to  establish  his  paternity  was  bom 
during  coverture  (q.v.),  i.e.,  in  lawful  wedlock, 
there  is  a  presumption  of  law  that  the  husband 
was  the  father,  which  cannot  be  rebutted  by 
direct  evidence  to  show  that  he  in  fact  was  not 
the  father,  but  only  hj  proof  that,  owing  to 
absence  abroad,  or  in  prison,  or  on  the  high  seas, 
no  cohabitation  could  have  taken  place,  or  that 
it  was  physically  impossible.  In  French  law, 
the  term  affiliation  refers  to  a  customary  mode 
of  adoption  prevailing  in  some  parts  of  France. 
See  Filiation. 

AFFINITY  (Lat.  affinitas).  The  relation- 
ship created  by  marriage  between  the  husband 
and  the  blood-relations  of  the  wife,  and  between 
the  wife  and  the  blood-relations  of  husband.  It 
is  to  be  distinguished  from  consanguinity,  which 
signifies  relationship  by  blood.  There  can  be  no 
inheritance  by  legal  succession  from  a  relation 
by  affinity.  The  relations  of  the  wife  stand  to 
the  husband  in  the  same  degree  of  affinity  in 
which  they  stand  to  the  wife  by  blood  or  con- 
sanguinity, or  vice  versd.  But  between  the  re- 
lations of  the  two  parties  by  affinity  there  is  no 
affinity.  Thus,  there  is  no  affinity  between  the 
husband's  brother  and  the  wife's  sister,  and,  by 
our  law,  there  is  no  impediment  to  their  mar- 
riasre.  The  question  as  to  whether  those  who  are 
related  by  affinity  stand  in  all  respects  in  the 
same  position  as  regards  marriage  as  those  who 
are  connected  by  blood  is  one  on  which  some 
difference  of  opinion  at  present  prevails,  ^lar- 
riage  between  a  man  and  the  sister  of  his  de- 
ceased wife  is  at  present  forbidden  in  England 
by  statute,  but  not  generally  in  the  United 
States  or  the  British  colonies.  See  Marriage; 
Consanguinity,  and  the  authorities  there  re- 
ferred to. 


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AFFINITY,  Chemical.  The  force  that 
holds  in  combination  the  constituent  elements 
of  chemical  compounds  and  causes  the  reactions 
taking  place  between  material  substances.  The 
nature  of  chemical  affinity  is  as  little  understood 
as  the  nature  of  gravitation,  and  the  hypotheses 
on  the  subject,  which  have  been  advanced  since 
the  earliest  times,  are  still  confined  within  the 
domain  of  pure  speculation.  Borelli  and  Lem- 
erv  imagined  that  the  ultimate  particles  of 
matter  were  supplied  with  minute  hooks,  the 
shape  of  which  determined  the  capacity  of  a 
particle  for  combining  with  certain  other  par- 
ticles. Bergman,  Berthollet,  and  others,  thought 
that  chemical  affinity  might  be  identical  with 
the  energy  of  gravitation.  Berzelius  sought 
to  explain  all  chemical  phenomena  on  the  hy- 
pothesis that  chemical  combination  was  caused 
by  the  mutual  attraction  of  electrically  different 
substances.  All  these  hypotheses,  however,  go 
no  further  in  explaining  the  transformations  of 
matter  than  did  the  ancient  idea,  according  to 
which  those  transformations  were  due  to  the 
mutual  love  or  hatred  of  the  different  kinds  of 
atoms.  Such  ideas  are  incapable  of  either  theo- 
retical development  or  practical  application,  and 
science  must,  at  least  for  the  present,  discard 
them  as  useless  hypotheses  and  confine  itself 
solely  to  the  experimental  study  of  the  mode  of 
action  of  the  chemical  forces,  without  reference 
to  their  ultimate  nature.  In  this  direction  the 
science  of  chemistry  has,  in  recent  years,  made 
considerable  progress.  The  principles  of  thermo- 
dynamics have  been  successfully  applied  to  many 
transformations,  and  certain  general  laws  have 
been  established,  according  to  which  all  chemical 
reactions  seem  to  take  place.  The  second  prin- 
ciple of  thermodynamics  proves  that  when  a 
transformation  takes  place  in  a  material  system 
while  no  energy  is  being  supplied  to  it  from 
without,  the  system  is  capable  of  doing  a  certain 
amount  of  external  work.  The  maximum  ex- 
ternal work  which  may  be  obtained  through  a 
transformation  taking  place  under  ideal  condi- 
tions (that  is  to  say,  through  a  reversible  iso- 
thermal process),  may  be  taken  as  a  measure  of 
the  tendency  according  to  which  the  transforma- 
tion takes  place.  In  the  case  of  a  chemical  trans- 
formation, that  tendency  is  obviously  the  "affin- 
ity of  the  reaction."  This  maximum  external 
work,  done  during  a  chemical  reaction,  or,  as  it 
is  usually  expressed,  the  change  of  free  energy 
involved  in  a  reaction,  is  ascertained  either  by 
studying  reacting  mixtures  after  they  have 
reached  the  state  of  equilibrium,  or,  in  the  case 
of  galvanic  combinations,  by  determining  the 
electri-motive  force.  See  articles  Reaction  and 
.Acids. 

BiBLioosApHT.  T.  Bergmann,  Traits  dea 
Afpnit^s  Chymiques  ou  Attractions  Electivea 
(Paris,  1788) ;  C.  L.  Berthollet,  Researches  Into 
the  Laws  of  Chemical  Affinity  (translated  by 
M.  Farrell,  Baltimore,  1809)  ;  C.  M.  Guldberg 
and  P.  Waage,  Studien  Uher  die  Chemische  If- 
finitdt  (original  edition,  Ghristiania,  1864; 
French  translation,  Ghristiania,  1867;  German 
translation,  Leipzig,  1879).  See  also  bibliogra- 
phy of  theoretical  chemistry  under  Ghemistbt. 

AFFOBTESTATIOH  (Lat.  ad,  to -f  Low 
Lat.  foresta,  a  wood,  forest).  The  converting  of 
open  or  partially  wooded  ground  into  forest  or 
woodland.    See  Forestry. 

AFFBAY'  (Fr.  effroi,  fright,  terror,  compare 


Engl,  afraid).  The  fighting  of  two  or  more  per- 
sons in  a  public  place  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
naturally  cause  terror  to  other  people.  It  differs 
from  assault  (q.v.)  in  that  it  must  occur  in  a 
public  place,  and  from  a  riot  (a.v.)  in  that  only 
two  persons  are  necessary  for  tne  commission  of 
the  offense.  Two  persons  engaged,  although  in 
a  public  place,  must  each  be  guilty  of  unlawfully 
fighting  the  other  or  there  is  no  affray.  No 
matter  how  publicly,  or  in  how  terror-breeding 
a  manner,  A  may  attack  B,  if  the  latter  does 
not  go  beyond  the  limits  of  self-defense  in  repel- 
ling the  attack,  the  occurrence  is  not  an  affray, 
but  an  assault.  An  affray  which  did  not  de- 
velop into  a  higher  crime,  such  as  homicide  or 
an  attack  upon  a  public  officer,  was  punishable 
at  common  law  by  fine  and  imprisonment.  In 
some  of  our  States  it  is  not  recognized  as  a 
separate  offense  from  assault  and  battery  (q.v.). 
Gonsult:  Wharton,  Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia, 
1896). 

AFFBE,  &fr',  Denis  Auoustb  (1793-1848). 
An  archbishop  of  Paris.  At  the  time  of  the 
Restoration  he  was  professor  of  theology  at 
the  seminary  of  St.  Sulpice,  and  on  account 
of  his  prudent  and  temperate  character  was 
made  Archbishop  of  Paris  by  the  government 
of  Louis  Philippe  in  1840.  Though  not  yield- 
ing a  blind  submission  to  all  measures  of 
the  Government,  he  abstained  from  all  of- 
fensive opposition.  During  the  insurrection 
in  Paris  in  June,  1848,  he  climbed  upon  a  barri- 
cade in  the  Place  de  la  Bastille,  carrying  a  green 
bough  in  his  hand  as  a  messenger  of  peace,  and 
sought  to  persuade  the  insurgents  to  lay  down 
their  arms.  He  had  scarcely  uttered  a  few  words 
when  the  insurgents  and  the  troops  commenced 
firing  again,  and  he  fell,  mortally  wounded  by  a 
musket-ball.  He  was  removed  to  his  palace, 
where  he  died,  June  27.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  theological  writings  and  of  a  work  on 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  Gonsult:  Gastan,  His- 
toire  de  la  vie  et  de  la  mart  de  Monsignor  Affre 
(Paris,  1866). 

AFFBEIGHT^MEKT  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  Engl. 
freight).  The  contract  of  a  shipowner  for  the 
carriage  of  goods  in  his  ship  for  compensation, 
or  freight.  The  shipper  is  technically  known  as 
the  freighter.  Where  the  freighter  ships  his 
goods  in  the  ordinary  way,  without  acquiring 
any  control  over  the  ship,  the  contract  is  a  bill 
of  lading  (q.v.),  and  the  rights  of  the  parties 
are  mainly  determined  by  the  laws  relating  to 
common  carriers.  (See  Gommon  Garriers). 
\ATiere  the  freighter  charters  the  ship,  the  con- 
tract is  known  as  a  charter-party  (q.v.),  and 
has  certain  features,  and  is  subject  to  certain 
rules,  peculiar  to  the  law  of  shipping  (q-v.).  A 
complete  treatment  of  the  subject  will  be  found 
in  Scrutton,  The  Contract  of  Affreightment,  as 
Expressed  in  Charter  Parties  and  Bills  of  Lad- 
ing (Tendon,  1899). 

AFFBONTE,  ftf'frlin-tS'  (Pr.  p.p.  "face  to 
face,"  from  Lat.  ad  front  em,  to  the  face).  In 
heraldry,  a  term  applied  to  animals  represented 
as  facing  the  spectator  directly,  as  the  lion  in 
the  royal  crest  of  Scotland. 

AFFTT'SIOH,  Baptism  bt,  or  PouRmo.  See 
Baptism. 

AFGHAN^  or  Pukhtu  (North  Afghan), 
or  Pushtu  (South  Afghan).  A  modern  Iranian 
dialect  which  is  spoken  by  about  three  million 


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people.  The  Afghan  language  is  divided  into 
two  great  dialects,  the  southern  and  the 
northern.  The  differences  between  these  two  dia- 
lects are  mainly  phonological ;  thus,  North  Afghan 
1%  ;,  and  initial  c  =  South  Afghan  sh,  zh,  k. 
The  Afghan  is  undoubtedly  an  Iranian  language, 
although  it  has  suffered  many  corruptions,  es- 
pecially in  its  vowel  system.  The  dialect  has 
nmny  foreign  loan-words,  chiefly  from  the  Per- 
piian,  and  through  this  from  the  Arabic,  and 
from  the  Indian,  particularly  Sindhi.  The 
Afghan  literature  is  scanty  and  dates  only  from 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  poetry  is  copied 
closely  after  Persian  models,  although  there  ex- 
ists a  great  mass  of  popular  Afghan  songs  of  true 
Oriental  beauty.  The  French  scholar,  J.  Dar- 
viesteter  (1849-94),  made  a  collection  of  these. 
Reference  may  be  made  to  Geiger,  Sprache  der 
Afghanen,  in  Geiger  and  Kuhn's  Qrundrisa  der 
iranschen  Philologie,  V.  1,  pt.  2,  201-230  (Strass- 
burg,  1898),  and  the  works  there  cited.  Con- 
Jiult:  J.  Darmesteter,  Chants  populaires  des  Af- 
f/hans  (Paris,  1888-9()),  the  most  convenient  book 
in  general,  which  contains  an  historical  sketch,  a 
grammar,  texts,  and  translation. 

AFOHANISTAN,  Af-gftnls-tftn'.  A  country 
in  Central  Asia,  between  British  India  and  Per- 
sia. It  is  situated  between  lat.  29°  and  38*  30^ 
N.,  and  long.  61**  and  75**  E.  (Map:  Central 
Asia,  E  3;  Asia,  F  5).  It  is  bounded  by  Russia, 
Bokhara,  and  the  Pamir  on  the  north,  British 
India  on  the  east,  Baluchistan  on  the  south,  and 
Persia  on  the  west.  Its  total  area  is  estimated 
at  22.5,000  square  miles.  It  is  generally  divided 
into  five  parts:  (1)  The  northeastern  part,  com- 
prising Badakhshan,  Kafirstan,  and  a  portion  of 
the  Pamir;  (2)  Afghan  Turkestan,  in  the  north; 
(3)  Kabulistan,  or  the  region  of  Kabul,  in  the 
east;  (4)  Southern  Afghanistan,  which  com- 
prises Kandahar  and  the  country  south,  down  to 
the  Baluchistan  boundary  line;  (5)  the  province 
of  Herat,  in  the  west.  The  political  divisions  of 
Afghanistan,  however,  are  far  from  coinciding 
with  its  ethnographical  or  geographical  divisions, 
ns  there  are  still  numerous  independent  khanates 
and  tribes  which  do  not  fully  recognize  the  au- 
thority of  the  Ameer. 

Physical  Features.  The  surface  of  Afghan- 
istan is  exceedingly  mountainous,  a  great  part 
of  it  being  covered  with  the  mighty  chain  of 
Ilindu-Kush  and  its  offshoots.  The  Hindu-Kush 
extends  in  a  northeast  and  southwest  direction 
for  about  400  miles  to  the  Irak  and  Shibar  passes, 
where  it  assumes  the  name  of  Koh-i-Baba.  Its 
highest  peaks  are  over  20,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
find  the  passes  of  Irak  and  Shibar  on  the  route 
from  Afghan  Turkestan  to  Kabul  are  12,000  feet 
and  8000  feet  high  respectively.  The  Koh-i-Baba 
cliain  branches  off  into  two  ranges,  the  Safed- 
Koh  and  Siah-Koh.  Another  branch  is  sent  off 
by  the  Hindu-Kush  above  the  Sirak  Pass,  which 
iw  called  the  Paghman  Mountains.  They  run  in 
a  southwestern  direction,  and  eventually  unite 
with  the  Suleiman  Mountains,  which  traverse 
the  eastern  part  of  Afghanistan.  Besides  the 
above  mentioned  principal  chains,  there  are  many 
i^econdary  ranges  and  single  mountains  too  nu- 
merous to  describe. 

The  principal  rivers  of  Afghanistan  are  the 
Heri-Rud,  which  flows  through  the  Herat  Valley; 
tlie  Helmand,  the  largest  river  of  Afghanistan, 
which  rises  near  the  Bamian  Valley  and  flows 
in  a  general  southwestern  direction,  entering  the 
Lake  of  Hamun;  the  Kabul,  a  tributary  of  the 


Indus,  and  the  Amu-Daria  (Oxus),  which  forms 
the  northern  boundary  of  Afghanistan. 

The  climate  is  generally  healthful  and  dry,  al- 
though there  are  great  variations  of  temperature, 
which  rises  as  high  as  100  degrees  in  the  summer 
and  falls  as  low  as  10  degrees  in  the  winter. 
The  rainfall  is  very  scanty,  even  during  the 
rainy  season,  and  for  agricultural  purposes  a 
system  of  irrigation,  call^  karez,  is  maintained. 
It  consists  of  subterranean  channels  connecting 
the  springs  with  one  another,  by  which  the  water 
is  brought  to  the  surface. 

The  mineral  deposits  of  Afghanistan  are  sup- 
posed to  be  very  rich,  but  so  far  the  expectations 
have  not  been  realized.  Iron,  lead,  and  sulphur 
are  worked  on  a  small  scale,  and  gold  is  found 
in  small  quantities  in  some  of  uie  hills  and 
rivers,  while  precious  stones  are  knowni  to  exist 
in  Badakhshan. 

The  flora  is  very  rich  in  the  valleys,  while  the 
mountains  are  all  barren,  except  those  in  the 
north,  which  are  covered  with  forests  to  an  ele- 
vation of  10,000  feet.  The  main  products  are 
wheat,  corn,  rice,  grapes,  sugar,  tobacco,  and 
cotton.  The  coimtry  is  especially  famous  for  its 
fruits,  which  include  apples,  pomegranates,  and 
peaches  of  an  excellent  quality.  Vegetables  are 
also  grown  to  a  considerable  extent,  and  a  very 
important  product  is  the  asafetida,  a  resinous 
gum  exported  in  large  quantities  to  India. 

The  fauna  includes  the  leopard,  wolf,  hear, 
cheetah,  hyena,  jackal,  various  gazelles,  and 
wild  asses.  Among  the  domestic  animals  may 
be  mentioned  the  horse,  the  dromedary,  ass,  cow, 
two  kinds  of  sheep,  and  the  goat. 

Agricultube  and  Trade.  The  soil  of  Afghan- 
istan, where  it  is  fit  for  agriculture,  is  generally 
very  fertile  and  in  most  cases  yields  two  crops 
a  year.  Wheat,  barley,  peas,  and  beans  arc  sown 
late  in  the  fall  and  ripen  in  the  .summer,  while 
rice,  millet,  and  corn  are  sown  in  the  spring 
and  harvested  in  autumn.  The  breeding  of 
domestic  animals  is  carried  on  extensively, 
and  wool  forms  one  of  the  chief  exports  to  India. 
Owing  to  the  practical  absence  of  any  manufac- 
turing industries,  the  exports  of  Afghanistan 
are  confined  largely  to  raw  products,  such  as 
wool,  cattle,  silk,  and  dried  fruit.  Some  rugs, 
felts,  and  silk  articles  are  produced  on  a  small 
scale.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  India  and  Bok- 
hara. The  mountainous  character  of  the  coun- 
try makes  the  use  of  wheeled  vehicles  in  most 
cases  impossible,  and  merchandise  is  usually  car- 
ried on  camels  or  ponies. 

Ethnography.  The  Afghans,  or  Pathans, 
speaking  a  language  called  Pukhtu,  or  Pushtu, 
form  three-fifths  of  the  population  of  Afghanis- 
tan. They  are  of  mixed  ancestry,  although  the 
Indie  affinities  of  their  language  indicates  a 
preponderance  of  Aryan  blood  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean stock.  They  are  not  Semites,  as  some 
authorities  have  believed,  their  national  claim 
to  an  Israelitish  descent  being  an  afterthought 
based  upon  the  occasional  appearance  among 
them  of  Jewish  traits.  Besides  a  dash  of  Sem- 
itic blood,  they  have  in  all  probability  inherited 
some  of  a  different  sort  from  the  earlier  inhabi- 
tants of  the  country,  who  may  have  been  akin  to 
the  Dravidians  of  India.  Among  the  principal 
tribes  are  the  Duranis  of  the  west  and  south, 
Ghilzais  in  the  east,  and  the  Yusufzais  and  Afridis 
on  the  Indian  frontier.  Less  important  Afghan 
tribes  are  the  Swatis,  Waziris,  Kakars,  Khostis, 
etc.     Some  other  peoples  of  Afghanistan,  such  as 


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AFGHANISTAN. 


the  Tajiks,  Hindkis,  Jats,  Aimaks,  and  Hazaras 
(Mongolians)  are  not  Afghans,  while  the  Kizil- 
bashes  are  largely  Persianized  Turks.  The 
Afghans  were  already  well  established  in  their 
present  habitat  when  the  Greeks  reached  India 
in  the  fourth  century  B.C.  Most  of  the  Afghan 
and  allied  peoples  are  agriculturists,  but  the 
dominant  tribes  compel  the  inferior  ones  to  do 
the  work.  Physically  the  Afghans  are  well  de- 
veloped, and  are  of  a  very  warlike  disposition. 
Nearly  all  the  tribes  scattered  along  the  east 
of  Afghanistan  and  the  northwest  frontier  of 
India  are  within  the  sphere  of  British  influence. 
The  population,  according  to  the  statistics  avail- 
able, is  about  five  millions. 

Government.  The  government  of  Afghanis- 
tan is  a  semi-feudal  monarchy.  The  ruler  is 
known  as  the  Ameer.  The  country  has  but  a 
loose  governmental  organization,  and  influenced 
by  their  fanatical  devotion  to  Islam  of  the  Sunni 
creed,  many  of  the  tribes  still  preserve  a  more 
or  less  turbulent  and  independent  existence.  The 
depredations  of  the  border  tribes  on  Indian  ter- 
ritory have  afforded  the  British  Indian  govern- 
ment excuse  and  opportunity  for  pushing  for- 
ward the  military  frontier.  The  warlike  Afridis 
and  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  Pathan 
tribes  are  now  under  British  control.  Frequent 
conflicts  occur  between  the  British  troops  sta- 
tioned on  the  northwest  frontier,  particularly 
those  of  the  Pasha  war  district  in  the  Punjab, 
and  the  Pathan  and  Afridi  tribes  of  Afghanistan. 
The  latter  are  of  greater  political  consequence 
because  of  their  location,  the  importance  of  the 
Khyber  Pass  to  India,  and  the  necessity  of  main- 
taining a  clear  road  from  India  to  Kabul. 

The  Ameer  is  an  hereditary  prince,  and  his 
power  is  absolute.  The  whole  country  is  divided 
for  administrative  purposes  into  the  four  prov- 
inces of  Kabul,  Turkestan,  Herat,  and  Kandahar 
and  the  district  of  Badakhshan  and  its  depend- 
encies, administered  by  governors.  The  native 
code  of  laws  is  more  or  less  equitable,  but  is  not 
strictly  enforced.  The  revenue  is  exacted  in 
kind,  and  varies  according  to  the  condition  of 
the  crops.  The  Ameer  receives  an  annual  sub- 
sidy of  180,000  rupees  from  the  Indian  govern- 
ment. Afghanistan  has  a  regular  army  modeled 
after  European  fashion.  Its  strength  is  not  ac- 
curately known,  but  it  is  estimated  at  44,000, 
including  7000  cavalry.  There  is  an  arsenal,  and 
an  ammunition  factory  at  Kabul  is  equipped 
with  English  machinery.  The  medium  of  ex- 
change is  the  rupee.  There  is  a  mint  at  Kabul 
under  the  supervision  of  an  Englishman,  but  its 
operation  is  very  limited.  Instruction  is  sup- 
plied by  the  Mohammedan  schools.  The  chief 
cities  of  Afghanistan  are  Kabul,  Kandahar,  and 
Herat.  Among  the  towns  of  Afghan  Turkestan 
are  Balkh,  Kunduz,  Maimene,  Andkhui,  Tash- 
kurgan,  Aktcha,  and  Mezar-i-Sherif. 

History.  The  country  now  known  as  Afghan- 
istan was  embraced  in  the  ancient  Aria.  It  was 
a  part  of  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
who  founded  Alexandria  Arion,  the  modern  Her- 
at, and  also,  it  is  supposed,  the  modern  Kanda- 
har and  a  settlement  near  Kabul.  Its  masters 
changed  many  times  in  the  waves  of  conquest 
that  rolled  over  Asia.  On  the  decline  of  the 
Bagdad  caliphate  it  was  included  in  the  domains 
of  the  Samanides,  one  of  the  many  independent 
dynasties  that  then  arose  in  the  Mohammedan 
world.  The  Samanide  princes  were  overthrown 
by  a  Turkish  tribe,  who  founded  the  Ghaznevide 


dynasty,  and  Afghanistan  was  a  part  of  their 
realm  until  the  fall  of  the  Ghaznevides  in  1183. 
It  was  overrun  by  the  conquering  Mongols  of 
Genghis  Khan  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  in  the  last  quarter  of  the 
fourteenth  it  was  subjugated  by  the  great  Tar- 
tar conqueror  Timur.  In  1504  Baber,  a  de- 
scendant of  Timur  and  founder  of  the  Mogul 
empire,  made  Kabul  his  first  capital,  and  Afghan- 
istan remained  a  part  of  that  empire  until  its 
decline.  In  1722,  Mahmud,  an  Afghan  chief- 
tain, invaded  Persia,  captured  Ispahan,  and 
dealt  a  permanent  blow  to  the  prosperity  of  that 
famous  capital;  but  a  few  years  later  the 
Afghans  were  defeated  and  driven  out  by  Nadir 
Kuli,  a  Persian  soldier  of  fortune,  who  became 
by  his  great  ability  Shah  of  Persia,  and  the  last 
of  the  conquerors  of  Afghanistan.  After  the 
assassination  of  Nadir  Shah  (1747),  one  of  his 
officers,  Ahmed  (see  Ahhed  Shah),  founded 
the  Durani  dynasty  in  Afghanistan,  and  that 
country  has  since  maintained  an  independent 
existence.  Ahmed  made  considerable  conquests 
in  India,  and  maintained  a  mastery  over  the 
Sikhs  and  Mahrattas,  but  established  no  per- 
manent sovereignty.  The  Durani  dynasty  fell 
in  1809,  and  Shah  Sujah,  the  grandson  of  Ahmed, 
became  an  exile. 

Upon  the  fall  of  Shah  Sujah  anarchy  ensued, 
a  condition  not  unfamiliar  to  the  warlike  and 
restless  Afghan  tribes.  In  1826  the  statesman- 
like Dost  Mohammed  succeeded  in  establishing 
his  authority  as  Ameer  over  the  turbulent  peo- 
ple. Shah  Sujah  from  his  asylum  in  India  car- 
ried on  intrigues  for  the  restoration  of  his  sov- 
ereignty, and  succeeded  in  making  an  alliance 
with  llunjeet  Singh,  the  Sikh  ruler.  A  small 
subsidy  was  also  obtained  from  the  Anglo-Indian 
government,  and  Afghanistan  was  invaded.  The 
only  result  was  to  involve  the  Afghans  and  the 
Sikhs  in  unprofitable  warfare,  while  Sujah  soon 
returned  to  India.  When  Lord  Auckland  became 
Governor-General  of  India,  he  declared  a  policy 
of  non-interference  in  questions  concerning  the 
native  states ;  but  in  direct  contradiction  of  this 
declaration,  in  1838  his  government  actually 
undertook  to  restore  Sujah,  alleging  that  Dost 
Mohammed  had  attacked  Great  Britain's  ally, 
Bunjeet  Singh;  an  attack,  it  may  be  noted,  for 
which  there  had  certainly  been  reason  enough. 
It  was  further  alleged  that  the  military  opera- 
tions of  the  Afghans  had  betrayed  a  hostile  pur- 
pose toward  India;  and  that  Shah  Sujah,  as  the 
rightful  heir  to  the  Afghan  throne,  had  placed 
himself  under  British  protection.  The  British 
forces  advanced  through  the  Bolan  Pass  to  Kan- 
dahar, where  Shah  Sujah  formally  claimed  pos- 
session of  the  country.  On  July  21,  1839,  the 
army  encamped  before  Ghazni,  and  after  some 
hard  fighting  that  fortress  was  taken.  On  Au- 
gust 7,  Shah  Sujah,  with  the  British  forces,  en- 
tered Kabul,  and  the  conquest  was  regarded  as 
complete. 

In  this,  however,  as  in  all  their  dealings  with 
the  Afghans,  the  British  showed  an  entire  mis- 
understanding of  the  nature  of  the  country  and 
the  character  of  the  people.  The  land  had  been 
invaded,  but  was  by  no  means  conquered.  Dost 
Mohammed  had  surrendered  to  the  English;  but 
his  son,  Akbar  Khan,  was  actively  engaged  in  a 
conspiracy,  of  which  the  British  envoy,  Sir  Wil- 
liam Macnaghten,  and  his  successor.  Sir  Alexan- 
der Burnes,  were  not  aware  until  it  was  too  late. 
Early  in  the  winter  of  1841,  when  help  from 


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AFGHANISTAN. 


170 


AFGHANISTAN. 


India  was  impossible,  the  outbreak  took  place 
at  Kabul.  Burnes,  Macnaghten,  and  several 
British  officers  were  slain.  It  was  then  agreed 
that  the  invaders  should  leave  the  country; 
vvliile,  on  the  other  hand,  Akbar  Khan  and  his 
con  fetJ crates  stipulated  to  provide  an  escort  and 
make  other  necessary  arrangements  tor  the  re- 
treat. Depending  on  these  promises,  tne  British 
army  left  Kabul  on  January  6,  1842,  in  order 
to  return  by  the  Khyber  Pass  into  India;  but 
neUlier  escort  nor  provisions  were  supplied  by 
the  Afghan  leaders,  and  the  severity  of  the  sea- 
Bon  increased  the  misery  of  the  retreat.  The 
fanatical  tribes  of  the  districts  harassed  the 
flankf=i  and  rear  of  the  army.  To  escape  total 
destruction,  the  women  and  children,  together 
with  the  married  men,  surrendered  to  Akbar 
Khnn,  and  out  of  the  lfi,000  souls  that  had  set 
out  from  Kabul,  onljr  one  man  (Dr.  Brydon)  es- 
caped to  carry  the  dismal  tidings  to  General  Sale, 
who  f^till  held  his  position  at  Jelalabad.  Almost 
against  his  own  will,  the  new  Governor-General, 
Lord  Ellenborough,  sent  other  forces  into 
Afghanistan.  General  Nott  held  out  at  Kanda- 
har, while  General  Pollock,  at  the  head  of  the 
invading  army,  forced  the  Khyber  Pass,  relieved 
General  Sale,  and  effected  a  victorious  march  to 
Kabul,  which  he  entered  ii^  September.  The 
EngliJ^h  officers  and  the  women  who  had 
surrendered  as  prisoners  to  Akbar  Khan  were 
restored  to  liberty,  and  soon  afterward  the  troops 
marched  back  to  India.  It  was  believed  that 
the  Affjhans  were  deprived  of  all  power  to  con- 
federate against  the  government  of  India;  but 
thia  conclusion  was  too  hasty,  for  in  1846  they 
formed  an  alliance  with  the  Sikhs  against  the 
British,  Dost  Mohammed  being  released  and 
permitted  to  reoccupy  his  throne.  After  the 
decisive  battle  of  Gujerat  (February  21,  1849), 
the  8ikhs  were  forsaken  by  the  Afghans,  and  Dost 
Mohammed,  with  about  16,000  men,  fled  over  the 
InthH.  After  this  period.  Dost  Mohammed  devot- 
ed his  attention  almost  exclusively  to  the  consoli- 
dittion  of  his  dominions,  governing  well,  and  al- 
way?<  >^eeking  to  maintain  friendly  relations  with 
the  An;^lo-Indian  government.  He  died  in  1863, 
appointing  Shere  Ali,  one  of  his  younger  sons, 
as  his  heir.  At  first  the  choice  was  acquiesced 
in  by  the  sixteen  sons  of  Dost  Mohammed,  a 
large  number  of  whom  were  governors  of  prov- 
inces ;  but  disputes  followed,  which  for  many 
years  kept  Afghanistan  in  a  state  of  anarchy. 
(See  Kahul.)  The  British  government  of  India 
had  recognized  Shere  Ali  at  his  accession,  and  it 
was  the  policy  of  Lord  Lawrence's  administration 
in  India  to  abstain  from  any  interference  with 
Afp:haii  affairs.  Lord  Mayo  assumed  a  like 
attitude.  The  claims  of  Shere  Ali's  son  Yakub 
to  Rhare  in  the  government  were  ignored,  and 
in  1870  he  headed  a  rebellion  against  his  father; 
but  in  the  following  year  a  reconciliation  was 
effected  through  the  intervention  of  England. 
In  inm  it  was  settled  between  England  and  Rus- 
sia that  all  the  territory  between  the  Amu- 
Da  ria  and  the  Hindu-Kush  should  be  treated 
UR  part  of  Afghanistan.  The  British  conserva- 
tive fTovernment  which  came  into  power  in 
1874  waa  totally  opposed  to  the  policy  of  non- 
interference, and  the  Indian  government  was 
ordered  to  insist  upon  the  reception  of  a  British 
resident  at  Kabul.  This  demand  was  made  im- 
peratively in  1878,  when  a  Russian  mission  had 
been  received.  The  Afghans,  remembering 
Burnee  and  Macnaghten  and  their  double  deal' 


ing,  were  bitterly  opposed  to  any  more  British 
residents,  and  the  refusal  of  the  Ameer  to  receive 
the  mission  led  to  the  second  Afghan  war,  which 
in  many  ways  was  a  repetition  of  the  first, 
although  the  disasters  were  somewhat  mitigated. 
The  British  invading  columns  forced  the  Khyber 
Pass  and  were  victorious  at  the  Peiwar  Pass, 
and  occupied  Jelalabad  before  the  end  of  187S. 
In  January,  1879,  they  entered  Kandahar.  A 
few  weeks  later  Shere  Ali  died,  and  his  rebel- 
lious son,  Yakub,  whose  cause  had  been  taken  up 
by  the  British,  was  proclaimed  Ameer  and  con- 
cluded the  Treaty  of  Gandamak  ^ith  them  in  May. 
It  was  provided  that  there  should  be  a  British 
resident  at  Kabul,  and  that  Great  Britain  should 
defend  Afghanistan  against  foreign  aggression, 
the  Ameer  receiving  a  subsidy.  The  Kuram, 
Pishin,  and  Sibi  valleys  became  British  terri- 
tory, and  the  Khyber  Pass  came  under  British 
control. 

The  peace  did  not  last.  In  September  of  the 
same  year  there  was  a  revolt  in  the  capital,  the 
British  resident.  Sir  Louis  Cavagnari,  and  his 
suite  were  murdered,  and  the  British  troops, 
which  were  on  the  point  of  withdrawing  from  the 
country,  were  compelled  to  renew  the  campaign. 
The  Kabul  army  under  General  Roberts  was  the 
strongest  column  and  held  the  key  to  the  situa- 
tion. General  Burrows  was  defeated  by  the 
Afghans  in  July,  1880,  and  compelled  to  retreat 
to  Kandahar,  which  seemed  likely  to  be  captured. 
It  was  saved  by  the  brilliant  march  of  General 
Roberts  with  a  strong  force  from  the  main  army, 
a  march  which  won  for  him  a  peerage  with  the 
title  Lord  Roberts  of  Kandahar.  Abd-ur-Rah- 
man  (q.v.)  having  been  accepted  as  Ameer  by 
the  Afgnan  chiefs,  was  recognized  by  Great  Brit- 
ain. He  soon  established  his  government  firmly, 
and  maintained,  until  his  death  in  1901,  a  good 
understanding  with  Great  Britain,  while  not 
antagonizing  Russia.  His  son  Habib  Ullah  suc- 
ceeded him.  A  treaty  with  Great  Britain  in 
1893  gave  Kafiristan  to  Afghanistan,  which 
renounced  its  claims  to  Waziristan.  Afghan- 
istan is  politically  important  in  the  present  con- 
dition of  Asia  as  a  buffer  State  between  the  two 
great  rivals,  Russia  and  Great  Britain,  and  as 
one  of  the  barriers  between  Russian  Central  Asia 
and  the  southern  sea. 

There  is  a  voluminous  literature  of  descrip- 
tion, travels,  and  political  discussion  relating  to 
Afghanistan,  and  several  pe;*sonal  narratives 
of  the  British  campaigns  have  been  published. 
For  ethnology,  see  Bellew,  Races  of  Afghanistan 
(London,  1880),  and  Oliver,  Pathan  and  Bilock 
(London,  1890).  Among  the  more  useful  works 
on  the  history  of  the  country  may  be  noted: 
Malleson,  History  of  Afghanistan  (London, 
1879)  ;  Mir  Bukhari  Abd  al  Karim,  Histoire  d*t 
VAsie  centrale:  Afghanistan,  Boukhara,  Khiva, 
Khoquand,  17J^0-1818,  translated  by  Schefer 
(Paris,  1876);  Wheeler,  A  Short  History  of 
India  and  of  the  Frontier  States  of  Afghanistan 
(London,  1880)  ;  Grant,  CasselVs  Illustrated  His- 
tory of  /ndia  ( Volumes  I.  and  II.,  London,  1877)  ; 
Lord  Roberts,  Forty-nine  Years  in  India  (London, 
1897)  ;  Forbes,  TheAfghanWars  (London.  1892)  : 
Hanna,  The  Second  Afghan  War,  1S78-1S80, 
Volume  I,  (London.  1899)  ;  Bellew,  Afghanistan 
and  th^  Afghans  (London,  1879),  and  Walker, 
Afghanistan  (London,  1885),  a  somewhat  preju- 
diced English  view.  On  Afghanistan  as  a  buffer 
State  between  Russia  and  Great  Britain  in  Asia : 
Marvin,   The  Russians  at   the  Gates  of  Herat 


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( N"ew  York,  3885)  ;  Rodenbough,  Afghanistan 
artci  the  Anglo-Russian  Dispute  (New  York, 
1885),  which  contains  a  list  of  authorities;  Cur- 
zon«  Russia  in  Central  Asia  (London,  1899), 
-w^liieh  contains  a  bibliography;  Colquhoun,  Rus- 
Bi<i,  Against  India  (New  York,  1900).  Consult 
also  :  MacMahon,  The  Southern  Borderlands  of 
A.fffh.anistan  (London,  1897)  ;  Gray,  At  the 
Oaurt  of  the  Ameer  (London,  1895)  ;  and  Gore, 
LfipHis  and  Shades  of  Hill  Life  in  the  Afghan 
and  Hindu  Highlands  of  the  Punjab  (London, 
1896). 

.AJFINGEB,  a'flng-5r,  Bernhard  (1813-82). 
A  German  sculptor,  born  at  Nuremberg,  Bavaria. 
He  studied  the  works  of  old  German  sculpture 
there,  was  for  a  time  a  silversmith,  and  in  1840 
hegSLJi  instruction  under  Rauch  at  Berlin.  In 
portrait  medallions  and  works  of  a  religious 
character  he  was  particularly  successful."  There 
is  an  Arndt  memorial  by  him  at  Bonn,  a  univer- 
sity memorial  at  Greifswald,  and  a  statue  of 
Xevvton  in  the  National  Museum,  Pesth. 

ILBTUN  -  KABA  -  HISSAB,  &'f6-o^nnc&-ra^ 
his-sfir'  (Turk.  Opium  Black  Castle).  A  city  of 
Anatolia,  Asiatic  Turkey,  170  miles  northeast 
of  Smyrna  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  D  3).  It  is 
surrounded  by  rocky  hilU,  on  one  of  which  are 
found  the  ruins  of  a  castle.  The  town  contains 
several  mosques  and  Armenian  churches.  It 
nvanufactureS  woolen  carpets  and  opium,  the 
latter  being  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  commerce, 
from  which  the  town  derives  its  name.  The 
tvade  is  considerable.  The  town  is  connected 
by  rail  with  Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and  Ko- 
nieh.     Pop.,  about  20,000. 

A^BAGOLA,  a'frA-g6lA.  A  city  in  south 
Italy,  five  miles  northeast  of  Naples,  noted  for 
the  '  manufacture  of  straw  goods.  Pop.,  1881, 
19.000. 

AFBA^NITJSy  Lucnrs.  A  Roman  poet  and 
playwright,  who  lived  about  100  B.C.  He  was 
praised  by  Cicero  and  Quintilian  for  the  excel- 
lence of  his  plays,  only  the  titles  and  a  few 
fragments  of  which  survive.  They  are  collected 
by  llibbeck,  Comicorum  Romanorunt  Fragmenta 
(Leipzig,  1898). 

AFRICA   (Phoenician  afrygah,  a  colony;  lit- 
erally,  a    separate  settlement,   from    the    root 
faraga^  to  break  up,  separate.     It  seems  to  have 
been  originally  the  designation  of  Carthage,  as 
the  colony  of  Tyre,  and  later  extended  to  the 
whole  continent.     It  is  certain  that  the  name 
Africa  was  first  applied  to  the  neighborhood  of 
Carthage — the  part  first  known  to  the  Romans — 
and  Afrygah,  or  Afrikiynh,  is  still  applied  by 
the  Arabs  to  the  land  of  Tunis) .     A  continent  of 
the  eastern  hemisphere,  and  in  point  of  size  the 
second  of  the  great  land  divisions  of  the  globe, 
vith  an  area  of  about  11,250,000  square  miles,  ex- 
clusive of  islands.     The  continent  ranks  third  in 
size  only  by  virtue  of  an  unwarranted  composite 
naming  of  the  American  continents.    Africa  is  an 
independent  continent  in  even  less  degree  than  is 
either  of  the  two  Americas,  for  it  forms  the  south- 
westerly extension  of  the  Old  World  land-mass, 
and  it  lies  in  close  proximity  to  Asia  and  Europe, 
^'ith  both  of  which  continents  it  has,  during  long 
periods  of  past  geological  time,  been  intimately 
united  by  broad  isthmuses.     In  form  Africa  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  a  northern  ellipsoid,  with  an 
**st  and  west  longitudinal  axis,  comprising  the 


Sahara-Sudan  region,  and  a  southern  triangular 
limb  attached  to  the  southern  side  of  the  eastern 
half  of  the  northern  portion,  and  consisting  of 
the  Congo  region  and  the  South  African  high- 
lands. Somewhat  north  of  the  middle  point  of  the 
eastern  side  of  the  continent,  a  massive  triangu- 
lar projection,  the  Somali  Peninsula,  extends  al- 
most 1000  miles  toward  the  Indian  Peninsula  of 
Asia.  Tlie  extreme  length  of  Africa  from  Cape 
Blanco  in  Tunis  (lat.  37"  20'  N.),  its  most  north- 
erly point,  to  its  southern  termination.  Cape 
Agulhas  (lat.  34°  51'  S.),  is  about  5000  miles  in 
an  almost  north  and  south  direction;  and  its 
greatest  width  from  its  western  outpost.  Cape 
Verde  (long.  17**  30'  VV.),  to  its  eastern  apex, 
Ras  Hafun,  on  Cape  Guardafui  (long.  51"  28' 
E.),  is  about  4500  miles  in  an  almost  west  and 
east  direction.  The  northern  and  southern  points 
of  the  continent  are  almost  equidistant  from 
the  equator;  so  that  Africa,  compared  with 
South  America,  has  a  greater  proportion  of  its 
area  situated  in  the  torrid  zone. 

At  its  northeast  corner,  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  Africa  has  a  geographic  union  ninety  miles 
wide  with  Asia.  Until  a  comparatively  recent  pe- 
riod it  had  a  much  closer  union,  for  the  Red  Sea 
and  the  Gulf  of  Aden  now  occupy  the  deep,  narrow 
basin  of  a  rift  valley  that  has  been  formed  since 
Pliocene  time.  On  the  north,  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  separates  Africa  from  Europe  by  a  wide  and 
deep  basin  that  is  restricted  at  its  western  end, 
so  that  the  shores  of  Spain  and  Morocco  ap- 
proach to  within  about  nine  miles  of  each  other. 
This  northern  Mediterranean  coast  is  broken 
only  by  the  broad  and  shallow  embayment  that 
holds  the  gulfs  of  Cabes  and  Sidra.  The  west- 
ern extension,  from  Gibraltar  to  Cape  Pal  mas, 
projects  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  with  a  regular- 
ly rounded  coast  line  that  is  almost  unbroken  by 
bays  or  peninsulas,  capes  Blanco  and  Verde  being 
inconspicuous  projections.  From  Cape  Palmas 
the  coast  runs  eastward  along  the  north  shore 
of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  for  about  1200  miles  to 
Kamerun  and  thence  in  an  undulating  line,  slight- 
ly east  of  south,  for  nearly  3000  miles  to  Cape 
Agulhas  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  conti- 
nent, where  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans  meet. 
The  eastern  coast  of  the  southern  limb,  washed 
by  the  Indian  Ocean,  extends  from  Cape  Agulhas 
with  gentle  curves  for  3600  miles  to  Cape  Guar- 
dafui at  the  apex  of  the  Somali  Peninsula. 

The  coast  line  of  Africa  is  peculiar  in  that 
it  presents  a  remarkably  even  front,  almost  un- 
broken   by    bays    and    peninsulas,    contrasting 
strongly  in  this  respect  with  the  coast  lines  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  but  resembling 
that  of  South  America.    The  length  of  the  coast 
line  of   Africa,    18,400    miles,   bears   a    smaller 
proportion  to  the  shortest  possible  periphery  of 
.a  regular  figure  of  its  own  area  (the  proportion 
is  1.8  to  1)  than  does  that  of  any  other  continent. 
The  only  irregular  portion  of  the  coast  line  is 
on  the  northern  edge,  where  the  Atlas  Mountains 
send   spurs   into   the  Mediterranean   Sea.    This 
regularity  of  the  shore  line  is  undo\iV>^®^^^  ^^^ 
to  the  plateau  character  and  the  Ht^Y)VV\iy  ^^  ^^ 
larger  part  of  the  continent,  whi^y^^^tV^ft  ^^^ 
periods   of  geological    time  haji      v**.    JV  ^^^^^ « 
at  approximately  the  same  level  ^v>       \!^^  ^WVci 

Islands.     In  connection  witly   ^^^J^  <C^      vV« 
of  the  coast  line,  it  is  of  inte-v^     V\\|t      "^^  ckXv'cv" 
small  number  of  islands  adjao^,^^^     \P  ^y»,  ^  ^^\. 
nent,  and  also  the  small  piopov^^V^     "^Vn?*^^  X*.'^'^' 
have  anv  phvsioal  relations  1^?-^     V  V^  V^  cC^^ 


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Madagascar,  off  the  eastern  coast,  is  the  only 
large  island  near  the  continent;  it  was  at  a  dis- 
tant period  of  geological  time  an  integral  part 
of  the  mainland,  but  it  is  now  separated  from  it 
by  the  Mozambique  Channel,  which  appears  to 
be  a*  rift  valley  analogous  to  that  of  the  Red 
Sea.  The  Seychelles,  the  islands  in  the  vicinity 
of  Zanzibar  (Mafia,  Zanzibar,  and  Pemba),  and 
Socotra,  off  the  apex  of  the  Somali  Peninsula, 
may  be  considered  as  fragments  of  the  conti- 
iieatal  mass,  while  many  of  the  small  islands 
a  lung  the  east  coast,  including  those  in  the  Red 
Sea,  are  of  volcanic  and  coral  reef  origin,  and 
rise  apparently  from  submerged  portions  of  the 
continental  plateau.  On  the  Mediterranean 
(•oast  the  islands  of  Djerba  and  Kerkinah  in  the 
Gulf  of  Cabes  were  formerly  united  to  the  main- 
land, and  in  past  geological  times  even  the  island 
of  Sicily  was  part  of  a  chain  of  folded  ipoun- 
tains  that  extended  from  the  Tunisian  highlands 
northeastwardly  across  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
Of[  the  western  extension,  the  Madeira,  Canary, 
and  Cape  Verde  archipelagoes  are  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  appear  to  lie  on  the  outer  submerged 
slope  of  the  continent,  perhaps  marking  lines 
of  folding  and  fracture  that  are  extended  under 
the  ocean  level.  The  Bissagos  group,  thirty  in 
number,  lying  a  short  distance  south  of  Cape 
Verde,  are  small  fragments  of  the  mainland. 
From  the  Bissagos  group,  the  coast  is  free  from 
islands  as  far  as  the  head  of  the  Bight  of  Biafra, 
where  four  volcanic  islands,  Fernando  Po,  Prince, 
St.  Thomas,  and  Annobon,  extend  in  a  southwest- 
ward  direction  from  Mount  Kamerun  on  the 
coast.  Southward  from  this  point  the  coast  has 
Imt  few  islands,  and  these  of  small  size,  all  the 
way  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  and  this  same 
condition,  in  even  more  marked  degree,  is  con- 
tinued along  the  eastern  coast  for  2500  miles  to 
the  island  of  Mafia.  The  small  extent  of  Africa's 
t»Iand  territory  is  expressed  by  its  proportion  to 
the  mainland  area,  which  is  as  1  to  48. 

Topography.  The  typical  expression  of  Afri- 
can topography  is  that  of  a  plateau  that  rises 
here  and  there  by  successive  terraces  to  increas- 
ing elevations  up  to  and  beyond  4000  feet,  which 
nkitude  is  the  general  level  of  the  highland  re- 
gion that  covers  a  large  part  of  the  southern  and 
eastern  portion  of  the  continent.  The  edges 
of  the  continental  mass  are  as  a  rule  somewhat 
more  elevated  than  is  the  interior,  and  the  pla- 
teau rims  approach  close  to  the  sea.  Only  along 
Ihe  eastern  part  of  the  Mediterranean  shore  and 
alung  that  part  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard  between 
C3ape  Juby,  near  the  Canaries,  and  Freetown, 
can  there  be  said  to  exist  a  coastal  plain  that 
extends  for  any  considerable  distance  toward 
the  interior.  Swampy  districts  of  limited  extent 
are  found  along  the  upper  Guinea  shore  and  on 
the  east  coast  about  the  mouths  of  the  Zambezi 
Ri\'er,  and  a  lowland  borders  the  south  side  of 
the  Somali  Peninsula.  The  mean  elevation  of 
Africa,  obtained  by  a  reduction  of  all  irregulari- 
ties of  the  surface,  has  been  estimated  to  be  about 
2100  feet,  which  is  about  equal  to  that  of  South 
America  and  somewhat  less  than  that  of  North 
America,  while  it  is  greatly  exceeded  by  the  mean 
elevation  of  the  Eurasiatic  continent. 

The  topography  of  the  interior  presents  over 
large  areas  a  marked  uniformity  of  expression, 
though  different  regions  exhibit  distinctive  fea- 
tures. The  general  plateau  character  of  the 
surface  is  broken  in  the  interior  of  the  continent 
by  four  areas  of  depression  which  in  the  south 


and  north  are  occupied  by  basins  of  internal 
drainage.  In  the  southern  highland  is  the  Ka- 
lahari-Ngami  Desert  (altitude  2250-3000  feet): 
the  central  plateau  falls  toward  its  middle  to 
form  the  Congo  Basin  (altitude  600-lGOO  feet); 
in  the  central  Sudan  the  Lake  Chad  (altitude 
900  feet)  and  Bodele  (altitude  500  feet)  depres- 
sions receive  the  drainage  of  a  great  interior 
region  that  has  no  outlet  to  the  sea ;  and  in  the 
northwestern  Sahara  several  inclosed  basins  lie 
at  altitudes  of  from  400  to  600  feet  above  the 
ocean. 

Africa  is  divided  topographically  into  the  fol- 
lowing regions:  (1)  the  elevated  Southeastern 
Highland,  (2)  the  Sahara  and  Sudan  plateau  of 
lower  level  that  covers  the  entire  central  and 
most  of  the  northern  part  of  the  continent,  and 
( 3 )  the  narrow,  comparatively  small  area  of  the 
Atlas  Mountains  on  the  extreme  northwest  coast. 
On  the  whole,  the  general  slope  of  the  surface 
is  from  the  southeast  to  the  northwest. 

The  highest  portions  of  the  continent,  called 
the  Southeastern  Highlands,  lie  near  the  eastern 
coast  and  in  the  lower  end  of  the  southern  limb. 
They  are  limited  on  the  north  by  an  irregular 
line  that  may  be  drawn  from  Loanda  on  the  west 
coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  River  Kuanza,  east- 
ward to  Ankoro  on  the  Upper  Congo,  thence 
northward  to  Daruma,  and  through  Lado  and 
Kassala  to  Suakin  on  the  Red  Sea.  Northward 
from  Suakin  the  eastern  highland  is  continued 
as  a  narrow  ridge  of  lower  elevation  along  the 
western  shore  of  the  Red  Sea  almost  to  Cairo. 
This  great  highland  region  may  be  topographical- 
ly considered  to  form  the  backbone  of  the  conti- 
nent, though  it  is  scarcely  that  in  a  geologic 
sense,  for  the  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed  lie 
generally  horizontal,  and  the  differences  of  topog- 
raphy are  the  result  of  long  continued  erosion 
and  denudation  rather  than  of  mountain-making 
forces.  This  highland  has  an  elevation  of  over 
4000  feet,  and  above  this  height  rise  numerous 
isolated  and  grouped  peaks  to  altitudes  of  10,000 
feet  and  over.  The  majority  of  these  high  peaks 
are  remnants  of  a  dissected  plateau  of  still  high- 
er level,  while  others  are  volcanic  mountams 
that  rest  upon  the  table-land  and  rise  above  it  to 
still  greater  heights  of  from  12,000  to  20.000 
feet.  The  central  depression  of  the  Kalahari 
Desert  and  Ngami  Basin  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  highland,  and  the  deep  valleys  cut  by  the 
rivers  that  drain  this  interior  basin,  serve  to 
divide  this  southern  region  into  four  well-marked 
isolated  plateaus.  The  most  southerly  plateau 
occupies  the  Cape,  Natal,  Orange  River,  and 
Transvaal  colonies,  and  their  seaward  edges, 
known  as  the  Roggeveld,  Schnee,  Zwarte,  and 
Drakenberg  mountains,  rise  in  single  peaks  of 
9000  to  11,000  feet.  North  of  the  Transvaal, 
between  the  Limpopo  and  the  Zambezi  valleys, 
is  the  D&ss  extensive  plateau  of  Matabeleland, 
with  an  average  level  of  4500  feet  and  a  single 
peak  (Mashona  Mountain,  7300  feet),  near  its 
eastern  edge.  On  the  western  side  of  the  conti- 
nent, between  the  Kalahari-Ngami  Basin  and  the 
Atlantic  coast  is  the  plateau  of  German  West 
Africa,  covering  Damara  and  Great  Namaqua- 
land.  This  plateau  rises  to  somewhat  lesser  sin- 
gle heights  than  does  the  plateau  of  British 
South  Africa;  Kara  (6500  feet),  Awas  (6530 
feet),  and  Omatoka  (8700  feet).  Northward  of 
all  these,  and  extending  from  west  to  east 
through  Angola  and  British  Central  Africa  to 
the  vicinity  of  lakes  Nyassa  and  Tanganyika, 


i 


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1^ 


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Cape  Verde  Is.   , 


**  "^  C  yen 


TLA     N    T    I    C 


OCEAN 

Ascension  I. 


St.  Helena 

r 

PHYSICAL  MAP  OF 

AFRICA 


O      too  20O  4O0  600  800 

L_Jl_i 1 I I I 

Scale  of  Miles. 


Comparative  Area. 

^1 


PENN. 


Cape  of  Good, 


COPYRIGHT,   1902,  BY  DODO,  MEAO  A  COMPANY. 


Lowlands,  below  i,ooq  Feet  elevation,  are  shown  in  Green. 


Digitized  by  LjOOQIC 


"'''"^^^  Sea^ 


I    N   D     IAN 


••:H  <■■■<  .'■■ 


ADAGASCAR 

^Mauritius 

Reunion 


Highlands,  above  i,c«o  Feet  elevation,  are  shown  in  Buff. 


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173 


APBICA. 


where  it  joins  the  great  eastern  highland,  is  a 
broad  plateau  750  miles  wide  from  north  to 
south  and  1500  miles  from  west  to  east,  with  a 
general  elevation  of  3000  to  6000  feet.  This 
forms  the  divide  between  the  Ngami  and  Zambezi 
basins  on  the  south  and  the  Congo  waters  on  the 
north,  and  has  its  highest  points  on  the  west 
end  in  the  plateau  of  Bihe  (Lovili  Mountains, 
7800  feet),  and  at  the  eastern  end  in  the  plateau 
mountain  of  Chitane  (6500  feet)  near  Nyassa 
Lake.  Toward  the  south  it  slopes  gradually  to 
the  Ngami  and  Zambezi  basins,  and  toward  the 
north  it  falls  more  abruptly  to  the  Gonffo  region. 
Near  the  eastern  end  are  two  lakes,  Moero  or 
Aleru  (3000  feet),  and  Bangweolo  (3700  feet), 
that  drain  into  the  upper  Congo  River. 

Stretching  northward  from  the  Zambezi  River 
to  the  Red  Sea  is  that  great  eastern  highland 
which  attains  its  most  extensive  development 
just  south  of  the  equator  in  the  region  about  the 
Victoria  Nyanza.  Through  a  large  part  of  its 
extent  this  highland  maintains  an  elevation  of 
over  5000  feet,  which  in  Abyssinia  rises  over 
considerable  areas  to  heights  of  six,  eight,  and 
ten  thousand  feet.  The  main  highland  extends 
northward  nearly  to  Snakin,  and  a  narrow, 
interrupted  spur  reaches  eastward  from  lakes 
Abba  and  Zuway  to  the  apex  of  the  Somali  Pen- 
insula, with  peaks  declining  in  height  from 
Mount  Mulata  (9840  feet)  to  Godobb  (4875  feet) 
at  Cape  Guardafui.  The  surface  of  this  eastern 
highland  is  traversed  longitudinally  by  a  great 
system  of  so-called  rift-valleys  that  constitute 
the  most  important  feature  of  East  African  topog- 
raphy, and  with  which  is  associated  a  system 
of  great  lakes.  These  rift-valleys  mark  the 
course  of  parallel  cracks  in  the  earth's  crust,  be- 
tween which  the  surface  has  sunk  for  thousands 
of  feet,  forming  narrow,  elongated  depressions,  or 
broad  caSons,  with  precipitous  walls  that  rise 
to  the  broken  edges  of  the  high-level  plateau. 
In  these  rift-valleys  lie  the  majority  of  the  great 
African  lakes,  most  of  which,  consequently,  are 
of  elongated  form.  The  longest  of  these  rifts  has 
its  northern  end  in  Palestine,  in  the  Jordan 
and  Dead  Sea  valleys;  it  forms  the  Red  Sea 
Basin  southward  to  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Man- 
deb,  where  it  is  joined  by  a  broader  rift  that 
comes  from  the  east,  forms  the  Gulf  of  Aden, 
and  continues  southwestward  through  French 
Somaliland  and  the  Galla  country  into  British 
East  Africa  to  lakes  Stephanie  and  Rudolf.  At 
this  point  the  rift-valley  divides.  One  branch 
continues  southward  to  beyond  Lake  Man- 
yara.  and  another  trends  westward  from  Lake 
kudolf  to  Lake  Albert,  and  then  southward  to 
T^ake  Shirwa  at  the  southern  end  of  the  eastern 
highland.  In  addition  to  these  great  rift-valleys 
there  are  many  smaller  fracture  lines  throughout 
the  entire  highlands  that  exercise  considerable 
control  over  the  smaller  drainage  features. 

In  the  vicinity  of  the  rifts  are  found  the  high- 
est mountains,  and  in  general  the  courses  of  the 
great  rifts  mark  the  location  of  volcanic  peaks. 
'iTie  massive,  snow-topped  Ruwenzori  Range, 
with  its  central  peak  rising  to  16,600  feet,  is 
among  the  most  important  of  African  mountain 
ranges,  and  it  appears  to  be  largely  of  volcanic 
or  laccolitic  origin.  South  of  Lake  Albert  Ed- 
ward, on  the  eastern  side  of  the  western  rift- 
valley,  is  a  group  of  volcanic  mountains,  some 
of  which  are  active,  culminating  in  Mount  Ki- 
ninga  (4350  feet).  The  most  extensive  volcanic 
district,  however,  lies  along   the  eastern   rift- 


valley  and  on  the  Abyssinian  highland.  Kili- 
manjaro (19,720  feet)  and  Kenia  (17,200  feet), 
two  isolated,  snow-clad,  volcanic  peaks,  rise 
from  the  eastern  margin  of  this  rift-valley  near 
its  southern  termination.  About  the  southern 
half  of  Lake  Rudolf  is  a  series  of  volcanic  peaks, 
where  several  active  cones  rise  2000  feet  above 
the  plains,  the  best  known  of  which  is  Teleki. 
Several  very  high  mountains  lie  between  Lake 
Rudolf  and  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  the  highest  of 
which  is  Mount  Elgon  (14,030  feet).  The  Abys- 
sinian highland  is  topped  by  massive  fields  of 
ancient  lava,  from  which  rise  extinct  volcanic 
peaks  to  heights  of  about  15,000  feet  (Mounts 
Dashan,  Abba-Yared,  etc.).  A  few  active  vol- 
canoes occur  on  the  northeastern  slopes  of  Abys- 
sinia, near  the  shore  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  a 
chain  of  mountains  presents  summits  of  9000  to 
10,000  feet. 

The  great  topographical  feature  of  West  Cen- 
tral Africa  is  the  Congo  Basin,  equaling  in  area 
the  basin  of  the  Mississippi,  and  stretching 
from  lat.  12"  S.  to  lat.  6°  N.,  and  from  long. 
33"  to  about  16"  E.,  where  it  narrows  into  the 
restricted  valley  by  which  the  river  makes  its 
way  through  the  coastal  moimtains  to  the  At- 
lantic Ocean.  The  whole  of  this  area  is  an  ele- 
vated plain,  sloping  gradually  from  all  sides 
toward  the  middle  west,  where  the  vast  outlet 
debouches,  in  lat.  6"  S.  It  presents  no  elevated 
regions  worthy  of  mention,  except  about  the 
borders.  The  southeast  watershed  is  not  high, 
nor  is  that  on  the  south,  which  separates  the 
Congo  waters  from  those  flowing  into  Lake  Ngami 
or  collected  by  the  Zambezi.  North  of  Lake  Tan- 
ganyika the  high  mountains  form  a  lofty  water- 
shed between  the  northeastern  sources  of  the 
Congo  and  the  sources  of  the  Nile,  and  a  line 
of  hills  sweeps  around  to  the  westward  in  the 
southern  Sudan,  and  are  continued  to  the  lofty 
Jebel-el-Marra,  in  Darfur,  whose  slopes  contri- 
bute the  remotest  northern  waters  of  the  Congo. 
The  high  ranges  of  Adamawa  and  ^he*  coast 
mountains  separate  its  more  westerly  northern 
tributaries  from  the  Ogowe  and  other  coastal 
rivers.  The  mountains  which  separate  the  Con- 
go Basin  from  the  coast  are  rather  the  broken 
eroded  margin  of  the  continental  plateau  than 
true  mountains,  and  few  if  any  peaks  exceed 
5000  feet  in  height. 

The  topographical  division  of  Sudan  covers 
the  equatorial  area  between  the  watershed  of 
the  Congo  and  the  Sahara  Desert,  from  the  head- 
waters of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  a  tributary  of  the 
Nile,  to  the  mountains  of  the  coast — that  is, 
the  drainage  basins  of  Lake  Chad  and  of  the 
Niger.  The  basin  of  Lake  Chad  is  an  inclosed 
area  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  continent,  its 
southern  margin  being  removed  but  a  few  hun- 
dred miles  from  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 
The  lake  itself  has  no  outlet,  and  lies  about  900 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  eastern  border  of  this 
basin  is  separated  from  the  Nile  waters  by  a  line 
of  highlands  which  continue  northward  across 
the  desert,  and  which  culminate  in  Darfur  in  the 
Marra  Mountains,  rising  some  7000  feet  above 
the  plain,  and  forming  a  watershed  for  eastern 
Sudan.  The  western  border  of  the  Chad  Basin  is 
formed  by  rocky  plateaus,  which  constitute  a  di- 
vide between  this  and  the  Niger  Basin ;  and  a  uni- 
form plain,  diversified  by  rocky  hills,  stretches 
westward  to  the  coast  mountains.  Large  por- 
tions of  the  Chad  Basin  are  dry  and  open,  while 
other  extensive  areas  are  forested  or  swampy, 


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passing  northward  into  desert.  At  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea  are  the  Kameruu  Mountains, 
more  than  13,000  feet  high.  Further  westward 
along  the  coast  of  Upper  Guinea  there  are  moun- 
tains, but  of  no  great  height,  the  supposed  "Kong 
Range"  of  old  geographies  having  been  proved 
non-existent.  The  highest  peaks  of  the  hinter- 
land of  Sierra  Leone  and  the  Mandingo  Moun- 
•  tains  do  not  exceed  3500  feet,  except  in  the  Peak 
of  Komono  (4600  feet).  The  coast  of  Senegal 
is  flat;  that  more  southerly,  except  in  Liberia, 
swampy ;  all  the  rivers,  and' especially  the  Niger, 
form  extensive  deltas. 

The  region  of  arid  waste  lands  called  the 
Sahara  lies  between  the  Sudan  on  the  south  and 
the  Atlas  Mountains  and  the  Egyptian  coast  on 
the  north.  It  is  a  part  of  an  and  belt  extending 
eastward  to  Baluchistan,  the  entire  area  meas- 
uring about  4,000,000  square  miles.  Of  this  area 
at  least  two- thirds  lies  west  of  Suea,  and  is 
known  in  general  as  the  Sahara.  It  is  all  an 
elevated  plain,  into  which  many  valleys  have 
been  eroded  by  the  ancient  drainage  systems 
which  are  now  the  only  marked  topographical 
features  of  the  region.  The  whole  area  may, 
therefore,  be  divided  into  certain  regions,  limited 
by  natural  features.  First,  the  so-called  Ara- 
bian or  Nubian  Desert;  the  area  between  the 
Nile,  the  only  living  river  that  crosses  the  arid 
zone,  and  the  Red  Sea.  This  is  marked  in  its 
southern  portion  by  the  continuation  of  the  vol- 
canic uplands  of  Abyssinia,  which  lessen  in 
height  toward  the  north,  but  border  the  Red  Sea 
in  a  line  of  jagged  mountains,  many  of  which 
exceed  4000  feet,  and  one,  Soturba,  reaches  6900 
feet.  In  the  south  is  the  great  rift  of  the  Wady 
Mahall,  probably  an  ancient  Nile  channel;  and  in 
liower  Egypt  are  the  rifts  occupied  by  the  Khar- 
geh,  Dakhel,  and  others,  forming  a  line  of  notable 
oases.  West  of  the  Nile  rises  the  desolate  pla- 
teau of  the  Libyan  Desert,  which  covers  the 
whole  region  from  central  Darfur  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean (long.  18**  to  30°  K.),  excepting  the  few 
oases  above  mentioned.  Its  general  altitude 
varies  from  about  1500  feet  in  the  south  to  600 
on  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  breaks  down  in 
hills.  A  line  of  elevations  extending  northwest- 
ward from  the  Marra  Mountains  in  Darfur  to 
the  Algerian  Atlas  forms  a  sort  of  boundary  to 
the  Libyan  Desert,  and  makes  possible  the  thinly 
inhabited  oases  regions  of  Tibesti  and  Murzuk. 
Further  west  there  are  wadies,  or  dried-up  river 
valleys,  of  which  one,  with  numerous  branches, 
is  traceable  from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  north  to 
the  "shotts"  or  swampy  lakes  which  occupy  the 
large,  low  plain  (in  places  below  sea-level)  west 
of  the  Gulf  of  Cabes.  It  is  believed  that  within 
2500  years  this  valley  was  occupied  by  a  flowing 
river,  but  now  only  a  few  pools  and  springs  exist 
through  the  dry  season.  West  of  this  more 
broken  region  between  Algeria  and  Lake  Chad 
there  stretches  an  enormous  space  of  waterless 
waste  land,  with  shifting  sand  dunes,  broken  by 
lines  of  rugged  and  naked  elevations  having  a 
general  northeast  and  southwest  direction.  This 
waste  extends  to  the  Atlantic  coast  all  the  way 
from  about  lat.  18°  to  28°  N.,  that  is,  from  the 
hills  of  Senegal  to  the  western  extremity  of  the 
Atlas.  The  elevation  of  the  Sahara  throughout 
the  greater  part  of  its  extent  exceeds  1000  feet, 
diminishing  gradually  from  the  south  toward 
the  north  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  and  from  its  cen- 
tre in  the  western  half  of  the  desert  toward  the 
Lake  Chad  Basin  and  the  Niger,  and  toward  the 


coast  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli.  Only  very  small 
and  irregular  areas  along  the  northern  border 
are  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  elevated  district  called  the  Atlas  Region, 
with  its  littoral  margin  along  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
and  Mediterranean  Sea,  is  a  part  of  the  grent 
Alpine  system  of  Europe,  to  which  it  is  linked 
by  the  mountains  of  Spain  and  the  Pyrenees. 
Unlike  other  African  mountains,  the  Atlas  have 
a  folded  structure  and  an  Alpine  character,  and 
present  many  parallel  zones.  These  ranges  ex- 
tend in  a  nearly  straight  line  from  Cape  Nun, 
on  the  Atlantic,  northeast  to  the  headlands  of 
Tunis,  where  they  are  broken  through  by  the 
narrows  of  the  Mediterranean.  Along  the  Medi- 
terranean coast  the  elevations  are  volcanic,  and 
descend  very  abruptly.  Toward  the  interior, 
irregular  ranges  form  a  long  line  of  heights  of 
Paleozoic  rocks,  which  is  sometimes  called  the 
Tell  Atlas ;  but  this  is  more  prominent  in  Algeria 
than  in  Morocco,  where  the  seaward  side  is  a 
rough  plateau.  The  Atlas  stretches  over  a  dis- 
tance of  about  1400  miles,  and  attains  its  great- 
est elevation  in  the  western  portion,  where  it 
rises  to  a  height  of  nearly  15,000  feet. 

Geology.  The  geological  structure  of  Africa 
has  been  studied  only  in  bare  outline,  but  its 
broad  features  may  be  said  to  exhibit  great 
simplicity  and  uniformity.  The  entire  lower 
limb,  with  the  Sudan  and  the  western  portion 
of  the  Sahara  Desert,  has  a  basal  complex  of 
crystalline  rocks  supporting  sediments  of  Paleo- 
zoic and  Mesozoic  age.  Strata  of  more  recent 
deposition,  with  but  one  exception  (Lower 
Egypt),  occur  only  along  the  sea  coast  and  the 
rivers.  The  greater  part  of  the  land  sur- 
face, therefore,  was  formed  in  early  geological 
times,  and  has  remained  above  sea-level  during 
succeeding  periods.  Owing  to  this  uniformity, 
Africa  cannot  be  divided  upon  a  strictly  geologi- 
cal basis  into  more  or  less  distinct  units; 
such  a  division,  however,  has  been  made  from 
a  combined  geological  and  geographical  stand- 
point, separating  the  entire  area  into  three  prov- 
inces. The  first  of  these  comprises  South  Africa, 
Madagascar,  and  a  large  portion  of  Central  Af- 
rica, which  at  one  time  was  united  with  lower 
India  by  an  easterly  land  extension  through  the 
area  now  occupied  by  the  Indian  Ocean;  the 
second  includes  the  Sahara  Desert  and  Egypt, 
and  is  a  continuation  of  Arabia  and  Syria; 
the  third  comprises  the  Atlas  Mountains,  and  is 
really  a  part  of  the  Eurasian  continent  and  of 
the  great  system  of  upheaval  that  is  represented 
in  Europe  by  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines. 

The  most  ancient  rocks  found  in  South  Africa 
are  granites,  gneisses,  and  schists,  which  lie  be- 
low all  fossil- bearing  rocks,  and  may,  therefore, 
be  classed  as  Archean.  Above  these  are  tilted  and 
eroded  beds  of  sandstones  and  slates,  which  form 
the  rampart  along  the  southern  extremities  of 
Cape  Colony,  and  extend  around  to  the  west  and 
north,  spreading  out  over  large  areas  in  Nama- 
qualand,  Griqualand,  Rhodesia,  and  regions  to 
the  north,  and  which  have  special  economical 
importance,  as  they  include  within  their  limits 
the  rich  gold  deposits  of  the  Transvaal.  These 
rocks  are  mostly  of  Paleozoic  age.  Higher  up 
in  the  series  are  the  Kimberley  shales  and  the 
Karoo  formation  of  sandstones  and  slates,  which 
attain  great  development  in  British  South  Africa. 
No  remains  of  a  sea  fauna  have  been  found  in 
the  Karoo  beds,  but  they  are  rich  in  amphibian 
and  reptilian  fossils  that  b€*ar  a  striking  simi- 


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larity  to  the  Tria8sic  (Gondwana)  life-forms  of 
India,  and  also  to  those  of  Australia.  They 
were  probably  deposited  during  the  Permian  and 
Triassic  periods.  Underlying  them  unconform- 
ably  in  places  are  the  Dwyka  conglomerate,  a 
peculiar  rock  that  often  has  the  appearance  of 
a  volcanic  breccia,  and  the  Ecca  mudstones  and 
sandstones,  consituting  a  group  some  4000  feet 
in  thickness.  Volcanic  rocks  are  represented  by 
diabase  and  basalt,  which  are  spread  out  over  the 
surface  in  large  sheets,  being  especially  prom- 
inent along  the  eastern  edge  of  the  Drakenber^ 
Mountains  in  the  Transvaal.  The  diamond 
mines  of  South  Africa  are  located  in  the  vents  of 
old  volcanoes  through  which  a  basic  rock  (peri- 
dotite)  was  erupted.  On  th«  other  edge  of  the 
plateau,  along  the  sea  coast,  are  small  detached 
areas  of  sediments,  more  recent  in  origin  than 
the  forgoing. 

The  region  of  central  Africa  from  the  Sudan 
as  far  south  as  the  Zambezi  River  includes  large 
areas  of  which  little  or  nothing  is  known.  Liv- 
ingstone mentioned  the  presence  of  sand- 
stones and  coal  seams  along  the  Zambezi  River 
(lat.  16"  40'  to  IS'*  50'  S.),  and  somewhat  fur- 
ther south,  crystalline  rocks  of  Archean  type 
appear,  as  also  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Nyassa. 
The  Rovuma  River  flows  for  a  considerable  dis- 
tance (about  lat.  11"  S.)  over  sandstone  beds, 
that  rest  upon  granite.  The  sandstones  are 
found  as  high  as  2500  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
extend  from  near  the  coast  to  long.  39"  E. 
North  of  the  Rovuma  River  sandstone  strata, 
pojisibly  of  Carboniferous  age,  are  developed  on 
a  large  scale  along  two  general  lines,  one  ex- 
tending northwest  beyond  the  shores  of  Lake 
Tanganyika,  and  the  other  extending  north  to 
near  the  equator.  Between  the  diverging  areas  of 
sandstone,  crystalline  rocks  predommate,  inclos- 
ing Lake  Victoria  Nyanza  and  reaching  north- 
ward nearly  to  Lado  on  the  Nile.  They  have  been 
broken  through  and  are  overlaid  by  volcanic 
rocks,  especially  around  Lake  Rudolf,  where  vol- 
canoes are  still  in  eruption,  and  in  the  region  east 
of  Victoria  Nyanza,  where  there  are  many  inact- 
ive cones.  Volcanic  action  has  been  accompanied 
here  by  great  vertical  displacements,  to  which 
allusion  has  already  been  made.  (See  also 
article  on  Great  Reft- Valley.  )  The  west  side 
of  Central  Africa,  from  the  Kunene  River  to  the 
('Ulf  of  Guinea,  has  been  only  partly  explored. 
Such  information  as  is  available  woidd  indicate 
that  its  structure  is  similar  to  that  of  the  east- 
em  coast.  On  the  shore  of  Angola  there  is  a 
narrow  fringe  of  Cretaceous  sandstones,  and  in 
the  interior  crystalline  rocks,  mostly  granite  and 
gneiss,  and  fossiliferous  sandstones  of  undeter- 
mined age  predominate.  It  seems  probable  that 
these  formations  extend  into  the  interior  toward 
the  Congo  Basin,  and  they  may  reach  also  north- 
ward into  the  Sudan.  In  the  Congo  Basin  there 
comes  into  prominence  a  peculiar  superficial  de- 
posit called  "laterite,"  which  also  covers  wide 
areas  in  Sudan  and  the  Sahara  Desert.  It  is  a 
porous,  yellow  or  reddish  rock,  formed  by  the 
disintegration  and  weathering  of  the  underlying 
strata. 

The  plateau  of  Abyssinia  has  been  found  to 
consist  of  gneisses  and  granites  as  a  basal  forma- 
tion, with  overlying  sandstone  strata  in  nearly 
horizontal  position.  This  region  is  especially 
characterized  by  the  enormous  development  of 
volcanic  rocks,  which  at  different  times  have 
spread  out  oter  the  surface.    Westward,  between 


Khartum  and  Fashoda  on  the  Nile,  there  is  a 
large  area  of  Paleozoic  sediments,  extending  on 
the  eastern  Nile  bank  as  far  south  as  Lado, 
where  it  sweeps  around  to  the  west.  In  central 
Sudan,  crystalline  rocks  have  been  found  along 
the  Benue  River  and  in  the  region  between  this 
river  and  the  Niger.  In  the  extreme  western 
Sudan,  sedimentary  strata  with  Devonian  and 
Carboniferous  fossils  prevail;  they  are  also  de- 
veloped to  a  lesser  extent  on  the  Grold  Coast, 
where  they  overlie  gneisses  and  schists.  The 
interior  of  Liberia  and  Sierra  Leone  is  supposed 
to  be  composed  largely  of  crystalline  rocks.  The 
Sahara  Desert  presents  a  monotonous  stretch  of 
horizontal  eroded  beds  of  Paleozoic  age  resting 
upon  eruptives  and  gneisses.  After  the  Carboni- 
ferous times,  the  whole  Sahara  region  appears 
to  have  been  elevated  above  sea-level  and  to  have 
maintained  this  position  until  the  beginning 
of  the  Cretaceous,  when  there  was  a  subsidence, 
and  the  eastern  part  of  the  Sahara,  including 
Egypt,  was  formed.  Volcanic  rocks  are  found 
in  certain  parts  of  the  interior,  but  they  are 
relatively  unimportant.  In  Lower  Egypt,  the 
ridge  that  forms  the  western  border  of  the  great 
rift  or  fault  of  the  Red  Sea  is  made  up  of 
gneisses,  granites,  and  basic  igneous  rocks,  with 
a  sedimentary  cap  called  the  "Nubian"  sand- 
stone. The  last-named  constitutes  the  banks  of 
the  Nile  at  Assuan,  and  also  extends  for  a  con- 
siderable distance  into  the  desert  region.  To  the 
north,  the  Nubian  sandstone  is  succeeded  by 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  limestones. 

The  Atlas  region  of  Morocco,  Algeria,  and 
Tunis  offers  a  striking  contrast  to  the  remainder 
of  Africa,  in  that  it  is  the  only  present  rep- 
resentative of  a  mountain  system  formed  by 
crustal  folding.  It  is  composed  of  eruptives, 
including  trachyte  and  basalt,  along  the  northern 
edge,  with  interfoliated  gneisses,  schists,  granite, 
limestone,  and  sediments  of  Carboniferous,  Jur- 
assic, and  Triassic  age.  Suess  divides  the  region 
into  parallel  zones;  the  first  is  composed  of  vol- 
canic rocks  on  the  coast;  the  second  consists  of 
granite,  gneiss,  and  schist;  the  third  is  a  belt 
of  sandstone  and  limestone,  reaching  southward 
into  the  Sahara  Desert. 

The  continental  islands,  including  the  Canary, 
Madeira,  and  Cape  Verde  groups,  and  many 
isolated  islands,  are  mosth'  of  volcanic  ori- 
gin. Madagascar,  however,  is  an  exception,  and 
represents  the  remnant  of  a  larger  area  that 
once  extended  from  southern  Africa  to  lower 
India.  The  central  part  of  Madagascar  is  made 
up  of  granites  and  gneisses  similar  in  character 
to  those  found  on  the  mainland,  while  the  west- 
ern shore  is  formed  by  Jurassic  and  Tertiary 
sediments.  See  also  articles  on  countries  of 
Africa. 

Hydrography.  The  great  river  systems  of 
Africa,  excepting  the  Niger,  have  their  sources 
in  the  mountains  of  the  south  and  southeastern 
parts.  At  the  Gulf  of  Suez  a  line  of  highlands 
crosses  to  Africa  from  Syria,  which  follows  the 
coast  line  of  the  Red  Sea  to  its  southern  ex- 
tremity, then  bends  to  the  south,  passes  the 
equatoV,  and  joins  the  broad  plateaus  that  extend 
over  South  Africa.  As  there  is  no  prominent 
interior  mountain  range,  this  long  line  of  coastal 
highlands  forms  the  most  important  water-part- 
ing of  the  continent.  Within  its  bounds  are 
the  upper  courses  of  the  Nile,  Congo,  and  Zam- 
bezi, as  well  as  of  the  Orange  and  of  most  of 
the  smaller  streams.    The  Nile,  Niger  and  Congo 


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rivers  have  their  origin  on  the  interior  slopes 
of  the  highlands,  and  therefore  discharge  into 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  while  the  Zambezi  drainage 
Imsin,  lying  largely  on  the  outer  slopes,  falls 
nfl  toward  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  longest 
rher  system  is  that  of  the  Nile,  which  rises  in 
the  lake  region  of  Equatorial  Africa  and  flows 
northward  through  the  mountainous  divide  to 
the  plateau  region  of  eastern  Sudan,  where  it 
receives  an  important  affluent  from  the  west  in 
the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  and  is  joined  further  north 
Ijy  the  Bahr-el-Azrek  (Blue  Nile)  and  by  the 
Atbara,  both  from  the  plateau  of  Abyssinia.  In 
the  middle  portion  of  its  course  the  Nile  practi- 
cally completes  its  vertical  descent  by  numerous 
cataracts,  after  which  it  flows  through  a  valley 
that  is  but  little  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
The  drainage  basin  of  the  Nile  includes  an  area 
of  about  1,500,000  square  miles.  Next  to  the 
Nile  in  length  and  superior  to  it  and  to  all  other 
rivers  of  the  world  excepting  the  Amazon  in 
volume  is  the  Congo,  which  rises  in  the  equato- 
rinl  lake  region  and  drains  an  area  probably  ex- 
ceeding that  of  the  Nile.  The  Congo  flows  north, 
west,  then  describes  a  great  arc,  with  its  chord 
formed  by  the  equator,  and  Anally  turns  south- 
west, and  pierces  the  coastal  barrier  of  lower 
Guinea  to  enter  the  Atlantic.  The  tributaries 
of  the  Congo  include  many  great  rivers,  such 
as  the  Ubangi,  Kassai,  and  Kuango.  South  of 
the  Congo  are  the  drainage  basins  of  the  Zambezi 
find  Orange  rivers, which  extend  nearly  across  the 
lower  limb  of  the  continent,  and  have  an  east- 
ward and  westward  slope  respectively.  The  great 
land-mass  comprising  the  western  limb  of  the 
continent  is  poorly  watered,  the  Niger  being  the 
only  river  of  first  importance  lying  wholly  within 
the  area.  This  river  drains  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  coastal  highlands  of  Guinea,  through  which 
it  breaks  after  being  joined  by  an  important 
tributary  from  the  east,  the  Benue,  and  enters 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  Of  lesser  rivers  may  be 
mentioned  the  Limpopo,  "Rovuma,  Sabi,  Tana, 
ixnd  .Tub,  which  enter  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  the 
Kunene,  Kuanza,  Ogowe,  Volta,  Gambia,  Senegal, 
!ind  Draa  on  the  western  coast.  Owing  to  the 
mountainous  barrier  through  which  they  must 
[nerce  to  reach  the  sea,  the  smaller  rivers  of 
Africa  generally  are  unnavigable  in  their  lower 
courses. 

Between  the  drainage  basins  of  the  Nile,  Niger, 
II nd  Congo,  and  west  of  the  north  and  south 
range  of  highlands  of  Sudan,  is  the  interior 
basin  of  Lake  Chad.  This  lake  is  fed  chiefly 
by  the  Shari  and  Waube,  and  is  subject  to  great 
variations  of  level.  It  is  at  the  present  time  a 
shallow  body  of  fresh  water,  with  an  area  that 
is  said  to  range  at  various  times  from  10,000 
to  20,000  square  miles.  This  phenomenon  of 
sudden  variations  in  level  and  consequently  in 
area  is  peculiar  to  all  the  rivers  and  lakes  of 
Africa  within  the  equatorial  regions,  and  is  due 
to  the  seasonal  distribution  of  rainfall.  Between 
Abyssinia  and  the  Zambezi  River  and  within  the 
hounds  of  the  north  and  south  highland  region 
there  is  another  inland  drainage  basin  with  sev- 
eral large  lakes,  which  together  constitute  one 
of  the  most  striking  physiographical  features 
of  Africa.  Apparently  the  lakes  lie  along  a  line 
of  rifts  or  fissures  which  have  been  formed  by 
iiudden  displacements  of  the  earth's  crust.  Some 
of  the  lakes  are,  Margherita,  Abaya,  Stephanie, 
Kudolf,  Manyara,  Natron,  Baringo,  Eyassi,  and 
Leopold    (Rikwa),  all  but  Rudolf  being  small 


bodies  of  water.  The  largest  lakes  (Victoria, 
Albert,  Albert  Edward,  Kivu,  Tanganyika,  and 
Nyassa)  drain  into  the  Nile,  the  Congo,  or  the 
Zambezi,  and  are  fresh  water  bodies.  Victoria, 
Tanganyika,  and  Nyassa  rival  in  extent  the  great 
lakes  of  North  America.  For  further  details,  see 
articles  on  Congo,  Victoria  Nyanza,  etc. 

Climate.  Of  all  the  great  land  divisions  of 
tho  globe,  Africa  is  characterized  by  the  greatest 
uniformity  of  climate.  It  stretches  into  both 
the  north  temperate  and  south  temperate  zone^. 
but  the  greater  part  of  its  area  is  included 
within  the  tropics;  there  is  consequently  a  suc- 
cessive decrease  of  average  annual  heat  north- 
ward and  southward  of  the  e<}uatoriaI  belt,  but 
the  regularity  of  the  decrease  is  modified  by  cer- 
tain other  factors,  so  that  the  region  of  greatest 
average  heat  for  the  year  is  located  not  at  the 
equator  but  considerably  north  of  it,  between  the 
parallels  of  10*  and  20^  These  modifying  factors 
are  mainly  the  direction  of  the  winds  and  the 
distribution  of  the  mountains.  It  is,  of  course, 
cooler  here  in  certain  seasons  than  in  others;  but 
the  average  temperature  of  any  given  season 
shows  little  fluctuation.  In  summer  the  iso- 
therm of  80*'  F.  incloses  the  whole  of  the  Sahara 
Desert,  and  over  a  considerable  portion  of  this 
area  the  average  summer  temperature  is  97"  or 
more.  This  region  of  extreme  heat,  which  is 
the  largest  in  the  world,  may  be  delimited  by 
a  line  drawn  from  Khartum  west  to  Timbuktu, 
thence  north  to  El-€rolea  in  the  Algerian  Sahara, 
thence  southeast  to  Murzuk  and  thence  to  Berber 
on  the  Nile.  The  mountain  regions  of  Algeria 
and  Morocco,  and  parts  of  British  South  Africa 
and  of  German  South- West  Africa  have  a  sub- 
tropical or  temperate  climate.  Throughout  a 
large  portion  of  Africa,  especially  in  the  moun- 
tains of  the  east,  and  in  the  Sahara  and  Kalahari 
deserts,  the  temperature  varies  widely  between 
summer  and  winter  and  between  day  and  night, 
as  is  characteristic  of  all  desert  regions.  (See 
Desert.)  In  the  Kalahari  Desert  the  extreme 
seasonal  fluctuation  reaches  113**,  and  in  the 
Sahara  Desert  the  temperature  during  the  night 
often  approaches  the  freezing  point.  In  gen- 
eral, the  western  coast  of  Africa  is  cooler  than 
the  eastern  coast,  owing  to  the  conditions  here- 
tofore stated,  and  to  the  influence  of  the 
drift  northward  along  that  coast  (south  of 
the  equator)  of  the  cool  water  from  the  Ant- 
arctic Ocean.  (See  article  on  Climate.) 
Winds. — Trade  winds  are  characteristic  of  near- 
ly the  whole  continent.  The  Sahara  Desert  is 
a  region  of  high  barometric  pressure  during 
the  winter  months,  thus  causing  outward  blow- 
ing winds,  while  in  the  summer  season  the 
pressure  is  lowered,  and  there  is  an  indraught 
from  the  surrounding  territory.  In  the  western 
part  of  the  Sahara  Desert  and  Sudan,  north  and 
northeast  winds  prevail  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year,  alternating  with  northwest  and  west 
winds  for  a  few  months  in  winter.  The  eastern 
Sahara  region  and  Egypt  have  prevailing  north 
and  northeast  winds.  A  devastating  wind  called 
the  "khamsin"  blows  from  the  southeast  across 
this  region  at  times,  carrying  dust  and  sand 
and  causing  sudden  rises  of  temperature.  A 
similar  dust  wind,  but  usually  cooler,  blow^s  from 
the  interior  of  the  Sahara  over  Senegambia  and 
Upper  Guinea,  and  is  called  the  "harmattan." 
During  the  summer,  in  the  lower  limb  of  Africa, 
an  area  of  low  pressure  occurs  in  the  interior, 
and  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  east  and 


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southeast,  on  the  eastern  border,  and  south  and 
southwest  on  the  western.  In  winter  there  is 
a  shorter  period  in  which  the  winds  blow  out- 
wardly. (See  article  on  Wind.)  Rainfall, — 
The  principal  factors  governing  rainfall  are 
■evaporation,  direction  of  winds,  and  distribution 
of  mountains.  A  combination  of  these  factors 
most  favorable  to  a  large  rainfall  is  found  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa  near  the  equator.  Here 
the  humid  atmosphere  from  the  Atlantic  is  car- 
ried landward  by  the  winds  and,  becoming  cooler, 
<leposits  the  greater  part  of  its  moisture  before 
passing  the  highland  region.  The  maximum 
limit  of  precipitation  is  probably  attained  in 
Kamerun,  where  the  total  rainfall  in  the  year 
may  exceed  350  inches,  while  the  Niger  Delta 
and  the  coasts  of  Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia  also 
are  excessively  humid.  On  the  east  equatorial 
coast  the  winds  from  the  Indian  Ocean  deliver 
<;onsiderable  moisture,  but  not  in  such  abun- 
dance as  on  the  west  coast.  As  they  pass  into 
the  interior,  the  winds  from  both  the  Atlantic 
and  Indian  oceans  are  deprived  of  their  humid- 
ity, especially  in  the  mountains,  which  act  as 
precipitating  agents.  Equatorial  Africa,  as  a 
whole,  is  thus  characterized  by  a  heav7  rainfall. 
North  and  south  bf  this  region,  however,  the 
conditions  exhibit  a  striking  contrast.  In  the 
north  is  the  Sahara  Desert,  the  largest  arid 
region  in  the  world,  where  the  prevailing  winds 
are  from  the  northeast  and  are  hot  and  dry, 
while  the  humidity  of  the  southerly  winds  that 
may  penetrate  into  the  interior  is  diminished 
by  the  heat,  and  seldom  falls  as  rain.  A  second 
arid  region,  the  Kalahari  Desert,  is  found  in  the 
southern  limb  of  the  continent,  between  the  Zam- 
bezi and  Orange  rivers  and  the  eastern  and 
western  coastal  highlands.  It  has  a  small  spas- 
modic rainfall,  which  is  usually  insufficient  to 
support  a  constant  growth  of  vegetation.  The 
Mediterranean  coast  region  and  the  extreme 
southern  extension  have  a  dry  climate  that  is 
tempered  by  rains  during  certain  seasons.  Be- 
sides the  continental  distribution  of  rainfall, 
there  is  a  seasonal  variation  in  the  amount  re- 
ceived in  different  latitudes.  In  the  regions 
near  the  equator  rain  may  fall  during  every 
month  of  the  year,  but  the  periods  of  greatest 
precipitation  occur  when  the  sun  is  nearly  verti- 
cal, in  spring  and  fall.  Away  from  the  equator 
there  is  generally  but  one  wet  season.  See  arti- 
cles on  countries  of  Africa. 

FuoBA.     The  Vegetation  of  Africa  is  very  di- 
versified on   account  of  the  well-marked  topo- 
graphic districts  and  the  varied  climatic  condi- 
tions.   The  three  zones  of  tropical,  north  tem- 
perate, and  south  temperate  climate  have  their 
peculiar  types  of  vegetation,  the  distribution  of 
which  in  each  zone  is  determined  by  the  imme- 
diate   physiographic    features.    Forest,    steppe, 
savanna,  and   desert   floras   are   found   in  each 
zone.    The  flora  of  the  Mediterranean  slope  of 
the  northern  temperate  zone  has  a  general  re- 
semblance to  that  of  southern  Europe,  with  for- 
^ts  of  oak  and  of  smaller  trees,  as  olives  and 
figs,  with   also   the  vine   and   the  same  cereal 
p-ains.    The    desert    regions    (typified    by    the 
Sahara  in   the   north   temperate   zone   and   the 
Kalahari  Desert  in  Bechuanaland  of  the  south 
^eniperate    zone)     support    a    scant    xerophytic 
v^etation,  which,  contrasted  with  the  flora  of 
the  Xorth  American  deserts,  has  for  its  most 
prominent  types  quite  leafless,  thorny  and  fleshy 
^phorbias  and  acacias  instead  of  cactuses.     In 
Vol.  I.— 1« 


the  Sahara  Desert  the  date  palm  grows  often  in 
extensive  proves  in  the  oases,  and  its  w^ide  dis- 
tribution IS  probably  due  in  large  part  to  the 
dispersion  of  its  seeds  by  the  nomadic  tribes,  for 
whom  its  fruit  serves  as  an  important  article  of 
food.  Bordering  the  Sahara  and  the  Kalahari 
deserts  are  extensive  semi-arid  steppe  or  prairie 
regions,  where  the  slight  rainfall  permits  of  the 
existence  of  a  somewhat  more  varied  flora,  which 
combines  certain  of  the  desert  and  forest  types. 
The  steppe  region  of  the  southern  jtemperate 
zone  has,  by  reason  of  its  isolation,  developed  a 
flora  peculiarly  its  own,  which  is  characterized 
both  by  the  abundant  presence  of  many  members 
of  the  heath  family  (which  often  grow  to  a  height 
exceeding  10  feet),  and  also  by  the  general  bril- 
liancy of  color  of  the  flowering  plants. 

Those  portions  of  Africa  which  have  a  moist 
climate  are  divisible  into  the  savanna  and  forest 
regions.  The  forests  are  found  mostly  in  the 
equatorial  districts,  where  they  are  of  enor- 
mous extent.  Here  the  trees  grow  to  great 
heights  (often  200  feet),  and,  being  close  to- 
gether, support  numbers  oif  parasitic  vines,  form- 
ing over  vast  areas  a  dense,  tangled  covering  of 
foliage,  through  which  the  dirwt  rays  of  the 
sun  seldom  penetrate.  The  savanna  districts  are 
uniform  plains  of  both  high  and  low  land.  On 
the  damp  lowlands,  reeds,  especially  the  papyruSi 
abound  (as,  for  example,  in  the  marshy  regions 
of  the  Nile  and  Congo  valleys)  ;  on  the  drier 
high  grounds  good  pasture  grass  with  euphorbias 
forms  the  dominant  vegetation,  together  with 
forest  growths  in  the  river  valleys,  'flie  more  im- 
portant trees  are  the  baobab  {Adanaonia)  and  the 
wine  and  oil  palms  {Raphia  and  Eloeis).  In 
conclusion,  it  may  be  stated  that  ihe  flora  of 
Africa  is  characterized  by  the  extensive  develop- 
ment of  acacias  and  euphorbias  over  the  entire 
continent,  with  the  date  palm  in  the  northern 
(particularly  in  the  arid)  regions,  and  the  papy- 
rus in  the  marshes.  See  Distribution  of  Plants. 

Fauna.  The  fauna  of  Africa  is  remarkable 
for  its  homogeneity,  for  the  continental  range  of 
a  great  number  of  its  groups  and  species,  due 
to  the  absence  of  extensive  mountain  barriers, 
and  for  its  remarkable  alliance  with  the  fauns 
of  the  6ther  divisions  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. Africa  —  apart  from  the  northwestern 
corner  (the  Atlas  Mountains,  in  which  live  the 
aoudad  and  certain  other  European  forms) — is 
now  regarded  as  forming,  together  with  Arabia 
and  Palestine,  a  single  zoSgeographical  prime 
division  called  Ethiopian.  Surveying  its  prin- 
cipal groups  of  animals,  it  is  seen  to  be  char- 
acterized in  respect  to  the  mammals  by 
the  preponderance  of  hoofed  animals  and  the 
great  size  of  many,  such  as  the  elephant,  hippo- 
potamus, and  rhinoceros,  by  the  originally 
vast  numbers  of  gregarious  grazers,  and  by  their 
distinctive  forms.  Thys,  there  are  no  true  oxen, 
but  a  buffalo  is  abundant ;  no  camels  nor  llamas ; 
no  sheep  nor  goats ;  no  deer  ( except  the  aberrant 
chevrotain)  nor  true  swine.  But  it  has  exclu- 
sively several  species  of  the  horse  family,  the 
zebra,  quagga,  and  wild,  ass;  a  giraffe,  once 
ranging  all  the  southern  plains,  and  the  okapi 
(q.v.)  ;  the  tribe  of  hyraxes,  and  almost  ^  ^^^" 
dred  kinds  of  antelopes  and  gazell^^  i^vr  of 
which  range  outside  of  Africa  and  A.YiA>^**  ^^ 
apes,  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla  b^\  \.rt  \J^  ^^^ 
equatorial  forests  alone;  but  mor^  ^  .AfeV5  ^^*' 
tributed,  though  exclusively  Afrl^  ^^  a.t«  ^^* 
baboons,  various  kinds  of  nM>nkey^^>>^    \  ^^^ 


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all  the  lemuroids.  Among  the  carnivora,  bears, 
wolves,  and  foxes  are  wholly  absent,  and  sev- 
eral feline,  viverine,  and  canine  forms  are  pecu- 
liar, although  the  characteristic  lion  and  leopard 
are  not  restricted  to  Africa.  The  lesser  mam- 
mals are  mainly  the  same  as  or  allied  to  south- 
ern Asiatic  and  Oriental  forms.  Resident  birds 
display  similar  unlikeness  to  Europe  and  Asia, 
ana  suggestive  resemblances  to  those  of  the 
Australian  and  neotropical  regions.  Thus,  the 
ostrich,  so  widespread  and  characteristic  of 
Africa,  is  unknown  elsewhere,  but  its  allies  are 
the  extinct  and  modern  ratite  birds  of  the  Aus- 
tralasian archipelago  and  the  rheas  of  Argentina. 
Africa  is  rich  in  reptiles,  but  few  are  peculiar, 
chiefly  terrestrial  venomous  snakes  and  the 
chsemasaurid  lizards;  and  the  affinities  of  this 
group,  as  of  the  fishes,  are  Oriental,  though 
some  of  the  fishes  are  remarkably  related  to 
ancient  American  families.  Similar  remarks 
apply  to  the  invertebrates,  where  many  genera 
even  are  the  same  as  those  of  either  Australia, 
the  Malayan  region,  or  America.  For  particu- 
lars as  to  the  faunal  sub-regions,  Madagascaran, 
West-coast,  etc.,  see  Distribution  of  Mutual 
Life. 

Population.  Recent  authorities  roughly  esti- 
mate the  population  of  Africa  at  about  175,000,- 
000,  or  fifteen  to  the  square  mile,  a  density  slight 
when  compared  with  that  of  Europe,  but  much 
greater  than  that  of  the  American  continent. 
According  to  the  nature  of  the  soil  and  of  the 
climate,  the  population  is  distributed  very  un- 
evenly over  the  surface,  being  very  dense  in  the 
Kile  delta  and  massed  somewhat  densely  in  the 
upper  Nile  valley,  and  generally  throughout  the 
Sudan,  less  thickly  over  the  southern  plateau, 
and  verythinly  in  the  outlying  regions  of  Moroc- 
co and  Tripoli;  while  large  tracts,  especially  in 
the  western  Sahara  and  in  the  Libyan  and  Kala- 
hari wastes,  are  absolutely  uninhabited.  Of  the 
inhabitants  of  Africa,  only  a  small  portion  are 
recent  immigrants  from  Europe,  settled  chiefly 
in  the  extreme  north  (Algeria)  and  in  the  ex- 
treme south  (Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and  the  Boer 
territories). 

Ethnology.  The  yellow,  the  brown,  and  the 
red  varieties  of  the  human  genus  have  no  repre- 
sentatives in  Africa,  with  the  exception  of  some 
of  the  Polynesian  tribes  in  Madagascar  and  the 
intrusions  of  eastern  Asiatics  in  recent  times. 
The  175,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  continent  rep- 
resent the  white  and  the  black  varieties  of  man, 
or  mixtures  of  these.  Northern  and  northeast- 
ern Africa  have  been  occupied  in  historic  times 
by  *white  races,  while  equatorial  and  southern 
Africa  were  the  home  of  black  races;  but  the 
white  Africans  have  from  remote  antiquity 
forced  themselves  into  the  black  man's  territory, 
and  negro  blood  has  mixed  with  that  of  Hamite 
and  Semite  across  the  Sahara;  hence,  especially 
on  the  border  line,  the  ethnic  stocks  are  inter- 
mingled. 

Various  schemes  of  classification  have  been 
proposed  for  the  people  of  Africa,  the  latest 
of  which  are  by  Deniker  and  Keane. 

Deniker's  scheme  (consult:  Races  of  Man;  an 
Outline  of  Anthropology  and  Ethnology,  Lon- 
don, 1900)  is  as  follows: 

I.  Arabo-Berbers,  or  Semito-Hamites — Jjerba 
subrace;  (2)  Elles  type;  (3)  Dolichocephalic 
Berber  subrace;    (4)  Jerid  or  Oasis  type. 

II.  Ethiopians,  or  Kushito-Hamites,  sometimes 
called  Nuba,  or  Nubians. 


III.  Fulah-Zandeh   group.     Mixture  of  Ethi- 
opians and  Nigritians  or  Sudanese  negroes. 

IV.  Nigritians,  (a)  eastern  Sudan,  or  Nilotic 
negroes;  (b)  Nigritians  of  central  Sudan;  (c) 
Nigritians  of  western  Sudan  and  Senegal— 
Ifaussas,  Mandes  or  Mandingans,  Toucouleurs  or 
Torodos,  Yolofs  of  Senegal;  (d)  Littoral  Nigri- 
tians or  Guineans — ^Krus,  Agnis,  Tshis,  Ewes; 
(e)   Yorubas. 

V.  Negrillos. 

VI.  Bantus.  In  Central  and  Southern  Africa; 
divided  into  Western,  Eastern,  and  SouUiem 
Bantus. 

VII.  Bushmen-Hottentots. 

VIII.  Hovas,  Malagasies,  and  Sakalavas  of 
Madagascar. 

Keane's  analysis  of  African  peoples  is  given 
in  his  Ethnology  and  in  Stanford's  Africa  (see 
bibliography  at  end  of  article).  In  the  latter 
the  classification  is  by  regions,  as  follows: 

I.  Atlas  Region.  Stone  Age  men;  peoples  akio 
to  Iberians  and  Silurians,  artificers  of  the  mon- 
olithic monuments;  Berber  Hamites;  Phcenician 
Semites ;  Romans ;  Teutonic  Vandals ;  Semitic 
Arabs:  Negroes;  Jews  and  modern  intrusions; 
and  pigmies  in  the  Atlas  Mountains. 

II.  Tripolitana.  Berbers  or  Libyans  in  many 
communities;  Arabs;  Negroes,  chiefly  slaves. 
The  Phoenicians  of  Herodotus  are  replaced  by 
Turks,  Jews,  Maltese,  Italians,  etc. 

III.  Sahara.  Arabs,  pure  and  mixed  in  many 
tribes  and  confederacies;  Tuaregs,  pure  and 
mixed;  Tibus;  Negroes  from  the  south. 

IV.  Sudan.  Arabs;  Hamites  (Tibus,  Tua- 
regs, and  Fulahs)  ;  Negroes,  beginning  at  the 
west  coast;  ( I )  Senegal  to  Sierra  Leone — Wolofs, 
Sereres,  Toucouleurs,  Mandingans,  Felups,  etc; 
(2)  Sierra  Leone — Temnis,  Colonials,  etc.;  (3) 
Liberia;  (4)  Ivory  Coast;  (6)  Gold  Coast— 
Tshis,  Ga;  (6)  Slave  Coast— Ewes,  Yorubas; 
(7)  Upper  and  Middle  Niger — Bambaras,  Song- 
hays,  Haussas,  etc. ;  (8)  Benue  Basin;  (9)  Lower 
Niger;  (10)  Niger  Bend;  (II)  Chad  Basin; 
(12)  Wadai;  (13)  Darfur  and  Kordofan— Nu- 
bas  and  Nubian  family  of  languages ;  (14)  Upper 
Nile  basin — Madis,  Dinkas,  Shilluks,  Mundus, 
Bongas,  etc.;  (16)  Welle  basin — Mombuttus, 
Niam-Niams,  Akka  dwarfs,  etc. 

V.  Italian  and  Northeast  Africa.  Somali  Ham- 
ites; Galla  Hamites;  Afar  (Danakil)  Hamites; 
Abyssinian (Agau) Hamites;  Semitized  Hamites; 
Himyaritic  (Abyssinian)  Semites;  Tigrd,  Amha- 
ras,  Shoas;  Arab  (Nomad)  Semites;  Negroes 
and  Bantus.' 

VI.  Nubia  and  Egypt.  ( 1 )  Nuba  group — Nu- 
bas  proper;  Nilotic  Nubas  (Nubians,  Barabra) ; 
(2)  Beja  group;  (3)  Egyptian  group — Fella- 
hin,  Copts;  (4)  Arab  group— (a)  Settled;  (b) 
Nomad  and   Semi-Nomad. 

VII.  The  Kameruns.  Bantu  tribes,  indige- 
nous and  intruders. 

VIII.  French  Equatorial  Africa.  Bantu  tribes, 
Mpongwe  and  others. 

IX.  Congo  Free  State.  Bantu,  chiefly.  Names 
commencing  with  A-,  Ba-,  Ma-,  Wa-,  etc 

X.  Portuguese  West  Africa.  Angolan  tribes 
chiefly.  (I)  Ba-Congo  group;  (2)  A-Bundo 
group;    (3)    Aboriginal  group. 

XI.  German  Southwest  Africa.  (1)  Ovampo 
groups;  (2)  Ova-Herero  groups  (Damara  low- 
lands) ;  (3)  Nama  groups  ( Namaqualand )  ;  full- 
blood  Hottentots,  Orlams  (Hottentots  from  Cape 
Colony),  Bastaards  (Dutch  Hottentot  half -breeds 
from  the  Cape). 


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2ANIIBAR    ryPE     EAST    AFRICA 

JULIU*»«CN  ACO.  UTM.H.V 


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179 


AFRICA. 


XII.  Cape  Colony,  (1)  San  (Bushmen);  (2) 
Hotentots;    (3)   Basutos;    (4)   Kaffirs. 

XIII.  Southeast  Africa,  Bechuanas;  many 
tribes^  whose  names  biegin  with  Ba-. 

XIV.  Zamhezia,  south  and  north,  ( 1 )  Bechuana 
natives;  (2)  in  North  Zambezia  the  greatest 
confusion  of  natives. 

XV.  Portuguese  East  Africa,  (1)  Zulus;  (2) 
Tonga  tribes;  (3)  mixed  tribes;  (4)  Banyans 
or  Hindu  traders  in  seaports. 

XVI.  German  East  Africa.  Bantus,  pressed  on 
by  Arabs,  Zulus,  Nilotic  negroes.  Jdany  tribes 
whose  names  begin  with  Ma-  or  Wa-. 

XVII.  British  East  Africa,  Ethnic  diversity, 
every  race  in  Africa  except  Bushmen-Hottentots. 
(1)  Bantus;  (2)  Marai;  (3)  Somali;  (4)  Gal- 
las;  (5)  Bantu  Gallas  (Wa-Huma) ;  (6)  Ne- 
groes;   (7)   Negritos. 

XVIII.  Madagascar,  Malayo  -  African  mixed 
peoples,  all  speaking  a  Malayo-Polynesian  Ian- 

«  guage.  (1)  Hovas,  in  the  centre;  (2)  Betsimi- 
sarakas,  on  the  east;  (3)  Sakalavas,  on  the  west. 

The  northern  Africans  are  Hamitic,  and  were 
preceded  (1)  by  Stone  Age  peoples;  (2)  by  the 
kindred  of  Iberians,  Silurians,  and  other  tribes 
of  Southern  and  Western  Europe.  The  monolith 
builders  apparently  merged  into  the  Berber  Ham- 
ite  intruders,  who,  in  turn,  were  encroached  upon 
by  Phoenician  Semites;  then  followed  Romans 
and  Teutonic  Vandals,  though  the  chief  ethnic 
element  continued  Berber  until  the  coming  of  the 
Arabs  (100-200  A.D.)  and  the  irruption  of  the 
Moslems  (from  639  a.d.).  The  Arabs  are  now 
in  the  ascendency,  but  Hamitic  tribes  continue 
in  the  uplands  (Keane,  1895). 

There  are  among  the  African  peoples  examples 
of  the  lightest  and  the  darkest  races.  There  are 
also  examples  of  the  smallest  and  the  largest 
of  mankind,  as  the  measurements  in  metric 
standard  from  Deniker  will  show:  Akka,  1.378 
metres;  Bushmen  of  Kalahari,  1.529;  Mzabite 
Berber,  1.620;  Batekes  of  the  Congo,  1.641;  Alge- 
rian Arabs,  1.656;  Berbers  of  Tunis,  1.663; 
Abyssinians,  1.669;  Danakils,  1.670;  Kabyles, 
1.677;  Bechuanas,  1.684;  Mandingo,  1.700;  Kaf- 
firs, 1.715;  Somali,  1.723;  Wolof,  1.730  (many 
are  over  six  feet)  ;  Fulah,  1.741.  Compare  with 
these  the  JEta,  of  the  Philippines,  1.465;  Eskimo, 
1.575;  Lapps,  1.529;  Cheyennes,  1.745;  Sikhs, 
1.709;  and  Marquesas  Islanders,  1.743.  The 
range  of  cranial  index  is  quite  as  wide.  Among 
the  Congo  tribes  the  index  is  72**.5;  the  Fijian 
negroes  have  an  index  of  67*'.2;  the  Sara  of  the 
CJhad  Basin  have  an  index  of  82°.4;  but  many 
peoples  in  Oceanica,  America,  Asia,  and  Europe 
range  between  this  ratio  and  88*^.7. 

lUxioiONS.  Fifty-eight  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation, according  to  the  estimate  of  H.  P.  Beach, 
are  devotees  of  the  native  religions,  which  are 
characterized  by  these  features:  (1)  Belief  in 
some  sort  of  a  supreme  God,  who,  in  a  vaguely 
conceived  way,  creates  and  rules  all.  (2)  Wor- 
ship of  ancestors.  It  is  not  so  elaborately 
worked  out  as  in  China,  but  still  it  underlies  the 
West  African  scenes  of  dreadful  slaughter  of  the 
slaves  and  wives  of  his  predecessor,  ordered 
when  a  chief  succeeds  to  office,  for  by  such  blood- 
shed he  pavs  respect  to  the  deceased.  (3) 
Fetishism,  with  the  accompaniment  of  a  priest  or 
sorcerer.  (4)  Superstition  of  the  grossest  and 
most  degrading  kind.  The  heathen  African  is  the 
slave  of  this  low  type  of  religion,  and,  in  conse- 
cjuence,  his  life  is  full  of  terrors,  as  it  is  to  the 
interest  of   the   fetish   doctors   to   work   upon 


these  fears.  Idolatory  is  not  found  in  central 
Africa  at  all,  and  nowhere  is  it  so  elaborated  as 
in  India.  Imported  Religions, —  (1)  Mohamme- 
danism. Of  the  religions  imported  into  the  con- 
tinent, by  far  the  most  important  is  Mohamme- 
danism, the  faith  of  36  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion. It  came  thither  in  the  seventh  century 
and  overran  all  north  Africa  in  a  hundred 
years,  so  completely  overturning  the  Christian 
churches  which  had  been  planted  there  that 
they  have  never  been  revived.  Mohammedan- 
ism retains  its  conquests  in  Egypt,  Barca, 
Tripoli,  Algeria,  and  Morocco,  and  it  is  to-day 
one  of  the  greatest  missionary  religions.  It 
presents  a  one-sentence  creed:  "There  is  but 
one  (jrod  and  Mohammed  is  bis  prophet,"  and  has 
the  simplest  methods.  The  missionary  is  un- 
paid and  usually  a  native.  There  are  no  mis- 
sion boards,  or  expenses  for  salaries  and  print- 
ing. There  is  usually  no  special  training,  al- 
though in  Cairo  there  is  a  Mohammedan  univer- 
sity, attended  by  thousands  of  students,  and  from 
this  many  of  the  missionaries  go  forth.  They 
have  been  remarkably  successful  in  spreading 
their  faith  among  heathen  populations  in  Cen- 
tral Africa.  In  this  way  Mohammedanism  has 
exerted  an  influence  which  counteracts  the  na- 
tive religions,  and  so  improves  the  condition  of 
the  peoples  it  reaches.  (2)  Christianity:  (a) 
Copts,  the  descendants  of  those  original  Chris- 
tians who,  in  the  fifth  century,  adopted  the 
theory  that  in  Jesus  the  human  and  divine  make 
one  composite  nature  ( monophysitism ) ,  and  so 
are  reckoned  among  Christian  heretics.  They 
are  found  in  Egypt  and  number  about  three- 
quarters  of  a  million.  (6)  Abyssinian  Chris- 
tians, who  trace  their  faith  back  to  the  Coptic 
missionaries  of  the  fourth  century,  but  present 
a  curious  mixture  of  Christianity  and  Juda- 
ism, (c)  Koman  Catholics:  The  first  mission- 
aries of  this  faith  to  penetrate  the  Dark  Conti- 
nent were  Jesuits,  and  they  began  work  in  the 
middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Indeed,  St.  Fran- 
cis Xavier  came  to  Mozambique  as  early  as  1541, 
but  he  did  not  stay  more  than  six  months.  The 
result  of  the  work,  carried  on  continuously  ever 
since,  has  been  that  now  one  and  two-fifths  per 
cent,  of  the  population  are  Roman  Catholics,  liv- 
ing in  all  parts  of  the  continent.  Livingstone  bore 
testimony  to  the  value  of  the  work  of  these  mis- 
sionaries, (d)  Protestants:  The  first  who  came 
to  Africa  were  Moravians.  This  was  in  1792. 
Since  then  all  branches  of  Protestantism  have 
labored  there,  and  their  converts  now  number 
one  and  nine-tenths  per  cent,  of  the  population, 
and  they  are  found  in  every  part.  Roman  Catho- 
lics and  Protestants,  especially  the  latter,  carry 
on  missionary  work  among  the  Coptic  and  Abys- 
sinian Christians.  South  Africa  is  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  a  Christian  country  of  the  modem 
civilized  type.  (3)  Judaism:  About  three-tenths 
of  one  per  cent,  of  the  population  of  Africa  are 
Jews. 

Social  Conditions.  Slavery  is  still  "the  open 
sore  of  Africa,"  as  lavingstone  said,  and  nowhere 
is  it  more  cruel,  bloodtnirsty,  and  destructive. 
The  ivory  trade  is  a  constant  source  of  trouble, 
setting  tribe  against  tribe  in  war.  Polygamy  is 
widespread.  The  tribal  government,  the  absence 
of  central  authority,  the  usual  conditions  of 
savage  life,  in  bondage  of  superstition  and  ter- 
rors of  every  kind,  these  disturb  life  over  great 
<*tretches  of  territory.  Yet  it  is  the  testimony  of 
travelers  that  peace  and  a  certain  kind  of  proa- 


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AFBICA. 


perity  arc  fotind  in  many  villages  in  the  very 
heart  of  tlie  land.  Consult:  F.  P.  Noble,  The 
Uedemption  of  Africa  (New  York,  1899,  2  vol- 
umes) ;  A.  P.  Atterbury,  Islam  in  Africa  (New 
York,  1891*1  ;  H.  P.  Beach,  Geography  of  Protes- 
tant Missions  (New  York,  1901). 

HISTORY. 

Early  History  and  Exploration.  In  the 
earliest  historic  times,  when  civilization  centred 
around  the  ^iediterranean,  Libya,  as  Africa  was 
knowTt  to  the  ancients,  was  one  of  the  three  great 
divisions  of  the  earth,  of  which  Europe  and  Asia 
were  the  other  two.  The  details  of  its  history 
are  to  lie  found  in  the  history  of  Egypt,  still 
the  earliest  recorded  civilization,  and  of  the 
other  rttiites  of  northern  Africa,  as  well  as  of 
the  Roiimii  Empire,  which  absorbed  them  all. 
The  bniwn-hued  Berbers  seem  to  have  been  the 
fitndanientfil  race  stock  throughout  northern 
Afrieti,  with  perhaps  Aryan  and  Semitic  infu- 
sions, due  tcj  the  contact  of  Egypt  with  Asia  and 
Europe.  Wh ether  the  Hamitic  peoples  of  Africa 
were  or  were  not  autochthonous  is  a  problem  for 
the  settlement  of  which  no  sufficient  data  exists. 
The  knowledge  possessed  by  the  ancients  of  the 
et>ntinent  i\s  a  whole,  so  far  as  we  have  accounts 
of  it,  can  be  briefly  stated.  The  rulers  of  Egypt, 
as  suh?ie<|iiently  those  of  Carthage,  attempted  to 
extend  their  influence  toward  the  south  and  west ; 
but  the  phy^ieal  and  climatic  conditions  and  the 
savage  tribes  encountered  presented  an  effective 
bar  to  extended  progress  at  that  time.  An  in- 
scription a^i^signed  to  the  period  of  the  Eleventh 
(Theban)  Dynasty  tells  of  a  voyage  made  by 
command  of  one  of  the  rulers  of  that  dynasty 
to  the  land  of  Punt,  probably  Somaliland.  Re- 
cent diseoveries  also  seem  to  increase  the  credi- 
bility of  traditions  which  assigned  the  biblical 
lands  of  Ophir  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Africa. 
About  thirty  'centuries  ago  the  enterprising 
Plift'nk'ianr^  planted  Utica  (c.llOO  B.C.),  Carthage 
(82n  B.cj,  and  other  lesser  colonies  along  the 
Mediterranean  coast,  and  Greek  colonies  were 
founded  in  E^ypt,  in  Cyrenaica,  and  just  east  of 
Carthape.  during  the  period  of  Greek  coloniza- 
tion, which  began  in  the  eighth  century,  B.C. 

The  known  explorations  of  the  Dark  Continent 
may  he  said  to  begin  with  the  famous  voyage 
made  by  Pho?nicians  about  600  B.C.,  an  account 
of  which  is  preserved  by  Herodotus  (iv.  42). 
There  are  no  sufficient  reasons  for  doubting  the 
^neral  aeeuracy  of  the  account,  which  describes 
the  voyage  as  made  by  command  of  Necho,  King 
of  Egrypt,  \vho  had  just  completed  a  canal  from 
the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea.  The  expedition 
sailed  down  the  Red  Sea  and  along  the  coast  of 
Africa,  until  the  sun  for  many  weeks  "rose  on 
their  ri^ht  hand."  After  a  long  absence  the 
explorers  returned  to  Egypt  through  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules,  so  that  they  must  have  circumnavi- 
gated the  continent.  A  hundred  years  later,  also 
aocordin^  to  Herodotus  (iv.  43),  a  Persian  of 
noble  birth.  Sataspes,  started,  with  a  Cartha- 
ginian erew,  down  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  but 
was  compelled  to  turn  back.  It  is  doubtful  if 
he  went  far  beyond  the  Phoenician  settlements, 
which,  heir  inning  at  Gades,  just  without  the  Pil- 
lars of  Hereu!es,  already  extended  well  down  the 
coast  of  >torocco,  along  which  Hanno,  about  450 
B.C.,  planted  a  series  of  colonies.  The  "Islands 
of  the  Hles>ied"  also  (the  Madeira  and  Canary 
islands)  were  probably  within  the  scope  of  the 
sea-going  trade  of  the  Phoenicians  and  Cartha- 


ginians. Carthaginian  traders  trafficked  by  sea 
with  the  Gold  Coast,  and  by  land  along  the  cara- 
van routes  which  communicated  with  the  flour- 
ishing regions  of  Upper  Egypt  and  the  Niger.  It 
is  probable  that  almost  contemporaneously  with 
the  Phoenician  settlements  in  Northern  Africa, 
Arabs  entered  the  country  south  of  the  Zambesi. 
and,  going  inland,  found  and  worked  the  gold 
mines  which  have  been  recently  rediscovered. 
The  Greeks  began  to  colonize  Northern  Africa  in 
the  seventh  century  b.c.  After  the  conquest  and 
destruction  of  Carthage  by  Rome  (146  b.c.),  all 
Northern  Africa  was  gradually  drawn  into  the 
growing  empire;  but  Rome's  interest  lay  in  the 
knoAvn  and  organized  regions,  upon  which  she 
strengthened  the  hold  of  civilization,  ignoring 
all  that  lay  beyond  her  well-defined  boundaries, 
a  policy  which  was  accentuated  as  the  empire 
tended  toward  decay. 

Christianity  was  introduced  into  Africa  in  the 
earliest  days,  and  the  North  African  (ZJhurch  was 
a  recognized  division  of  the  Christian  Church  in 
the  second  century,  and  when  a  synod  of  this 
Church  was  held  in  258  it  was  attended  by  87 
bishops.  Its  chief  city  was  Carthage.  Three 
names  in  this  Church  are  prominent:  Tertullian 
(third  century),  the  first  to  employ  the  Latin 
language  in  the  service  of  Christianity,  Cyprian 
(third  century),  Bishop  of  Carthage,  and  one  of 
the  great  ecclesiastics  of  the  early  Church;  and 
Augustine  (fifth  century).  Bishop  of  Hippo, 
the  greatest  of  the  Latin  fathers.  The 
earliest  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Latin  was 
made  in  North  Africa,  and  it  was  the  battle 
ground  of  the  famous  fights  with  heretics  and 
schismatics,  such  as  Donatists,  Pelagians,  and 
Montanists.  But  the  Church  was  destined  to 
have  a  short  life.  Undermined  by  formalism  and 
apathy,  it  fell  beneath  the  Mohammedan  on- 
slaught in  the  seventh  century.  During  the 
Germanic  invasions  the  Vandals  grasped  the 
African  provinces,  and  in  the  early  mediap- 
val  pericld  much  that  had  been  known  to 
Ptolemy  and  the  geographers  who  preceded 
him  was  forgotten.  The  maps  of  Ptolemy, 
representing  the  knowledge  of  the  second  Chris- 
tian century,  indicate  the  course  and  sources 
of  the  Nile  and  the  mountains  of  West  Cen- 
tral Africa  more  accurately  than  they  were 
again  shown  on  maps  before  the  middle  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  What  Europe  was  forget- 
ting, the  Arabs,  in  the  advance  of  the  Moham- 
medan power,  rediscovered.  From  Arabia  the 
new  faith  spread  rapidly  westward  along  the 
southern  shores  of  the  Mediterranean  and  inland 
across  the  desert.  It  took  such  deep  root  in 
Northern  Africa  that  the  Christian  religion, 
which  in  many  places  was  then  well  established, 
has  never  been  able  to  regain  a  real  foothold 
among  the  native  races. 

Northern  Africa  became  a  battle  ground  dur- 
ing the  later  Crusades  and  all  the  succeeding 
struggles  on  the  Mediterranean  between  Cross 
and  Crescent,  and  was  the  scene  of  changes  and 
strife  among  rival  Mohammedan  dynasties;  but 
ignorance  of  the  rest  of  the  continent  only  deep- 
ened with  the  centuries,  except  among  the' Arabs, 
who  occasionally  pushed  their  expeditions  south- 
ward. If  traditions  may  be  believed,  Norman 
vessels  from  Dieppe  visited  the  Grold  Coast 
as  early  as  1364,  and  in  1413  the  Normans 
built  a  fort  at  Elmina.  There  is  neither 
inherent  improbability  in  this  story  nor  sat- 
isfactory   evidence    to    prove    it,    but    it    is 


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probable  that  Norman  voyagers  found  their 
way  to  the  West  African  coast  at  a  very  early 
period.  In  1402  Jean  de  B^thencourt  sailed  from 
La  Rochelle  and  established  a  settlement  on  Lan- 
zarote,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands.  During  the 
next  three  years  he  extended  his  sway  over  the 
natives  of  the  neighboring  islands.  Although 
his  expedition  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  the  be- 
ginning of  modern  African  discovery,  the  ac- 
counts of  it  show  conclusively  that  the  islands 
were  already  comparatively  well  known.  Indeed, 
B^thencourt  seems  to  have  started  with  some 
sort  of  a  grant  from  the  King  of  Castile.  Long 
before,  in  1344,  the  Pope  had  granted  the  islands 
to  a  scion  of  the  roval  house  of  Castile,  Don 
Luis  dc  la  Cerda,  who  had  taken  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Fortune,  i.e.,  of  the  Fortunate  Islands, 
lliis  same  year,  1344,  is  given  as  the  date  for  the 
discovery  of  Madeira.  In  that  year,  so  the  talc 
goes,  a  young  Englishman,  Robert  Machin,  eloped 
with  Anne  d'Arfet,  or  Dorset,  a  woman  of  noble 
birth,  and  sailed  away  with  her  for  France,  but 
contrary  winds  carried  them  to  the  island  of 
Madeira.  There  the  lovers  died;  but  one  of  the 
company  returned  to  Portugal,  and  the  report  of 
his  adventures  served  to  guide  the  captains  of 
Prince  Henry,  who  rediscovered  the  island  in 
1419. 

The  real  opening  of  Africa  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  modern  world  began  with  Prince  Henry  of 
Portugal,  called  the  Navigator  (q.v.).  In  1415 
he  participated  in  the  victorious  campaign  of  Por- 
tugal against  the  Moorish  citadel  of  Ceuta  and 
his  interest  was  awakened  by  the  enigma  of  the 
unknown  continent.  On  his  return  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  task  of  sending  expedition  after 
expedition  down  the  African  coast  to  determine 
the  extent  of  the  continent,  and  to  find,  if  pos- 
sible, a  way  to  the  east  around  it.  These  expe- 
ditions crept  further  and  further  southward.  In 
1445  an  exploring  party  started  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Rio  d'Ouro  and  spent  seven  months  in  the 
interior.  Gil  Eannes  passed  beyond  Cape  Bo- 
jador,  the  "bulging  cape,"  oflf  which  the  Atlantic 
currents  ran  so  strong  as  to  bar  all  previous  at- 
tempts at  progress.  In  1441  a  vessel  brought 
back  some  Moorish  captives;  a  year  later  tw« 
of  these  captives  were  exchanged  for  ten  negro 
slaves  and  some  gold  dust — ^and  the  demoralizing 
trade  which  was  to  eharacteri;:e  West  Africa  for 
nearly  four  centuries  was  fairly  begun.  The  Bay 
of  Arguin  was  reached  in  1443,  and  the  next  year 
a  syndicate,  or  company,  the  first  of  the  many 
that  have  exploited  the  Slave  Coast,  was  organ- 
ized at  Lagos.  In  1445  Diniz  Dias  .passed  the 
mouth  of  the  Senegal,  discovered  Cape  Verde, 
and  returned  to  Portugal  with  four  negroes  taken 
from  their  own  country,  previous  importations 
having  been  secured  by  exchange  with  the  Moors. 
The  next  year  Nufio  TristSto  reached  the  Gambia, 
uhere  he  was  killed,  with  most  of  his  followers, 
by  the  natives.  Ten  years  later,  1455  and  1466, 
Cadamosto  (q.v.)  explored  the  river  and  dis- 
covered the  Cape  Verde  Islands.  The  impulse 
given  to  exploration  by  Prince  Henry  continued 
after  his  death,  which  occurred  in  1460.  Pedro 
de  Cintra,  in  1462,  added  the  coast  as  far  as 
Sierra  Leone  and  Cape  Mesurado  to  the  Portu- 
guese claims.  In  1471  Santarem  and  Escobar 
<*arried  the  Portuguese  flag  across  the  equator. 
Commerce,  meanvmile,  was  familiarizing  pilots 
and  the  makers  of  sailing  charts  with  the  details 
of  the  coast.  The  search  for  new  centres  of 
profitable   trade   went  on,   and   in   1484   Diego 


Cam  passed  the  Congo  and  heard  from  the  na- 
tives tales  which  seemed  to  confirm  the  old  story 
of  Prester  John  (q.v.),  a  Christian  king  ruling 
somewhere  beyond  the  wall  of  Mohammedanism 
with  which  Europe  was  surrounded.  It  has  been 
supposed  by  some  that  the  King  of  Abyssinia  was 
the  subject  of  this  legend.  The  Portuguese  king 
determined  to  communicate  with  this  unknown 
Christian  brother,  and  in  July,  1487,  sent  Bar- 
tholomeu  Dias  (q.v.)  with  two  ships  of  some 
fifty  tons  and  a  smaller  tender  to  carry  his  mes- 
sage. From  the  Congo,  Dias  beat  down  to  Cape 
Voltas,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Orange  River. 
Thence  he  was  driven  by  storm  southward  for 
thirteen  days,  after  which  he  steered  north  and 
east  in  the  hope  of  regaining  land.  He  sighted  the 
southern  coasft  of  Africa,  near  the  Gouritz  River, 
at  Vleesch  Bay.  Keeping  on  toward  the  east, 
he  landed  on  an  island  in  Algoa  Bay,  still  known 
as  Santa  Cruz,  or  St.  Croix,  from  the  cross 
which  he  set  up  there.  When  he  reached  the 
mouth  of  the  Great  Fish  River,  long  the  boun- 
dary of  Cape  Colony,  the  patience  of  his  crews 
gave  out  and  they  forced  him  to  put  about  for 
home.  On  the  return  journey  he  sighted,  first  of 
modem  sailors,  the  great  landmark  which  has 
appropriated  the  generic  name  of  The  Cape.  Dias 
christened  it  the  Stormy  Cape  (Cabo  Tormen- 
toso),  but  on  his  return  in  December,  1488,  the 
King  (or,  according  to  Christopher  Columbus, 
Dias  himself)  gave  it  the  more  cheering  name  ol 
the  Cape  of  (^ood  Hope. 

While  Dias  was  rounding  the  Cape,  the  King, 
fearing  lest  his  vessels  might  fail  to  reach 
Prester  John,  sent  another  message  to  that 
potentate,  overland,  by  Pedro  de  CovilhSo  and 
Alfonso  de  Payva.  From  Aden,  in  Arabfa, 
Payva  made  his  way  to  Abyssinia,  where  he  was 
killed,  while  CovilhSo  went  eastward  to  India. 
From  Goa  Covilh&o  sailed  to  Sofala,  in  Eastern 
Africa,  where  he  gathered  news  of  Madagascar, 
and  satisfied  himself  that  it  would  be  possible 
to  go  around  to  the  western  side  of  Africa  by 
water.  His  report  reached  Portugal  in  1490,  but 
it  was  seven  years  before  Vasco  da  Gama  (q.v.) 
proved  its  correctness,  in  November,  1497.  Start- 
ing from  Lisbon,  he  doubled  the  Cape,  and  after 
encountering  storm  and  tempest  and  the  southern 
sweep  of  the  Mozambique  current,  sighted,  on 
Christmas  Day,  1497,  the  land  which  still  bears 
the  name  he  gave  it  in  honor  of  the  day — ^Natal. 
After  touching  at  Mozambique  and  Mombasa, 
he  arrived  on  Easter  at  Melinda,  where  he 
found  a  pilot  who  took  him  across  to  India.  The 
land  was  sighted  on  May  17,  1498,  and  three  days 
later  Da  Gama  anchored  off  Calicut. 

Modern  Exploration.  Thus  far  the  Portu- 
guese had  been  almost  alone  in  the  exploration 
of  Africa,  but  in  the  second  half  of  the  eight- 
eenth century  a  new  era  of  discovery  began — an 
era  in  which  men  of  several  nationalities  have 
had  a  share,  and  by  the  results  of  which  several 
nations  have  sought  to  profit.  The  new  line  of 
explorers  is  headed  by  James  Bruce  (q.v.),  a 
Scotchman  who  had  been  British  consul  at 
Algiers  from  1763  to  1765.  While  in  Egypt  in 
1768  he  conceived  the  plan  of  seeking  for  the 
sources  of  the  Nile.  After  crossing  the  Red  Sea 
to  Jiddah,  he  entered  Abyssinia  by  the  way  of 
Massowah,  and  proceeded  to  (Jondar,  where  he 
won  the  favor  of  the  Negus,  After  some  delay 
he  succeeded  in  reaching  the  headwaters  of  the 
Blue  Nile,  and  believed  that  he  had  found  the 
true  source  of  the  main  river.     He  arrived  in 


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Cairo  in  1773.  His  account  of  his  journey  and 
the  increasing  interest  in  the  slave  traffic  led  to 
the  organization,  in  1788,  of  the  African  Associa- 
tion, expressly  intended  to  promote  the  explora- 
tion of  the  unknown  parts  of  the  continent.  In 
1795  the  association  despatched  Mungo  Park 
(q.v.),  a  young  Scotchman,  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Gambia,  to  explore  the  interior  and  to  find  the 
Niger,  on  which  was  supposed  to  be  the  negro 
city  of  Timbuktu.  Passing  up  the  Gambia,  Park, 
after  many  adventures,  reached  the  Niger,  which 
he  traced  for  a  considerable  distance  along  its 
middle  course.  He  returned  to  England,  but 
again  set  forth  in  1806,  intending  to  travel  over- 
land to  the  Niger,  and  by  sailing  down  that 
stream  prove  his  theory  that  it  was  identical 
with  the  river  which  was  known  at  the  mouth  as 
the  Congo.  He  was  drowned  at  Bussa,  with 
one  of  his  companions,  and  all  the  other  members 
of  the  party  succumbed  to  fever. 

Meanwhile,  the  Portuguese  Brazilian,  F.  J.  de 
Lacerda,  in  1797  started  from  the  Zambezi  to 
cross  the  continent  from  east  to  west,  but  died 
near  Lake  Moero.  Other  Portuguese  explorers 
traversed  this  region  from  both  sides  during  the 
next  thirty-five  years.  The  stories  that  Park 
had  heard  and  published  about  the  mysterious 
city  of  Timbuktu  aroused  great  curiosity.  The 
city  was  reached  in  1811  by  a  British  seaman 
named  Adams,  who  had  been  wrecked  on  the 
Moorish  coast  and  carried  inland  as  a  slave,  but 
was  ransomed  by  the  British  consul  at  Mogador. 
In  1822  Major  Denham  and  Lieutenant  Clap- 
perton  (q.v.)  attempted  the  trans-Saharan  route 
to  Timbuktu.  From  Murzuk,  the  capital  of 
Fezzan,  they  made  their  way  to  Lake  Chad  and 
thence  to  Bornu,  adding,  in  a  second  trip  by  Clap- 
perton  from  Benin  to  the  Niger,  some  two  thou- 
sand miles  of  route  to  the  known  geography  of 
West  Africa.  In  1826  Timbuktu  was  reached  by 
Major  Laing  (q.v.),  who  was  murdered  there. 
In  1828  Rene  Caillifi  reached  the  far-famed 
metropolis,  and  his  report  aroused  widespread  in- 
terest, one  sign  of  which  was  the  prize  poem 
with  which  Tennyson  began  his  public  career. 
The  doubtful  geographical  problem  of  the  course 
and  mouth  of  tlie  Niger  was  finally  solved,  1830- 
34,  by  the  Lander  brothers.  At  this  time  the 
exploration  of  the  Nile  was  carried  on  under  the 
auspices  of  Mehemet  Ali,  its  course  being  traced 
a  J  moat  to  the  equator.  In  1847  the  German  mis- 
sionaries, Krapf  and  Rebmann,  discovered  the 
peaks  of  Kilimanjaro  and  Kenia. 

The  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  marked 
the  introduction  of  the  distinctly  scientific  spirit 
into  African  exploration.  Heretofore  the  thirst 
for  adventure,  the  desire  to  develop  a  profitable 
trade,  and  a  somewhat  sentimental  humani- 
tnrianism  had  been  the  chief  motives  of  the  ex- 
peditions. The  era  of  systematic  scientific  ex- 
ploration was  ushered  in  by  Dr.  Heinrich  Barth 
fq.v.),  a  German  in  the  English  service.  The 
primary  object  of  his  activity  was  the  opening 
of  trade  with  Central  Africa.  He  left  Tripoli 
early  in  1850  with  James  Richardson,  who  died 
soon  after  leaving  Bornu,  where  the  party  had 
separated.  Overweg,  another  of  the  leaders,  was 
the  first  European  to  sail  on  Lake  Chad,  and 
died  in  1852.  Barth,  for  four  years,  conducted 
extensive  explorations  in  the  heart  of  Africa. 
From  Lake  Chad  he  crossed  Haussaland  to  the 
Niger,  thence  across  country  to  Timbuktu, 
thence  back  to  Say  on  the  Niger,  to  Sokoto,  to 
Kukawa  in  Bornu,  and  across  the  desert  to 
Tripoli,  whence  he   returned   to  England  with 


the  most  valuable  contribution  yet  made  te  the 
geographical  knowledge  of  interior  Africa.  His 
voluminous  works  are  of  the  highest  value.  Be- 
fore Barth  started  from  the  north,  another  of 
the  greatest  of  African  explorers,  David  Living- 
stone (q.v.),  had  unostentatiously  begun  his  re- 
markable career.  He  had  settled  in  1841  in  Bechu- 
analand,  and,  gradually  pushing  northward,  dis- 
covered Lake  Ngami  in  1849.  In  1851  he  arrived 
at  the  Zambezi.  He  prepared  himself  thorough- 
ly for  more  extended  work,  and  went  to  the  Zam- 
bezi again  in  1852,  followed  up  the  river  almost  to 
its  source,  crossed  to  Angola,  and  then  returned 
and  followed  the  Zambezi  to  its  mouth.  He 
went  to  London  in  1856.  Burton  (q.v.)  and 
Speke  (q.v.)  explored  Somaliland  in  1854,  and 
in  1856  led  an  expedition  under  the  auspices  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  which  discov- 
ered Tanganyika  and  the  southern  shore  of 
Victoria  Nyanza,  which  Speke  and  Grant  ex- 
plored from  1860  to  1864.  Numerous  Austrian, 
Italian,  Grerman,  and  English  explorers  had  been 
working  in  the  Nile  region.  Sir  Samuel  Baker 
explored  the  Abyssinian  branches  of  the  Nile, 
met  Speke  and  Grant  in  1864,  and  discovered 
the  Albert  Nyanza  and  ite  connection  with  the 
Nile.  Livingstone,  between  1858  and  1864,  ex- 
plored the  River  Shire  and  discovered  Lake 
Nyassa.  He  renewed  his  work  in  1866,  going 
from  the  Ruvuma  River  to  Nyassa,  Tanganyika, 
Moero,  the  Luapula  River,*  and  Bangweolo, 
where  he  arrived  in  1868.  Thence  he  went  to 
Tanganyika  and  Nyangwe  on  the  Upper  Congo, 
which  he  called  the  Lualaba.  At  Ujiji  a  relief 
expedition  sent  by  the  New  York  Herald  under 
H.  M.  Stanley  (q.v.)  met  him  in  1871.  Living- 
stone soon  returned  to  Lake  Bangweolo,  where 
he  died  in  1873.  Another  relief  expedition  sent 
out  by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society  in  1873 
under  Lieutenant  Cameron,  starting  at  Zanzibar, 
learned  of  Livingstone's  death,  but  went  on, 
mapped  Lake  Tanganyika,  found  that  the  Lua- 
laba was  really  the  Congo,  and  reached  Benguela 
in  1875,  having  crossed  the  continent. 

While  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  the 
sources  of  the  Nile  was  being  achieved,  import- 
ant! accessions  were  made  to  the  knowledge  of 
the  geography  of  Western  Africa.  Du  Chaillu 
explored  the  coimtry  back  of  the  Gabun  and  the 
region  of  the  Ogowe,  and  Burton  in  1861  scaled 
the  Peak  of  Kamerun. 

Dr.  Gerhard  Rohlfs  (q.v.),  a  German  serving 
in  the  foreign  legion  in  Algeria,  began  to  make 
explorations  in  Algeria  and  Morocco  about  1860, 
and  in  1866  succeeded  in  making  the  journey 
across  the  desert  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  An- 
other German,  Dr.  Nachtigal  (q.v.),  intrusted  by 
the  Prussian  Government  with  a  mission  to  the 
Sulten  of  Bornu,  started  from  Tripoli  in  1868, 
explored  the  mountains  in  the  central  Sahara, 
and  the  whole  of  the  eastern  Sahara  and  Sudan. 
In  1875  Stanley  circumnavigated  the  two  great 
lakes,  Victoria  Nyanza  and  Tanganyika,  crossed 
,to  the  Congo,  embarked  upon  that  river  at  Nyan- 
gwe, in  1876,  and  followed  its  course  to  the 
Atlantic,  which  he  reached  in  August,  1877. 
Schweinfurth  (q.v.),  a  native  of  Riga,  ascended 
the  White  Nile  in  1868,  discovered  the  Welle 
River,  and  returned  to  Egypt  in  1872,  having 
accumulated  a  large  amount  of  information. 
Leopold  II.,  King  of  the  Belgians,  took  an 
active  interest  in  the  work  going  on  in  Africa, 
and  in  1876  organized  the  International  African 
Association,  in  which  most  of  the  European  coun- 
tries were  associated.    Several  geographical  and 


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flcientific  expeditions  were  the  product  of  this 
organization,  and  stations  were  opened  from 
Zanzibar  to  Tanganyika.  In  1879  Stanley  was 
sent  into  the  Congo  country,  supported  by  funds 
furnished  chiefly  by  Leopold,  and  worked  for 
five  years  in  that  region  in  the  name  of  the  asso- 
ciation. Several  thousand  treaties  were  made 
with  native  chiefs,  by  which  territorial  rights 
of  more  or  less  value  were  acquired,  and  perma- 
nent posts,  with  regular  routes  of  trade  and 
travel,  were  established  along  the  course  of  the 
river.  The  purpose  was  to  found  a  State  which 
should  be  a  civilizing  centre,  in  the  heart  of 
Africa.  For  a  time  there  was  some  international 
interest  in  the  project;  but  for  several  years 
those  European  powers  which  had  been  active 
in  African  exploration  had  been  looking  for- 
ward to  possible  political  results,  and  the 
institution  of  such  a  State,  with  a  territory 
comprising  about  one-eleventh  of  the  whole 
continent,*  seems  to  have  been  the  signal  for 
the  rise  of  territorial  claims  on  all  sides. 
Interest  in  the  international  enterprise  died 
out,  and  the  King  of  the  Belgians  was  left 
free  to  develop  the  Congo  State  into  a  Bel- 
gian dependency.  The  English  hoped  to  make 
it  an  English  possession,  and  the  attempt  of 
Great  Britain  to  come  to  an  agreement  with 
Portugal,  whose  territory  in  the  southwest 
touched  that  of  the  Congo  State,  led  to  the  as- 
sembling in  1884  of  the  Berlin  Conference,  called 
to  bring  about  an  international  agreement  in 
African  affairs.  The  results  of  this  conference 
are  described  in  a  subsequent  paragraph. 

Of  the  long  list  of  African  explorers  up  to  this 
time  only  those  have  been  mentioned  whose  work 
marked  a  distinct  advance  in  the  knowledge  of 
the  continent.  There  may  be  added  to  the  num- 
ber, prior  to  1885,  the  Portuguese  Serpa  Pinto 
(1877-79) ,  and  Capello  and  Ivens  ( 1884-85) ,  who 
made  valuable  explorations  in  South  Africa; 
Junker  (1880-83),  a  traveler,  whose  examina- 
tion of  the  western  watershed  of  the  Nile  was  of 
jBrreat  value;  Joseph  Thomson  (1883-84),  who 
made  thorough  studies  of  the  mountainous  coun- 
try between  Mombasa  and  the  lakes,  and  likewise 
in  West  Africa  and  the  Atlas  Mountains:  Wiss- 
mann  (1881-82),  who  crossed  the  continent  and 
returned  through  the  southern  side  of  the  Congo 
basin;  Oscar  Lenz,  who,  in  1879-87,  went  from 
•Morocco  to  Senegambia  by  the  way  of  Timbuktu, 
ascended  the  Congo,  and  traveled  to  the  Zambezi 
by  the  way  of  Tanganyika ;  Brazza,  who  explored 
the  country  between  the  Ogowe  and  Congo;  and 
Emil  Holub,  who  added  jp^reatly  to  the  knowledge 
of  the  natural  history  of  South  Africa. 

Much  has  been  done  in  the  way  of  exploration 
since  1885,  the  object  generally  being  to  perfect 
geographical  and  scientific  knowledge  of  the  dif- 
ferent regions.  Of  such  expeditions,  the  best 
known  and  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  was  Stan- 
ley's  mission,  undertaken 'in  1887,  in  search  of' 
Cordon's  lieutenant,  the  German  Schnitzer,  bet- 
ter known  as  Emin  Pasha,  who  had  retreated  into 
the  interior  after  the  fall  of  Khartum.  Stanley 
went  up  the  Congo  and  crossed  to  Zanzibar.  On 
the  journey  he  traversed  the  dense  and  vast  forest 
inhabited  by  diminutive  savages,  and  thus  con- 
firmed ancient  accounts  of  African  pigmies.  The 
predominance  of  the  British  in  Egypt  and  in 
South  Africa,  and  the  fact  that  the  territory 
under  British  influence  stretches  with  but  one 
break  (German  East  Africa)  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Nile  to  Cape  Town,  has  given  rise  to  the 
project  of  a  trunk  line  railway  "from  the  Cape 


to  Cairo,"  a  project  which  is  likely  to  be  carried 
out  at  no  distant  day,  with  far-reaching  conse- 
quences in  the  development  of  the  continent. 
This  plan  led  to  the  crossing  of  the  continent 
from  south  to  north  by  Ewart  S.  Grogan  and 
Arthur  Sharp  in  1899.  Their  journey  was  an 
adventurous  and  dangerous  one,  but  the  change 
in  African  conditions  at  the  end  of  the  nineteenth 
century  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  there  was  a 
choice  of  routes  in  buying  first-class  railway 
tickets  from  the  Cape  to  Karonga  at  the  head  of 
Lake  Nyassa,  and  the  journey  from  Sobat,  a 
considerable  distance  south  of  Fashoda,  is  de- 
scribed as  "a  fortnight  of  wild  hospitality"  at 
the  hands  of  English  friends.  This  journey  was 
productive  of  much  valuable  information  regard- 
ing the  country  which  the  transcontinental  line 
is  expected  to  traverse  in  the  volcanic  region 
around  Lake  Kivu  and  on  the  eastern  shores  of 
Lake  Albert  Edward  and  the  Upper  Nile.  A  host 
of  scientific  investigators  and  explorers  have  in 
the  last  twenty  years  done  useful  work  in  various 
African  fields.  Among  such,  special  reference 
should  be  made  to  Donaldson  Smith  in  connec- 
tion with  explorations  in  Somaliland.  The  two 
most  notable  expeditions  of  recent  years  have  been 
those  of  March  and  (the  "Marchand  Mission  to 
Fashoda")  and  Foureau,  the  latter,  in  his  trans- 
Saharan  journey  to  the  Congo,  making  an  epoch 
in  African  exploration.  One  of  the  most  extra- 
ordinary among  African  explorers  for  his  suc- 
cess as  traveler^  organizer,  administrator,  and 
historian  of  Africa  is  Sir  Harry  H.  Johnston. 

The  Pabtition  of  Africa.  The  Berlin  Con- 
ference is  important  in  the  history  of  Africa  as 
marking  the  transition  from  a  period  of  explo- 
rations undertaken  in  a  spirit  of  scientific  curi- 
osity or  gain  to  a  period  in  which  the  play  of 
international  politics  is  the  most  prominent 
feature.  The  crucial  question  before  the  con- 
ference was  that  of  the  Congo  State  (q.v.)  and 
its  relations  with  neighboring  territories.  Ulti- 
mately it  was  recognized  as  an  independent,  neu- 
tral State,  under  the  personal  sovereignty  of  the 
Kinff  of  Belgium.  The  title  of  France  to  the 
territory  of  the  French  Congo  and  the  Upper 
Ubanghi  was  acknowledged,  with  a  right  of  pre- 
emption in  case  of  the  transfer  of  the  Congo 
State  from  Belgium  to  another  power.  The  con- 
ference also  determined  the  spheres  of  the  sev- 
eral interested  powers  in  Africa,  so  that  the 
numerous  boundary  treaties  and  agreements  that 
have  been  arranged  since  1885  have  virtually 
been  executory  provisions  added  to  the  Berlin 
convention.  Three  such  treaties  were  concluded 
by  Great  Britain  in  1890.  The  Anglo-German 
agreement,  signed  at  Berlin  July  1,  gave  Ger- 
many the  island  of  Heligoland  in  the  North  Sea 
in  return  for  certain  concessions  which  harmo- 
nized the  relations  of  the  two  powers  in  Eastern 
Africa;  the  Anglo-French  agreement,  signed  at 
London,  August  5,  recognizea  an  English  protec- 
torate over  Zanzibar  and  Pemba  and  a  French 
protectorate  over  Madagascar,  and  determined 
the  French  sphere  of  influence  as  extending  from 
Algeria  southward  to  a  line  from  Say  on  the  Niger 
to  Lake  Chad;  the  Anglo-Portuguese  agree- 
ment, August  20  and  November  14,  established 
the  respective  territorial  rights  of  Portugal  and 
the  British  South  Africa  Company.  Subsequent 
agreements  between  England,  France,  and  Ger- 
many (1899)  defined  their  respective  territories 
and  protectorates  in  West  Africa.  The  question 
of  the  control  of  the  Nile  region  and  of  South 
Africa    gave    rise    to    numerous    attempts    to 


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seoure  adjustments  in  that  quarter  and  agree- 
I  lien  Is  to  which  Abyssinia,  Egypt,  France,  Ger- 
many, Great  Britain,  and  Italy  were  parties  were 
made  in  1891,  1803,  1894,  1895,  1896,  1807,  and 
lBl}g.  In  1900  the  demarkaiion  of  British  and 
German  boundaries  in  West  Africa  was  complet- 
ed. By  this  process  of  absorption  by  agreement, 
thi?  whole  African  continent  has  come  into  actual 
possession  or  political  control  of  European  States, 
with  the  exception  of  Morocco,  Abyssinia,  and 
Liberia.  The  Orange  Free  State  and  the  Trans- 
viiiil  lost  their  independent  existence  in  the  war 
with  Great  Britain  a899-1902). 

The  partition  of  the  African  continent  may  be 
Biiinmarized  as  follows:  In  the  northeast,  Egypt, 
nominally  under  Turkish  suzerainty,  is  really 
iiiider  British  control,  while  Egypt  and  Great 
Britain  exercise  a  condominium  over  the  eastern 
Sudan.  Barca  and  Tripoli  remain  subject  to 
tlie  Porte.  Tunis  and  Algeria  pertain  to  France, 
whose  influence  reaches  down  across  the  Sahara 
and  Sudan  to  the  northern  slope  of  the  Congo 
biiTisin.  On  the  west  coast  below  Morocco  is  the 
imTall  Rio  d'Ouro  possession  of  Spain.  Then 
come  the  French  Senegal,  British  Gambia,  Por- 
tunruese  Guinea,  French  Guinea,  the  British 
Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  another  block  of  French 
territory,  the  British  Ashanti,  German  Togoland, 
French  Dahomey,  the  extensive  British  Niger 
territories,  and  German  Kamerun.  Off  the  coast 
of  Kamerun  lies  the  Spanish  island  of  Fernando 
Pi>,  to  which  are  attached  some  other  small 
inlands  and  a  small  district  on  the  mainland 
cut  out  of  the  French  Congo  territory.  Below 
tlie  latter  lies  the  Congo  Free  State,  with  but  a 
small  coast  line,  the  wedge  of  the  small  Portu- 
giii'se  territory  of  Kabinda  pushed  in  between  it 
and  the  French  Congo.  South  of  the  Congo  lies 
tho  large  Portuguese  territory  of  Angola,  then 
German  South  Africa,  and  then  Cape  Colony,  one 
of  the  British  self-governing  possessions.  North 
of  tlie  latter  on  the  east  coast  is  the  British 
eolony  of  Natal,  and  north  of  that  Portuguese 
East  Africa.  Between  the  two  latter  and  Ger- 
man West  Africa  and  Angola,  the  territories  of 
British  South  Africa  and  British  Central  Africa 
ill  the  interior  extend  northward  to  the  Congo 
Stiite  and  to  German  East  Africa,  which  occupies 
tUt*  east  coast  north  of  Lake  Nyassa  and  the 
Rn vuma  River.  The  Orange  River  and  Vaal 
River  colonies  adjoin  Natal  and  British  South 
Afriea.  North  of  German  East  Africa  lies  Brit- 
ish East  Africa,  which  touches  on  the  north  the 
British  sphere  of  influence  in  the  Sudan.  Abys- 
sinia, and  on  the  coast,  Italian  Somaliland.  West 
of  tlie  latter  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden  is  the  British 
SoTnali  roast  protectorate,  then  French  Somali- 
land,  and  then  the  Italian  Eritrea,  the  four  ter- 
ritories last  named  shutting  Abyssinia  off  from 
th(^  coast.  The  area  and  population  of  the  Afri- 
ean  territories  possessed  or  controlled  by  the 
European  powers  are  approximately  as  follows: 

Country.          Square  miles.  Population. 

France  4.000,000*  32,t>35,010» 

Great  Britain         2,700,000t  41.773,360 

Germany  1,000,000  14,200,000 

T^ortugal  800,000  8,197,790 

Italy  200,000  450.000 

Spain  80.000  136,000 

Tirrkey  400,000  1,300,000 

J'or  fuller  accounts  of  the  important  phases  of 

•  Inclndlnf^  Madagascar  (q.v.).  • 

t  Inchisive  of  Egypt  and  the  Sudan. 


exploration  and  political  division,  see  biographi- 
cal articles  relating  to  the  leading  explorers, 
and  the  historical  sections  of  articles  on  Abys- 
sinia; Cape  of  Good  Hope;  Congo  Free  State. 
Egypt;  Madagascar;  Orange  Free  State,  and 
Transvaal. 

Bibliography.  For  general  works,  consult: 
Keane,  "Africa,"  in  Stanford's  Compendium  of 
Geography  and  Travel  (London,  1895),  a  general 
treatise  on  the  geography,  ethnology,  etc.,  of 
the  African  continent;  Sievers-Hahn,ti/rfil<i,  ctne 
allgemeine  Landeskunde  (Leipzig,  1901)  ;  Riclus, 
Physical  Geography,  translated  by  Keane  and 
Ravenstein  ( London,  1890-95)  ;  Lanier,  L'Afrique 
(Paris,  1896)  ;  Chavanne,  Afrika  im  Lichie 
unaerer  Tage  (Vienna.  1881)  ;  id.,  Afrik4U 
Strome  und  Fliisae  (Vienna,  1883)  ;  Fischer, 
Mehr  Licht  im  dunkeln  Weltteil  (Hamburg,. 
1885);  Hartmann  and  others,  Der  Weltteil 
Afrika  in  EinzeldarstellungeniJjeipzig.lSSS-SB) ; 
Johnston,  Africa  (London,  1884)  ;  Ratzel,  Volk- 
erkunde,  Volume  I.  (Leipzig,  1885)  :  Junker, 
"Wissenschaftliche  Ergebnisse  von  Reisen  in 
Zentral  Afrika,"  in  Petermann'8  Mitteilungen^ 
Erganzungsheft,  Volume  XX.  (Gotha,  1888) : 
White,  The  Development  of  Africa  (London, 
1892)  ;  Greswell,  Geography  of  Africa  South  of 
the  Zamheai  ( Oxford,  1 892 ) ,  with  notes  on  the 
industries,  wealth,  and  social  progress  of  the 
states  and  people. 

For  history  and  colonization,  consult:  Neu- 
mann, Nord  Afrika  nach  Jlerodof  (Leipzig,  1892)  ; 
SchUlten,  Das  romischc  Afrika  (Leipzig,  1899) : 
Graham,  Rom<in  Africa  (London,  1902)  ;  Kunst- 
mann,  Afrika  vor  der  Ankunft  dcr  Portugiesen 
(Munich,  1853);  Brown,  The  Story  of  Africa 
and  Its  Explorers  (London,  1892-95)  ;  Roskosch- 
ny,  Europas  Kolonien,  Volumes  I.-IV.  (Leipzig,. 
1885-80)  ;  Keltic,  The  Partition  of  Africa  (Lon- 
don, 1895)  ;  Deville,  Partage  de  VAfriquc  (Paris, 
1898)  ;  Johnston,  History  of  the  Colonization  of 
Africa  hy  Alien  iiaoe« ( Cambridge,  1899)  ;  Peters, 
Das  deutsch-ostafrikanische  Schutzgebcit  (Mu- 
nich, 1895)  ;  "British  Africa,"  in  British  Empire 
Series  (London,  1899),  a  collection  of  papers  by 
different  authors  compiled  to  afford  trustworthy 
information  concerning  the  British  colonies  in 
Africa. 

Ethnology  and  archaeology.  Keane,  Ethnolo- 
gy  (Cambridge,  1896)  ;  Deniker,  Races  of  Man 
(London,  1900)  ;  Edwards,  A  Thousand  Miles  up 
th€-  Nile  (Ijondon,  1891)  ;  Hartmann,  Die  Volker 
Afrikas  (Leipzig,  1879)  ;  Natives  of  South  Afri- 
ca, Their  Economic  and  Social  Condition,  edited 
by  South  African  Native  Races  Committee  (Lon- 
don, 1901). 

On  the  flora  of  Africa,  consult:  Engler,  Ueher 
die  HochfjehirgS'Flora  des  tropischen  Afrikas 
(Berlin.  1892)  ;  Sim,  The  Ferns  of  South  Africa 
(Cape  Town,  1892)  ;  Catalogue  of  African  Plants 
Collected  hy  Friedrich  Welwitsch  in  1853-61 
(London,  189C-1901);  Steiner,  "Flechten  aus 
British  Ost- Afrika,"  in  Kais.  Akud,  d.  Wissen- 
schaften,  Sitzungshericht  dcr  mathematisch- 
naturwissenschaftlichen  K?o«se, Volume  CVL,  pt, 
1  (Vienna,  1897)  ;  Oschatz,  Anordnung  der 
Vegetation  in  Afrika  (Erlangen,  1900).  On  the 
fauna,  consult:  Smith,  Illustrations  of  the 
Zoology  of  South  Africa,  5  volumes  (London, 
1849),  which  includes  mammals,  birds,  rep- 
tiles, fishes,  and  invertebrates;  Drummond, 
Large  Game  and  Natural  History  of  South  and 
East  Africa  (Edinburgh,  1875)  ;  Kolbe,  Beit  rag 
zur  Zobgeographie  West  Afrikas  (Halle,  1887)  ; 


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Trimen,  South  African  Butterflies,  3  volumes 
(London,  1887-89)  ;  Distant,  A  Naturalist  in  the 
Transvaal  (London,  1892)  ;  Kingsley,  Travels  in 
M^est  Africa'  (Ix)ndon,  1897),  which  contains 
Dr.  Gunther's  report  on  reptiles  and  fishes  and 
Rirby's  report  on  the  ortheoptera,  hymenoptera, 
and  hemiptera  collected  by  Miss  Kingsley;  Stur- 
nay,  "Katalog  der  bis  her  bekannt  gewordenen 
siid-afrikanischen  Land-und-Sfisswasser-Mollusk- 
en."  in  Kais,  Akad.  d.  Wissenschaften  math- 
naturiciss.  Denkschriften,  Volume  LXVII.  (Vi- 
enna, 1899).  Valuable  works  on  the  African 
climate  are:  Hann,  Handbuch  der  Klimatologie 
(Stuttgart,  1897)  ;4d.,  "Atlas  der  Meteorologie," 
in  TierghsLVLSfPhysikalischer  Atlas  (Gotha,1888)  ; 
Kavenstein,  "The  Climatology  of  Africa,"  in  Re- 
ports of  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science  for  1897  and  J 899  (London, 
1898,  1900)  ;  Bartholomew,  Physical  Atlas,  vol- 
ume on  "Meteorology" (London,  1901).  The  vol- 
umes of  the  Zeitschrift  der  oesterreichischen  Oe- 
sellschaft  fiir  Meteorologie  (Vienna,  1866-85)  and 
of  the  Meteorologische  Zeitschrift  (Berlin,  1884 
€t.  seq.)  contain  many  reports  of  meteorological 
observations  made  at  places  in  all  parts  of 
Africa. 

On  geology,  consult:  Neumayr,  Erdgeschichte 
(Leipzig,  1885-87)  ;  Suess,  Das  Antlitz  der  Erde 
(Leipzig,  1888-1901):  Chavanne,  Afrika  im 
Liehte  unserer  Tage:  Bodengestalt  und  geolo- 
g'vtcher  Bau  (Vienna,  1881);  Thomson,  "Notes 
on  the  Geology  of  East  Central  Africa,"  in  To 
the  Central  African  Lakes  (London,  1881); 
Lenz,  "Geologische  Karte  von  West  Afrika,"  in 
Petermann's  Mitteilungen,  Tafel  I.  (Gotha, 
1882)  ;  Moulle,  M4moire  sur  la  geologic  g&nirale 
et  sur  les  mines  de  diamante  de  VAfrique  du  Sud 
(Paris,  1885)  :  Schenck,  "Geologische  Skizze  von 
Slid  Afrika,"  in  Petermann's  Mitteilungen,  Ta- 
fel 13  (Gotha,  1888)  ;  Blanckenhorn,  "Die  geog- 
nostischen  Verhaitnisse  von  Afrika,"  in  Peter- 
ma»n*s  Mitteilungen,  Erganzungsheft,  Vol- 
ume XX.  (Gotha,  1888) ;  Hfthnel,  Rosiwal,  Toula, 
and  Suess,  Beitrage  zur  geologischen  Kenntnis 
des  fistlichen  Afrika  (Vienna,  1891)  ;  Scott  and 
(Jregory,  "The  Geology  of  Mount  Ruwenzori  and 
Some  Adjoining  Regions  of  Equatorial  Africa," 
in  Quarterly  Journal  of  the  Geological  Society, 
Volume  LI.  (London,  1895)  ;  Moolengraflf,  "Die 
Reihenfolge  und  Correlation  der  geologischen 
Formationen  in  Stid  Afrika,"  in  Neues  Jahrhuch 
fiir  Xiineralogie  (Stuttgart,  1900)  ;  Geological 
Map  of  North  Africa   (Zttrich,  1896). 

Among  the  numerous  books  dealing  with  Afri- 
can travel  and  exploration,  may  be  mentioned: 
Burton,  First  Footsteps  in  East  Africa  (London, 
1856)  ;  Livingstone,  Missionary  Travels  and  Re- 
searches in  South  Africa  (New  York,  1858)  ; 
id..  Narrative  of  an  Expedition  to  the  Zambesi 
and  its  Tributaries,  and  the  Discovery  of  the 
Lakes  Shinda  and  Nyassa,  1858-61^  (London, 
1865)  ;  id..  The  Last  Journals  of  David  Living- 
stone in  Central  Africa,  edited  by  Waller  (Lon- 
don, 1874)  ;  Rahlfs,  Quer  durch  Afrika  (Leipzig, 
1874-75),  a  journey  from  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
to  Lake  Chad  and  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea;  Cam- 
eron, Across  Africa  (New  York,  1877) ,  a  journal 
of  a  journey  from  Zanzibar  to  Benguela,  and  a 
valuable  record  of  the  habits  of  the  natives; 
Stanley,  Through  the  Dark  Continent  (New 
York,  1878)  ;  Holub,  Seven  Years  in  South  Afri- 
ca, translated  by  Frewer  (London,  1881)  ;  Pinto, 
//oir  /  Crossed  Africa,  translated  by  Elwes  ( Phil- 
adelphia,   1881 )  ;    Drummond,    Tropical    Africa 


(New  York,  1888) ;  Junker,  Reisen  in  Afrika 
(Vienna,  1889-9 1), translated  by  Keane  (London, 
1890-92)  ;  Stanley,  In  Darkest  AfHca  (New  York. 
1890),  an  account  of  the  (}uest,  rescue  and  re- 
treat of  Emin  Pasha;  Casati,  Ten  Years  in  Equa- 
toria,  translated  by  Clay  and  Landor  (London, 
1891 )  ;  Peters,  New  Light  on  Dark  Africa,  trans- 
lated by  Dulchen  (Jjondon,  1891),  the  narrative 
of  the  German  Emin  Pasha  expedition ;  Johnston, 
Livingstone  and  the  Exploration  of  Central 
Africa  (London,  1891);  Bryce,  Impressions  of 
South  Africa  (New  York,  1897)  ;  Loyd,  In  Dwarf 
Ijand  and  Cannibal  Country  (London,  1899). 

A7BICAINE,  L',  l&'frft'k&n'  (^r.  The  Afri- 
can). A  French  opera  by  Giacomo  Meyerbeer 
( q.v. ) .  The  words  are  by  Scribe,  and  it  was  pro- 
duced in  Paris,  April  28,  1865,  a  year  after  the 
composer's  death. 

AF^ICANa>EB.     See  Afkikandeb. 

AFRICAN  HAIB.     See  CHAMiSROPS. 

APBICAN  IN'TEBNATIONAL  ASSaCI* 
ACTION.  In  1876  the  King  of  Belgium  called 
a  conference  at  Brussels  of  geographers  and  ex- 
plorers to  consider  means  for  the  opening  up  of 
Africa  to  civilization,  and  there  the  African 
International  Association  was  formed,  with  the 
object  of  establishing  stations  for  scientific  pur- 
poses in  Eastern  Africa.  When  H.  M.  Stanley^ 
in  1877  revealed  the  magnitude  and  importance 
of  the  fertile  Congo  basin,  a  second  conference 
was  assembled  at  Brussels,  at  which  the  African 
International  Association  made  plans  which  ex- 
tended its  field  of  operation  over  the  newly 
explored  territory.  But  the  greed  of  the  differ- 
ent nations,  awakened  by  the  dazzling  territo- 
rial and  commercial  prospects  the  Congo  basin 
aflforded,  brought  about  endless  disputes,  until 
at  length  it  was  decided,  by  the  mutual  consent 
of  all  the  great  powers,  including  the  United 
States,  to  leave  the  final  adjustment  of  the  dif- 
ficulties to  an  international  conference  in  Berlin. 
The  conference  opened  at  Berlin,  November  17, 
1884,  with  Prince  Bismarck  in  the  chair,  and 
ended  its  labors  February  26,  1885.  Fifteen 
States  were  represented.  As  a  result  of  mutual 
compromises,  it  was  declared  that  the  immense 
regions  forming  the  basin  of  the  Congo  River 
and  its  tributaries  shall  be  neutral  territory, 
that  perfectly  free  trade  shall  exist  there,  that 
citizens  of  any  country  may  undertake  every 
species  of  transportation  within  its  limits,  that 
the  powers  exercising  sovereign  rights  over  neigh- 
boring territory  are  forbidden  to  exercise  monop- 
olies or  favors  of  any  kind  in  regard  to  trade,, 
and  that  they  shall  bind  themselves  to  suppress- 
slavery.  The  King  of  Belgium  was  made  sov- 
ereign of  the  new  State.  See  Africa;  Congo- 
Free  State;  Stanley,  H.  M. 

AFRICAN  IiAN^GUAGES.  Of  the  numer- 
ous classifications  of  African  languages,  that 
which  best  represents  our  present  knowledge  is 
the  following: 

1.  Semitic:  Arabic;  the  Abyssinian  lan- 
guages derived  from  Geez  (the  so-called  Ethi- 
opic),  i.e.,  Tigr6,  Tigrifia,  Amharic,  Harari,  Gu- 
rague.  The  languages  comprised  in  this  division 
were  brought  into  Africa  by  Semitic  immigrants 
or  invaders. 

2.  Hamitic:  Libyan  dialects;  ancient  Egyp- 
tian (whence  Coptic,  now  extinct),  Bishari 
(Beja,  Bedauye),  Saho,  Afar,  various  Agau 
dialects  of  Abyssinia  (Chamir,  Quara,  etc.),  and 


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i 


of  Um  highlands  south  of  it  (Kaffa,  Kullo,  etc.) , 
Gall*,  and  Somali,  Haussa  in  the  west  of  the 
Sudan. 

3.  Hottentot-Bushman.  Possibly  this  branch 
represents  two  different  divisions.  This  is  the 
Iheorj  of  F.  MUller.  But  the  Bushman  dialects 
hnv^  not  yet  been  sufficiently  investigated.  Lep- 
aiu!^'  attempt  to  connect  Hottentot  and  Hamitic 
word>«  is  not  convincing.  None  of  the  dwarf 
tribes  north  of  8**  south  latitude  have  preserved 
their  original  languages. 

4.  Thk  Bantu  Family;  which  embraces, rough- 
ly speaking,  all  Africa  south  of  the  equator.  Its 
lUDst  (JCTfect  type  is  represented  by  the  language 
of  ilw  Zulu  Kaffirs  and  their  nearest  relatives. 
To  what  extent  corrupt  Bantu  dialects  are  spok- 
en on  the  western  coast  has  not  yet  been  deter- 
in  ineiL 

5.  Tjie  Negro  Family;  so  called  because  the 
langnu^'CB  included  in  it  are  spoken  by  the  purest 
representatives  of  the  black  race.  The  idioms 
of  that  part  of  Africa  (between  the  equator  and 
the  Siihura)  show  such  a  perplexing  variety  of 
formation  that  their  classification  in  a  single 
group  must  be  considered  as  merely  provisional. 
rerhap:<»  half  a  dozen  different  branches  could 
be  mailc  of  the  Negro  tongues.  It  is  quite  pos- 
sible thkit  the  line  of  demarkation  from  the  Bantu 
or  ha!f  I^antu  languages  could  be  shifted  further 
north  (see  above);  but  the  theory  of  Lepsius, 
which  considers  the  whole  group  as  degenerate 
Bantu  languages,  can  hardly  be  proved;  the 
degTQe  of  affinity  would  be  ten  times  more  remote 
than,  for  example,  that  existing  between  Semitic 
and  Hamitic.  But  whether  it  be  regarded  as  a 
Aubdivi^iun  of  Bantu  or  as  an  independent 
branch,  the  negro  family  clearly  forms  a  distinct 
group,  possessing  marked  characteristics  of  its 
own. 

The  nature  of  the  following  groups  is  in  dis- 
pute 1 

fi.  The  Nilotic  Branch.  It  begins  with  the 
Nuba,  south  of  Egypt,  comprises  the  isolated 
remnants  of  the  Barea  and  Kunama  languages 
at  the  northern  frontier  of  Abyssinia,  and  runs 
west  of  Abyssinia  and  of  the  Galla  country  down 
to  the  AllMBrt  Lake,  where  the  Madi  and  Shuli 
farm  its  last  representatives.  It  is  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  Bantu  (beginning  in  Unyoro). 
The  M:isai  or  Oigob  are  an  isolated  advance 
guard  in  the  southwest.  The  principal  repre- 
sentatives in  the  Nile  Valley  are  the  Dinka,  Shil- 
luk,  an!  Bari.  The  line  of  demarkation  west  of 
the  Nile  is  difficult  to  trace;  with  the  Bongo 
and  Bawrimma,  the  Nilotic  passes  over  into  the 
perplexing  mass  of  the  fourth  group.  F.  MUller 
ealletl  the  sixth  the  Nuba-Fulah  branch,  but  the 
very  peculiar  Ful  language  is  best  treated  as  a 
perfect ly  isolated  phenomenon.  It  seems  to  have 
sftme  points  of  similarity  with  the  Hamitic  (on 
which  points  Schleicher  and  Krause  have  laid 
exaggerated  stress),  and  may  be  one  of  those 
odd  hlendings  of  different  languages,  defying  all 
rnle:^  of  linguistics,  of  which  Africa  furnishes 
variouts  examples  (e.g.,  the  Musgu  or  Muzuk). 
Its  position  among  the  Nilotic  languages  is  far 
from  Uiing  certain.  Anthropologically,  the  tribes 
speakiniT  the  languages  embraced  in  this  class 
are  for  the  most  part  pure  negroes,  though  some 
of  them  may  have  an  admixture  of  Hamitic 
bbxid. 

7.  The  Equatorial  Family.  Later  (1889), 
F.  Mdller  attempted  to  make  of  a  group  of  lan- 
guages, which  he  had  at  first  classed  with  the 


fifth  family,  a  special  branch,  which  he  called 
the  E<^uatorial  family.  The  languages  compos- 
ing this  branch  are  spoken  by  tribes  south  of 
Darfur;  among  them  the  Niam-Niam  (or 
A-sande)  and  Monbuttu  (or  Mangbattu)  are 
the  most  important.  As  was  said  above,  the  great 
fifth  group  contains  a  number  of  families  in 
regard  to  which  it  is  hard  to  determine  whether 
they  are  independent  branches  or  merely  sub- 
divisions of  the  general  group.  Most  of  the 
equatorial  tribes  belong  rather  to  a  light  Negro 
type. 

The  Malagasy  language,  spoken  on  the  island 
of  Madagascar,  belongs  to  the  Malay  family  of 
speech.  By  reason  of  its  geographical  position 
it  need  not  be  considered  here. 

Writino.  The  use  of  writing  and  the  neces- 
sity for  it  imply  a  degree  of  civilization  to  which 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  of  Africa  have 
never  risen.  It  is,  therefore,  almost  exclusively 
the  white  race,  represented  by  the  Hamites  and 
the  Semitic  immigrants,  which  comes  into  con- 
sideration here. 

Semitic.     In  the  Semitic  family  we  have  the 
Phoenician  alphabet,  used  by  the  Carthaginians 
along  the  northern  coast.    The  Punic  and  later 
Neo-Punic  characters  were  modifications  of  the 
Phoenician,    and    are    distinguished    by    special 
characteristics.    The   Arabic   character    ib   now 
used  wherever  Islam  has  become  the  prevailing 
religion;  but  it  is  mainly  employed  for  writing 
the  Arabic  language,  which  forms  the  general 
medium  of  religion,  commerce,  and  social  inter- 
course.    The  use  of  the  Arabic  character  for 
African  languages   is  not  very   frequent    (e.g., 
among  the  Berl^rs,  the  Suahelis).    The  Malay- 
an immigrants,  however,  and  the  Mohammedan 
Kaffirs   use   it   as   far  south   as   Cape   Colony: 
and  the  Mohammedans  of  Shoa  as  well  as  the 
inhabitants  —  also    Mohammedans  —  of    Harrar 
sometimes    write    their    respective    languages, 
Amharic  and  the  closelv  related  Harari,  in  Arabic 
letters.    On  the  other  hand,  in  and  around  Abys- 
sinia a  number  of  languages  are  regularly  writ- 
ten in  the  Amharic  modification,  or  rather  ampli- 
fication, of  the  old  Ethiopic  or  Geez  alphabet. 
Unlike   mo%t   of   the   other   Semitic   languages. 
Ethiopic  and  its  modern  descendants  are  written 
from   left  to  right.     The  vowels  are  expressed 
graphically  by  modifications  of  or  slight  addi- 
tions to  the  consonants,  thus  forming  a  kind  of 
syllabary.     We  can  trace  this  peculiar   system 
of  writing  as  far  back  as  the  fourth  century 
A.D.,  through  some  ancient  monuments  in  the  old 
capital  of  Axum    (consult  D.  H.  Mtiller,   Epi- 
graphische   Denkmaler   aus   Ahesaynien,    1894). 
The  development  of  those  peculiarities  took  place 
on  African  soil,  though  the  consonantal  charac- 
ters are  derived  from  the  old  South  Arabian  writ- 
ing (wrongly  called  Himyari tic).    See  Ethiopic 
Writing. 

Ancient  Egyptian.  From  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphic writing  was  developed  a  cursive  form, 
the  Hieratic,  .and  this  in  turn  gave  rise  to  the 
still  more  cursive  Demotic.  All  these  have  long 
since  passed  out  of  use,  though  Coptic,  which 
survives  only  as  the  ritual  lan^age  of  the  native 
Egyptian  church,  retains  in  its  alphabet  a  few 
characters  derived  from  the  Demotic. 

Ethiopian.  The  ancient  Ethiopians  of  Napa- 
ta  and  MeroC  had,  beside  the  Egyptian  systems 
of  writing,  which  they  used  almost  exclusively 
for  the  Egyptian  language,  a  cursive  system  of 
their  own  for  the  native  idiom.    As  the   few 


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ATTEB-IMAGES. 


inscriptions  in  this  character  which  have  heen 
preserved  have  not  yet  been  deciphered,  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  anything  positive  about  it.  It 
is  even  doubtful  what  language  these  inscrip- 
tions represent,  although  it- is  perhaps  nearer  to 
the  (negroid)  Nuba  than  to  the  Hamitic  Beja 
or  Bishari.  The  alphabet  was  evidently  bor- 
rowed from  outside  sources,  though  whether 
Egyptian  or  South-Arabic  elements  underlie  it, 
cannot  at  present  be  determined. 

Libyan  or  Numidian.  The  old  Libyan  or 
Numidian  writing,  a  very  imperfect  system,  goes 
back  to  the  ancient  alphabet  of  south  Arabia 
(as  Euting  has  clearly  shown) .  and  not  to  Punic. 
It  is  represented  by  many  inscriptions  in  Algeria 
and  Tunis.  The  first  decipherment,  on  the  basis 
of  the  famous  bilingual  inscription  of  Tukka, 
is  due  to  Blau  (see  also  Hal^vy,  Easai  d*4pi- 
graphie  Lihyque,  1875,  a  collection  by  Faidherbe, 
1870,  etc.) .  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  the  ancient 
funeral  inscriptions  in  this  character  read  from 
below  upward.  This  system  is  similar  to  the 
tifinaghen  or  alphabet  of  the  modern  Sahara 
tribes  (or  Tuaregs).  Oudney  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  who  observed  and  called  attention 
to  their  peculiar  system  of  writing  (1822).  The 
best  description  of  the  alphabet  is  to  be  found 
in  Hanoteau,  Oramniaire  de  la  langue  Tamachek 
(1860). 

Xeobo.  Only  one  Negro  language  has  devel- 
oped a  writing*  of  its  own,  the  Vei,  on  the  west 
coast  near  Cape  Mount.  Doalu  Bukere,  a  native 
who  knew  something  of  the  Roman  character, 
invented  it  about  the  year  1834.  The  writing 
was  afterward  used  for  Mohammedan  missionary 
work.  It  is  a  clumsy  syllabary  with  compli- 
cated forms  sometimes  suggestive  of  hieroglyph- 
ics, and  quite  distinct  from  European  or  Arabic 
writing.  A  number  of  books  have  been  written 
in  it,  but  the  Christian  missionaries  have  de- 
clined to  use  it,  and  it  is  d3dng  out.  It  has 
received  considerable  attention  from  linguists, 
as  the  only  case  known  in  which  the  actual  inven- 
tion of  a  system  of  writing,  in  popular  use,  can 
be  clearly  shown.  The  idea,  however,  was  cer- 
tainly borrowed  from  the  Europeans.  Consult: 
Steinthal,  Die  Mande-Neger-Spracken  (Berlin, 
1867). 

BiBLiooBAPHY.  For  the  classification  of  lan- 
guages, consult:  F.  MttUer,  Grundrisa  der 
l^prachicissenschaft  (Vienna,  1876-88),  also  his 
Ethnographic,  second  edition  (Vienna,  1870)  ; 
also  Cust,  A  Sketch  of  the  Modem  Languages 
of  Africa  (London,  1883),  which  is  based  on 
these  works.  Lepsius,  Nuhische  Orammatik 
(Berlin,  1880),  presents  somewhat  different 
^iews.  Consult  also:  Lepsius,  Standard  Alpha- 
bet (London,  1863).  As  preparatoiy  works  may 
be  mentioned :  Roelle,  Polyglotta  Africana  ( Lon- 
don, 1854),  Bleek,  Comparative  Orammar  of 
South  African  Langtiagea  (London,  1862-69), 
The  Library  of  Sir  O.  Grey  (London,  1858-63). 

APBICAN  METH'ODIST  EPIS'COPAL 
CHXmCH.     See  Methodism. 

APBICAN  HETH^ODIST  EPIS^COPAL 
Zl'Oir  CHTTBCH.    See  Methodism. 

AFBICAN  MTLOiET.     See  Sobohttm,  Non- 

8ACCHAKINE. 

AFBICAN  OAK.    See  Teak. 

AFBICA'NTJS,  Sextus  Julius.  A  Christian 
writer.  He  was  born  in  Libya,  and  made  his 
borne  in  Emmafis,  near  Jerusalem,  from  195  on 


till  after  240,  but  traveled  extensively  through 
Asia  Minor.  He  is  remembered  for  his  chronol- 
ogy from  the  creation  to  221,  of  which  frag- 
ments are  preserved.  These  and  portions  of 
other  writings  are  printed  in  Migne,  Patrologia 
Grceoa,  X.  51-108,  XI.  41-48;  English  transla- 
tion, Ante-Nicene  Fathers  (N.  Y.  edition),  VI. 
123-140. 

AFOSIICAN  WAB,  The.  In  Roman  history 
the  war  between  Julius  Ccesar  and  the  members 
of  the  Pompeiian  party  who,  after  the  battle  of 
Pharsalia,  renewed  the  conflict  in  Africa  and 
were  defeated  at  Thapsus,  46  b.c.  The  account 
known  as  the  Bellum  Africanum  attached  to  the 
works  of  Csesar  is  of  uncertain  authorship. 

AFBIDIS,  &-fre^dez.  One  of  the  Afghan  or 
Pathan  peoples  of  the  Indo- Afghan  border  who 
have  of  recent  years  come  into  hostile  contact 
with  the  British  authorities.  In  their  somewhat 
savage  yet  intelligent  semi-independence  they 
represent,  perhaps,  ancient  Aryan  society  of  an 
early  type.  A  brief  account  of  them  by  Holdich 
appeared  in  the  Journal  of  the  Anthropological 
Institute  (London)  for  1899. 

A7'BIKANa>£B.  The  Dutch  form  for  "Af- 
rican," used  of  white  persons  born  in  South 
Africa,  especially  the  Boers. 

APBIXANDEB  BUNDy  bynt,  or  BOND. 
An  association  in  South  Africa  designed  to  con- 
solidate the  influence  of  the  Afrikanders,  and 
looking  to  the  final  formation  of  an  independent 
union  of  the  South  African  States.  With  its 
present  name  it  dates  from  1880,  though  it  was 
started  the  year  before.  As  a  political  party  in 
Cape  Colony  it  for  a  time  supported  the  policy 
of  Cecil  Rhodes  (q.v.),  but  after  the  Jameson 
raid  (1895)  it  separated  itself  from  him.  In 
1898  it  secured  a  majority  in  the  colonial  legis- 
lature. While  it  urged  President  Kruger  to  a 
more  liberal  policy,  its  sympathies  on  the  out- 
break of  the  war  between  the  Transvaal  and 
Great  Britain  were  with  the  Boers.  On  Decem- 
ber, 6,  1900,  an  Afrikander  congress  was  held 
at  Worcester,  Cape  Colony,  which  demanded  the 
recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  Boer  re- 
publics and  condemned  the  war  and  the  policy 
of  the  High  Commissioner  of  the  colony. 

APBITEy  Sii^T^t.  A  powerful  spirit,  or  jinn 
(Lat.  genius),  figuring  in  the  stories  of  A  Thou- 
sand and  One  Nights, 

AFT.     See  Bearing. 

AyTEB-BOIKY.     See  Ship. 

AE'TEB-nC^AaES.  When  we  light  our  lamp 
in  the  evening  we  are  distinctly  conscious  that 
the  illumination  has  a  reddish-yellow  tinge.  As 
time  goes  on,  however,  we  lose  the  color;  the 
paper  on  which  we  write  seems  to  be  as  white 
as  the  same  paper  seen  in  diffuse  daylight;  our 
eyes  have  become  adapted,  or  have  grown  used, 
to  their  surroundings  (general  adaptation).  The 
law  of  adaptation  is  that  all  brightnesses  tend 
toward  a  middle  gray,  and  all  colors  toward 
neutrality.  Adaptation  leaves  an  after-effect, 
which  is  termed  disposition.  A  yellow-adapted 
eye  is  disposed  to  the  complementary  color,  or 
blue-sighted:  all  the  yellows  that  it  sees  tend 
toward  gray,  and  all  other  colors  take  on  a  tinge 
of  the  complementary  blue.  See  Contrast;  Vis- 
ual Sensation. 

Adaptation  may  be  local,  as  well  as  general. 
Suppose,  e.g.,  that  I  fixate  steadily  a  green  disk 
seen  upon  an  extended  white  background.     The 


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part  of  the  retina  upon  which  the  green  falls 
will  become  green-adapted,  and  therefore  red-dis- 
posed or  red-sighted.  Hence,  if  I  presently  re- 
move the  green  disk  I  shall  see  a  subjective  red 
disk  in  its  place.  This  red,  the  after-effect  of 
local  adaptation,  is  termed  (1)  the  negative 
after-image.  The  color  and  brightness  of  the 
after-image  are  always  complementary  to  the 
color  and  brightness  of  the  preceding  stimulus; 
a  dark-blue  stimulus  gives  a  bright  yellow  after- 
image, and  a  bright  yellow  stimulus  a  dark-blue 
after-image.  If  one  stares  for  half  a  minute  at 
a  window  that  gives  upon  a  bright  gray  sky  or 
a  snowy  landscape,  and  then  turns  one's  eyes 
upon  a  gray  screen  or  wall,  one  sees  an  after- 
image window  with  white  bars  and  black  panes. 
In  general,  the  vividness  and  duration  of  the  neg- 
ative after-image  depend  upon  the  intensity  and 
duration  of  the  stimulus  which  evokes  it,  and  on 
the  brightness  of  the  surface  upon  which  the 
after-image  is  projected  for  observation.  It  is 
probable,  although  the  point  is  still  disputed, 
that  the  course  of  the  after-image  is  intermit- 
tent, not  continuous.  Theoretically  important 
is  the  fact  that  a  contrast-color  (see  Ck)NTBAST) 
set  up  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  stimulus  is 
effective  in  the  after-image;  thus,  a  disk  of  red 
paper  seen  on  a  gray  background,  and  giving 
'a  narrow  green  ring  of  marginal  contrast,  ap- 
pears in  the  after-image  as  a  green  disk  sur- 
rounded by  a  distinct  reddish  halo.  (2)  If 
the  original  stimulus  be  very  strong  and 
of  brief  duration,  it  may  give  rise  to  what  has 
been  called  the  positive  after-image^  a  subjective 
phenomenon  in  which  the  stimulus-sensation  is 
reproduced,  only  with  diminished  brightness  and 
saturation.  (See  Visual  Sensation.)  Thus,  a 
flash  of  brilliant  red  light  would  be  followed,  first, 
by  a  brief,  but  noticeable,  blank  interval ;  then 
by  the  positive  after-image,  a  duller  and  pinker 
red;  then  by  a  second  interval,  somewhat  longer 
than  the  first;  and,  finally,  by  the  dark-green 
negative  image.  The  usual  explanation  of  this 
positive  image  is  that  the  physiological  effect  of 
stimulation  persists  for  some  time  after  the 
physical  stimulus  itself  has  ceased  to  operate; 
the  sensation,  therefore,  outlasts  the  stimulus, 
remaining  the  same  in  kind  throughout  its 
course.  This  account  is,  however,  as  inadequate 
as  is  the  theory  which  would  account  for  the 
negative  after-image  on  the  score  of  retinal  fa- 
tigue. It  is  disproved  by  the  single  fact  that 
the  short  interval  which  elapses  between  stimu- 
lus and  positive  image  (the  first  interval  de- 
scribed above  as  ''blank")  may,  under  certain 
circumstances,  be  filled  by  a  positive  and  comple- 
mentary image.  Thus,  if  a  glowing  red  point 
be  moved  slowly  to  and  fro  in  the  dark,  one  sees 
first  a  trail  of  red  light  (due  to  the  stimulus 
and  its  direct  after-effect),  and  then  a  bright 
(positive)  green  streak.  Then  should  follow,  if 
the  series  is  complete,  the  positive  image  proper, 
a  dull  red,  the  second  blank  interval,  and  the 
negative  green  image.  The  dull  red  is,  evidently, 
not  a  direct  continuation  of  the  red  of  the  stim- 
ulus. No  satisfactory  theory  is  as  yet  forth- 
coming. 

Especial  interest  attaches  to  the  colored  im- 
ages obtained  from  intensive  stimulation  with 
white  light.  Close  your  eyes  and  keep  them 
closed  until  there  is  no  trace  of  previous  stim- 
ulation (no  colored  after-image)  on  the  dark 
field.  Then  fixate  for  some  twenty  seconds  the 
middle  bar  of  a  window  which  looks  out  upon  a 


brilliantly  white  sky.     Close  your  eyes  again, 
and  note  the  development  of  the  after-image  on 
the  dark  field.    You  see  a  color  sequence,  which 
is  known  technically  as  the  flight  of  colors.    The 
current  explanation  of  the  phenomenon  is  that 
the  white  light  of  the  sky  is  broken  up  into  its 
physical  components,  in  somewhat  the  same  way 
as  a  ray  of  light  passing  through  a  prism  is 
broken  up  into  the  series  of  spectral  colors;  and 
that  the  retinal  excitations  corresponding  to  the 
red,  green,  and  violet  stimuli    (the  part-stimuli 
contained  in  the  white  light)  are  not  exactly  co- 
incident, but  overlap  in  time,  so  that  now  the 
one  and  now  the  other  shows  iteelf  in  the  after- 
image.    It    is,    however,    noteworthy    that   the 
flight  of  colors,  under  conditions   of  exact  oh- 
servation,  shows  unmistakable  evidence  of  two 
overlapping  complementary  series.    The  sequence 
is:     a   momentary  positive   image;    then,  after 
fluctuations,  a  blue,  a  green,  a  yellow,  a  red  (at 
this  stage  the  image  becomes  negative),  a  blue, 
and  a  green  image.    We  have,  that  is,  the  series 
blue-yellow-blue   and   the   series   green-red-green 
laid  over  one  another;  there  is  clear  indication 
of  antagonism  or  complementarism,  but  none  of 
a  general  breaking  up  of  the  white  light  into  its 
spectral  componente.     We  must  remember,  also, 
that  "white"  light  is  never  quite  colorless;  there 
is  always  some  tinge  of  color  in  diffuse  daylight. 
The  facte  point  to  the  validity  of  an  "antag- 
onistic"    theory     of     visual     sensation     (q.v.). 
(3)   We  may  note,   finally,   the  existence  of  a 
binocular  or  transferred  after-image.     If  one  eve 
be  stimulated,  under  suiteble  conditions,  a  faint, 
positive  image  appears  in  the  field  of  the  other 
unstimulated  eye.     Lay  a  bright  red-orange  disk 
upon  a  sheet  of  white  paper  and  fixate  it  monoc- 
ularly  for  five  or  ten  seconds.     Then  blow  away 
the  disk,  close  the  stimulated  eye,  open  the  un- 
stimulated one  and  fixate  the  white  ground.    You 
see  at  first  a   pale-yellowish   image.     Tlien   the 
field  darkens  and  a  blue  negative  image  makes  its 
appearance.      Presently   the   ground   clears   and 
the  yellowish  patch  comes  once  more.     Then  the 
white  darkens  again  and  the  blue  image  recurs. 
The   darkening   is    due    to   retinal    rivalry:  the 
dark   field   of   the   closed    (stimulated)    eye   i: 
superposed  upon   the  bright   field   of   theopei 
(unstimulated)  eye.    The  blue  image  is  the  nega- 
tive   after-image  *  belonging    to    the    dark    field 
i.e.,   to   the   originally   stimulated   eye;    ite   ap 
pearance  requires  no  explanation.     On  the  othei 
hand,  the  faint  yellowish  image  belongs  to  th( 
unstimulated  eye,   is   an  after-effect  of  the  or 
ange  stimulation,  but  an  after-effect  that  differ 
entirely  from  the  after-effect  in  the  8timulate< 
eye,  and  that  has  been  transferred  to  the  ey 
which   was   not   exposed   to   the   stimulus.      It 
existence  points  to  a  close  functional  inter-rela 
tion  between  the  two  halves  of  the  visual  appa 
ratus.     Consult:      H.  von  Helmholtz.  Physiolo 
gische  Optik  (Hamburg,  1896)  ;  E.  Hering,  Zu 
Lehre    vom    Lichtsinnc     (Vienna,     1878)  ;     C 
Kuelpe,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (London,  1895) 
E.  B.  Titehener,  Experimental  Psychology   (Ne^ 
York,  1901). 

A^ZWUTSSf  Sw.  pron.  ftf-tsfi^I-^s,  Adai 
(1750-1837).  A  Swedish  naturalist,  a  pupil  o 
Linnseus,  whose  autobiography  he  afterwar 
edited.  He  was  professor  in  the  University  c 
Upsala.  He  studied  the  flora  of  West  Afric 
from  1792  to  1794,  and  wrote  many  botanicii 
papers  for  the  Danish  Royal  Academy  and  th 


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AOAP^. 


Liniuean  Society  of  London.  Several  species  of 
Afzelia  have  been  named  after  him. 

AFZEIXCTS,  Arvid  August  (1786-1871).  A 
Swedish  poet  and  antiquarian.  He  translated 
the  elder  Edda  (q.v.),  and,  with  Geijer,  edited  a 
noteworthy  collection  of  old  Swedish  popular 
songs  (1814-17).  He  is  esteemed  for  his  poetical 
Komancea,  and  for  his  studies  in  Norse  history 
and  literature.  He  was  pastor  at  Enkdping, 
1821-1871. 

AGADES,  H^gft-dAs.  An  African  city,  the 
capital  of  the  oasis  kingdom  of  Air  (q.v.),  situ- 
ated in  lat.  16**  30'  N.  and  long.  8°  E.  (Map: 
Africa,  E  3).  It  was  formerly  an  important 
city,  and  had  a  population  estimated  at  50,000. 
Although  still  on  the  caravan  route  between  So- 
koto  and  the  Barbary  States,  its  commercial  im- 
portance has  disappeared,  and  its  population  has 
dwindled  to  about  7000. 

AGADIB,  ft'gft-d§r^.  A  seaport  of  Moroc- 
co. North  Africa,  situated  in  lat.  30**  27'  X.  and 
lonp.  9*  36'  W.  (Map:  Africa,  CI).  It  was 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury by  the  Portuguese,  but  was  soon  taken  by 
Morocco,  and  for  a  considerable  period  was 
an  important  shipping  centre.  It  is  at  present 
eloRed  to  commerce,  and  is  used  as  a  customs 
station  on  the  caravan  route  connecting  the 
northern  and  southern  parts  of  Morocco.  Its 
population  is  about  700. 

A'OAG  (Heb.,  Gk.  *Ayay,  in  the  Septuagint). 
( 1 )  The  name,  or  possibly  title,  of  a  king  of  the 
Amalekites  conquered  by  Saul,  and  preserved 
alire  contrary  to  the  command  of  Jehovah,  He 
was  afterward  he>vn  in  pieces  by  Samuel.  See 
I.  Samuel  xv.  (2)  In  Dryden's  Absalom  and 
Achiiophelf  a  character  standing  for  Sir  Edmund 
Berry  Godfrey,  the  justice  of  the  peace  who  was 
assassinated  shortly  after  disclosing  the  revela- 
tions made  to  him  by  Titus  Oates. 

A'GAGITE.  A  name  applied  to  Haman  (Es- 
ther iii  :  1,  10;  viii  :  35).  It  is  a  term  of  con- 
tempt, designating  him. as  a  worthy  descendant 
of  Agag.  t'  !  Amalekite  whom  Saul  hewed  to 
pieces  as  a  sacrifire  to  Yahweh  at  Gilgal  (I.  Sam- 
uel XV :  8).  This  "Amalekite"  is  opposed  to 
Mordecai,  a  descendant  of  Kish,  the  father  of 
Saul  (Esther  ii  :  5).  The  Greek  translator  un- 
derstood that  this  was  a  mere  fiction  setting 
forth  the  struggle  between  Jew  and  Gentile, 
when  he  render^  the  term  "Macedonian." 

AGALACTIA,  fig^A-lak'ti-ft  (Gk.  want  of 
milk,  from  a,  a,  priv.  -f  ydla,  gala,  milk). 
A  lack  of  the  proper  secretion  of  milk  after  de- 
livery. It  may  depend  either  on  organic  imper- 
fection of  the  mammary  gland  or  upon  constitu- 
tional causes.  In  the  latter  case  the  secretion 
may  often  be  excited  by  warmth  and  moisture, 
by  the  stimulus  of  the  act  of  sucking,  and  if  this 
fails,  by  drinking  plenty  of  fluids  rich  in  fats 
and  by  drugs  prescribed  by  a  physician.  (See 
^IiLK.)  It  is  a  contagious  disease  in  sheep  and 
goats,  characterized  by  inflammatory  foci  m  the 
mammary  gland,  eyes,  and  articulations.  The 
disease  has  been  known  since  1816,  and  is  es- 
pecially frequent  in  Italy,  France,  and  Spain. 
In  the  acute  form  there  is  high  fever  accompa- 
nied by  complete,  or  almost  complete,  failure  of 
milk.  Death  takes  place  after  twenty  days  in 
about  15  per  cent,  of  cases. 

AG'ALMAT^OIilTE.  A  hydrated  aluminum 
and  potassium  silicate  that  occurs  massive,  and 


in  color  is  gray,  to  green  and  yellow,  brown  and 
red.  It  is  regarded  as  an  alteration  product  of 
iolite,  and  is  found  in  Transylvania,  in  Saxony, 
and  especially  in  China,  where,  owing  to  its 
softness,  it  is  carved  into  images  and  various  or- 
namental designs,  in  which  advantage  is  taken 
of  the  different  shades  to  bring  out  special  por- 
tions in  different  colors. 

AG^AMA  (Caribbean  name).  A  genus  of  in- 
sectivorous ground-lizards  allied  to  the  iguanas, 
and  confined  to  the  warm  climates  of  Africa,  Aus- 
tralia, Asia,  and  southern  Russia.  The  handsome 
armed  agama,  or  toque  (Agama  armata)  of  South 
Africa  is  strikingly  adorned  and  reaches  twenty 
inches  in  length.  Another  very  brilliant  species 
is  the  spiny  Agama  coUmorum  of  the  Gold  Coast, 
One  of  those  of  southeastern  Europe  best  known 
is  the  stellio  {Agam^  atellio)  y  which  is  com- 
monly tamed  and  kept  in  captivity  by  Arabic 
jugglers  in  Egypt,  who  call  it  kardun, 

AG'AMEa)ES.     See  Trophonius. 

AO'AJCEMarON  (Gk.  'Ayafiifivuv).  Son 
of  Atreus,  and  brother  of  Menelaus.  Agamem- 
non is  a  prominent  figure  in  Greek  heroic  legend, 
and  the  details  of  his  story  differ.  He  ruled  at 
Mycenae  and  exercised  lordship  over  much  of 
the  Peloponnesus.  Therefore,  when  Paris  car- 
ried off  Helen,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  Agamem- 
non was  the  natural  leader  of  the  expedition 
against  Troy.  His  quarrel  with  Achilles  is  the 
starting-point  of  the  Iliad.  Later  writers  told  of 
the  sacrifice  of  his  daughter  Iphigenia  (q.v.)  at 
Aulis  to  secure  favorable  winds  for  the  voyage 
to  Asia.  In  his  share  of  the  booty  of  Troy  he 
received  the  prophetess  Cassandra  (q.v.),  daugh- 
ter of  Priam.  On  his  return  he  was  murdered 
by  his  wife  Clytemnestra  (q.v.)  and  her  para- 
mour, .^gisthus  (q.v.).  His  son,  Orestes  (q.v.), 
aided  by  his  daughter  Electra,  subsequently 
avenged  his  father.  This  tragedy  of  the  house 
of  Atreus  was  a  favorite  subject  of  the  Greek 
dramatists.  Consult:  The  Oresteia,  especially 
the  first  play,  the  trilogy  of  .^Eschylus  called  the 
Agamemnon. 

AG'AMENTICTTS,  Mount.  A  hill  in  York 
Co.,  Maine,  4  miles  from  the  sea,  673  feet  high. 
It  lies  in  lat.  43**  13'  25"  N.  and  long.  70"  41'  33" 
W.  (Map:  Maine,  B  9),  and  is  a  noted  landmark 
for  sailors. 

Aa'AMOQEN^SIS.  See  CEn:x  and  Repro- 
duction. 

AOA^A,  A-gH'nyA,  or  San  Ionacio  de 
AoANA,  sUn'  Ag-na^th^d  dft  k-gSi^njk.  The  cap- 
ital of  Guam  (q.v.),  one  of  the  Ladrones,  belong- 
ing to  the  United  States  (Map:  Guam,  U.  S. 
and  Dep.  Ter.,  B  3 ) .  It  is  situated  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  the  island  on  Agaila  Bay.  It  has 
wide,  clean  streets,  and  is  traversed  by  a  shal- 
low stream  crossed  by  two  stone  bridges.  The 
bay  is  unsafe  and  the  landing  is  ob::tructed  by 
reefs.  The  town  contains  an  arsenal,  barracks, 
and  a  college.  During  the  Spanish  regime  in  the 
Philippines  it  was  the  seat  of  government  for 
the  Ladrones.     Pop.,  about  6400. 

AGKANIP^E  (Gk.  'AyaviirTrtf,  Aganippe).  A 
fountain  in  Bceotia,  near  Mount  Helicon,  which 
flows  to  the  River  Permessus.  The  water  was 
sacred  to  the  Muses,  and  gave  poetic  inspiration. 

AQAO,  A-gfi'd.     See  Aoau. 

AGKAPiE  (Gk.  nom.  pi.  of  aydnii,  agap€, 
love-feast).      Love-feasts,  or  feasts  of  charity, 


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190 


AQAPETXrS. 


usually  celebrated  by  the  earliest  Christians  in 
eonnertion  with  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  rich 
Christians  presented  their  poorer  brethren  in 
tiio  faith  with  gifts,  and  all  ate  together,  in  token 
of  their  equality  before  God  and  their  brotherly 
hiirniony.  The  meetings  were  opened  and  closed 
with  prayer,  and  during  the  feast  spiritual  songs 
were  sung.  At  first,  a  bishop  or  presbyter  pre- 
sUled,  who  read  a  portion  of  the  Scripture,  pro- 
poHt^d  questions  upon  it,  and  received  the 
various  answers  of  the  brethren.  Afterward, 
whiilintT  information  had  been  obtained  regard- 
inir  tht?  other  churches  was  read — such  as  the 
olfieia]  letters  of  overseers,  or  private  communi- 
ealiitns  from  eminent  members;  and  thus  a  spirit 
of  practical  sympathy  was  engendered.  Before 
the  cuiicrlusion  of  the  proceedings  money  was  col- 
]ecti?d  for  widows,  orphans,  the  poor,  prisoners, 
and  those  who  had  suffered  shipwreck.  Then  the 
members  gave  one  another  the  holy  kiss  and  the 
feast  was  ended  with  a  "philanthropic  prayer." 
GeutTiilly  the  feast  of  the  agapsB  preceded  the 
eclclsralion  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  but  during  the 
period  of  the  persecutions,  when  the  Christians 
had  often  to  hold  divine  service  before  dawn, 
the  Qgiip®  were,  for  the  most  part,  delayed  till 
the  evening.  Later,  a  formal  separation  was 
niside  between  the  two  rites.  In  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries  the  agapse  had  degenerated  into 
a  eomuion  banquet,  where  the  deaths  of  relatives 
and  the  anniversaries  of  the  martyrs  were  com- 
11 1  em  orated,  and  where  the  clergy  and  the  poor 
^\ere  gneeits;  but  with  the  increase  of  wealth  and 
the  (leeay  of  religious  earnestness  and  purity  in 
the  Christian  Church,  these  agapse  became  occa- 
sions of  great  riotousness  and  debauchery. 
Coimeils  declared  against  them,  forbade  the 
clergy  to  take  any  share  in  their  celebration, 
and  finally  banished  them  from  the  Church.  At 
tlie  same  time,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
heathens  ignorantly  calumniated  the  practices 
of  the  Christians  in  these  agapse,  and  that  the 
defeof^e  made  by  Tertullian,  Minucius  Felix, 
Ori^t'U,  etc.,  is  eminently  convincing.  The  Mora- 
vians have  attempted  to  revive  these  agapse, 
ami  hold  solemn  festivals  with  prayer  and 
praise,  where  tea  is  drunk  and  wheaten  bread, 
called  love-bread,  is  used.  Somewhat  similar  are 
the  a^trapiB  of  the  Church  founded  by  Wesley. 
See  Love-Feasts. 

A&'APEM^ONE  (modern  compound  from  Gk. 
ayttTTff,  npapcy  love,  +  fiovij,  mon€,  a  staying, 
stopping- place).  A  conventual  establishment  of 
a  singular  kind,  consisting  of  persons  of  both 
Rexes,  founded  at  Charlynch,  near  Bridgewater, 
England,  by  Mr.  Henry  James  Prince,  formerly  a 
elergjman  of  the  Church  of  England.  The  in- 
mates belong  to  a  new  religious  sect  orig- 
inating with  Mr.  Prince  and  a  Mr.  Starkey, 
also  a  clergyman,  and  are  sometimes  called 
Lampeter  Brethren,  from  the  place  where  Prince 
was  educated,  and  where,  while  a  student,  he 
formed  a  revival  society  also.  Community  of  goods 
being  insisted  upon,  the  leaders  acquired  consid- 
erable property,  and  fitted  up  in  luxurious  style 
a  dwelling  near  Charlynch.  Prince,  who  was 
rityled  'The  Lord,"  affirmed  in  his  publications 
that  he  was  sinless  and  was  sent  to  redeem  the 
body,  *'to  conclude  the  day  of  grace,  and  to  in- 
trcMluee  the  day  of  judgment."  See  Hepworth 
Dixon,  Spiritual  Wires  (London,  1868),  and  the 
article  by  Miss  Edith  Sellers  in  The  Newhery 
House  Magazine   (London,  November,  1891),  re- 


printed   in    Magazine    of    Christian    Litemtun 
(New  York,  December,  1891). 

It  would  appear  that  a  society  similar  in  its 
aims  and  character,  though  not  conventual  in  its 
form,  existed  in  England  in  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries.  It  was  called  "The  Fam- 
ily of  Love."  Its  founder  is  generally  supposed 
to  have  been  Heinrich  Nikolaus,  who  was  born  at 
MUnster,  in  Westphalia,  January  9  or  10,  1501 
or  1502,  but  who  lived  a  considerable  time  in 
Holland.  He  held  himself  to  be  greater  than 
Moses  or  Christ,  for  the  former  only  taught  men 
to  hope,  and  the  latter  to  believe,  while  he  first 
announced  the  doctrine  of  love.  He  founded  his 
sect,  "The  House,"  or  "Family  of  Love,"  in  Em- 
den,  East  Friesland,  about  1540,  and  died  in 
1570.  In  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  the  sect  ap- 
peared in  England.  By  1578,  they  had  appar- 
ently increased  in  numbers  considerably,  for  in 
that  year  one  John  Rogers  published  a  work 
against  them,  entitled  The  Displaying  of  an 
Horrible  Secte  of  Orosse  and  Wicked  Heretiquc^. 
naming  themselves  the  Familie  of  Love,  tn'fh 
the  Lives  of  their  Authours,  and  tchat  Doctrine 
they  teach  in  Corners  (second  edition,  1579).  In 
1580,  Queen  Elizabeth  issued  a  proclamation  for 
the  hunting  out  and  punishing  of  the  "damnable 
sect."  The  family  of  love,  "or  lust,  rather,"  as 
old  Fuller  has  it,  tried  to  insinuate  themselves 
into  the  good  graces  of  King  James  by  present- 
ing a  petition  casting  aspersions  on  the  Puri- 
tans. It  had  a  brief  prosperity,  and  was  revived 
in  the  seventeenth  century,  when  it  was  con- 
founded with  the  Friends,  but  quickly  died.  Its 
name  in  New  England  in  the  seventeenth  century 
was  applied  to  some  dissenters,  but  there  is  no 
evidence  that  there  were  any  Familists  there. 
Their  doctrines  seem  to  have  been  a  species  of 
pseudo-spiritual  sentimentalism  resulting  in 
gross  impurity.  Consult  Thomas,  The  Family  of 
Love,  "Haverford  College  Studies,"  No.  12  (Bos- 
ton, 1893).     See  Muckers. 

AQ'APE^^  (fem.  form  of  Agapeti),  Early 
Christian  virgins  who  lived,  generally  in  all 
purity,  in  the  same  house  with  men  bound  to 
strict  celibacy.     See  AoAPiE. 

AQ'APETI  ( nom.  pi.  of  Gk.  ayoTnyrcSf,  agap^tos, 
beloved).  Early  Christian  men  who  lived  in  the 
same  house  with  deaconesses,  both  being  celi- 
bates. The  growth  of  ascetic  notions  in  the 
Church  led  to  the  supposition  that  all  contact 
between  the  sexes,  except  in  marriage,  must  lead 
to  immoral  conduct,  and  so  in  the  fifth  and  sixth 
centuries  the  practice  was  condemned  by  the 
Church  and  by  the  civil  power. 

AO'APETXrS.  The  name  of  two  popes.  Aga- 
PETUS  I.  Pope  of  Rome  from  535  to  536.  The 
fear  of  an  invasion  of  Italy  by  Justinian  led 
Theodatus,  the  King  of  the  Goths  in  Italy,  to 
send  Agapetus  to  Constantinople  in  536  to  sue 
for  peace  from  the  Emperor.  Though  unsuc- 
cessful in  this  mission,  Agapetus  persuaded  Jus- 
tinian to  depose  Anthimus  from  the  patriarchal 
see  of  Constantinople.  He  died  at  Constantino- 
ple. His  festival  is  celebrated  on  the  twentieth 
of  September  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Agapetus  II.  Pope  of  Rome  from  946  to  955;  a 
Roman  by  birth.  His  first  act  was  to  establish 
his  political  rule  over  the  churches  of  the  em- 
pire. Against  Berenger  II.,  King  of  Italy,  who 
was  a  troublesome  neighbor  to  the  little  pontifi- 
cal state,  he  invoked  the  aid  of  Otto  I. 


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AGASSIZ. 


AQAPIPA,  a'gft-pfi'dA,  Fbat  Antonio.  The 
imaginary  monkish  chronicler  from  whose  papers 
Washington  Irving  professed  in  his  first  intro- 
duction to  the  work  to  have  compiled  his  Con- 
quest of  Oranada.  He  was  intended,  Irving  later 
explained,  as  a  type  of  the  piously  prejudiced 
religious  zealots  of  the  time. 

AQABy  ii'gSLr^,  The  stage  name  of  Florence 
IA>nide  Charvin  (1836-91).  A  French  actress. 
She  was  born  at  Sedan,  and  went  to  Paris  in 
1S58,  where  she  made  her  d^but  as  a  singer  in 
caf4s-concerts.  Following  the  example  of  Rachel, 
she  adopted  the  biblical  name  of  Agar  (English, 
Hagar).  In  1870  she  was  engaged  at  the  Com6- 
die  Francaise,  where,  during  a  representation 
of  the  play  Le  Lion  Amoureux,  she  sang  the  Mar- 
seillaise in  the  key  of  A,  as  Rachel  had  done  in 
1848.  She  appeared  from  1872  to  1876  in  many 
French  classic  dramas,  chiefly  tragedies.  She 
was  remarkable  for  her  beauty,  her  mobile  and 
expressive  countenance,  eloquence  of  gesture,  and 
perfect  diction. 

AOABDHy  a^gftrd,  Jakob  Geobo  (1813-1901). 
A  Swedish  botanist,  son  of  Karl  Adolf  Agardh. 
He  was  professor  of  botany  at  Lund  during  1854- 
79.  He  increased  his  father's  large  collection, 
and  wrote  several  works  on  algse.  He  also  pub- 
lished Theoria  Systemaiia  Plantarum  (Lund, 
1858). 

AOABDH,  Kabl  Adolf  (1785-1859).  A 
Swedish  botanist.  He  was  educated  at  Lund, 
and  devoted  himself  chiefly  to  the  study  of  algsB. 
In  1807  he  became  lectturer  on  mathematics  at 
Lund,  and  in  1812  was  appointed  professor  of 
botany  and  rural  economy,  lecturing  at  the  same 
time  on  general  economy.  He  became  a  priest 
in  1816;  went  into  politics  in  1817,  and  was 
elected  to  the  Diet,  where  he  exercised  consider- 
able influence,  became  a  leading  liberal,  and  suc- 
ceeded in  improving  and  raising  the  standard  of 
education  in  Sweden.  His  work,  Systema  alga- 
rum  (Lund,  1824),  was  an  important  contribu- 
tion to  the  science  of  botany.  He  also  wrote 
Essai  de  reduire  la  phyaiologie  v^giiale  d  dea 
principea  fondameniaux  (Lund,  1828).  In  1834 
he  was  made  Bishop  t>f  Karlstad.  Agardh  was 
author  of  several  books  and  papers,  chiefly  on 
aigg?,  and  a  memoir  on  Linnaeus. 

AXyAXLCy  AGABacnS.     See  Mushbooh. 

AOAB/ICIK  (from  Gk.  ayapiK^v,  agarikon, 
a  sort  of  tree-fungus).  A  substance  known  also 
as  agaric,  agaricic,  agaricinic,  or  laricic  acid, 
and  obtained  from  the  Polyporua  officinalis,  com- 
monly called  White  agaric,  Touchwood,  or  punk. 
It  is  a  white  powder,  slightly  soluble  in  water. 
Its  formula  is  Ci»H^Oc  -f  HgO.  It  is  used  as  an 
anhydrotic  (q.v.)  in  the  night  sweats  of  phthisis. 

AOA'SIAS  (Gk.  •Ayoffiac).  The  name  of 
two  Ephesian  sculptors,  perhaps  cousins,  who 
lived  at  the  beginning  of  the  first  century  B.O. 
Agasias,  son  of  Menophilus,  made  several  stat- 
ues of  Romans  on  the  island  of  Delos.  Agasias, 
pon  of  Dositheus,  was  the  sculptor  of  the  "Bor- 
ghese  Gladiator"  found  at  Antium,  and  now  in  the 
1-^uvre.  It  probably  represents  a  warrior  on 
foot  raising  nia  shield,  as  if  to  guard  against  a 
mounted  adversary.  The  figure  seems  derived 
from  a  group.  It  shows  the  characteristics  of 
Asiatic  art  of  the  period. 

AQASSIZ,  ftg^ft-se,  or  &-gfts^z;  French  pron. 
h'0i'fiy,  Alexander  (1835 — .)  An  American 
naturalist,  capitalist,  and  philanthropist.     He 


was  bom  at  Neuchfltel,  Switzerland,  December 
17,  1835,  the  only  son  of  Louis  Agassiz.  He 
joined  his  father  in  Boston  in  1849,  and  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard  College  in  1855.  He  was  made 
a  bachelor  of  science  by  the  Lawrence  Scientific 
School  in  1857;  became  assistant  in  the  United 
States  Coast  Survey  in  California  in  1859,  and 
was  assistant  in  the  Museum  of  Comparative 
Zoology  at  Harvard  College  from  1860  to  1865. 
At  this  time  he  became  interested  in  coal  and 
later  in  copper  mining,  and  assisted  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  Calumet  and  Hecla  mines  of 
native  copper  on  the  south  shores  of  Lake  Su- 
perior. These  mines  were  then  in  an  unpro- 
ductive condition,  but  Agassiz,  as  superintend- 
ent, applied  his  extensive  knowledge  of  geology, 
chemistry,  and  engineering,  and  so  developed 
tlfem  that  they  have  since  yielded  to  him  and  his 
associates  great  wealth,  which  he  has  used  to 
advance  zoological  research.  After  visiting  dif- 
ferent museums  in  Europe  (1869-70),  he  was  ap- 
pointed curator  (1874)  of  the  Museum  of  Com- 
parative ZoSlogy,  which  his  father  had  founded. 
He  retained  this  position  nominally  until  1897, 
and  was  for  some  time  a  fellow  of  Harvard  Uni- 
versity. His  chief  interest  has  been  in  marine 
zoology,  where  his  studies  of  invertebrate  life, 
and  especially  of  the  development  of  polyps, 
jellyfishes,  and  echinoderms  have  placed  him  in 
the  first  rank  of  investigators.  He  explored  Lake 
Titicaca  and  the  coast  of  Chile  during  1874-75, 
and  founded  in  1875  a  private  laboratory  and  salt 
water  aquarium  near  his  residence  overlooking 
Karragansett  Bay,  at  Newport,  R.  I.  He  su- 
perintended deep-sea  dredging  among  the  West 
Indies,  in  the  United  States  steamer  Blake, 
from  1877  to  1880,  and  in  successive  winters  he 
has  explored  all  the  oceans,  adding  greatly  to 
the  knowledge  of  the  fauna  of  the  deep  sea.  His 
more  important  works  are:  North  American 
Acalepha  (1865);  Revision  of  the  Echini 
(1872);  North  AmeHcan  Starfishes  (1877); 
Report  on  the  Echini  of  the  Challenger  Expedi- 
tion (1881)  ;  Three  Cruises  of  the  Blake  (1888)  ; 
The  Islands  and  Coral  Reefs  of  Fiji  (1899). 
The  latter  includes  a  philosophical  discussion  of 
the  whole  subject  of  coral  formations.  He  con- 
tinued this  line  of  work  in  1901-02  by  a  private 
expedition  to  the  Maldive  Islands.  Mr.  Agassiz 
has  given  a  million  or  more  dollars  to  the  en- 
dowment of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zo- 
ology at  Harvard  University  and  elsewhere, 
always  in  an  unostentatious  way,  and  his  abili- 
ties have  been  recognized  by  many  universities 
and  scientific  societies  in  both  Europe  and  the 
United  States,  where  he  is  president  of  the  Na- 
tional Academy  of  Science  and  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences. 

AQASSIZ,  Elizabeth  Cabot  (Cart).  An 
American  teacher  and  writer.  She  was  born  in 
Boston,  and  in  1850  was  married  to  Professor 
Louis  Agassiz,  whom  she  accompanied  to  Brazil 
(1865-66), and  on  the  Hnssler  expedition  in  1871- 
72.  Her  publications  include :  A  First  Lesson  in 
Natural  History  (1859)  ;  Life  of  Louis  Agassiz 
(2  volumes,  1885),  and  Seaside  Studies  in 
Natural  History  (1865),  in  which  she  was  as- 
sisted by  her  son,  Alexander  Agassiz.  Mrs. 
Agassiz's  home  is  at  Cambridge.  Mass.  She  is 
president  of  the  Board  of  Control  of  Radcliffe 
College,  and  has  taken  an  active  part  in  promot- 
ing the   interests  of  that  institution. 

AGASSIZ,  Lake.    See  Lake. 


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AGASSIZ  ASSOCIATION. 


AOASSIZ,  Louis    (1807-73).     An  American 
nnturalist,  born  May  28  at  Motier,  Canton  Fri- 
houtgy  Switzerland.   His  father  was  a  clergyman 
nnd  his  mother  a  woman  of  education  and  taste. 
Following   a   decided   bent   toward   zoology,   de- 
veloped from  childhood  and  fostered  by  his  school 
preparation  at  Lausanne, he  studied  medicine  and 
natural  history  at  ZUrich  and  Heidelberg,  where 
he  formed  a  lifelong  and  influential  friendship 
with  the  botanist  Alexander  Braun.     He  studied 
fiUo    at    Erlangen    and    at    Munich,    where    he 
biNume  acquainted  with  Martius  and  Spix,  and 
nl]i»n    Spix    died*  (1826),    Agassiz    prepared    a 
(li'-cription    of    his    Brazilian    fishes    which    at- 
tracted   Cuvier's    notice.      After   graduating   in 
Tiiedk'ine    and    taking    a    degree    in    philosophy 
(1S30),  Agnssiz  studied  in  Paris  under  Cuvier, 
i\  hrise  ardent  disciple  he  henceforth  was.     From 
lH;i2   to    1846   Agassiz   was   professor   of  natu- 
nil  history  at  Neuchatel,  and  there  completed  his 
fir-it   great  work:    Recherches  sur   lea  Poissona 
FossUes  (5  volumes,  311  plates,  1833-42).     Sev- 
t*ral  visits  to  England,  beginning  in   1834,  en- 
larged his  acquaintance  and  reputation,  and  gave 
material   for  his  Fossil  Fishes  of  the  Old  Red 
Sandfitone  of  the  British  Isles.     Next  he  turned 
in  pcbinoderms,  which  he  studied  in  both  living 
ii!id  fossil  forms.     Another  product  of  his  labors 
at  this  period  was  the  Nomenclatoris  Zoologici 
hydex  (Soloduri,  1842-46),  of  which  a  practical 
rovision,  bringing  the  lists  of  genera  up  to  1882, 
was   made   by   Scudder   and   published   as   Bul- 
letin No.    19,  United   States  National  Museum 
(Washington,     1882).     From      1836     to     1845 
Af^a^siz   spent   his   summers   in   examining   the 
lirlEH'ters    of   the   Alps,   often    in    company   with 
A.     Guyot,     and     illuminated     and     confirmed 
previous  generalizations  in  respect  to  a  former 
glaiial    epoch.     In    1846,    Agassiz    was    invited 
to    the    United    States    to    give    a    series    of 
Irx'tures  in  the  Lowell  Institute  course  at  Bos- 
ton.    These  at  once  established  his  reputation 
as  a  lecturer,  and  led  to  his  appointment,   in 
1848,  as  professor  of  natural  history  in  the  Law- 
rence Scientific   School  of  Harvard  University, 
iiiiieh  chair  he  held,  except  a  brief  interval  at 
Charleston,  S.  C,  until  his  death,  although  he 
relinquished    teaching    long    before    that    event. 
A^'assiz  came  to  America  untrammeled,  and  un- 
dfiiook  the  mission  of  teaching  and  advancing 
till-  cause  of  science  in  the  United  States  with 
the  utmost  enthusiasm.     His  wife  had  died,  but 
he  presently  remarried  (see  Agassiz,  E.  C),  and 
^trs.  Agassiz  established  in  their  house  in  Cam- 
bridjixe  a  school  for  girls,  with  which  Professor 
A«fansiz  was  identified.     He  traveled  widely  and 
lettiy-ed  in  various  cities,  and  in  1848  visited  the 
Lake  Superior  region  with  a  class  of  scientific 
students.     This  exploration  was  described  in  a 
nan  alive  by  Cabot,  to  which  Agassiz  contributed 
chapters  on  fishes.     Similarly,  he  undertook,  in 
1H5((-51,  a  study  of  the  Florida  coral  reefs,  the 
results  of  which  were  set  forth  in  lectures  and 
in  articles  contributed  to  the  Atlantic  Monthly, 
nnd    subsequently    gathered    into    two    popular 
books,   Methods  'of   Study   in   Natural   History, 
and    Geological   Sketches.     He   was    everywhere 
anil   foremost  a   teacher,   interpreting  his  facts 
and  theories  with   such   enthusiastic  force  and 
per^iiiasive  eloquence  that  he  was  in  constant  de- 
maiirL    A  series  of  lectures  which  he  delivered  in 
Brooklyn    in    1862    were    epoch-making   in    this 
di ration.     They  were  republished  in  book  form 
as   The  Structure  of  Animal  Life    (New  York, 


1874).  Many  of  his  views  were  in  advance  of 
popular  knowledge  and  opinion  and  contravened 
some  established  religious  tenets;  yet  he  rarely 
excited  serious  opposition,  and  no  educational  in- 
fiuence  of  his  time  was  so  great  as  that  exerted  by 
hini.  He  may  be  said  to  have  realized  at  this 
period  the  ambition  which  he  expressed  in  a 
letter  to  his  father  in  1829:  "I  wish  it  may  be 
said  of  Louis  Agassiz  that  he  was  the  first  natu 
ralist  of  his  time,  a  good  citizen  and  ....  be- 
loved of  those  who  knew  him." 

In  1858,  the  plans  were  laid  for  the  great 
Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  now  one  of  the  most  extensive  and  scien- 
tifically useful  in  the  world;  and  for  many  years 
his  main  efforts  were  directed  to  building  it  up. 
He  secured  public  appropriations  and  private 
gifts  for  it  by  his  personal  influence,  and  kept 
himself  poor  by  his  unselfish  labors  and  liberality 
toward  it.  He  gathered  about  him  there  and 
trained  a  body  of  men  who  have  made  for  Amer- 
ica a  creditable  record  in  biology — ^Alexander 
Agassiz,  his  son;  J.  A.  Allen,  H.  J.  Clark.  S. 
Garman,  Alpheus  Hyatt,  D.  S.  Jordan,  E.  S. 
Morse,  A.  S.  Packard,  F.  W.  Putnam,  N.  S. 
Shaler,  A.  E.  Verrill,  and  others. 

In  1865  he  visited  Brazil  with  his  wife  and  a 
body   of   assistants.      The   results   of    these  re- 
searches he  published  in  his  book,  A  Journey  in 
Brazil  (Boston,  1868).     In  1872  he  made  a  trip 
to  California.     In  the  summer  of  1873  he  held 
the  first  session  of  a  summer  school  at  the  island 
of  Penikese  in  Buzzard's  Bay.     This  set  an  ex 
ample  that  has  led  to  the  many  summer  schooh 
and  seaside  laboratories  since  established  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.    During  all  these  years  h< 
was  prosecuting  a  continuous  work  on  a  great 
scale,  entitled  Contributions  to  the  Natural  Bit 
tory  of  the  United  States,  of  which  four  magni 
ficent  quarto  volumes  were  published,  the  first 
An  Essay  on  Classification    (1857),  the  others 
(monographs  of  American  turtles  and  acalephsi 
soon  after.     The  doctrine  taught  in  these  was  a 
liberal  advance  upon  the  "special  creation"  viewi 
previously  in  vogue;    yet  when   the  Darwiniar 
school    of    evolutionists    arose    they    found    ir 
Agassiz  a  most  earnest  opponent,  and  it  was  s 
great  grief  to  him  to  see  that  his  scientific  dis 
ciples  were  almost,  without  exception,  becoming 
adherents  to  the  new  ideas.     To  stem  this  tid< 
of  scientific  heresy.  Professor  Agassiz  preparec 
and   delivered   in   Cambridge,   in  the   spring  o1 
1873,  a  course  of  six  lectures,  which  attractec 
very  wide  attention.     This  was  his  final  public 
work,  for  late  in  1873  he  was  attacked  by  brail 
disease,    and    died    on    December    14.      He    wa* 
buried    with    extraordinary    honors    in    Mount 
Auburn  Cemetery.     His  monument  is  a  bouldei 
brought  from  the  glacier  of  the  Aar,  where  h( 
had  made  his  most  enlightening  studies  of  gla 
cial    phenomena.     Consult:    Agassiz,    Life    am 
Correspondence  of  Agassiz  (Boston,  1886)  ;  Mar 
cou.  Life,  Letters,  and  Works  of  Agassiz   (Ne^ 
York,    1896)  ;    Guyot,    Memoir    of    L.    Agassii 
(Princeton,  N.  J.,  1883),  and  Oilman  and  othei 
eulogists,    Proceedings    California    Academy    oj 
Sciences,  Volume  IV.,  1873-74    (San  Francisco 
1874). 

AQASSIZ,  Mount.  An  extinct  volcano  ii 
Arizona,  70  miles  northeast  of  Prescott,  anc 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Another  peaV 
of  this  name  in  Utah  is  13,000  feet  high. 

AQASSIZ  ASSOCIATION.    An  organizatiox 


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AGASSIZ  ASSOCIATION. 


193 


AQATHON. 


to  promote  the  study,  collection,  and  preserva- 
tion of  natural  objects  by  young  people.  It  was 
formed  in  1875  by  Harlan  H.  Ballard  and  has 
since  then  grown  rapidly,  including  in  1900  a 
total  membership  of  over  10,000.  The  society 
has  aided  more  than  20,000  students  in  studying 
natural  history,  and  has  established  over  1200 
local  scientific  societies  as  association  chapters 
in  America,  Canada,  England,  Ireland,  Scotland, 
France,  Chile,  and  Japan.  The  headquarters  of 
the  association  is  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.  The  badge 
is  a  Swiss  cross,  and  the  official  organ  is  The 
American  Boy.  A  handbook.  The  Three  King- 
doms, is  also  published. 

AGNATE  (Lat.  achates,  Gk.  axdnfc,  achates, 
so  named,  according  to  Pliny  (H.  N.  37,  10,  55), 
from  the  Sicilian  river  Achates,  where  it  was 
first  found).  A  mineral  composed  of  layers  of 
quartz,  generally  of  different  colors,  but  inti- 
mately joined  together  and  found  chiefly  of  three 
varieties,  in  which  the  colors  are,  respectively, 
banded,  or  in  clouds,  or  are  produced  by  visible 
impurities,  the  last  named  giving  rise  to  moss- 
agate,  in  which  the  black  markings  are  due  to 
manganese  oxide.  Agates  are  found  universally, 
and  are  much  used,  when  cut  and  polished,  for 
ornaments  and  jewelry.  The  principal  supplv 
comes  from  Uruguay  and  Brazil,  in  South 
America,  whence  they  are  sent  to  Oberstein,  in 
Germany,  where  their  polishing  is  an  important 
industry. 

AGATE  SHELL,  or  AGATE  SNAIL.     An^ 

land-snail  of  the  genus  Achatina  (family  Heli- 
cid»),  of  which  many  species  are  to  be  found 
throughout  tropical  Africa.  They  are  carniv- 
orous, tall-spired,  usually  tinted  and  banded  in 
bright  colors,  and  include  the  largest  land- shells 
known,  some  being  ten  inches  long,  producing 
eggs  an  inch  in  length,  with  a  calcareous  shell. 
See  Plate  of  Abalone,  etc. 

ACKATHA,  Saint.  According  to  the  legend, 
a  noble  Sicilian  virgin  of  great  beauty  and 
wealth,  who  rejected  the  love  of  the  consul  Quin- 
tianus,  and  suffered  a  cruel  martyrdom  in  the 
persecution  of  Sicilian  Christians.  She  holds  a 
hip:h  rank  among  the  saints  of  the  Roman  Cath- 
olic Church.  Her  day  falls  on  February  5.  She 
is  the  patroness  of  the  island  of  Malta,  and  there 
are  churches  erected  in  her  honor.  It  is  uncertain 
whether  she  ever  lived,  and  if  so,  whether  she 
died  in  the  Decian  persecution  (251),  or  the 
Diocletian,  fifty  years  later.  Legend  says  that 
several  times  the  mere  carrying  in  procession  of 
her  veil,  taken  from  her  tomb  in  Catana,  has 
averted  eruptions  from  Mount  Etna  from  the 
walls  of  that  city,  and  that  her  intercession  saved 
Malta  from  Turkish  conquest  in  1551.  Consult: 
A.  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints,  under  February 
5  (London,  1847). 

AO'ATHAB^CHTTS  {Gk.'Ayd^upxoc.Agathar- 
<^ho8)  (480?  B.C.).  A  Greek  painter;  said  to 
have  been  the  first  scene-painter,  and  therefore 
of  importance  as  rendering  perspective,  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  school  of  Polygnotus.  He  is  said 
to  have  left  a  treatise  on  this  subject. 

AGATHIAS  (Gk.  'AyaOia^)  (530?-580T).  A 
Greek  poet  and  historian,  sumamed  Asianus. 
He  was  educated  at  Alexandria  and  Constanti- 
nople: studied  Roman  law  and  practiced  with 
success.  He  wrote  love  verses  and  made  an  an- 
thology of  earlier  poets;  but  his  most  valuable 
work  is  a  history  of  the  years  662  to  658,  in 
Vol.  I.— 18 


which  he  tells  of  the  overthrow  of  the  Ostro- 
Gothic  power  in  Italy  by  the  Byzantines,  of  the 
earthquakes  of  554  and  557,  the  beginning  of 
the  Greek  and  Persian  war,  the  rebuilding  of 
St.  Sophia,  etc.  This  work  was  edited  by  L. 
Dindorf  in  Historici  Orwci  Minores  (Leipzig, 
1871).  Consult:  Krumbacher,  Oeschichte  der 
hyzantinischen  Litteratur  (Munich,  1897). 

AQ^ATHOy  Saint.  Pope  from  678  to  686. 
He  was  a  native  of  Palermo,  Sicily,  and  is 
remembered  chiefly  for  his  efforts  in  bringing 
about  the  sixth  Ecumenical  Council,  which 
assembled  at  Constantinople  in  680,  and  con- 
demned the  Monothelite  heresy.  His  festival  is 
celebrated  on  February  20  by  the  Greek  Church, 
and  on  January  10  by  the  Roman  Church. 

AOATH^OCLES  (Gk.  'Aya^oitX^g)  (361-289 
B.C. ) .  A  Sicilian  despot,  ruler  of  Syracuse.  He 
was  bom  at  Therms,  m  Sicily ;  rose  from  humble 
circumstances  through  the  patronage  of  Damas, 
a  noble  citizen  of  Syracuse,  and  received  a  com- 
mand in  the  expedition  against  Agrigentum. 
Afterward  he  married  the  widow  of  Damas,  and 
became  one  of  the  most  wealthy  men  in  Syra- 
cuse; Under  the  rule  of  Sosistratus  he  was 
obliged  to  flee  into  lower  Italy,  where  he  col- 
lect^ a  band  of  partisans.  Returning  to  Syra- 
cuse after  the  death  of  Sosistratus,  he  secured 
the  supreme  power  in  317  B.C.,  strengthened  his 
position  by  a  massacre  of  several  thousand 
respectable  citizens,  and  took  possession  of 
the  greater  part  of  Sicily.  To  establish  his  pow- 
er and  keep  his  army  employed,  he  now  attempt- 
ed to  expel  the  Carthaginians  from  Sicily;  but 
in  this  undertaking  he  was  defeated.  His  next 
plan  was  to  pass  over  to  Africa  with  a  part  of 
his  army  and  there  to  attack  the  Carthaginians. 
This  war  he  carried  on  with  success  for  more 
than  three  years,  or  until  307  b.c.,  when  disturb- 
ances in  Sicily  compelled  him  to  leave  the  army 
for  a  time.  On  his  return  to  Africa  he  found 
his  troops  in  a  state  of  mutiny  against  his  son, 
whom  he  had  left  in  command,  but  pacified 
them  by  promises  of  large  booty.  Soon  after- 
ward he  suffered  a  serious  defeat,  and  with 
deliberate  treachery  left  his  own  son  exposed 
to  the  vengeance  of  the  disappointed  soldiers. 
The  son  was  put  to  death,  and  the  troops 
surrendered  themselves  to  the  enemy,  while 
Agathocles  escaped  safely  into  Sicily,  where,  by 
fraud  and  cruelty,  he  soon  recovered  his  former 
power,  and  was  afterward  engaged  in  predatory 
inroads  into  Italy.  It  was  his  intention  to 
leave  the  throne  to  his  youngest  son,  Agathocles ; 
but  his  grandson,  Archagathus,  made  an  insur- 
rection, slew  the  royal  heir,  and  persuaded 
Ma'non,  one  of  the  favorites  of  the  aged  tyrant, 
to  destroy  him  by  means  of  a  poisoned  tooth- 
pick. This  took  place  in  289  B.C.,  when  Agatho- 
cles was  seventy-two  years  old  and  had  reigned 
twenty-eight  years. 

AG^ATHON  (Gk.  'Ay&euv)  (447T-401T  B.C.). 
An  Athenian  tragic  poet.  He  gained  his  first 
victory  at  the  Lemean  festival,  in  416  B.C.,  and 
this  victory  is  celebrated  in  Plato's  Symposium. 
He  was  well-to-do  and  had  many  fri'ends,  among 
whom  were  Euripides  and  Plato.  His  style  was 
flowery  and  ornate  rather  than  strong  or  sublime, 
and  his  works  were  full  of  the  rhetorical  flgures 
which  marked  the  style  of  Gorgias.  Still,  after 
^•Eschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  he  was  the 
most  important  tragic  poet  of  Greece.  Accord- 
ing to  Aristotle,  he  began  the  practice  of  making 


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AGATHON. 


194 


AGE. 


the  chorus  songs  mere  interludes,  disconnected 
m  theme  from  the  dialogue.  He  is  ridiculed  in 
Aiistophanes'  Thesmophoriazusce,  About  thirty 
abort  fragments  of  Agathon  are  preserved. 

A0ATHON.  The  title  of  a  philosophical 
novel  by  Wieland  (q.v.),  published  in  1766.  Its 
hero  (Agathon)  is  a  Platonist,  and  the  theme  of 
the  book  is  the  proper  mean  in  human  life  be- 
t\ve«n  asceticism  and  sensuality. 

A6KATIZED  WOOD.  See  CHALCEDomr;  and 
Forest,  Fossil. 

AGATT,  A-gou'.  An  Hamitic  people  of  Abys- 
<iiMin,  supposed  to  represent  the  aboriginal  in- 
habitants of  the  highlands  of  that  country.  The 
/\<^u  tribes  are  scattered  in  various  parts  of 
iho^  kingdom,  one  district,  in  Amhara,  southwest 
of  Lake  Tsana,  bearing  the  name  of  Agaumeder. 
The  Agau  language  is  widely  diffused  among  the 
coininon  people  of  Abyssinia. 

AQAVEy  k-gh'y^  (Gk.  fem.  of  ayav6g,  agauos, 
nnble,  high-born),  Cen'tury  Plant.  A  genus 
of  plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Ainaryllidacese,  and  having  a  tubular  perianth 
with  a  six-partite  limb,  and  a  coriaceous,  many- 
gpptled  capsule.  They  are  herbaceous  plants, 
of  remarkable  and  beautiful  appearance.  There 
are  a  number  of  species,  all  natives  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  America.  By  unscientific  persons  they 
are  often  confounded  with  Aloes  (q.v.)  ;  and 
Ajjave  americana  is  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  American  Aloe.  The  agaves  have  either  no 
pioper  stem,  or  a  very  short  one,  bearing  at  its 
summit  a  crowded  head  of  large,  fleshy  leaves, 
which  are  often  spiny 'at  the  margin.  From  the 
midst  of  these  shoots  up  the  straight,  upright 
ftrape,  sometimes  20  feet  high,  and  at  the  base 
sp\  eral  inches  in  diameter,  along  which  are  small, 
attpressed,  lanceolate  bractece,  with  a  terminal 
punjcle,  often  bearing  as  many  as  4000  flowers. 
Til  Routh  America  these  plants  often  flower  in 
thi'ir  eighth  year,  but  in  hot-houses  not  until 
they  have  reached  a  very  advanced  age;  whence 
arises  the  gardeners*  fable  of  their  flowering 
only  once  in  a  hundred  years.  After  flowering, 
ill  Rome  species,  the  plant  dies  down  to  the 
proimd,  but  the  root,  continuing  to  live,  sends  up 
nvw  shoots.  The  best  known  species  is  Agave 
iiniericana,  of  which  there  are  several  varieties 
with  striped  or  margined  leaves,  which  was  first 
brought  from  South  America  to  Europe  in  1561, 
and  being  easily  propagated  by  suckers,  is  em- 
pk»yed  for  fences  in  Italian  Switzerland,  and  has 
become  naturalized  in  Naples,  Sicily,  and  the 
north  of  Africa.  By  maceration  of  the  leaves, 
which  are  5  to  7  feet  long,  are  obtained  coarse 
fibres,  which  are  used  in  America,  under  the 
name  of  maguey,  for  the  manufacture  of  thread, 
twine,  ropes,  hammocks,  etc.  This  fibre  is  also 
known  as  Pita  flax.  It  is  now  produced  to  some 
extent  in  the  south  of  Europe.  It  is  not  very 
strong  or  durable,  and  if  exposed  to  moisture 
it  soon  decays.  The  ancient  Mexicans  employed 
it  for  the  preparation  of  a  coarse  kind  of  paper, 
iind  the  Indians  use  it  for  oakum.  The  leaves, 
cnt.  ioto  slices,  are  used  for  feeding  cattle.  An- 
other species,  Agave  Mexicana,  is  particularly 
described  by  Humboldt  on  account  of  its  utility. 
^\'}mn  the  innermost  leaves  have  been  torn  out, 
a  juice  continues  to  flow  for  a  considerable  time, 
wliich,  by  inspissation,  yields  sugar,  and  which, 
wlien  diluted  with  water  and  subjected  to  four 
01"  five  days'  fermentation,  becomes  an  agreeable 
but    intoxicating  drink,  called  pulque.    Pulque 


is  also  nroduced  from  a  number  of  other  species, 
especially  from  Agave  atrovirenSy  and  a  distilled 
liquor,  mescal,  is  a  product  of  species  of  this 
plant.  Agave  rigida  sisalana,  a  native  of  Yuca- 
tan, yields  an  important  fibre  which,  under  the 
name  of  Sisal  hemp,  is  extensively  used  for  cord- 
age. A  few  species  of  the  genus  Agave  are  known 
from  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe.  Consult :  George 
Englemann,  Botanical  Works  (Cambridge,  Mass., 
1887);  A.  Isabel  Mulford,  The  Agaves  of  the 
United  States  (St.  Louis,  1896)  ;  Academy  of 
Science,  St.  Louis,  Transactions  (St.  Louis, 
1876). 

AQAVE.  The  mother  of  the  Theban  King 
Pentheus  (q.v.),  whom,  according  to  the  Greek 
legend,  she  and  other  frenzied  Bacchantes  tore  in 
pieces  for  his  opposition  to  the  new  orgies  of 
Dionysus.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Cadmus 
and  the  wife  of  Echion. 

AQDEy  Agd.  An  ancient  French  town  in  the 
department  of  H^rault,  on  the  river  H^rault, 
two  and  a  half  miles  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  (Map:  France,  K  8).  To  the  north,  under 
the  walls  of  the  town,  flows  the  Langeudoc  CanaL 
The  H^rault  is  navigable,  and  admits  vessels 
of  400  tons  burden.  Agde  has  trade  communis- 
tion  with  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa,  but  its  chief 
activity  is  in  its  coasting  trade.  It  carries  on 
a  large  and  prosperous  traffic  in  coal,  wine,  oil. 
grain,  silk,  etc.,  and  manufactures  soap  and 
verdigris.  The  general  aspect  of  the  place  is 
sombre,  on  account  of  the  black  volcanic  rook 
of  which  the  houses  are  built  and  with  which 
the  streets  are  paved.  It  possesses  a  naval  aca- 
demy and  a  college.  Its  most  conspicuous  build- 
ing is  the  Cathedral  of  St.  £tienne,  for  Agde  has 
been  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  since  the  beginning 
of  the  Middle  Ages.  The  town  was  founded 
by  the  Greeks  of  Massilia,  and  its  first  name 
wasAgathe.    Pop.,  1896,  7007;   1901,  7920. 

AGE.  A  term  employed  to  designate  suc- 
cessive epochs  in  the  history  of  the  human  race. 
In  the  Greek  mind,  the  life  of  the  race  was 
likened  to  that  of  the  individual — hence  the  in- 
fancy of  the  former  might  easily  be  imagined 
to  be,  like  that  of  the  latter,  the  most  b^utiful 
and  serene  of  all.  Hesiod  mentions  five  ages — 
the  Golden,  simple  and  patriarchal;  the  Silver, 
voluptuous  and  godless;  the  Brazen,  warlike, 
wild,  and  violent;  the  Heroic,  an  aspiration  to- 
ward the  better ;  the  Iron,  in  which  justice,  piety, 
and  faithfulness  had  vanished  from  the  earth, 
the  time  in  which  Hesiod  fancied  that  he  himself 
lived.  Ovid  closely  imitates  the  old  Greiek,  except 
in  one  particular — ^he  omits  the  Heroic  Age.  This 
idea,  at  first  perhaps  a  mere  poetic  comparison, 
gradually  worked  its  way  into  prose,  and  finally 
became  an  element  of  scientific  philosophy.  These 
ages  were  regarded  as  the  divisions  of  the  great 
world-year,  which  would  be  completed  when  the 
stars  and  planets  had  performed  a  revolution 
round  the  heavens,  after  which  des^^iny  would 
repeat  itself  in  the  same  series  of  events.  Thus 
mythology  was  brought  into  connection  with  as- 
tronomy. The  Golden  A^e  was  said  to  be  gov- 
erned by  Saturn;  the  Silver,  by  Jupiter;  the 
Brazen,  by  Neptune,  and  the  Iron,  by  Pluto. 
Many  curious  calculations  were  entered  into  by 
ancient  writers  to  ascertain  the  length  of  the 
heavenly  year  and  its  various  divisions.  The 
greatest  discrepancy  prevailed,  as  might  natu- 
rally be  expected;  some  maintaining  that  it  was 
3000,  and  others  as  many  as  18,000,  solar  years. 


i 


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AQE. 


195 


AQEKOB. 


The  Sybilline  Books  compared  it  to  the  seasons 
of  the  solar  year,  calling  the  Golden  Age  the 
spring,  etc.;  and,  on  the  completion  of  the  cycle, 
the  old  order  was  renewed.  The  idea  of  a  suc- 
cession of  ages  is  so  natural  that  it  has  in- 
wrought itself  into  the  religious  convictions  of 
almost  all  nations.  It  is  sanctioned  by  Scrip- 
ture, for  it  is  symbolically  adopted  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse to  a  certain  extent;  it  also  manifests 
itself  in  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindus.  Mod- 
ern philosophy,  at  least  in  Grermany  and  France, 
has  also  attempted  to  divide  human  history  into 
definite  ages  or  periods.  Fichte  numbers  five, 
of  which  he  conceives  that  we  are  in  the  third ; 
He^el  and  Auguste  Comte  reckon  three,  placing 
us  m  the  last.  Modern  anthropology  divides  the 
prehistoric  period  of  man  into  the  older  and 
newer  Stone  Ages  (Paleolithic  and  Neolithic) 
and  the  Bronze  Age.  Stone  and  bronze  are  here 
not  figurative,  as  in  Hesiod's  classification,  but 
are  indications  of  the  state  of  man's  civiliza- 
tion. In  reference  to  this  and  other  ages,  as  de- 
fined in  science,  see  Geology,  etc. 

AGE.  In  law,  that  period  of  life  at  which 
persons  emerging  from  infancy  become  capable 
of  exercising  the  rights  or  become  subject  to  the 
obligations  and  penalties  of  normal  persons.  As 
these  rights  and  obligations  vary  greatly,  the  age 
of  capacity  may  vary  according  to  the  right  or 
obligation  in  question.  Full  age  is  the  period  at 
which  a  person  acquires  full  legal  capacity,  and, 
in  England  and  the  United  States,  is  usually 
fixed  by  law  at  twenty-one  years,  for  men  and 
women  alike.  This  is  considered  to  be  attained  on 
the  day  preceding  the  twenty-first  anniversary  of 
birth.  In  a  few  States,  however,  a  woman  comes 
of  age  at  eighteen.  Political  capacity  is  usually 
coincident  with  the  attainment  of  legal  capacity, 
though  greater  maturity  is  usually  required  in 
this  country  of  the  holders  of  certain  important 
offices  of  State.  Thus,  while  one  may  become  a 
member  of  the  British  Parliament  at  twenty- 
one,  no  one  can  be  a  representative  in  Congress 
until  he  is  twenty-five,  or  a  senator  of  the  United 
J>tates  until  he  is  thirty,  nor  become  President 
before  attaining  the  age  of  thirty-five. 

Short  of  full  age,  a  male  minor  may  become 
capable  of  military  service  at  eighteen  (military 
age),  and  become  capable  of  consenting  to  mar- 
riage and  the  choice  of  a  guardian  at  fourteen 
I  age  of  discretion).  At  common  law  the  age  of 
discretion  for  female  infants  was  twelve,  and 
the  age  of  consent  to  unlawful  carnal  intercourse 
was  ten,  but  recent  legislation  in  the  United 
States  has  raised  the  age  of  consent  to  fourteen, 
fifteen,  sixteen,  and,  in  several  States,  including 
Xew  York,  to  eighteen  years.  (See  Consent: 
Rape.)  The  term,  age  of  discretion,  is  also  more 
commonly  employed  to  designate  the  period 
(usually  the  age  of  fourteen)  at  which  persons 
become  subject  to  criminal  liability,  an  infant  un- 
der seven  years  of  age  being  deemed  incapable  of 
(M'ime,  and  one  between  seven  and  fourteen  being 
presumed  to  lack  the  discretion  which  such  lia- 
bility assumes;  but  this  presumption  is  capable 
of  being  rebutted  by  proof.  ( See  Infant  ;  Con- 
tract; Crime;  Militaby.)  For  the  modern  law 
«f  infancv  consult  Schouler,  Treatise  on  the 
I>onestic 'Relations   (Boston,  1870). 

AGE,  Canontcai-.  The  age  which,  according 
to  the  canons,  a  man  must  have  reached  for 
ordination.  This,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
»8  22  for  the  sub-diaconate,  23  for  the  diaconate. 


25  for  the  priesthood,  and  30  for  the  episcopate. 
Dispensations  may,  however,  be  granted  from  this 
rule.  In  the  Greek  Church  the  age  is  25  for  a 
deacon,  30  for  a  priest  or  bishop ;  in  the  Anglican 
Communion  23  for  a  deacon  and  24  for  a  priest. 

Aa'ELAa)AS  (Gk.  'AyeUSag)  (520-7460 
B.C.).  An  early  Greek  sculptor,  born  at  Argos. 
He  is  now  chiefly  noted  for  having  been  the 
teacher  of  the  famous  artists,  Myron,  Phidias, 
and  Polyclitus  (q.v.).  By  him,  however,  were 
modeled  the  statues  of  Zeus  and  Heracles,  as 
well  as  of  various  victors  in  the  Olympian  games, 
and  Pausanias  mentions  numerous  works  of  his. 
None  of  them,  so  far  as  known,  has  come  down 
to  us. 

AQEN,  &'zhaN^  The  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Lot-et-Garonne,  France.  It  is  situated 
in  a  fertile  region  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Garonne,  37  miles  from  Bordeaux  (Map:  France, 
G  7 ) .  The  town  is  very  ancient,  and  was  found- 
ed during  the  Roman  occupation,  when  it  was 
known  as  Aginnum.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
and  the  cathedral  dates  from  the  days  of  Clovis. 
There  is  a  fine  stone  bridge  over  the  Garonne, 
and  a  still  more  beautiful  structure  is  the  aque- 
duct bridge  of  the  Canal  Lat<^ral.  Among  monu- 
ments of  note  is  a  statue  of  the  poet  Jasmin. 
Its  public  institutions  include  a  seminary  for 
the  training  of  the  clergy  and  a  library  of 
20,000  volumes.  Standing  between  Bordeaux 
and  Toulouse,  Agen  interchanges  trade  with  both 
these  places,  and  has,  besides,  several  important 
home  industries.  The  prunes  of  Agen  are  cele- 
brated, and  it  also  produces  cotton,  woolen,  and 
linen  fabrics  of  the  first  quality.  Agen  is  the 
birthplace  of  Joseph  Scaliger,  Lac^pMe.  and 
Bory  de  St.  Vincent.    Pop.,  1901,  22,482. 

AQENCE  HAVAS,  &'zhUN^  sk'yk^.  See  Havas 
Agency. 

AaENa)A  (Lat.  things  to  be  done,  from 
agere,  to  do).  A  term  applied  by  theologians 
to  practical  duties  as  distinguished  from  the 
credenda,  things  to  be  believed,  or  doctrines  that 
must  be  accepted  as  articles  of  faith.  Among 
writers  of  the  ancient  church,  the  term  signified 
both  divine  service  in  general  and  the  mass  in 
particular.  We  meet  with  agenda  matutina  and 
vesper tina,  morning  and  evening  prayers ;  agenda 
diei,  the  office  of  the  day;  agenda  mortuoruniy 
the  service  of  the  dead.  It  is  also  applied  to 
church  books  compiled  by  public  authority,  pre- 
scribing the  order  to  be  observed  by  the  ministers 
and  people  in  the  ceremonies  and  observances  of 
the  Church.  In  this  sense  agenda  occurs  for  the 
first  time  in  a  work  of  Johannes  de  Janua  about 
1287.  The  name  was  especially  used  to  designate 
a  book  containing  the  formulae  of  prayer  and 
ceremonies  to  be  observed  by  the  priests  in  their 
several  ecclesiastical  functions.  It  was  gener- 
ally adopted  by  the  Lutheran  Church  of  Ger- 
many, in  which  it  is  still  in  use,  while  in  the 
Roman  Church  it  has  been,  since  the  sixteenth 
century,  supplanted  by  the  term  ritual   (q.v.). 

AGEOrOB  (Gk.  'AyjTvwp).  Originally  a  my- 
thical personage  in  the  Argive  legends,  and  later 
said  to  have  been  a  king  in  Phoenicia  or  Egypt, 
son  of  Poseidon,  and  father  of  Europa,  Cadmus, 
Phopnix,  and  Cilix.  When  Europa  was  carried 
off  by  Zeus,  Agenor  sent  his  sons  in  search,  with 
orders  not  to  return  without  their  aisteT.  ^^ 
she  was  not  found,  Cadmus  found^^  TVvebca?  ^^^ 


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AQENOB. 


196 


AQEKT. 


the  other  sons  settled   in  the  countries  which 
bore  their  names.    See  Cadmus. 

A^QENT  (Lat.  agens,  acting,  pres.  part,  of 
agerCf  to  act).  A  modern  term  in  English  law, 
As  a  generic  term,  it  includes  every  one  author- 
ized to  act  for  and  represent  another;  but  it  is 
often  used  in  a  specific  sense  to  denote  one 
authorized  to  act  for  another  in  making  con- 
tracts between  that  other,  called  the  principal, 
and  third  persons.  Blackstone  does  not  employ 
it,  and  it  rarely  occurs  in  law  dictionaries,  di- 
gests, or  decisions  before  the  nineteenth  century. 
For  a  time  after  its  appearance  it  is  used  inter- 
changeably with  the  word  servant.  During  the 
last  century,  however,  the  tendency  of  judges  and 
law  writers  has  been  toward  a  complete  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  terms  "agent"  and  *'servant." 
A  fair  illustration  of  the  result  is  afforded  by  the 
following  provisions  of  the  California  Civil  Code: 
"An  agent  is  one  who  represents  another,  called 
the  principal,  in  dealings  with  third  persons." 
"A  servant  is  one  who  is  employed  to  render 
personal  service  to  his  employer,  otherwise  than 
in  the  pursuit  of  an  independent  calling,  and 
who  in  such  service  remains  entirely  under  the 
control  and  direction  of  the  latter,  who  is  called 
his  master."  Using  "agent,"  then,  to  denote 
a  person  authorized  to  act  for  and  represent  an- 
other in  business  transactions  with  third  per- 
sons, and  reserving  the  rules  relating  to  master 
and  servant  (q.v.)  for  a  separate  article,  let 
us  consider,  (1)  how  agency  is  constituted,  (2) 
the  liability  of  the  principal  to  third  parties, 

(3)  the  liability  of  the  agent  to  third  parties, 

(4)  the  liabilities  of  principal  and  agent  to  each 
other,  (5)  the  termination  of  agency. 

(1.)  Ordinarily,  the  relation  of  principal  and 
agent  originates  in  a  contract  (q.v.)  between  the 
parties,  but  it  may  exist  without  a  contract,  as 
where  A  gratuitously  undertakes  to  do  an  act 
for  B.  The  relationship  may  rest  upon  ratifica- 
tion, instead  of  a  precedent  agreement.  For  ex- 
ample: A  does  an  act  avowedly  as  B's  agent, 
without  authority  from  B.  The  act  does  not 
bind  B,  unless  he  accepts  it  as  done  on  his  be- 
half. If  he  does  so  accept  it,  his  ratification  is 
equivalent  in  law  to  a  precedent  appointment 
of  A  as  agent.  Even  without  appointing  A  or 
ratifying  his  acts,  B  may  become  liable  for  those 
acts,  because  his  conduct  induces  third  parties 
to  believe  that  A  is  B's  agent.  In  such  a  case 
there  is  agency  by  estoppel  (q.v.).  Still  another 
form  of  agency  is  that  which  is  created  by 
the  law,  as  where  the  law  authorizes  a  wife  to 
pledge  her  husband's  credit  for  necessaries.  In 
the  language  of  a  learned  judge,  "the  law  cre- 
ates a  compulsory  agency,  and  her  request  is  his 
request. 

(2.)  A  principal  who  has  authorized  an  agent 
to  do  an  act  for  him,  or  has  ratified  the  act,  is 
liable  to  third  persons  preciselv  as  if  the  act 
had  been  done  by  him.  As  a  rule,  the  principal 
is  disclosed  to  the  third  party,  and  the  latter  un- 
derstands that  the  transaction  is  between  them, 
the  agent  being  a  mere  conduit  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  the  principal's  consent.  But  even  though 
the  principal  is  not  disclosed,  nay,  even  though 
the  third  party  may  refuse  to  enter  into  a  trans- 
action mth  the  principal  and  may  insist  upon 
contracting  with  the  agent  as  a  principal,  yet 
upon  discovering  that  the  transaction  was  "for 
the  principal's  benefit  and  authorized  by  him, 
the  third  party  may  hold  the  principal  liable. 
To  this  extraordinary  liability  of  an  undisclosed 


principal  there  are  sundry  limitations.    If  tht 
third  party  has  taken  a  written  contract  under 
seal  or  negotiable  paper,  duly  executed  by  the 
agent  in  his  own  name,  he  cannot  sue  the  prin- 
cipal on  that  instrument,  because  technical  law 
permits  only  the  parties  to  such  a  writing  to  be 
sued  on  it.    Again,  the  third  party  may  lose  his 
right  of  action  against  an  undisclosed  principal 
by  a  final  choice  or  election   (q.v.)    to  hold  the 
agent  only;    or  by  undue  delay   in   proceeding 
against  the   principal.      The  principal  may  be 
liable  to  third  parties  for  his  agent's  acts,  which 
he  has  never  authorized,  or  which  he  has  even 
forbidden.     His  liability  in  such  cases  depends 
upon  whether   the   acts   were  done   within  the 
scope  of  the  agent's  apparent  authority;  for  the 
principal  will  not  be  allowed  to  show  that  he 
secretly  forbade  what  he  appears  to  have  author- 
ized.   What  is  the  scope  of  an  agent's  authority 
depends  upon  the  facts  of  the  particular  case, 
including     ordinary    business     usages     relatin<! 
thereto.      As  the  agent  is,  in  law,  a  mere  con- 
duit of  the  principal's  will,  and  thus  identified 
with  the  principal,   knowledge   acquired  by,  or 
notice  given  to,  the  former  during  his  agency,  at 
least,  is  imputed  to  the  latter.    An  exception  to 
this   rule  exists   where  the  agent   acquires  the 
knowledge  or  receives  the  notice  in  a  transac- 
tion conducted  by  him  in  fraud  of  the  principal. 
In  such  a  case  the  agent  cannot  be  expected  to 
disclose  his  knowledge  to  the  principal,  and  the 
legal   fiction   that  the  principal   and  agent  are 
but  one  person  will  not  be  pressed  so  far  as  to 
work  palpable  injustice.      It  should  be  noted  in 
this  connection  that  when  an  undisclosed  prin- 
cipal is  liable  to  be  sued  by  the  third  party,  he 
is  entitled,  as  a  rule,  to  sue.      This  correrative 
right,  however,  he  will  not  be  allowed  to  enforce 
to  the  third  party's  injury.      For  example:  any 
defense  which  the  third  party  could  have  set  up, 
had  he  been  sued  by  the  agent,  he  can  interpose 
to  an  action  by  the  principal. 

(3.)  An  agent  who  discloses  his  principal  in- 
curs no  liability  to  third  parties  if  his  acts  are 
authorized  or  ratified  and  are  lawful.  From  lia- 
bility for  unlawful  acts  he  cannot  screen  himself 
by  proving  an  express  command  of  his  princi- 
pal, although  such  command  renders  the  latter 
liable  also.  Every  wrong-doer  is  personally  n^ 
sponsible  for  his  misfeasance.  An  agent  will 
render  himself  liable  on  a  >\Titten  contract  under 
seal,  or  on  a  negotiable  instrument,  if  he  exe- 
cutes it  in  his  own  name,  although  he  intends  to 
bind  his  principal  thereby.  In  order  to  bind  the 
principal,  such  an  instrument  must  be  in  his 
name,  and  purport  to  be  his  deed,  or  note,  or 
bill.  In  the  case  of  other  written  contracts,  the 
agent  who  discloses  his  principal  will  not  be 
bound,  unless  the  intention  of  the  parties  that 
he  should  be  bound  is  apparent  from  the  writing 
and  attendant  circumstances.  The  agent  may 
render  himself  liable  to  the  third  party  by  as- 
suming to  act  for  a  principal  without  authority. 

(4.)  In  the  absence  of  express  stipulations  in 
the  contract  to  the  contrary,  the  principal  is  un- 
der obligation  to  compensate  the  agent  for  his 
services;  to  reimburse  him  for  all  proper  ex- 
penditures on  the  principal's  behalf,  and  to 
indemnify  him  against  the  consequences  of 
authorized  acts  which  he  did  not  know,  or  which 
he  was  not  bound  to  Irnow,  were  unlawful.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  agent  is  under  obligation 
to  act  with  the  utmost  good  faith  toward  the 
principal,  obeying  his  instructions,  idvancing  his 


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AaOBEQATION. 


interests,  and  rendering  full  and  true  account 
of  all  transactions.  An  agent  cannot  delegate 
his  authority  to  another,  so  as  to  escape  respon- 
sibility to  the  principal  for  that  other's  acts, 
without  the  express  or  implied  assent  of  the 
principal.  Nor,  ordinarily,  will  a  principal  be 
bound  by  the  acts  of  a  sub-agent  whose  em- 
ployment he  has  not  authorized  or  ratified. 

(5.)  Agency  may  be  terminated  by  the  agree- 
ment of  the  parties,  or  by  the  principal's  revo- 
cation of  the  appointment,  or  bv  operation  of 
law.  If  terminated  in  either  of  the  first  two 
ways,  notice  must  be  given  to  those  who  have 
been  accustomed  to  deal  with  the  agent,  or  the 
latter  will  still  be  able  to  subject  the  principal 
to  liability  to  such  persons;  for,  until  notice  of 
revocation,  these  have  a  right  to  suppose  that 
the  relation  of  principal  and  agent  continues. 
The  death  of  either  principal  or  agent,  and  the 
bankruptcy  of  the  principal,  furnish  the  most 
common  examples  of  termination  of  agency  by 
operation  of  law,  and  such  termination  is 
effective  without  notice.  An  agency  which  is 
''coupled  with  an  interest"  (i.e.,  a  vested  prop- 
erty right)  in  the  subject-matter  of  the  agency 
is  revocable  only  by  the  mutual  assent  of  both 
parties. 

Doctrines  peculiar  to  special  classes  of  agents 
are  dealt  with  under  the  appropriate  headings, 
e.g..  Attobney;  Auctioneer;  Bbokeb;  Partner- 
ship: Factor;  Crime.  Consult:  Parsons,  Law 
of  Contracts  (New  York,  1896)  ;  Wharton,  Crim- 
inal Law  (Philadelphia,  1896)  ;  Cooley,  Treatise 
on  the  Law  of  Torts  (Chicago,  1888)  ;  Pollock, 
Law  of  Torts  (London,  1901). 

AGE  OF  INNOCENCE.  A  celebrated  paint- 
ing by  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  in  the  National 
Gallery,  London.  It  depicts  a  little  girl  sitting 
on  the  ground  before  a  group  of  trees. 

AQE  OF  BE^ASON.  The  name  given  to  a 
certain  phase  and  period  of  the  French  Revolu- 
tion when  Christianity  was  decried.  Reason  pro- 
claimed as  the  only  true  deity,  and  bishops 
exchanged  their  mitres  for  liberty  caps.  This 
movement  was  fomented  by  Hubert  (q.v.)  and 
his  followers,  professed  atheists,  who  succeeded 
in  persuading  many  Christians  to  renounce  their 
faith.  The  worship  of  Reason  centred  around  the 
ceremonies  held  in  her  honor  at  Notre  Dame, 
November  10,  1793.  The  Goddess  of  Reason,  typi- 
fied by  a  painted  harlot,  was  placed  on  the  altar 
and  received  the  homage  of  her  adorers.  A 
schism  in  the  party  of  the  Montagnards,  to  which 
the  atheists  belonged,  led  to  their  execution, 
March  24,  1794.  However,  it  was  not  till  June 
8,  1794,  that  France,  in  the  Feast  of  the  Supreme 
Being,  officially  received  again  religion,  at  the 
hands  of  Maximilian  Robespierre. 

AO'ESANa>EB  (Gk.  'A>^<rav<fpoc,  Aggsan- 
dros).  A  Greek  artist  of  the  school  of  Rhodes. 
In  conjunction  with  Athenodorus  and  Polydorus 
he  executed  the  celebrated  group  of  Laoco5n, 
which  was  discovered  near  the  baths  of  Titus  in 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  time  of  Agesander 
is  unknown,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
he  was  a  contemporary  of  Vespasian. 

AOESnXAN  OF  COI/CHOS.  The  title  and 
hero  of  one  of  the  romances  in  Amadis  of  Oaul 
(q.v.).  Books  XL  and  XII. 

AQESILAaTS  (Gk.  *Ayi7<Taaoc,  AgSsilaoa 
(c.  444-360  B.C.).  King  of  Sparta  about  401- 
360  B.O.    He  was  the  son   of  Archidamus   II. 


and  succeeded  Agis  II.,  Leotychides,  the  son  of 
Agis,  being  set  aside  through  the  influence  of 
Lysander,  on  the  ground  of  illegitimate  birth. 
In  397  B.C.  he  was  sent  to  Asia  Minor  as  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Spartan  forces  in  the  war 
with  Persia.  He  carried  on  the  war  with  suc- 
cess, and  was  preparing  to  advance  into  the  in- 
terior of  the  country,  when  in  394  b.c.  he  was 
called  back  to  Greece  to  make  head  against  the 
coalition  which  had  been  formed  by  Thebes, 
Athens,  and  other  Grecian  States  against  the 
power  of  Sparta.  Proceeding  by  land,  he  ar- 
rived in  Greece  about  a  month  later,  and  in  the 
same  year  defeated  the  allies  at  Coronea.  In  the 
years  that  followed,  Agesilafls  took  an  important 
part  in  his  country's  politics  and  campaigns.  In 
361  B.C.  he  undertook  an  expedition  to  Egypt, 
but  while  on  his  way  home  died,  in  the  winter  of 
361-360,  in  his  eighty-fourth  year  and  the  forty- 
first  year  of  his  reign.  AgesilaUs  was  small 
of  stature  and  lame.  He  was  simple  in  dress  and 
in  his  way  of  living;  blameless  in  public  apd 
private  life  alike;  a  patriot,  though  a  party 
man:  a  conservative  in  politics;  a  successful, 
though  not  a  great,  general. 

AGOLTT'TINATE  LAN^GXTAaES  (Lat.  ad, 
to,  +  gluten,  glue,  paste).  The  name  given  to 
the  Turanian  tongues.  The  grammatical  rela- 
tions, more  than  in  any  other  class  of  languages, 
are  expressed  by  postpositional  elements  or  suf- 
fixes, pronouns  being  attached  (glued)  to  sub- 
stantives (to  indicate  possession),  as  well  as  to 
verbs,  and  all  kinds  of  prepositions  being  suffixed 
to  substantives.  In  the  Magyar  (Hungarian)  lan- 
guage, for  example:  Anya,  mother,  anydm,  my 
mother;  k^s,  knife,  k^sel,  with  a  knife;  szoha, 
room,  szohdhan,  in  the  room.  See  Philoloot; 
Turanian  Languages. 

AO'QBEQATIOiry  States  of  (Lat.  ad,  to 
+  gregare,  to  collect  into  a  flock).  The  three 
states,  gaseous,  liquid,  and  solid,  in  which  matter 
occurs.  Many  substances  are  capable,  under 
certain  conditions  of  temperature  anclpressure, 
of  existing  in  any  of  the  three  states.  Water,  for 
instance,  may  be  gaseous  (steam,  or  water 
vapor),  liquid  (as  ordinarily),  or  solid  (ice). 
Other  substances,  on  the  contrary,  could,  by  the 
means  at  our  disposal,  be  obtained  in  only  one 
of  the  states  of  aggregation;  thus,  the  element 
carbon  remains  solid  even  at  the  highest  tem- 
peratures that  can  be  produced  at  present,  and 
many  of  its  compounds  undergo  chemical  decom- 
position before  reaching  the  point  at  which  they 
might  melt. 

iJnder  certain  conditions  matter  has  been 
assumed  to  be  capable  of  existing  in  other  states 
besides  the  above  three.  Thus,  Boutigny  thought 
that  liquids,  when  thrown  upon  glowing  hot  sur- 
faces, pass  into  what  he  called  the  spheroidal 
state.  Crookes  thought  that,  at  the  instant  of 
the  electric  discharge,  the  gases  inclosed  within 
a  Crookes  tube  pass  into  a  radiant  state,  which 
is  characterized  by  certain  properties  not  found 
in  the  other  states  of  aggregation.  When  under 
the  critical  pressure  and  temperature  (see  Crit- 
ical Point)  ,  substances  are  sometimes  said  to  be 
in  the  critical  state.  In  this  article,  however, 
only  the  three  states  of  aggregation  that  are 
generally  recognized  may  be  briefly  character- 
ized. 

1.  A  gas  (or  vapor)  occupies  the  volume  and 
assumes  the  shape  of  the  vessel  within  which  it  is 
inclosed,  and  its  resistance  to  a  change  of  shape 


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198 


AGISTMENT. 


is  very  small.  The  amount  of  work  which  must 
ordinarily  be  expended  in  diminishing  the  volume 
of  a  gas  is  also  insignificant  compared  to  that 
required  in  the  case  of  liquids  or  solids.  An- 
other characteristic  property  of  gases  is  their 
<:>apacity  of  mixing  with  one  another  in  all  pro- 
portions. Gases  may  be  said  to  be  matter  in  a 
highly  rarified  state,  their  specific  gravity  being 
ordinarily  very  small  compared  to  that  of  liquids 
III*  of  solids.  According  to  the  molecular  theory, 
the  distances  between  their  particles  are  very 
great,  and  therefore  the  particles  exert  very  little 
iic'tton  upon  one  another  (see  Molecules — ^Mo- 
lecular Weights. 

2.  The  volume  of  a  liquid  varies  but  little  with 
the  external  conditions ;  very  great  pressures,  for 
instance,  will  cause  but  a  slight  diminution  of 
the  volume  of  a  liquid.  Like  gases,  however, 
liquids  have  no  shape  of  their  own,  and  they 
roadily  assume  the  shape  of  the  vessel  contain- 
ing them.  Certain  pairs  of  liquids  ( for  instance, 
alcohol  and  water)  are  capable,  like  gases,  of 
mixing  in  all  proportions;  others  (for  instance, 
carbolic  acid  and  water)  dissolve  in  each  other 
ta  a  limited  extent;  still  others  (for  instance, 
carbon  di-sulphide  and  water)  are  practically 
insoluble  in  each  other.  The  molecules  of  a 
body  in  the  liquid  state  are  much  nearer  to  one 
another  than  those  of  a  gas,  and  consequently 
are  capable  of  exerting  upon  one  another  con- 
siderable attraction. 

3.  In  the  case  of  solids,  not  only  the  volume, 
but  also  the  shape,  cannot  be  easily  changed. 
Very  little  is  as  yet  known  of  the  molecular  con- 
'^tjtution  of  solids.  Concerning  the  mutual  solu- 
bility of  solids,  see  Solutions  and  Isomorphism. 
Consult:  J.  D.  van  der  Waals,  La  continuity 
tlf^s  ^tats  gazeux  et  liquidea  (in  French,  Paris, 
1804;  in  German,  Leipzig,  1899-1900). 

A^GIAS  (6k.  'Aymc).  An  ancient  Greek 
cyclic  poet  of  TroBzcn,  who  lived  about  740  B.C. 
His  chief  work  was  Noardi,  Nostoif  or  the  History 
of  the  Return  of  the  Achcean  Heroes  from  Troy, 
Only  fragments  of  the  poem  have  been  preserved. 

AGIBy  ft'gib.  The  name  of  two  characters  in 
the  Arabian  Nights.  (1)  In  the  History  of  the 
Three  Calendars,  the  third  calendar,  whose  mar- 
velous adventures  began  with  his  shipwreck  on 
the  lode-stone  mountain.  (2)  In  The  Story  of 
Xoureddin  Ali  and  Bedreddin  Hassa/n,  the  son  of 
the  latter. 

AGINCOUBT,  i'zhftN'ko5r^  or  AZIN- 
COTJBT.  A  village  in  the  department  of  Pas- 
do-CalajfS,  France,  celebrated  for  the  splendid 
victory  over  the  French  gained  by  Henry  V.  of 
England  on  St.  Crispin's  Day,  October  25,  1415. 
r.eviving  the  ancient  claim  of  the  Plantagenets 
to  the  French  throne,  Henry  had  invaded  France 
luid  taken  Harfleur;  but  disease  and  privations 
ill  his  small  army  determined  him  to  return  to 
Ktigland  for  reinforcements.  Setting  out  for 
Cilais,  he  forded  the  Somme  with  great  diffi- 
cult v,  only  to  find  a  French  army  of  50,000  men 
blocking  his  way.  Henry  offered  advantageous 
terms,  to  save  his  14,000  men  from  destruction; 
but  the  French  were  so  confident  of  annihilating 
the  weakened  English  troops  that  they  would 
hear  of  nothing  but  absolute  surrender.  Be- 
tween two  woods,  near  the  villages  of  Agin- 
court  and  Tramecourt,  the  English  placed  them- 
Bclves,  in  sullen  desperation.  The  French,  main- 
ly Armagnac  soldiery  and  men-at-arms,  were 
drawn  up  in  two  lines,  cavalry  in  front,  infantry 


behind.  As  the  English  marched  forward,  the 
enemy's  cavalry,  peers  and  knights  of  France. 
charged  to  meet  them.  But  the  loamy  ground 
held  their  horses'  feet,  and  the  rain  of  English 
cloth-yard  arrows  poured  upon  rider  and  hor<e. 
broke  the  front  rank,  which  in  confusion  retreat- 
ed on  the  second  line,  breaking  that  too.  The 
English  archers,  with  billhook  and  hatchet, 
dashed  in  among  the  heavily  encumbered  men- 
at-arms  and  slaughtered  them  in  great  numbers, 
turning  the  fighting  into  a  butchery.  Those  of 
the  enemy  who  could,  ran;  the  rest  perished. 
The  French  nobility  was  almost  annihilated  in 
this  battle;  among  the  10,000  dead  being  the 
Constable  d'Albret,  the  commander  of  the  French 
force,  six  dukes  and  princes,  and  numberless 
lords  and  knights  of  lesser  degree.  The  English 
lost  1000  men,  among  them  the  Duke  of  York. 
Consult  Nicolas,  History  of  the  Battle  of  Agin- 
court  (London,  1833). 

AQIO,  ftjl-d  or  ft'ji-d.  An  Italian  word,  sig- 
nifying "accommodation,"  first  used  in  Italy  to 
denote  the  premium  taken  by  money-changers 
in  giving  gold  for  silver,  on  account  of  the  great- 
er convenience  of  gold  for  transport.  The  same 
word  is  now  used  in  particular  to  denote  the 
difference  in  the  value  of  a  metallic  currency 
and  the  paper  money  representing  it;  also  the 
variations  from  fixed  pars  or  rates  of  exchange. 
It  corresponds  very  nearly  to  the  English  word 
"premium." 

AGIBAy  A-jg'rA,  formerly  San  Filipo  d'Ab- 
GiRd.  A  city  in  Sicily,  2130  feet  above  the  set. 
45  miles  northwest  of  Catania  (Map:  Italy,  J 
10).  It  has  the  ruins  of  a  Norman  castle,  sul- 
phur mines,  and  marble  quarries.  The  histo- 
rian Diodorus  (q.v.),  who  was  bom  here,  credits 
it  with  having  been  honored  by  a  visit  from 
Hercules,  but  now  St.  Philip  has  succeeded  the 
heathen  god  as  the  tutelary  genius  of  the  city. 
Four  miles  to  the  north  is  Gagliano,  where  30C 
French  knights  were  ambushed  in  1300.  Pop., 
14,000. 

A^GIS  (Gk.'Ayff ) .  The  name  of  several  kings 
of  Sparta.  ( 1 )  Son  of  Eurysthenes  and  foundei 
of  the  family  of  the  Agid».  According  to  om 
account,  he  conquered  Helos  and  established  th< 
order  of  the  Helots.  (2)  Son  of  Archidamus  II. 
and  king  from  427  or  426  to  400  or  399  B.C.  Hi 
was  one  of  the  best  kings  of  Sparta  and  one  o 
the  most  distinguished  men  of  his  time.  H< 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Peloponnesian  Wai 
several  times  invaded  Attica,  and  defeated  th 
Athenians  and  their  allies  at  the  battle  of  Man 
tinea,  in  418  B.C.  It  was  said  that  Alcibiade 
seduced  Tima>a,  the  wife  of  Agis,  and  in  cons« 
quence  of  this  report,  Leotychides,  Timsea's  soi 
was  excluded  from  the  throne  in  favor  of  Agesila 
lis.  (3)  Son  of  Archidamus  III.,  and  king  from  33 
to  331  B.C.  He  tried  to  overthrow  the  Ma  cede 
nian  power  in  Europe  while  Alexander  the  Grea 
was  in  Asia,  but  was  defeated  and  killed  in  battl 
by  Antipater  in  331  B.C.  (4)  Son  of  Eudamidu 
li.,  and  king  from  244  to  240  B.c.  He  tried  t 
reestablish  the  institutions  of  Lycurgus  and  n 
form  the  Spartan  State,  but,  being  opposed  by  th 
wealthy  classes,  was  thrown  into  prison  and  pt 
to  death.  Consult  Plutarch,  Life  of  Ag\ 
and  Barran,  Histoire  d*Agis  IV.   (Paris,  1817 

AQISTOffENT  (O.  F.  agister,  Lat.  ad,  to - 
O.  F.  gistcr,  to  assign  a  lodging,  from  ffiste,  F 
gite,  an  abode,  resting-place).  The  commc 
contract  of  bailment    (q.v.),  whereby  a   pers€ 


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A0NESI. 


(called  the  agister)  pastures  the  horses  or  cat- 
tle of  another.  The  agister  is  not  subject  to  the 
extraordinary  liability  of  the  common  carrier 
(q.y.)  and  the  inn-keeper  (q.v.)  for  the  loss  of 
the  property  intrusted  to  his  care,  but  is,  never- 
theless, bound,  as  an  ordinary  bailee  for  hire,  to 
take  reasonable  care  of  the  animals.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  is  not,  like  the  inn-keeper,  the 
common  carrier,  the  horse-trainer,  etc.,  entitled 
to  a  lien  (q.v.)  on  the  animals  for  his  charges. 
Consult :  Sir  William  Jones,  Essay  on  the  Law  of 
Bailments  (New  York,  1828)  ;  Story,  Commen- 
taries on  the  Law  of  Bailments  (Boston,  1878). 

AQIiAOA  (Ok.  *Aylaia,  splendor,  beauty). 
Accordin^^  to  Hesiod,  the  youngest  of  the  three 
Graces,  the  wife  of  Hephestos. 

AQZiA^OPHON  (Gk.  'Ay^iaoi^).  A  Greek 
paintet"  w^ho  lived  about  500  B.C.  He  was  the 
father  of  Polygnotus  and  Aristophon,  also  paint- 
ters  and  his  pupils.  Quintilian  praises  Agla- 
ophon's  pictures  for  simplicity  of  coloring. 

AQIiAXT^BA.  A  play  by  Sir  John  Suckling 
(q.v.),  produced  in  1637-38,  and  first  published 
in  1638,  in  folio,  and  again  in  1646.  It  is  said 
that  the  King  was  present  when  the  play  was 
acted  and  was  so  distressed  by  its  sad  ending 
that  the  author  wrote  a  new  conclusion,  making 
the  piece  a  "tragi-comedy.** 

AGLIABDI,  4-lyar'd^  Antonio  (1832—). 
Archbishop  of  Ferrara,  and  cardinal.  He  was 
bom  at  Cologno  and  studied  law  and  theology 
at  Rome.  In  1884  Pope  Leo  XIII.  appointed 
him  Archbishop  of  Caesarea  in  Palestine,  and 
shortly  thereafter  he  was  sent  as  the  apostolical 
delegate  to  India  to  settle  the  Goa  controversy 
with  Portugal.  In  1889  he  was  the  Papal  nuncio 
in  Munich,  and  four  years  later  filled  the  same 
position  in  Vienna.  His  personal  interference 
with  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  Hungary,  in 
1895,  resulted  in  his  receiving  a  public  repri- 
mand from  the  Hun^rian  government,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  a  dispute  arose  between  B&nfTy, 
the  president  of  the  Hungarian  ministry,  and 
K&lnoky,  the  Austro-Hungarian  minister  of  for- 
eign affairs,  which  culminated  in  the  downfall 
of  the  latter.  He  was  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Ferrara  and  cardinal  in  1896. 

AOLOS'SA  (Gk.  a,  a,  priv.  +  yXwrao,  gl6ssa, 
tongue).  A  group  of  anurous  amphibia,  the 
frogs,  without  a  tongue  and  with  one  pharyngeal 
opening  of  the  eustachian  tubes.  It  contains 
certain  fossil  forms,  but  only  two  recent  fami- 
lies Pipids  (South  American),  and  Xenopidss 
( African ) .    See  Pipa. 

AOKANO,  &-ny&^nd.     Formerly  a  small  lake 
near  Naples,  Italy,  situated  in  the  crater  of  a  vol- 
cano, now  drained  on  account  of  its  malarial  in- 
fluence.   At  the  right  of  Lake  Agnano  lies  the 
Grotto  del  Cane,  whose  floor  is  covered  with  a 
stratum  of  carbonic  acid  gas  of  sufficient  strength 
and  depth  to  kill  small  animals  that  are  put  into 
the  grotto.  On  the  left  are  situated  the  vapor 
bftths  of  San  Germano,  used  by  people  afflicted 
with  rheumatism  and  gout.     The  volcanoes  sur- 
rounding the  lake  have  been  extinct  since  1198 
Aj).    Fiulher  on  the  left  from  Agnano  lies  the 
lake  of  Astroni,  which  occupies  the  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano  and  is  surrounded  by  beautiful 
woodlands. 

ACKNATE  (Lat.  agnatus,  bom  in  addition  to, 
from  (ui,  to  -j-  natus,  bom).  Agnates,  in  the  law 
of  both  England  and  Scotland,  are  persons  related 


through  the  father,  as  cognates  are  persons  related 
through  their  mother.  By  the  English  law  of  suc- 
cession, agnates  inherit  unless  the  inheritance 
was  received  by  the  deceased  person  a  parte 
matema,  that  is,  from  the  mother,  or  a  cognate, 
in  which  case  it  would  descend,  if  he  left  no 
issue,  to  her  cognates.  In  the  Roman  law,  both 
of  these  terms  had  a  somewhat  different  signi- 
fication. Agnates,  by  that  system,  were  persons 
related  through  males  only,  whilst  cognates  were 
all  those  in  whose  connection,  though  on  the 
father's  side,  one  or  more  female  links  inter- 
vened. Thus,  a  brother's  son  was  his  uncle's 
agnate,  because  the  propincjuity  was  wholly  by 
males;  a  sister's  son  was  his  cognate,  because  a 
female  was  interposed  in  that  relationship.  The 
reason  for  having  thus  changed  the  meaning  of 
terms  manifestly  borrowed  from  the  Roman  law 
seems  to  be  that  in  Rome  the  distinction  between 
agnates  and  cognates  was  founded  on  an  insti- 
tution which  has  not  been  adopted  in  the  Roman 
sense  by  any  modem  nation — that,  namely,  of  the 
patria  potestas  (q.v.).  Roman  agnati  are  de- 
fined by  Hugo  to  be  all  those  who  either  actually 
were  under  the  same  paterfamilias,  or  would 
have  been  so  had  he  been  alive;  and  thus  it  was 
that,  as  no  one  could  belong  to  two  different 
families  at  the  same  time,  the  agnation  to  the 
original  family  was  destroyed  and  a  new  agna- 
tion created,  not  only  by  marriage,  but  by  adop- 
tion ((}.v.). 

Justinian  abolished  entirely  the  distinction  be- 
tween agnates  and  cognates,  and  admitted  both 
to  legal  succession.  As  to  the  legal  effects  of  the 
distinction  in  the  modern  sense,  see  Succession  ; 
Guardian.  See  the  works  referred  to  under 
Civil  Law. 

AGNES  {Fr.  pron.  k'nyk^T).  (1)  In  Moli- 
dre's  UEcolc  des  femmes,  a  character  who  has 
become  proverbial  as  a  type  of  ing4ntte.  She  is 
a  young  girl  brought  up  in  ignorance  of  many 
of  the  social  relations,  who  innocently  makes 
the  most  suggestive  remarks  and  without  inten- 
tion cruelly  wounds  other  people's  feelings.  In 
English,  Wycherley's  Mrs.  Pinchwife  is  in  some 
respects  patterned  after  her.  (2)  A  character 
in  Lillo's  tragedy,  Fatal  Curiosity,  (3)  See 
Wickfield,  Agnes,  in  Dickens's  David  Copper* 
field, 

AG^ESy  Countess  of  Oblam^de.  See 
White  Lady. 

AGNES,  Saint.  A  Christian  virgin,  martyred 
in  Rome  by  order  of  Diocletian  when  about  thir- 
teen years  old.  The  legend  is  that  her  beauty  ex- 
cited the  desires  of  wealthy  suitors,  who,  vainly 
seeking  her  in  honorable  marriage,  accused  her  to 
the  governor  as  a  Christian.  Unmoved,  she  heard 
threats  of  torture,  and  was  sent  to  the  public 
brothel,  where  only  one,  however,  ventured  to 
touch  her,  and  he  was  stricken  with  miraculous 
>  blindness  until  his  sight  was  restored  in  answer 
to  her  prayers.  She  was  a  little  later  beheaded. 
Her  day  is  January  21,  and  her  symbol  is  a 
lamb.  Her  legend  resembles  that  of  St.  Agatha's 
(q.v.).  Consult:  A.  Butler,  Lives  of  the  Saints, 
under  January  21   (London,  1847). 

AGNES  GBEY.  A  novel  by  a  ^^«.  -ftTOivt^* 
published  1847,  under  her  pseudo^vC^  ol  ^"^^^ 
Bell.  ^^^ 


^^tJV' 


AGNESI,  A-nyft'zft,  Mabia  Q. 
99).  An  Italian  mathematician » 
Her  family  was  prominent  at  Miy 


&. 


'^<^ 


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AQJSTEBl. 


200 


AGKOETiE. 


»1I  the  educational  advantages  that  wealth  could 
IJTocure.  Her  linguistic  and  philosophic  powers 
.suggested  the  title  of  "oracle  in  seven  lan- 
guages." She  also  gave  much  attention  to  the 
sciences,  particularly  to  mathematics.  "Algebra 
and  geometry,"  she  said,  "are  the  only  provinces 
of  thought  where  peace  reigns."  In  1748  she  was 
made  a  member  of  the  Academy  of  Bologna,  and 
in  the  same  year  appeared  her  Istituzioni  analit- 
irhe  ad  uso  dclla  gioventu  italianaf  2  volumes 
I  Milan,  1748;  Paris,  1775;  London,  1801).  In  1750 
s^he  was  appointed  by  Pope  Benedict  XIV.  lectur- 
er on  mathematics  at  the  University  of  Bologna. 
Early  devoted  to  religious  observances,  after  the 
death  of  her  father  (1752),  she  renounced  her 
scientific  work  and  took  the  veil.  Her  name  is 
ccmnected  with  an  interesting  cubic  curve.  Con- 
sult: J.  Boyer,  'Tta  math^maticienne  Agnesi," 
ill  the  Revue  Catholique  des  revues  frangaises 
it  etrangeres  (Paris,  1897)  ;  and  Antonio  Fran- 
rt»Hi'o  Frisi.  Elogio  (Milan,  1799;  translated  by 
lioulard,  Paris,  1807). 

AGKNES  OF  AUSTRIA  (1281-1364).  A 
daughter  of  Albrecht  I.,  Emperor  of  Germany. 
kSHd  was  the  wife  of  Andreas  III.,  King  of  Hun- 
gary, and  after  the  murder  of  her  father  (1308) 
lived  at  the  monastery  of  Kdnigsfelden,  which 
her  mother  had  erected  upon  the  site  of  the  assas- 
hination  of  the  Emperor.  She  took  an  active 
part  in  the  political  events  of  the  period,  and 
frequently  acted  as  mediator  between  Austria 
and  the  Swiss  Confederacy. 

AGNES  OF  MEBAN,  mA-rftn^  (?-1201).  A 
i]  11  pen  of  France,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  Meran 
( Tyrol )  and  Margrave  of  Istria.  She  was  mar- 
ritni  in  1196  to  Philip  Augustus  (q.v.),  who  had 
obtained  (through  the  French  bishops)  a  divorce 
f I  oin  Ingeborg  of  Denmark.  The  Pope  refused  to 
allow  the  divorce,  but  the  King  braved  the  Papal 
wrath.  In  1198  France  was  placed  under  an 
interdict;  but  in  1200,  the  King,  by  a  feigned 
<'onipliance,  secured  the  raising  of  the  interdict. 
Agnes  died  in  1201,  but  it  was  not  until  1213 
that  Philip  was  reconciled  to  Ingeborg.  Then 
tilt*  Pope  legitimatized  the  two  children  of  Agnes. 

AGNES  OF  POITIEBS,  pw&'tyft^  (1025?- 
1077).  A  queen  of  Germany,  daughter  of  Wil- 
liam v.,  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  and  second  wife  of 
Henry  III.  of  Germany,  to  whom  she  was  mar- 
ried in  1043.  She  was  much  influenced  by  the 
itlcas  of  Cluny  (q.v.).  After  the  death  of  Henry 
(1056),  Agnes  became  Regent  of  the  Empire  as 
fzviardian  of  her  son,  Henry  IV.  In  1062  rebel- 
lious nobles  secured  possession  of  the  young 
Iffnry,  and  Agnes  went  to  Italy.  She  became 
closely  associated  with  Gregory  VII.  in  his  con- 
test against  Henry. 

AGNES'  EVE,  Saint.  The  night  of  Janu- 
ary 20.  In  popular  superstition  it  is  regarded 
Hi  an  occasion  when  young  women  can  by  various 
iria^ic  arts  behold  the  faces  of  their  destined 
husbands. 

AGNES  SOBEI/  ( 1421-50) .  The  mistress  of 
C  harles  VII.  of  France,  and  lady  of  honor  to  his 
r|ueen,  the  virtuous  Marie  of  Anjou,  whose  full 
eoniidence  she  long  enjoyed.  She  had  great  influ- 
riice  over  Charles,  and  at  a  period  of  the  greatest 
degradation  for  France  (see  Joan  of  Arc),  in- 
spired him  to  action  against  the  English  invad- 
ers, which  resulted  in  their  expulsion  from  the 
c'i:>iintry.  Her  death  was  sudden,  and  it  is  sup- 
pu±»ed  that  she  was  poisoned  by  the  Dauphin, 


afterward  Louis  XI.  She  had  three  children 
by  the  king.  Consult:  Capefigue,  Agnis  Sonl 
(Paris,  1860). 

AOnSTEW,  Cornelius  Rea  (1830-88).  An 
American  physician.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  graduated  from  Columbia  College  in  1849, 
and  from  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Sur- 
geons in  1852.  In  1858  he  was  appK>inted  sur- 
geon-general of  New  York  State,  and  during  the 
Civil  War  was  medical  director  of  the  New  York 
Volunteer  Hospital.  He  was  prominent  in  the 
United  States  Sanitary  Commission.  He  assist- 
ed in  founding  the  Columbia  School  of  Mines  in 
1884,  founded  the  Brooklyn  Eye  and  Ear  Hos- 
pital in  1868,  and  the  Manhattan  Eye  and  Ear 
Hospital.  He  became  president  of  the  State 
Medical  Society  in  1872,  one  of  the  trustees 
of  Columbia  College  in  1874,  and  was  a  professor 
in  the  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons.  He 
was  a  member  of  many  medical  and  scientific 
societies,  and  contributed  much  to  the  literature 
of  the  diseases  of  the  eye  and  ear. 

AGNEW,  Daniel  Hates  (1818-92).  Pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  the  University  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, and  very  widely  kno^^oi  by  his  surgical 
inventions  and  by  his  writings,  among  which 
may  be  mentioned:  The  Principles  and  Practice 
of  Surgery,  3   volumes    (1878-83). 

AG^NI  (Skr.  Agni-s),  The  fire  god  of  the 
Hindus,  corresponding  in  name  to  the  Latin 
ignis,  Lithuanian  ugnls,  and  Old  Slavic  ogniy 
fire.  Next  to  Indra  (q.v.)  he  is  the  most  prom- 
inent of  the  gods  in  the  Veda  (q.v.).  No  less 
than  two  hundred  hymns  celebrate  his  praise  un- 
der his  three-fold  form,  as  the  fire  on  earth,  espe- 
cially the  altar-fire,  the  lightning  in  the  sl^,  and 
the  sun  in  heaven.  His  birth  is  of  divine  origin, 
as  the  lightning  of  the  clouds,  or  he  is  daily  pro- 
duced by  a  miracle,  the  rubbing  together  of  two 
sticks  which  are  regarded  as  his  parents,  and  he 
devours  them  as  soon  as  he  is  born.  Kindled  each 
morning  at  the  sacrifice,  his  worship  forms  one 
of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  ritual.  He 
is  especially  the  messenger  between  the  gods  and 
men,  and  he  rides  upon  a  chariot  drawn  by  two 
or  more  steeds.  Although  an  immortal,  he  has 
taken  up  his  abode  among  men,  and  he  is  regard- 
ed as  the  most  honored  guest.  In  the  later  lit- 
erature less  is  made,  perhaps,  of  Agni  than  in 
the  early  hymns ;  but  as  one  of  the  most  promi- 
nent gods  several  legends  are  preserved  regard 
ing  him  in  the  Hindu  epics  Mahfibhfirata  and 
Ramftyana  (q.v.).  The  Harivansha  (q.v.)  de- 
scribes him  as  clad  in  black,  with  a  banner  oi 
smoke  and  a  javelin  of  flame.  In  pictures  he  ii 
variously  portrayed,  but  his  color  is  red  and  h( 
is  represented  as  having  two  faces,  which  typifj 
his  destructive  as  well  as  his  beneficent  charac 
ter,  and  he  has  three  legs  and  seven  arms.  Some 
times  he  is  represented  as  riding  upon  a  ran 
or  as  accompanied  by  that  animal.  Consult; 
Macdonell,  Vedic  Mythology  (Strassburg,  1897) ; 
Hopkins,  Religions  of  India  (Boston,  1895); 
Wilkins,  Hindu  Mythology  (London,  1900). 

AG'NOWTM  {Gk,ayvoeiv,  agnoein,  to  be  igno 
rant).  A  Monophysite  sect  in  the  sixth  century 
which  gave  prominence  to  the  statement  that 
in  his  human  nature,  Christ  was  ignorant  o 
many  things,  especially  of  the  time  of  the  da] 
of  judgment.  An  Arian  sect  of  the  same  nam< 
in  the  fourth  century  denied  the  omniscience  o 
God. 


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AGKOLO. 


201 


AGOSTA. 


AGKOLO,  ft'nyd-lO,  Baccio  d'.    See  Baolioni. 

AGKO^MEK  (Lat.  ad,  to,  in  addition,  + 
nomen,  name).  A  term  used  by  the  ancient 
Roman  grammarians  to  denote  an  additional 
personal  name  derived  from  some  act,  quality, 
or  event;  as  Cunctator,  given  to  Q.  Fabius  Max- 
imu3,  the  Delayer;  Pliny  the  Younger;  Scipio 
Africanus.  But  the  Romans  themselves  regard- 
ed such  a  term  merely  as  an  additional  cogiuh 
men.     See  Cognomen. 

AGNONE,  &-nyo^n&.  A  city  of  southern 
Italy,  22  miles  northwest  of  Campobasso  (Map: 
Italy,  J  6).  It  stands  on  a  hill  said  to  be  the 
site  of  the  Samnite  Aquilonia,  It  has  cloth, 
steel,  and  copper  works.     Pop.,  1901,  9793. 

AGKOSmCISK  (Gk.  ayvcxTToc,  agnOstos,  un- 
known, unknowable,  ignorant).  A  word  coined 
by  Professor  Huxley  to  express  the  doctrine  that 
man  from  his  very  nature  is  incapable  of  form- 
ing trustworthv  conclusions  concerning  ultimate 
reality.  The  doctrine  is  by  no  means  new.  It 
U  essentially  one  with  the  view  of  Protagoras 
(q.v.),  that  the  individual  man  is  the  measure 
of  the  universe,  and  with  the  view  of  the  Greek 
skeptics  ( q.v. )  from  Pyrrho  onward.  ( See  ^Ene- 
siDEMUS.)  Among  English-speaking  philoso- 
phers H.  Spencer  (q.v.)  is  the  best  known  agnos- 
tic. The  tenability  of  the  agnostic  position  de- 
pends on  the  justifiability  of  the  dualistic 
assumption  that  realitv  is  independent*  of  mind. 
It  argues  that  knowledge  is  the  result  of  a  men- 
tal process  which  claims  to  represent  an  external 
reality;  that  to  know  this  claim  to  be  valid  is 
possible  only  after  a  comparison  of  the  repre- 
sentation with  the  original ;  but  that  the  original 
is,  ex  hyp,,  not  an  object  of  knowledge;  hence, 
that  no  comparison  is  possible  for  the  knower. 
Knowledge  of  reality  is  thus  a  huge  undemon- 
strable  assumption.  For  a  criticism  of  agnos- 
ticism see  Knowledge,  Theory  of;  Absolute; 
Di'ALiSM,  and  Appearance. 

AGKOS^TTTS  (Gk.  ayvufjro^,  agndatos,  un- 
known). A  characteristic  Cambrian  genus  of 
blind  trilobites  distinguished  by  their  small  size, 
the  elliptical  form  of  the  dorsal  shield  or  cara- 
pace, the  close  resemblance  of  the  head-shield 
(cephalon)  and  tail-shield  (pygidium),  and  the 
presence  of  only  two  segments  in  the  thorax. 
This  genus,  comprising  over  150  species,  is  abun- 
dantly represented  in  the  Cambrian  formations 
of  Scandinavia,  Bt)hemia,  Great  Britain,  Spain, 
and  North  America;  indeed,  certain  kinds  of 
Cambrian  shales  are  filled  with  the  detached  frag- 
ments of  the  discarded  moults  of  these  crusta- 
ceans. A  few  species  are,  in  northern  Europe, 
known  from  the  lowermost  Ordovician  beds.  An 
allied  genus,  also  characteristic  of  the  Cambrian 
formations,  is  Microdiscus,  with  four  thoracic 
segments,  which  seems  to  be  a  somewhat  earlier 
form  than  Agnostus,  and  may  perhaps  be  in  a 
certain  sense  the  ancestral  form  from  which 
Agnostus  was  evolved.  For  illustration,  see  Tril- 
obites. See  also  articles  on  Trilobites;  Cam- 
brian. 

AGKNTTS,  Felix  (1839 — ).  An  American 
soldier  and  editor.  He  was  born  in  Lyons, 
France,  and  fought  in  the  war  waged  by  Napo- 
leon III.  against  Austria,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Montebello  was  detailed  to  the  celebrated  flying 
corps  under  Garibaldi.  He  came  to  America 
in  1860,  and  enlisted  in  the  Duryea  Zouaves 
( New  York  Volunteers) ,  upon  the  outbreak  of  the 


Civil  War,  and  at  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel  saved 
the  life  of  General  Kilpatrick.  He  served  as 
lieutenant-colonel  under  Sheridan  in  the  latter's 
famous  campaign  in  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
(1864),  and  toward  the  close  of  the  war,  as  in- 
spector-general in  the  Southern  Department,  he 
was  commissioned  to  dismantle  the  Confederate 
forts  in  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and  Florida. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  brevetted  briga- 
dier-general of  volunteers  (March  13,  1865),  and 
soon  afterward  was  retired  from  the  service. 
He  then  became  business  manager  of  the  Balti- 
more American, 

AG^NirS  DE^  (Lat.  Lamb  of  God).  One  of 
the  titles  of  Christ  (John  i:  29)  ;  also  the  name 
given  to  a  certain  prayer  used  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  service  of  mass.  The  litanies  generally 
conclude  with  the  same  prayer:  "O  Lamb 
of  God,  that  takest  away  the  sins  of  the  world, 
have  mercy  upon  us."  The  figure  of  a  lamb 
bearing  a  cross,  stamped  upon  an  oval  of  wax, 
silver,  or  gold,  is  also  styled  an  agnus  dei.  Such 
medals  have  been  consecrated  by  the  popes 
since  the  fourteenth  century,  and  are  generally 
distributed  among  the  faithful  on  the  first  Sun- 
day after  Easter.  In  the  ancient  Church,  candi- 
dates for  baptism  received  similar  medals  of 
wax  and  wore  them  as  amulets.  ( See  Amulet.  ) 
In  the  Greek  Church  the  cloth  which  covers  the 
cup  in  the  communion  service  bears  the  image  of 
a  lamb,  and  is  styled  the  Agnus  Dei. 

AGOK^C  LINES  ("lines  without  angles," 
from  Gk.  a,  a,  priv.  +  yuvia,  gOnia,  angle).  Im- 
aginary lines  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  such 
that  at  each  point  through  which  one  passes  the 
magnetic  declination  is  zero;  that  is,  at  such  a 
point  a  magnetic  compass  needle  lies  in  the  geo- 
graphical meridian,  and  hence  points  in  a  "true" 
north  and  south  direction.  There  are  two  agonic 
lines  at  the  present  time  ( 1902 ) .  One  is  a  closed 
curve  passing  across  Hudson's  Bay,  into  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  east  of  Florida,  across  Brazil, 
through  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  near  the  south  pole 
of  the  earth,  northward  through  Australia, 
the  Indian  Ocean,  Russia,  near  the  north  pole 
of. the  earth,  and  back  again.  The  other  is  a 
much  smaller  closed  curve,  called  the  "Siberian 
Oval,"  because  it  is  contained  in  Eastern  Siberia 
and  China.     See  Maonetisk,  Terrestrial. 

AG'ONY  CGI/UMN.  In  England,  a  term 
applied  to  that  part  of  a  newspaper,  generally 
the  second  column  of  the  advertisement  sheet, 
headed  by  notices  of  losses  and  disappearances, 
mysterious  communications  and  correspondence, 
corresponding  to  the  American  personal  column, 

AGOO,  A-g^ft.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines, in  the  province  of  La  Union.  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  western  coast,  about  19  miles  south 
of  San  Fernando,  and  has  a  population  of  10,000. 

AG'OBAC^BITTJS  (Gk.  ' A yopw/cp/rof ,  Agorak- 
ritoa).  A  Greek  sculptor  of  the  fifth  century 
B.C.  He  was  born  on  the  island  of  Paros,  and 
was  the  favorite  pupil  of  Phidias.  His  works 
are  said  to  have  been  so  perfect  that  the  ancients 
were  frequently  uncertain  as  to  which  of  the  two 
sculptors  they  should  be  ascribed.  His  chief 
creation  was  the  colossal  figure  of  Nemesis  at 
Khamnus,  which  he  is  supposed  to  have  devel- 
oped from  his  unsuccessful  Aphrodite,  prepared 
for  the  contest  with  Alcamenes.  Fragments  of 
the  work  were  recently  discovered  at  Rhamnus. 

AGOSTA,  ft-gS'stA,  or  AUGUSTA.    A  walled 


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city  of  Sicily,  in  the  province  of  Syracuse,  12 
miles  north  of  that  city.  It  stands  on  a  peninsula, 
jutting  into  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  said  to 
occupy  the  site  of  the  Megara  Hyblsea  of  the  an- 
cients. Agosta,  founded  by  the  Emperor  Fred- 
erick II.  in  1229,  played  an  important  part  in 
the  war  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers,  withstanding 
Charles  of  Anjou  until  betrayed  into  the  hands 
of  William  L'Estendard,  one  of  his  barons 
(1286).  The  city  was  then  sacked  and  the  in- 
habitants ruthlessly  butchered,  and  many  years 
passed  before  Agosta  was  repeopled  or  began  to 
prosper.  In  1551,  Agosta  was  taken  and  burned 
by  the  Turks.  Eartnquakes  destroyed  the  city 
in  1693,  when  one- third  of  the  inhabitants  per- 
ished, and  in  1848.  In  1676,  a  great  naval  bat- 
tle was  fought  here  between  the  Dutch  under 
De  Ruyter  and  the  French.  De  Ruyter  himself 
was  killed.  The  port  is  spacious,  but  rather  diffi. 
cult  of  access.  While  salt  is  the  chief  article 
of  export,  oil,  wine,  cheese,  fruit,  honey,  and 
sardines  are  also  exported.    Pop.,  about  12,000. 

AGOSTINO,  rg6'sWn6,  and  AGKOLO,  ft'- 
ny6-l6.  Architects  and  sculptors  of  Siena  early 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  They  have  been  erro- 
neously called  brothers,  because  they  worked  to- 
gether; but  Agostino  was  the  son  of  Giovanni, 
and  Agnolo  the  son  of  Ventura.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  pupils  of  Giovanni  Pisano. 
Their  sculptural  masterpiece  is  the  monument 
of  Bishop  Tarlati  at  Arezzo  ( 1330) .  They  erect- 
ed several  public  buildings  in  Siena.  They  built 
in  1325  the  great  tower  of  the  Palazzo  Comunale 
at  Siena,  rivaling  that  of  the  Palazzo  Vecchio 
at  Florence,  and  in  1337  Agnolo  erected  the 
fortress  of  Massa. 

AGOSTINO  DI  DUCCIO,  d6  d59^ch6  (1418- 
81).  A  Florentine  sculptor  and  architectural 
decorator,  one  of  the  foremost  artists  of  the  mid- 
dle early  Renaissance.  He  executed  at  twenty- 
three  a  series  of  reliefs  for  the  cathedral  of  Mode- 
na  (1442).  He  fled  to  Florence  in  1446,  and  was 
secured  by  Alberti  (q.v.)  for  the  sculptural  dec- 
oration of  the  interior  of  San  Francesco  at  Rim- 
ini, some  parts  of  which,  such  as  the  tomb  of 
Sigismundo  Malatesta,  are  masterly.  But  his 
full  capacity  was  shown  in  his  next  work,  the  fa- 
cade of  San  Bernardino  at  Perugia,  one  of  the 
finest  pieces  of  Renaissance  sculpture  composi- 
tion. His  style  was  sometimes  mannered  and 
often  incorrect.  His  forte  was  very  low  relief 
with  evanescent  eflfects,  poetic  female  figures,  and 
decorative  composition.  He  returned  to  Flor- 
ence after  1463,  and  his  latest  works  show  con- 
tinued progress,  such  as  the  "Madonna"  in  the 
Opera  del  Duomo. 

AGOTJLTy  &'g?5o',  Marie  Catherine  Sophie 
DE  Flaviqny,  Comtesse  d*  (1805-76).  A  French 
author,  whose  pseudonym  was  Daniel  Sterne. 
She  was  born  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  but  was 
educated  at  Paris,  where,  in  1827,  she  married 
Count  d*Agoult.  Afterward  she  lived  with  Franz 
Liszt,  and  of  her  two  daughters  by  him  the 
youngest  was  married  to  Richard  Wagner.  After 
a  series  of  novels,  including  Herv^  (1841),  and 
K^lida  (1845),  she  published  several  political 
works,  of  which  the  best  known  are  Lettres  R6- 
puhlicaines  (1848),  criticising  the  government 
of  Louis  Philippe,  and  the  Histoire  de  la  Revo- 
lution de  18^8  (3  volumes,  1851-53).  Her  best 
work  is  Eaquisses  Morales  et  Politiquea  (1849), 
a  volume  of  political  and  moral  aphorisms  in 
the    style    of    the    Mawimes   of    Rochefoucauld. 


Though  her  moral  laxity  made  her  the  subject 
of  much  unpleasant  notoriety,  the  Comtesse 
d'Agoult's  salon  was,  for  many  years,  the  rendez- 
vous of  many  leading  statesmen,  poets,  critics, 
painters,  and  musicians.  There  Alfred  de  Vigny 
and  Sainte^Beuve  were  frequently  seen;  there 
Ponsard  read  his  tragedy  of  Lucr^e  for  the 
first  time;  and  there  Prince  Lichnowski  ap- 
peared between  his  adventures  in  the  Carlist 
War  and  his  murder  by  the  rabble  at  Frank- 
fort. During  the  period  from  1838-48  her  salon 
had  merely  a  social  character.  When,  however, 
the  fall  of  Louis  Philippe  in  the  revolution  of 
1848  led  her  to  join  the  ultra-democratic  party 
and  to  begin  her  crusade  against  "property  and 
capital,  orthodoxy  and  tamily,"  society  was 
closed  against  her,  and  it  was  then  that  such 
men  as  Rodrigues,  Enfantin,  Lamartine,  and 
Louis  Blanc  sought  her  company. 

AGOTJTA,  &-go^t&  (native  name).  An  in- 
sectivorous mammal  (Solenodon  paradoxus)  of 
Hayti  resembling  a  very  large  rat,  nocturnal  in 
its  habits,  uttering  a  piercing  cry,  and  destruc- 
tive to  poultry.  This  and  a  Cuban  species,  the 
Almiqui  {8.  cuhanus)  represent  the  peculiar 
family  Solenodontidse.     See  Almiqui. 

AGOUTI,  A-g5o't«  (Fr.  through  Sp.,  from  the 
native  name).  Any  of  several  small  rodents  of 
South  America  and  the  West  Indies,  of  the  genus 
Dasyprocta,  and  family  Dasyproctids.  They  are 
18  or  20  inches  long,  have  somewhat  squirrel- 
like  forms,  with  slender  legs  and  hoof-like  claws, 
and  are  brownish  above  and  yellowish  below. 
They  inhabit  woodlands,  where  they  are  gregar- 
ious and  dwell  in  holes,  and  whence  they  ramble 
abroad,  mainly  at  night,  with  grunting  cries,  to 
feed  on  vegetables,  often  doing  great  damage  to 
sugar-cane.  Several  species  are  known  as  :  the 
"pampas '  hare,"  pursued  as  game  in  southern 
Brazil  and  southward;  Azara's,  the  acouchy  (or 
acuchi)  of  Guiana  and  the  West  Indies';  the 
black  and  the  yellow-rumped,  which  are  West 
Indian  and  best  known.  Also  spelled  agouty 
and  aguti;  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  Darwin 
(.4  Naturalist's  Voyage)  applies  the  name  to  the 
Patagonian  Cavy    (q.v.).     See  plate  of  Cavies. 

AGBA,  'A^grk.  A  district  and  a  division  in 
the  North- West  Provinces  (q.v.)  of  British 
India  (Map:  India,  C  3).  Population  of  dis- 
trict, 1891,  1,003,800;  1901,  1,060,500;  of  di- 
vision, 1891,  4,768,000;   1901,  5,248,100. 

AGBA.  (Evidently  from  Achberahad,  city  of 
Akbar).  A  city  in  the  North-West  Provinces  of 
British  India,  situated  in  the  district  of  the  same 
name  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jumna,  110  miles 
southeast  of  Delhi  and  841  miles  by  rail  north- 
west of  Calcutta  ( Map ;  India,  C  3 ) .  As  the  railway 
and  administrative  centre  of  its  district  and 
of  the  large  "division"  to  which  it  gives  it«  name, 
Agra  is  a  place  of  great  importance.  It  has  an 
extensive  trade  in  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  salt, 
sugar,  and  grain,  and  manufactures  of  inlaid 
mosaic  work,  for  which  it  is  famous,  gold  lace, 
and  shoes.  It  also  has  a  considerable  trans- 
port trade  by  the  Jumna  and  Agra  Canal. 
Agra  is  fortified  and  has  a  garrison;  there  is  a 
military  station  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city. 
The  climate  during  the  hot  and  rainy  seasons 
(April  to  September)  is  injurious  to  Europeans, 
but,  on  the  whole,  the  average  health  of  the  city 
is  equal  to  that  of  any  other  station  in  the 
North-West  Provinces.  Tlie  mean  annual  temper- 
ature is  79**  F.;  January,  60",  June,  96*.    The 


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AGBABIAN  LAW. 


ancient  walls  of  the  city  embrace  an  area  of 
about  11  square  miles,  of  which  about  one-half 
is  at  present  occupied.  The  houses  are,  for  the 
most  part,  built  of  the  red  standstone  of  the 
neighboring  hills.  The  principal  street,  running 
northwest  from  the  fort,  is  very  spacious,  but 
the  rest  are  generally  narrow  and  irregular, 
though  clean.  The  Strand,  a  thoroughfare  on 
the  river  banks,  is  two  miles  long  and  eighty 
feet  wide.  Some  of  the  public  buildings,  monu- 
ments of  the  House  of  Timur,  are  on  a  scale  of 
striking  magnificence. 

Among  these  are  the  fine  fortress  built  by 
Akbar,  within  the  walls  of  which  are  the  palace 
and  audience-hall  of  Shah  Jehan,  and  the  Moti 
Masjid  or  Pearl  Mosque,  so  called  from  its  sur- 
passing architectural  beauty.  Still  more  cele- 
brated is  the  Taj  Mahal,  situated  without  the 
city,  about  a  mile  to  the  east  of  the  fort.  This 
extraordinary  and  beautiful  mausoleum  was 
built  by  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan  for  himself 
and  his  favorite  wife,  Arjimand  Banoo  (sur- 
named  Mumtaz  Mahal).  Twenty  thousand  men, 
says  Tavemier  who  saw  the  work  in  progress, 
were  employed  incessantly  on  it  for  twenty-two 
years.  The  principal  parts  of  the  building  are 
constructed  or  overlaid  outside  and  in  with  white 
marble;  and  the  mosaic  work  of  the  sepulchral 
apartment  and  dome  is  described  by  various 
travelers  in  terms  of  glowing  admiration.  It  is 
composed  of  twelve  kinds  of  stones,  of  which 
lapis-lazuli  is  the  most  frequent,  as  well  as  the 
most  valuable.  Of  British  and  other  European 
edifices  in  and  near  the  city,  the  principal  are 
the  buildings  of  a  Catholic  mission  and  Episco- 
pal see  founded  in  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
government  house,  the  college  for  the  education 
of  natives,  the  Metcalfe  testimonial,  the  Eng- 
lish church,  and  the  barracks.  A  committee  ap- 
pointed by  the  government  administers  munic- 
ipal affairs,  derives  revenue  from  real  estate  and 
octroi, .  and  operates  the  water  works.  This 
city  is  held  in  great  veneration  by  the  Hindus 
as  the  scene  of  fiie  incarnation  of  Vishnu  under 
the  name  of  Parasu  Rama.  It  first  rose  to  im- 
portance in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  from  1526  to  1658  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  Mogul  sovereigns.  In  the  latter  year 
Aurungzebe  removed  to  Delhi;  henceforth  Agra 
dedin^.  It  was  taken  in  1784  by  Scindia,  and 
surrendered  in  1803  to  Lord  Lake  lifter  a  bom- 
bardment of  a  few  hours.  During  the  Sepoy 
mutiny  of  1857  Agra  was  one  of  uie  places  in 
which' the  Europeans  were  shut  up.  Tney  were 
obliged  to  abandon  the  city  in  June  and  retire 
to  the  fort  or  residency,  to  which  fugitives  also 
flocked  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  Most  of 
the  European  buildings  in  the  city  were  burned 
down  by  the  Sepoys.  Heroic  sallies  were  fre- 
quently made  from  the  fort,  until  the  place  was 
finally  relieved  in  October  by  the  rapid  and  bril- 
liant march  of  Colonel  Greathed.  Pop.,  1891, 
168,662;  1901,  188,300.  Consult  H.  G.  Keene, 
TheAffra  Guide  (Agra,  1872). 

AORAU,  &^gr&m  (Hungarian  Zdgrdh,  Croa- 
tian Zaffrch).  The  capital  of  the  Hungarian 
crown  land  of  Croatia-Slavonia,  beautifully  sit- 
uated at  the  foot  of  the  Agram  Mountains,  about 
2  miles  from  the  Save,  and  141  miles  east-north- 
east of  Piume  by  rail  (Map>  Hungary, 
B  4) .  It  consists  of  the  upper,  lower,  and  episco- 
pal towns.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  ca- 
thedral, a  late  Gothic  edifice  dating  from  the  fif- 
teenth   century;    the    palace    of    the    ban,    or 


governor;  the  National  Theatre;  the  Gothic 
church  of  St.  Mark;  the  archiepiscopal  palace; 
the  Academy  of  Sciences,  with  fine  collections  of 
pictures  and  antiquities,  and  the  palace  of  jus- 
tice. Agram  is  the  seat  of  government  of  the 
highest  courts  of  the  province  and  of  the  arch- 
bishop. The  city  is  a  great  centre  of  South- 
Slavic  national  life.  Its  educational  institutions 
include  the  Franz  Josef  University,  founded  in 
1874,  a  gymnasium,  a  high  school,  industrial 
school,  normal  training  schools,  and  several  libra- 
ries. Its  manufactures  include  leather,  linen,  por- 
celain, silk,  and  tobacco,  and  it  has  a  considera- 
ble trade  in  grain  and  wine.  Pop.,  1890,  38,000, 
mostly  Croats;  1900,  57,930.  Probably  Roman 
in  origin,  Agram  became  an  episcopal  see  in 
1093,  and  was  destroyed  by  the  Tartars  in  1242. 
Kebuilt  and  made  a  free  royal  city,  it  devel- 
oped rapidly.  In  1880  it  was  partially  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake. 

AGRAUOKTE,  ft'gr&-mdn^tft,  Ionagio  (1841- 
1873).  A  Cuban  revolutionist.  He  was  born 
at  Puerto  Principe,  Cuba,  studied  law  at  the 
University  of  Havana,  and  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  1867.  He  took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the 
insurrection  which  broke  out  against  Spain  in 
1868,  and  became  secretary  of  the  provisional 
government  in  1869.  He  commanded  the  Cuban 
forces  in  the  Camagfiey  district,  and  for  some 
time— on  the  retirement  of  Quesada,  Jordan,  and 
Cavada — acted  as  commander-in-chief.  He  was 
killed  in  the  battle  of  Jimaguaytl. 

AG^BAPHA(Gk.  unwritten,  f rom  a,  a,  priv. -f 
ypd^iv,  graphsin,  to  write).  Alleged  sayingfs 
of  Jesus  which,  though  not  found  in  the  canoni- 
cal gospels,  were  current  either  in  oral  tradition 
or  in  literature  and  are  worthy  of  being  consid- 
ered genuine  words  of  Christ.  A  very  complete 
collection  of  extra-canonical  sayings  was  made  by 
Cotelerius,  Ecclesice  Orcecw  Monumenta  (1677- 
1688) ,  who  was  followed  by  J.  E.  Grabe,  Spicele- 
gium  ( 1698  and  1700) ,  and  J.  B.  Fabricius,  Codew 
Apocryphus  Novi  Testamenti,  second  edition 
(1719).  Briefer  collections,  based  on  the  above, 
have  been  published  from  time  to  time.  The 
latest  and  most  complete  work  on  the  subject  is 
that  of  Alfred  Resch,  Agrapha,  in  Gebhardt  and 
Harnack's  Texte  und  Untersuchungen  (Leipzig, 
1889).  Out  of  a  much  larger  number  Resch  has 
judged  seventy-four  sayings  worthy  of  the  desig- 
nation '^agrapha."  Resch's  conclusions  have  been 
criticised  by  Professor  J.  H.  Ropes,  Die  SprUche 
Jeau  (I^ipzig,  1896),  who  reduces  the  number  of 
probably  genuine  sayings  to  thirteen.  In  1897 
Messrs.  Grenfell  and  Hunt  published  (Henry 
Frowde,  London)  a  papyrus  fragment  from 
Egypt  containing  seven  sayings,  each  one  except 
the  first  prefaced  by  the  words,  "Jesus  saith." 
Three  of  these  "togia"  are  quite  similar  to  say- 
ings in  the  gospels.  The  remaining  four  are  new, 
and  may  possibly  be  genuine  words  of  our  Lord. 

AGBAPH^IA.  See  Aphasia,  and  Nervous 
Diseases. 

AGBA^IAN  LAW  (Lat.  leges  agrarios) . 
Laws  regulating  the  division  or  holding  of  the 
public  lands  {ager  puhlicua)  of  the  Roman  do- 
main. With  the  name  of  agrarian  laws  was  for- 
merly associated  the  idea  of  the  abolition  of 
property  in  land,  or  at  least  of  a  new  distribution 
of  it.  This  notion  of  the  agrarian  laws  of  the 
Romans  was  not  only  the  popular  one,  but  was 
also  received  by  most  scholars.  The  French  Con- 
vention, in  1793,  passed  a  law  punishing  with 


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AGBASIAK  LAW. 


death  any  one  who  should  propose  an  agrarian 
law,  understanding  by  the  term  an  equal  division 
of  the  soil  among  all  citizens.  Now,  it  would 
have  been  strange  if  the  Romans,  with  whom 
private  property  was  so  sacred,  could  ever  have 
oeen  brought  to  sanction  any  measure  of  the 
kind.  It  was  the  German  scholars,  Heyne,  Sa- 
vigny,  and  especially  Neibuhr,  who  first  explained 
the  true  nature  and  character  of  the  Roman  a^a- 
rian  laws.  There  are  still  some  disputed  points 
in  this  matter;  but  one  thing  seems  settled — 
that  those  laws  had  no  reference  to  private  lands 
held  in  absolute  property,  but  to  public  or  State 
lands. 

As  the  dominion  of  Rome  extended,  a  portion 
more  or  less  of  each  conquered  territory  was 
confiscated  to  the  State,  and  became  public  do- 
main. All  laws  respecting  the  disposition  of 
these  lands  were  called  agrarian  laws,  which 
are  therefore  of  various  kinds.  What  caused 
these  laws  to  be  so  long  mistaken  for  an  interfer- 
ence with  private  rights,  and  excited  such  oppo- 
sition to  them  at  the  time,  was  the  use  which 
was  made  of  the  public  domains  while  unappro- 
priated. "It  was  the  practice  at  Rome,"  says 
Dr.  Arnold,  "and  doubtless  in  other  States  of 
Italy,  to  allow  the  individuals  to  occupy  such 
lands,  and  to  enjoy  all  the  benefits  of  them,  on 
condition  of  paying  to  the  State  the  tithe  of  the 
produce,  as  an  acknowledgment  that  the  State 
was  the  proprietor  of  the  land,  and  the  individ- 
ual merely  the  occupier.  Now,  although  the 
land  was  undoubtedly  the  property  of  the  State, 
and  although  the  occupiers  of  it  were  in  relation 
to  the  State  mere  tenants-at-will,  yet  it  is  in 
human  nature  that  a  long  undisturbed  possession 
should  give  a  feeling  of  ownership;  the  more  so 
as,  while  the  State's  claim  lay  dormant,  the"  pos- 
sessor was,  in  fact,  proprietor,  and  the  land 
would  thus  be  repeatedly  passing  by  regular  sale 
from  one  occupier  to  another." 

The  State,  however,  was  often  obliged  to  inter- 
fere with  these  occupiers  of  the  public  lands 
and  to  resume  its  rights.  The  very  idea  of 
a  citizen,  in  ancient  times,  involved  that  of  a 
landholder,  and  when  new  citizens  were  to  be 
admitted,  each  one  had  to  receive  his  portion 
out  of  the  unallotted  public  domain;  which  was 
attended,  of  course,  with  the  ejection  of  the  ten- 
ants-at-will. It  appears,  also,  that  the  right  to 
enjoy  the  public  lands  in  this  temporary  way  was 
confined  to  the  old  burghers  or  patricians.  This, 
taken  in  conjunction  with  the  tendency,  strong  at 
all  times,  of  larger  possessions  to  swallow  up 
smaller,  kept  up  an  ever-increasing  number  of 
landless  commons,  whose  destitution  and  degrada- 
tion came  from  time  to  time  to  such  a  pitch  that 
alleviation  was  necessary  to  prevent  the  very  dis- 
solution of  the  State.  It  is  easy,  however,  to  see 
what  motive  the  patricians,  as  a  body,  had  to 
oppose  all  such  measures,  since  it  was  their  inter- 
est, though  not  their  right,  to  keep  the  lands 
unallotted. 

The  enactment  of  agrarian  laws  occasioned 
some  of  the  most  remarkable  struggles  in  the 
internal  history  of  Rome.  Most  of  the  kings  of 
Rome  are  said  to  have  carried  an  agrarian  law; 
that  is,  to  have  divided  a  portion  of  the  public 
land  among  those  whom  they  admitted  to  the 
rights  of  citizenship.  About  twenty-four  years 
after  the  expulsion  of  the  Tarquins,  the  distress 
of  the  commons  called  aloud  for  remedy,  and  the 
consul  Spurius  Cassius  proposed  an  agrarian 
law  for  a  division  of  a  certain  proportion  of  the 


public  land,  and  for  enforcing  the  regular  pay- 
ment of  the  rent  or  tithe  from  the  occupiers  of 
the  remainder.  The  aristocracy,  however,  con- 
trived to  defeat  the  proposal,  and  when  the  year 
of  his  consulship  was  out,  Cassius  was  accused 
of  trying  to  make  himself  king,  was  condemned, 
scourged,  and  beheaded,  and  his  house  razed  to 
the  ground. 

The  first  important  agrarian  law  of  a  perma- 
nent nature  actually  passed  was  that  proposed 
by  the  tribune  Licinius  Stolo,  and  carried,  after 
a  struggle  of  five  years,  in  the  year  367  B.C. 
The  provisions  of  Licinius's  bill,  or  rogationy 
were  as  follows:  "Every  Roman  citizen  shall  be 
entitled  to  occupy  any  portion  of  the  unallotted 
State  land  not  exceeding  500  jugera  (see  Acse), 
and  to  feed  on  the  public  pasture  land  any  num- 
ber of  cattle  not  exceeding  100  head  of  large,  or 
500  head  of  small,  paying  in  both  cases  the  usual 
rates  to  the  public  treasury.  Whatever  portions 
of  the  public  land  beyond  500  jugera  are  at  pres- 
ent occupied  by  individuals  shall  be  taken  from 
them,  and  distributed  among  the  poorer  citizens 
as  absolute  property,  at  the  rate  of  seven  jugen 
apiece.  Occupiers  of  public  land  shall  also  be 
bound  to  employ  a  certain  number  of  freemen  as 
laborers." 

This  law  produced  for  a  time  very  salutary 
effects.  But  before  the  year  133  b.c.,  when  Tibe- 
rius Gracchus  was  elected  tribune,  the  Licinian 
law  had  been  suffered  to  fall  into  abeyance;  and 
although  vast  tracts  had  been  acquired  by 
the  Italian,  the  Punic,  and  the  Greek  wars, 
no  regular  distribution  of  land  among  the  desti- 
tute citizens  had  taken  place  for  upward  of  a 
century.  Numerous  military  colonies  had  in- 
deed been  founded  in  the  conquered  districts, 
and  in  this  way  many  of  the  poorer  Romans  or 
their  allies  had  been  provided  for;  but  there 
still  remained  large  territories,  the  property  of 
the  State,  which,  instead  of  being  divided  among 
the  poorer  members  of  the  State,  were  .entered 
upon  and  brought  into  cultivation  by  the  rich 
capitalists,  many  of  whom  thus  came  to  hold 
thousands  of  jugera,  instead  of  the  five  hundred 
allowed  by  the  Licinian  law.  To  a  Roman 
statesman,  therefore,  looking  on  the  one  hand 
at  the  wretched  pauper  population  of  the  meaner 
streets  of  Rome,  and  on  the  other  at  the  enor- 
mous tracts  of  the  public  land  throughout  Italy 
which  the  wealthy  citizens  held  in  addition  to 
their  own  private  property,  the  question  which 
would  naturally  present  itself  was:  Why  should 
not  the  State,  as  landlord,  resume  from  these 
wealthy  capitalists,  who  are  her  tenants,  as  much 
of  the  public  land  as  may  be  necessary  to  provide 
little  farms  for  these  pauper  citizens,  and  so 
convert  them  into  respectable  and  independent 
agriculturists?  This  question  must  have  pre- 
sented itself  to  many;  but  there  were  immense 
difficulties  in  the  way.  Not  only  had  long  pos- 
cession  of  the  State  lands,  and  the  expenditure 
of  large  sums  in  bringing  them  into  cultivation, 
given  the  wealthy  tenants  a  sort  of  proprietary 
claim  upon  them,  but  in  the  course  of  genera- 
tions, during  which  estates  had  been  bought, 
sold,  and  inherited,  the  State  lands  had  become 
so  confused  with  private  property  that  in  many 
cases  it  was  impossible  to  distinguish  between 
the  two.  l^otwithstanding  these  difficulties,  Ti- 
berius Gracchus  had  the  boldness  to  propose  an 
agrarian  law,  to  the  effect  that  every  father  of 
a  family  might  occupy  600  jugera  of  the  State 
land  for  himself  and  250  jugera  additional  for 


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AGREEMENT  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 


each  of  his  sons;  but  that,  in  every  case  where 
this  amount  was  exceeded,  the  State  should  re- 
sume the  surplus,  paying  the  tenant  a  price  for 
the  buildings,  etc.,  which  he  had  been  at  the 
expense  of  erecting  on  the  lands  thus  lost  to  him. 
The  recovered  lands  were  then  to  be  distributed 
among  the  poor  citizens ;  a  clause  being  inserted 
in  the  bill  to  prevent  these  citizens  from  selling 
the  lands  thus  allotted  to  them,  as  many  of  them 
would  have  been  apt  to  do. 

According  to  the  laws  and  constitution  of 
JRome,  there  was  nothing  essentially  unjust  in 
this  proposal,  which  was,  in  private,  at  least, 
approved  of  by  some  of  the  most  distinguished 
men  of  the  time.  The  energy  of  Tiberius  Grac- 
chus carried  the  measure,  in  spite  of  the  oppo- 
sition of  the  aristocratic  party,  to  whose  enmity 
he  fell  a  victim.  His  work  was  taken  up  a 
decade  later  by  his  brother  Gains,  who  also  met 
a  violent  death.  (See  Gracchus.)  The  at- 
tempts to  carry  out  the  "Sempronian  law,"  as  it 
was  called  ( from  the  name  of  the  gens  to  which 
the  Gracchi  belonged),  were  attended  with  great 
difficulties,  and  although  not  formally  repealed, 
it  continued  to  be  evaded  and  rendered  inopera- 
tive. Various  agrarian  laws  were  subsequently 
passed,  some  by  the  victorious  aristocratic  partj^ 
in  a  spirit  directly  opposed  to  the  Licinian  ana 
Sempronian  laws. 

Besides  agrarian  laws  having  for  their  object 
the  division  among  the  commons  of  public  lands 
usurped  by  the  nobles,  there  were  others  of  a 
more  partial  and  local  nature,  for  the  establish- 
ment of  colonics  in  particular  conquered  dis- 
tricts; these  naturally  met  with  less  opposition. 
Still  more  different  were  those  violent  appropria- 
tions of  territory  made  by  the  victorious  military 
leaders  in  the  later  times  of  the  Republic,  in 
order  to  reward  tbeir  soldiers  and  to  establish 
exclusively  military  colonies.  In  these  the  pri- 
vate rights  of  the  previous  occupants  were  often 
disregarded. 

AGBA&IAN  MOVE'MEKT  (Lat.  agrarius, 
pertaining  to  land,  field,  ager).  A  movement 
among  farmers  to  promote  their  interests  and 
those  of  large  landed  proprietors.  It  comprises 
efforts  at  trade  organization,  often  with  political 
consequences.  Such  movements  took  place  in 
England  long  ago,  and  were  particularly  active 
in  the  period  of  the  anti-corn-law  agitation.  Dur- 
ing the  last  thirty  years,  owing  to  the  effect  of 
falling  prices  on  agriculture,  there  has  been  an 
influential  agrarian  movement  in  all  western 
countries.  It  has  been  strongest  politically 
in  Gennany,  where  the  first  congress  of  north 
German  farmers  met  at  Berlin  in  1868.  This  and 
subsequent  congresses  until  1875  were  conserva- 
tive bodies  made  up  of  many  large  land  owners 
and  members  of  the  aristocracy.  They  discussed 
technical  questions  in  agriculture  and  its  social 
and  economic  interests.  In  1875  they  began  to 
a^tate  for  tax  and  land  reform  legislation,  and 
soon  developed  a  party  demanding  protective  tar- 
iffs. In  1S93  the  Union  of  Farmers  {Bund  der 
Landtcirte)  was  formed,  and  only  two  years  lat- 
er had  a  membership  of  200.000.  Its  objects 
were  to  oppose  political  treaties  which  lower 
tariff  duties  on  grain,  to  encourage  legislation 
for  meat  inspection,  to  agitate  for  bimetallism, 
reduction  of  land  taxes,  governmen&  elevators, 
cheap  personal  credit,  extension  of  railroads,  and 
larger  government  appropriations  for  agricul- 
ture. Similar  movements  exist  in  France,  Den- 
mark, the   Netherlands,  England,   Sweden,  and 


Italy.  In  the  United  States  less  has  been  done 
in  a  direct  political  way,  although  farmers'  or- 
ganizations have  been  even  more  successful  in 
other  ways.  Such  organizations  as  the  Grange 
(q.v.)  and  the  Farmers'  Alliance  (q.v.)  were 
chiefly  established  for  educational  and  mutual 
advantages,  and  especially  to  resist  encroach- 
ments of  the  railroads  in  discriminating  rates. 
References :  H.  Thiel,  25  Jahre  landiv.  Interessen- 
vertretung  (1894);  Th&r-Giessen,  Die  Agrarhe- 
wegung  in  den  letzten  25  Jahren;  C.  S.  Walker, 
"The  Farmers'  Movement,"  Annals  of  the  Ameri- 
can Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science, 
Volume  IV.  (Philadelphia,  1893-94). 

AGBABIAN  PAB^Y.  See  Political  Par- 
TIES,  German. 

AG^BAVAINE,  Sib.  A  knight  of  the  legen- 
dary Round  Table  (q.v.),  surnamed  "The 
Haughty"  {L'Orgueilleuof).  He  was  the  son  of 
Lot,  King  of  Orkney,  and  a  nephew  of  King  Ar- 
thur, and  was  slain  by  Sir  Launcelot  for  spying 
upon  him  and  the  queen. 

AGBEDAy  &-gra^D&,  Mabia  (Cobonel)  de 
(1602-64).  The  superior  of  the  convent  of  the 
Immaculate  Conception,  whose  monastic  name 
was  Maria  of  Jesus.  She  was  born  at  Agreda, 
Spain.  She  reported  that  she  had  had  revela- 
tions from  heaven,  and  that  God  had  commanded 
her  to  write  an  insoired  life  of  Mary,  the  mother 
of  Jesus.  The  book  is  entitled  Mystica  Ciudad 
de  DioSy  etc.,  3  parts  (Madrid,  1670;  French 
translation,  La  Cit6  Mystique  de  Dieu,  etc.,  6 
volumes,  Marseilles,  1696,  Paris,  1857;  German 
translation.  Die  geistliche  Stadt  Oottes,  etc.,  sec- 
ond edition,  Regensburg,  1893).  In  the  seven- 
teenth and  eighteenth  centuries  there  was  much 
talk  of  suppressing  it,  but  although  the  Pope  and 
the  Sorbonne  condemned  it,  they  threatened  in 
vain. 

AGBEE^MEKT.     See  Contbact. 

AGBEEMENT,  Method  of.    See  Induction. 

AGBEEMENT  OF  THE  PECKPLE,  The.  A 
remarkable  document  set  forth  by  the  Council  of 
the  Army,  January  15,  1649,  fifteen  days  before 
the  execution  of  King  Charles  I.  of  England. 
It  is  based  upon  "The  Heads  of  the  Proposals 
Offered  by  the  Army,"  August  1,  1647,  except 
that  no  reference  is  made  to  royalty;  and  it  is 
an  outline  of  a  written  constitution  for  a  repub- 
lic. According  to  its  provisions,  the  existing 
parliament  is  to  be  dissolved  on  or  before  the 
last  day  of  April,  1649 ;  and  thereafter  an  assem- 
bly called  the  "Representative,"  composed  of  not 
more  than  four  hundred  members,  is  to  be  elect- 
ed by  the  people  every  two  years  on  the  first 
Thursday  in  May.  The  members  or  "represent- 
ers"  are  fairly  distributed  among  the  counties 
of  England  and  Wales,  thus  remedying  the 
defects  in  the  existing  apportionment.  The  fran- 
chise is  conferred  upon  such  natives  or  denizens 
"as  are  assessed  ordinarily  toward  the  relief  of 
the  poor,"  provided  they  be  men  twenty-one  years 
of  age  or  housekeepers  "dwelling  within  the 
division  for  which  the  election"  is  held.  Ser- 
vants "receiving  wages  from  any  particular  per- 
son" are  excluded ;  and  those  who  have  aided  the 
king  are  temporarily  denied  the  right  of  voting 
or  of  being  chosen  members  of  the  assembly.  Offi- 
cials are  not  eligible,  and  lawyers  are  incapable 
of  practicing  their  profession  while  serving  as 
representers.  There  is  to  be  a  "Council  of  State 
for  the  managing  of  public  affairs."    The  Chris- 


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AGBICOLA. 


tian  religion  "is  held  forth  and  recommended 
as  the  public  confession;"  but  it  is  to  be  "re- 
formed to  the  greatest  purity  in  doctrine,  wor- 
ship, and  discipline."  Popery  and  prelacy  are 
not  tolerated,  and  the  "teachers"  or  ministers 
lire  to  be  paid  from  the  public  treasury.  To  the 
assembly  is  given  the  "supreme  trust  in  order 
to  the  preservation  and  government  of  the 
whole;"  but  six  important  points  are  absolutely 
** reserved"  from  legislative  action.  In  this  re- 
gard the  agreement  differs  from  the  constitutions 
of  the  American  States,  which  are  subject  to 
unlimited  amendment  or  entire  change.  With 
the  exception  of  those  of  the  Connecticut  and 
New  Haven  colonies,  the  agreement  is  the  earliest 
example  of  a  written  instrument  designed  for 
the  government  of  a  commonwealth.  For  the 
tfxt  of  the  agreement,  consult:  Gardiner,  Con- 
utitutional  Documettta,  pages  270-282  (Oxford, 
1889)  ;  for  a  full  discussion,  his  History  of  the 
Civil  War,  new  edition  (London  and  New  ifork, 
1SD4-97). 

AGBIC^OLA,  Cristoph  Ludwio  (1667-1719). 
A  Bavarian  landscape  painter.  He  was  born  and 
diai  at  Regensburg.  He  was  a  wide  traveler, 
l^ut  lived  for  long  periods  at  Naples.  His  pic- 
tures are  of  the  cabinet  order.  His  affection  for 
nature  was  strong,  and  he  was  especially  happy 
in  reproducing  effects  of  climate.  In  composi- 
tion he  followed  somewhat  closely  Gaspard  Pous- 
8in  (q.v.),  though  he  shows  the  influence  of 
Claude  Lorraine  (q.v.)  in  his  management  of 
(nlor  and  light.  His  pictures  are  to  be  found 
ill  many  towns  of  Grcrmany  and  Italy,  notably  at 
Dresden,  Vienna,  Florence,  and  Naples.  Con- 
sult: C.  E.  Clement,  Painters,  Sculptors,  Archi- 
itcts,  and  Engravers  (Boston,  1899). 

AGBICOLA  (Latin  version  of  his  original 
German  name  Bauer),  Geobg  (1490-1555). 
A  German  mining  engineer,  founder  of  the 
sciences  of  mining  and  mineralogy.  He  was 
born  at  Glauchau,  studied  medicine  at  Leipzig 
and  in  Italy,  and  later,  while  practicing  as  phy- 
sician in  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge,  became  much 
interested  in  mineralogy  and  in  the  methods  of 
naining.  In  recognition  of  his  endeavors  to  im- 
piove  mining  methods  he  received  a  pension 
from  Maurice,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  in  1531  set- 
tled in  Chemnitz,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
the  study  of  mineralogy  and  mining  engineering, 
and  served  also  as  city  physician  and  as  burgo- 
master. His  efforts  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  mining  engineering  upon  a  rational, 
scientific  basis,  in  that  his  theories  regarding  ore 
df^posits  were  founded  on  sound  principles,  which 
ha  applied  to  the  practical  working  of  the  mines. 
lie  also  made  one  of  the  earliest  classifications 
?rf  minerals,  based  upon  their  external  charac- 
teristics of  form,  color,  and  hardness.  Agricola 
wrote  several  works,  all  of  which  are  classics  in 
the  literature  of  the  two  sciences  to  the  founda- 
tions of  which  he  contributed  in  so  large  degree. 
Ainong  the  more  important  are:  De  Ortu  et 
Cattsis  Subterraneorum  (Basel,  1546-58)  ;  De  Re 
Mttalli<*a  (Basel,  1530-58),  which  was  for  a  long 
period  used  as  a  manual  of  mining  methods  in 
(Jennany.  A  collection  of  his  writings  on  miner- 
alofry,  De  Natura  Fossilium,  was  published  at 
Basel  (1657;  German  translation,  Freiburg, 
1806-13).  Consult:  Jacobi,  Der  Mineralog  Oeorg 
Agricola  und  sein  Verhdltntss  zur  Wissenschaft 
milter  Zeit  (Werdau,  1889). 

AGBICOLA,    GNi£us    Julius     (37-92).     A 


Roman  of  the  imperial  times,  distinguished  not 
less  by  his  great  abilities  as  a  statesman  and  a 
soldier  than  bv  the  beauty  of  his  private  charac- 
ter. He  was  bom  at  Forum  Julii  (now  Fr^jus, 
in  Provence).  Having  served  with  distinction 
in  Britain,  Asia,  and  Aquitania,  and  gone 
through  the  round  of  civil  offices,  he  was,  in  77 
A.O.,  elected  consul,  and  in  the  following  year 
proceeded  as  governor  to  Britain — ^the  scene  of 
his  military  and  civil  administration  during  the 
next  .seven  years.  He  was  the  first  Roman  gen- 
eral who  effectually  subdued  the  island,  and  the 
only  one  who  displayed  as  much  genius  and  suc- 
cess in  training  the  inhabitants  to  the  amenities 
of  civilization  as  in  breaking  their  rude  force  in 
war.  In  his  seventh  and  last  campaign  (84 
A.D.),  his  decisive  victory  over  the  Caledonians 
under  Calgacus,  at  a  place  called  Mons  Grampius, 
established  the  Roman  dominion  in  Britain  to 
some  distance  north  of  the  Forth.  After  this 
campaign  his  fleet  circumnavigated  the  coast  for 
the  first  time,  proving  Britain  to  be  an  island. 
Among  the  works  executed  by  Agricola  during 
his  administration  were  a  chain  of  forts  between 
the  Solway  Firth  and  the  Tyne,  and  another 
between  the  firths  of  Clyde  and  Forth.  Numer- 
ous traces  of  his  operations  are  still  to  be  found 
in  Anglesey  and  North  Wales,  and  in  Galloway, 
Fife,  Perthshire,  and  Forfarshire.  The  news  of 
Agricola's  successes  inflamed  the  jealousy  of  the 
Emperor  Domitian,  and  he  was  speedily  recalled. 
Thenceforth  he  lived  in  retirement,  and  when 
the  vacant  proconsulships  of  Asia  and  Africa 
lay  within  his  choice,  he  prudently  declined  pro- 
motion. The  jealousy  of  the  Emperor,  however, 
is  supposed  to  have  hastened  his  death,  which 
took  place  at  the  early  age  of  fifty-five.  His 
Life,  by  his  son-in-law,  Tacitus,  has  always  been 
regarded  as  one  of  the  choicest  specimens  of  bi- 
ography in  literature.    See  Tacitus. 

AGBICOLA,  JoHANN  Fbiedbich  (1720-74). 
A  German  musical  composer  who  studied  under 
Bach.  He  was  a  superior  organist,  and  held  the 
office  of  kapellmeister  under  Frederick  the  Great 
He  'WTote  several  operas,  together  with  cantatas 
and  chorals. 

AGBICOLA,  JOHANN  (1492-1566),  also  called 
Magister  Islebius  (i.e.,  of  Eisleben),  but  seldom 
by  his  patronymic,  Schnitter.  A  zealous  disciple 
of  Luther,  whom  he  served,  as  teacher  and 
preacher,  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  Eisleben, 
and  Wittenberg.  He  became  involved  in  the  An- 
tinomian  controversy  (see  Antinomiaxism  ) , 
and  withdrew  to  Berlin  in  1640,  where,  under 
stress  of  poverty,  he  made  a  recantation,  inef- 
fectual, and  probably  not  sincere.  Joachim  II., 
Elector  of  Brandenburg,  became  his  protector, 
and  made  him  court  preacher  and  general  super- 
intendent, in  which  office  he  labored  zealously 
for  the  spread  of  Protestantism  until  his  death 
at  Berlin,  September  22,  1566.  His  share  in 
drawing  up  the  Augsburg  Interim  (1548)  made 
him  unpopular  for  a  time,  but  did  not  perma- 
nently check  the  growth  of  his  influence  in  Bran- 
denburg, which  became  very  great.  He  wrote 
several  theological  treatises,  now  forgotten,  but 
he  will  always  be  remembered  for  his  collection 
of  German  proverbs.  Die  gemeinen  denischen 
Sprilchworter  mit  ihrer  Auslegung  (1592),  a 
work  of  native  humor,  morality,  and  patriotism 
that  has  endeared  him  to  the  heart  of  scholarly 
Germany. 

AGBICOLA,  Martin  (c.  1486-1656).    A  Ger- 


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man  compoeer  and  writer  on  musical  subjects, 
bom  at  Sorau,  Silesia.  From  1524  until  his 
death  he  was  cantor  and  musical  director  in  the 
first  Protestant  school  established  at  Magdeburg. 
His  books  are  marked  by  a  forceful  style  and  ex- 
tensive knowledge,  and  in  his  own  day  passed 
through  numerous  editions.  He  has  been  inac- 
curately credited  with  having  been  the  first  com- 
poser to  reject  the  ancient  "tablature,"  or  system 
of  musical  notation.  His  writings  include: 
Miuica  Instrumentalis  (1520),  Muaica  Figuralia 
Deudach  (1532),  Rudimenta  MusUses  (1539), 
Qiiestionea  Vulgariores  in  Muaicam  (1543),  and 
other  similar  works. 

AOBICOLAy  RoDOLPHUS  (properly  Roeix)f 
HuiSMAW)  (1443-85).  An  eminent  Dutch  hu- 
manist, born  at  Baflo.  He  studied  at  the  univer- 
sities of  Louvain  and  Paris  and  afterward  in 
Italy,  and  by  his  Latin  style  and  his  skill  in  dis- 
putation attained  high  scholastic  distinction. 
For  some  time  he  lectured  on  philology  and  phi- 
losophy at  Heidelberg.  The  most  important  of 
his  works  is  the  De  Inventione  Dialectica,  in 
three  books;  but  he  is  noteworthy  less  for  his 
writings  than  for  his  personal  influence.  He  did 
much  to  substitute  classical  Latinity  for  medi- 
eval barbarisms,  to  diffuse  in  Germany  the 
knowledge  of  Greek;  in  short,  to  transmit  be- 
yond the  Alps  the  spirit  of  the  Italian  renais- 
sance of  letters.  Of  theology,  painting,  and 
music  he  seems  also  to  have  known  considerable. 
His  writings  were  collected  by  Alardus  (Cologne, 
2  volumes,  1539).  Consult:  Tresling,  Vita  et 
Merita  Rodolphi  AgricolcB  (Groningen,  1830), 
and  Ihm,  Der  Humanist  Rudolf  Agricola,  aein 
Lebffi  und  seine  Schriften  (Paderbom,  1893). 

AO'BICTJI/TTJBAL  ANT.  A  species  of 
ant  living  on  the  semi-arid  plains  of  Texas  that 
cultivates  areas  of  grass  about  its  dwelling.  On 
this  cultivated  space,  which  may  have  a  diameter 
of  10  to  15  feet,  only  one  kind  of  grass  is  allowed 
to  grow,  and  it  is  said  that  the  seeds  of  this  grass 
are  even  planted  by  the  ants.  Roads  are  laid 
out  radiating  from  the  ant  hill  across  the  plain, . 
and  all  shooto  of  undesirable  plants  are  promptly 
nibbled  off  as  rapidly  as  they  appear  among  the 
crops.  When  the  harvest  of  the  protected  grass 
is  ripe,  the  ants  collect  the  seeds  and  convey  them 
along  tbe  radiating  highways  to  the  chambers  in 
the  hill.  Interesting  and  wonderful  as  is  the 
economy  of  these  ants,  the  insects  may,  when  the 
colonies  are  large  and  numerous  enough,  do  con- 
siderable damage  to  the  grain  fields  in  which  the 
mounds  are  reared  and  the  clearines  made.  See 
Ants,  and  consult  McCook,  Agricultural  Ant  of 
Texas  (Philadelphia,  1879). 

AOEICULTTTBAL  ASSO'CIA'TION.  A  vol- 
untary association  of  farmers  and  other  persons 
interested  in  agriculture,  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  promoting  a  knowledge  of  agriculture. 

Great  Britain.  The  movement  began  with 
the  organization  of  the  Society  of  Improvers  in 
the  Knowledge  of  Agriculture  in  Scotland,  in 
1723,  by  a  company  of  landholders.  This  society 
existed  for  more  than  twenty  years  and  did  much 
valuable  work.  Its  Select  Transactions^  collected 
br  Mr.  Maxwell,  were  published  in  1743.  The 
l^tb  and  West  of  England  Society  was  estab- 
lished in  1777,  and  the  Highland  Society  in  1784. 
The  latter  society  afterward  included  in  its 
operations  the  whole  of  Scotland,  and  under  the 
name  of  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society 


of  Scotland  has  ever  since  continued  its  work 
with  increasing  success  and  usefulness.  For 
many  years  its  Prize  Essays  and  Transactions 
were  published  in  connection  with  the  Quarterly 
Journal  of  Agriculture,  In  1842  an  Agricultural 
Chemistry  Association  was  formed  at  Swanstone, 
near  Edinburgh,  which  for  several  years  con- 
ducted investigations  independently,  but  finally 
merged  in  the  Highland  and  Agricultural  So- 
ciety. The  Highland  Society  now  has  a  numer- 
ous membership.  Its  large  income  is  expended 
in  studying  manures,  feeding  stuffs,  seeds,  plants, 
etc.;  further,  in  holding  annual  shows  of  live 
stock,  implements,  etc.,  at  which  large  prizes  are 
offered,  and,  finally,  in  publishing  an  annual 
volume  of  Transactions, 

The  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England, 
founded  in  1838,  has  been  an  important  factor  in 
the  development  of  British  agriculture,  and,  in- 
deed, has  undertaken  many  duties  which  in  other 
countries  are  performed  by  the  Government.  This 
society  has  at  present  more  than  10,000  mem- 
bers, holds  an  annual  show  of  live  stock,  imple- 
ments, and  machinery,  dairy,  and  other  products, 
at  which  some  £5000  ($25,000)  are  distributed 
in  prizes.  It  issues  a  quarterly  journal,  con- 
taining information  on  a  great  variety  of  agri- 
cultural topics,  retains  the  services  of  chemical, 
botanical,  zoological,  and  veterinary  experts  for 
advice  to  mem&rs,  as  well  as  for  experiments 
and  research,  maintains  an  experimental  farm 
at  Woburn  and  a  veterinary  college  at  Camden 
Town,  London,  and  conducts  in  cooperation  with 
the  Highland  and  Af^cultural  Society  of  Scot- 
land an  annual  examination  for  a  national  diplo- 
ma in  the  science  and  practice  of  agriculture. 

Ireland.  In  Ireland  the  interests  of  agriculture 
are  promoted  by  a  department  of  the  Royal  Dub- 
lin Society,  chartered  in  1749,  and  other  agricul- 
tural organizations.  Agricultural  societies  are 
maintained  also  in  Canada,  Australia,  and  other 
parts  of  the  British  Empire. 

United  States.  In  the  United  States  the 
first  society  for  promoting  agriculture  w^as  es- 
tablished at  Philadelphia  in  1785.  In  the  same 
year  a  similar  society  was  formed  in  South 
Carolina,  to  which  the  present  State  Agricul- 
tural Society  of  South  Carolina  traces  its 
origin.  The  New  York  Society  for  the  Pro- 
motion of  Agriculture,  Arts,  and  Manufac- 
tures was  organized  in  1791  and  published 
its  first  volume  of  Transactions  in  1792.  The 
Massachusetts  Society  for  Promoting  Agri- 
culture was  incorporated  in  1792  and  began  the 
publication  of  pamphlets  on  agricultural  topics 
in  1797.  Several  other  societies  were  organized 
prior  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
This  movement  continued,  until  in  1809  we  have 
the  germ  of  a  national  organization  in  the 
Columbian  Agricultural  Society,  formed  in  the 
District  of  Columbia.  The  holding  of  agricul- 
tural shows,  or  "fairs,"  was  begun  in  the  city  of 
Washington  in  1804,  and  was  made  a  popular 
movement  largely  through  the  efforts  of  Elkanah 
Watson  of  Massachusetts,  who,  beginning  with 
an  exhibition  of  two  imported  merino  sheep  on 
the  public  square  at  Pittsfield,  Mass.,  in  1807, 
soon  developed  the  more  elaborate  and  pictur- 
esque "cattle  shows,"  which  for  many  years 
have  been  popular  rural  festivals,  especially 
in  New  England.  Shows  of  various  sorts 
are  now  held  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
by  numerous  State,  county,  and  other  local  and 
interstate  associations.     Societies  for  promoting 


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dilT^rent  agricultural  interests  have  been  organ- 
ised under  many  different  forms,  and  many  of 
these  are  now  in  a  flourishing  condition.  Many 
of  the  States  have  important  agricultural  socie- 
ties, the  published  reports  of  which  contain 
ninth  valuable  information.  There  are  also  na- 
tional, State,  and  local  associations  for  the  live 
stock  interests  ( including  the  breeding  of  cattle, 
horses,  sheep,  swine,  and  poultry),  dairying, 
horticulture,  forestry,  irrigation,  good  roads, 
bee-keeping,  etc.  Lists  of  the  more  important 
a|:fri cultural  organizations  in  the  United  States 
arc  given  in  the  Year  Book  of  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture. 

Among  the  general  associations  which  have 
Otcitf^d  the  most  widespread  influence  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Farmers'  Alliance  and  the 
Patrons  of  Husbandry  (otherwise  known  as  the 
Grange).  See  the  separate  articles  on  Fabicers' 
Alliance,  and  Grange. 

tJEBMANY.  The  first  agricultural  society  in 
Germany  is  said  to  have  been  established  in 
17G4,  Now  there  are  several  thousand  societies 
in  the  German  Empire.  The  most  important  of 
th^se  is  the  German  Agricultural  Society,  with 
headquarters  at  Berlin,  which  has  a  membership 
of  Aome  10,000.  It  holds  a  great  annual  meeting 
and  fair,  at  which  numerous  prizes  are  given, 
a  winter  meeting,  and  meetings  of  sections  on 
fertilizers,  plant  culture,  seeds,  implements,  and 
agrifultural  technology  and  engineering;  gives 
pr  Lilted  for  essays  based  on  scientific  investiga- 
tion b,  tests  agricultural  materials,  carries  on  a 
lar;ie  amount  of  experimental  inquiry  through 
cooperation  with  agricultural  experiment  sta- 
tions, publishes  a  year-book,  and  a  journal  ap- 
pearing two  or  three  times  a  month,  and  main- 
tains a  bureau  of  information.  It  also  aids  its 
meniliers  in  the  coiiperative  purchase  of  ferti- 
lizers, seeds,  and  feeding  stuffs. 

V'rance.  The  Society  of  Agriculturists  of 
France  has  more  than  11,000  members,  maintains 
:i  library  and  chemical  laboratory ,  holds  meetings, 
at  which  lectures  are  given  by  eminent  agricul- 
tunil  experts,  gives  annual  prizes,  and  patronizes 
the  agricultural  shows  given  under  the  ministry 
of  agriculture  in  different  parts  of  France.  The 
National  Society  of  Agriculture  of  France  and 
the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agri- 
rulture  are  also  very  important  French  societies. 

The  Royal  Danish  Agricultural  Society,  the 
Central  Society  of  Agriculture  of  Belgium,  the 
Soeiety  of  Italian  Agriculture,  the  Imperial  Ag- 
rieultural  Society  at  Vienna,  the  Agricultural 
Assiiciation  of  Hungary,  and  the  Imperial  Eco- 
nomic Association  at  St.  Petersburg  are  among 
the  most  active  and  influential  agricultural  or- 
ganisations in  Europe. 

Agricultural  Syndicates.  In  recent  years 
cooperative  unions  (see  Cooperation)  have  been 
formed  in  large  numbers  in  most  of  the  countries 
of  Europe,  and  have  exerted  an  increasing  influ- 
ence in  the  promotion  of  agricultural  advance- 
ment. These  have  reached  their  most  complete 
development,  as  directly  related  to  agriculture,  in 
FniTice,  where  they  are  known  as  agricultural 
syndicates.  The  syndicates  are  national,  re- 
gional, or  local  in  their  organization  and  opera- 
tions. Their  number  has  reached  about  2500 
and  their  membership  about  800,000,  including 
all  classes  interested  in  agriculture.  They  do  an 
extonnive  business  in  the  purchase  of  fertilizers, 
feedinpr  stuffs,  seeds,  plants,  implements,  and 
live  stock  (especially  animals  for  common  use  in 


breeding) ,  and  in  the  sale  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts. They  have  also  established  cooperative 
dairies,  and  factories  for  fruit  pulp,  olive  oil, 
etc.,  and  have  developed  numerous  forms  of  co- 
operative insurance.  They  have  also  dissemi- 
nated much  information  through  meetings  and 
the  agricultural  press,  and  have  exerted  impor- 
tant political  influence  on  legislation  affecting 
agricultural  interests.  Some  syndicates  have  re- 
ceived financial  aid  from  the  Government,  and 
others  have  been  aided  by  private  endowments. 
Otherwise  they  are  supported  by  fees  and  broker- 
age. The  organization  and  spread  of  the  syndi- 
cates have  been  greatly  promoted  by  the  assist- 
ance of  the  agricultural  societies  throughout 
France. 

AGBICTJLTXmAL    CHEM1STBT.      See 
Chemistry,  Agricultural. 

AGBICULTTTBAI.  ED'UCATION.  The 
modern  system  of  agricultural  education  in  its 
most  complete  form  includes  ( 1 )  university 
courses  of  instruction  and  research  (experiment 
stations)  ;  (2)  general  college  courses;  (3)  col- 
lege courses  or  schools  in  special  subjects,  e.g., 
dairying,  animal  husbandry,  aviculture,  or  vet- 
erinary science;  (4)  secondary  courses  or  schools 
(agricultural  high  schools)  ;  (5)  elementary  in- 
struction in  common  schools;  (6)  university 
extension,  through  farmers*  institutes,  corre- 
spondence courses,  etc.  The  term  agriculture, 
as  related  to  education,  may  be  used  broadly 
with  reference  to  an  institution  or  course  of 
instruction  in  which  agricultural  subjects  are 
taught  along  with  other  branches  of  knowledge. 
It  is  in  this  sense,  for  example,  that  we  speak 
of  a  college  of  agriculture  or  a  college  course 
in  agriculture.  Or  the  term  may  be  restricted 
to  that  portion  of  a  course  of  instruction  in 
which  agricultural  subjects  only  are  taught,  as 
when  we  say:  "Agriculture  is  taught  in  that 
college."  Cominittees  of  the  Association  of 
American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment 
Stations  have  recently  recommended  that  the  fol- 
lowing subjects  be  included  in  a  four-year  col- 
lege course  in  agriculture:  Algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry,  drawing,  English,  other  modern 
languages,  psychology,  ethics  or  logic,  political 
economy,  general  history,  constitutional  law, 
physics,  chemistry  (general  and  agricultural), 
meteorology,  geology,  botany  (including  vegeta- 
ble psysiology  and  pathology),  zoSlogy  (includ- 
ing entomology),  physiology,  veterinary  science, 
horticulture,  forestry,  and  agriculture  (in  the 
narrow,  technical  sense).  The  committee  on 
methods  of  teaching  agriculture  of  the  same  asso- 
ciation has  divided  technical  agriculture  into 
( 1 )  agronomy  ( plant  production )  ;  ( 2 )  zoStech- 
ny  (animal  industry)  ;  (3)  agrotechny  (agri- 
cultural technology)  ;  (4)  rural  engineering 
(farm  mechanics)  ;  and  (5)  rural  economics 
(farm  management). 

In  the  syllabus  for  the  course  in  agriculture 
formulated  by  this  committee,  agronomy  is  de- 
fined as  "the  theory  and  practice  of  the  produc- 
tion of  farm  crops,"  and  is  made  to  include 
what  is  to  be  taught  regarding  the  structure, 
composition,  and  physiology  of  farm  crops  and 
their  environment,  i.e.,  climate,  soil,  fertilizers, 
etc.,  and  regarding  the  culture,  harvesting,  pres- 
ervation, and  uses  of  individual  kinds  of  crops, 
as  well  as  the  obstructions  to  their  growth  from 
weeds,  fungi,  bacteria,  insects,  birds,  and  other 
animals.     ZoStechny  is  "the  theory  and  practice 


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of  the  production  of  animals  useful  to  man/' 
and  includes  especially  tjrpes,  breeding,  feeding, 
hygiene,  and  systems  of  management  of  different 
kinds  of  farm  animals.  Agrotechny  is  "the 
theory  and  practice  of  the  conversion  of  raw 
materials  produced  by  agriculture  into  manu- 
factured articles  for  use  in  commerce  and  the 
arts."  In  its  broadest  sense,  agrotechny  includes 
such  things  as  the  making  of  butter,  cheese, 
sugar,  vinegar,  concentrated  foods,  canned  goods, 
liauors,  textiles,  leather,  etc.;  but  in  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  generally,  only  dairying  is  usu- 
ally taught  under  this  head.  Rural  engineering 
is  *'the  science  and  art  of  laying  out  farms, 
designing  and  constructing  farm  buildings  and 
works  [i.e.,  water  systems,  irrigation  works, 
drains,  sewage  systems,  and  roads],  and  making 
and  using  farm  implements  and  machinery." 
Kural  economics  "treat  of  agriculture  as  a  means 
for  the  production,  preservation,  and  distribu- 
tion of  wealth  by  the  use  of  land  for  the  growing 
of  plants  and  animals." 

United  States.  Agitation  on  behalf  of  agri- 
cultural education  began  verjr  soon  after  the 
organization  of  the  first  agricultural  societies 
(see  Agricultural  Assoclation ) ,  near  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century.  In  1792,  under 
the  influence  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Soci- 
ety, the  trustees  of  Columbia  College  in  New 
York  City  established  "a  professorship  for  natu- 
ral history,  chemistry,  and  agriculture,"  and 
elected  Samuel  L.  Mitchill,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  an 
active  member  of  the  Society,  to  fill  the  chair.  In 
1794  the  Philadelphia  Society  received  an  elabo- 
rate report  from  one  of  its  committees,  in  which 
the  claims  of  education  in  agriculture  through 
the  establishment  of  college  professorships,  as 
well  as  of  courses  of  instruction  in  the  common 
schools,  are  urged  upon  the  attention  of  the 
State  legislature.  In  1801  the  Massachusetts 
society  started  a  subscription,  which  resulted 
in  the  establishment  of  a  professorship  of  natural 
history  in  Harvard  College  in  1804,  and  later 
in  the  establishment  of  a  botanic  garden.  Books 
on  agriculture  began  to  be  published  frequently 
in  this  country,  among  which  was  The  Farmers' 
A99i8tant,  by  John  Nicholson  (Albany,  N.  Y., 
1814),  "embracing  every  article  relating  to  agri- 
culture, arranged  in  alphabetical  order."  The 
American  Fanner,  the  first  distinctively  agri- 
cultural periodical  in  this  country,  was  started 
in  Baltimore,  Md.,  in  1819.  The  Gardiner  Ly- 
ceum, b€^n  in  1823,  in  Maine,  with  the  aid  of 
a  grant  of  money  from  the  State,  especially  for 
the  education  of  mechanics  and  farmers,  had  a 
professor  of  agriculture,  a  practical  farm,  and 
special  short  winter  courses,  and  was  success- 
fully maintained  for  many  years.  An  agricul- 
tural school  established  at  Derby,  Conn.,  in  1826, 
proved  immediately  successful.  A  number  of 
other  schools  in  which  agriculture  was  taught 
were  established  in  Connecticut  and  New  York 
between  1825  and  1850. 

In  1846,  John  P.  Norton  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  agricultural  chemistry  and  vegetable 
and  animal  physiology  at  Yale  College.  His 
pupil  and  successor  was  Samuel  W.  Johnson, 
the  well-known  author  of  Haw  Crops  OroxOy  who 
for  many  years  has  been  a  leader  in  the  move- 
ment for  agricultural  education.  Associated 
with  him,  as  professor  of  agriculture,  has  been 
William  H.  Brewer,  who  was  also  a  student  un- 
^  Professor  Norton,  and  was  identified  with 
agricultural  schools  established  in  New  York 
Vol.  I.-14 


prior  to  1860.  The  New  York  Legislature 
passed  acts  in  1853  establishing  a  State  agri- 
cultural college  and  an  industrial  school, 
to  be  known  as  "The  People's  College."  These 
institutions,  however,  did  not  become  firmly 
established,  though  Amos  Brown,  the  president 
of  the  latter,  was  largely  instrumental  in  secur- 
ing national  legislation  favoring  indtistrial  edu- 
cation. Agricultural  colleges  which  have  grown 
to  be  permanent  and  strong  institutions  were 
opened  in  Michigan  in  1857  and  in  Pennsylvania 
and  Maryland  in  1859. 

Lai^d-grant  Acts.  Meanwhile,  other  forces 
were  at  work  which  created  a  widespread  demand 
for  a  new  class  of  institutions  which  should 
be  devoted  to  scientific  and  technical  education. 
A  national  leader  for  this  movement  was  found 
in  Justin  S.  Morrill  of  Vermont.  On  December 
14,  1857,  Mr.  Morrill  introduced  into  the  House 
of  Representatives  a  bill  "donating  public  lands 
to  the  several  States  and  Territories  which  may 
provide  colleges  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture 
and  mechanic  arts."  Though  reported  at  first 
adversely,  and  after  passage  vetoed  by  President 
Buchanan,  this  bill,  with  important  amendments, 
was  finally  passed  by  Congress,  and  was  approved 
by  President  Lincoln,  July  2,  1862.  In  its  final 
form,  this  land-grant  act  was  a  comprehensive 
measure  providing  for  "the  endowment,  support, 
and  maintenance  of  at  least  one  college  [in  each 
Statel  where  the  leading  object  shall  be,  without 
excluding  other  scientific  and  classical  studies, 
and  including  military  tactics,  to  teach  such 
branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agri- 
culture and  mechanic  arts  *  *  *  in  order  to 
promote  the  liberal  and  practical  education 
of  the  industrial  classes  in  the  several  pursuits 
and  professions  in  life."  For  these  purposes 
there  were  granted  to  the  several  States  30,000 
acres  of  land  for  each  member  of  Congress,  the 
entire  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  which  was  to  con- 
stitute a  perpetual  fund  yielding  not  less  than 
5%  interest.  The  total  fund  received  by  the  col- 
leges established  under  this  act  is  over  $10,000,- 
000,  and  in  1899  1,240,000  acres  still  remained 
to  be  sold. 

Amid  many  discouragements  within  and  with- 
out, the  courses  in  agriculture  in  the  colleges 
established  under  this  act  gradually  made  their 
way.  In  1887,  a  new  impetus  was  given  to  their 
development  by  the  act  of  Congress  (Hatch  Act) 
giving  each  State  $15,000  for  an  agricultural 
experiment  station  (see  Aoricultubal  Experi- 
ment Station),  which  must  ordinarily  be  a 
department  of  the  land-grant  college.  And  in 
1890,  these  colleges  received  a  further  national 
endowment,  under  a  second  Morrill  Act,  provid- 
ing an  immediate  appropriation  of  $15,000  to 
each  State  and  Territory,  an  increase  of  $1000 
each  year  for  ten  years,"  and  thereafter  $25,000 
annually,  "to  be  applied  only  to  instruction  in 
agriculture,  the  mechanic  arts^  the  English  lan- 
guage, and  the  various  branches  of  mathematical, 
physical,  natural,  and  economic  science."  Pro- 
vision is  made  for  separate  institutions  for  white 
and  colored  students  in  States  which  may  desire 
to  make  such  an  arrangement.  Fourteen  States 
have  taken  advantage  of  this  provision.  These 
supplementary  acts  have  been  of  great  advantage 
to  agricultural  education  in  this  country. 

Sixty-five  colleges  are  in  opera,t\oTi  wnder  the 
acts  of  1802  and  1890,  of  which  aV^xit  w^^Y  T^ftain- 
tain  courses  in  agriculture.  XK  ao  inatitutions 
are  brought  together  to  conat.w  y    «.  txaUotia'^ 


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syatem  of  higher  education  in  the  sciences  and 
industries  by  the  Association  of  American  Agri- 
cultural Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations,  the 
Olifice  of  Experiment  Stations  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  and  the  Bureau  of  Education  of 
the  Department  of  the  Interior.  The  colleges 
of  agricultuse  may  be  divided  into  three  classes, 
according  to  the  general  differences  in  their 
organization:  (1)  Colleges  having  only  courses 
in  agriculture;  (2)  agricultural  and  mechanical 
colleges:  and  (3)  colleges  (or  schools  or  depart- 
ments) of  agriculture  in  universities.  The  Mas- 
sachusetts Agricultural  College  is  the  only  purely 
a <;:ri  cultural  college  in  this  country.  Twenty- 
seven  States  and  Territories  have  agricultural 
and  mechanical  colleges,  and  in  twenty  the 
courses  in  agriculture  are  connected  with  the 
State  universities.  Harvard  University  also  offers 
courses  in  agriculture  through  the  Bussey  Insti- 
tution. The  college  course  in  agriculture  in 
most  of  these  institutions  extends  through  four 
y^ars  and  leads  to  a  bachelor's  degree.  It  varies 
considerably  in  different  institutions,  as  regards 
the  requirements  for  both  admission  and  for 
graduation.  In  some  cases  students  are  admitted 
directly  from  the  common  schools,  while  in  others 
the  entrance  requirements  are  on  a  level  with 
ihoi^e  of  higher  grade  colleges.  In  1901  there 
were  nearly  7000  students  in  the  agricultural 
courses  in  these  colleges.  Short  courses  of  a  more 
flf^mentary  and  practical  nature  also  are  given  in 
many  of  these  colleges.  Special  schools  have  been 
organized  in  a  few  institutions,  notably  a  dairy 
school  in  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  and  a  sug- 
ar-makers' school  at  New  Orleans,  in  connection 
with  the  Louisiana  State  University.  Various 
forms  of  university  extension  work  in  agriculture 
are  largely  engaged  in  by  these  colleges,  through 
the  farmers'  institutes  (see  Fabmers'  Insti- 
tite)  and  home  reading  courses,  and,  broadly 
speaking,  through  the  publications  of  the  experi- 
iiu-nt  stations. 

Thus  far,  comparatively  little  has  been  done 
in  the  United  States  toward  the  establishment 
of  schools  of  agriculture  of  secondary  or  high- 
sehool  grade.  The  most  successful  school  of 
this  kind  is  that  maintained  at  the  University 
of  Minnesota.  A  similar  school  has  been  estab- 
lished at  the  University  of  Nebraska.  The  agri- 
cultural courses  maintained  in  a  number  of  the 
institutions  for  colored  students  in  the  South 
are  of  this  grade,  notably  at  Hampton,  Va.,  and 
Tiiskegee,  Ala.  A  few  private  schools  of  agri- 
c-iilture  have  recently  been  established.  There 
is  some  agitation  in  favor  of  the  introduction  of 
ap:riculture  in  the  public  high  schools. 

Nature  study  is  being  rapidly  introduced  into 
the  common  schools,  and  more  or  less  successful 
attempts  are  being  made  in  a  number  of  the 
States,  especially  New  York,  Indiana,  and  Penn- 
sylvania, to  adapt  teaching  in  this  subject  to 
tiie  requirements  of  the  rural  schools. 

Rrittsh  Empire.  A  chair  of  agriculture  in 
the  University  of  Edinburgh  was  founded  and 
endowed  as  early  as  1790,  and  a  professorship 
of  rural  economy  was  established  in  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford  in  1796.  A  professorship  of  agri- 
culture has  recently  (1899)  been  founded  in  the 
University  of  Cambridge.  The  Albert  Institu- 
tion at  Glasnevin,  near  Dublin,  has  existed  since 
1838,  and  the  Royal  Agricultural  College,  Ciren- 
cester, since  1845.  Other  important  centres  of 
agricultural  education  in  Great  Britain  are  the 
College  of  Agriculture,  Downton,  near  Salisbury ; 


the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  Col- 
lege, Glasgow;  the  University  College  of  North 
Wales,  Bfingor;  the  University  College  of 
Wales,  Aberystwith ;  the  Durham  College  of  Sci- 
ence, Newcastle-on-Tyne ;  the  Oxford  Extension 
College,  Reading;  the  University  of  Aberdeen; 
and  Yorkshire  College,  Leeds. 

Grants  of  money  in  aid  of  education  in  agri- 
culture are  made  through  the  board  of  agricul- 
ture. Instruction  in  agriculture  is  given  in  a 
number  of  the  rural  schools.  Special  attention 
is  being  given  to  practical  training  in  dairying, 
and  schools  and  classes  in  this  subject  are  main- 
tained in  a  number  of  places.  Traveling  schools, 
equipped  with  modern  dairy  apparatus,  have 
attracted  much  attention  in  recent  years. 

In  Canada,  the  agricultural  college  at  Guelph, 
Ontario,  is  a  very  successful  institution.  There 
are  a  number  of  secondarv  schools  of  agriculture 
in  Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia,  and  there  is  a  dairy 
school  in  New  Brunswick.  Provision  has  recent- 
ly been  made  for  instruction  in  agriculture  in 
normal  and  public  schools  in  different  parts  of 
the  Dominion. 

In  Australia,  there  are  agricultural  colleges 
at  Gatton,  Queensland;  Richmond,  New  South 
Wales ;  Roseworthy,  South  Australia ;  and  Dook- 
ie  and  Longerenon^,  Victoria.  Agricultural  in- 
struction is  also  given  by  traveling  experts  at- 
tached to  the  colonial  departments  of  agriculture. 
In  New  Zealand  is  the  Canterbury  Agricultural 
College  at  Lincoln,  and  in  Cape  Colony  there  is 
a  school  of  agriculture  at  Elsenburg. 

France.  An  elaborate  system  of  agricultural 
education  is  maintained  under  the  auspices  of 
the  national  government.  At  the  head  of  this 
system  stands  the  Inntitut  National  Agronomi4iu€ 
at  Paris,  in  which  instruction  of  university 
grade  is  given  in  fgricultural  science,  supple^ 
mented  by  laboratory  and  field  practice.  Next 
in  order  are  the  national  schools  of  agriculture, 
in  which  theoretical  and  practical  instruction 
are  combined.  These  are  located  at  Grignon, 
Rennes,  and  Montpellier.  A  third  class  includes 
the  secondary  agricultural  schools  for  the  chil- 
dren of  farmers,  who  receive  theoretical  and 
practical  instruction  under  competent  agricul- 
turists, and  at  the  same  time  perform  all  the 
work  necessary  to  carry  on  the  school  farm.  In 
many  of  these  schools  general  agriculture  is 
taught,  but  some  are  devoted  to  special  lines, 
such  as  viticulture,  dairying,  or  irrigation.  An- 
other and  older  kind  of  agricultural  schools 
comprises  those  in  which  a  system  of  apprentice- 
ship is  employed.  On  the  completion  of  his  term, 
the  student  receives  a  small  sum  of  money  as 
compensation  for  his  labor.  These  schools  are 
no  longer  popular,  and  have  materially  decreased 
in  number. 

Since  1879,  instruction  in  the  elements  of  agri- 
culture, horticulture,  and  natural  history  has 
been  obligatory  in  the  normal  and  primary 
schools  of  France.  In  each  department  of  the 
country  a  professor  of  agriculture  is  appointed 
to  prepare  a  course  of  instruction  in  agriculture 
for  the  normal  school,  to  hold  farmers'  meetings 
for  the  dissemination  of  information  regarding 
improved  agricultural  methods,  and  to  main- 
tain model  fields  of  demonstration.  Besides, 
chairs  of  agriculture  have  been  established  in 
many  lyceums  and  colleges  throughout  France. 
Important  special  schools  are  the  dairy  school 
at  Mamirolle,  the  school  of  agricultural  indus- 
tries at  Douai,  the  school  of  horticulture  at  Ver- 


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AGBICTTLTUBAL  STATION. 


sailles,  and  the  school  of  horse  breeding  at  Le 
Pin. 

BEijonnf.  Belgium  has  a  system  somewhat 
similiyr  to  that  of  France,  but  in  some  par- 
ticulars more  thoroughly  organized.  At  the 
head  of  this  system  are  the  Agricultural  Insti- 
tute of  Gembloux  and  the  University  of  Louvain. 
General  and  special  agricultural  schools  of  sec- 
ondary grade  have  been  established  for  young 
men  and  young  women,  and  courses  of  instruction 
in  agriculture  are  given  in  public  and  private 
srhools  of  secondary  grade.  Courses  in  agricul- 
ture are  given  in  the  normal  and  primary  schools 
also:  numerous  courses  of  lectures  are  provided 
for  adult  farmers  in  various  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, and  a  corps  of  government  agriculturists  is 
charged  with  disseminating  information,  and  in 
various  ways  promoting  the  instruction  of  farm- 
ers in  improved  methods  of  agriculture. 

Other  European  States.  Germany  has  no  uni- 
form system  of  agricultural  education.  Higher 
courses  are  maintained  in  agricultural  insti- 
tutes, and  professorships  are  connected  with 
many  of  the  universities,  e.g.,  those  at  KOnigs- 
berg,  Breslau.  Halle,  G3ttingen,  Leipzig,  Rostock, 
and  Jena.  The  Agricultural  High  School  at  Ber- 
lin, the  Agricultural  Academy  at  Poppelsdorf,the 
Technical  High  School  at  Munich,  and  the  For- 
estry Academy  at  Tharandt  are  important  insti- 
tutions. There  are  also  numerous  general  and 
special  courses  in  agricultural  subjects  in  schools 
of  lower  grade. 

Agricultural  education  is  being  actively  fos- 
tered by  the  government  of  Austria-Hungary, 
where  more  than  150  institutions  of  different 
grades  devoted  to  general  and  special  instruction 
in  agriculture  have  been  established.  The  sub- 
ject is  taught  in  the  rural  elementary  schools 
and  also  by  a  corps  of  traveling  instructors  main- 
tained by  the  government. 

Italy  has  agricultural  colleges  at  Milan  and 
Portici,  about  thirty  general  and  special  schools 
of  secondary  grade,  and  a  recently  organized 
system  of  elementary  education  under  direction 
of  the  ministry  of  public  instruction. 

Denmark  is  |fiving  much  attention  to  the  gen- 
eral and  technical  education  of  the  agricultural 
population.  There  is  an  agricultural  college  at 
Copenhagen,  and  there  are  a  number  of  agricul- 
tural schools  which  receive  financial  aid  from 
the  government.  The  Royal  Agricultural  Soci- 
ety of  Denmark  promotes  agricultural  education 
through  meetings,  publications,  and  the  services 
of  dairy  and  veterinary  experts,  payment  of  ex- 
penses for  agricultural  journeys,  and  the  placing 
of  apprentices  on  farms. 

Sweden  has  agricultural  colleges  at  Ultuna 
and  Alnarp,  26  secondary  schools,  several  dairy 
schools,  instruction  in  normal  and  primary 
Rchools,  and  a  corps  of  traveling  instructors. 
There  is  a  similar  system  in  Norway,  the  college 
being  at  Aas. 

The  Russian  system  of  agricultural  education 
is  organized  for  the  most  part  under  the  minis- 
try of  agricultural  and  imperial  domains,  and  in- 
cludes agricultural  institutes  at  the  universities 
of  Kazan,  Kiev,  and  Moscow,  similar  institutions 
at  Novoya  Alexandria,  Riga,  St.  Petersburg,  and 
Mastiala  (Finland),  secondary  schools,  and  ele- 
mentary courses  in  the  public  schools. 

AOBIdTXiTXTKAL  EXPEBOHENT  STA^- 
TION*.  An  institution,  or  department  of  an  in- 
stitution, devoted  to  scientific  and  practical 
investigations  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture,  the 


inspection  of  materials,  animals,  and  plants  used 
in  or  injurious  to  agriculture,  and  the  dissem- 
ination of  information  on  the  theory  and  practice 
of  agriculture.  They  grew  out  of  the  chemical 
studies  of  such  men  as  Liebig  in  Germany,  Bous- 
singault  in  France,  and  Lawes  and  Gilbert  in 
England  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  Systematic  investigations  in  agricul- 
ture were  begun  by  Lawes  and  Gilbert  at  Roth- 
amsted,  England,  in  1843.  The  first  experiment 
station  organized  as  a  public  institution  was  es- 
tablished in  1851  at  Mockem,  near  the  city  of 
Leipzig,  Germany,  and  under  the  influence  of 
Leipzig  University.  In  the  United  States  the 
first  stations  were  established  at  Wesleyan  Uni- 
versity, Middletown,  Conn.,  by  the  State  of  Con- 
necticut, in  1876,  under  direction  of  W.  O. 
Atwater,  and  about  the  same  time  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  California,  Berkeley,  Cal.,  by  the  uni- 
versity, under  .direction  of  E.  W.  Hilgard. 
Previous  to  this,  agricultural  investigations  had 
been  carried  on  at  Yale  University  under  profes- 
sors S.  W.  Johnson  and  William  H.  Brewer,  and 
at  agricultural  colleges  in  several  States.  Agri- 
cultural experiment  stations  are  now  maintained 
in  nearly  all  the  countries  of  the  world,  and  are 
usually  under  the  patronage  of  general  or  local 
governments.  They  are  most  completely  organ- 
ized in  the  United  States,  France,  Germany,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  Austria- Hungary,  Denmark, 
Japan,  Sweden  and  Norway,  Switzerland,  and 
Russia.  They  are  conducted  on  various  plans 
in  all  parts  of  the  British  Empire. 

Organization.  In  the  United  States  there  were 
in  1901  fifty-seven  stations,  receiving  annually 
$720,000  from  the  National  Government  under 
the  Hatch  Act  of  1887,  and  more  than  $500,000 
from  State  governments  and  other  sources. 
They  employed  over  700  persons  in  ad- 
ministration and  inquiry,  and  issued  that 
year  445  annual  reports  and  bulletins, 
which  are  sent  through  the  mails  under  frank 
to  more  than  half  a  million  addresses.  With  few 
exceptions,  they  are  departments  of  the  agri- 
cultural colleges  established  under  the  land- 
grant  act  (Morrill  Act)  of  1862,  and  are  inde- 
pendent of  each  other  as  regards  the  planning 
and  conduct  of  their  operations.  They  are  united 
in  a  national  system  through  the  Association 
of  American  Agricultural  Colleges  and  Ex- 
periment Stations  and  the  Office  of  Experiment 
Stations  in  the  United  States  Department  of  Ag- 
riculture. This  office  exercises  supervision  of  their 
expenditures  from  the  national  fund,  and  gives 
them  advice  and  assistance  in  many  ways.  It 
summarizes  the  accounts  of  the  work  of  the  sta- 
tions and  kindred  institutions  throughout  the 
world  in  the  periodical  known  as  the  Experiment 
Station  Record,  and  gives  popular  risumia  of 
their  investigations  in  the  Farmers*  Bulletins 
series  of  the  department,  under  the  general  title 
of  Experiment  Station  Work,  It  also  di- 
rectly manages  the  stations  in  Alaska,  Hawaii, 
and  Porto  Rico,  for  which  the  National  Govern- 
ment appropriated  $36,000  ($12,000  for  each  sta- 
tion) for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1902. 

Function.  The  operations  of  the  stations 
cover  a  wide  range  of  scientific  and  practical 
work  relating  to  every  branch  of  agriculture 
and  horticulture,  and  including  original  investi- 
gations, verification,  and  demonstration  experi- 
ments, studies  of  natural  agricultural  con- 
ditions and  resources,  inspection  and  control 
service,  and  dissemination  ot  information.    Prac- 


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AGBICXTLTTTBE. 


ticallj  all  the  stations  are  keeping  meteorolog- 
ical records,  and  ten  are  making  sfxecial  studie«) 
of  problems  relating  to  meteorological  phenom- 
ena and  climatic  conditions.  Thirty-six  stations 
are  investigating  soils,  their  geology,  physics, 
and  chemistry,  or  conducting  soil-tests  with  fer: 
tilizers  or  in  other  ways.  Twenty-one  stations 
are  studying  questions  relating  to  drainage  and 
seepage,  or  to  irrigation  of  orchard,  garden,  or 
houjse,  and  also  irrigation  of  orchard,  garden,  or 
farm  crops.  Thirty-three  stations  are  making 
analyses  of  commercial  and  home-made  fertiliz- 
ers, or  are  conducting  field  experiments  with  fer- 
tilizers. At  least  fifteen  stations  either  exer- 
cise a  fertilizer  control  in  their  respective  States 
or  make  analyses  on  which  the  control  is  based. 
All  the  stations  are  studying  the  more  important 
crops,  either  with  regard  to  their  composition, 
nutritive  value,  methods  of  manuring  and  cul- 
tivation, and  the  best  varieties  adapted  to  indi- 
vidual localities,  or  with  reference  to  systems  of 
rotation. 

Forty-seven  stations  are  investigating  the 
composition  of  feeding-stuffs,  making  diges- 
tion experiments,  condudting  feeding  experiments 
for  milk,  beel,  mutton,  or  pork,  or  studying  dif- 
ferent methods  of  feeding.  Twenty-nine  stations 
are  investigating  subjects  relating  to  dairying, 
including  the  chemistry  and  bacteriology  of  milk, 
creaming,  butter-making,  or  the  construction 
and  management  of  creameries.  Studies  on  the 
food  and  nutrition  of  man,  including  the  com- 
pcK^^ition  and  digestibility  of  foods  and  metabo- 
JiHTii,  are  being  conducted  at  fourteen  stations. 
Fifty-two  stations  are  doing  chemical  work,  and 
often  are  studying  methods  of  analysis.  Botan- 
ical studies  occupy  more  or  less  of  the  atten- 
tion of  torty-seven  stations,  including  investi- 
gations in  systematic  and  physiological  botany, 
with  special  reference  to  the  diseases  of  plants, 
testing  of  seeds  with  reference  to  their  vitality 
and  purity,  classification  of  weeds,  and  methocU 
for  their  eradication.  Fifty-three  stations  work 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent  in  horticulture,  test- 
ing varieties  of  vegetables  and  large  and  small 
fruits,  and  making  studies  in  varietal  improve- 
in  <?nt  and  synonomy. 

Several  stations  have  undertaken  operations 
in  forestry.  Thirty-six  stations  investigate  in- 
jurious insects  with  reference  to  their  restriction 
or  destruction.  Twenty-four  stations  study  ani- 
mal diseases  and  the  methods  for  their  pre- 
vention or  cure.  At  least  five  stations  are  en- 
gaged in  bee  culture,  and  eight  in  experiments 
with  poultry.  One  or  more  stations  have  made 
investigations  on  miscellaneous  subjects,  such  as 
the  following:  Technology  of  wine,  olive  oil, 
rider,  and  vinegar;  preservation  of  fruits  and 
vo^etables;  the  draft  of  farm  implements; 
road-making;  the  manufacture  of  beet,  cane, 
sorghum,  and  maple  sugar;  oyster  culture, 
etc!.  For  the  history  and  present  status  of  the 
sttitions  in  the  United  States  see  Ofp^ce  of  Eos- 
periment  Stations,  Bulletin  80,  p.  636. 

Bbitish  Empire.  In  England,  the  most  im- 
portant station  is  that  established  in  1843  by 
Sir  John  B.  Lawes,  at  Rothamsted,  with  his  own 
funds,  and  continued  with  a  trust  fund  of  £100,- 
000.  This  station  has  done  very  valuable  work  on 
fertilizers  and  the  nutrition  of  plants  and  ani- 
mals. Agricultural  researches  are  also  carried 
on  at  the  agricultural  colleges  at  Aspatria,  Ciren- 
ccHtfr,  Downton  (Salisbury),Uckfield,  and  Wye, 
Yorkshire   College    (Leeds),  University  College 


(Nottingham),  University  Extension  College 
(Reading), Durham  College  of  Science  (Newcas- 
tle-upon-Tyne), University  Botanic  Garden  (Cam- 
bridge), Royal  Botanic  Gardens  (Kew),  and  uit 
der  the  auspices  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England,  the  Bath 
and  West  and  Southern  Counties  Society,  and  a 
number  of  county  education  committees  and 
councils. 

In  Scotland,  similar  work  is  done  by  the  Royal 
Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland, 
the  Agricultural  Research  Association  of  the 
North  Eastern  Counties,  the  Royal  Botanic  Gar- 
den at  Edinburgh,  Mareschal  College  of  Aberdeen 
University,  and  the  Glasgow  and  West  of  Scot- 
land Technical  College;  in  Ireland,  by  the  Royal 
Dublin  Society,  Glasnevin  AgricultuVal  College, 
and  Trinity  College  Botanic  Gardens  (Glas- 
nevin) ;  in  Wales,  by  the  University  Colleges  of 
Wales  and  North  Wales.  In  Canada,  the  prin- 
cipal stations  are  the  Central  Experimental 
Farm  at  Ottawa,  with  branches  in  British  Co^ 
lumbia.  Northwest  Territory,  Manitoba,  and 
Nova  Scotia,  and  the  station  at  the  Agricultural 
College  of  Guelph,  Ontario.  In  the  British  West 
Indies,  stations  for  the  improvement  of  sugar- 
cane are  maintained  on  Barbados,  Antigua,  and 
Trinidad,  and  botanical  stations  on  these  islands 
and  on  Dominica,  Grenada,  Montserrat,  St. 
Lucia,  St.  Vincent,  and  Tobago,  under  the  Im- 
perial Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  West 
Indies,  and  at  Jamaica  by  the  Department  of 
Public  Gardens  and  Plantations.  In  Cape  Col- 
ony there  is  a  government  laboratory  and  herba- 
rium at  Cape  Town,  and  a  station  at  the  agri- 
cultural schools  at  Elsenburg.  In  India,  there 
are  more  than  forty  stations — farms  and  botanic 
gardens;  in  Australia,  over  thirty,  and  in  New 
Zealand,  eleven. 

ExTROPE.  Germany  has  more  than  one  hun- 
dred stations,  many  of  which  are  connected  with 
universities.  A  considerable  number  of  sta- 
tions maintain  inspection  and  control  of  ferti- 
lizers, feeding-stuffs,  and  seeds;  others  are  for 
investigations  in  special  subjects,  such  as 
brewing  and  distilling,  milling,  animal  chem- 
istry or  physiology,  veterinary  science,  dairy- 
ing, plant  diseases,  and  plant  physiology.  Among 
the  most  important  German  stations  are  those 
at  Berlin,  Halle,  Bonn,  Breslau,  Darmstadt, 
Munich,  GSttingen,  Bemburg,  MOckem,  Poppels- 
dorf,  and  Tharandt.  France  has  about  70  sta- 
tions and  laboratories,  of  which  the  best  known 
are  those  at  Grignon,  Juvisy,  Montpellier.  Paris, 
and  Versailles.  Austria  has  41  stations:  Bel- 
gium, 15;  Denmark,  10;  Holland,  18;  Hungary. 
16;  Italy,  22;  Switzerland,  13;  Norway  and  Swe- 
den, about  45;  Russia,  more  than  100,  and 
Japan,  16.  In  all  there  are  about  780  experi- 
ment stations  in  the  world. 

An  address  list  of  the  agricultural  experiment 
stations  of  the  world  is  published  annually  by 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  (Washington,  D.  C). 

AGBICULTITBAL  LA^OBEBS.  See  La- 
bob  Problem;  Gangs,  Agmcultukal. 

AGKBICUL'TTJBE  (tilling  of  land,  Lat.  agri, 
gen.  of  ager,  field,  +  cultura,  tilling,  cultiva- 
tion) .  In  a  broad  sense  of  the  word,  the  science 
and  art  of  the  production  of  all  plants  and  ani- 
mals useful  to  man.  More  or  less  intimately 
connected  ^vith  agriculture  itself  has  been  the 
preparation  of  its  products  for  man's  use.  Again, 


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the  spinning  of  fibres  and  the  weaving  of  cloth, 
the  tanning  of  leather,  the  making  of  butter, 
cheese,  wines,  cider,  vinegar,  etc.,  have  been 
largely  done  bj  farmers.  Gradually,  however, 
these  occupations  have  been  specialized  and  re- 
moved wholly  or  in  part  from  the  farm.  Thus, 
the  production  of  forest  trees  has  been  special- 
ized as  forestry,  and  the  production  of  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  ornamental  plants  has  formed 
the  subject  of  horticulture.  Such  occupations 
as  breeding  livestock,  raising  poultry,  bee-keep- 
ing, and  fish  culture  are  also  pursued  independ- 
ently of  general  agriculture.  The  term  agricul- 
ture has,  therefore,  been  gradually  restricted 
to  the  production  of  a  limited  group  of  plants 
and  animals,  such  as  may  be  brought  together  on 
single  farms  in  a  system  of  mixed  husbandry. 
The  particular  animals  and  plants  included  in 
agriculture  in  this  narrower  sense  will  vary  with 
the  region  and  a  variety  of  circumstances.  For 
example:  in  some  regions  the  sweet  potato  is 
raised  in  a  small  way  in  mrdens  and  is  there 
considered  a  horticultural  plant,  while  in  regions 
where  it  is  raised  in  large  fields  it  is  con- 
sidered an  agricultural  plant.  In  the  present  ar- 
ticle the  term  agriculture  will  be  used  in  a  some- 
what broad  sense,  and  the  sketch  will  be  confined 
to  a  brief  outline  of  the  historical  development 
of  agriculture,  general  statistics  of  a  few  of  the 
more  important  agricultural  products,  and  ref- 
erences to  parts  of  the  more  general  literature 
of  agriculture.  Information  regarding  partic- 
ular plants  and  animals,  or  special  agricultural 
industries,  may  be  found  in  other  articles  in  this 
Encyclopsedia. 

The  Earliest  AomcuiiTURE.  Agriculture  began 
in  prehistoric  times,  when  primitive  man  first 
began  to  select  particular  plants  in  his  imme- 
diate environment  as  preferable  to  others  for 
his  use  as  food  or  for  making  his  clothes,  and 
when  he  first  directed  his  efforts  toward  pro- 
moting the  growth  of  plants.  Whether  these 
attempts  preceded  those  to  capture  and  confine 
animals,  with  a  view  to  employing  them  as 
beasts  of  burden,  or  to  using  their  meat, 
milk,  or  skins,  we  do  not  know.  It  is,  however, 
clear,  that  while  the  migratory  habits  of  savage 
tribes  must  have  tended  to  hinder  anything  like 
systematic  cultivation  of  the  soil,  they  probably 
did  not  prevent  the  domestication  of  animals. 

The  practices  of  some  aboriginal  tribes  at  the 
present  time  indicate  that  efforts  to  promote  the 
growth  of  useful  plants  by  the  removal  of  other 
plants  growing  among  them  antedates  the  plant- 
ing of  seeds.  Similar  evidence  points  to  the  be- 
ginning of  agricultural  implements  in  the  use 
of  pointed  and  forked  sticks  to  scratch  the  soil 
or  remove  obnoxious  vegetation.  The  union  of 
two  such  sticks  with  a  leathern  thong  made  a 
rude  mattock  or  hoe,  and  a  larger  implement  of 
the  same  kind  formed  the  primitive  plow,  which 
was  drawn,  very  likely,  at  first  by  men 
and  afterward  by  domesticated  animals.  The 
great  burden  of  agricultural  labors  was  in  those 
early  ages  undoubtedly  thrown  upon  woman,  as 
has  been  the  case  among  the  tribes  of  North 
American  Indians,  whose  men  have  devoted 
themselves  almost  exclusively  to  the  chase  and 
to  war.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that  severe 
ttJilitary  requirements  still  necessitate  the  em- 
ployment of  women  in  field  labor  on  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe. 

Egyptian  Aobtculture.  In  tracing  the  de- 
velopment of  agriculture  in  historical  times  we 


naturally  turn  first  to  Egypt,  the  motherland  of 
our  civilization.  The  records  preserved  on 
ancient  monuments  allow  us  to  trace  the  his- 
tory of  agriculture  in  Egypt  back  to  at  least  3000 
B.C.  At  that  early  time  various  animals  had 
already  become  domesticated,  and  the  growing 
of  crops  for  man  and  beast  by  a  regular  system 
of  tillage  and  irrigation  had  been  united  with 
the  feeding  of  large  numbers  of  animals  on  the 
ranges.  There  was,  however,  no  fixed  distinction 
between  wild  and  domesticated  animals,  and 
with  certain  kinds  of  animals  the  limits  of  do- 
mestication had  not  been  definitely  settled.  The 
land  and  livestock  were  very  largely  the  property 
of  the  royal,  priestly,  and  military  classes;  the 
care  of  animals  and  the  performance  of  farming 
operations  were  in  the  hands  of  hired  laborers 
or  slaves.  Agriculture  was,  however,  a  more 
honorable  occupation  than  trading  or  the  me- 
chanical arts.  Herdsmen  and  fishermen  were 
in  the  lowest  class;  swineherds  especially  were 
despised.  Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  swine  were 
kept,  often  in  large  herds  and  flocks.  The  cattle 
belonged  to  the  same  species  as  the  present  cat- 
tle of  India.  Both  bulls  and  cows  were  used 
for  labor,  but  the  flesh  of  the  males  only  was 
eaten.  Sheep  were  kept  for  both  wool  and  milk 
(from  which  cheese  was  made),  but  do  not  ap- 
pear to  have  been  often  used  for  food.  Goats 
seem  to  have  furnished  the  principal  milk  sup- 
ply of  ancient  Egypt.  Swine  were  raised  in 
large  numbers,  though  they  were  considered  un- 
clean and  were  forbidden  food  except  on  certain 
days  or  for  the  priests.  The  donkey  and  camel 
w^ere  the  principal  beasts  of  burden  from  prehis- 
toric times.  The  donkey  was  probably  first  do- 
mesticated by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  being  taken 
from  the  wild  asses  which  came  from  their  home 
at  the  headwaters  of  the  Nile.  Horses  were 
brought  into  Egypt  about  1900  b.c.,  when  the 
Shepherd  Kings  from  Asia  conquered  the  coun- 
try. The  stallions  only  were  used  for  war  and 
for  shows.  They  were  kept  in  stables  and  fed 
on  straw  and  barley.  Water  fowls,  especially 
geese,  were  abundantly  raised.  Breeding  of  ani- 
mals by  selection  was  customary,  as  well  as 
branding  them  for  identification.  "When  the 
Nile  overflowed,  animals  of  all  kinds  were  placed 
upon  artificial  raised  ground,  and  fed  upon 
wheat,  straw,  and  leguminous  fodder  raised  for 
the  purpose." 

Crops  were  grown  with  the  aid  of  the  alluvial 
deposits  annually  made  by  the  overflowing  Nile 
and  of  irrigation  to  supply  the  lack  of  rainfall. 
Irrigation  water  was  taken  from  the  Nile  and 
distributed  through  numerous  canals  and 
ditches.  The  water  was  raised  to  the  top  of 
the  river  bank  by  handsweeps  such  as  are  often 
used  on  farms  to-day  for  raising  water  from 
shallow  wells,  or  by  means  of  a  vessel  held  with 
straps  between  two  laborers,  who  pulled  against 
each  other  in  lifting  the  water.  In  some  cases 
seed  was  sown  after  the  Nile  fiood  without  prep- 
aration of  the  land,  and  was  trodden  in  by  ani- 
mals. Generally,  the  plow  or  the  hoe  was  used. 
The  plow  consisted  of  a  wooden  plowshare, 
double  handle,  and  draft  pole  or  beam.  "The 
beam  and  stilt  were  fastened  together  by  thongs 
or  by  a  twisted  rope,  which  kept  the  share  and 
beam  at  a  proper  distance  and  helped  to  prevent 
the  former  from  penetrating  too  deeply  into  the 
earth."  The  plow  was  drawn  W  two  bulls 
or  cows,  yoked  by  the  shoulders  ox  attached  by 
the  horns.     Generally,  one  man  Ve\d  ^^®  ^^^^ 


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and  another  drove  the  animals,  but  sometimes 
one  Tiifin  performed  both  duties.  The  hoe  was 
iimde  of  wood,  and  consisted  of  a  rounded  or 
pointed  blade  attached  to  a  handle  by  a  twisted 
ihoni^.  Other  tillage  implements  sometimes  used 
were  the  harrow  and  the  roller.  The  cereals 
grown  were  bearded  wheat,  six- rowed  barley, 
dnrrw  {Borghum  vulgare  var),  and  millet  (Pan- 
icum  miliaceum).  The  seed  was  sown  broad- 
cast; the  wheat  and  barley  in  November,  after 
the  subsidence  of  the  Nile  flood,  and  the  durra 
either  at  that  time  or  in  April.  Wheat  was  har- 
ve.Httni  in  March,  barley  m  April,  and  spring 
durra  in  July.  "Wheat  and  barley  were  headed 
with  a  toothed  sickle,  or  cut  lower  down  and 
boutul  into  sheaves."  The  grain  was  trodden  out 
by  donkeys  or  oxen  on  earthen  thrashing-floors 
contttructed  in  the  open  field,  where  the  chaff  was 
fanned  ant  by  the  wind.  Granaries,  often  built 
of  the  Nile  mud,  were  used  for  storage.  Durra 
was  palled  up  by  the  roots,  and  the  seed  was  re- 
in ovtd  with  a  comb-like  stripper  similar  to  that 
sometimes  used  now  for  removing  broom-corn 
seed.  Flax  was  raised  from  prehistoric  times  for 
its  fibre,  from  which  the  clothing  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  and  the  wrappings  of  the  mummies 
were  largely  made.  It  is  doubtful  whether  cot- 
ton was  grown  in  Egypt  in  very  ancient  times, 
though  it  seems  to  have  been  introduced  there 
front  the  East  previous  to  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.  Lentils,  lupines  {Lupinua 
tv.rms\,  onions,  garlic,  and  radishes  were  com- 
monly raised  vegetables.  The  horse  bean  {Faha 
vulgaris),  chick  pea  {Cicer  arietinum),  and 
thif'kling  vetch  {Lathyrua  aativus)  were  also 
proliably  raised.  For  fruits  the  Egyptians  had 
graj)tf8,  olives,  figs,  pomegranates,  and  dates. 
Other  eultivated  plants  were  the  watermelon  and 
caBtor-oil  plant. 

BAiiYLONiA.  Of  Babylonian  agriculture  there 
are  few  records.  As  in  Egypt,  it  supported  a 
tlense  population.  The  Euphrates  overflowed, 
Init  did  not  do  the  work  of  the  Nile. 
In  iill  the  region  irrigation  turns  desert  lands 
into  fruitful  fields.  Of  such  fields  Herodotus 
sftid:  *'This  is  of  all  lands  with  which  we  are 
faiiiiliiir  by  far  the  best  for  growth  of  corn. 
\Vh<>n  it  produces  its  best  it  yields  even  three 
hundredfold.  The  blades  of  wheat  and  barley 
^'row  there  to  full  four  fingers  in  breadth;  and 
thougli  I  well  know  to  what  a  height  millet  and 
set^nme  grow,  I  shall  not  mention  it,  for  I  am 
%vell  assured  that  to  those  who  have  never  been 
in  the  Babylonian  country  what  has  been  said  re- 
gpeeting  its  productions  w^ill  appear  incredible." 

Paij:stine.  The  Scriptures  are  full  of  allu- 
sions to  the  operations  of  the  husbandman  in 
Frtk^stine,  as  well  as  in  Egypt.  The  operations 
in  the  two  countries  necessarily  formed  striking 
contrasts,  the  crops  in  the  former  being  depend- 
ent on  the  rains  for  growth,  in  the  latter  upon 
the  inundations  of  the  Nile.  The  Hebrews,  be- 
fore their  sojourn  in  Egypt,  had  been  a  semi-pas- 
toral people,  and  they  must  have  learned 
something  of  Egyptian  agriculture  during  the 
years  of  bondage.  Their  laws  were  those  of  an 
af,Tieultural  people.  Land  was  practically  in- 
ftlienahle.  Extensive  plains  of  fertile  soil  yielded 
the  finest  wheat.  The  hill-sides  were  covered 
with  \  ines  and  olives,  often  planted  in  terraces 
formed  with  much  labor  to  afford  a  large  mass 
of  Roil  in  which  the  plants  might  flourish  in  the 
almost  rainless  summer.  The  valleys  were  well 
watered,    and    afforded    pasture    for    numerous 


flocks.  Of  the  smaller  cultivated  plants,  millet 
was  the  chief  summer  crop,  but  it  was  cultivated 
to  only  a  limited  extent,  being  confined  to  those 
spots  that  could  be  artificially  watered.  Wheat 
and  barley  were  the  chief  cereals,  as  the  winter 
rains  were  sufficient  to  bring  them  to  maturity. 
Gbeece.  From  the  Grecian  literature  covering 
the  period  from  1000  B.C.  to  the  conquest  oi 
Greece  by  Rome,  146  B.C.,  we  get  comparatively 
little  definite  agricultural  information.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  animals  used  in  Egypt,  mules  were 
grown  and  used  for  labor.  In  winter,  animaU 
were  housed.  Swarms  of  bees  were  commonly 
kept.  Wheat  and  barley  were  the  cereals,  and 
hemp,  as  well  as  flax,  was  raised.  The  fruits  of 
Egpyt,  except  the  date  palm,  were  grown,  and 
in  addition,  cherries,  plums,  almonds,  pears,  ap- 
ples, and  quinces.  The  list  of  vegetables  is  also 
lengthened,  and  includes  turnips,  beets,  cabbag**, 
lettuce,  chicory,  garden  peas,  and  kidney  beans. 
The  common  lupine  {Lupiniis  alhus)  took  the 
place  of  the  species  grown  in  Egypt,  and  is  said 
to  have  been  used  for  green  manuring.  It  is  as- 
serted that  the  Greeks  introduced  the  use  of 
manure  to  promote  the  growth  of  crops. 

^  Home.  Roman  agriculture  has  received  spe- 
cial attention  because  so  much  was  written 
about  it  by  the  Romans  themselves,  and  because 
they  carried  it  into  other  countries,  where  it 
modifled  or  dominated  agricultural  customs. 
When  Rome  was  only  a  colony  on  the  Tiber,  land 
was  divided  among  the  citizens  in  small  allot- 
ments. There  was  a  domain  of  public  land, 
which  was  continually  extended  by  the  conquests 
of  neighboring  States  and  the  partial  confisca- 
tions that  followed.  Although  land  in  the  con- 
quered territory  was  sometimes  granted  to  the 
poorer  citizens,  there  were  large  tracts  of  public 
lands  that  were  either  cultivated  or  allowed  to 
remain  in  pasture.  The  common  conditions  were 
that  the  occupants  paid  one- tenth  of  the  produce 
of  the  corn  lands,  one-fifth  of  the  produce  of 
vines  and  fruit  trees,  and  a  moderate  rate  per 
head  for  cattle  pastured.  The  occupants  were 
merely  tenants  at  will,  and  theoretically  the 
state  could  resume  or  sell  the  lands  at  any  time. 
Yet  the  right  of  possession  was  good  against  all 
until  the  lands  had  been  resumed ;  and  in  process 
of  time  there  came  to  be  families  so  long 
in  possession  that  they  could  not  be  dispossessed. 
Only  the  wealthy  had  the  cattle  or  slaves  that 
made  such  occupation  possible.  The  burdens 
upon  these  occupiers  of  the  public  lands  were 
much  less  than  those  upon  the  small  farmers  who 
owned  their  farms.  Thus,  at  least  two  classes 
of  cultivators  were  in  existence,  the  small  pro- 
prietors and  the  wealthy  tenants  holding  the 
lands  of  the  State.  An  addition  to  the  strife  be- 
tween these  two  classes  was  the  pressure  brought 
to  bear  in  the  interest  of  the  landless.  Even 
after  the  Romans  became  masters  of  all  Italy, 
little  more  than  four  acres  was  assigned  to  each 
citizen,  and  the  domain  lands  increased  enor- 
mously. Attempts  were  constantly  made  to  re- 
strict the  extent  of  land  that  could  be  occupied 
by  the  wealthy,  but  generally  without  eflTect. 
( See  Agrarian  Law.  )  A  great  deterioration  and 
a  consequent  agricultural  change  took  place 
during  the  century  that  followed  the  first  Punic 
War  (ended  B.C.  241).  The  place  of  the  small 
farmer  was  taken  by  the  planter,  who  cultivated 
a  great  extent  of  territory,  using  slave  labor. 
The  small  proprietors  either  sold  their  no  longer 
profitable  farms  or  were  driven  from  them  by 


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the  large  land-holders.  In  Sicily,  the  first  prov- 
ince, and  in  the  others  successively,  the  owner- 
ship of  the  land  was  vested  in  the  Roman  people. 
Yrom  these  provinces  came  the  tribute  of  grain 
that  made  grain-raising  unprofitable  in  Italy. 
Hence,  the  Targe  estates  were  gradually  given 
o?er  to  the  keeping  of  fiocks  and  the  raising  of 
cattle.  Among  the  Roman  writers  upon  agri- 
culture were  Varro,  Columella,  and  Pliny.  Ear- 
lier than  these  in  time  and  more  celebrated  was 
Cato  the  Censor  (died  149  B.C.),  who  gives  us 
not  only  the  most  minute  particulars  regarding 
the  management  of  the  slaves  on  his  larse  Sabine 
farm,  but  also  all  the  details  of  husbandry,  from 
plowing  to  the  reaping  and  thrashing  of 
the  crop. 

Horses,  asses,  mules,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine 
were  raised  by  the  Roman  farmers,  and  much 
attention  was  given  to  the  breeding  of  animals 
for  special  purposes.  Castration  was  customary, 
and  oxen  were  the  principal  work  animals  used 
on  the  farm.  Mules  were  extensivelv  used,  es- 
pecially as  beasts  of  burden.  The  milk  of  sheep 
and  goats  was  generally  used  for  drink,  and  also 
for  making  cheese.  Columella  describes  a  meth- 
od of  makin^^  nnd  preserving  cheese,  and  says 
that  the  milk  used  in  cheese-making  was  cur- 
dled in  various  ways,  but  commonly  with  a 
lamb's  or  kid's  rennet.  Poultry  culture  was  an 
elaborate  industry,  and  included  the  raising  of 
hens,  geese,  ducks,  teals,  pigeons,  turtle-doves, 
swans,  and  peacocks.  Much  attention  was  also 
given  to  fish  culture,  and  such  animals  as  hares, 
snails,  and  dormice  were  raised  in  considerable 
numbers.  Wheat  was  the  most  important  cereal 
crop  cultivated  by  the  Romans,  and  both  smooth 
bearded  varieties  were  raised.  Six- rowed  and 
two-rowed  barley,  too,  was  grown  to  a  consider- 
able extent.  Millet  was  grovm  to  some  extent. 
Oats  and  rye  were  introduced  in  comparatively 
late  times.  'Land  given  to  grain  was  fallowed  for 
the  whole  of  every  alternate  year.  One-third  of 
the  fallow  was  manured  and  sown  with  some 
green  crop,  as  cattle  food.  Fallow  received 
from  four  to  five  furrowings  before  the  wheat 
was  sown  in  the  fall.  The  crop  of  wheat  ripened 
about  the  middle  of  June,  but  the  summers  were 
too  dry  for  the  raising,  with  certainty,  of  millet 
and  other  summer  crops.  Alfalfa  {Lucem),  com- 
mon vetch  {Vicia  sativa)^  chickling  vetch,  and 
chick  pea  were  grown  for  fodder.  Hemp,  fiax, 
beans,  turnips,  and  lupines  also  are  mentioned 
as  occasionally  cultivated.  To  the  list  of  fruits 
and  vegetables  produced  in  ancient  Egypt  and 
Greece  the  Romans  added  apricots,  peaches^  mel- 
ons, and  celery.  Meadows  were  carefully  pre- 
pared, and  rotation  of  crops  was  practiced  to  a 
certain  extent.  The  soil  was  thoroughly  culti- 
vated with  the  plow  and  harrow  or  the  hoe  and 
rake;  blind  and  open  drains  were  used;  in 
some  regions  irrigation  was  employed.  Manures 
of  different  kinds  were  abundantly  used,  and  va- 
rious methods  for  their  preservation  and  distri- 
buticn  were  elaborated.  Wheat  and  barley  were 
usually  reaped  with  a  sickle,  but  sometimes  they 
were  pulled  ut>  by  the  roots,  or  the  heads  were 
cut  oflf  with  shears.  They  were  thrashed  with 
flails  or  with  a  board  studded  with  iron  spikes 
or  sharp  flints,  which  was  drawn  over  the  straw, 
or  by  trampling  with  cattle  or  horses.  The 
Romans  carried  their  agriculture  into  the 
ruder  countries  con<^uered  by  them.  The  vine 
growing  wild  in  Sicily  was  carried  into  Gaul, 
where  it  was  acclimated  with  difficulty.    To  the 


rude  Britons  the  Romans  taught  agriculture  so 
successfullv  that  before  the  period  of  occupation 
was  over  they  were  exporting  large  quantities  of 
grain. 

The  Dark  Ages  and  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
deterioration  of  Roman  agriculture  was  accel- 
erated by  the  overthrow  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
The  conquering  nations  had  advanced  but  little 
beyond  the  pastoral  stage.  During  the  following 
period  of  the  Dark  Ages  the  two  influences  work- 
ing for  the  beneflt  of  agriculture  in  Western  Eu- 
rope were  the  Saracen  in  Spain  and  the  religious 
houses  in  the  other  countries.  The  Saracens  irri- 
gated and  tilled  with  untiring  industry.  They 
introduced  the  plants  of  Asia  and  Africa;  culti- 
vated rice,  cotton,  and  sugar,  and  covered  the 
rocks  of  Southern  Spain  with  fruitful  vines.  In 
general,  throughout  Western  Europe,  land  was 
cheap,  and  many  worthless  tracts  were  given  to 
the  Church.  In  some  of  the  religious  orders  la- 
bor with  the  hands  was  imposed  upon  the  mem- 
bers. They  studied  the  works  of  the  Roman 
writers  upon  agriculture,  and  soon  had  the  best 
cultivated  lands  in  those  countries  through  which 
their  influence  extended.  Charlemagne  encour- 
aged the  planting  of  vineyards  and  or- 
chards. On  the  whole,  the  Crusades  helped 
the  agriculture  of  Western  Europe.  In  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  Middle  Ages  the  people  of  the  low 
countries  of  Western  Europe  came  to  be  as  dis- 
tinguished for  their  agriculture  as  for  tiieir  com- 
merce and  manufactures.  They  plowed  in  green 
crops;  the  people  of  Holland  developed  dairy- 
ing; the  Flemings  gained  the  reputation  of 
being  the  oldest  practical  farmers.  Also  in  the 
plain  of  Northern  Italy,  watered  by  the  Po,  agri- 
culture was  in  an  advanced  condition.  A 
large  part  of  it,  of  great  natural  fertility,  drew 
forth  the  praises  of  Polybius,  who  visited  it 
about  fifty  years  after  it  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Romans.  In  the  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  centuries,  under  the  influence  of  irri- 
gation, the  region  became  a  garden,  supporting 
a  large  population  and  exporting  grain.  In  the 
England  of  the  same  period  the  agriculture 
showed  alternations  of  indolence  and  bustle,  of 
feasting  and  semi-starvation.  In  August,  1317, 
wheat  was  twelve  times  as  high  in  price  as  in  the 
following  September.  Rye  was  the  breadstuff  of 
the  peasantry.  Little  manure  was  used.  Oxen, 
not  horses,  were  used  for  teams.  In  the  four- 
teenth century  serfdom  disappeared  from  Eng- 
land, and  the  tenant  farmer  became  established. 
"Between  1389  and  1444  the  wages  of  agri- 
cultural laborers  doubled;  harvests  were  plenti- 
ful; beef,  mutton,  pork  became  their  food; 
sumptuary  laws  against  extravagance  of  dress 
and  diet  attest  their  prosperity"  (Prothero). 
Laborers  without  food  could  earn  a  bushel  of 
wheat  in  two  days  and  a  half;  of  rye  in  a  day 
and  a  half. 

By  the  beginning  of  modern  history,  the 
fruitful  lands  of  Western  Asia  and  Southeast- 
ern Europe,  swept  by  wars  and  desolated  by  con- 
quest, had  been  placed  under  the  ban  of  the 
Turk.  The  conquest  of  the  Moors  in  Spain  and 
their  subsequent  expulsion  caused  an  injury  to 
the  agriculture  of  the  peninsula  which  has  not 
been  repaired.  The  discovery  of  the  New  World 
showed  two  grades  of  agriculture  carried  on  by 
those  who  had  never  seen  the  horse  and  were 
practically  without  domestic  animals.  Even  the 
careful  tillage  of  the  ancient  Peruvian  had  no 
influence  upon  Europe  and  little  upon  the  Amer- 


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ica  of  succeeding  centuries.  The  great  contribu- 
tion of  America  to  the  world's  agriculture  was 
the  three  plants,  the  potato,  tobacco,  and  Indian 
corn  or  maize.  In  the  region  north  of  Mexico 
the  labor  of  planting  and  caring  for  the  scanty 
crops  was  performed  by  the  women,  who  broke 
the  ground  with  the  rudest  possible  implements. 

England.  In  the  sixteenth  century  apicul- 
ture in  England  became  more  profitable,  inclos- 
ures  were  made,  and  the  rights  of  common  were 
greatly  restricted.  Hops  were  introduced  from 
Holland.  Turned  from  the  former  wool  expor- 
tation, the  farmers  began  to  raise  wheat  in  large 
quantities  to  be  sent  out  of  the  country.  A 
law  in  the  middle  of  the  century  practically  pre- 
vented grain  exportation  and  turned  wheat 
lands  into  pasturage.  The  resulting  high  price 
of  food  and  the  destitution  on  the  part  of  labor- 
ers brought  another  reaction,  and  a  replowing 
of  grazing  lands.  The  sixteenth  century  saw  the 
end  of  the  villeinage.  In  1595,  laborers  without 
food  during  the  summer  months  worked  six  days 
for  a  bushel  of  wheat,  four  days  for  a  bushel  of 
rye,  and  three  and  one-half  days  for  a  bushel  of 
barley.  Gardening,  greatly  neglected  in  the  first 
part  of  the  seventeenth  century,  received  due 
attention  in  the  latter  part.  Deep  drainage,  too 
began  to  be  talked  about.  From  the  middle  of 
the  seventeenth  century  to  the  nineteenth,  Eng- 
land looked  to  Flanders  for  the  perfection  of 
careful  tillage.  From  the  Flanders  of  the  seven- 
teenth century  Sir  Richard  Weston  brought  tur- 
nips and  red  clover,  and  Arthur  Young  afterward 
called  him  a  greater  benefactor  than  Newton. 
By  the  end  of  the  century  turnips  and  clover 
were  extensively  cultivated  in  alternation  with 
wheat.  The  cultivation  of  grasses  was  begun 
in  this  century  with  the  introduction  of  peren- 
nial rye  grass.  White  clover  was  introduced  in 
1700,  and  timothy  and  orchard  grass  came  to 
England  from  America  about  1760.  The  eight- 
eenth century  saw  revolutions  in  English 
farming.  One  came  when  Lord  Townsend  estab- 
lished the  Norfolk  system.  Under  this  system 
of  first,  wheat;  second,  turnips;  third,  barley; 
fourth,  clover  and  grass,  one-half  of  the  land 
was  constantly  under  grain  crops  and  the  other 
under  cattle-grazing.  Large  numbers  of  sheep 
and  cattle  were  fattened  on  the  turnips,  and  the 
consumption  of  roots  on  the  land  increased  the 
yield  of  the  barley.  The  Norfolk  system  was  a 
Huccess  from  the  beginning.  The  rental  of  certain 
farms  increased  fivefold,  and  farmers  in  special 
cases  made  handsome  fortunes.  Susceptible  of 
many  modifications,  it  has  had  much  to  do  with 
the  improved  agriculture  of  England.  Beans, 
peas,  and  vetches  were  generally  grown,  often  in 
mixtures  with  wheat  or  oats.  Hemp  was  grown 
for  rope-making.  The  common  vegetables  were 
onions,  leeks,  mustard,  and  peas,  and  the  fruits 
were  apples,  grapes,  and  plums. 

Another  revolution  came  from  the  breeding  ex- 
periments of  Bakewell,  commenced  in  1750.  To 
mention  a  single  point,  it  had  taken  three  or  four 
years  to  prepare  sheep  for  the  market;  those 
brred  by  Bakewell  were  prepared  for  the  market 
in  two*  years.  Besides  making  a  reputation  and 
a  fortune  for  himself,  he  made  for  others  a  way 
since  followed  in  breeding.  Jethro  Tull,  whose 
book  on  Horse-hoeing  Husbandry  appeared  in 
1731,  was  almost  in  touch  with  the  methods  of 
the  nineteenth  century.  His  theory  was  that 
Heeds  should  be  sowed  in  drills,  and  the  spaces 
between   the  drills   kept   thoroughly   cultivated. 


He  invented  a  drill  and  a  horse-hoe.  He  did  not 
succeed  in  obtaining  a  large  crop,  but  successful 
modifications  of  the  meUiod  have  since  been 
made. 

North  America.  The  white  colonists  of  North 
America  had  much  to  discourage  them  as  agri- 
culturists; in  New  England  they  had  the  addi- 
tional drawbacks  of  long  winters  and  a  rocky 
soil.  The  colonists  in  Virginia  found  both  In- 
dian corn  and  tobacco,  the  latter  fitted  to 
become  an  article  of  export.  The  New  England 
settlers  brought  with  them  English  modes  of 
farming.  From  the  Indians  they  learned  how 
to  raise  corn  (maize),  breaking  the  soil  with 
a  hoe  and  manuring  with  fish.  Corn  was  the 
great  product  to  be  depended  upon,  although 
other  grains  were  cultivated,  and  cattle  and 
sheep  increased  slowly,  fed  first  upon  the  native 
grass,  then  upon  timothy  specially  fitted  for 
New  England  soil. 

Potatoes  began  to  be  raised  in  the  first  part  of 
the  eighteenth  century.  The  southern  colonists, 
more  favored  by  nature,  made  less  actual  prog- 
ress than  those  of  the  North.  Even  as  late  as 
1790,  as  we  learn  from  McMaster's  History  of 
the  American  People,  little  progress  was  made. 
In  New  England  and  New  York,  as  well  as  far- 
ther south,  barns  were  small,  implements  rude, 
and  carts  more  common  than  wagons.  In 
Georgia  the  hoe  was  more  often  used  than  the 
plow;  in  Virginia  the  poor  whites  thrashed 
their  grain  by  driving  their  horses  over  it. 
Throughout  the  South  it  was  the  common  prac- 
tice to  grow  crops  without  rotation,  and  in  gen- 
eral manure  was  thrown  away.  A  little  later 
came  the  invention  of  the  cotton  gin  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  reign  of  cotton,  with  a  demand 
for  fresh  fields  and  a  disregard  of  careful  tillage. 
Early  in  the  century  the  importation  of  ike 
Spanish  merino  sheep  changed  the  farming  of 
the  North  and  greatly  increased  the  produ^on 
of  wool. 

The  Nineteenth  Century.  In  the  nineteenth 
century  the  progress  of  agriculture  was  pro- 
foundly afifected  by  great  general  causes,  some  of 
which  exerted  a  world-wide  influence.  Among 
these  were :  ( 1 )  the  application  of  science  to  the 
improvement  of  agriculture;  (2)  the  revolution 
in  transportation  methods  through  the  use  of 
steam  power  on  land  and  sea;  (3)  the  rapid 
opening  of  vast  areas  of  new  land  in  North  and 
South  America,  Australia,  and  Africa  to  settle- 
ment, cultivation,  and  grazing;  (4)  the  inven- 
tion and  extensive  use  of  labor-saving  machinery 
as  applied  to  agriculture;  (5)  the  abolition  of 
serfdom  and  slavery;  (6)  the  specialization  of 
agricultural  industries;  (7)  the  organization  of 
the  distribution  of  agricultural  products  and 
their  use  in  manufactures  in  accordance  with  the 
modern  business  principles  governing  the  or- 
ganization of  other  great  industries;  (8)  the  es- 
tablishment of  governmental  agencies  for  the 
promotion  of  agriculture;  (9)  the  voluntary 
coiiperation  of  farmers  through  numerous  asso- 
ciations; and  (10)  the  wide  dissemination  of 
agricultural  information  through  books,  journals, 
public  documents,  and  farmers'  meetings.  Scien- 
tific studies  and  experiments  for  the  benefit  of 
agriculture  began  with  the  development  of  ag- 
ricultural chemistry  early  in  the  century.  The 
most  widespread  practical  result  of  the  investi- 
gations in  agricultural  chemistry  has  been  the 
extensive  use  of  a  large  number  of  forms  of  com- 
mercial fertilizers.    In  more  recent  years  a  wide 


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range  of  successful  research  on  behalf  of  agri- 
culture has  been  developed  with  the  aid  of  the 
biological  sciences,  and  in  the  closing  years  of  the 
nineteenth  century  investigations  in  agricultural 
physics  assumed  great  importance.  The  marvel- 
ous success  of  scientific  effort,  largely  under  gov- 
ernment patronage,  as  applied  to  dairying  and 
the  suear-beet  industry,  is  one  of  the  notable 
achievements  of  that  century.  Organized  scien- 
tific research  for  the  benefit  of  agriculture 
through  experiment  stations  and  kindred  insti- 
tutions has  become  a  regular  and  permanent 
agency  for  the  advancement  of  this  art.  See  Ag- 
RicixTURAi.  Experiment  Station;  and  Agri- 
ci'LTUBE,  Department  of. 

The  vital  interest  of  the  whole  community  in 
the  success  of  agriculture  as  the  great  basal  in- 
dustry has  been  distinctly  recognized  during  the 
nineteenth  century  by  the  widespread  establish- 
ment of  governmental  agencies  for  its  promotion. 
Atrriculture  has  now  a  definite  place  in  the  min- 
istries of  almost  all  the  civilized  nations  of  the 
globe.  In  Great  Britain  the  government  fosters 
agricultural  interests  through  a  Board  of  Agri- 
culture (q.v.).  In  the  United  States  the  Fed- 
eral Government  maintains  a  Department  of 
Agriculture  (q.v.),  whose  chief  ofiicer  has  had 
a  seat  in  the  President's  Cabinet,  since  1889,  as 
the  Secretary  of  Agriculture.  Many  of  the  States, 
too,  have  departments,  boards,  or  commissioners 
if  agriculture. 

Agricultural  Machinery.  One  of  the  fea- 
tures of  the  agricultural  history  of  the  past  fifty 
^'ears  has  been  the  extensive  introduction  of  ma- 
chinery. Sowing  machines,  cultivators,  and  all 
the  machines  that  displace  the  hoe  are  of  com- 
jaratively  recent  invention.  As  early  as  33  A.D., 
lecording  to  Pliny,  the  Gauls  used  a  cart  with 
Jrojections  in  front  which  cut  or  tore  off  the 
leads  of  grain;  but  until  recent  times  little  ef- 
ort  was  made  to  invent  or  introduce  labor- 
saving  machinery,  owing  to  popular  prejudice. 
Hie  thrashing  machine  was  not  invented  until 
1786,  and  though  an  attempt  was  made  early  in 
he  century  to  construct  reaping  machines,  but 
»mall  success  was  won  until  the  time  of  Bell, 
iussey,  and  McCormick.  (See  Reaping.)  In 
he  hay  harvest,  horse  power  is  applied  by  means 
►f  the  mowing-machine,  the  hay-tedder,  the  rake, 
ind  machines  for  loading  and  unloading  the 
>ay.  Another  class  of  machines,  as,  for  ex- 
imple,  the  one  for  thrashing,  deal  with 
he  gathered  crops.  The  use  of  a  system  of 
nachinery  like  that  applied  to  dairying  has 
nade  great  changes  in  certain  lines  of  agri- 
•ulture.  From  horse  power,  too,  there  has  been 
I  partial  change  to  steam  power.  About  the 
tear  1850  the  steam  plow  began  to  be  used  in 
England.  One  special  advantage  in  the  minds  of 
English  farmers  was  the  depth  to  which  the 
<»il  could  be  turned;  moreover,  the  engine  was 
itilized  for  many  purposes  on  the  large  estates 
)f  that  country.  The  great  advantage  of  steam 
farm  machinery  in  America  has  been  for  opera- 
tions like  that  of  thrashing,  but  the  use  of  steam 
for  this  purpose  has  not  proved  especially  eco- 
nomical. Improved  farm  machinery  in  America 
^  made  possible  the  rapid  settling  of  the  new 
States  and  the  successful  gathering  of  their  im- 
mense harvests.  It  has  made  possible  the  great 
farms  where  the  furrow  is  plowed  for  miles  and 
the  line  of  harvesters  sweep  across  wheat  fields 
wvering  thousands  of  acres.  .  In  an  article  on 
the  progress  of  agriculture  in  the  United  States, 


Mr.  G.  K.  Holmes,  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture, states  that  "the  amount  of  human  Ifibor 
now  (1896)  required  to  produce  a  bushel  of 
wheat  from  beginning  to  end  is  on  an  average 
only  ten  minutes,  whereas  in  1830  the  tim«  was 
three  hours  and  three  minutes.  During  tlio  m 
terval  between  these  years  the  cost  of  the  huinaii 
labor  required  to  produce  this  bushel  of  wheat 
declined  from  17%  cents  to  3^  cents.  In  the 
contrast  thus  presented  the  heavy,  clumsy  plow 
of  the  day  was  used  in  1830;  the  seed  was 
sown  by  hand  and  was  harrowed  into  the 
ground  by  the  drawing  of  bushes  over  it;  ilie 
grain  was  cut  with  sickles,  hauled  to  a  barn,  and 
some  time  before  the  following  spring  vva?« 
thrashed  with  flails;  the  winnowing  was  d«»Tve 
with  a  sheet  attached  to  rods,  on  which  the  grjiin 
was  placed  with  a  shovel  and  then  tossed  up  and 
down  by  two  men  until  the  wind  had  blown  out 
the  chaft.  In  the  latter  year,  on  the  contrary, 
the  ground  was  plowed  and  pulverized  witli 
the  same  operation  by  a  disk  plow;  the  hpM 
was  sown  with  a  mechanical  seeder  dniwii 
by  horses;  the  reaping,  thrashing,  and  sacking 
of  the  wheat  were  done  with  the  combined  rea|»er 
and  thrasher  drawn  by  horses,  and  then  the 
wheat  was  ready  to  haul  to  the  granary." 

System  in  Farming.  There  is  a  movement  in 
agriculture  to  provide  for  local  demands,  to  iixkc 
advantage  of  growing  centres  of  population «  to 
strive  for  excellence  and  exact  system  in  pi  nee 
of  haphazard  methods.  The  evaporator  has 
broadened  the  fruit  market.  The  canning  inthm- 
try  has  utilized  fruits  and  vegetables  and  saved 
the  agricultural  balances  in  sections.  Cold 
storage,  rapid  transportation,  and  the  refrii^^er- 
ator  car  have  reduced  risks  and  shortened 
apparent  distances.  New  Zealand  is  in  the  nuir- 
kets  of  London.  Canada  and  the  United  State* 
have  a  profitable  apple  trade  with  England.  The 
expenses  of  transportation  have  been  reduced  to 
a  fraction  of  the  previous  cost,  and  thus  the 
wheat  lands  of  Dakota  have  been  laid  alongside 
those  of  both  New  England  and  old  England, 
with  gain  for  the  one  and  with  loss  for  tlie 
others.  In  dairying  there  has  been  one  of  the 
triumphs  of  recent  agriculture.  Specialization, 
with  scientific  method  and  iniproved  machinery, 
has  brought  excellence  without  destruction  of  the 
market.  Dairy  products,  in  contrast  with  others. 
are  higher  than  they  were  fifty  years  ago.  Car- 
ried on  largely  as  cooperative  undertakinfjs, 
creameries  and  cheese  factories  (see  Dairying) 
have  increased  in  Europe  and  America.  A  large 
industry  in  England,  dairying  on  the  coiJpenitive 
basis  has  been  on  the  increase  in  France.  The 
Netherlands,  famous  for  its  careful  agriculture, 
is  a  leading  dairy  country,  and  Canada  exports 
large  quantities  of  cheese.  Denmark  no  lon/^er 
competes  for  the  wheat  trade,  but  has  bet^orne 
one  of  the  most  successful  of  dairy  countries, 
exporting  immense  quantities  of  high  grade  hut- 
ter  to  England. 

America  in  Recent  Times.  The  past  fifty 
years  have  been  a  period  of  careful  cultivation, 
though  with  many  exceptions,  in  America.  Tli^r 
ough  drainage  and  deep  plowing,  established  in 
England,  have  been  also  made  American.  A 
great  variety  of  commercial  fertilizers  ;ire 
widely  used.  In  the  United  States  alone  it  is 
estimated  that  about  2,000,000  tons  of  such  fej 
tilizers  are  annually  consumed.  The  storing  of 
green  crops  in  silos  has  become  common.  A 
great  amount  of  intelligent  work  has  been  given 


)ig'itiz||| 


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AQBICTJLTX7BE. 


to  securing  plants  and  trees  suited  to  local  con- 
ditions in  different  climates.  Numerous  varie- 
ties of  all  sorts  of  cultivated  plants  have  been 
obtained  through  selection  and  otherwise,  and 
in  this  way  the  areas  devoted  to  different  crops 
have  been  greatly  extended.  In  the  vicinity  of 
the  large  cities  market  gardening  has  been  a 
profitable  branch  of  agriculture,  and  has  been 
the  culmination  of  careful  cultivation.  Some- 
what similar  to  it  has  been  an  industry  which 
has  developed  in  the  United  States  under  the 
name  of  "truck  farming,"  and  is  carried  on  in 
places  remote  from  markets.  A  large  part  of 
the  vegetables  consumed  in  the  large  American 
cities  come  from  places  from  500  to  1500  miles 
distant.  According  to  a  census  bulletin,  issued 
in  1891,  in  the  United  States,  upward  of  $100,- 
000,000  of  capital  is  invested  in  this  industry; 
500,000  acres  are  given  to  it,  more  than  230,000 
persons  are  employed,  and  the  annual  return  is 
$76,000,000.  The  South  Atlantic  States  are 
largely  interested  in  "truck  farming,"  which, 
under  favorable  conditions,  is  generally  very 
profitable.  Other  forms  of  special  agricultural 
industries  which  have  made  great  progress  in 
recent  years  are  the  breeding  of  animals,  fruit 
culture,  poultry  raising,  and  bee-keeping. 

Cottonseed,  formerly  considered  very  largely 
a  waste  product,  is  now  utilized  in  a  variety  of 
forms,  and  adds  largely  to  the  value  of  the  cotton 
crop.  Not  only  large  quantities  of  oil  are  made 
from  this  seed,  but  also  oil  cake  and  meal  for 
feeding  stuffs  and  fertilizers.  Even  the  hulls  of 
cotton  are  used  for  fertilizers,  cattle  food,  fuel, 
and  paper-making. 

In  speaking  of  the  agriculture  of  the  United 
States,  besides  branches  touched  upon,  reference 
should  be  made  to  tobacco,  which  is  grown 
widely;  to  the  sugar-cane,  grown  chiefly  on  the 
alluvial  lands  of  the  Mississippi;  to  rice,  grown 
profitably  in  the  lowlands  of  certain  Southern 
States;  to  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  products 
of  Florida  and  California,  and  to  the  immense 
flocks  and  herds  of  the  "ranches**  in  the  mountain 
region  and  on  the  great  plains  of  the  western 
half  of  the  continent. 

In  the  West,  since  1880,  irrigation  has  been 
employed  on  a  large  scale  in  an  attempt  to  re- 
claim land  within  the  arid  belt,  a  region  extend- 
ing from  the  centre  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska  to 
the  furthermost  Pacific  Coast  range  of  moun- 
tains. In  that  region  of  scanty  rainfall,  irriga- 
tion may  be  practiced  by  taking  a  water 
supply  from  the  large  streams  flowing  from  the 
mountains.  Within  a  small  area,  water  may  be 
obtained  from  the  "underflow"  by  means  of  ar- 
tesian wells.  Although  the  results  of  surveys 
show  that  only  a  comparatively  small  part  of 
the  belt  can  be  irrigated,  in  certain  localities 
thousands  of  acres  are  being  made  profitable. 
In  two  valleys  of  Arizona  (the  Salt  and  the 
Gila)  more  than  450  miles  of  irrigating  ditches 
were  opened  in  the  ten  years  1880-90.  In  the 
single  county  of  San  Bernardino,  Cal.,  irrigation 
increased  the  number  of  acres  under  cultivation 
from  18,400  in  1880  to  144,950  in  1890.  See 
Irrigation;  Artesian  Well. 

Other  CouNTRrES.  In  Europe  the  cultivation 
of  the  sugar-beet  has  become  a  prominent  industry 
— ^in  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  and  Rus- 
sia, and  of  some  importance  in  Belgium  and  the 
Netherlands.  Germany  grows  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  product,  and  the  four  countries  more 
than  nine-tenths  of  it.    The  vine  is  of  importance 


in  all  the  Mediterranean  region  and  in  favored 
localities  like  those  along  the  German  Rhine, 
where  vineyards  have  given  an  average  net  re- 
turn of  more  than  $100  per  acre.  Italy  giv«  to 
the  vine  9,000,000  acres,  and  France,  with  lowest 
acreage  in  1891,  and  larger  before  *and  since,  gives 
on  an  average  5,000,000  acres.  France,  also  dat- 
ing its  progress  from  the  Revolution,  has  become 
one  of  the  richest  of  agricultural  countries,  and 
previous  to  1874  was  the  greatest  wheat  produc- 
ing country  of  the  wor]<L  It  is  noted  for  its 
small  farms  and  thrifty  agricultural  class,  more 
than  half  of  whom  are  land  owners.  Germany, 
the  greatest  potato-producing  country  of  the 
world,  is  also  a  country  of  varied  agricultural 
production.  Austria-Hungary,  only  a^ut  half  a 
century  from  serfdom,  has  a  government  that  fos- 
ters agriculture,  and  presents  the  sharp  contrasts 
illustrated  by  the  steam  cultivator  on  large  es- 
tates and  the  wooden  plow  on  small  farms.  Rus- 
sia, only  thirty  years  from  serfdom,  shows  agri- 
cultural methods  in  sharp  contrast  with  an  im- 
mense agricultural  production. 

The  garden  of  Italy  is  the  Lombard  plain, 
with  its  more  than  1,600,000  acres  of  irrigated 
land  and  its  careful  systems  of  cultivation.  Be- 
sides large  crops  of  wheat,  maize,  grapes,  and 
olives,  Italy  produces  great  quantities  of  lemons 
and  oranges,  and  has  more  than  half  a  million 
people  engaged  in  raising  silkworms.  In  Spain, 
despite  vines,  oranges,  olives,  and  the  possibili- 
ties of  irrigation  and  a  succession  of  crops,  ag- 
riculture looks  backward  to  the  time  of  the 
Moor. 

China,  with  an  agriculture  unchanged  from 
legendary  times,  and  India  are  countries  in 
which  rude  implements  are  overbalanced  by  irri- 
gation and  garden-like  cultivation:  With  rice 
as  a  principal  food  product,  they  support  a  dense 
population,  have  a  great  variety  of  crops,  and 
are  increasing  factors  in  computing  the  world*6 
supply. 

^gyV^f  under  the  guidance  of  England,  is  pro- 
ducing great  amounts  of  sugar  and  a  high  grade 
cotton. 

Australasia  has  already  developed  beyond  the 
pastoral  stage,  and  besides  cattle  and  sheep  is 
exporting  dairy  and  other  products.  In  South 
America,  the  Argentine  Republic  is  an  important 
factor  in  the  world's  agricultural  market,  with 
its  wheat,  wool,  cattle,  and  wine;  and  Brazil 
holds  a  leading  place  in  the  production  of  coflfee. 
In  Central  America,  including  Mexico,  the  rais- 
ing of  cattle  and  sheep  has  become  a  large  in- 
dustry, and  the  exports  of  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
bananas  are  important.  The  West  Indies  and 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  produce  large  quantities  of 
cane  sugar. 

The  following  table,  prepared  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Mr.  John  Hyde,  statistician  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  shows  the 
amount  of  the  principal  agricultural  products 
of  different  countries  for  the  year  1900.  Al- 
though these  returns  are  not  complete  for  all 
the  countries,  they  furnish  interesting  data  re- 
garding the  relative  agricultural  production  of 
different  regions.  Of  the  world's  wheat  crop  of 
about  2613  million  bushels,  the  United  Stat^ 
produces  nearly  one-fifth.  The  other  chief  wheat 
growing  countries  are  Russia,  France,  Austria - 
Hungary,  India,  Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  and  the 
Argentine  Republic.  The  United  States  produces 
three-fourths  of  the  world's  maize  crop  of  2825 
million  bushels,  and  more  than  one-half  of  the 


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219 


AOBICULTUBE. 


rop  of  7535  million  pounds  of  cotton.  Russia 
>ads  the  world  in  the  production  of  rye,  oats, 
nd  barley,  and  in  the  yield  of  potatoes  it  is 
Lirpassed  by  Germany  only.  Australia,  the  Ar- 
entine  Republic,  Russia,  and  the  United  States 
re  the  chief  wool  growing  countries.  Outride  of 
\\e  United  States  most  of  the  cotton  is  grown  in 
ndia,  China,  and  Egypt.  Tobacco  is  an  impor- 
int  crop  in  Austria-Hungary,  Mexico,  Japan, 
rermany,  and  France. 


AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS  OP  THE  WORLD,  1800. 

MlLLIOK  BVBUEl^. 

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s^evertl  Countiie* 

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SfrtiiiTlands.  .... 

Norw«y      and 
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^wilrcrUnd 

1*V 

-Report  of  S.  N.  D.  North,/  —Washed  and  unwashed. 

StK:retary  of  National  As-  a  —In  Russia. 

sociaiion  of   Wool  Manu-  h  —Includes  Balkan  Peninsula. 

factiirere,  1900.  i  —Fleece- washed. 

-1H89.  J  —Estimated. 

-Includes  Natal  and  Orange  k  —1897. 

Free  State.  /  —1895. 

-^'eneujj,  1891.  m— No  data. 

~\m.  n  —No  estimate. 

BiBijooRAPHY.  Only  a  few  works  on  agricul- 
ure  have  come  down  to  us  from  ancient  litera- 
ure.  Among  these  the  most  important  are: 
iwiod,  Works  and  Days;  Cato,  De  Re  Rustica; 
^arro,  Rerum  Rusticarum,  Libri  III.;  Vergil, 
^r^wgica;  Pliny,  Natural  History;  Palladius,  De 
^^  Ruttica,  The  modern  literature  begins  with 
P-  Crescenzi,  a  Bolognese,  who  at  the  beginning 


of  the  fourteenth  century  wrote  his  Ruralium 
Commodorum,  Libri  XII.  The  first  English 
book  on  agriculture  is  Sir  Anthony  Fitzherbert's 
The  Boke  of  Husbandrie  (London,  1523).  Be- 
tween that  time  and  the  year  1800  some  200 
British  authors  wrote  on  agricultural  topics. 
Among  their  works  are  Tusser,  Five  Hundred 
Points  of  Good  Husbandry,  etc.  ( 1573)  ;  J.  Morti- 
mer, The  Whole  Art  of  Husbandry  (London, 
1807)  ;  J.Tull,  Horse-hoeing  Husbandry  (London, 
1829)  ;  A.  Young,  Annals  of  Agriculture  (Lon- 
don, 1813).  In  the  United  States  few  books 
on  agriculture  were  published  prior  to  1800. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  J.  Eliot, 
Agricultural  Essays  (Boston,  1760)  ;  S.  Deane, 
New  England  Farmer,  or  Georgical  Dictionary 
(Portland,  1797)  ;  B.  Vaughan,  Rural  Socra- 
tes (Hallowell,  1800).  During  the  nineteenth 
century  the  number  of  English  and  American 
works  on  agriculture  greatly  increased,  and 
not  only  did  the  general  treatises  become 
more  thorough  and  scientific,  but  also  a  large 
amount  of  valuable  literature  on  special  sub- 
jects was  published.  Only  a  few  books  of  more 
general  importance  will  be  mentioned  here:  J. 
C.  Loudon,  Encyclopaedia  of  Agriculture  (Lon- 
don, 1825)  ;  J.  C.  Morton,  A  Cyclopcedia  of  Agri- 
culture (London,  1850-52)  ;  Handbook  of  the 
Farm  (London,  1868)  ;  J.  Periam,  The  American 
Encyclopaedia  of  Agriculture  (Chicago,  1881); 
L.  H.  Bailey,  Rural  Science  Series  (New  York, 
1895-1901)  ;  Bailey  and  Miller,  Encyclopaedia  of 
American  Horticulture,  4  volumes  (New  York, 
1900-02)  ;  J.  E.  T.  Rogers,  History  of  Agriculture 
and  Prices  in  England  (Oxford,  1882)  ;  R.  E.  Pro- 
thero,  The  Pioneers  and  Progress  of  English 
Farming  (London,  1880)  ;  H.  Stephens,  BooA:  of 
the  Farm  (London,  1855)  ;  R.  Wallace,  Farm 
Live  Stock  of  Great  Britain  (Edinburgh,  1885)  ; 
India  in  1887  (London,  1888)  ;  Farming  Indus- 
tries of  Cape  Colony  (London,  1896)  ;  The  Rural 
Economy  and  Agriculture  of  Australia  and  West 
Zealand  (London,  1891)  ;  E.  B.  Voorhees,  First 
Principles  of  Agriculture  (Boston,  1896)  ;  Ferti- 
lizers (New  York,  1898);  L.  H.  Bailey,  The 
Principles  of  Agriculture  (New  York,  1898); 
W.  P.  Brooks,  Agriculture  (Springfield,  Mass., 
1901).  Manitres:  J.  Harris,  Talks  on  Manures 
(New  York,  1878)  ;  C.  M.  Aikman,  Manures  and 
the  Principles  of  Manuring  (London,  1899)  ;  F. 
W.  Sempers,  Manures:  How  to  Make  and  How 
to  Use  Them  (Philadelphia,  1893).  Chemistrt 
OP  Agriculture:  F.  H.  Storer,  Agriculture  in 
Some  of  its  Relations  to  Chemistry  (New  York, 
1897).  Farm  Crops  and  Soils:  F.  H.  King,  The 
Soil,  Rural  Science  Series  (New  York,  1895)  ; 
W.  Fream,  Rothamsted  Experiments  in  Wheat, 
Barley,  and  Grass  Lands  (London,  1888)  ;  J. 
B.  Roberts,  On  the  Fertility  of  the  Land,  Rural 
Science  Series  (New  York,  1897)  ;  S.  W.  John- 
son, How  Crops  Grow  (New  York,  1868;  London, 
1869)  ;  How  Crops  Feed  (New  York,  1870).  Stock 
Breeding  :  M.  Miles,  Stock  Breeding  ( New  York 
1878).  Feeding  of  Animals:  H.  Stewart, 
Shepherd's  Manual  (New  York,  1878)  ;  H.  P. 
Armsby.  Manual  of  Cattle  Feeding  (New  York, 
1890)  :  W.  A.  Henry,  Feeds  and  Feeding  (Mad- 
ison, Wis.,  1898)  ;  J.  H.  Jordon.  The  Feeding  of 
Animals  (New  York  and  London.  1901). 
Dairying:  H.  Wing,  Milk  and  Its  Products, 
Rural  Science  Series  (New  York,  I^^kx  .  J.  W. 
Decker,  Cheese  Making  (Columbus  fw-V  IQOO). 
Drainage:  F.  H.  King.  Irrigation  o^^^^'  ^i^noe 
Rural  Science  Series  (New  York,  X^M  D'"il.:.!pi 


^^y,pHy8^<^ 


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220 


AORICXJLTTJSE. 


of  Agriculture  (Madison,  Wis.,  1901);  M. 
Miles,  Land  Drminetge  (New  York,  1897)  ;  G.  K 
Waring,  Jr.,  The  Report  of  the  Maaaachuaetta 
Drainage  Commission  (Newport,  R.  I.,  1886)  ; 
Sewerage  and  Land  Drainage  (New  York,  1889) ; 
Draining  for  Profit  and  Draining  for  Health 
(New  York,  1867).  History  of  Aoricultube : 
G.  Rawlinson,  Ancient  Egypt  (London,  1887)  ; 
C.  G.  B.  Daubeny,  Lectures  on  Roman  Husbandry 
(Oxford,  1857)  ;  C.  W.  Hoskyns,  Short  Inquiry 
into  the  History  of  Agriculture  (London,  1849)  ; 
R.  C.  Flint,  One  Hundred  Years'  Progress,  Re- 
port Department  of  Agricidture,  (Washington, 
1872).  For  further  information,  the  publica- 
tions of  the  State  boards  of  agriculture,  agricul- 
tural experiment  stations,  and  the  reports  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  espe- 
cially the  Experiment  Station  Record,  Farmert^ 
Bulletins,  and  Tear-books. 

In  the  United  States,  the  British  Empire,  and 
most  of  the  countries  of  Europe,  numerous  agri- 
cultural journals  are  published.  Among  the  most 
important  are  the  following :  The  United  States. 
The  American  Agriculturist  (New  York) ;  The 
American  Garden  (New  York)  ;  Breeder^  Ga- 
zette (Chicago)  ;  The  Cultivator  and  Country 
Gentleman  (Albany)  ;  The  Florida  Agriculturist 
(Deland,  Fla.) ;  Hoard's  Dairyman  (Fort  At- 
kinson, Wis.) ;  Experiment  Station  Record 
(Washington)  ;  Pacific  Rural  Press  (San  Fran- 
cisco) ;  Rural  New  Yorker  (New  York)  ;  South- 
ern Planter  (Richmond,  Va.)  ;  Wallace's  Farmer 
(Des  Moines,  la.).  Great  Britain.  The  Agri- 
cultural Gazette  (London)  ;  Farmer's  Gazette 
(Dublin)  ;  Field,  Farm^  and  Garden  (London) ; 
Farm  and  Home  (London)  ;  Gardeners*  Chron- 
icle (London).  Canada.  Journal  of  Agriculture 
and  Horticulture  (Montreal)  ;  Canadian  Horti- 
culturist (Toronto).  France.  Journal  d* Agri- 
culture Pratique  (Paris)  ;  La  Semaine  Agricole 
(Paris);  Revue  Horticole  (Marseilles).  Ger- 
many. Deutsche  Landwirtschaftliche  Presse 
(Berlin)  ;  Fuhling's  Landunrtshaftliche  Zeitung 
(Leipzig)  ;  M olkerei-Zeitung  (Hildesheim) ,  Aus- 
tria. Osterreichisches  Landwirtschaftliches 
Wochenblatt  (Vienna).  Italy.  Bolletino  di 
Notizie  Agrarie  (Rome).  Denmark.  Land- 
mands  Blade  (Copenhagen)  ;  Australia.  Agri- 
cultural Gazette  of  New  South  Wales  (Sydney)  ; 
Queensland  Agricultural  Journal  (Brisbane)  ; 
Journal  of  Agriculture  and  Industry  of  South 
Australia  (Adelaide). 

AGBICTJLTUBE,  UraTED  States  Depart- 
ment OF.  The  department  was  established  as  a 
separate  branch  of  the  government  in  1862.  It 
grew  out  of  a  voluntary  distribution  of  seeds, 
begun  by  the  Commissioner  of  Patents  in  1836. 
In  1839,  Congress  made  an  appropriation  of 
$1000  "to  be  taken  from  the  Patent  Office  fund 
for  the  purpose  of  collecting  and  distributing 
seeds,  prosecuting  agricultural  investigations, 
and  procuring  agricultural  statistics."  Small 
amounts  were  thus  drawn  from  that  fund  annu- 
ally (except  in  1840,  1841,  and  1846)  up  to  1854, 
when  the  whole  amount  was  reimbursed  and  a 
separate  appropriation  was  made  for  the  agricul- 
tural work  of  the  Patent  Office.  That  year  an 
entomologist  was  employed,  and  in  1855  a  chem- 
ist and  a  botanist  were  added  to  the  staff,  and  a 
propagating  garden  was  begun.  After  separa- 
tion from  the  Patent  Office,  the  chief  officer  of  the 
department  was  styled  Commissioner  of  Agricul- 
ture. He  was  not  a  member  of  the  President's 
cabinet  until   1889,  when  he  became  Secretary 


of  Agriculture.  The  first  oominissioner  was 
Isaac  Newton  of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  first  sec- 
retary, Norman  J.  Colman  of  Missouri,  who  waa 
also  the  last  commissioner.  The  8ucceedin|  sec- 
retaries have  been  Jeremiah  M.  Rusk  of  Wiscon- 
sin, J.  Sterling  Morton  of  Nebraska,  and  James 
Wilson  of  Iowa.  The  department  is  situated  in 
the  city  of  Washington,  in  a  beautiful  park  of 
thirty-five  acres,  between  the  Smithsonian  Insti- 
tution and  the  Washington  Monument,  but  is  at 
present  inadequately  housed.  As  defined  in  the 
act  of  establishment,  the  duties  of  the  depart- 
ment are,  '*to  acquire  and  diffuse  among  the 
people  of  the  United  States  useful  information 
on  subjects  connected  with  agriculture  in  the 
most  general  and  comprehensive  sense  of  that 
word,  and  to  procure,  propagate,  and  distribute 
among  the  people  new  and  valuable  seeds  and 
plants.  With  the  progress  of  agricultural  sci- 
ence, scientific  branches  have  been  added,  until 
the  department  has  become  one  of  the  greatest 
scientific  establishments  in  the  world.  Its  ad- 
ministrative functions  also  have  been  materially 
enlarged  in  recent  years.  In  1884,  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industrv  was  organized,  and  in  1888, 
the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations.  ( See  Agricul- 
tural Experiment  Station.)  In  1891,  the 
Weather  Bureau  was  transferred  from  the  War 
Department  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  in  1901  a  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry  was 
established  by  combining  several  divisions  whose 
work  related  to  plants.  At  the  same  time 
Bureaus  of  Soils,  Forestry,  and  Chemistry  were 
created  to  take  the  place  of  divisions  with  the 
same  names.  The  department  issues  a  great 
variety  of  popular,  technical,  and  scientific 
publications.  The  Year-book  (edition  500,- 
000  copies)  and  the  series  of  Farmers'  Bulleiini 
are  distributed  gratis,  largely  through  member; 
of  Congress.  A  monthly  list  of  publications  \\ 
sent  free  to  all  applicants.  Other  publicationj 
are  issued  in  limited  editions  for  libraries,  agri 
cultural  colleges,  and  experiment  stations,  sci 
entific  institutions,  and  persons  cooperating  ii 
the  work  of  the  department;  they  are  also  soU 
by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents.  Periodica 
publications  of  the  department  are  the  Experi 
ment  Station  Record,  Monthly  Weather  Reviac 
and  The  Crop  Reporter.  In  1901  the  departmen 
issued  006  different  publications;  the  total  num 
ber  of  copies  was  nearly  8,000,000.  For  th 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1902,  the  appropria 
tion  for  the  department  was  $3,8fi2,420>exclusiv 
of  $720,000  for  the  agricultural  experiment  sta 
tions. 

The  present  organization  and  main  lines  o 
work  of  the  department  are  shown  in  the  folloiv 
ing  table : 

ORGANIZATION  AND  WORK  OF  UNTTHD  STATES 
DEPARTMENT  OP  AGRICULTURE,  1908. 


Division. 

Scientific  and  Tech- 
nical  Work. 

AdmioistratiTe 
Work. 

Officb  op  the 
Skcbbtart. 

•^ 

Sapen'ision    of   a) 
public  bnsineM  r« 
fating  to  the  agn 
caltnral    indostrT 
appointment     an 
gnperrision  of  Dc 
partment     officer 
and       employceii 
care  of  Departmen 
gronnds,  boildinp 
suppliee  and  othe 
property. 

Digitized  by 


Google 


AORICTTLTUIEUB. 

Oboakizatioit  and  Work  of  Unitsd  Statbb  Dkfabt- 
MEXT  OF  AoBicDLTUBB,  IWt.— (Continued). 


221  AQBIXONY. 

OBOAHIZATIOir  AND  WOKK  OF  UnITSD  StaTSS  DsFAVT- 
MKNT  OF  AOBICULTTTRB,   1900.— (Cbn^mi/«</). 


Fkathkr  Bureau 


rsBAU  OF  Animal 

bDUSTBT. 


Scientific  and  Tech 
nical  Work. 


Reflearches  in  cii 
matoiogy  and  me- 
teorology. 


Researches  on  ani- 
mal diseases,  in 
clndine  chemical, 
iHU'tenological  and 
zoological  investi 
gatlons. 


Investigations 
dairying. 


in 


Researches  in  eco> 
nomic  botany;  col 
lection  and  main- 
tenance of  National 
Herbarium  ;  parity 
and  vitality  tests  of 
seeds. 

Researches  on  phys- 
iologv  and  diseases 
of  plants;  plant 
breeding. 

Researches  on  the 
natural  history, 
geographical  dis- 
tribution, and  atili- 
zation  of  grasses 
and  forage  plants 

Investigation  on  va- 
rieties of  fruits, 
with  special  refer 
ence  to  their  adap- 
tability to  various 
soils  and  climates. 

Collection  of  seeds 
and  plants  from 
foreign  countries 
for  testing  at  the 
State  agricuitaral 
experiment 
tions. 

Testing  and  propa- 
gating economic 
plants. 

Researches  in  agri- 
cultural chemistry, 
especially  on  foods, 
sugar-  producinfi 
plants,  fertilizers, 
soils,  materials  for 
road  maklng,meth 
ods  of  analysis,  etc. 

Investigation,  sur 
vey  and  mapping 
of  soils ;  studies  In 
agricultural  phys 
Ics;  investigations 
in  curing  and  fer- 
menting tobacco. 

Collection  and  dis- 
semination of  Infor- 
mation regarding 
agricultural  educa- 
tion and  research 
in  the  United  States 
and  abroad.  In- 
vestigationson 
food  and  nutrition 
of  man  and  on  ir- 
rigation. 

Researches  on  nat- 
ural history,  blol 
oey,  and  utilization 
of  forests  and  for- 
est trees. 


Administrative 
Work. 


Forecasting  weath- 
er; wamins  against 
storms  ana  Itoods: 
maintenance  ana 
operation  of  sea- 
coast  telegraph 
lines  and  collection 
and  transmission 
of  marine  intelli- 
gence. 

Inspection  of  im- 
port and  export 
animals  and  vessels 
for  their  transpor- 
tation; supervision 
of  interstate  move- 
ment of  cattle  and 
inspection  of  live 
stock  and  their 
products  slaughter- 
ed for  food  con- 
sumption. 


Purcliase  and  dis- 
tribution of  seeds, 
largely  through 
members  of  Con- 
gress. 


Care  of  Department 
park  and  conserva- 
tories. Manage- 
ment of  Arlington 
Experimental 
Farm. 


Supervision  of  ex- 
penditures of  agri- 
cultural experi- 
ment stations  in 
the  United  States; 
maintenance  of  ex- 
periment stations 
in  Alaska,  Hawaii, 
and  Porto  Rico. 


Management  of 
forests  to  demon, 
strate  economic 
possibilities  of  ra- 
tional treatment. 


Division. 


Division   of  Bio- 
logical SUBTRT. 


Division  of  Bnto- 

MOLOOT. 


Officr  of-  Public 
Road  Inquirirs. 


The  Library. 


Division  OF  PuBLi- 
cations. 


Division    of    Ac- 
counts AND  Dis- 

BURSIIIRNTS. 


Scientific  and  Tech- 
nical Work. 


Researches  on  geo- 
graphic distiibu- 
tion  of  animals  and 
plants;  mapping  of 
life  zones ;  studies 
of  food  habits  of 
birds  and  mam 
mals. 

Researches  on  life 
historv  and  geo- 
graphic distribu- 
tion of  insects,  and 
on  means  of  repres- 
sion of  Injurioas 
insects. 

Collection  and  dis- 
semination of  in- 
formation regard, 
ing  road  manage- 
ment; experiments 
in  road  making. 

Preparation  of  cat 
alogiies,  Indexes, 
and  bibliographies 
on  agricultural 
subjects. 

Editing  of  Depart- 
ment publications, 
especially  the  Tear- 
book. 


Administrative 
Work. 


The  regulation  of 
the  introduction 
of  American  or 
foreign  birds  or 
animals  in  locaU 
ties  where  thi'jr 
have  not  heretofore 
existed. 


Management  of  De- 
partment library  of 
•  0,000  volumes, 
largely  on  agricul- 
ture and  agricul- 
tural science. 
Supervision  of  De- 
partment  printing 
and  illustrationa  : 
distribution  of  pub- 
lications. 

Management  of  fi- 
nancul  business  of 
Department,  in« 
cluains  tetimate»«. 
requisitions,  con- 
tracts and  pay- 
ments. 


AG'KIQEK^UM  (Lat.  name  for  the  Gk. 
*KKpdyag,  Akragas) ,  The  modern  Girgenti,  a 
town  on  the  southern  coast  of  Sicily,  in  lat.  37° 
17'  N.,  and  long.  13"  28'  E.,  founded  by  a  colony 
from  Gela  (582  B.C.),  and,  in  the  earlier  age^, 
one  of  the  most  important  places  in  the  island. 
During  the  sixth  and  fifth  centuries  B.C.,  undei- 
various  rulers,  among  them  the  tyrant  Phalari^, 
it  rose  to  great  power  and  splendor,  having  a 
population  of  200,000.  It  was  utterly  destroyed 
by  the  Carthaginians  (405  B.C.),  and  it  never 
fully  t-ecovered.  In  the  course  of  the  Punic  Wars, 
it  was  compelled  to  submit  to  the  Romans.  From 
825  to  1086  A.D.  it  was  in  the  possession  of  the 
Saracens,  from  whom  it  was  conquered  by  Count 
Roger  Guiscard.  The  modern  Girgenti  has  about 
22,000  inhabitants,  and  is  the  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name.  The  ancient  walls 
can  still  be  traced,  and  there  are  a  number  of 
picturesque  remains  of  temples  and  other  build- 
ings of  the  Greek  period.  The  best  preserved 
are  the  temple  of  Concord  and  the  so-called  tem- 
ple of  Hera  Lacinia;  the  largest  is  the  unfinished 
temple  of  Zeus. 

AGRIMONY  (Lat.  Agrimonia,  for  Gk.  nfjjr* 
/njvtf,  argemon^,  a  kind  of  poppy).  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Rosaceae.  The  com- 
mon agrimony  {Agrimonia  eupaioria)  is  a  native 
of  Great  Britain  and  parts  of  Europe,  and  also 
is  found  in  the  United  States,  growing  in  bor- 
ders of  fields,  on  waysides,  etc.  It  has  an  up- 
right habit,  attains  a  height  of  two  feet  or  mon\ 
and  has  interruptedly  pinnate  leaves,  with  the 
leaflets  serrate  and  downy  beneath.    The  flowers 


Digitizediby ' 


aqbukony. 


222 


AQUA. 


tre  wmall  and  yellow,  in  close  racemes.  The 
who1(>  plant  hiis  a  pleasant,  slightly  aromatic 
sTnell,  and  is  tyittcr  and  styptic.  A  decoction  of 
it  is  used  as  a  gargle;  the  dried  leaves  form  a 
kind  of  ht^rb  tea,  and  the  root  has  some  celeb- 
rity an  a  vermifuge.  Very  similar  to  this  is 
A^inionia  parviflora,  a  native  of  Virginia,  the 
Carol ina.s.  etc.,  which  has  a  very  agreeable  fra- 
grance, 

AGRn*^A.     See  Hebod  Agrippa. 

AQBIPPA,  llE^mcva  Cornelius  ( 1486-1535) . 
A  eo^nvopoItLan  physician,  philosopher,  and  writ- 
er, whoHc  genius  and  learning  had  a  tinge  of 
quackery.  He  \va«  born  at  Cologne,  September 
14,  1480.  At  the  age  of  twenty,  he  was  sent 
by  Emperor  Maximilian  on  a  diplomatic  mission 
to  Fans.  At  twenty-three,  he  was  teaching  the- 
ology at  D6le,  in  the  Franche-Comt^.  Here  he 
attaeked  the  nit>nkfl,  who  replied  with  an  accusa- 
tion of  heresy.  In  1510,  he  reentered  the  diplo- 
matic *»crviee,  and  the  next  year  he  attended, 
as  IhpnlnpiiTi,  the  schismatic  Council  of  Pisa. 
In  1515,  he  lectured  at  Pavia,  where  he  received 
a  doetor'fl  degree  in  law  and  medicine;  then, 
after  some  yeur.4  in  diplomatic  service,  he  became 
involved  once  more  in  controversy  with  the 
Church,  for  his  bold  defense  at  Metz  of  a  woman 
accused  of  witcheraft.  He  practiced  medicine  at 
Geneva,  FrilKjurg.  and  Lyons,  and,  under  pres- 
sure of  pf^iverty,  composed  a  keen  Latin  satire 
on  the  exiatent  state  of  science,  A  Declamation 
on  the  Vneeriainty  and  Vanity  of  the  Sciences 
and  Arts^  and  on  the  Excellence  of  the  Word  of 
Qod  IDr  Inctrtitudine  et  Vanitate  Scientiarum, 
eteJ  (15271,  which  furnished  new  occasion  for 
nialieious  aceussation.  In  1529,  he  quarreled  with 
the  queen-mother,  Louise  of  Savoy,  and  left 
Lyons  for  the  Netherlands,  to  become  historiog- 
raj>her  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  of  whose 
rei^ri  he  wrote  a  history.  His  salary  was  un- 
paid, and  he  was  imprisoned  and  finally  banished 
from  Cologne  for  debt.  He  found  a  brief  refuge 
at  Grenoble,  where  he  died,  February  18,  1535, 
only  to  be  pursued  in  the  grave  by  a  spiteful 
epitaph  from  hiri  Dominican  enemies.  Agrippa 
was  a  man  of  elear  sight  and  keen  wit;  but  he 
lacked  Btabilitr,  ^seriousness,  and  discretion. 
Hia  TVorA-.^f  appeared  at  Lyons  in  two  volumes 
{1550).  Tliey  are  analyzed  in  Henry  Morley's 
appreciative  Life  of  Agrippa  (London,  1856). 
Noteworthy  are  Agrippa's  De  Occulta  Philoao- 
phia  (1510),  which  gives  an  account  of  the  Cab- 
bala (q.v. ),  and  Dc  Nobilitate  ei  Prascellentia 
Fieminvi  i<€jnt.*i    (1532). 

AGBIPPA,   :\rARCUS  ViPSANIUS    (63-12  B.C.). 

A  Roman  general  and  statesman.  Though  not  of 
hi.Ejh  birth,  he  rose  to  an  exalted  position  through 
hirt  own  talents.  He  first  married  Marcel  la,  the 
niece,  and  then  Julia,  the  daughter,  of  Octavi- 
anus  (Aupnstus).  He  was  eminent  both  in  war 
find  in  peace:  and  as  a  general,  counselor,  and 
friend  of  the  Fmperor,  did  good  service  to  him 
and  to  the  Koman  State.  As  a  general,  he  laid 
the  foundation  for  the  sole  dominion  of  Octavi- 
antis.  and  commanded  his  fleet  in  the  battle  of 
Actium  (q.v,).  He  was  generous,  upright,  and 
friendly  to  the  arts;  Rome  owed  to  him  the  res- 
toration and  construction  of  several  aqueducts, 
and  the  erection  of  the  Pantheon,  besides  other 
public  works  of  ornament  and  utility. 

AG'RIPPI'N A.  (1)  The  daughter  of  M.  Vip- 
^aniUB  Agrippa  (q.v.)  and  Julia,  daughter  of 
Augustus.     8ne  was  one  of  the  most  heroic  and 


virtuous  women  of  antiquity.     She  was  married 
to  Caesar  Germanicus  (see  Germanicus),  whom 
she  accompanied  in  all  his  campaigns.   She  open- 
ly accused  Tiberius  before  the  Senate  of  having 
hired  the  murderers  of  her   husband;  and  the 
tyrant,  who  hated  her  for  her  virtues  and  the 
esteem  in  which  she  was  held  by  the  people,  ban- 
ished   her    to   the    island    of    Pandataria,  near 
Naples,  where  she  voluntarily  died  of  hanger 
(33  A.D.).     (2)   The  daughter  of  the  last  men- 
tioned, and  one  of  the  most  detestable  women 
that  ever  lived.     In  her  second  widowhood,  she 
induced  the  Emperor  Claudius,  her  own  uncle,  to 
marry  her,  and  espoused  his  daughter,  though 
already  betrothed  to  another,  to  her  son  Nero. 
In  order  to  bring  the  latter  to  the  throne,  she 
ruined  many  rich  and  noble  Romans,  excluded 
Britannicus,  the  son  of  Claudius  by  Messalina, 
and  finally  poisoned  the  Emperor,  her  husband. 
She    then    endeavored    to    govern    the   Empire 
through  her  son  Nero,  who  was  proclaimed  empe- 
ror ;  but  her  ascendency  proving  intolerable,  Nero 
caused  her  to  be  put  to  death    (59  a.d.)-    ^^^ 
enlarged  and  adorned  her  native  city,  Cologne, 
which   received  from  her  the  name  of  Colonia 
Agrippinensis. 

AG'ROPY^ON  (Literally  field-wheat  Gk. 
aypd^f  agroa,  field -f-  rrvpd^,  pyros,  wheat).  A 
genus  of  grasses  including  about  fifty  species, 
most  of  which  are  perennials.  A  number  are 
native  to  the  western  United  States,  where  they 
are  commonly  known  as  wheat  grasses,  and  are 
held  to  be  valuable  for  pasturage.  Other  specie? 
are  common  to  Europe  and  the  eastern  United 
States,  where  Agropyron  repens,  often  called 
couch  grass  and  twitch  grass,  is  a  pest  to  agri 
culture.  It  has  a  long  rhizome  that  roots  at 
the  nodes,  and  if  plowed  or  harrowed  it  merel} 
breaks  up  into  new  plants.  Therefore  it  is  hare 
to  eradicate.  Upon  the  Western  ranges,  however 
it  is  deemed  a  good  hay  grass,  llie  habits  o 
the  plants  enable  them  to  withstand  drought,  i 
characteristic  that  commends  them  in  the  largi 
stock  regions.  Some  of  the  valuable  species  ar 
Agropyron  caninunif  bearded  wheat  grass ;  Agro 
pyron  diver  gens,  wire  bunch  grass;  Agropyroi 
pseudo-repens,  western  couch  grass:  Agropyro 
spicatum,  western  wheat  grass;  and  Agropyro 
tenerunif  slender  wheat  grass.  In  Australi 
Agropyron  scabrum  is  considered  a  good  winte 
grass.  Some  of  the  species,  as  Agropyron  repen: 
are  recommended  as  binder  grasses  for  railroa 
embankments  and  other  places  liable  to  was) 
outs.  The  root  stalks  of  Agropyron  repens,  we 
known  in  medicine  under  the  name  Radix  gran 
inis,  have  diuretic  and  aperient  properties. 

AGTELEK,    Og^t^-l^k,.  or    AOOTEI.EK. 

village  of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  G6m6 
about  40  miles  west-southwest  of  Kaschau  (Maf 
Hungary,  G  2 ) .  It  is  known  for  its  remarkah 
stalactite  cavern,  called  Baradla  (steaminj 
place),  the  largest  in  the  world  after  the  Mar 
moth  Cave  in  Kentucky.  It  is  entered  through  a 
opening  scarcely  3  feet  high  by  5  feet  wide, 
consists  of  a  labyrinth  of  caverns  communicatii 
with  one  another,  whose  combined  length 
about  five  miles.  The  largest  of  them  is  over  9i 
feet  long  and  more  than  90  feet  in  height  ar 
breadth.  Many  of  the  stalactitic  formations  a; 
of  singular  and  fantastic  shape,  giving  rise  i 
the  names  borne  by  some  of  the  grottoes,  such  i 
the  Cathedral,  Paradise,  Flower  Garden,  etc. 

AQUA,  &^gw&.     A  South  American  toad  ( Bu, 


Digitized  by 


Google 


AQUA. 


223 


AQUILAB. 


narinu8)y  which  is  the  largest  toad  known,  being 
^metimes  eight  inches  long.  It  became  a  pest  a 
ew  years  ago  in  Jamaica,  where  it  was  intro- 
luced  in  1S44  as  an  enemy  to  the  rats,  which 
vere  devouring  the  sugar-cane.  It  multiplied 
excessively,  and  although  it  destroyed  young 
ats,  became  a  nuisance  by  its  numbers,  noctur- 
ia! bellowings,  and  destruction  of  ground-birds, 
hickens,  and  eggs.  It  has  since  become  less 
luroerous  and  troublesome.  See  illustration  on 
olored  plate  of  Frogs  and  Toads. 

AGUA,  VolcAn  de,  vAl-kftn'  dft  ft'gwi.  A 
onioal  volcanic  mountain  in  Guatemala,  Central 
America  (Map:  Central  America,  B  3).  It  is 
iver  15,000  feet  high,  and  has  a  crater  about  100 
eet  in  diameter,  from  which  streams  of  hot 
vater  are  occasionally  ejected.  Northwest  of 
Vgua  are  situated  the  volcanoes  of  Pacoya  and 
Allege.  The  old  town  of  Guatemala  was  de- 
stroyed in  1541  by  the  hot  water  eruption  of 
^pua. 

AGUADILLA,  a'gw&-D§ny&.  The  chief  town 
>f  the  department  of  the  same  name  (230  square 
niles,  pop.,  99,645),  situated  on  the  western 
oast  of  Porto  Rico  (Map:  Porto  Rico,  A  2). 
t  has  a  fine  bay  and  contains  an  old  church  and 
L  fort.  It  was*  founded  in  1775  and  unsuccess- 
uUy  attacked  by  the  British  in  1797.  Pop., 
S90,  6425. 

AGUADO,  &-gw&^Dd,  Alejandro  MarIa,  Mar- 
ins  DE  LAS  Marismas  del  Guadalquiver  (1784- 
S42).  A  celebrated  Spanish  financier  Of  Jewish 
lescent.  He  was  born  in  Seville,  and  in  Paris 
leeame  one  of  the  wealthiest  bankers  of  modern 
iraes.  During  the  Spanish  War  of  Independence 
le  fought  with  distinction  with  those  who  sup- 
ported Joseph  Bonaparte.  Exiled  in  1815,  he 
rent  to  Paris  and  engaged  in  the  Cuban  and 
ilexican  trade  and  in  banking.  Beginning  in 
823,  he  negotiated  four  Spanish  loans,  thus 
aving  Spain  from  bankruptcy.  In  return,  Fer- 
inand  VII.  ennobled  him  and  gave  him  mining 
nd  other  concessions.  He  was  naturalized  in 
Vance  in  1828,  and  at  his  death  left  a  fortune 
f  more  than  sixty  million  francs  and  a  splendid 
Dllection  of  pictures. 

AGUARA,  a'gwftra',  or  QUABA,  gw&ra' 
native  name).  A  Brazilian  native  name  con- 
asingly  applied  in  books  to  various  South  Amer- 
?an  animals,  perhaps  most  strictly  to  the  crab- 
ating  dog  {Cania  cancrivorus)  of  Guiana.  (See 
UiKONO.)  In  the  valley  of  the  Rio  de  la 
*Iata  Azara's  fox-dog  is  called  "Aguarft  chay," 
nd  the  maned  wolf  "Aguarft  guazu.'^  See  Fox 
kxi,  and  Maned  Wolf. 

AGUAS  CAXIENTES,  ft^gw&s  kan^Sn^t&s. 
n  inland  State  of  Mexico,  witTi  an  area  of  2950 
luare  miles  and  a  population  (1900)  of  101,910. 

AGUAS  CAXIENTES  (Sp.  Hot  Springs). 
V  capital  of  the  State  of  Aguas  Calientes,  300 
liles  northeast  of  Mexico  City  ( Map :  Mexico,  H 
)  •  It  is  situated  on  a  plateau  6()00  feet  above  sea 
?vel,  and  is  the  point  of  intersection  of  the  roads 
rom  Mexico  to  Sonora  and  Durango,  and  that 
rom  San  Luis  Potosf  to  Guadalajara.  Besides 
he  cultivation  of  fields  and  gardens,  the  man- 
ifacture  of  cloth  is  very  considerable,  and 
j*  carried  on  by  the  factory  system.  It  is  the 
^■ent  of  a  great  fair,  held  at  Christmas  time 
!ach  year,  and  lasting  two  weeks.  The  numerous 
»ot  springs  of  the  surrounding  district  give  the 
town  its  name.  Pop.,  1890,  32,400;  1895,  30,900. 


A^QUE  ( Fr.  aigu,  from  I/at.  acuta  febHa,  acute, 
violent  fever),  Fehris  intermittens.  The  common 
name  for  intermittent,  or  malarial,  fever,  and 
characterized  by  certain  paroxysms.  Each  parox- 
ysm is  composed  of  three  stages.  In  the  first,  a 
cold  sensation  creeps  up  the  back,  and  spreads 
over  the  body ;  the  patient  shivers,  his  teeth  chat- 
ter, his  knees  knock  together;  his  face,  lips,  ears, 
and  nails  turn  blue;  he  has  pains  in  his  head, 
back,  and  loins.  During  this  stage  the  tempera- 
ture rises  to  102**  or  even  to  105**  F.  This  con- 
dition is  succeeded  by  flushes  of  heat,  the  coldness 
^ives  place  to  warmth,  and  the  surface  regains 
its  natural  appearance.  The  warmth  continues 
to  increase,  the  face  becomes  red  and  turgid,  the 
head  aches,  the  breathing  is  deep  and  oppressed, 
the  pulse  full  and  strong.  The  temperature 
ranges  from  103"  to  105°  F.  The  third  stage 
now  comes  on ;  the  skin  becomes  soft  and  moist, 
the  pulse  resumes  its  natural  force  and  frequen- 
cy, and  a  copious  sweat  breaks  from  the  whole 
body,  the  temperature  falls  to  the  normal,  and 
the  patient  generally  sleeps. 

These  paroxysms  occur  at  regular  intervals. 
The  interval  between  them  is  called  "an  inter- 
mission." When  they  occur  every  day,  the  pa- 
tient has  quotidian  ague;  every  second  day,  ter- 
tian; and  when  they  are  absent  for  two  days, 
quartan.  There  is  a  double  quotidian  form,  in 
which  there  are  two  complete  paroxysms  in 
every  twenty-four  hours.  All  ages  are  liable  to 
this  disease.  For  the  cause  of  this  disease,  see 
Malaria  and  Malarial  Fever.  See  Intermit- 
tent Fever. 

AGTJESSEAU,  ft'ge-sy,  Henri  Francois  d* 
(1668-1751).  A  distinguished  lawyer  and  chan- 
cellor of  France,  pronounced  by  Voltaire  the 
most  learned  magistrate  that  France  ever  pos- 
sessed. He  was  born  at  Limoges,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Haute-Vienne.  He  received  his  earliest 
education  from  his  father,  and  devoting  himself 
to  the  study  of  law,  became  avocat-giniral  at 
Paris  in  1690,  and  at  the  age  of  thirty- two,  pro- 
cureur-gin&ral  of  the  parlement.  While  holding 
this  office  he  effected  many  improvements  in  the 
laws  and  the  administration  of  justice.  A  steady 
defender  of  the  rights  of  the  people  and  of  the 
Gallican  Church,  he  successfully  opposed  the 
decrees  of  Louis  XIV.  and  the  Chancellor  Voisin 
in  favor  of  the  papal  bull  Vnigenitus  (q.v.). 
During  the  regency,  he  became  chancellor,  but 
after  a  year  (1718)  fell  into  disgrace  thro\igh 
opposing  Law's  system  of  finance,  and  retired  to 
his  country  seat  at  Fresnes.  Returning  to  office 
in  1720,  he  was  exiled  a  second  time  for  his  oppo- 
sition to  Cardinal  Dubois.  In  1727,  he  obtained 
from  Cardinal  Fleury  permission  to  return,  and 
in  1737  he  resumed  the  office  of  chancellor,  in 
which  he  remained  till  1750.  His  works  have 
been  published  in  thirteen  volumes  (Paris,  1759- 
89,  1819)  ;  Lettres  inddites  (Paris,  1823).  Con- 
sult Monnier,  Le  Chancelier  d*Agues8€au  (Paris, 
1864). 

AGUILAB,  a'gMfir',  Grace  (1816-47).  An 
English  writer  of  Jewish  parentage.  She  was 
born  at  Hackney,  and  fiist  became  known  by 
two  works  on  her  own  religion,  The  Spirit  of 
Judaism  (first  published  in  America,  1842), 
and  The  Jeicish  Faith  (1846),  in  the  former  of 
which  she  attacked  the  formalism  and  tradition- 
alism of  Judaism,  and  insisted  oi\  its  spiritual 
and  moral  aspects.  She  also  wro^g  n\uch  fiction, 
more  or  less  of  a  religious  cha.f  v^nVpt   ol  "W^^^^^ 


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AQUILAB. 


224 


AOXmUUB. 


t>nly  the  most  popular  story,  Home  Influence, 
(1847,  and  about  thirty  subsequent  editions), 
was  published  during  her  lifetime.  The  further 
titles  include  A  Mother's  Recompense  (1850), 
The  Vale  of  Cedars  (1850),  and  The  Days  of 
Bruce   (1852). 

AGUILAB  DE  LA  FBOKTERA,  ft'gM&r^ 
dft  U  frdn-tfl^r&.  A  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Cordova,  occupying  the  sum- 
mits and  slopes  of  several  low  hills  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Cabra,  an  aflBuent  of  the  Genii,  26 
miles  south-southeast  of  Cordova  (Map:  Spain, 
V  4).  The  surrounding  country  is  very  fer- 
tile, and  abounds  in  vineyards  and  orange  groves. 
Many  of  the  houses  are  of  three  stories,  and  the 
town  is  remarkable  for  the  whiteness  of  its 
houses  and  the  cleanliness  of  its  streets.  It  has 
i^everal  handsome  squares,  a  fine  parish  church, 
a  monastic  church  containing  examples  of  many 
famous  Spanish  masters,  and  a  dismantled  Moor- 
ish  castle.  The  chief  trade  is  in  corn  and  wine. 
There  are  salt  springs  in  its  neighborhood.  Pop., 
1900,  13^311. 

AGUILA£I,  tt^g^lAs.  A  sea-port  town  of 
southei-n  Spain  (Map:  Spain,  E  4).  It  is  situa- 
ted in  the  province  of  Murcia,  on  the  Aguilas- 
Ijorca-Murcia  Railway.  It  has  a  good  harbor, 
and  its  port  forms  the  chief  outlet  for  the  min- 
eral products  of  the  surrounding  country.  It 
t^ontains  several  smelting  works.  Pop.,  1900, 
15,753. 

AGXTILEBA,  a'gMft'rA,  Ventura  Ruiz  (1820- 
81).  A  Spanish  lyric  poet,  called  "the  Spanish 
B^rangcr."  He  was  born  at  Salamanca,  and  in 
1843  went  to  Madrid  to  study  poetry  and  politi- 
cal journalism.  Here  he  occupied  important 
tifficial  positions  under  the  liberal  ministries.  The 
journals  edited  or  controlled  by  him  were  char- 
acterized by  bold  ideas  and  keenness  of  criti- 
cism ;  and  in  these,  as  also  in  his  Satyras  and  in 
the  poems  entitled  Ecos  Nacionales,  he  endeavors 
to  arouse  the  masses  to  a  sense  of  their  national 
dignity.  His  most  important  works  are  the  col- 
lections of  poems  entitled  Elegias  ( 1862)  ;  ArmO' 
nias  y  C  ant  ares ;  La  Arcadia  Moderna;  and  Le- 
ffenda  de  \oche-Buena  (1872).  Several  collections 
of  his  prose  writings,  which  consist  mostly  of 
short  novels,  have  been  published.  An  edition  of 
his  complete  works  appeared  at  Madrid  in  1873, 
and  selections  from  his  poems  were  published 
under  the  respective  titles,  Inspiraciones  (1865), 
and  Poesias    (1880). 

AQUINALDO,  H'g^-nUrdA,  Emilio  (1870—). 
The  leader  of  Filipino  insurrections  against 
Spain  and  the  United  States.  He  was  the  young- 
est of  three  children,  and  was  educated,  first,  in 
liis  native  town,  and  afterward  at  the  College  of 
San  Juan  de  Letriln  in  Manila.  At  this  institu- 
tion, which  is  conducted  by  Dominican  friars,  he 
remained  for  four  years.  In  course  of  time  he 
became  gohernadorcillo,  or  mayor  of  Cavity  Viejo, 
and  was  acting  as  such  upon  the  outbreak  of  the 
insurrection  in  August,  1896.  Owing  to  his  prom- 
inent participation  in  this  uprising,  he  went  to 
Hong  Kong,  consenting  to  a  permanent  exile 
from  the  islands  on  condition  of  a  large  payment 
on  the  part  of  Spain.  In  1898  he  returned  to 
Manila,  for  the  avowed  purpose,  it  was  said,  of 
aiding  the  United  States  in  the  war  against 
Spain,  and  immediately  after  the  battle  of 
Manila  organized  an  insurrection,  which  sewn 
assumed  proportions  unparalleled  in  the  history 
of  the  archipelago.     In  this  movement  he  dis- 


played great  ability  and  extraordinary  personal 
magnetism.    Of  the  twenty-six  provinoM  of  Luzon, 
nearly  all  were  soon  in  open  rebellion,  and  in 
the  course  of  several   months   probably  15.000 
Spaniards  were  captured  and  more  than  2000 
driven  out  of  the  islands.    During  the  campaign 
Aguinaldo   was   engaged   in   considerable  diplo- 
matic fencing  with  the  United  States.    In  June. 
1898,   he   organized   a   provisional   government, 
consisting   of   officers   of   his   staff,    as  well  as 
several  of  his  relatives  and  friends ;  and  in  Aug- 
ust of  the  same  year  this  body  appointed  him 
generalissimo  of  the  Filipinos  and  president  of 
the  revolutionary  government.     In  July  he  ad- 
dressed an  appeal  to  the  Powers  for  the  recog- 
nition of  Filipino  independence.     In  1899  he  as- 
sumed the  offensive  against  the  United  States, 
beginning  operations  by  an  attack  upon  Manila, 
February    4-5,    in    which    he    was   unsuccessful. 
During  1899  there  were  a  number  of  severe  en- 
gagements.    Finally,  the  native  troops  were  so 
hard  pressed  by  the  Americans  that  Aguinaldo, 
after  repeatedly  removing  his  capital,  was  com- 
pelled to  flee  to  the  mountains.     Here  the  fight- 
ing was  continued  with   varying   success  until 
March  23,  1901,  when  Aguinaldo  was  captured 
by  Brigadier-General  Frederick  Funston  at  Pala- 
wan, province  of  Isabella,  Luzon,  and  brought  to 
Manila.     On  April  2,  1901,  he  formally  took  the 
oath  of  allegiance  to  the  United  States. 

AGUIBBE,  A-ger^r&,  Lope  de  (c.  1507-61).  A 
Spanish  explorer  in  Peru,  known  as  the  "traitor" 
and  "tyrant."  He  was  bom  in  Ofiate  in  the 
province  of  Biscay,  and  came  to  America  at  an 
early  a^.  He  was  in  Peru  during  the  period 
of  the  insurrections  which  followed  the  subju- 
gation of  the  Incas,  and  took  an  active  part  in 
most  of  them.  The  turbulent  spirits  who  sur- 
vived these  repeated  uprisings  were  finally  influ- 
enced to  join  an  expedition  to  search  for  £1 
Dorado  under  Pedro  de  Ursua.  They  crossed  the 
Andes  and  started  down  the  headwaters  of  th€ 
Amazon  in  the  early  summer  of  1500.  Aguirtf 
brought  about  the  death  of  Ursua,  and  gained 
great  influence  over  Fernando  de  Guzman, 
Ursua *8  successor.  He  then  forced  his  compan 
ions  to  renounce  their  allegiance  to  Spain  anc 
to  recognize  Guzman  as  King  of  Tierra  FimM 
and  Peru.  He  determined  to  abandon  the  searcl 
for  El  Dorado  and  return  to  Peru,  conquer  tha 
country,  and  establish  an  independent  kingdon 
there.  Shortly  afterward  the  newly  made  kini 
opposed  some  of  his  plans,  and  Aguirre  there 
upon  murdered  him,  together  with  his  closes 
friends.  Continuing  dovn^  the  Amazon,  Aguirr 
made  his  way  by  one  of  that  river's  tribu 
taries  to  the  Orinoco,  where  he  built  large  ves 
sels,  in  which  he  sailed  to  the  island  of  Mai 
garita.  He  was  forced,  however,  to  abandon  th 
plan  of  fighting  his  way  across  Panama  and  t 
Peru.  Instead,  he  landed  on  the  coast  of  Venc 
zuela,  marched  inland,  and  was  brought  to  ba 
and  killed  at  Barquisimeto,  early  in  Novembei 
1561.  His  last  act  was  to  kill  his  own  dau?hte 
with  a  poniard.  In  a  letter  addressed  to  Kin 
Philip  II.,  he  declared  that  he  had  killed  twent 
persons  during  the  voyage  dowTi  the  Amazoi 
and  the  recorded  list  of  those  he  ordered  mui 
dered  is  more  than  sixty,  including  women  an 
priests. 

Bibliography.  Simon,  The  Cruise  of  th 
Traitor  AguirrCy  translated  by  Markham  an 
Bollaert,  Chapter  XL.  Hakluyt  Society  Publioi 
tion  No.  28    (London,  1861).     This  account  c 


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AQI7IBBE. 


225 


AHAZ. 


the  expedition  was  derived  from  members  of  the 
party.  Consult  also  Bandelier,  The  Oilded  Man 
(New  York,  1893). 

AGUJA,  A-gSS'iiA  (Cuban,  probably  corrupted 
from  Portug.  agulha,  agulhao,  spear-fish).  A 
large,  voracious  garfish  {Tylosurus  fodiator)  of 
the  coast  of  western  Mexico,  held  in  great  dread 
by  fishermen.  The  name  (also  spelled  agujon) 
is  extended  to  various  related  species  of  the  West 
Indies  and  neighboring  coasts.     See  Needlefish. 

AOUXHAS,  &-g<5o'ly&s  (Portug.  needles), 
Cape.  The  most  southern  point  of  Africa,  about 
100  miles  east-southeast  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  in  lat.  34^*  51'  S.,  long.  19*»  55'  E.,  with  a 
lighthouse  erected  in  1849  at  an  elevation  of  52 
feet  (Map:  Cape  Colony,  F  9).  The  Agulhas 
Bank  extends  along  the  whole  southern  coast  of 
Africa.  It  is  560  miles  in  length,  and  opposite 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  as  much  as  200  in 
breadth. 


AQUSTIK, 

AOUSTIN  DE. 


a'goSs-ten'.        See      Itubbide, 


AOUSTIN  A,  rgoSs-te^nft  (?— 1857).  The 
"Maid  of  Saragossa."  A  vivandi^e  in  the  Span- 
ish army.  She  distinguished  herself  during  the 
siege  of  Saragossa,  1808-09,  by  heroic  participa- 
tion in  several  severe  encounters  with  the  French. 
Once  she  snatched  the  fuse  from  a  falling  can- 
nonier  and  fired  the  gun  at  the  enemy,  gaining 
by  this  act  the  name  of  "La  Artillera."  '  She  was 
luade  sub-lieutenant  in  the  Spanish  army,  and 
presented  with  many  decorations.  Byron  sings 
her  praises  in  Childe  Harold   (Canto  i.  54-56). 

AQXTTAINOy  a'go<5-tI'nd.  A  Malay  people  on 
Agutaino  Island.    See  Philippines. 

A'HAB  (Heb.  father's  brother).  King  of 
Israel  from  875  to  853  B.C.,  the  son  and  succes- 
sor of  Omri  (I.  Kings  xvi  :  29— xxii  :  40).  The 
story  of  his  reign  is  told  at  greater  length  than 
that  of  any  other  monarch,  but  the  narrative, 
in  the  opinion  of  many  Bible  critics,  is  derived 
from  two  different  sources,  which  differ  as  to  the 
point  of  view  from  which  the  events  in  Ahab*a 
reign  are  viewed.  The  one  represents  the  attitude 
of  the  Yahweh  purists,  the  other  a  patriotic  ad- 
miration of  Ahab's  bravery  and  vigorous  policy, 
by  means  of  which  Ahab  succeeded  in  checking  the 
advance  of  the  Aramaic  kingdom,  whose  seat  was 
at  Damascus.  This  Syrian  State,  which  could 
easily  combine  with  the  enemies  of  the  Hebrews 
— Moab  and  Edom  more  particularly — ^^'as  the 
great  danger  that  threatened  the  very  existence 
of  the  Israelitish  kingdom.  Ahab  not  only  held 
Benhadad  at  bay,  but  retained  control  over  Moab, 
to  which  the  inscription  of  King  Mesha  of  Moab 
(see  MoAiiiTE  Stone)  bears  witness.  No  less 
than  three  campaigns  were  waged  against  Syria. 
In  the  first  two,  Ahab  was  successful :  and  in  the 
interval  between  the  second  and  third,  Benhadad 
and  Ahab  joined  forces  to  withstand  an  attack 
of  the  Assyrian  king,  Shalmaneser  II.  The  lat- 
ter in  his  inscription  mentions  Ahab,  and  places 
the  size  of  the  force  furnished  by  him  at  1200 
chariots,  1200  horsemen,  and  20,000  soldiers. 
The  Assyrian  kings  were  fond  of  exaggerating, 
after  a  victory,  the  strength  of  their  opponents, 
and  the  figures  mentioned  are  probably  too  high. 
Shalmaneser  met  the  combination  of  Palestinian 
and  Syrian  forces  at  Karkar,  near  the  river 
Orontes,  and  claims  to  have  gained  a  great  vic- 
U^ry.  If  this  be  so,  the  consequences  do  not 
appear  to  have  been  of  any  moment,  for  shortly 
Vol.  I.-16 


afterward  Assyrian  armies  are  again  obliged  to 
undertake  an  expedition  to  the  west.  Shortly 
after  the  battle  of  Karkar,  Ahab's  relations  with 
Benhadad  are  again  hostile,  and  he  combines 
with  Jehosaphat,  King  of  Judah,  in  a  movement 
to  crush  Aram.  The  Hebrews,  however,  are  de- 
feated, and  Ahab  himself  is  slain.  Ahab,  while 
a  follower  of  Yahweh  did  not  hesitate  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  tendency  shown  by  vigorous 
rulers,  to  seek  the  help  of  other  powers.  His 
marriage  to  Jezebel,  daughter  of  Ethbaal,  the 
King  of  Tyre  (see  Josephus  Antiq,  viii.  13-1), 
led  to  the  introduction  of  the  worship  of  Mel- 
kart,  the  Baal  of  Tyre,  as  part  of  the  official 
cult.  That  Ahab  did  not  regard  such  an  act  as 
hostile  to  Yahweh  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  his 
children  bear  names  in  which  Yahweh  appears  as 
an  element  (Jehoram,  Ahaziah,  Athaliah),  but 
in  the  eyes  of  a  zealous  Yahwist,  like  the  ptophet 
Elijah,  such  conduct  was  reprehensible,  and  a 
conflict  ensues  between  the  king  and  the  prophet. 
The  story  of  the  conflict,  which  covers  chapters 
xvii-xix.  of  I.  Kings,  is  embellished  with  forceful 
incidents,  all  intended  to  bring  out  the  superior- 
ity of  Elijah  and  to  show  Ahab  in  the  light  of 
a  wicked  and  sinful  king,  which  he  assuredly  was 
not.  It  must  be  admitted,  however,  that  his 
policy  was  a  purely  secular  one,  and  that  he  was 
guided  by  political  and  not  religious  considera- 
tions in  his  various  acts.  So,  the  severest  charge 
brought  against  him,  his  acquiescence  in  the 
judicial  murder  of  Naboth,  which  was  brought 
about  by  Jezebel,  appears  in  a  less  opprobrious 
light  if  we  recall  that  the  question  of  royal  au- 
thority was  at  stake,  and  that  Ahab  could  not 
afford  to  risk  his  position  among  his  people  as 
their  lord  and  master  by  yielding  to  any  opposi- 
tion, however,  justifled,  against  a  royal  request. 
(See  Jezebel.)  The  story  that  the  blood  of 
Ahab's  body  was  licked  up  by  dogs  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  uncompromising  attitude  toward  him 
by  the  prophetical  writers, 

AHAKTA,  &-hUn^t&.  A  portion  of  the  British 
colony  of  Gold  Coast  in  West  Africa,  formerly 
belonging  to  the  Dutch,  who  founded  the  settle- 
ment of  Axim. 

AHASUEBUS,  ft-haz'ti-e'rfls.  The  name  by 
which  two  kin^  of  Media  and  Persia  are  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible.  One  and  the  best  known 
is  the  monarch  in  Esther's  days  (see  Esther), 
who  is  the  same  as  the  Persian  king  Khshayar- 
sha,  corresponding  as  is  now  generally  recognized 
to  Xerxes  (485-465  B.C.)  ;  the  identity  of  the 
other,  referred  to  as  the  father  of  Darius  the 
Mede  in  the  Book  of  Daniel  ( chapter  ix  :  1 ) ,  can- 
not be  determined.  The  Hebrew  form  of  the 
name  is  Achasverpsh.     See  Xerxes. 

AHASUEBUS.  ( 1 )  The  name  of  the  Wander- 
ing Jew  ( q.v. ) ,  according  to  one  legend.  ( 2 )  The 
title  of  a  drama  by  Edgar  Quinet  (published 
1833)   based  on  the  same  story. 

A^AZ  (Heb.  he  has  taken  hold).  Son  of 
Jotham,  and  eleventh  king  of  Judah,  who  ruled 
from  736  to  728,  though,  according  to  some  schol- 
ars, his  reign  lasted  till  715  B.C.  His  rule  was 
marked  by  disturbances,  conflicts  with  surround- 
ing nations,  and  innovations  in  religious  rites. 
Early  in  his  reign  Pekah,  King  of  Israel,  and  Re- 
zin,King  of  Syria,  undertook  to  conquer  the  king- 
dom of  Judah,  and  besieged  Jerusalem,  but  did 
not  take  the  city  (Isaiah  vii  :  1),  though  they 
carried  away  many  captives  (II.  Chronicles 
xxviii :  5) .  Incursions  were  made  by  the  Edomites 


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AHLWABDT. 


and  Philistines,  and  Ahaz  asked  help  of  Tiglath- 
Pileser,  King  of  Assyria  (II.  Kings  xvi  :  7,  II. 
Chronicles  xxviii  :  16-22),  who  drove  out  the  in- 
vaders, but  took  heavy  toll  from  Ahaz,  compel- 
ling him  to  appear  at  Damascus  as  a  vassal. 
While  there,  Ahaz  saw  an  altar,  and  ordered 
Uriah,  the  high  priest,  to  build  one  like  it.  On 
this  Ahaz  made  sacrifices;  but  he  went  further. 
He  broke  up  the  sacred  vessels,  closed  the  doors 
of  the  temple,  sacrificed  to  Syrian  deities,  and 
caused  his  son  to  pass  through  the  fire  of  Moloch 
(II.  Chronicles  xxviii  :  22-20,  3).  Isaiah  (chap- 
ters ii-v)  furnishes  a  sad  picture  of  condi- 
tions prevailing  in  Judea  in  the  days  of 
Ahaz,  frivolity,  perversion  of  justice,  avarice, 
oppression,  besides  infidelity  toward  Yahweh,  be- 
ing among  the  charges  brought  by  the  prophet 
against  the  king  and  his  court.  His  name  ap- 
pears on  the  Assyrian  monuments  under  the 
form  Ya-u-ha-zi,  from  which  the  conclusion  seems 
justified  that  the  full  name  of  the  king  was 
Jehoahaz  (*'Yahweh  has  taken  hold"). 

A'HAZFAH  (Heb.  sustained  by  the  Lord). 
The  name  of  two  kings  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
(I)  The  son  and  successor  of  Ahab,  and  eighth 
king  of  Israel,  whose  reign  may  be  approximately 
fixed  at  853-852  B.C.  He  followed  his  father's  ex- 
ample  in  his  devotion  to  the  Phoenician  Baal. 
On  his  accession,  the  Moabites  revolted,  refusing 
to  pay  tribute,  and  before  he  could  make  prep- 
arations to  go  against  them,  he  fell  from  a  win- 
dow of  his  palace.  He  sent  messengers  to  the 
god  Baal  Zebub  of  ^kron  to  know  the  result  of 
his  injuries,  but  the  messengers  met  Elijah,  the 
prophet  of  Yahweh,  on  the  way,  who  sent  them 
back  with  word  that  the  king  would  surely 
die  (II.  Kings,  chapter  i).  Upon  his  death 
Joram,  his  brother,  came  to  the  throne.  (2)  Son 
of  Jehoram  and  of  Ahab's  daughter,  Athaliah 
( II.  Kings  viii :  25-27 ) ,  the  sixth  king  of  Judah, 
who  is  called  Azariah  (II.  Chronicles  xxii  :  6) 
and  Jehoahaz  (II.  Chronicles  xxi  :  17 ) .  He  took 
part  with  his  uncle,  Jehoram,  of  Israel,  in  the 
latter's  campaign  against  Hazael,  King  of  Syria, 
in  which  the  two  kings  were  defeated  (II.  Kings 
viii  :  28-29;  II.  Chronicles  xxii:  5).  Ahazinh 
was  soon  after  slain  by  Jehu  (842  B.C.)  (II. 
Kings  ix  :  27;  II.  Chronicles  xxii  :  7-9),  after  a 
reign  of  only  one  year  (II.  Kings  viii  :  2G;  II. 
Chronicles  xxii  :  2). 

AHEAJy.     See  Bearing. 

AHIMELECH,  &-hIm'A-lfik  (Heb.  brother  of 
the  king).  A  Jewish  high  priest  w^ho,  accord- 
ing to  I.  Samuel  xxii:  II,  was  the  son  of  Ahitub. 
Some  scholars  are  of  the  opinion  that  he  is  iden- 
tical with  Ahijah,  who  is  also  spoken  of  as  a 
son  of  Ahitub(l.  Samuel  xiv  :  3).  Melek,"king," 
being  a  title  of  Yahweh,  it  might  be  used  inter- 
changeably with  Jah,  but  it  seems  more  plausible 
to  assume  that  Ahijah  and  Ahinielech  were 
brothers,  and  that  Ahimelech  succeeded  Ahijah 
in  the  office  of  high  priest.  When  David,  warned 
by  Jonathan,  fled  from  Saul,  Ahimelech,  at  Nob, 
fed  him  with  the  shew-bread.  gave  him  the  sword 
of  Goliath,  and  assisted  him  to  escape  (I.  Samu- 
el xxi  :  1-10).  For  this  offense  Saul  put  Ahim- 
elech and  his  whole  priestly  household  to  death, 
only  one  man,  Abiathar,  escaping  (I.  Samuel 
xxii  :  11-20). 

AHITH'OPHEL  (Heb.  brother  of  folly,  i.e., 
foolish).  A  native  of  Giloh  in  Judea;  privy 
counselor  of  David,  and  probably  grandfather  of 
Bathsheba   (II.  Samuel  xi  :  3;  xxxiii     34).     He 


was  trusted  implicitly  by  David,  as  well  as  by 
Absalom,  whose  revolt  he  joined  (II.  Samuel 
xvi:  23:  xv  :  12).  Hushar,  *»David*8  friend." 
also  counseled  Absalom,  but  with  a  view  to  help- 
ing David  (II.  Samuel  xvi  :  16;  xvii  :  16),  and 
his  counsel  of  delay  prevailed  over  AhithopheVs 
plan  of  quick  action  (II.  Samuel  xvii  :  1-14). 
Hereupon  Ahithophel,  in  despair,  went  home,  put 
his  household  in  order  and  hanged  himself  (11. 
Samuel  xvii  :  23). 

AHTiEPELDT,  ft^e-f^lt,  Elisa  Davidia  Mar- 
GARETHA,  CouNTESS  (1790-1855).  A  German 
woman  noted  for  her  patriotism  and  her  love  of 
letters.  She  was  born  in  Denmark,  and  in  1810 
became  the  wife  of  Major  von  Ltitzow,  a  (jrerman 
officer,  whom  she  accompanied  on  his  campaigns. 
She  distinguished  herself  by  her  care  of  the 
wounded  on  the  battlefield.  In  1824  she  sepa- 
rated from  her  husband,  and  lived  for  a  time 
with  the  author  Immermann. 

AHTiFELD,  flKfelt,  Johann  Friedrich  (1810- 
1884).  A  Lutheran  pulpit  orator.  He  was  born 
at  Mehringen,  Anhalt;  studied  at  the  University 
of  Halle  (1830-33);  taught  and  preached  in 
various  places  till  in  1847  he  became  pastor  in 
Halle,  whence  in  1861  he  went  to  the  Xicolai- 
kirche  in  Leipzig.  There,  till  his  resignation  in 
1881,  he  wielded  a  great  spiritual  influence  as 
a  leading  evangelical.  He  died  in  Leipzig.  He 
published  several  volumes  of  sermons.  Consult 
his  Life  (Halle,  1886). 

AHLGBENy  ^Kgr^n,  Ebnst,  pen  name  of  Vio 
TORiA  Maria  Benedictsson,  ni^e  Bruzeuus 
(1850-1888).  A  Swedish  author.  She  was 
born  at  Domme,  near  Trelleborg  (Scania), 
and  in  1871  married  Christian  Benedictsson, 
postmaster  of  H5rby.  In  consequence  of  ill- 
ness and  of  great  worry,  she  committed  suicide 
at  Copenhagen,  whither  she  had  gone  in  1S8S. 
Her  collection  of  novels,  entitled  Frdn  Skdnc 
(Stockholm,  1884),  and  the  satirical  narrative 
Penningar  {Money,  Stockholm,  1885;  second 
edition,  1889)  soon  made  her  name  known  fa- 
vorably throughout  Sweden,  where  she  was  after- 
ward regarded  as  the  most  distinguished  among 
the  younger  woman  writers.  Her  works  are 
characterized  by  marked  simplicity  of  style  and 
a  powerful  and  artistic  description  of  life. 
Among  them  may  be  mentioned  Fru  Marianne 
(Stockholm,  1887;  second  edition,  1890)  ;  Folk- 
Uf  och  8md  Barattchcr  (Stockholm,  1888); 
Baraitelser  och  Utkast  (Stockholm,  1888); 
Nomcos  Julia,  a  drama  (1888)  :  Finah  a  drama 
(in  collaboration  with  A.  Lundgiird,  Stockholm, 
1885). 

AHIiQUIST,  fil'kvlst,  August  Engelrert 
(1826-89).  A  Finnish  philologist  and  poet,  pro- 
fessor of  Finnish  literature  at  Helsingfors.  He 
was  distinguished  for  ethnographic  investiga- 
tions, especially  of  the  dialects  and  races  of  the 
Ural-Altaic  family.  In  1847  he  started  a  Fin- 
nish journal.  He  translated  some  of  Schiller's 
works  into  Finnish,  and  wrote  poems.  His  more 
important  original  works  are:  Wotish  Orammar 
(Helsingfors,  1885)  ;  An  Attempt  at  a  Mokshn- 
Morcbrinian  Orammar  (St.  Petersburg,  1861): 
The  Structure  of  the  Finnish  Language  (1877). 

AHLWARDT,  al'vftrt,  Hermann  (1846—). 
A  Grerman  politician  and  anti-Semitic  agitator. 
He  was  born  at  Krien,  Prussia,  and  about  1890 
joined  the  anti-Semitic  movement.  He  published 
a  number  of  writings  under  the  titles  of  Der 


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227 


AHMES. 


Verzwei/lungskampf  der  Arischen  Volker  mit 
ien  Juden  (1890);  Eid  einea  Juden  (1891); 
Jiidische  Taktik  (1892);  and  Judenflinten 
(1892),  in  which  last- mentioned  pamphlet  he 
declared  that  Ludwig  LSwe  k  Co.  haU  fur- 
nished worthless  guns  to  the  army,  and  had  been 
hired  by  the  Alliance  larcLdlite  to  cheat  the  Gkr- 
man  Government.  These  charges  were  declared 
by  Chancellor  von  Caprivi  to  be  false,  but  the 
popularity  of  the  agitation  steadily  increased; 
and  Ahlwardt  was  elected  deputy  to  the  Reichs- 
tag in  1892,  and  reelected  in  1893.  He  visited 
the  United  States  in  1895,  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  an  anti-Semitic  propaganda  here, 
but  failed  of  his  object. 

AHLWABDT,  Wilhklm  (1828—).  A  Ger- 
man orientalist.  He  studied  Oriental  languages 
at  Greifswald,  his  native  city,  and  at  Gdttingen, 
and  afterward  devoted  himself  to  an  analytical 
investigation  of  the  Arabic  manuscripts  in  the 
libraries  at  Gotha  and  Paris.  He  became  second 
librarian  and  professor  of  Oriental  languages 
at  the  University  of  Greifswald  in  1861.  The 
following  are  a  few  of  his  more  important  works 
on  Arabic  philology  and  literature :  Ueher  Poeaie 
und  Poeiik  der  Araher  (Gotha,  1856);  The 
Divans  of  the  Six  Ancient  Arabic  Poets  (London, 
1870).  He  also  edited  the  following  works  by 
.4rabic  authors :  Elf achri's  History  of  the  Islam' 
ite  Empire  from  its  Beginning  to  the  End  of  the 
Kalifate  (Gotha,  1860)  ;  Caliph  £1-Ahmar's  Cas- 
fidc  (Greifswald,  1859)  ;  and  Abu  Nuwas  Divan 
(Greifswald,  1861).  A  noteworthy  achievement 
of  Ahlwardt'a  is  his  catalogue  of  all  the  Arabic 
works  in  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin  (in  gen- 
eral catalogue,  10  volumes,  Berlin,  1887-1900). 

AiTM-A-nA-RATi^  2l'mA-d&-b&dM For  derivation 
see  Abad).  The  chief  town  in  the  district  of 
the  same  name,  in  the  presidency  of  Bombay, 
India,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sabar- 
inati,  290  miles  north  of  Bombay,  in  lat.  23**  N., 
long.  72"  36'  £.  (Map:  India,  B  4).  It  was 
founded  in  the  year  1412,  on  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient Ashawal,  by  Ahmed  or  Ahmad  Shah,  and  in 
ISIS  came  under  British  rule.  It  was  famous  for 
its  manufacture  of  rich  fabrics  of  silk  and  cot- 
ton, articles  .of  gold,  silver,  steel,  and  enamel, 
industries  still  carried  on,  and  to  which  may  be 
added  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  superior 
pottery.  It  has  recovered  much  of  its  extensive 
trade  in  indigo,  cotton,  and  opium.  It  was  for- 
merly one  of  the  largest  and  most  magnificent 
capitals  in  the  east,  and  its  architectural  relics 
are  splendid,  even  in  the  midst  of  decay.  The 
Jumna  or  Juma'ah  Mas j id,  or  great  mosque,  rises 
from  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  is  adorned  by 
two  superbly  decorated  minarets.  Its  domes  are 
supported  by  lofty  columns,  regularly  disposed, 
and  the  concave  of  these  cupolas  is  ornamented 
with  mosaic  and  fretwork.  The  pavement  is  of 
the  finest  marble.  The  mosque  of  Sujaat  Khan 
and  the  modem  Jain  temple  of  Seth  Hathi  Sinh 
are  extremely  beautiful.  There  is  likewise  an 
ivory  mosque,  so  named  from  the  circumstance 
that,  although  built  of  white  marble,  it  is  lined 
^th  ivory,  and  inlaid  with  a  profusion  of  gems, 
to  imitate  natural  flowers,  bordered  by  a  silver 
foliage  on  mother-of-pearl.  There  are  also  the 
Fire  Temple  and  the  Tower  of  Silence  of  the 
l^arsis.  Ahmadabad  once  abounded  in  gardens, 
and  there  '  were  aqueducts,  reservoirs,  etc. 
The  city  walls,  built  in  the  fifteenth  century, 
which  had  become  very   dilapidated,   were   re- 


paired in  1834,  and  a  system  of  water- works  was 
installed.     Pop.,  1891,  148,400;  1901,  180,700. 

AKTffA'OABA'n.  A  district  of  Bombay  (q.v.), 
British  India  (Map  :  India,  B  4). 

AHMED,  &H^med,  or  ACHMET,  ilK^mSt, 
Vefik  Pasha  (1818 — ).  A  Turkish  statesman, 
born  in  Constantinople,  and  educated  in  Paris. 
His  historical  and  statistical  researches  appeared 
in  Salaam^,  an  annual  of  the  Ottoman  Empire 
begun  in  1847.  He  has  been  intrusted  by  the 
Porte  with  many  important  missions  abroad,  and 
was  president  of  the  council  and  minister  of  the 
interior  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Treaty  of  San 
Stefano  (1878).  He  did  much  to  acquaint  his 
countrymen  \*'ith  French  literature  by  his  ad- 
mirable translations  of  the  plays  of  Moli^re  and 
others. 

AHMED  KHAN,  K^n  or  kiln.  See  Mongol 
Dynasties. 

AHMEDKAGAB,  &'med-ntlg^(ir,  or  AHMED- 
NUQOUR  (Skr.  nagara,  city).  A  large  town 
in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  India,  situated  126 
miles  east  of  the  city  of  *^Bombay,  in  lat.  19^ 
6'  N.,  long.  74^  46'  E.,  on  a  branch  of  the- 
Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway  (Map:  India, 
B  5 ) .  It  was  once  a  splendid  and  populous  city, 
and  relics  of  its  former  magnificence  are  to  be 
seen  in  many  fine  specimens  of  Moslem  architec- 
ture. It  is  noted  for  its  manufacture  of  carpets, 
silks,  cottons,  brass,  and  copper  utensils.  The 
city  is  surrounded  by  an  earthen  wall,  and  is 
guarded  by  a  fort  half  a  mile  to  the  east.  The 
houses  are  mostly  built  of  sun-dried  brick.  It 
has  a  good  water  supply,  conveyed  by  means  of 
aqueducts.  Founded  in  1494  by  Ahmed  Nuzam 
Shah,  it  reached  a  high  degree  of  prosperity 
during  the  reign  of  his  son,  Burhan,  but  after 
his  death  witnessed  an  incessant  series  of  wars. 
It  came  under  British  rule  in  1817,  since  when  it 
has  regained  much  of  its  former  prosperity. 
Several  places  in  India  bear  the  same  name. 
Pop.,  41,700. 

AHMEDKAQAB.  A  district  of  Bombay, 
British  India  (Map:  India,  B  5). 

AHMED  SHAH,  ah^m^d  sh&  (1724-73). 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan  from  1747  to  1773.  He  was 
hereditary  chief  of  the  Abdali  tribe,  and  held  a 
command  in  Nadir  Shah's  cavalry  until  the  lat- 
ter's  assassination  (1747),  when  Ahmed  went  to 
Afghanistan,  changed  the  name  of  his  tribe  to 
Durrani,  and  was  accepted  as  their  ruler  by 
the  Afghan  chiefs  at  Kandahar.  He  was  a  war- 
tlike ruler,  and  accumulated  great  wealth,  includ- 
*ing  the  famous  Kohinoor  diamond.  He  cap- 
tured Lahore  in  1748  and  conquered  Kashmir; 
and  in  1756  defeated  the  Great  Mogul  and 
took  and  sacked  Delhi.  His  conquests  intro- 
duced rebellion  and  disorder  into  the  Mogul  Em- 
pire. He  defeated  the  Sikhs  and  Mahrattas  at 
Panipat,  January  6,  1761,  but  was  finally  obliged 
to  yield  the  Punjab. 

AHMES,  a^mSs,  or  AAHMESU,  a^me-soo. 
An  Eg>'ptian  scribe,  who  lived  before  1700  B.  c. 
He  wrote  Directions  for  Obtaining  the  Knowledge 
of  all  Dark  Things,  This  work  was  not  original 
with  him.  It  was  copied  from  an  older  treatise, 
dating  from  about  2500  B.C.  It  is  important  as 
one  of  the  earliest  satisfactory  accounts  of  an- 
cient Egyptian  mathematics.  It  has  been  trans- 
luted  by  Eisenlohr,  Ein  mathcmatisches  Hand- 
buch  der  alten  yfiJgypter  (Leipzig,  1877).  See 
Algebba,  and  Abitumetic. 


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AI. 


AHK,  an,  JoHANN  Franz  (1796-1865).  A 
German  grammarian  and  educationist.  He  was 
born  at  Aix-la-Chapelle,  was  for  a  time  a  mer- 
chant, but  studied  mathematics  and  modern  lan- 
guages, and  was  for  many  years  a  teacher  in 
Neuss.  He  wrote  many  manuals  for  teaching 
languages,  his  method  of  instruction  being 
an  extension  of  that  of  SeidenstUcker.  His 
Practical  Method  for  a  Rapid  and  Easy  Acquisi- 
tion of  the  French  Language  {Praktischer  Lehr- 
gang  zur  Schnellen  und  Lcichten  Erlemung  der 
Framosischen  Sprache,  1834)  has  passed  through 
niore  than  two  hundred  editions  and  been  exten- 
sively imitated. 

AHNTELDT,  fin^f^lt,  Arvtd  Wolfgang 
Nathan AEL  (1845-90).  A  Swedish  litterateur, 
born  at  Lund.  He  studied  art  at  Lund  and 
Upsala,  and  was  for  some  time  an  official  in  the 
royal  library  at  Stockholm.  In  1881  he  was  ap- 
pointed editor  of  the  journal  Vr  Dagens  Kronika. 
lEe  published  a  number  of  important  mono- 
graphs, such  as  those  on  Almqvist  (1876),  and 
Crusenstolpe  (1880),  a  Verldslitteraturens  His- 
toria  (1875-76),  and  other  works. 

AHOY'  (a  -f  hoy).  A  nautical  form  of  hail. 
Its  original  signification  is  said  to  have  been 
stop,  and  it  still  partakes  of  that  meaning  in  a 
modified  sense.  It  is  used  as  a  hail  to  passing 
boats,  vessels,  and  implies  that  communication 
with  them  is  desired.  The  common  form  of  usage 
is  "boat  ahoy,"  "ship  ahoy,"  "steamer  ahoy," 
etc. 

AHBENS,  a'rens,  Heinbich  (1808-74).  A 
German  writer  on  law,  philosophy,  and  psychol- 
ogy. He  studied  at  Gottingen,  and  was  concerned 
in  the  political  troubles  in  1831,  by  reason  of 
which  he  was  forced  to  flee  to  Paris.  In  1834 
lie  became  professor  of  philosophy  at  Brussels. 
1  Te  was  a  member  of  the  Frankfort  Parliament  of 
1848,  and  on  the  committee  to  draft  a  new  Ger- 
man constitution.  In  1850  he  was  chosen  pro- 
fessor of  legal  and  political  science  at  Gratz, 
nnd  in  1859  was  called  to  a  similar  chair  at 
Leipzig.  For  a  number  of  years  he  represented 
Ihe  Leipzig  University  in  the  first  Saxon  Cham- 
ber. Among  his  works  are:  Cours  de  Psychologic 
(1837-38)  ;  Cours  de  Droit  Naturel  (1838)  ;  Die 
'luristische  Encifklopiidie  (1855-57).  The  two 
liist  named  works  have  been  republished  in  sev- 
eral languages. 

AHRENS,  Heinrich  Ludolf  (1809-81).  A 
celebrated  German  philologist,  born  at  Helm- 
stedt.  He  studied  at  Gottingen,  where  he  began 
liis  career  as  privat-docent  in  1829,  but  left  Got- ' 
tingen  in  the  following  year  to  accept  a  position 
at  ilfeld,  where  he  remained  for  fourteen  years. 
In  1849  he  was  made  director  of  the  lyceum  at 
Hanover,  a  position  which  he  held  until  the  year 
before  his  death.  He  devoted  himself  especially 
to  the  Greek  dialects,  and  may  be  said  to  have 
laid  the  scientific  foundation  of  their  study.  His 
chief  publication  was  De  ChrcBcce  Linguce  Dia- 
Icctis  (1839-43).  He  published  also,  in  1855-59, 
a  two-volume  edition  of  the  Greek  bucolic  poets, 
Theocritus,  Bion,  and  Moschus. 

AHBIMAN,  a'rI-mAn.  The  ancient  Persian 
devil,  a  personification  of  the  evil  spirit  and 
principle  of  evil,  the  idea  which  answers  in  the 
Zoroastrian  religion  to  Satan  in  Judaism  and 
(Tliristianity.  He  is  represented  as  the  head  and 
chief  of  the  powers  of  darkness  and  sin,  and  he 
has  legions  of  demons  about  him.     Next  to  him 


are  ranged  six  arch-fiends,  the  chief  of  whom  b 
Aeshma,  the  Daeva,  or  "demon  of  fury,"  corre- 
sponding to  the  name  Asmodeus  in  the  Book  of 
Tobit.  Ahriman's  name  appears  in  the  AvesU 
as  anffra  mainyu,  or  a^ra  mainyu,  Pahlavi,  aAar- 
man,  Persian,  ahriman — ^whence  our  spelling  of 
the  word.  The  term  mainyu  means  spirit;  the 
title  angra  awra  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  presumed 
to  signify  injury,  opposition,  antagonism.  Ahri- 
man is  the  spirit  of  opposition,  antithesis,  and 
antagonism  to  the  Persian  god  Onnuzd  (q.v.). 
The  two  spirits  severally  represent  the  king- 
dom of  light,  goodness,  and  life,  and  the  kingdom 
of  darkness,  evil,  and  death.  The  relation  of  the 
one  spirit  to  the  other,  especially  of  Angra 
Mainyu,  as  the  maleficent  spirit,  to  Spenia 
Mainyu,  or  the  beneficent  spirit,  has  been  fre- 
quently discussed.  Consult:  Darmesteter,  Or- 
mazd  et  Ahriman  (Paris,  1877),  and  Jackson, 
Die  iranische  Religion,  in  Geiger  and  Kuhn*-* 
Orundriss  der  iranischen  Philologie  (Strassburg. 
1900). 

AHU,  a'hoS.  The  name  in  Persia  of  the  com 
mon  Asiatic  gazelle.    See  Gazelle. 

AHUATLE,  a'iSo-ftt'l  (Mexican).  A  prepara 
tion  for  food  of  the  eggs  of  a  Mexican  species  of 
ephydrid  fly,  which  is  formed  into  a  paste 
mixed  with  hens'  eggs  and  then  fried.  For  simi- 
lar facts  see  Ephydba. 

AHULL^  (a  -f  hull) .  A  maritime  term,  u-ied 
to  denote  the  position  of  a  ship  when  all  her 
sails  are  furled  and  her  helm  lashed  on  the  lee 
side;  in  such  a  position  she  lies  nearly  with  her 
side  to  the  wind,  but  with  the  head  turned  a 
little  toward  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

AHUM  AD  A,  aTRJ-ma'Dd,  Don  Pedro  Gir6n, 
Marques  de  ij^s  Amabillas,  Duke  of  (178S 
1842).  A  Spanish  general  and  statesman,  born 
at  San  Sebastian.  He  was  appointed  an  officer 
in  the  Royal  Guards  in  1806,  and  during  the  war 
against  the  French  rendered  important  services  a? 
chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  Spanish  army. 
Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1820  he 
was  appointed  minister  of  war,  but  soon  retired 
because  of  the  opposition  of  the  Radicals.  He 
was  appointed  by  Ferdinand  VII.  a  member  of 
the  council  of  regency  during  th^  minority  of 
Isabella,  and  in  1835  accepted  the  portfolio 
of  war  under  the  premiership  of  Toreno.  He  soon 
resigned,  and  went  to  Bordeaux  in  1836,  but  sub- 
sequently returned  to  Madrid. 

AHUBA  MAZDA,  A-hSo^ra  mUz'dk.  See 
Ormuzd. 

AHWAZ,  A-wRz'.  A  small  village,  once  a  res- 
idence of  the  Persian  rulers,  situated  on  the  River 
Karun,  about  45  miles  south  of  Shuster  (Map: 
Persia,  D  5).  Near  Ahwaz  are  the  ruins  of  the 
old  town,  lying  along  the  river  for  a  distance 
of  over  ten  miles,  "niere  is  still  to  be  seen  an 
old  castle  of  gigantic  proportions,  and  a  few 
other  remnants  of  former  splendor.  In  the  third 
century,  Ahwaz  was  the  chief  city  of  a  province 
of  the  same  name,  and  under  the  subsequent  rule 
of  the  Arabs  it  became  an  important  commercial 
centre.  A  concession  to  navigate  the  Karun 
from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  Ahwaz  was  granted  to 
a  British  company,  which  runs  a  steamer  on  the 
river,  and  is  carrying  out  improvements  on  the 
road  between  Ahwaz  and  Ispahan. 

Aly  a'i  (Heb.  ruin).  A  city  of  the  Canaan- 
ites,  twelve  miles  north  of  Jerusalem.  It  is  men- 
tioned in  the  narrative  about  Abraham  (Genesis 


b 


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AI. 


229      AIDE-TOI  ET  LE  GIEL  T'AIDESA. 


xii :  8),  where  its  situation  is  defined  as  east  of 
Bethel.  When  the  Israelites  came  into  Canaan 
they  made  an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Ai  (Joshua 
ni :  5),  but  on  the  second  attack  the  city  was 
taken  (Joshua  viii)  and  destroyed.  Isaiah 
( Isaiah  x  :  28 )  mentions  the  city,  so  that  it  must 
have  been  rebuilt.  After  the  captivity  it  was 
inhabited  by  the  Benjaminites  (Ezra  ii  :  28; 
Nehemiah  vii  :  32).  The  modern  site  is  Khirbet 
HaiyAn.  Its  ruins  existed  in  the  time  of  Euse- 
bius  and  St.  Jerome,  though  none  are  now  to  be 
found  there. 

AI,  fil.    The  three-toed  sloth.    See  Sloth. 

AI,  a'*,  or  AHYTJ,  il'ft.  A  Japanese  salmon 
{Halmo  altivelis),  remarkable  for  going  down 
some  rivers  to  spawn  in  the  sea,  and  ascending 
other  rivers  annually  to  spawn  near  their 
sources. 

AICABD,  AOcftr^yJEAN  Francois  Victor  ( 1848 
— ).  A  French  author,  born  at  Toulon.  At 
first  he  stjidied  law,  but  subsecjuently  turned 
to  literature,  in  which  he  made  his  first  appear- 
ance with  the  drama  Jeunes  Croyances  (1867). 
His  works,  which  are  in  general  distinguished 
by  a  finished  style,  include  An  Clair  de  la  Lune 
(1870),  a  one-act  comedy  in  verse;  Lea  Rebel- 
lions et  Ics  Apaiacments  (1871),  Po^mes  de 
Prorcnce  ( 1874) ,  La  Chanson  de  V Enfant  ( 1876) , 
Miette  et  Sor4  (1880),  Lamartine  (1883),  a 
poem  which  received  the  prize  of  the  French 
Academy,  and  Jesus    (1896). 

AID  ( Fr.  aide,  from  Lat.  ad,  to  -f  iuvare, 
to  help).  In  feudal  times,  a  term  denoting  a 
payment  in  money  or  produce  due  from  a  vassal 
to  his  lord.  The  term  is  a  translation  of  the 
Latin  word  aiixilium.  In  theory  it  was  a  free 
grant  made  in  exceptional  cases.  But  the  cases 
soon  came  to  be  fixed  by  custom.  "The  three  chief 
aids'*  were  paid  ( 1 )  for  the  lord's  ransom  when 
in  captivity;  (2)  for  the  expenses  of  making  the 
lord's  eldest  son  a  knight;  (3)  for  the  dowry 
of  the  lord's  eldest  daughter.  Sometimes  a 
fourth  chief  aid  was  recognized  for  the  expense 
of  the  lord  when  going  on  a  crusade.  Fre- 
quently also  aids  were  demanded  from  the  vas- 
sals when  the  lord  made  a  journey  to  the  court 
of  his  suzerain,  or  to  Rome.  Aids  were  levied 
upon  all  classes  of  freehold  tenants — upon  those 
holding  in  free  and  common  socage  (q.v.),  as 
well  as  upon  the  holders  of  knights'  fees  (q-y.) 
—and  continued  to  be  nominally  due  and  exigi- 
ble until  abolished  by  parliament,  12  Car.  II., 
c.  24  (1660),  though  they  had  gradually  fallen 
into  disuse  and  were  probably  even  then  prac- 
tically obsolete.    See  Feudal  System;  Tenure. 

Ai!DA,  &-6'd&.  An  opera  by  Verdi  (words  by 
Ghislanzoni ) ,  first  played  at  Cairo,  Egypt,  De- 
cember 24,  1871,  at  the  inaugtiration  of  the  Khe- 
dive's new  theatre.  The  scene  of  it  is  laid  in 
ancient  Egypt. 

AIDAN,  a'dan.  Saint  (T-651).  First  bishop 
of  Lindisfarne.  He  was  one  of  those  distin- 
guished monks  of  the  early  Scotch-Irish  church, 
vho  were  received  into  the  calendar  of  saints 
without  the  ceremony  of  canonization.  In  early 
life  he  was  a  monk  in  lona,  the  famous  island 
«ff  the  Scotch  Coast.  Oswald,  the  celebrated 
king  of  Northumbria,  requested  the  community 
of  lona  to  send  to  his  court  one  of  their  brethren 
who  would  teach  the  Christian  religion  to  his 
people.  The  first  person  sent  was  a  certain  Cor- 
man,  who  was  too  dogmatic  and  intolerant  to 


be  a  successful  missionary.  On  his  return  to 
report  to  the  synod  his  failure,  Aidan,  who  pos- 
sessed the  patience,  geniality,  and  popular  man- 
ners fitted  fqr  the  task,  was  consecrated  bishop 
(635)  and  sent  forth.  Through  his  success,  he 
left  a  great  reputation  as  the  earliest  promul- 
gator of  Christianity  in  the  northern  districts. 
He  died  at  Bamborough,  August  31,  651.  For 
his  biography  consult  Fryer,  Aidan,  the  Apostle 
of  the  North  (London,  1884). 

AIDE,  a'^'dft',  CHABLE8  Hamilton  (1830—). 
An  English  poet  and  novelist.  He  was  born  in 
Paris,  the  son  of  a  Greek  diplomatist.  His 
mother  was  a  daughter  of  Admiral  Sir 
George  Collier.  He  was  educated  at  Bonn, 
served  seven  years  in  the  British  army,  and  then 
devoted  himself  to  literature.  Among  his  poems 
are  Kleanore  (1856),  and  Songs  Without  Music 
(1882).  His  novels  include  Rita  (1859),  Pas- 
sages in  the  Life  of  a  Lady  (1887),  and  Eliza- 
beth's Pretenders  ( 1895) .  As  a  ballad  writer  he 
is  knoNvn  by  The  Danube  River  and  Remember  or 
Forget. 

AID-DE-CAMP,  ftdMc-kftN'  (Fr.  camp-as- 
sistant), or  AID.  A  military  officer  serving  on 
the  staff  of  a  commanding  general  officer.  In 
time  of  war  it  is  a  position  of  grave  responsi- 
bility, as  shown  by  the  terrible  mistake  which 
led  to  the  brilliant,  but  foolish,  light  cavalry 
charge  of  the  British  in  the  Crimean  War  of 
1854.  It  is  also  a  position  involving  much  dan- 
ger, as  may  be  seen  from  the  nature  of  the 
duties  performed.  On  active  service  the  aid-de- 
camp is  in  close  confidential  touch  with  the  gen- 
eral officer  to  whom  he  is  attached,  and  when 
necessary  acts  as  his  military  secretary.  On  the 
battle-field  he  carries  all  orders  from  the  gen- 
eral in  command  to  the  commanding  officers 
of  the  various  arms,  and  must  of  necessity  be 
alert,  quick-witted,  resourceful,  and  prompt, 
giving  his  message  in  the  plainest  and  most 
unmistakable  form.  Wherever  possible  such 
orders  must  be  delivered  in  writing.  In  Euro- 
pean nations,  an  appointment  of  aid-de-camp, 
particularly  if  on  the  staff  of  the  ruler  or  a  mem- 
ber of  the  ruling  family,  carries  much  social 
as  well  as  military  prestige,  while  in  all  services 
it  is  a  much  coveted  and  much  sought  appoint- 
ment. In  the  United  States  a  lieutenant-general 
is  allowed  to  have  two  aids  (lieutenant-colonels) 
and  a  military  secretary ;  a  major-general,  three 
aids  (either  captains  or  lieutenants)  ;  and  a 
brigadier-general,  two  aids  (lieutenants).  Be- 
fore an  officer  can  receive  such  appointment,  he 
must  have  served  at  least  three  of  the  five  pre- 
ceding years  with  his  regiment  or  corps.  The 
appointment  is  for  five  years,  and  may  not  be 
exceeded,  except  on  request  of  a  general  who 
retires  within  one  year. 

AIDENN,  ft'dem.  A  collateral  form  of 
Eden,  Paradise,  from  the  Arabic  Adn^  used  by 
Poe  in  The  Raven,  on  account  of  the  rhyme. 

AIDE-TOI  ET  LE  CIEL  T'AIDEBA,  Ad'twii' 
a  le  syftl  tA'd'-rk'  (Fr.  "Help  thyself.  Heaven  will 
help  thee").  The  cry  of  certain  French  political 
writers  to  the  middle  classes  about  the  year 
1824.  It  became  the  watch -word  and  title  of  a 
society,  having  for  its  object  to  agitate  the  elec- 
toral body  in  opposition  to  the  government.  This, 
however,  was  to  be  done  by  means  strictly  legiti- 
mate, chiefly  by  correspondence  and  political 
publications.  Most  of  its  founders  and  active 
members  belonged  to  the  party  of  Doctrinaires 


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AIDE-TOI  ET  LE  CIEL  T'AIDEBA.     230 


AIXEK. 


(q.v.),  as  Guizot,  who  was  president  for  some 
timt^  Duchatei,  Duvergier  de  Hauranne,  Dubois, 
K^iimsat,  Thiers,  Cavaignac,  etc.  Le  Olohe  was 
the  organ  of  the  association,  and  afterward  Le 
National.  The  society  had  a  great  share  in 
bringing  about  the  revolution  of  July,  1830,  and 
WHS  nt  first  countenanced  by  the  new  govern- 
ment ;  but  after  a  short  time  it  was  dissolved 

AIBTNf  1-den',  or  Guzel-hissar.  The  capi- 
tal of  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Aidin,  or  Smyr- 
na (21,500  square  miles;  pop.,  1,396,500),  in 
Anatnlia.  It  is  on  the  river  Meander,  about  56 
miles  southeast  of  Smyrna,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  B  4). 
It  19  picturesquely  situated  near  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Trajles,  and  has  well  shaded  streets, 
fine  bazaars,  and  a  number  of  mosques.  It  has 
an  extensive  trade  in  figs  and  cotton.  Its  pop- 
ulation is  about  36,000. 

A  UK-MA' JOB.  An  adjutant  in  the  French 
army.    See  Adjutant. 

AIGNEB,  A'nyA',  Joseph  Matthaus  (1818- 
80 ) .  An  Austrian  painter.  He  was  born  at  Vi- 
emm  and  studied  under  Amerling.  He  took  part 
in  the  revolution  of  1848,  but  subsequently  was 
pardoned.  He  was  particularly  known  for  his 
portraits,  including  those  of  Grillparzer,  Feuch- 
t^rsleben,  Lenau,  and  Rubinstein. 

,  AIGBET,  a'gret  or  A-gret',  or  Aigrette 
(Fr.)  A  small  white  heron  or  egret.  (See 
EtiRKT.)  Hence,  a  plume  or  erect  ornament 
of  feathers,  originally  the  long  filiform  tuft 
of  feathers  that  spring  from  the  back  of  the 
eprri't  in  the  breeding-season,  and  arranged  to 
adorn  the  hair,  a  bonnet,  headdress  or  helmet, 
or  something  similar  to  this,  especially  when 
jeweled.  "A  small  bundle  of  these  feathers  has 
been  used  among  Eastern  nations  as  an  ornament, 
anil  worn  in  the  front  of  the  turban,  caftan,  or 
other  headdress  by  personages  of  high  rank,  be- 
in«r  tjecasionally  mounted  with,  or  its  form  imi- 
tated by,  precious  stones;  and  the  gift  of  an 
e^et  so  bejeweled  has  been  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  marks  of  honor  that  could 
be  bestowed  by  an  Oriental  ruler  upon  a 
favorite  minister  or  successful  leader."  The 
fasliion  has  spread  to  Western  nations  and 
given  rise  to  various  decorations  on  military 
hilts,  and  for  women's  hair  and  bonnets. 
The  demand  of  millinery,  indeed,  during  the  last 
quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century,  caused 
sueli  inroads  upon  the  breeding  colonies  of  white 
lieruns  in  all  parts  of  the  world  that  these  birds 
are  everywhere  greatly  diminished  in  numbers, 
and  in  some  regions,  as  in  Florida,  are  almost 
exterminated.  As  the  desired  plumes  grow  only 
during  the  breeding  season,  the  killing  of  a  bird 
for  their  sake  usually  means  the  death  of  a 
family  and  the  rapid  depopulation  of  the  colony. 
From  this  point  of  view,  and  remembering  that 
great  cruelty  is  likely  to  accompany  the  obtain- 
ing of  the  plumes,  the  statement  of  the  annual 
sales  of  aigrets  in  London  and  other  great  mar- 
kets is  appalling  to  all  persons  of  a  humane  mind 
and  delicate  taste. 

AIGUEBELLE,  ftg'bel',  Paul  Alexandre 
Ni-:vf;cE  d'  (1831-75).  A  French  naval  officer  who 
entered  the  Chinese  army.  He  distinguished  him- 
self against  the  Taipings  in  1862-64,  commanded 
the  Franco-Chinese  corps,  and  captured  liang- 
ehow-fu,    for    which    service    he    was    made    a 


mandarin  of  the  first  class.  He  established  the 
arsenal  at  Fu-chow-fu  and  taught  the  Chi- 
nese to  construct  European  vessels,  the  first 
Chinese  man-of-war  being  launched  under  his  su- 
pervision in  1869.  In  that  year  he  was  made 
Grand  Admiral  of  the  Chinese  fleet. 

AIGUES-MOBTES,  ftg'mOrt^  (anciently  Lai 
AqucB  AlortucPf  Dead  Springs).  A  small  town  in 
France,  (population,  1901,  4223),  in  the  depart- 
ment of  dard,  which  claims  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Roman  Marius  (Map:  France,  L  8).  It 
is  situated  in  an  extensive  marsh  impregnated 
with  sea  salt,  and  is  about  three  miles  from  the 
Mediterranean,  with  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  canal.  It  was  from  Aigues-Mortes  that  St 
Louis  sailed  in  1248,  and  again  in  1270.  for  the 
Crusades — a  proof  that  the  sea  then  reached  this 
spot.  In  1538,  Francis  I.  had  an  interview  at 
Aigues-Mortes  with  Charles  V. 

AIGITILLE,  a-gwel'  (Fr.  a  needle).  The 
name  given  to  certain  sharp  mountain  peaks  in 
the  Alps  often  covered  with  ice  and  sbow,  and  so 
called  from  their  resemblance  to  n^les. 
yVround  Chamounix  a  number  of  the  peaks  bear 
this  name.  The  term  is  also  applied  to  an  in- 
strument used  by  engineers  to  pierce  a  rock  for 
the  reception  of  gunpowder  in  blasting. 

AIGTTILLETTE,  a'gwll-l^t'  (from  Fr.  aiguil 
lette,  a  point,  pointed  tag;  dim  in.  of  aiguille, 
needle).  A  detachable  portion  of  a  military 
dress  uniform  consisting  of  bullion  cords  and 
loops  and  worn  on  the  right  shoulder.  In  the 
United  States  Army  it  is  now  worn  by  officers  of 
the  adjutant-general's  and  inspector-general's  de- 
partments, chief  and  assistant  of  office  of  rec- 
ords, aids-de-camp,  and  adjutants  of  regiments. 
Aids-de-camp  and  military  secretaries  who  have 
increased  rank  wear  it  with  their  regimental 
and  corps  uniform  to  indicate  their  being  on 
staff  duties. 

AIGUILLON,  A'g\vd'y6N',  Armand  de  Vigxe- 
ROT  DuPLESSis  RiCHEUEU.  Duc  D*  (1729-82). 
A  French  statesman,  minister  of  foreign  affairs 
under  Louis  XV.  (1771-74).  He  became  gov- 
ernor of  Brittany  in  1754.  His  despotic  admin- 
istration of  his  province  finally  brought  upon 
him  the  condemnation  of  the  Parliament  of 
Rennes.  But  Madame  du  Barry,  the  mistress 
of  Louis  XV.,  not  only  saved  him  from  punish- 
ment, but  finally  brought  about  his  promotion  as 
minister.  He  was  entirely  incompetent,  and 
Louis  XVI.  replaced  him  by  Vergennes. 

AIJALOK,  a'j&-l5n.     See  Ajalon. 

AIKAWA,  f-kft'wA.  A  town  of  Japan,  situ- 
ated on  the  western  coast  of  the  island  of  Sado 
(Map:  Japan,  F  5).  It  is  poorly  built  but  very 
important  on  account  of  the  gold  and  silver 
mines  situated  close  to  it.  Its  population  is  over 
15,000. 

AIKEN,  a'ken.  A  beautiful  town  and  country 
seat  of  Aiken  Co.,  South  Carolina,  on  the  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia  railroads,  17  miles  east  of 
Augusta  (Map:  South  Carolina,  C  3).  It  has  a 
fine  location,  at  an  elevation  of  600  feet  above 
sea-level,  in  an  agricultural  and  pine  forest  re- 
gion, and  the  dryness  and  comparative  mildness 
of  its  climate  have  combined  to  make  Aiken  an 
important  health  resort.  Aiken  is  the  seat  of 
Aiken  Institute,  for  white  students;  the  Scho- 
field  Normal  and  Industrial  School  and  Imman- 
uel  Training  School,  for  negroes.  Aiken  was 
first  incorporated  in  1835,  and  is  governed  by 


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ATTWAy 


A  charter  of  1890,  revised  in  1897,  which  pro- 
vides for  a  mayor,  elected  hienniallj,  and  a  city 
council,  composed  of  the  mayor  and  six  alder- 
men. Annual  town  meetings  are  held  to  nom- 
inate the  city  council.  The  water  supply  and 
sewerage  system  are  under  municipal  control. 
Pop.,  1890,  2362;  1900,  3414. 

AIKEN y  William  (1806-87).  An  American 
legislator.  He  was  born  in  Charleston,  S.  C, 
and  graduated  at  the  College  of  South  Carolina 
(1825).  After  serving  in  the  State  Legislature 
(1838-43),  he  was  governor  of  South  Carolina 
(1844-46),  and  was  a  Democratic  representative 
in  Congress  from  1861  to  1857,  during  which 
time  he  lacked  only  one  vote  of  becoming 
speaker  of  the  House  of  Representatives.  He 
opposed  both  nullification  and  secession,  and 
after  leaving  Congress  took  no  active  part  in  pol- 
itics, except  in  1866,  when  he  was  again  elected 
to  Congress,  but  was  not  admitted  to  a  seat. 

AIKIN,  John,  M.D.  (1747-1822).  An  Eng- 
lish physician  and  author.  He  had  only  mod- 
erate success  as  a  physician,  but  gained  con- 
siderable reputation  as  a  scholarly  writer.  With 
his  sister,  Mrs.  Barbauld,  he  published  Even- 
ings at  Home  (six  volumes,  1792-95),  together 
with  a  number  of  biographical  works,  in- 
cluding Oeneral  Biography  (ten  volumes,  1799- 
1815).  He  edited  the  Monthly  Magazine  (1796- 
1807),  and  Dodsley'a  Annual  Register  (1811- 
1813). 

ATimy,  Lucy  (1781-1864).  An  English 
writer,  daughter  of  John  Aikin,  and  his  assistant 
in  much  of  his  work.  She  wrote  one  novel,  Lor- 
imer  (1814),  but  her  reputation  rests  on  her 
series  of  court  memoirs,  beginning  with  Memoirs 
of  the  Court  of  Elizabeth  (1818),  and  on  her 
Life  of  Addison  ( 1843) .  She  also  wrote  memoirs 
of  her  father  and  of  her  aunt,  Mrs.  Barbauld. 

AIKMAN,flk'man,  William  (1682-1731).  A 
Scottish  portrait  painter.  He  studied  in  Edin- 
burgh and  Rome,  traveled  in  Italy  and  Tur- 
key, and  practiced  his  art  first  in  Edinburgh  and 
afterward  in  London.  He  painted  portraits  of 
Allan  Ramsay,  Gay,  Thomson,  and  John,  Duke 
of  Argyll. 

AILANTHUS,  A-lftn'thiis,  or  AILANTO 
(Malacca  name,  tree  of  heaven).  A  lofty, 
spreading  tree  (Ailanihus  glandulosus) ,  of  the 
natural  order  Simarubaceo;,  a  native  of  China, 
but  now  frequently  planted  to  shade  public 
walks  in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  England, 
and  in  North  America.  The  flowers  of  the  male 
plant  have  a  disgusting  odor.  The  leaves  resem- 
ble those  of  the  ash.  The  tree  flourishes  on 
light  soils,  and  is  hardy  enough  to  endure  even 
the  climate  of  the  north  of  Scotland.  It  has  been 
somewhat  extensively  planted  in  the  United 
States.  The  tree  is  easily  propagated  by  suckers 
and  cuttings  of  the  roots.  The  wood  is  fine- 
grained, satiny,  and  suitable  for  cabinet  making. 
Ailanthus  imberbiflorus  andAilanthus  punctatus 
are  among  the  important  timber  trees  of  Aus- 
tralia. Another  species,  Ailanthus  excelsus,  is 
wjmnion  in  India.  The  genus  Ailanthus  has  been 
recognized  by  fossil  fruits  and  leaves  in  Tertiary 
Ws  of  Europe  and  North  America. 

AILANTHTTS  MOTH.  A  large,  hardy,  silk- 
spinning  moth  iPhilosamia  cynthia),  introduced 
from  China  into  the  United  States  on  the  ailan- 
thus tree.  It  may  be  identified  by  its  rows  of 
^ttfts  of  white  hairs. 


AILETTE,  &-let'  (Fr.  little  wing).  An  ap- 
pendage to  the  armor  worn  by  knights  on  each 
shoulder.  Ailettes  were  of  various  forms  and 
sizes,  and  bore  the  heraldic  device  of  the  knight. 
They  were  not  intended  primarily  for  defense, 
as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  most  of  them 
stood  up  straight  in  the  air,  but  in  some  cases 
tliey  seem  to  have  been  adapted  as  a  defense  for 
the  shoulders.  They  were  in  use  between  1280 
and  1330.  Epaulettes  are  said  to  have  been  de- 
rived from  these. 

AHiLY,  k'y^,  PnsRBE  d',  or  Petbus  de 
Alliaco  (1350-1420).  A  French  theologian.  He 
studied  theology  in  Paris,  where,  in  1380,  he 
became  a  doctor  of  the  Sorbonne.  He  was  leader 
of  the  Nominalists,  asserted  that  the  Church 
rests  on  Christ,  not  on  Peter,  and  derives  its 
authoritative  teachings  from  the  Scriptures,  not 
from  canon  law.  He  became  grand  master  of  the 
College  of  Navarre,  Paris,  in  1384,  and  in  1389 
confessor  and  almoner  to  Charles  VI.,  and  the 
same  year  Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Paris. 
His  defense,  two  years  previous,  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  won  him  the  epithets  "Eagle 
of  France"  and  "Hammer  of  Heretics."  He  be- 
came Bishop  of  Le  Puy,  1395,  and  of  Cambrai  in 
1397.  He  induced  the  calling  of  the  Council  of 
Pisa,  of  which  he  was  an  active  member.  He 
was  made  cardinal  by  John  XXIII.  (1411),  and 
was  sent  as  legate  to  Germany  in  1413.  He 
was  prominent  in  the  Council  of  Constance,  1414- 
18,  furthering  the  condemnation  of  Huss  and 
Jerome  of  Prague,  but  strenuously  advocating 
reform  in  the  Church;  maintaining  the  au- 
thority of  councils  over  that  of  popes,  and  aid- 
ing in  the  election  of  Martin  V.  in  place  of 
three  rival  popes.  He  was  afterward  made 
papal  legate  at  Avignon  until  his  death.  His 
writings  are  numerous.  Among  them  is  an  at^- 
tempt  to  harmonize  astronomy  and  theology. 
For  his  biography,  consult:  P.  Tschacker^ 
(Gotha,  1877),  and  L.  Salembier   (Lille,  1886). 

AILBED,  flKr$d,  Saint,  ^Ethelbed,  Ethel- 
red  (1109-66).  An  English  ecclesiastic  and  his- 
torian, born  at  Hexham,  Northumberland.  He 
was  educated  at  the  Scotch  court,  became  a 
t^istercian  monk  in  Rievaulx  Abbey,  Yorkshire, 
then  abbot  of  Revesby,  1142,  then  of  Rievaulx, 
1146,  remaining  so  till  his  death,  January  12, 
1166.  He  was  canonized  in  1191.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  historical  and  theological  works, 
the  former  of  little  value,  owing  to  their  un- 
limited credulity.  Leland  says  he  saw  Ailred's 
tomb  at  Rievaulx  adorned  with  gold  and  silver 
ornaments.  His  works  are  in  Migne,  Patrol,  Lat. 
CXCV. 

AIIiSA  CBAIG,  aKs&  krag.  A  small  island 
off  the  western  coast  of  Ayrshire,  Scotland 
(Map:  Scotland,  C  4).  It  is  only  two  miles  in 
circumference  and  rises  to  a  height  of  1114  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  terminates  in  high  cliffs  on 
the  northwest,  and  contains  some  springs  near 
its  summit.  It  is  well  known  for  its  columnar 
form,  and  has  a  lighthouse,  erected  in  1836. 

AIMAK,  1-mak'.  A  term  of  Mongolian  origin 
signifying  "clans,"  and,  with  the  prefix  char 
("four"),  employed  as  a  designation  for  a  num- 
ber of  tribes  inhabiting  the  central  and  north- 
western part  of  Afghanistan.  Little  is  known 
concerning  them  except  that  they  are  a  Mongo- 
lian people  dwelling  in  the  midst  of  an  Aryan 
population,  and  speaking  a  dialeot  that  seems 
clo.sely  related  to  the  Calmuck,  t\vci«ffY\  largely 


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AINO. 


influenced  by  the  Persian.  According  to  some 
authorities  the  four  principal  tribes  of  the  Aimak 
are  the  Jamjidi,  the  Tiruskohi,  the  Taimuni,  and 
the  Hazaras:  others  make  a  definite  distinction 
between  the  Aimak  and  the  Hazaras,  characteriz- 
ing the  former  as  Sunnite  Mohammedans  and  the 
latter  as  adherents  in  the  main  of  the  Shiite 
sect.  Macgregor,  Central  Asia  (Calcutta,  1871), 
substitutes  the  Saidnat  for  the  Hazaras,  and  esti- 
mates the  total  number  of  the  Aimak  at  250.000, 
describing  them  as  semi-nomndic  in  their  habits 
and  excellent  fighters.  They  are  supposed  to  be 
descendants  of  Turkish-Tartar  tribes  which  un- 
<Ier  Hulaku  Kahn  overthrew  the  Persian  Cal- 
iphate in  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century. 

ATIWABA,  l-mU'rA.  Any  of  many  large  car- 
nivorous fishes  of  South  America,  especially  com- 
mon in  the  Amazonian  rivers,  some  twenty 
species  of  which  form  the  heterognathous  family 
Erythrinidffi  and  the  genus  Macrodon.  They  are 
also  called  trahiras. 

AIMABD,  A'mftr',  Gustave  (1818-83).  A 
French  novelist.  He  shipped  to  America  as  a 
cabin-boy,  sp>ent  ten  years  among  the  Indians  of 
the  western  prairies,  and  traveled  in  Spain,  Tur- 
key, and  the  Caucasus.  In  1848  he  was  in  Paris, 
and  an  officer  of  the  Garde  Mobile.  At  the  time 
of  the  Franco-German  war,  he  organized,  and  for 
a  while  commanded,  the  so-called  "francs-tireurs 
of  the  press."  He  is  sometimes  called  the  French 
Fenimore  Cooper.  He  published  many  adventure 
stories,  for  the  most  part  improbable  but  inter- 
esting. The  list,  many  volumes  of  which  have 
been  translated  into  English,  includes:  Les 
Trappeurs  de  V Arkansas  (1858)  ;  Le  Grand  Chef 
des  Ancas  (1858);  Les  Pirates  de  la  Prairie 
i  1859),  and  Les  Scalpcurs  Blancs  (1873). 

AIMiS-MABTIN.&'mlL^mar'taN^  Louis.  See 
Martin,  Louis  AiMfi. 

AIOHOK.    See  Aymon. 

AIM^WELL.  ( 1 )  A  character  in  Farquhar's 
comedy.  The  Beaux'  Stratagem  (q.v.).  (2)  A 
character  in  Shirley's  The  Witty  Fair  One  (q.v.). 

AIKy  fiN.  A  river  in  France,  which  rises  in 
the  Jura  Mountains.  It  flows  through  the  de- 
partments of  Jura  and  Ain,  and  after  a  course 
of  about  120  miles  falls  into  the  Rhone,  18  miles 
above  Lyons  ( Map :  France,  M  5 ) .  It  is  used  for 
Hoating*  timber,  and  admits  of  navigation  down 
stream  only. 

AIK.  A  frontier  department  of  France,  sepa- 
rated from  Switzerland  and  Savoy  by  the  Rhone 
(Map:   France,  M  5).     Capital,  Bourg. 

AINEKOLO,  rn&-mo16,  Vincenzo.  A  Sicil- 
ian painter  of  the  early  sixteenth  century,  con- 
spidered  by  some  the  most  important  artist  of 
Sicily.  He  studied  at  Rome  under  Raphael,  whose 
j^lyle  he  imit/ited.  His  best  known  works  are  a 
*' Christ  Carrying  the  Cross"  (Santa  Maria  la 
Xuova,  Naples),  a  "Madonna"  (San  Domenico, 
Palermo),  and  "Martyrdom  of  the  Forty  Mar- 
tyrs"  (Museum  of  Palermo). 

AINGEB,  an'j^r,  Alfred  (1837—).  An  Eng- 
lish clergyman  and  writer.  He  was  born  in 
London,  and  was  educated  at  King's  College  and 
at  Trinity  Hall,  Cambridge.  He  was  ordained 
priest  in  1863,  and  three  years  afterward  was 
appointed  reader  of  the  Temple  Church,  a  posi- 
tion which  he  held  until  1894,  when  he  succeeded 
Dean  Vaughan  as  Master  of  the  Temple.  He  is 
a  canon  of  Bristol  and  chaplain- in-ordinary  to 


the  king.  As  an  author,  he  is  best  known  for 
his  editions  of  Lamb's  Collected  Works  and  for 
his  Biography  of  Charles  Lamb  (Englishmen  of 
Letters  Series). 

AINHTLLEB,  In'mlM§r,  Max  Emaxiel 
(1807-70).  A  German  painter  of  architectural 
subjects,  born  in  Munich.  He  studied  at  the 
Munich  Academy,  devoted  himself  to  the  revival 
of  stained-glass  painting,  and  in  1844  became 
director  of  the  royal  manufactory  of  stained 
glass,  where,  under  his  supervision,  a  great  deal 
of  work  was  done  for  the  cathedrals  of  Cologne, 
Ratisbon,  and  Speier,  St.  PauPs  in  London,  and 
the  University  Church  at  Cambridge.  His  inte- 
riors were  hard  and  cold  in  color,  but  in  the 
ornamentation  of  Gothic  interiors  he  showed  a 
good  knowledge  of  architecture.  He  also  won 
a  reputation  as  a  painter  of  architectural  sub- 
jects. Two  interior  views  of  Westminster  Ab- 
bey done  by  him  hang  in  the  Munich  Gallery; 
similar  views  and  others  are  in  the  National 
Gallery  of  Berlin ;  there  are  interiors  of  the 
Church  of  Our  Lady  in  Munich,  and  views  of 
St.  Lawrence  Church  in  Nuremberg  and  other 
places.     He  died  in  Munich. 

AIKO,  I^nd,  or  ALNTJ,  i^ntRJ  (men  of  Aiona, 
their  reputed  ancestor,  or  possibly  a  corrup- 
tion of  inUf  dog,  contemptuously  applied  to 
them  by  the  Japanese).  An  aboriginal  peo- 
ple, now  numbering  some  18,000  souls,  in  north- 
ern and  eastern  Yezo,  the  southern  part  of  Sag- 
halin,  and  the  southern  Kuriles  (all  but  1500 
live  on  Yezo).  They  inhabited  once  a  great 
part,  if  not  all,  of  the  Japanese  Archipelago, 
and  were  the  first  race  to  dwell  there,  unlei^s 
the  so-called  "pit-dwellers'*  of  Yezo  and  Sagha- 
lin  were,  as  Hitchcock  (1890)  suggested,  driven 
out  by  them  when  they  intruded  into  this  area 
from  their  former  home  on  the  adjoining  Asiatic 
coast  many  centuries  B.C.,  as  the  archaeological  re- 
mains (shell  heaps,  stone  implements,  pottery, 
etc.)  in  Japan  indicate.  The  retreat  northward 
of  the  Aino  is  noted  in  Japanese  chronicles  re- 
ferring to  the  "barbarians."  The  physical  char- 
acteristics of  the  Aino — short  stature,  flattened 
humerus  and  tibia,  heavy  beards,  and  general 
hirsuteness  (much  exaggerated  by  travelers), 
lighter  skin,  dolichocephaly  and  brachycephaly, 
somewhat  regular  features,  and  non-savage  looks 
— have  given  rise  to  theories  of  relationship  with 
almost  every  known  race.  Brinton  (1890)  allies 
them  with  the  Giliaks  of  the  Amur;  Deniker 
(1900)  considers  them  sui  generis;  Keane 
(1896)  and  Baelz  (1901)  believe  them  to  have 
been  originally  of  the  Caucasian  (white)  race. 
The  last,  who  has  studied  the  Aino  at  first  hand, 
is  of  the  opinion  that  they  are  the  extreme  east- 
ern branch  of  a  race  related  to  the  Caucasian 
stock,  once  occupying  much  of  Northeastern  Asia, 
but  split  into  two  sections  by  the  inroads  of  the 
Mongol-Turkish  peoples  at  a  very  remote  date, 
a  view  which  has  a  good  deal  to  commend  it.  But 
the  Aino  are  not  a  uniformly  pure  type,  as  the 
diflferences  between  those  of  Yezo  and  of  SSaghalin 
show.  The  linguistic,  geographical,  and  mytho- 
logical researches  of  B.  H.  Chamberlain  (1887) 
and  Bachelor  (1882-1894)  prove  both  the  unique- 
ness of  the  Aino  tongue  and  the  great  influ- 
ence upon  Japanese  life  exerted  by  that  peo- 
ple in  times  past.  Driven  northward  from  their 
ancient  habitat  in  southwestern  and  central  Ja- 
pan, they  have  left  their  names  on  the  natural 
features  of  the  archipelago.     Their  language  is 


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AIKSWOBTH. 


simple  and  harmonious  and  resembles  the  Jap- 
anese in  structure,  but  is  quite  distinct  in  vocab- 
ulary. It  has  been  reduced  to  writing  only  re- 
cently. The  Rev.  John  Bachelor  has  compiled  an 
Aino  grammar  and  dictionary,  and  translated 
the  New  Testament  into  the  tongue.  The  Aino 
religion,  originally  a  rather  primitive  nature- 
worship,  with  the  cult  of  the  bear  especially 
prominent,  and  their  folk-tales,  have  evidently 
received  some  additions  from  Japanese  sources 
in  historical  times.  In  the  last  few  years  some  of 
the  Tsuishikari  Aino  have  become  Buddhists  of 
the  Monto  sect,  and  a  few  others  in  the  region  of 
Piratori  have  Income  Protestants.  A  good  account 
of  the  Aino  (with  bibliography)  was  published 
by  Professor  Hitchcock  in  the  Report  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum  for  1890.  Since 
then  the  most  important  literature  about  them  is 
to  be  found  in  the  anthropological  studies  of 
Kocanei  (1893-94)  and  Landor's  Alone  with  the 
Bairy  Ainu  (1893).  Baelz,  in  the  Verhand- 
hngen  der  Berliner  Gesellschaft  fUr  Anthropolo- 
gic for  1901,  considers  that  the  amount  of  Aino 
hlood  in  the  Japanese  outside  of  Yezo  has  been 
much  underestimated.  He  notes  also  the  increas- 
ing intermixture  of  Japanese  and  Aino,  and 
foresees  the  ultimate  disappearance  of  the  lat- 
ter, not  by  extinction,  but  by  natural  amalga- 
mation with  the  former.  This  amalgamation  is 
favored  by  the  gradual  abandonment  of  ideas 
about  the  alleged  mental  inferiority  of  the  Aino. 
(See  Japat^ese.)  In  addition  to  the  works  cited 
in  the  text,  consult :  GrilBs,  The  Mikado's  Empire 
(New  York,  1876)  ;  Bird,  Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Ja- 
pan (London,  1885)  ;  Chamberlain  and  Bachelor, 
Aino  Studies  (Tokio,  1887)  ;  Transactions  of 
the  Asiatic  Society  of  Japan  (Yokohama,  1874- 
98). 

AINSLIE,  anzHi,  Hew  (1792-1878).  A  Scot- 
tish-American poet,  bom  at  Bargeny  Mains,  Ayr- 
shire. While  a  clerk  in  the  register  house  at 
Edinburgh  he  acted  as  amanuensis  to  Professor 
Dupild  Stewart.  He  emigrated  to  the  United 
States  in  1822,  and  joined  for  a  year  Robert 
Owen's  venture  at  New  Harmony,  Ind.  (See 
Hakmonists.)  He  subsequently  went  into  busi- 
ness. His  numerous  dialect  poems  had  extended 
his  reputation  to  Scotland,  where  he  was  enthu- 
siastically received  by  literary  folk  in  1864. 
Thpfse  poems,  many  of  which  were  highly 
esteemed  by  Sir  Walter  Scott,  were  collected 
and  edited  by  a  friend,  W.  Wilson  (1855). 
Some  of  them  are  also  to  be  found  in  WilsonV 
Poets  and  Poetry  of  Scotland  (1876). 

AIKSWOBTH,  flnz^wtlrth,  Frederick  Crat- 
Tox  (1852 — ).  An  American  soldier,  born  at 
Woodstock,  Vt.  He  was  appointed  assistant 
surgeon.  United  States  Army,  in  1874,  and  in 
1891  major  and  surgeon.  In  1892  he  was  pro- 
moted to  be  colonel  and  chief  of  the  Record  and 
Pension  Office,  and  in  that  capacity  introduced 
the  index  record-card  system,  by  means  of  which 
the  history  of  every  soldier  is  made  readily 
available.  He  was  promoted  to  be  brigadier- 
general  in  1899,  and  appointed  editor  of  the 
Official  War  Records. 

AUrSWOBTH,  Henry  (1571-1623).  An  Eng- 
lish scholar  and  divine.  He  was  driven  from 
England  by  proscription  in  1593  because  he  was 
a  Brownist,  and  lived  in  poverty  in  Amsterdam 
until,  in  1596,  he  became  teacher  in  the  church 
there  of  the  Brownists.  Though  never  forward, 
^  was  the  most  steadfast,  resolute,  and  cultured 


champion  of  the  principles  of  civil  and  religious 
freedom  represented  by  the  nonconformists  in 
Great  Britain  and  America.  While  fighting  for 
freedom  from  hierarchical  tyranny,  Ainsworth 
pursued  his  Hebrew  studies,  and  for  a  long  time 
biographers  had  two  Henry  Ainsworths,  one  the 
learned  rabbinical  student,  the  other  the  arch- 
heretic  and  leader  of  the  Separatists;  but  the 
two  were  one  man.  His  most  notable  work  is  A 
Defense  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  Worship  and 
Ministry  used  in  the  Christian  Churches  sepa- 
rated from  Anti-Christ,  against  the  challenges, 
cavils,  ana  contradictions  of  M.  Smythe  in  his 
boojc  entitled  **The  Differences  of  the  Churches 
of  the  Separation"  (Amsterdam,  1609).  He 
wrote  notes  on  all  the  books  of  the  Pentateuch^ 
the  Psalms,  and  Solomon's  Song.  There  is  a 
story,  not  probable,  that  he  was  poisoned  by 
Jews. 

AINSWOBTH,  Robert  (1660-1743).  An 
English  lexicographer^  author  of  a  Latin  diction- 
ary which  was  once  extensively  used.  He  was 
born  near  Manchester  and  taught  school  in  Lon- 
don. He  began  his  dictionary  in  1714;  it  was 
first  published  in  1736. 

AIKSWOBTHy  William  Francis  (1807- 
96).  An  English  physician,  geologist,  and 
traveler.  He  was  born  in  Exeter,  and  grad- 
uated in  medicine  at  Edinburgh  in  1827.  He  then 
traveled  in  France,  and  prosecuted  geological 
investigations  in  the  Auvergne  and  Pyrenean 
mountains.  On  his  return  in  1828  he  conducted 
the  Journal  of  Natural  and  Geographical  Science, 
and  delivered  lectures  on  geology.  In  1835  he 
was  attached  as  physician  and  geologist  to  the 
Euphrates  expedition  under  Colonel  Chesney,  and 
returned  home  in  1837  through  Kurdistan,  the 
Taurus,  and  Asia  Minor,  visiting  the  latter  again 
the  following  year.  He  published  Researches  in 
Assyria  (1838).  He  also  published  The  Claims 
of  the  Christian  Aborigines  in  the  Ea^t  (1843) 
and  Travels  in  the  Track  of  the  Ten  Thousand 
Greeks  (1844).  He  was  for  a  time  editor  of 
the  New  Monthly  Magazine.  He  was  a  member 
of  many  learned  societies. 

AIKSWOBTHy  William  Harrison  (1805- 
82).  An  English  novelist,  bom  at  Manchester. 
His  creative  fancy  began  early  to  show  itself  in 
ballads  and  tales,  which  appeared  in  the  local 
newspapers  and  in  contributions  to  the  London 
Magazine  and  other  periodicals.  He  first  studied 
law,  but  tiring  of  that,  he  began  a  publishing 
business  in  London,  and  that  did  not  succeed. 
His  first  novel  was  Sir  John  Chiverton  (1826)  ; 
his  second,  Rookwood  (1834),  was  very  favor- 
ably received.  Crichton  (1837)  and  Jack  Shep- 
pard  (1839)  followed  soon  after.  He  edited 
Bentley's  Miscellany  for  a  time;  in  1842  began 
his  own  Ainsworth's  Magaaine,  and  from  1853 
edited  the  New  Monthly  Magazine.  Some  of  his 
other  works  are:  Lancashire  Witches  (1848); 
Star  Chamber  (1854);  Cardinal  Pole  (1863); 
John  Law,  the  Projector  (1864)  ;  The  Spanish 
Match  (1865);  Merrie  England  (1874);  and 
Beau  Nash  (1880).  All  his  works,  and  particu- 
larly his  earlier  ones,  were  remarkably  popular 
in  England.  Their  publication  began  when  the 
inane  "fashionable  novel"  was  the  staple,  and 
they  presented  an  agreeable  contrast.  The  his- 
torical element,  together  with  the  scenery  of  his 
native  country,  is  prominent  in  most  of  them. 
Analysis  of  character  or  motives  had  no  place  in 
his  works;   his  strength  was  in  the  vividness 


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AIB  BBAKE. 


and   directness   with   which   he   realized   scenes 
and  incidents. 

AINTAB,  In-tab'.  A  town  in  the  Syrian 
viliiyot  of  Aleppo,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situated  about 
03  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Aleppo  (Map:  Tur- 
key in  Asia,  G  4).  It  is  an  important  military 
post  and  is  well  fortified.  It  carries  on  an  ex- 
tensive trade  in  leather  and  cotton,  and  lies  on 
thi'  route  leading  from  Aleppo  to  Armenia.  Its 
po|iiilation  is  about  43,000,  and  consists,  to  a 
gi't  at  extent,  of  Armenian  and  Greek  Christians. 

AIB,  a-5r',  or  Asben.  A  hilly  region  in  the 
)4oiitliern  part  of  Sahara,  situated  between  17° 
ujkI  20°  northern  latitude  and  7°  and  10** eastern 
longitude.  It  is  regarded  as  one  of  the  best  pop- 
iilat^^d  centres  of  Sahara,  but  has  been  very  little 
explored  as  yet.  The  valleys  are  supposed  to  be 
fertile  and  the  climate  temperate.  There  are 
110  permanent  rivers,  but  the  numerous  ravines 
lilt  with  water  during  the  rainy  season,  and  it 
ofi<.'n  happens  that  a  large  valley  is  converted 
into  a  river  in  a  very  short  time.  The  country 
is  nded  by  a  native  Sultan,  and  the  population, 
estimated  at  about  100,000,  consists  chiefly  of 
Tujiregs.    Capital,  Agades  (q.v.). 

AIB  ( TAt.  aer,  Gk.  ai/p,  a^r,  from  detv,  aein, 
to  blow).  The  mixture  of  gases  forming  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  earth.  It  consists  essentially  of 
70.03  parts  of  nitrogen  and  20.97  parts  of  oxygen, 
with  varying  small  quantities  of  aqueous  vapor, 
earbon  dioxide,  ammonia,  and  ozone.  Certain 
eheniical  compounds,  as  common  salt,  ammonium 
nitrate,  etc.,  as  well  as  minute  particles  of  ani- 
nuil,  vegetable,  and  mineral  matter,  are  also  fre- 
quently found  in  the  air.  Early  chemists  called 
all  gases  airs.  The  chief  properties  of  air  and 
the  phenomena  they  give  rise  to  may  be  found 
treated  under  Atmosphebe;  i^ODYNAMics; 
.-I^Ro-sTATics ;  Bakometeb;  Aib-Pump;  Mbonav- 
Tirs,  etc. 

AIB  BLAIXDEB  of  FISH'ES.     See  Fish. 

AIB  BBAKE.  a  brake  worked  by  .com- 
pres>ied  air,  which  is  extensively  applied  to  rail- 
way t^ars  in  the  United  States,  and  also  to  a  less 
extent  in  other  countries.  Air  brakes  are  also 
a]*ied  on  street  railway  cars.  The  air  brake  in 
its  first  form  was  invented  by  George  Westing- 
house,  Jr.,  an  American  engineer,  in  1869,  and 
19  known  as  the  straight  air  brake.  This  brake 
con'^isted  of  an  air  pump,  a  main  reservoir,  and 
an  engineer's  valve  on  the  locomotive,  and  of  a 
train  pipe  and  brake  cylinder  on  each  car.  The 
air  pump  served  to  keep  the  main  reservoir  filled 
with  air  under  pressure,  and  the  brakes  were  ap- 
plied by  throwing  the  engineer's  valve  so  as  to 
allinv  the  air  from  the  main  reservoir  to  enter 
tlie  train  pipe  and  thence  into  the  brake  cylin- 
ders on  the  cars,  thus  forcing  the  pistons  out 
and  applying  the  brakes  on  each  car.  The  train 
pijx'  of  one  car  was  connected  to  that  of  the  next 
by  flexible  hose,  with  a  coupling  between  cars. 
This  form  of  brake  had  several  objections,  the 
more  important  of  which  were  that  the  brakes 
on  tlie  forward  cars  were  applied  so  much  sooner 
than  those  on  the  rear  cars  that  the  rear  cars 
bunted  up  against  the  forward  cars,  causing 
shocks  and  damage;  and  in  case  a  hose  burst  or 
a  coupling  parted,  the  air  pressure  would  es- 
cape without  setting  the  brakes.  These  objec- 
tion a  to  the  straight  air  brake  led  Mr.  Westing- 
liouse  to  invent,  in  1873,  the  automatic  air  brake. 


In  this  brake  each  car  was  equipped  with  an 
auxiliary  reservoir  and  a  triple  vahre  in  addition 
to  the  train  pipe  and  brake  cylinder.    The  triple 
valve  was  located  at  the  junction  of  the  train 
pipe  and  the  two  pipes  leading  to   the  brake 
cylinder   and   to   the  auxiliary  reservoir.     The 
principle  of  operation  of  this  improved  brake  is 
as  follows:    Air  pressure  is  maintained  in  the 
auxiliary  reservoirs  and   in  the   train   pipe  at 
all  times  when  the  brakes  are  not  applied,  the 
pressure  in  the  train  pipe  being  exactly  equal  to 
that  in  the  reservoirs,  and  there  being  no  pres- 
sure in  the  brake  cylinder,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  as   long  as  the  train  pipe  and  auxiliary 
reservoir  pressures  are  equal,  the  triple  valve  i's 
held  in  a  position  closing  the  air  inlet  to  the 
brake  cylinder.    To  apply  the  brakes,  the  equili- 
brium between  the  train  pipe  and  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  pressures  is  disturbed  by  allowing  air 
to  escape  from  the  train  pipe;  as  soon  as  this 
is  done,  the  excess  air  pressure  in  the  auxiliary 
reservoir  throws  the  triple  valve  so  that  it  admits 
pressure  from  the  reservoir  into  the  brake  cylin- 
der   and    applies    the    brakes.     To    release*  the 
brakes,   air   pressure   is   retained    in   the   train 
pipes   by   admitting  air   to   it   from   the  main 
reservoir  on  the  locomotive.     This  gives  an  ex- 
cess pressure  in  the  train  pipe  above  the  pres- 
sure m  the  auxiliary  reservoir,  which  throws  the 
triple  valve  so  as  to  close  the  inlet  to  the  brake 
cylinder   and   open   the   inlet   to   the   auxiliary 
reservoir  from  the  train  pipe,  thus  allowing  the 
two  to  attain  equal  pressures  again.    To  permit 
air  to  escape  from  the  train  pipe,  and  thus  apply 
the   brakes,   there   is   the  engineer's   valve  pre- 
viously mentioned,  and  also  a  conductor's  valve 
on  each  car,  the  latter  being  used  only  in  case  of 
emergency.     It   is   evident  also   that   should   a 
break  occur  in  the  train  pipe,  or  its  hose  connec- 
tions, through  any  accident,  the  pressure  is  re- 
lieved and  the  brakes  are  applied  automatically. 
It  will  readily,  be  appreciated  from  what  has 
been  said  that  the  triple  valve  is  an  exceedingly 
important  part  of  the  mechanism  of  the  auto- 
matic air  brake.    It  performs  three  duties :    ( 1 ) 
Charges   the   auxiliary   reservoirs.    (2)    Applies 
the  brakes,  and  (3)  Releases  the  brakes.     These 
duties  are,  moreover,  performed  automatically, 
and,  as  experience  has  shown,  with  almost  abso- 
lute certainty  as  long  as  the  valve  mechanism  is 
kept  in  good  order.     The  triple  valve  is,  how- 
ever, not  the  only  automatic  feature  of  the  air 
brake.     The  operation  of  the  air  pump  is  con- 
trolled automatically  by  a  pump  governor,  which 
shuts  thetsteam  off  from  the  air  pump  as  soon 
as  the  pressure  in  the  main  reservoir  has  reached 
a  certain  amount,  and  admits  it  again  when  the 
pressure  falls  below  this  amount.     There  is  also 
an  automatic  contrivance  for  closing  the  ends  of 
the  coupling  hose  when  they  are  disconnected; 
this  valve  opens  automatically  when  the  hose  is 
coupled.     This  describes  briefly  the  construction 
and  operation  of  the  plain  automatic  air  brake. 
It  was,  as  will  be  obvious  to  all,  a  vast  improve- 
ment over  the  straight  air  brake.     Its  chief  ob- 
jection was  that  in  an  emergency  application  on 
a  long  train  the  forward  brakes  were  applied  so 
much  sooner  than  those   in  the   rear  that   the 
slack  of  the  train  ran  ahead  and  often  did  great 
damage.    To  remedy  this  objection  Mr.  Westing- 
house  invented,  in  1887,  the  quick  action  triple 
valve,  by  which  the  application  was   so   much 
hastened  at  the  rear  of  the  train  that  the  slack 
had  no  chance  to  run  ahead.     At  present  the 


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quick  action  brake  is  the  prevailing  equipment 
of  railway  trains  in  America,  it  having  replaced 
practically  entirely  the  plain  automatic  brake. 
The  very  high  passenger  train  speeds  of  recent 
years  led  Mr.  Westinghouse,  in  1897,  to  place  on 
the  market  a  high  speed  brake.  This  brake  is 
designed  to  use  very  high  air  pressure  when  the 
brake  is  applied  with  the  train  at  full  speed, 
which  pressure  is  gradually  reduced  by  an  auto- 
matic reducing  valve  on  the  brake  cylinder  as 
the  speed  diminishes.  This  brake  has  not  been 
extensively  used.  Tests  made  with  the  regular 
high  speed  brake  attached  to  a  fifty-car  train 
showed  the  following  among  other  results: 
Emergency  stop  of  train  running  at  40  miles  per 
hour  made  in  about  675  feet,  in  20  seconds; 
breaking  the  train  in  two  at  a  speed  of  from  20 
to  25  miles  per  hour,  the  two  sections  stopped 
at  distances  of  from  32  feet  to  180  feet  apart; 
applying  brakes  with  train  standing  to  show 
rapidity  of  action,  all  brakes  applied  within 
two  seconds;  comparison  of  emergency  air  brake 
stop  and  hand  brake  stop  at  20  miles  per  hour; 
air  brake  stop  in  158  to  194  feet,  hand  brake  stop 
in  1000  feet  to  1720  feet;  service  stop  test  to  de- 
termine time  of  release  of  brakes,  all  brakes 
released  in  four  seconds.  Several  forms  of  air 
brake  besides  the  Westinghouse  have  been  em- 
ployed to  some  extent  in  America,  but  they  are 
exactly  similar  in  their  principles  of  operation. 
The  air  brake  has  been  applied  to  electric  street 
cars  and  to  cable  cars.  In  this  application  the 
air  pump  is  operated  from  one  of  the  axles,  and 
usually  the  straight  air  system  is  used,  in  ex- 
actly similar  form  as  it  was  formerly  used  for 
steam  railway  traiins.  Those  desiring  further 
and  more  technical  information  on  this  subject 
are  referred  to  Blackall,  Air  Brake  Catechism 
(New  York,  1900)  ;  Synnestvedt,  Air  Brake  Dis- 
eases (New  York,  1900);  Proceedings  Master 
Car  Builders'  Association. 

AIR  CELLS,  or  AIB  SACS.     See  Bibd. 

AIB  COMPBES'SOB,  or  AIB  PUICP.     A 

machine  for  compressing  air.  Compressed  air  is 
used  for  a  multitude  of  purposes  in  the  arts  and 
in  manufacturing,  and  to  catalogue  all  of  its  uses 
would  require  a  great  amount  of  space.  The 
simplest  form  of  air  pump  is  the  little  appara- 
tus for  inflating  bicycle  tires,  with  which  nearly 
every  one  is  familiar.  These  bicycle  pumps  are 
made  both  single  and  double  acting,  the  single 
acting  pump  being  the  simplest  form  of  air  com- 
pressor. Compared  with  the  enormous  air  com- 
pressing machines  used  in  shops  and  mines,  this 
little  device  seems  almost  too  trivial  to  merit 
notice,  but  by  carefully  observing  its  actions  and 
their  effects  we  have  brought  to  our  attention 
several  phenomena  which  are  important  facts  in 
air  compressing  on  a  large  scale.  One  of  these 
phenomena  is  the  power  required  to  pump 
against  the  resistance  of  the  compressed  air 
in  the  nearly  inflated  tire ;  the  second  and  more 
important  is  the  fact  that  a  very  perceptible 
development  of  heat  results  as  the  pumping  pro- 
ceeds. The  bearing  of  both  these  observations 
will  appear  as  we  proceed.  For  the  present  it 
need  only  be  observed  that  hand  air  pumps  of 
the  simple  form  indicated  are  used  for  a  variety 
of  purposes  where  only  a  small  amount  of  com- 
pressed air  is  required.  Where  a  somewhat 
larger  volume  of  air  is  required,  hand  pumps 
provided  with  fly-wheels  and  operated  by  one  or 
more  men  by  means  of  a  crank,  are  employed. 


With  these  large  hand  pumps  we  arrive  at  power 
air  compressors. 

The  air  pump  wus  invented  by  Otto  von 
Guericke  of  Magdeburg,  Germany,  about  1664. 
In  1753  Holl  used  an  air  engine  for  raising 
water,  and  in  1788  Smeaton  invented  a  pump 
for  use  with  diving  apparatus.  In  1851  com- 
pressed air  was  used  by  William  Cubitt  for 
bridge  work,  and  a  little  later  it  was  used  by 
Brunei  for  the  same  purpose.    In  1852  Colladon 

Satented  the  application  of  compressed  air  for 
riving  machine  drills  in  tunnel  construction. 
Sommeiller  developed  Colladon's  idea,  and  con- 
structed an  air  compressing  plant  for  the  !Mont 
Cenis  Tunnel  work.  (See  Tunnels.)  The  Som- 
meiller compressor  was  operated  as  a  ram,  util- 
izing a  natural  head  of  water  to  force  air  at 
80  pounds  pressure  into  a  receiver.  The  column 
of  water  contained  in  a  long  pipe  on  the  side  of 
the  hill  was  started  and  stopped  automatically 
by  valves  controlled  by  engines.  The  weight 
and  momentum  of  the  water  forced  a  volume  of 
air  with  such  a  shock  against  a  discharge  valve 
that  it  was  opened,  and  the  air  was  discharged 
into  the  tank.  The  valve  was  then  closed  and 
the  water  checked,  and  a  portion  of  it  was  al- 
lowed to  discharge  and  the  space  to  fill  with  air, 
which  was  in  turn  forced  into  the  tank.  The 
injection  of  water  in  the  form  of  a  spray  into 
the  compressor  cylinder  was  first  introduced  on 
the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel  work  begun  in  1872.  The 
first  compressor  used  in  America  was  developed 
by  Mr.  Thomas  Doane,  the  chief  engineer  of  the 
Hoosac  Tunnel,  and  was  employed  on  that  work. 
This  compressor  had  four  single  acting  cylinders, 
and  was  cooled  by  the  injection  of  water  through 
the  inlet  valves  into  the  cylinders.  These  early 
compressors  are  of  historical  interest  only  at 
the  present  time.  As  the  necessity  for  com- 
pressed air  power  grew,  inventors  turned  their 
attention  to  the  design  and  construction  of  com- 
pressors which  would  combine  efficiency  with 
light  weight  and  economy  of  space  and  cost.  As 
the  result  of  this  work,  the  modern  air  compres- 
sor has  been  developed. 

The  simplest  form  of  power  air  compressor  is 
the  air  brake  pump,  with  which  practically  every 
American  locomotive  is  equipped.  In  this  pump, 
it  will  be  readily  understood,  the  main  considera- 
tions are  economy  of  space,  light  weight,  and 
absolute  reliability  of  action ;  economy  of  steam 
consumption  being  quite  a  secondary  matter.  A 
dYz  inch  air  brake  pump,  for  example,  will  give 
1.85  cubic  feet  of  air  at  90  pounds  pressure,  with 
a  consumption  of  1  pound  of  steam  at  140  pounds 
pressure,  while  a  two-stage  Corliss  air  compres- 
sor will  give  13.7  cubic  feet  of  air  at  90  pounds 
pressure  with  the  same  steam  consumption.  The 
standard  air  brake  has  a  steam  cylinder  and  an 
air  cylinder  of  the  same  size,  viz.,  91/2  inches 
diameter  and  10  inch  stroke,  set  vertically  one 
above  the  other,  with  a  common  piston  rod.  ( See 
Air  Brakes.) 

It  has  been  stated  above,  in  referring  to  the 
bicycle  pump,  that  air  is  heated  by  compression. 
As  heat  causes  air  to  expand,  a  cubic  foot  of  hot 
air,  at,  say,  75  pounds  pressure,  will  decrease 
in  volume  when  cooled,  and  thus  bring  about 
a  reduction  in  pressure  to  something  less  than 
75  pounds.  Evidently,  therefore,  a  loss  of  work 
done  in  compression  results  from  the  heating  of 
the  air.  The  amount  of  the  loss  is  estimated  at 
21.3  per  cent,  of  the  total  work  done  in  compress- 
ing air  to  75  pounds  pressure.     To  save  this  loss, 


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coiTipressors  are  designed  with  some  form  of  de- 
vice for  keeping  the  air  cool  during  compression. 
Two  systems  are  used,  by  which  it  is  attempted 
to  keep  the  air  cool  during  compression,  and 
Ihe^e  systems  divide  air  compressors  into  two 
classes,  as  follows:  (1)  Wet  compressors  which 
introduce  water  directly  into  the  cylinder  during 
compression,  (a)  in  the  form  of  a  spray,  and 
( b )  by  the  use  of  a  water  piston ;  ( 2 )  Dry  com- 
pressors, which  admit  no  water  directly  into 
the  cylinder,  but  have  the  cylinder  surrounded 
by  a  jacket,  into  the  space  between  which  and 
the  cylinder  walls  water  is  forced  and  kept  in 
circulation.  The  water  piston  compressor  is  now 
6(?]dom  used.  Cooling  by  the  water  spray  injec- 
tion gives  the  most  efficient  results  as  far  as  cool- 
ing; the  air  is  concerned,  but  it  has  so  many 
ot>j(>ctions  that  it  has  been  found  to  be  the  best 
practice  to  use  the  less  efficient  but  vastly  more 
simple  water-jacket  system,  and  endure  the  loss 
of  heat  which  might  be  saved  by  using  water 
spray  injection.  Accordingly,  we  find  that  most 
air  compressors  are  nowadays  provided  with  a 
water- jacketed  air  cylinder  for  cooling  the  air 
during  compression.  Vertical  air  compressors 
have  the  steam  cylinders  placed  vertically  above 
the  air  cylinders;  horizontal  compressors  have 
the  steam  and  air  cylinders  placed  horizontally 
one  ahead  of  the  other.  Direct  air  compressors 
have  the  steam  and  air  piston  on  the  same  piston 
rod.  so  that  the  thrust  of  the  steam  piston  gives 
a  direct  thrust  on  the  air  piston;  indirect  acting 
compressors  transfer  the  thrust  of  the  steam  pis- 
ton by  means  of  cranks  and  gearing  to  the  air 
piston  rod.  A  simple  acting  compressor  is  one 
which  compresses  air  on  the  forward  stroke  of 
the  air  piston  only,  the  back  stroke  doing  no 
useful  work;  a  double  acting  compressor  com- 
presses air  on  both  the  forward  and  back  strokes 
of  the  air  piston.  A  two-stage  compressor  part- 
ly compresses  the  air  in  one  cylinder,  from 
which  it  is  passed  to  a  second  cylinder,  where  it 
is  further  compressed.  Generally,  the  air  in 
piihbing  from  the  first  to  the  second  cylinder 
paj^Hcs  through  an  inter-cooler,  where  it  is  cooled 
by  water.  Three-stage  and  four-stage  compres- 
Bor^i  are  sometimes  employed.  A  duplex  air  com- 
pressor consists  of  a  right-hand  steam  and  air 
cylinder  and  a  left-hand  steam  and  air  cylinder, 
each  side  being  capable  of  being  run  separately, 
or  the  two  sides  can  be  rua  together.  A  duplex 
con]  pressor  may  have  either  the  air  cylinders  or 
the  steam  cylinders,  or  both  air  and  steam  cylin- 
ders compounded.  Air  compressors  may  have 
tlie  steam  cylinders  replaced  by  a  pulley,  so  that 
they  may  be  operated  by  a  belt,  or  by  a  water 
wheel  obtaining  power  from  a  head  of  water. 
Whatever  the  form  of  compressor  which  is 
n-pd,  the  mechanical  action  in  compressing  the 
air  is  that  of  a  piston  working  in  a  cylinder, 
exactly  as  in  the  case  of  a  bicycle  pump.  As 
each  cylinderful  of  air  is  compressed,  it  is  forced 
into  a  sheet-iron  or  sheet-steel  tank  called  a 
receiver.  This  receiver  is  cylindrical  in  form, 
and  serves  as  a  reservoir  of  compressed  air  for 
snpplying  the  machine  which  is  operated  by  air 
(jici^sure.  The  receiver  is  often  provided  with 
an  arrangement  for  cooling  the  contained  air 
by  water.  While  it  is  advantageous  for  the 
reason  given  above  to  keep  the  air  as  cool  as 
possible  during  compression  and  while  it  remains 
ill  the  receiver,  as  soon  as  it  leaves  the  receiver 
heating  it  is  an  advantage,  for  the  reason  that 
by  this  heating  its  volume  or  its  pressure  is  in- 


creased.    So  important  is  this  advantage,  theo- 
retically, that  devices  called  reheaters  are  often 
employed  to  heat  the  air  just  before  it  passes  to 
the  motor  or  the  tool  which  it  operates.    Re- 
heaters  are  made  in  many  forms,  the  usual  one 
being  a  kind  of  stove  or  oven  through  which  the 
air  passes  by  means  of  a  spiral  pipe  or  some 
other  arrangement  which  allows  it  to  be  quickly 
heated.     Some   of   the   many   methods  of  util- 
izing compressed  air  in  engineering  and  the  arts 
are  given  in  the  following  list  of  uses,  compiled 
by  a  prominent  American  manufacturer  of  air 
compressors:    Rock  drills,  coal   cutters,  pumps, 
hoisting  engines,  and  other  machinery  in  mines 
and  tunnels,  air  brakes  on  railroad  and  street 
cars,  switches  and  signals,  engines,  hoists,  cranes, 
stone  carving  and  boiler  calking  tools,  chipping 
tools,  polishing  machines,  riveters,  punches,  ham- 
mers, tapping,  screwing  and  drilling  machines, 
stay-bolt  cutters,  angle  iron  shears,  paint  ma- 
chines, sand  blast  apparatus,  molding  machines, 
wood  bundling  machines  and  shop  tools  of  every 
description,  oil  fires  under  ovens,  furnaces,  and 
boilers,  and  in  fifty  other  applications,  such  as 
welding,  annealing,  tempering,  oil  illuminating 
lights,  pneumatic  transmission  tubes,  street  rail- 
way motors  and  mine  locomotives,  passenger  and 
freight  elevators,  sheep  shearing  machines  and 
cloth  cutters,  railway  crossing  gates  and  jacking- 
up  cars,  and  steering  gear  of  vessels,  charging 
pneumatic  dynamite  guns  and  projectiles,  and 
automatic  sprinkler  systems  for  fire  protection, 
tunnel  driving  by  the  pneumatic  process;  sink- 
ing caissons  for  structural  foundations;  pump- 
ing wells  by  air  lift  pump  method;   conveying 
and  elevating  acids,  chemicals,  and  other  liquids : 
racking  off  beer  in   breweries:    aerating  water 
supplies  of  cities,  towns,  and  villages;  agitating 
fluids,  such  as  asphalt,  molasses,  and  chemical 
solutions;  mixing  nitro-glycerine ;  removing  hose 
from    mandrels    in    rubber    factories;    inflating 
tires ;  testing  tinware,  pipe,  hose,  and  other  manu- 
factured products   required  to   stand   pressure; 
increasing  and  maintaining  pressure  on  hydrau- 
lic elevators;  sprays  of  all  descriptions,  includ- 
ing   physicians*,    hospitals',    sanitariums',    and 
baths;  spraying  solution  in  the  manufacture  of 
silk  ribbon;  moving  and  elevating  grain,  culm, 
and  other  material;  cleaning  carpets,  car  cush- 
ions, etc.;  unloading  dump  cars;  raising  sunken 
vessels;    supplying  divers   in  submarine  opera- 
tions;  refrigerating,  ventilating,  and  cold  stor- 
age; manufacture  of  various  gases;  disposition 
of  sewage:  and  for  a  large  number  of  other  duties 
in  railroad  shops,  chemical  works,  and  in  con- 
nection with  a  wide  variety  of  experiments  and 
patented  processes.     For  the  great  majority  of 
these  uses  an  air  pressure  below  75  pounds*  per 
square  inch  is  ample,  but  for  charging  the  tanks 
of   compressed    air    locomotives,    for    liquefying 
gases,  etc.,  much  higher  pressures  are  required. 
The  highest  known  pressure  to  which  air  has 
been    compressed    is    4000    atmospheres    (about 
60,000  pounds)   per  square  inch,  but  this  was  a 
laboratory  experinient.     The  safe  limit  of  pres- 
sure for  use  in  the  arts  to-day  is  largely  deter- 
mined by  the  strength  of  the  retaining  vessel  or 
reservoir,  and   has   reached   its  limit   at  about 
3000  pounds  per  square  inch.     To  obtain  these 
great  pressures  specially  designed  air  compres- 
sors have  to  be  constructed. 

For  a  concise  and  readable  history  of  air  com- 
pressors and  of  the  use  of  compressed  air,  con- 
sult :  Saunders,  Compressed  Air  Production  { New 


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AIR    COMPRESSORS 


I.CLAYTON   DUPLEX  COMPRESSOR. 

2.  PISTON    INLET    AIR    CYLINDER    for    Ingersoll- 

Sergeant  Compressor,  showing  water-jacket 

and  valves. 


3.  SHEET   STEEL   AIR    RECEIVER. 

4.  SECTIONAL   VIEW  OF   RAND   RE-HEATER. 

5.  INGERSOLL-SERGEANT   COMPRESSOR. 

6.  RAND  COMPOUND   COMPRESSOR. 


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AIB  COMPBESSOB. 


237 


AIB  GUN. 


York,  1902)  ;  for  a  somewhat  more  technical 
discussion  of  the  production  and  use  of  com- 
pressed air,  P.  Richards,  Compressed  Air  (New 
York,  1895).  The  most  comprehensive  descrip- 
tive treatise  on  compressed  air  in  English  is 
Hiscox,  Compressed  Air  and  Its  Applications 
(New  York,  1901). 

AIB  CUSHION,  kvsl/tin.  A  mattress  or 
cushion  composed  of  a  bag  or  sack  of  air-tight 
fabric,  which  can  be  inflated,  and  which  possesses 
many  advantages  of  comfort,  cleanliness,  and 
portability.  Air-beds  were  known  as  early  as 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but, 
being  made  of  leather,  were  expensive,  and  it 
was  only  after  the  invention  of  air-tight  or  rub- 
ber cloth  that  they  could  be  constructed  at  a 
moderate  cost.  An  air-bed  consists  of  a  sack  in 
tlie  form  of  a  mattress,  which  may  be  divided 
into  a  number  of  compartments,  each  air-tight, 
or,  as  is  more  usual  at  present,  it  may  have  a 
single  compartment  with  the  walls  tied  to  each 
other  to  preserve  its  shape  when  inflated.  The 
bod  is  supplied  with  a  valve,  or  valves,  through 
which  the  air  is  blown  in  by  a  bellows  or  an  air- 
pump.  They  are  especially  valuable  in  many 
cases  of  sickness,  and  for  use  by  camping  parties. 
Air- inflated  pillows  are  made  to  go  with  the  mat- 
tresses. The  air-cushion  is  another  contrivance 
of  the  same  kind,  the  layer  of  rubber  being  se- 
curely pasted  or  cemented  to  a  layer  of  strong 
cloth,  the  cloth  giving  strength  and  the  rubber 
impenetrability,  and  the  whole  sack  covered  with 
ticking.  The  chief  drawback  to  these  contri- 
vances is  their  liability  to  being  spoiled  by  a  rent 
or  a  puncture. 

AIBD,  ard,  Thomas  (1802-76).  A  Scottish 
poet  of  considerable  talent.  He  was  born  at 
Bowden,  in  Roxburghshire,  was  educated  at 
the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and  gained  the 
friendship  of  many  distinguished  men,  especially 
John  Wilson,  who  always  spoke  of  him  in  very 
hi^h  terms.  In  1835  he  became  editor  of  The 
Dumfries  Herald,  a  new  journal,  started  on  eon- 
ser\-ative  principles,  an  ofiice  which  he  filled  till 
1864.  His  works  are  not  so  well  known  as  they  de- 
:>erve  to  be,  from  their  intrinsic  merit.  In  spite 
of  very  warm  praise  from  Carlyle  and  others, 
they  have  failed  to  secure  a  large  measure  of 
public  approbation.  The  Devil's  Dream  is  per- 
haps an  exception  to  the  rest,  for  it  is  both  well 
known  and  admired.  There  is  something  almost 
Dantesque  in  the  stem,  intense,  and  sublime 
literalness  of  the  conception.  Whether  the 
wenes  are  on  a  large  scale,  as  in  The  DeviVs 
Dream,  or  minute,  as  in  The  Summer's  Day, 
there  is  the  same  clear,  vigorous,  and  pictur- 
es ue  word-painting.  In  1827  Aird  published 
lUligious  Characteristics,  a  piece  of  exalted 
prose-poetry;  in  1845,  The  Old  Bachelor,  a  vol- 
ume of  tales  and  sketches;  in  1848,  a  collected 
edition  of  his  poems,  a  second  edition  of  which 
appeared  in  1856,  and  in  1852  he  edited  the 
select  poems  of  David  Macbeth  Moir  ( the  "Delta" 
of  Blackwood's) ,  prefixing  a  memoir.  See  his 
life  and  poems,  edited  by  J.  Wallace   (1878). 

AIBIXBIE  (Gadhel.  Smooth  Height;  from 
aird,  height).  A  flourishing  town  in  Lanark- 
shire, Scotland,  11  miles  east  of  Glasgow  (Map: 
Scotland,  D  4).  The  highroad  between  Edin- 
burgh and  Qlasgow  intersecting  it  forms  its  prin- 
cipal street.  It  has  risen  rapidly,  was  incorpo- 
rated in  1821,  and  is  now  one  of  the  most  flour- 
ishing inland  towns  in  Scotland.     Little  more 


than  a  century  ago  it  consisted  of  a  solitary 
farmhouse  or  two,  but  the  abundance  of  iron 
and  coal  found  in  the  vicinity  has  given  its  in- 
dustries an  immense  impetus.  There  are  also 
cotton  weaving  establishments  and  paper  mills. 
Pop..  1891,  municipal  borough,  19,135;  1901, 
22.288. 

AIBE,  ar,  or  AIBE-SXTB-L'ADOXTB,  ftr'- 
8i.ir'l&'door'.  A  town  of  the  department  of 
Landes,  France,  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
slope  of  a  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adour,  112 
miles  south  of  Bordeaux  ( Map :  France,  F  8 ) .  It 
has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  since  the  fifth 
century,  and  its  cathedral  of  St.  Wolfram  is  a 
fine  example  of  flamboyant  Gothic,  begun  by 
Cardinal  Georges  Antoine,  under  Louis  XII.,  but 
afterward  completed  in  a  mean  and  paltry  style. 
Aire  has  also  a  college  and  a  library.  Its  in- 
dustries are  not  considerable,  but  its  tanyards 
and  hat  factories  give  employment  to  most  of  its 
inhabitants.     Pop.,   1896,  2434;  1901,  2247. 

AIBE,  or  AIBE-SXTB-LA-LYS,  ftr'syr-U- 
Us'.  A  town  of  the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais, 
France,  on  the  Lys  and  at  the  junction  of  three 
canals,  30  miles  southeast  from  Calais.  The 
town  is  fortified  and  well  built,  but  its  situation 
is  low  and  marshy.  Its  chief  buildings  are  the 
handsome  Gothic  church  of  St.  Peter,  dating 
from  the  fifteenth  century,  the  H6tel  du  Baillage 
or  Corps  de  Garde  of  the  sixteenth  century,  the 
H6tel  de  Ville,  and  extensive  barracks.  It  has 
various  domestic  manufactures  and  a  trade  in 
agricultural  products.     Pop.,  1901,  8458. 

AIBEDALE   TEB^IEB,   ar^d&l.     See  Teb- 

BIEB. 

AIB  EK^GINE.  See  Compressed  Air  En- 
gine and  Caloric  Engine. 

AIB  GUN.  An  instrument  somewhat  re- 
sembling a  sporting  rifle,  designed  to  discharge 
darts  or  bullets  by  the  elastic  force  of  compressed 
air.  As  ordinarily  made,  an  air  gun  consists 
essentially  of  an  air  chamber  or  reservoir,  usu- 
ally located  in  the  stock ;  of  a  condensing  syringe 
for  pumping  air  into  the  reservoir,  and  of  a 
valve  operated  by  a  trigger,  which  admits  the 
compressed  air  from  the  reservoir  to  the  barrel 
behind  the  bullet.  In  some  weapons  of  this  sort 
a  pressure  of  as  much  as  500  pounds  is  secured 
in  the  reservoir.  Usually  only  a  portion  of  the 
air  in  the  reservoir  is  used  for  a  single  shot, 
and,  therefore,  a  number  of  shots  may  be  fired 
without  recharging  the  reservoir  simply  by  re- 
leasing the  pull  on  the  trigger  immediately  and 
thus  closing  the  valve  between  the  reservoir  and 
barrel  after  a  small  portion  of  the  air  has  es- 
caped. This  permits  repeating  air  guns  to  be 
made  similar  in  the  mechanism  for  inserting  the 
bullets  to  repeating  fire-arms.  Obviously,  the 
pressure  in  the  reservoir  decreases  with  each  dis- 
charge of  air,  and,  therefore,  each  succeeding 
bullet  is  discharged  with  less  force  than  the  pre- 
ceding one.  At  best,  the  force  with  whioh  a 
bullet  is  discharged  from  an  air  gun  is  much 
less  than  is  given  by  gunpowder.  Sometimes  air 
guns  are  made  in  the  form  of  canes  or  walking 
sticks,  which,  like  sword  canes,  are  carried  for 
purposes  of  personal  defense  in  sudden  emer- 
gencies. The  range  of  an  air  gun  of  the  ordinary 
kind  is  from  180  to  250  feet.  The  air  gun  was 
known  in  France  over  two  centuries  ago,  and  the 
ancients  were  acquainted  by  a  device  by  which 
air  acted  on  the  short  arm  of  a  lever,  the  longer 


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AIBGXTN. 


238 


AIB  PUMP. 


arm  of  which  was  used  to  propel  a  bullet.  In 
1886  Lieutenant  E.  L.  Zalinski  of  the  United 
States  Army  invented  a  pneumatic  gun  for 
throwing  projectiles  filled  with  dynamite;  and 
later  the  Vesuvius  was  built  for  the  United 
States  Navy  and  equipped  with  three  of  these 
guns.  This  vessel  was  used  during  the  blockade 
of  Santiago  Harbor  in  the  Spanish-American 
War  of  1898.  During  the  Brazilian  civil  war  of 
1893  the  Nictheroy  was  equipped  with  a  pneu- 
matic gun  50  feet  long  and  of  15  inches  calibre. 
The  conclusions  of  experience  with  both  sets  of 
guns  was  that  the  range  of  the  gun  was  too 
small  and  the  accuracy  of  its  fire  insufficient  to 
make  it  a  serviceable  weapon  on  shipboard.  The 
Sims-Dudley  pneumatic  gun  used  in  the  last 
Cuban  rebellion  is  a  field  piece  having  a  range 
of  from  2600  to  3600  yards.  It  consists  of  a 
lower,  or  combustion,  tube  7  feet  long  and  4% 
inches  in  diameter,  and  an  upper  tube,  or  barrel, 
20  feet  long  and  2%  inches  in  diameter,  mounted 
on  a  regular  field  gun  carriage.  A  cartridge 
inserted  into  the  breech  of  the  combustion  cham- 
ber, and  containing  a  7  to  9  ounce  charge  of 
smokeless  powder,  is  fired;  this  compresses  the 
air  in  the  lower  chamber  so  that  it  passes  into 
the  upper  tube  or  barrel  behind  the  projectile 
and  forces  it  out.  The  projectile  is  a  light 
casing  filled  with  explosive  gelatine,  which  is 
fired  by  a  time  fuse,  or  by  a  contact  fuse  upon 
striking. 

AIBOLO,  l-r?5'16  (In  German,  Eriels).  A 
village  in  Switzerland,  in  the  canton  of  Ticino, 
on  the  upper  Ticino,  3755  feet  above  the  sea,  66 
miles  south  of  Lucerne,  at  the  south  end  of  the 
St.  Gothard  Pass  and  of  the  St.  Gothard  Rail- 
way Tunnel  (q.v.)  (Map:  Switzerland  C  2).  On 
September  17,  1877,  it  was  two- thirds  burned, 
but  later  rebuilt  in  stone.  December  27-28,  1898, 
it  was  partially  destroyed  by  an  avalanche.  The 
inscription,  "Suvarov  Victor,"  that  was  carved 
in  the  rocks  to  commemorate  the  victory  here 
of  the  Russians  over  the  French,  September  13, 
1799,  is  now  obliterated.     Pop.,  less  than  2000. 

AIB  PLANT.     See  Epiphyte. 

AIB  FOBT.     See  Ship. 

AIB  PUMP.  An  instrument  for  removing 
the  air  from  a  vessel.  These  pumps  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes,  mechanical  air  pumps 
and  mercurial  air  pumps.  The  mechanical  air 
pump  was  invented  by  Otto  von  Guericke  about 
1G54,  and  a  specimen  of  his  early  apparatus 
is  shown  in  Fig.  1  of  the  accompanying  page 
illustration.  In  Fig.  2  is  illustrated  a  modern 
simple  air  pump  whose  essential  part  is  a  hollow 
brass  or  glass  cylinder,  in  which  an  air-tight  pis- 
ton is  made  to  move  up  and  down  by  a  rod. 
From  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder  a  connecting 
tube  leads  to  the  space  which  is  to  be  exhausted, 
which  is  usually  formed  by  placing  a  bell-glass, 
called  the  receiver,  with  edges  ground  smooth 
and  smeared  with  lard,  on  a  flat,  smooth  plate 
or  table.  When  the  piston  is  at  the  bottom  of 
the  barrel  and  is  then  drawn  up,  it  lifts  out  the 
air  from  the  barrel,  and  a  portion  of  the  air  un- 
der the  receiver,  by  its  own  expansive  force, 
passes  through  the  connecting  tube  and  occupies 
the  space  below  the  piston,  which  would  other- 
wise be  a  vacuum.  The  air  in  the  receiver  and  bar- 
rel is  thus  rarefied.  The  piston  is  now  forced  down, 
and  the  effect  of  this  is  to  close  a  valve  placed  at 
the  mouth  of  the  connecting  tube  and  opening 
inward  into  the  barrel.    The  air  in  the  barrel  is 


thus  cut  off  from  returning  into  the  receiver,  and 
as  it  becomes  condensed  forces  up  a  valve  in 
the  piston,  which  opens  outward,  and  thus  es- 
capes  into   the   atmosphere.     When  the  piston 
reaches  the  bottom  and  begins  to  ascend  again 
this  valve  closes;   and  the  same  process  is  re- 
peated as  at  the  first  ascent.     Elach  stroke  thus 
diminishes  the  quantity  of  air  in  the  receiver; 
but  from  the  nature  of  the  process  it  is  evident. 
that  the  exhaustion  can  never  be  complete.  Even 
theoretically  there  must  always  be  a  portion  left, 
though  that  portion  may  be  rendercSi  less  than 
any    assignable    quantity;    and    practically  the 
process  is  limited  by  the  elastic  force  of  the  re- 
maining air  being  no  longer  sufiiicient  to  open 
the  valves.     The  degree  of  rarefaction  is  indi- 
cated by  a  gauge,  on  the  principle  of  the  barom- 
eter.   As  this  air  pump  only  withdraws  the  air 
at  the  rate  of  one  cylinder  full   for  a  double 
stroke  of  the  piston,  pumps  with  two  barrels  are 
frequently  used,  in  which  case  the  pistons  are 
each  attached  to  the  same  handle  but  each  moves 
in    an    opposite    direction    to    the    other,    the 
object  being  to  double  the  work  done  at  each 
stroke  of   the   handle.     Such   a   pump  is  illus- 
trated  in   Fig.   5   of   the   page   plate.     A  large 
number  of  modifications  of  this  type  of  pump 
have  been  invented,  all  of  which  are  the  same 
in   general    principles.     There   are    several   rea- 
sons why  sucn  pumps  do  not  continue  the  proce>s 
of  rarefaction   indefinitely,  but  after  a  certain 
stage  their  effects  cease  and  the  tension  of  the 
air   undergoes   no   further   change.     Leakage  at 
various  joints  in  the  pump  is  one  limiting  cause 
to  the  action  of  the  machine.     It  is  impossible 
to  prevent  leakage  entirely,  and  at  the  beginning 
of  the  operation  the  quantity  of  air  which  enters 
the  receiver   through  leakage  is  very  small  in 
comparison  with  the  amount  pumped  out.    But 
as  the  exhaustion  proceeds  the  leakage  is  faster 
on  account  of  the  reduced  pressure  in  the  re- 
ceiver, and  finally  a  limiting  point  is  reached 
when  the  inflow  and  outflow  are  equal  and  no 
reduction  in  the  tension  of  the  air  takes  place. 
Another  limit  to  the  action  of  this  machine  is 
caused  by  the  fact  that  there  must  always  be 
some  space  between  the  bottom  of  the  piston  and 
the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder,  which  is  untra- 
versed    by    the    piston.     At    the    beginning    of 
the  operation  this  space  contains  air  at  atmos- 
pheric   pressure,     which     is    rarefied     at    each 
stroke  of  the  piston;   but  some  tension  always 
remains  there,  and  when  the  air  of  the  receiver 
reaches    the    same    tension    no    further    effect 
will   be  produced  by  the  pump.       Perhaps  the 
most    important    trouble,    however,    with    this 
type  of  air  pump,  as  well  as  the  most  diflScult 
one  to  remedy,  is  the  absorption  of  air  by  the 
oil   used  for  lubricating  the  pistons.     This  oil 
finds  its  way  in  a  greater  or  less  quantity  to  the 
bottom  of  the  cylinder,  where  its  absorbed  air 
is  partially  given  up  at  the  moment  the  piston 
begins  to  rise.     This  class  of  pumps  is  not  good 
enough    for    the    manufacture    of    incandescent 
lamps  and  vacuum  tubes,  and  recourse  is  had 
to  the  mercurial  air  pump,  by  means  of  which 
a  much  greater  degree  of  exhaustion  "is  obtained. 
The  principle  of  the  mercurial   air  pump   ^^-as 
first   known   in   the   seventeenth   century,    when 
Torricelli  showed  how  to  produce  a  vacuum  by 
filling  a  tube  over  30  inches  long  and  closed  at 
one  end,  with  mercury,  and  then  inverting  the 
tube,  with  the  open  end  temporarily  closed,  in  a 
vessel  containing  the  same  liquid.     The  mercury 


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AIR    PUMPS 


1.  APPARATUS    OF   OTTO  VON    QUERICKE  with   water        4.  MERCURIAL    AIR    PUMP,     Topler-Hagon     form    with 

receptacle  at  base  removed.  improvements. 

2.  SECTION  OF   SIMPLE  AIR  PUMP.  5.  MECHANICAL  AIR  PUMP,  with  two  vertical  cylinders. 

3.  BUN8EN  WATER    PUMP.  6.  SELF-ACTING     8PRENQEL    MERCURIAL     AIR    PUMP. 


:lf-acting    sprenqel   mercurial    air   fl^MP.  T 

with  auxiliary  water  pump.      Digitized  by  VjOOQ IC 


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AIB  PUMP. 


239 


AIB  PUMP. 


GnssLSB  Pump. 


in  the  tube  then  descends  to  a  height  equal  to 
that  of  the  barometer  above  the  level  of  the 
mercury  in  the  lower  cup,  and  a  vacuum  is  left 
in  the  top  of  the  tube. 
This  is  always  alluded  to 
as  a  Torricellian  vacuum, 
and  is  found  in  the  ordi- 
nary barometer.  In  1855, 
Geissler  invented  a  mercu- 
rial air  pump  in  which  the 
vacuum  is  produced  by 
connecting  a  receiver  with 
a  Torricellian  vacuum.  The 
original  form  of  Geissler's 
pump  is  shown  in  the 
accompanying  diagram, 
which  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  principle  of  the 
operation  of  pumps  of  this 
class,  though  they  have  re- 
ceived numerous  modifica- 
tions and  improvements. 
In  most  mercury  pumps 
the  parts  are  made  of 
glass,  the  connections  be- 
ing made  w^ith  rubber  tub- 
ing. In  the  diagram,  A  is 
a  large  bulb,  B  is  &  tube  about  3  feet  long,  C 
a  rubber  tube  uniting  the  lower  end  of  B  with 
the  vessel  D,  which  is  open  on  top.  A  can  be 
connected  with  either  of  the  tubes  G  or  F,  but 
not  with  both  at  once,  or  it  can  be  shut  off  from 
both.  The  receiver  to  be  exhausted  is  connected 
^nth  (7,  and  F  leads  to  the  open  air.  Enough 
mrecury  is  used  to  fill  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  as  shown, 
and  the  vessel  D  is  capable  of  being  raised  or 
lowered.  The  operation  of  the  pump  is  as  fol- 
lowi^:  Suppose  the  vessel  D  is  raised  a  little 
higher  than  A,  as  in  the  figure.  The  mercury 
v^ill  flow  into  the  bulb  A,  which  it  fills  if  the 
cock  E  is  turned  so  as  to  connect  A  with  the 
outside  air,  F.  The  cock  is  then  turned  so  as  to 
connect  A  through  the  tube  G  with  the  vessel  to 
be  exhausted,  the  air  in  which  at  this  stage  is 
at  atmospheric  pressure.  D  is  then  lowered,  and 
the  level  of  the  mercury  in  A  is  lowered  in  con- 
sequence, the  mercury  running  down  B  and  G 
to  D.  As  the  mercury  in  A  descends,  air  is 
drawn  from  the  receiver  through  G  into  A,  so 
when  the  mercury  has  descended  below  A  the 
whole  space  is  filled  with  the  air  drawn  through 
0,  which,  having  expanded  from  the  receiver  at- 
tached to  G,  is  at  less  than  atmospheric  pressure. 
The  cock  E  is  then  turned  so  as  to  cut  off  com- 
munication between  A  and  G.  D  is  then  slowly 
raised,  and  the  mercury  flows  gradually  back 
into  A,  compressing  the  air  above  it  until  it  is 
at  atmospneric  pressure.  At  this  point  the  cock 
E  should  be  turned  to  connect  A  with  the  out- 
side air  Fy  and  as  D  continues  rising  the  mer- 
cury continues  to  drive  out  all  the  air  at  F,  until 
the"  bulb  A  is  filled  with  mercury  to  the  cork  E, 
which  is  then  closed  so  as  to  cut  off  all  commu- 
nication with  A.  When  D  is  again  lowered,  the 
mercury  does  not  begin  to  fall  in  A  until  D  is 
about  30  inches  below  A.  It  then  begins  to 
de«5oend,  leaving  a  Torricellian  vacuum  above  it, 
and  D  is  lowered  until  A  is  empty.  The  cock 
is  then  turned  so  as  to  connect  A  with  the  re- 
ceiver through  G,  and  the  remaining  air  in  that 
Vessel  expands  and  fills  A.  The  cock  E  is  next 
turned  ofT,  D  is  raised,  and  the  mercury  rising  in 
A  compresses  the  air  above  it  until  it  is  let  out 
at  F  by  turning  the  cock.     By  repeating  this 


operation  a  sufficient  number  of  times  a  vacuum 
is  gradually  produced  in  the  receiver  connected 
to  G.  When  the  operation  is  nearly  finished 
great  care  must  be  taken  not  to  raise  the  ves- 
sel D  too  rapidly,  or  the  impact  of  the  mercury 
against  the  top  of  the  bulb  A  will  break  the 
apparatus.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  when  the 
vacuum  is  nearly  reached  the  mercurv  in  A 
will  be  at  the  top  of  the  bulb  when  D  is  about 
30  inches  below.  If  the  valve  should  be  turned 
to  F  at  this  point,  the  inrush  of  air  would  drive 
the  mercury  down.  Therefore,  no  communica- 
tion between  A  and  F  must  be  made  until  D 
has  been  raised  on  a  level  with  E,  and  no  com- 
munication between  G  and  A  must  be  made 
until  D  is  lowered  30  inches  again,  otherwise 
mercury  will  run  through  G  into  the  receiver 
which  is  being  exhausted. 

The  Geissler  piunp  just  described  may  be  taken 
as  the  type  of  mercury  pumps,  which  are  classi- 
fied as  upward  driving,  and,  while  a  number  of 
improvements  in  details  have  been  introduced, 
making  them  of  a  more  practical  type  for  fac- 
tory use,  these  pumps  all  operate  on  the  prin- 
ciple of  connecting  tne  receiver  to  be  exhausted 
with  Torricellian  vacuum. 

Sprengel  brought  out  his  well-known  form  of 
mercury  pump  in  1866,  and  the  diagram  shows 
it  in  its  simplest  form.  The  Sprengel  pump  is  a 
general  type  of  what  are  classified  as  downward- 
driving  pumps.  A  is  a  funnel  having  a  stop-cock 
C,  and  B  is  a  tube  of  small  bore,  called  the  shaft 
or  fall-tube.  The  receiver  to  be  exhausted  is 
connected  to  the  tube  G,  which  branches  off  from 
near  the  top  of  the  shaft.  The  tube  B  terminates 
very  close  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel  D,  which  is 
provided  with  a  spout  F,  as  shown,  leading  to 
the  cup  E.  The  distance  from  the  branch  G  to 
the  top  of  the  mercury  in  the  vessel  F  must  be  at 
least  three  feet.  A  is  filled  with  mercury,  which 
flows  down  the  shaft  B,  the  rate  of  flow  being 
regulated  by  the  cock  C,  so  that  a  very  small 
stream  is  allowed  to  fall.  This  mercury  in  fall- 
ing breaks  up  into  short  lengths,  between  which 
are  small  columns  of  air  which  flow  in  at  the 
junction  of  G  with  the  shaft  B,  The  weight  of 
the  mercury  forces  these  short  col- 
umns of  air  down  the  shaft  B  to  the 
mercury  in  D,  from  the  surface  of 
which  they  escape.  The  mercury  as 
it  runs  into  the  cup  E  must  be 
poured  back  into  the  funnel  A.  This 
operation  continues  until  no  more 
air  is  carried  down  with  the  mer- 
cury. When  the  vacuum  is  nearly 
completed,  the  mercury  in  the  fall- 
tube  will  fall  with  a  sharp,  rattling 
noise,  showing  that  there  is  not 
enough  air  carried  down  with  it  to 
act  as  a  cushion.  With  all  kinds 
of  mercury  pumps,  however,  it  is 
necessary  to  continue  the  operation 
for  a  considerable  time  after  the  re- 
ceiver is  apparently  exhausted.  Even 
when  no  more  air  appears  to  be  car- 
ried on  by  the  pump,  the  vacuum 
will  improve  as  the  operation  con- 
tinues. The  reason  for  this  is  that  sprenqel 
the   air    sticks    to    the   surface   of  Pump. 

the  glass,   forming  a  sort  of  coat- 
ing,   which    is    swept    off    the    surface    by    the 
pump,    but   very   slowly.     The    simple    form    of 
Sprengel     pump     is    better     than     the     simple 
Geissler  pump,  but  is  not  well  suited  to  fac- 


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AIB  PUMP. 


240 


AIBY. 


tory  work  on  account  of  the  slowness  of  its 
action.  The  drawback  is  overcome,  to  a  great 
extent,  by  supplying  the  pump  with  a  number 
of  fall-tubes,  which  act  together  as  a  single  one. 
For  example,  if  six  fall-tubes  are  used,  the  work 
of  removing  the  most  of  the  air  is  done  in  one- 
sixth  of  the  time  required  by  a  single  pump. 
After  the  greater  part  of  the  air  is  removed,  how- 
ever, the  time  taken  to  produce  a  good  vacuum 
is  not  nearly  so  much  reduced,  and  it  is  chiefly 
in  the  early  part  of  the  operation  where  the 
saving  of  time  is  effected.  Another  drawback 
to  all  mercury  pumps  is  their  liability  to  break- 
age, even  with  the  most  careful  usage.  In  the 
Sprengel  pump,  owing  to  the  continual  hammer- 
ing of  the  mercury,  the  fall-tubes  are  very  often 
broken,  even  after  only  a  very  short  usage.  A 
method  is  in  use  with  both  of  these  forms  of 
pumps  which  consists  of  exhausting  into  a  par- 
tial vacuum  instead  of  into  the  atmosphere. 
This  is  accomplished  by  inclosing  the  part  of  the 
apparatus  where  the  air  is  exp>elled  in  a  cham- 
ber which  is  kept  at  a  partial  vacuum  by  means 
of  a  mechanical  or  water  air  pump.  By  this 
means  the  mercury  pump  will  work  against  a 
pressure  much  less  than  the  atmospheric  pres- 
sure, and  consequently  the  fall-tubes  and  the 
height  to  which  the  mercury  must  be  raised 
can  be  very  much  reduced,  while  the  air  is  much 
more  readily  drawn  down  and  out  of  the  fall- 
tubes.  In  factory  work  the  raising  of  the  mer- 
cury from  the  lower  to  the  upper  level  of  the 
pumps  is  done  mechanically  and  not  by  hand. 
It  may  be  raised  by  a  force-pump,  or  in  small 
buckets  on  an  endless  chain,  or  by  air  pressure. 
The  latter  may  be  simply  atmospheric  pressure, 
and  the  mercury  is  raised  by  being  broken  up 
into  small  lengths  with  air  spaces  between,  like 
a  Sprengel  pump  working  upward  into  a  vac- 
uum chamber.  The  illustrations  show  modern 
forms  of  mercury  pumps.  In  an  improved  form 
of  Sprengel  pump  designed  by  G.  W.  A.  Kahl- 
baum  a  steel  gun-barrel  replaces  the  glass 
fall-tube.  This  avoids  the  electrification  of  the 
glass  by  the  friction  of  the  falling  mercury, 
and  with  the  other  improvements  introduced 
enables  a  higher  vacuum  to  be  attained  than 
ever  previously.  In  this  way,  in  1901,  he  was 
able  to  obtain  a  degree  of  exhaustion  corre- 
sponding to  a  pressure  of  .0000018  millime- 
tres of  mercury,  which  is  considered  the  best  on 
record. 

The  degrees  of  exhaustion  reached  by  the  vari- 
ous mercurial  air  pumps  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  table  adapted  from  Mliller-Pouillet, 
Lchrhuch  der  Phyaik : 


a 

E 

X) 

a 

i 

o 

Minimum  of 

Pressure  obtained, 

expressed  in 

Millimetres. 

Amount  of 
Exhaustion,  in 
Fractions  of  an 

Atmosphere. 

Geisslhr's  PtTlfP. 
(Older  type.) 

Bessel-Hagen, 

.11 

1 
e,909 

Kkavool's  Pump. 

V.  Waltenhofen. 

.0816 

1 
24,000 

Geissler*8  Pump. 
(Later  type.) 

BeflselHagen. 

.0082 

1 
92,f»3 

a 

O 

Minimum  of 

Pressure  obtained, 

exriressed  In 

Millimetre. 

SPRBNOBL -  GlMIMO- 

Crookes. 

1 

HAM  Pump. 

000046 

i:,oou.ioj 

TOplbr  Pump. 

Bessel-Hagen. 

.000009 

1 

(Later  type.) 

M.OOliltt' 

SPRSNOKI.  -  GiMINO- 

HAM  Pump. 

(With  improve- 

menta.) 

Rood. 

.0000069 

•oooooe 

1 
iio.av.iM) 

SpRBNOBL   PlTMP. 

(With  improve, 
mente,  1901.) 

Kahlbaom. 

.0000018 

1 

«),tiai.i»it 

The  water  pump  invented  by  Bunsen  is  a 
simple  form  of  apparatus  that  is  found  generally 
in  physical  and  chemical  laboratories,  and  ade- 
quately answers  when  too  high  a  degree  of  ex- 
haustion is  not  required.  It  consists  of  a  tube 
attached  to  a  faucet  or  other  supply  of  water 
under  pressure,  through  which  water  emptier 
into  a  cnamber  provided  with  two  outlets.  From 
one  of  these  the  water  flows  out,  carrying  with 
it  the  air  from  the  vessel  to  be  exhausted,  which 
is  connected  with  the  second  tube.  In  its  orig 
inal  form  this  piece  of  apparatus  was  made  of 
glass  and  rubber  tube,  but  with  metallic  parts 
that  allow  it  to  be  connected  to  an  ordinary  fau- 
cet. It  is  extensively  used  in  laboratories.  The 
page  illustration  (Fig.  3)  shows  one  form  of 
such  a  water  pump.  Descriptions  of  air  punip^ 
of  various  forms  are  to  be  found  in  all  the  large 
treatises  on  physics,  including  those  of  Ganot. 
Deschanel,  and  Mailer  -  Pouillet  ( Brunswiek, 
1886),  the  latter  (in  German)  giving  a  complete 
account  of  the  most  important  types  of  apparatu>i 
of  this  class.  In  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of 
Arts,  Volume  XXXVI.  (London,  1888),  there  is 
an  interesting  and  valuable  article  on  **The  De- 
velopment of  the  Mercurial  Air  Pump,"  by  S.  P. 
Thompson,  in  which  the  various  forms  of  this 
instrument  are  described.  This  has  been  re- 
printed in  book  form.  The  reader  is  also  re 
ferred  to  the  columns  of  the  Annalen  der  Physik 
und  Chemie  and  the  American  Journal  of  Sri- 
cnce,  in  which  are  described  many  forms  of  air 
pumps  and  vacuum  apparatus. 

AIB  BESIST^ANCE  of  a  Pbojectile.  See 
Ballistics. 

AIBY,  ar^,  Sir  Georoe  Biddell  (1801-02). 
An  English  astronomer.  He  was  born  at  Alnwick. 
Northumberland,  and  graduated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  in  1819.  In  1825,  he  discovered 
the  optical  defect  of  astigmatism  and  provided 
a  corrective  for  it.  He  was  elected  to  the  Plu- 
niian  professorship  at  Cambridge  in  1828.  and 
intrusted  with  the  management  of  the  Cambridge 
Observatory,  the  results  of  his  labors  being  pub- 
lished in  the  compilation  entitled  Astronomi^ol 
Observations,  9  volumes  (Cambridge.  1829-38). 
which  became  the  model  of  all  analogous  works 
since  published  in  Great  Britain.   In  1836  he  suc- 


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AIBT. 


241 


AITON. 


needed  Pond  as  royal  astronomer  of  the  Green- 
wich Observatory,  where  he  introduced  or  perfect- 
ed numerous  astronomical  instruments,  devised 
clearer  and  quicker  methods  of  calculation,  and 
instituted  valuable  researches  in  magnetism, 
meteorology,  and  photography.  One  of  his  most 
important  achievements  was  the  establishment 
of  a  mechanical  device  in  the  form  of  magnets 
and  iron,  whereby  the  disturbance  of  the  compass 
in  iron-built  vessels  can  be  rectified.  It  was  he, 
also,  who  conducted  the  astronomical  observa- 
tions preparatory  to  the  definition  of  the  bound- 
ary between  Canada  and  the  United  States. 
Among  the  works  written  by  this  distinguished 
scientist  during  his  exceptionally  long  and  useful 
career,  the  following  are  especially  noteworthy: 
Oravitation,  for  the  Penny  Cyclopcedia,  also  pub- 
lished separately  (1885);  Mathematical  Tracts 
on  Physical  Astronomy  (fourth  edition,  1858)  ; 
IpavDxch  Lectures  on  Astronomy  (fourth  edition, 
1858)  ;  Treatises  on  Errors  of  Observation 
i  1861 )  ;  Sound  i  1869)  ;  Magnetism  ( 1870)  ; 
^'Trigonometry,"  "Figure  of  the  Earth,"  "Tide 
and  Waves,"  in  Encyclopcedia  Metropolitana. 

AISH-KUL,  &'«sh-k?S9K.     See  Ala-Kul. 
AISLE,  II  (Fr.  aile,  wing,  from  Lat.  ala,  con- 
tracted   from    axilla).    An    architectural    term 
meaning  the  lateral  section  of  the  interior  of 
any  building  which  is  divided  by  rows  of  piers 
or   columns.    In  such  interiors  the  higher  and 
broader  central  section  is  called  the  nave;   the 
narrower,  lower  sections  are  the  aisles,  divided 
from  the  nave  or  from  each  other  by  the  lines  of 
supports.    There  are  a   few   cases  of   such   an 
arrangement   in    Greek   temples.    The   develop- 
ment of  interiors  of  this  type  came  with  the  rise 
of  the  Christian  basilica  or  church  in  the  fourth 
century,   when   the   smaller   churches   had   two 
and  the  larger  ones  four  aisles  on  either  side  of 
the  central  nave.     In  contemporary  circular  or 
polygonal     buildings  —  especially     baptisteries, 
mausoleums,  and  chapels  —  the  central  dome  was 
often  encircled  by  one  or  more  concentric  lines  of 
arcades,   forming  aisles   with   lower   ceiling  or 
vault.     When,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  the  upper 
partH  of  the  ehurch — transept  and  choir — were 
so  much  enlarged  under  monastic  influence  and 
the  development  of  cathedral  architecture,  then 
the  aisles  were  continued  around  the  transept 
and  the  apse,  thus  adding  great  richness  to  the 
interiors.     In  a  few  cases  there  were  as  many  as 
three  aisles  on  each  side  of  the  church.    They 
varied  very  much  in  height,  according  to  schools, 
periods,   and   methods   of   construction;  and   in 
some    schools     (Lombard,    Norman,    Byzantine, 
Early  Gothic,  etc.),  they  were  surmounted  by 
open  galleries,  and  sometimes  by  closed  galleries 
(south  of  France)  ;  while  in  other  cases,  espe- 
cially  in   the    early   vaulted   Romanesque,    the 
vaults  of  the  aisles  reached  almost  as  high  as 
those  of  the  nave. 

There  are  several  improper  uses  of  the  term: 
in  the  case  of  hall-churches  with  two,  three,  or 
more  naves  of  equal  height,  these  divisions  are 
sometimes  incorrectly  called  aisles.  Also,  in 
modem  usage  it  is  wrongly  applied  to  the  pas- 
sageway between  two  rows  of  seats  in  a  build- 
ing.   Siee  Church. 

AISNE,  an.  A  tributary  of  the  Oise,  which 
rises  in  the  department  of  Meuse,  France.  It 
flows  northwest  through  the  departments  of 
Ardennes,  Aisne,  and  part  of  Oise,  where  it  falls 
into  the  river  Oise  above  Compidgne  (Map: 
Vol.  I.-16 


France,  K  2).  Its  length  is  170  miles,  of  which 
34  are  navigable,  it  is  connected  with  the  Meuse 
and  Marne  rivers  by  canals. 

AlSKEf  an.  A  department  in  the  north  of 
France  (q.v.),  formed  of  parts  of  the  old  Picar- 
die,  Bril,  and  lle-de- France.     Capital,  Laon. 

AISSE,  R'A-sa',  Mademoiselle  (1694?-1733). 
A  French  writer,  born  in  Circassia.  She  was 
taken  captive  by  a  Turkish  marauding  expedi- 
tion, and  about  1698  was  bought  at  the  Constan- 
tinople slave  market  by  the  Comte  de  Ferriol, 
the  French  ambassador.  She  was  educated  cit 
Paris,  where  she  was  subsequently  a  prominent 
figure  in  many  salons.  Her  letters  to  Mme. 
Calandrini  were  first  published  in  1787,  with 
notes  by  Voltaire.  In  1847  a  critical  edition 
was  published  by  M.  J.  Ravenel,  with  a  study  by 
Sainte-Beuve. 

AISTTTLP,  Is'tylf,  or  ASTOLF,  fts^tdlf  (died 
756).  A  king  of  the  Lombards.  He  succeeded 
Rachis,  who  entered  a  monastery  in  749.  In 
752  he  seized  Ravenna,  and  soon  after  attempted 
to  capture  Rome.  The  Pope,  unable  to  get  aid 
from  the  Emperor  at  Constantinople,  went  to 
implore  assistance  from  Pepin  (q.v.).  The 
latter,  in  754,  invaded  Italy,  defeated  Aistulf, 
and  forced  him  to  promise  to  give  up  the  con- 
quered territory.  This  Aistulf  did  not  do,  but 
in  January,  756,  laid  siege  to  Rome.  Pepin 
again  went  to  aid  the  Pope,  besieged  Aistulf, 
who  had  left  Rome  on  learning  of  Pepin's  ad- 
vance, in  Pavia,  and  forced  him  to  surrender  the 
Krarchate  of  Ravenna.  (See  Donation  op  Pe- 
pin.) The  dates,  which  were  disputed,  are  dis- 
cussed and  fixed  in  Gregorovius,  City  of  Rome 
in  the  Middle  Apes,  Volume  II.  (London,  1896). 

AITKEN,  flmn,  Robert  (1734-1802).  A 
Scotch-American  printer  and  bookseller.  He 
was  publisher  of  the  Pennsylvania  Magazine,  or 
American  Monthly  Museum,  from  1775  to  1776, 
and  in  1777  was  imprisoned  as  a  sympathizer 
with  the  Patriot  cause.  At  a  considerable  loss, 
he  printed  the  first  American  edition  of  the 
Bible  (1782).  He  is  supposed  to  have  written 
An  Inquiry  Concerning  the  Principles  of  a  Com- 
mercial System  for  the  United  States  (1787). 

AJTKENf  William  Hat  Macdowall  Hunter 
(1841 — ).  A  Church  of  England  preacher,  born 
in  Liverpool,  September  21,  1841,  B.A.,  Oxford, 
1865,  M.A.,  1867.  Since  1877  he  has  been  gen- 
eral superintendent  of  the  Church  of  England 
Parochial  Mission  Society,  which  he  founded  in 
1877.  He  is  one  of  the  most  eminent  and  suc- 
cessful of  revival  preachers.  His  publioations 
consist  of  sermons.  In  1900  he  was  appointed 
canon  of  Norwich. 

AIT^KENITES.  In  the  Church  of  England, 
the  partisans  of  Robert  Aitken  (1800-73),  a  cler- 
gyman who  had  been  for  a  time  a  Wesleyan,  and 
wlio,  after  1840,  having  returned  to  the  Estab- 
lished Church,  desired  to  combine  with  its  eccle- 
siastical practice  certain  views  of  the  Metho- 
dists, especially  in  regard  to  conversion. 

AITON,  a'ton,  William  ( 1731-93 ) .  A  Scotch 
botanist.  He  was  trained  as  a  gardener,  and 
in  1754  became  assistant  to  Philip  Miller,  super- 
intendent of  the  garden  at  Chelsea.  In  1759.  he 
was  made  director  of  the  royal  botanical  gardens 
at  Kew,  which  he  rendered  the  richest  in  exist- 
ence, and  held  the  place  until  his  death.  In 
1793,  he  published  his  excellent  work,  Hortus 
Kewensis,  or  a  Catalogue  of  the  Plants  Ctclti- 


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AITON. 


242 


AIX-LA-CH  A  PELLE. 


wited  in  the  Royal  Botanical  Gardens  at  Kew. 
This  was  re-edited  by  his  son  and  successor  in 
office,  William  Townsend  Aiton. 

ATVALIK,  I'vA-lek'.  A  seaport  town  on  the 
western  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Adramyti,  opposite  the  island  of  Mitylene 
(Map  :  Turkey  in  Asia,  B  3).  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  oil.  Its  harbor  is  extensive,  but  the 
entrance  is  very  shallow.  The  town  suffered 
terribly  at  the  hands  of  the  Turks  at  the 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  but  has 
recovered  since,  and  is  now  of  considerable  im- 
portance. Its  population,  estimated  at  30,000, 
is  almost  exclusively  Greek. 

AIVAZOVSKI,  rvA-z6f'sk6,  Ivan  Konstan- 
TINOVITCH  (1817-1900).  A  Russian  painter.  He 
was  born  in  Feodosia,  in  the  Crimea,  and  by 
express  command  of  the  Czar  Nicholas  was  ad- 
mitted as  an  imperial  pensioner  to  the  Academy 
of  Art  at  St.  Petersburg.  He  was  one  of  the 
greatest  marine  painters  of  Russia,  his  subjects 
being  taken  largely  from  the  naval  history  of 
that  country.  Among  his  best  productions  may 
be  mentioned:  "Sunrise  on  the  Black  Sea" 
(1850)  ;  "Creation"  "Deluge,"  and  several 
others,  now  at  the  Hermitage  at  St.  Petersburg 
(1865);  "Sea  Fights  at  Revel,  Viborg,  and 
Tchesme,"  "Wreck  of  the  Frigate  Ingermann- 
land,"  "Peter  the  Great  at  Krasnaya  Gorka" 
(all  at  the  Winter  Palace,  St.  Petersburg)  ; 
"View  of  Constantinople,"  "Calm  Sea,"  and 
"Naples  by  Moonlight"  (Academy  of  St.  Peters- 
burg) ;  "Solar  Eclipse"  (Geographical  Society, 
St.  Petersburg)  ;  "Lighted  Castle  on  the  Sea" 
(Peterhof)  ;  "Calm  Sea  by  Moonlight,"  "Mon- 
astery of  St.  George"    (Moscow  Museum). 

AIWALYK.     See  Aivalik. 

ATX,  &ks  or  As  (Anciently  Lat.  Aquas  SextuSy 
Springs  of  Sextius).  A  town  of  France,  former- 
ly the  capital  of  Provence,  now  the  capital  of 
an  arrondisseraent  in  the  department  of 
Bouches-du-RhAne  (Map:  France,  M  8).  The 
principal  buildings  of  the  town  are  the  Palais 
de  Justice,  the  H6tel  de  Ville,  and  the  cathedral 
of  St.  Sauveur.  The  cathedral  dates  from  the 
eleventh  century,  and  is  a  fine  example  of  Roman- 
esque architecture.  The  Palais  de  Justice  was 
not  completed  until  1831,  and  is  in  the  Renais- 
sance style.  The  town  is  very  bright  and  cheer- 
ful in  appearance,  and  its  many  squares  and 
parks  enliven  every  quarter.  Aix  is  famous  for 
its  springs  and  natural  fountains.  That  of  the 
Rotunda  is  decorated  with  statues  of  Justice, 
Agriculture,  and  Art;  another  fountain  is  sur- 
mounted by  a  statue  of  Ren6  of  Anjou,  the  patron 
of  troubadours.  It  is  the  work  of  David.  There 
is  a  museum  of  antiquities  containing  valuable 
Gallic,  Roman,  and  Christian  remains.  The 
town  has  a  university  in  conjunction  with  Mar- 
seilles (see  Aix  Facult^s  d*),  as  well  as  an 
academy  of  sciences.  Its  library  is  famous  in 
southern  France,  and  contains  about  150,000 
printed  works  and  over  1200 manuscripts;  among 
these  latter  are  many  letters  of  Mary  Stuart. 
There  is  also  a  school  of  art,  and  a  picture  gal- 
lery, in  which  are  examples  of  Granet,  the  great 
architectural  painter,  who  was  a  native  of  Aix. 
The  industry  of  the  town  consists  chiefly  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  olive,  in  cotton-spinning, 
leather-dressing,  and  trade  in  oil,  w^ine,  almonds, 
etc.  The  warm  springs  are  slightly  sulphurous, 
with  a  temperature  from  90**  to  100°  F.,  clear 
and   transparent;   with  a  slightly  bitter  taste. 


They    have    the    reputation    of    improving  the 
beauty  of  the  skin. 

Aix  was  in  Roman  times  Aqus  Sextiae,  from 
Caius  Sextius  Calvinus,  who  in  123  b.c.  headed 
the  Roman  colony  which  had  been  formed  to 
defend  the  Greeks  of  Marseilles  against  the  Sal- 
luvii.  The  field  on  which  Marius  defeated  the 
Teu tones  and  Ambrones,  in  102  b.c.,  lies  in  the 
plain  between  Aix  and  Aries.  In  the  Middle 
Ages,  under  the  counts  of  Provence  (see  Rex^), 
Aix  was  long  a  great  literary  centre.  Pop.,  1896, 
28,900;  1901,  29,418. 

AIX,  or  AIX-LES-BAINS,  -lA'baN'  (Fr.  the 
Bath  Waters  or  Springs;  see  below).  A  small 
town  of  Savoy,  France,  in  a  delightful  vallej' 
near  Lake  Bourget,  7  miles  north  of  Cham- 
b^ry  (Map:  France,  M  6).  Its  celebrity  as  the 
source  of  medicinal  waters  dates  from  the  Roman 
occupation.  The  Romans  gave  it  the  name  of 
Aqua?  GratinaB,  and  built  splendid  baths  there: 
among  its  numerous  remains  of  Roman  time:^ 
are  the  Arch  of  Canipanus  and  the  ruins  of  a 
temple  and  of  a  vaporarium.  The  hot  springs, 
two  in  number,  are  of  sulphurous  quality,  and  of 
a  temperature  above  100**  F.  They  are  used 
both  for  drinking  and  as  baths,  and  attract 
annuallv  two  thousand  invalid  visitors.  Pop., 
1901,  5349. 

AIX,  FACULTfes  D',  fA'kyl'tA'  d&ks'  or  dAs',  or 
Acad£mie,  A'kA'dA'm^.  Schools  of  law  and  the- 
ology existed  at  Aix  perhaps  at  the  b^inning  of 
the  thirteenth  century.  They  were  organized  in 
1409  by  Papal  bull  into  the  University  of  ALx, 
which  represented  Provencal  learning,  if  not  lit- 
erature, during  most  of  its  existence  from  its 
foundation  until  its  dissolution  and  reorganiza- 
tion under  Napoleon,  in  1808,  after  which  for 
nearly  a  century  it  was  an  academy  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  France.  The  present  University  of 
Aix-Marseilles  has  faculties  of  law  and  philoso- 
phy at  Aix,  and  faculties  of  mathematics-science, 
medicine-pharmacy,  and  the  free  faculty  of  law 
at  Marseilles.     There  are  772  students. 

AIX-L  A-CHAPELLE,  -lft-sh&'p€K,  Ger.  A  ach- 
KN  (named  from  its  springs,  Lat.  AqtuF,  and 
the  palace  chapel).  A  city  of  the  Prussian 
Rhine  Province,  and  capital  of  the  government 
district  of  the  same  name,  situated  in  a  valley 
near  the  River  Wurm,  about  40  miles  west  of 
Cologne  ( Map :  Prussia,  B  3 ) .  The  city  is  divid- 
ed into  the  inner  or  old  town,  the  outer  or  new 
town,  and  the  suburb  of  Burtscheid.  The  streets 
are  generally  broad  and  well  paved.  Among  the 
principal  ones  are  the  Theaterstrasse,  Hochstras- 
se,  and  Wilhelmstrasse.  The  most  important 
public  squares  are  the  Marktplatze,  with  the 
bronze  statue  of  Charlemagne,  tne  Mttnsterplatx, 
and  the  Kaiserplatz,  with  a  large,  handsome 
fountain.  Its  private  houses  are  for  the  most 
part  handsome  modem  buildings,  and  give  the 
city  a  thoroughly  modern  appearance.  With  the 
exception  of  its  two  or  three  public  buildings 
and  churches,  little  of  the  ancient  town  remains. 
Its  former  ramparts  have  been  leveled  and  turned 
into  promenades,  and  only  two  of  its  old  gates 
remain  standing.  Foremost  among  the  public 
buildings  of  interest  is  the  cathedral,  a  most 
striking  specimen  of  various  styles  of  ecclesi- 
astical architecture.  The  oldest  portion,  which 
probably  dates  from  the  year  796  a.d.,  is  an 
octagonal  chapel,  surrounded  by  a  gallery  and 
surmounted  by  a  cupola  built  in  the  Byzantine 
style.    A  stone  in  the  floor  marks  the  supposed 


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AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 


243 


AIZANI. 


burial  place  of  Charlemagne,  and  above  it  hangs 
an  immense  chandelier  of  gilded  copper.  The 
choir,  dating  from  the  fourteenth  century,  and 
built  in  the  Gothic  style,  marks  the  second  period 
of  construction.  The  Hungarian  Chapel,  built  in 
the  early  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  contains 
the  sacred  relics,  which  are  exhibited  to  the 
populace  every  seven  years.  The  other  churches 
of  great  age  are  those  of  St.  Foilan  and  St.  Paul, 
with  fine  stained  glass  windows.  In  the  Markt- 
platz  stands  the  Gothic  Rathhaus,  built  on  the 
site  of  Charlemagne's  palace,  and  containing  the 
famous  and  immense  coronation  hall  of  the  Ger- 
man emperors,  decorated  with  frescoes  depicting 
scenes  from  the  life  of  Charlemagne.  The  Rath- 
haus is  flanked  by  two  towers,  one  of  which,  the 
Granusturm,  dates  from  the  thirteenth  century. 

The  city's  affairs  are  directed  by  a  munici- 
pal <ouncil  of  thirty  members  and  an  executive 
hoard  of  five.  Aix-la-Chapelle  has  an  excellent 
system  of  sewers,  which  carry  the  refuse  into  the 
river.  The  yearly  expenditure  is  about  $2000,  or 
about  2V^  cents  per  capita,  compared  to  Pots- 
dam's per  capita  expenditure  of  about  21  cents. 
The  city  has  owned  and  operated  since  1880 
large  water  works,  which  net  it  annually  about 
$35,000.  It  has  an  organized  fire  department, 
upon  which  it  expends  annually  the  sum  of  about 
$16,000.  The  gas  works  are  in  the  hands  of 
private  companies,  which  pay  the  city  a  tax  of 
about  half  a  cent  for  each  cubic  metre  sold  for 
lighting  purposes,  and  about  a  quarter  of  a  cent 
on  each  cubic  metre  sold  for  cooking  purposes. 
The  city  owns  an  electric  light  plant,  which,  how- 
ever, is  leased  to  a  private  company.  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  has  quite  a  number  of  parks  and  prom- 
enades, including  a  municipal  botanical  garden, 
on  which  it  expends  annually  about  $13,000. 
Its  educational  institutions  include  free  gym- 
nasiums, a  splendidly  equipped  technical  high 
school,  an  industrial  high  school,  an  art  school, 
a  teachers*  preparatory  school,  and  a  deaf  and 
dumb  school.  There  are  six  public  libraries, 
including  the  municipal  library,  containing  about 
100,000  volumes.  The  commerce  of  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle is  of  considerable  importance.  Its  prin- 
cipal industry  is  wool-spinning  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  cloth,  which  is  exported  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  There  are  also  important  manufac- 
tures of  needles,  glass  buttons,  knives,  umbrellas, 
j*oap,  cement,  bells,  pottery,  and  crockery.  Aix- 
la-Chapelle  is  advantageously  situated  as  a  com- 
mercial centre,  being  on  the  Prussian  State  Rail- 
way and  on  the  line  to  Antwerp.  Local  traffic 
facilities  are  afforded  by  electric  street  railway 
lines  within  the  city,  connecting  it  also  with 
many  of  the  neighboring  towns.  The  hot  sul- 
phur springs  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  are  celebrated. 
They  are  frequented  yearly  by  about  20,000  vis- 
itors. The  principal  spring  is  the  Kaiserquelle, 
with  a  temperature  of  136°  F.  In  1890  the  pop- 
ulation of  Aix-la-Chapelle  "was  over  103,000;  m 
lOOO,  135,000. 

Aix-la-Chapelle  was  called  Aquisgranum  by 
the  Romans,  who  frequented  the  place  in  great 
numbers  on  account  of  its  warm  springs.  Under 
the  Prankish  emperors  it  enjoyed  great  prosper- 
ity. Pepin  erected  here  a  fine  palace  m  765; 
Charlemagne  made  the  city  his  home  and  lav- 
ished favors  upon  it.  Between  813  and  1531, 
the  Roman  emperors  were  crowned  in  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle, and  seventeen  imperial  diets  assembled 
there.  Prior  to  the  Reformation,  Aix-la-Cha- 
pelle was  one  of  the  most  fiourishing  of  the  free 


imperial  cities  of  Germany.  The  removal  of  the 
imperial  coronations  to  Frankfort  marked  tlie 
end  of  a  city's  splendor,  while  the  religious 
troubles  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries, and  a  disastrous  fire  in  1656  hastened 
its  decline.  In  1793  it  was  taken  by  the 
French,  but  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815. 
Consult:  Stttbben,  "Aachens  Bebauungsplan  und 
Bauliche  Zukunft,"  in  the  Deutsche  Bauzeitung 
(Berlin,  1880)  ;  Drapeyron,  "Aix-la-Chapelle  et 
Charlemagne,"  in  the  Revue  de  Olographic,  Vol- 
umes XLV.  and  XLVI.  (Paris,  1899)  ;  "Reforma- 
tionsgeschichte  Aachens,"  in  the  Historische  Pol' 
itlsche  Blatter,  Volume  CXXVIII.  (Mtlnchen, 
1901). 

Theaties  op  Peace,  and  Conobess  of  Aix-la- 
CuAPELLE.  The  first  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle 
ended  the  war  carried  on  between  France  and 
Spain  for  the  possession  of  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands, known  as  the  War  of  Devolution.  On  the 
death  of  Philip  IV.,  Louis  XIV.  laid  claim  to 
a  large  portion  of  those  territories  in  the  name 
of  his  wife,  Maria  Theresa,  the  daughter  of  Phil- 
ip, urging  the  law  of  succession  prevailing  in 
Brabant  and  Namur  respecting  private  property. 
The  victorious  progress  of  Louis  was  checked 
by  the  triple  alliance  between  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden,  and  a  treaty  of  peace  was  concluded 
at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1668,  by  which  France 
retained  possession  of  the  fortresses  of  Charlerois 
and  Lille,  which  she  had  already  taken,  but  gave 
back  Franche  Comt6  to  Spain. 

The  second  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  concluded 
the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession  (1748).  (See 
Succession,  VVar.s  op.)  In  general  the  posses- 
sions of  the  several  states  remained  as  before  the 
war.  Austria  ceded  Parma,  Piacenza,  and  Guas- 
talla  to  the  Spanish  infante,  Philip;  and  the 
possession  of  Silesia  and  Glatz  was  guaranteed 
to  Prussia.  The  privilege  of  the  Assiento  Treaty 
(q.v.)  was  confirmed  to  England  for  four  years, 
and  the  Pretender  was  expelled  from  France. 
Owing  chiefly  to  the  exertions  of  her  minister, 
Kaunitz,  Austria  came  off  with  but  small  sacri- 
fice, and  obtained  a  ratification  of  the  Pragmatic 
Sanction   (q.v.)   from  the  signatory  powers. 

The  Congress  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  was  held  in 
1818,  for  regelating  the  affairs  of  Europe  after 
the  Napoleonic  wars.  The  emperors  of  Russia 
and  Austria  and  the  King  of  Prussia  were  per- 
sonally present.  The  plenipotentiaries  were 
Metternich,  Castlereagh,  and  Wellington,  Hard- 
enberg  and  Bernstorff,  Nesselrode,  and  Capo  d'ls- 
trias,  with  Richelieu  on  the  part  of  France. 
France  was  admitted  to  take  part  in  the  delib- 
erations as  one  of  the  five  great  powers  of  Eu- 
rope, who  proceeded  thereupon  to  sign  a  protocol 
announcing  a  policy  known  as  that  of  the  "Holy 
Alliance"  (q.v.).  An  important  result  of  the 
Congress  achieved  by  Richelieu,  was  the  imme- 
diate evacuation  of  France  by  the  foreign  forces. 
Consult  de  Broglie  La  paix  d* Aix-la-Chapelle 
(Paris,  1892). 

AIZANI,  1-za'nt,  or  AZANI,  A-zft'nl.  A  city 
in  Phrygia.  In  1824,  its  remains  were  found 
by  the  Earl  of  Ashburnham,  about  30  miles 
southwest  of  Kutaieh.  There  was  a  temple  of 
Zeus,  a  theatre,  a  stadium,  and  a  gymnasium. 
The  theatre  is  in  good  preservation — with  a  di- 
ameter of  185  feet;  it  had  fifteen  rows  of  marble 
seats.  The  Rhjmdacus  (now  Adranus)  rises 
near  the  site  of  Azani  and  passes  through  it; 
it  was  crossed  by  two  white  marble  bvidges,  each 


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of  five  semi-circular  arches.  Tombs,  Roman 
coins,  and  inscriptions  have  been  found.  It  is 
mentioned  by  Strabo. 

AIZELIK,  A'z*-lftN^  EuofeNE  Antoine  (1821- 
—  ?).  A  French  sculptor.  He  was  born  at  Paris, 
and  studied  with  Ramey  and  Dumont  at  the 
£cole  des  Beaux  Arts.  Among  his  numerous 
works  may  be  mentioned:  ''Nyssia  au  Bain" 
( 1 859,  now  in  the  Palais  Pomp^ian  on  the  Ave- 
nue Montaigne,  Paris)  ;  "Psyche"  (1863),  Mus«e 
du  Luxembourg);  "L'Adolescence"  (1868): 
"L'Idylle"  (1872,  for  the  court  of  the  Louvre)  ; 
"Amazone  Vaincue"  (1876);  "Mignon"  (1880); 
"Agar  et  Ismagl"  (1888).  He  also  executed  the 
group  entitled  "La  Danse"  for  the  facades  of  Le 
Cirque,  and  a  number  of  statues  for  the  Th^fttre 
du  ChAtelet,  the  £glise  de  la  Trinity,  and  other 
public  buildings. 

▲JACCIO,  A-y^chd.  The  capital  of  the  French 
department  of  Corsica,  comprising  the  whole  of 
the  island  ( Map ;  France,  Corsica,  P  9 ) .  It  is  a 
seaport  with  a  well-sheltered  harbor,  and  stands 
on  the  west  coast,  in  a  fertile  belt  of  land  known 
as  Campo  d*Oro.  Its  cathedral  dates  from  1585, 
and  the  house  of  Napoleon,  who  was  born  in 
Ajaccio,  August  15,  1769,  is  still  standing.  A 
marble  statue  of  the  First  CJonsul  is  seen  in  the 
main  square.  The  chief  employments  are  the 
anchovy  and  pearl  fisheries,  and  the  trade  in 
wine  and  olive-oil,  which  the  neighborhood  pro- 
*duces  in  abundance,  and  of  good  quality.  The 
harbor  is  protected  by  a  strong  fort.  Pop., 
20,197.  Consult  O.  Joanne,  Ajaccio  ei  sea  en- 
virons (Paris,  1899). 

AJALON,  ftj^&-l6n,  or  AIJALON,  a'j&-ldn 
(R.  v.).  A  town  in  ancient  Palestine,  14  miles 
northwest  of  Jerusalem,  where  Joshua  command- 
ed the  moon  to  stay  its  course  till  he  had  fin- 
ished his  battle  (Joshua  x:  13).  It  was  given 
to  Dan  (Joshua  xix  :  42),  who,  however,  could 
not  keep  it  from  the  Amorites,  who  had  it  in  the 
pre-monarchial  period  (Judges  i:35).  Reho- 
boam  fortified  it  (II.  Chronicles  xi  :  10),  but  in 
Asa's  days  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Philis- 
tines (II.  Chronicles  xxviii:  18).  It  is  men- 
tioned in  the  Amarna  letters  ( fourteenth  century 
B.C.)  under  the  form  Aialuna.  The  modern  vil- 
lage of  Yalo  represents  the  ancient  site. 

AJAWA,  A-jaVft.  A  Bantu  tribe  of  Portu- 
guese East  Africa,  described  by  Livingstone. 
They  have  acquired  some  culture  from  contact 
with  the  Arabs.  Cannibalism  still  exists  among 
them,  and  at  the  funeral  of  a  chief  women  are 
sacrificed;  though  they  are  accounted  intelli- 
gent, industrious,  and  enterprising,  a  manly  and 
independent  tribe  of  blacks  superior  to  others 
in  this  region. 

A^JAX  (Lat.  form  of  the  Gk.  Am.;,  Aias), 
The  name  of  two  of  the  Greek  heroes  of  the  Tro- 
jan War.  One  of  them  was  called  Ajax  the  Less, 
or  the  Locrian,  being  the  son  of  Olleus,  King  of 
the  Locrians.  At  the  head  of  forty  Locrian  ships 
he  sailed  against  Troy,  and  was  one  of  the  brav- 
est of  the  Greek  heroes;  in  swiftness  of  foot  he 
excelled  all  except  Achilles.  When  Cassandra 
fled  to  the  temple  of  Athena,  after  the  taking  of 
Troy,  it  is  said  that  Ajax  tore  her  from  it  by 
force  and  dragged  her  away  captive.  Others 
make  him  even  violate  the  prophetess  in  the 
temple.  Though  he  exculpated  himself  by  an 
oath  when  accused  of  this  crime  by  Ulysses,  yet 
he  did  not  escape  the  vengeance  of  the  goddess 


who  caused  him  to  be  engulfed  in  the  waves  on 
his  voyage  toward  Greece. 

The  other  Ajax,  called  by  the  Greeks  the 
greater,  was  the  son  of  Telamon,  King  of  Sala- 
mis,  and  grandson  of  ^Eacus.  He  sailed  against 
Troy  with  twelve  ships,  and  is  represented  by 
Homer  as,  next  to  Achilles,  the  bravest  and 
handsomest  of  the  Greeks.  After  the  death  of 
Achilles,  Ajax  and  Ulysses  contended  for  the 
arms  of  the  hero,  and  when  the  prize  was  ad- 
judged to  Ulysses,  Ajax  in  a  fit  of  insanity  slew 
the  Grecian  flocks,  fancying  he  was  slaying  his 
enemies.  On  recovering  his  reason  he  threw 
himself  on  his  sword,  ^phocles,  in  the  tragedy 
of  Ajax,  attributes  his  madness  to  the  wrat^  oi 
Athena.    See  Tbojaij  War. 

AJmSREy  Aj-m^r^.  An  ancient  city  of  Raj- 
putana,  India,  the  capital  of  the  British  province 
of  Ajmere-Merwara,  228  miles  west  of  Agra 
(Map:  India,  B  3.)  It  is  situated  in  a  pictur- 
esque and  rocky  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain of  Taragurh,  which  is  crowned  by  a  fort 
commanding  the  city.  The  city  is  surrounded 
by  a  stone  wall,  with  five  lofty  and  handsome 
gateways  on  the  west  and  north.  Most  of  the 
streets  are  narrow  and  dirty,  but  some  of  them 
are  spacious  and  contain  fine  residences,  besides 
mosques  and  temples  of  massive  architecture. 
The  Daulat  Bagh,  or  **Garden  of  Splendor,"  is 
now  the  residence  of  the  British  commissioner 
of  the  province.  The  tomb  of  the  Mussulman 
saint,  Kwajah,  within  the  town,  is  held  in  great 
veneration,  and  pilgrimages  are  made  to  it  even 
by  Hindus.  The  Emperor  Akbar  journeyed  to 
it  from  Agra  on  foot  in  1570,  in  fulfillment  of  a 
vow  after  the  visit  of  his  son  Jehanghir.  In  Oc- 
tober, a  great  annual  fair  is  held  in  honor  of  the 
saint,  at  which  presumed  miracles  are  wrought 
Ajmere  has  manufactures  of  oil,  cotton  cloths, 
celebrated  dyeing  establishments,  and  a  trade  in 
opium  and  salt.  It  is  the  seat  of  Ajmere  College 
and  of  Mayo  College.  (See  India,  paragraph  on 
Education.)  The  Anasagar,  a  large  artificial 
lake  to  the  north  of  the  city,  supplies  it  with 
water.  Ajmere  dates  from  about  145  a.d.;  it 
came  under  British  rule  by  purchase  in  181H. 
Pop.,   1891,  68,800;   1901,   75,800. 

AJKEBE-MEBWABA,  -mftr-wa^r&.  A  prov- 
ince of  British  India,  belonging  to  the  Presidency 
of  Bengal,  and  situated  between  25**  SO*  and 
26*'  45'  N.  lat.  and  between  73**  53'  and 
75**  22'  E.  long.  (Map:  India,  B  3).  It  occupies 
an  area  of  2711  square  miles.  The  climate  h 
unhealthful  and  fevers  are  prevalent.  The  sur- 
face is  mountainous  in  the  west,  and  the  soil  is 
naturally  unfertile  and  scantily  watered.  By 
irrigation  it  has  been  brought  to  some  degree  of 
productivity,  and  now  yields  some  cotton,  wheat, 
and  other  food  grains  and  oil  seeds.  Iron  and 
a  few  other  metals  are  found.  Pop.,  1901,  476,- 
330,  as  against  542,358  in  1891.  The  inhabitants 
are  mostly  Hindus,  the  number  of  Moham- 
medans being  about  75,000.  The  capital  is  Aj- 
mere (q.v.). 

AK^ABAH.  A  village  near  the  Gulf  of  Ak- 
abah,  supposed  to  occujjy  the  site  of  the  Elath 
of  Scripture  (Map:  Asia,  C  6).  Ruins  in  the 
Ked  Sea  a  short  distance  to  the  south  still  bear 
the  name  Ezion-geber.  It  lies  on  the  route  from 
^©yp^  to  Syria. 

AKABAH,  Gulp  of.  Ancient  Sinus  ^lan- 
ites.  The  eastern  of  the  two  inlets  on  the  north 
end  of  the  Red  Sea,  running  into  Arabia  Petnea, 


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about  100  miles  northeast,  with  a  width  of  12 
to  17  miles  (Map:  Arabia,  P  10).  Navigation 
i^  difficult  on  account  of  reefs  and  sudden  squalls. 
The  only  good  harbor  is  Golden  Port,  on  the  west 
shore,  33  miles  from  the  entrance  and  29  miles 
east  of  Mount  Sinai. 

AKAXTA,  kldk'k^k^  Le  Docteur.  The  name 
of  a  noted  French  physician  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury (Martin  Akakia,  Grecized  from  the  French 
name  sans-malice) ,  borrowed  as  a  pseudonym 
by  Voltaire  in  his  Diatribe  du  Docteur  Akakia, 
This  was  a  brilliant  satire,  covering  with  ridi- 
cule Maupertuis  and  the  Berlin  Academy,  of 
which  he  was  president.  King  Frederick  II., 
however,  nad  it  publicly  burned  (1752). 

AKAMAOASEKE,      rk&-ma'gft-sa^6.      See 

v^HIMONESKI. 

AKASHIy  &-ka^sh6.  A  town  of  Japan,  in  the 
prefecture  of  Uiogo,  situated  on  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Inland  Sea,  and  giving  its  name  to 
the  passage  between  Ilonshiu  and  the  island  of 
Awaji  (Map:  Japan,  D  6).  It  is  a  station  on 
the  Sanyo  Railway,  and  it  lies  twelve  miles  east 
of  Kob^,  whose  inhabitants  go  there  for  the  sum- 
mer. It  contains  a  Shinto  temple  in  honor  of 
the  ancient  poet  Kaki-no-moto-no-Hitomaro,  and 
the  remains  of  a  moat  and  a  large  castle.  Its 
meridian  is  used  for  the  standard  time  of  Japan. 
Pop.,  1898,  21,196. 

ATTBAB,  ak'ber;  Hind.  pron.  tik'ber  (Ar. 
very  great),  properly  Jalal-ud-Din  Muhammad 
(1542-1605).  Emperor  of  Hindustan,  the  great- 
est Asiatic  monarch  of  modern  times.  His 
father,  Humayun,  was  deprived  of  the  throne  by 
usurpers,  and  fled  for  refuge  to  Persia.  On  his 
way  thither,  in  the  town  of  Amerkote,  Akbar 
was  bom  in  1542.  Humayun  recovered  the 
throne  of  Delhi  in  1555,  after  an  exile  of  twelve 
years,  but  died  within  a  year.  The  prince  of 
fourteen  at  first  committed  the  administration  to 
Bahram  Khan  as  regent  minister,  but  finding 
this  authority  degenerating  into  tyranny,  he  shook 
it  off  by  a  bold  stroke  and  took  the  power  into 
his  own  hands  ( 1500) .  At  this  time  only  a  few  of 
the  many  provinces  once  subdued  by  the  Mongol 
invaders  were  actually  subject  to  the  throne  of 
Delhi;  in  ten  or  twelve  years  Akbar's  empire 
embraced  the  whole  of  Hindustan  north  of  the 
Dcccan.  The  wisdom,  vigor,  and  humanity  with 
which  he  organized  and  administered  his  vast 
dominions  are  unexampled  in  the  East.  He  pro- 
moted commerce  by  constructing  roads,  estab- 
lishing a  uniform  system  of  weights  and  meas- 
ures, and  a  vigorous  police.  He  exercised  the 
utmost  vigilance  over  his  viceroys  of  provinces 
and  other  officers,  to  see  that  no  extortion  was 
practiced,  and  that  justice  was  impartially  ad- 
ministered to  all  classe3  of  his  subjects.  For  the 
adjustment  of  taxation,  the  lands  were  accurately 
measured,  and  statistics  were  taken,  not  only  of 
the  population,  but  of  the  resources  of  each  prov- 
ince. He  also  forbade  child-marriage,  permitted 
the  remarriage  of  widows,  and  endeavored  to 
stop  the  practice  of  suttee.  In  religion  Akbar 
was  exceedingly  liberal,  largely  on  account  of  the 
influence  of  the  vizier  Abu-1  Fazl.  He  was  fond 
of  inquiries  as  to  religious  beliefs,  and  invited 
Portuguese  missionaries  from  Goa  to  his  court 
to  give  an  account  of  the  Christian  faith. 
He  oven  attempted  to  promulgate  a  new  eclectic 
religion  of  his  own,  which,  however,  never 
took  root.  Literature  received  the  greatest  en- 
couragement.    Schools  were  established  for  the 


education  of  both  Hindus  and  Mohammedans; 
and  numbers  of  Hindu  works  were  translated 
from  Sanskrit  into  Persian.  Abu-1  Fazl  (q.v.), 
the  able  minister  of  Akbar,  has  left  a  valuable 
history  of  his  master's  reign,  entitled  Akbar 
N&mah  (History  of  Akbar)  ;  the  third  volume, 
containing  a  description  of  Akbar's  empire,  de- 
rived from  the  statisticial  inquiries  above  men- 
tioned, and  entitled  Ayin-i-Akbar  (Institutes 
of  Akbar),  has  been  translated  into  English  by 
Gladwin  ( 3  volumes,  Calcutta,  1786,  and  London, 
1800), and  by  Blochmann  and  Jarett  (3  volumes, 
Calcutta,  1873-94).  Akbar's  latter  days  were 
embittered  by  the  death  of  two  of  his  sons  from 
dissipation,  and  by  the  rebellious  conduct  ^of  the 
third,  Selim  (known  as  Jehangir)  who  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1605,  and  was  suspected  of 
being  the  cause  of  his  death.  Consult  Mal- 
leson,  Akbar,  Rulers  of  India  Scries  (Oxford, 
1891-1901). 

AKEE^  (native  name,  its  scientiflc  name  being 
Cupania  or  Blighia  sapida ) .  A  fruit  tree  of  the 
order  Sapindacese,  a  native  of  tropical  Africa, 
introduced  into  Jamaica  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  It  grows  to  a  height  of 
upward  of  25  feet,  with  numerous  branches  and 
alternate  pinnate  leaves  resembling  those  of  the 
ash.  The  flowers  are  small,  white,  on  axillary 
racemes;  the  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  goose's 
egg,  with  three  cells  and  three  seeds,  and  its 
succulent  aril  has  a  grateful  subacid  flavor.  The 
fruit  is  little  inferior  to  a  nectarine.  Boiled 
down  with  sugar  and  cinnamon,  it  is  used  as 
a  remedy  for  diarrhea.  The  distilled  water  of 
the  flowers  is  used  by  negro  women  as  a  cosmetic. 
The  akee  sometimes  produces  fruit  in  hothouses 
in  Great  Britain.  In  order  to  obtain  this  the 
roots  should  be  cramped  in  pots.  The  Aki  of 
New  Zealand  is  a  totally  difl'erent  plant,  Metro- 
sidcros  buxifolia,  of  the  natural  order  Myrtaceae, 
a  shrub,  which  sends  out  lateral  roots,  and  so 
attains  the  summits  of  the  loftiest  trees. 

Fossil  Forms.  Under  the  names  Cupanites 
and  Cupanoides,  several  forms  of  fruits  have  been 
described  from  the  Eocene  clays,  of  the  Tertiary 
age,  of  Great  Britain. 

AKELa)AMA.     See  Aceldama. 

A  KEM^IS,  Thomas.  See  Kempis,  Thomas  A. 

AKENW,     See  Achene. 

A'^KENSIDE,  Mark  (1721-70).  An  English 
author  of  considerable  celebrity  in  his  own  day, 
on  account  of  his  didactic  poem,  the  Pleasures  of 
the  Imagittation^  and  some  medical  works.  He 
was  born  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne,  where  his  father 
was  a  butcher.  Being  intended  for  the  Pres- 
byterian Church,  he  was  sent  to  study  theology 
at  Edinburgh,  but  soon  abandoned  it  for  medi- 
cine. He  graduated  as  a  physician  at  Leyden  in 
1744,  and  practiced  at  Northampton,  then  at 
Hampstead,  and  flnally  in  London.  His  success 
as  a  practicing  physician  was  never  very  great, 
owing,  it  is  said,  to  his  haughty  and  pedantic 
manner.  He  died  in  London,  soon  after  being 
appointed  one  of  the  physicians  to  the  Queen. 
At  Leyden  he  had  formed  an  intimacy  with  Jere- 
miah Dyson,  and  this  rich  and  generous  friend 
allowed  him  £300  a  year.  Some  of  his  medical 
treatises,  as  that  on  dysentery,  won  for  him  dis- 
tinction as  a  scholar.  His  later  poetry,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  odes  and  hymns,  did  not  attain  the 
same  reputation  as  his  Pleasures  of  the  Imagina- 
tion, which  was  completed  in  his  twenty-third 


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AKHUND  OF  SWAT. 


year.  In  Peregrine  Pickle,  Smollett  satirically 
sketched  the  character  of  Akenside  under  that 
of  the  pedant  who  undertakes  to  give  an  enter- 
tainment after  the  manner  of  the  ancients. 
Akenside,  who  practiced  blank  verse  and  the 
Spenserian  stanza,  was  one  of  the  pioneers 
among  the  romantic  poets.  He  became  dissatis- 
fied with  his  juvenile  production,  and  at  his 
death  had  written  a  portion  of  a  new  poem  on 
the  same  subject.  Both  poems  were  published 
in  the  complete  edition  of  his  works  in  1772. 
For  his  biography  consult:  Bucke  (London, 
1832),  and  Dyce  (London,  1866);  also  Beers, 
English  Romanticism  in  the  Eighteenth  Cen- 
tury ^New  York,  1899). 

AKEBBLAD,  anvgr-blAd,  Johann  David 
(1760-lSHl).  A  Swedish  Orientalist  and  learned 
epigraphist.  Tie  was  secretary  of  the  Swedish 
embassy  to  Constantinople,  whence  he  went  to 
Jerusalem  and  the  Troad  in  1792-97.  Later  he 
was  vharg6  d'affaires  at  Paris,  but  spent  his  last 
years  in  Rome.  He  published  a  Lett  re  sur  V  In- 
scription P.gyptienne  de  Rosette  (1802). 

AKEBMAN.     See  Akkebman. 

AKEBS,  fl'kerz,  Benjamin  Paul  (1825-66). 
An  American  sculptor.  He  was  born  in  West- 
brook,  Me.,  July  10,  1825,  and  died  at  Philadel- 
phia, May  21,  1866.  While  in  his  father's  saw- 
mill he  made  toys,  and  turned  his  original  de- 
signs into  ornamental  woodwork.  He  tried  to  be 
a  printer,  then  essayed  to  paint,  but  on  viewing 
a  plaster  cast  he  decided  for  sculpture,  and 
placed  himself  under  the  instruction  of  Carew  of 
Boston.  In  1852  he  went  to  Florence,  where  he 
passed  a  year  in  study.  In  1854  he  visited  Rome. 
While  in  that  city  he  executed  his  "Una  and  the 
Lion,"  "Girl  Pressing  Grapes,"  "Isaiah,"  and 
other  works.  Hawthorne  referred  to  his  "Mil- 
ton" and  "The  Dead  Pearl-Diver"  in  The  Marble 
Faun;  and  it  is  said  that  the  character  of  Ken- 
yon  in  that  book  is  drawn  from  the  personality 
of  the  young  sculptor.  Akers  also  produced 
many  portrait  busts  of  distinguished  Americans, 
among  them  Longfellow,  Edward  Everett,  Sam 
Houston,  and  Gerrit  Smith.  He  had,  moreover, 
ability  as  an  art  writer,  but  few  of  his  essays 
have  been  published.  Those  on  Art  Expression 
and  the  Artist  Prisoner  are  best  known  to  the 
public.  Consult  C.  E.  Clements,  Painters, 
Sculptors,  Architects,  and  Engravers  (Boston, 
1899). 

A^KEBSHEM,  Miss  Sophronia.  A  char- 
acter in  Dickens's  Our  Mutual  Friend.  She  be- 
comes the  wife  of  Albert  Lammle  (q.v.). 

AKHALTSIKH,  a'KAl-tslK'.  The  chief  town 
of  a  district  in  the  government  of  Tiflis,  Russian 
Armenia,  about  95  miles  west  of  Tiflis,  and  1450 
miles  by  rail  southeast  of  Moscow,  on  the  banks 
of  the  Poskhov-Tchai,  an  affluent  of  the  Kur 
(Map:  Russia,  F  6).  It  is  situated  in  a  valley 
of  the  Keldir  Mountains,  3376  feet  above  the  sea 
level.  By  the  river  running  through  it,  the  town 
is  divided  into  the  old  town  and  citadel,  on  the 
left  bank,  and  the  new  town  on  the  right.  The 
town  is  not  surrounded  by  walls,  for  the  citadel 
is  considered  suflicient  protection,  it  being  very 
strong  and  built  on  an  almost  inaccessible  rock. 
Tlie  climate  is  salubrious,  although  the  winters 
are  very  severe  and  the  summers  exceedingly  hot. 
The  surrounding  s<;enery  presents  a  view  of  wild, 
rugged  beauty,  enhanced  by  the  numerous  gar- 
dens encircling  the  town.    The  mosque  of  Sultan 


Ahmed,  built  on  the  model  of  St.  Sophia  in  Con- 
stantinople, has  a  library  attached  to  it  which 
was  accounted  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the 
East ;  but  the  Russians  carried  off  a  great  part 
of  its  most  valuable  treasures  to  St.  Petersburg. 
Some  manufactures,  especially  of  the  smaller 
arms  and  weapons,  are  carried  on  in  the  town, 
and  it  maintains  an  active  trade  with  various 
places  on  the  Black  Sea.  Some  16  miles  to  the 
northwest  of  the  town  are  the  well-known  Abas- 
Tumansk  mineral  springs.  Deposits  of  lignite 
are  also  found  in  the  neighborhood.  Akhalt^ikh 
was  anciently  called  Keldir  or  Chaldir.  Om-e 
a  considerable  mart  for  trading  in  Christian 
slaves,  it  has  since  its  occupation  by  Russia 
become  a  Christian  town,  80  per  cent,  of  its 
population  being  Armenians  and  10  per  cent. 
Jews.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishopric  of  the 
Greek  church.  In  1828,  when  the  Russians  took 
possession  of  it,  it  had  a  population  of  50.000. 
but  it  has  been  decreasing  ever  since,  so  that 
at  the  time  of  the  taking  of  the  last  census,  in 
1897,  there  were  only  15,300  inhabitants. 

AKHTSSAB,  ak'hls-s^' ( anciently  Lat.  Thya- 
tira,  Gk.  Ovareipa,  Thyateiru) .  A  town  in  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  Smyrna,  Asiatic  Turkey,  situ- 
ated 52  miles  northeast  of  Smyrna,  on  somewhat 
elevated  ground  in  the  valley  of  the  Hyllus 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  C  3).  The  streets  are 
paved  with  carved  stone,  and  other  relics  of  an- 
tiquity abound,  but  there  are  no  ruins  of  ancient 
buildings.  Cotton  goods  are  exported.  The  town 
is  situated  on  the  Monissa-Soma  Railway.  Popu- 
lation estimated  at  6000  to  8000. 

AKHMIm,  &K-mem^,  or  ETTHTifffM,  $K-mem^ 
A  city  of  some  10,000  inhabitants,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile,  in  Upper  Egypt  ( Map :  Egv-pt, 
£  6 ) .  It  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Chemmis 
or  Panopolis,  the  seat  of  worship  of  the  han-est 
god  Min,  an  ithyphallic  deity  whom  the  Greeks 
identified  with  Pan.  In  Christian  times  the  city 
became  an  important  religious  centre,  and  many 
converts  congregated  in  the  vicinity.  Nestorius. 
patriarch  of  Constantinople,  whose  heresy  was 
condemned  by  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  431, 
died  in  banishment  at  Panopolis. 

AKHTYBKA.,  ftK-tlrncft.  A  town  of  Euro- 
pean Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kharkov,  72 
miles  northwest  of  Kharkov  and  520  miles  south 
of  Moscow  (Map:  Russia,  D  4).  It  is  situated 
on  a  small  river  of  the  same  name,  an  affluent 
of  the  Dnieper,  in  a  rather  low  valley,  and  until 
very  recently  was  unprotected  from  annual  in- 
undation. Even  at  present  the  surrounding 
country  is  often  submerged,  so  that  at  times,  es- 
pecially in  the  spring,  communication  with  the 
town  becomes  very  difficult.  It  is  a  thriving  little 
town,  nevertheless,  doing  a  lively  trade  with  the 
great  pilgrim  crowds  attracted  there  by  the  fa- 
mous Akhtyr  image  of  the  Holy  Virgin,  and  by 
the  Trinity  cloister,  situated  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  ioyffn.  Some  manufacturing  is  carried  on  in 
textiles,  boots  and  shoes,  and  a  great  annual  fair 
is  held.  A  considerable  commerce  is  also  carried 
on  in  grain  and  cattle.  The  town  was  foundeil 
bv  the  Poles  in  1641  and  acquired  by  the  Rus- 
sians in  1647.    Pop.,  1897,  23,400. 

AKHXTND  OP  SWAT,  ft-K5ond',  swat.  The 
(? — 1878).  A  Mohammedan  saint,  who  exer- 
cised great  influence  and  had  almost  unque«^- 
tioned  authority  over  Mohammedans  all  over 
Central  Asia.     His  i*esidence  in  the  mountainous 


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AKHTTND  OF  SWAT. 


247 


AXBON. 


country  of  Swat,  on  the  borders  of  India  and 
Afghanistan,  was  the  resort  of  numerous  pil- 
grimages to  consult  him  on  questions  of  every 
kind.  For  half  a  century  the  English  Govern- 
ment assiduously  watched  this  man,  who  pos- 
sessed a  power  which  no  other  person  in  Asia 
could  pretend  to  wield;  but  the  Akhund  gen> 
erally  kept  on  friendly  terms  with  the  English. 
In  1877,  the  Ameer  of  Afghanistan  sought  his 
advice  in  regard  to  the  proper  course  in  the  Rus- 
so-Turkish  War. 

AXIB,  &'kC»l/,  Le  Rabbin .  The  pseudonym 
under  which  Voltaire  published  in  1761  his  Ser- 
mon du  Rahhin  Akib — iraduit  de  VH^breu, 

AZIBA,  BEN  JOSEPH,  k-ken^k  b^n  j6'2«f. 
A  famous  rabbi  and  head  of  a  rabbinical  school  at 
Bene-Barak,  near  Jaffa,  who  flourished  in  the 
first  and  second  centuries  a.d.  Although  he  be- 
gan the  study  of  the  law  at  a  comparatively  ad- 
vanced age,  "^  he  rose  to  a  prominent  position 
among  the  rabbis  of  his  day  by  virtue  of  his 
learning  and  acumen,  and  many  are  the  stories 
and  legends  told  about  his  early  struggles  and 
final  success.  He  laid  the  basis  of  the  "Mishna" 
by  beginning  the  systematization  of  Jewish 
oral  law,  and  his  collection  became  known  as 
the  Mishna  of  Rabbi  Akiba.  His  influence  as  a 
teacher  upon  the  founders  of  the  Mishna  was 
also  very  great,  and  it  was  he  likewise  who,  to  a 
large  degree,  advanced  the  peculiar  biblical  exe- 
gesis which  is  a  characteristic  feature  of  Tal- 
mudic  literature.  His  scholarship  did  not  weaken 
Akiba's  interest  in  the  political  affairs  of  the 
day.  He  was  involved  in  the  great  Jew- 
ish revolt  against  Rome,  arrayed  himself  on 
the  side  of  Bar-Cochba,  or  Bar-Cochebas,  the  pre- 
tended Messiah,  and  acted  for  a  time  as  his 
armor-bearer.  He  was  captured  by  the  Romans 
and  put  to  death  c.  135  a.d.  with  great  tortures, 
but  bore  his  pains  with  wonderful  fortitude. 
Legends  gathered  around  the  career  of  Akiba, 
and,  like  Moses,  he  is  reported  to  have  been  120 
years  old  at  death.  His  grave,  shown  at  Tibe- 
rias, became  a  place  of  devout  pilgrimage. 

AKITA,  A-kC^'tA,  or  KTJBOTA,  kSobd'tA.  A 
town  of  Japan,  the  capital  of  the  prefecture  of 
the  same  name,  situated  on  the  western  coast  of 
Honshiu,  near  the  Hachiro  Lagoon  (Map:  Japan, 
G  4).  It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  rice 
^nth  Hakodate,  and  has  some  manufactures  of 
cloth  and  cotton  crape.     Pop.,  1898,  29,477. 

AKKA,  ak'kA.  A  pygmy  tribe  or  race,  now 
living  in  the  forests  of  British  East  Africa, 
about  long.  25°  E.  In  height,  the  Akka 
average  about  4  feet  6  inches;  color,  yellow 
brown;  features,  negroid.  They  are  extremely 
retiring  and  do  not  mix  with  neighboring  tribes, 
though  usually  they  live  near,  and  are  under  the 
protection  of,  the  tall  negroes.  Their  houses 
are  dome-shaped,  arranged  in  a  circle,  with  the 
communal  cooking  fire  in  the  centre.  Though 
dwarfs  in  stature,  they  do  not  hesitate  to  attack 
large  game  with  poisoned  arrows,  the  python 
being  their  favorite  quarry.  Their  food  is  prin- 
cipally nuts  and  berries.  The  Akka  tribe  pre- 
sents a  difficult  ethnological  problem,  next  to 
nothing  being  known  of  their  language  and  cus- 
toms. Consult:  Schweinfurth,  Heart  of  Africa 
(London,  1873) ;  Deniker,  Races  of  Man  (Lon- 
don, 1900). 


ATTfCAP,  nk^&d  oi-  fikOcfld. 
ftkOcer-mftn'. 


See  AccAD. 
Formerly  a  for- 


tress, now  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in  the 
Grovernment  of  Bessarabia,  Russia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Dneister,  12  miles  from  the  Black  Sea  and 
about  30  miles  from  Odessa  (Map:  Russia,  C  5). 
It  was  the  Alba  Julia  of  the  Ramans.  The  chief 
industry  of  the  town  is  the  raising  of  fruits,  es- 
pecially of  grapes,  there  being  no  less  than  2000 
gardens  within  the  city  proper,  besides  numerous 
other  beautiful  ones  which  surround  the  town. 
An  annual  fair  is  held  here  during  the  month  of 
December.  The  harbor  is  accessible  to  large 
steamers,  and  the  town  has  regular  steamship 
communication  with  Odessa,  to  which  it  exports 
salt,  fish,  wools,  and  wines.  A  treaty  was  signed 
here  between  Russia  and  Turkey  in  1826. 

AKXESHI,  or  AXISHI,  &-k^sh$.  A  town 
of  Japan,  situated  on  the  southern  coast  of  Yezo, 
on  the  Akkeshi  Bay.  It  is  famous  for  its  oyster 
beds  and  contains  an  oyster-canning  establish- 
ment. 

AKKBA,  A-kril^,  or  ACCBA.  The  chief  town 
of  the  British  West  African  colony  of  the  Gold 
Coast  (Map:  Africa,  D  4).  It  has  a  salubrious 
climate,  being  separated  from  the  interior  of  the 
colony  by  mountain  chains.  It  extends  for  about 
three  miles  along  the  coast,  and  is  divided  into 
the  four  ports  of  James  Town,  Ussher  Town,  Vic- 
toriaborg,  and  Ohristiansborg,  the  latter  being 
the  seat  of  the  government.  Although  the  num- 
ber of  Europeans  is  comparatively  small,  the 
town  bears  strong  marks  of  European  influence. 
It  has  several  churches,  a  bank,  a  club  house,  and 
a  number  of  European  shops.  The  population, 
including  the  suburbs,  is  about  20,000. 

AK'MOLINSK^  A  Russian  territory,  con- 
stituting the  northeast  and  largest  section  of 
the  Kirghiz  Steppes  in  Russian  Asia  (Map:  Asia, 
F  3).  It  lies  between  the  Uln-Tai  and  Ishim 
rivers  on  the  west  and  the  Irtish  on  the  north- 
east. Area,  about  225,000  square  miles.  The 
entire  territory  is  divided  into  three  sections, 
greatly  differing  in  their  geological  aspect.  The 
northern  part  is  a  rather  low  plain,  with  many 
salt  lakes  and  salt  pits.  The  middle  section, 
crossed  by  hillocks,  is  habitable  in  parts  only. 
Here  are  centred  the  mineral  resources  of  the 
territory,  consisting  principally  of  gold,  copper, 
and  coal.  The  southern  portion  is  a  waterless 
desert-steppe,  and  is  known  under  the  name  of 
Bednak-Dola,  meaning  "the  hungry  steppe."  Its 
climate  is  very  severe ;  it  is  extremely  hot  in  the 
summer,  and  there  are  epidemics  of  malaria  and 
diarrhea.  Its  principal  industries  are  the  grow- 
ing of  flax  and  tobacco,  cattle  raising,  fishing, 
and,  in  some  localities,  hunting.  The  mining  in- 
dustry is  but  little  developed.  Its  population 
increased  from  463,400  in  1887  to  687,900  in 
1897;  about  two- thirds  of  the  people  are  no- 
madic. The  principal  towns  are  Akmolinsk, 
Omsk,  Atbassar,  and  Petropavlovsk. 

AKOI^ETOI.     See  AccEMETiG. 

AK^RAOAS  (Gk.  'Aicpayac).  The  ancient 
Greek  name  of  the  Sicilian  city  .Girgenti.  See 
Agrigentum. 

AK^BON.  A  manufacturing  city  and  railroad 
centre,  the  county  seat  of  Summit  County,  Ohio. 
It  was  founded  in  1825,  and  incorporated  as 
a  town  in  1836.  It  is  35  miles  south  of 
Cleveland,  on  the  Ohio  Canal  and  the  Erie,  the 
Baltimore  and  Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  other 
railways.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  a  chain 
of   lakes,   where  hotels,   etc.,   have   been  estab- 


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AXBON. 


248 


AL. 


lished,  and  their  accessibility  by  electric  roads 
is  tending  to  make  Akron  attractive  as  a 
summer  resort.  The  industries  of  the  city 
include  a  great  variety  of  manufactures,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  printing  and  litho- 
graphing, iron,  steel,  sewer  pipes,  rubber,  pot- 
tery, and  agricultural  implements.  The  may- 
or's term  of  office  extends  over  two  years,  as 
does  that  of  the  board  of  city  commissioners, 
a  bi-partisan  board  which  controls  the  executive 
power.  The  city  council  is  made  up  of  sixteen 
members,  two  from  each  ward.  The  board  of 
education  is  elected,  and  has  full,  independent 
power  in  all  school  matters,  including  the  power 
of  taxation.  The  city's  annual  income  amounts 
to  about  $910,000;  expenditures  to  $700,000,  of 
which  $260,000  is  spent  in  construction  and  other 
capital  outlay,  and  $440,000  in  maintenance  and 
operation.  The  chief  items  of  expense  are: 
police  department,  $30,000;  fire  department, 
$55,000;  and  schools,  $135,000.  Akron  is  the 
seat  of  Buchtel  College,  an  institution  under 
Universalist  control.  The  city  maintains  a  hos- 
pital and  library.  Pop.,  1870,  10,000;  1890, 
27,601 ;  1900,  42,728.  Consult  S;  A.  Lane,  Fifty 
Years  and  Over  of  Akron  and  Summit  County 
(Akron,  1892). 

AKSAKOFF9  Sergei  Timofeyevitch  (1791- 
1869).  A  Russian  writer,  born  in  the  Govern- 
ment of  Ufa.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Kazan,  and  held  office  on  the  legislative  com- 
mission at  St.  Petersburg  from  1807  to  1812. 
His  works  include  the  serio-humorous  Observa- 
tions on  Angling  (1847),  Memoirs  of  a  Hunts- 
man in  the  Oovemment  of  Orenburg  (1852), 
with  their  continuation.  Tales  and  Memories  of 
a  Huntsman  (1855),  and  The  Family  Chronicle 
(1856),  by  some  considered  his  best  work,  of 
which  a  second  part  appeared  as  Bogrov's  Child- 
hood (1858).  A  selection  from  his  shorter  writ- 
ings was  published  in  1858. 

AKSAKOFF,  Ak-sH'kAf,  Ivan  Seboeyevich 
(1823-86).  A  Russian  writer  and  leader  of  the 
Panslavists,  born  in  the  Government  of  Ufa. 
He  studied  in  the  school  of  jurisprudence  and 
graduated  in  1842,  afterward  entering  the  Mos- 
cow division  of  the  Senate.  In  1848  he  entered 
the  service  of  the  ministry  of  the  interior,  as  a 
"specially  commissioned  officer."  He  left  this 
service  in  1852  for  journalistic  work,  becoming 
editor  of  the  Moscow  £f6ornifc( Miscellany), which 
was  suppressed,  the  editor  being  put  under 
special  surveillance  and  forbidden  ever  to  be  the 
editor  of  a  paper  again.  He  was  commissioned 
by  the  Geographical  Society  to  study  the  fairs  of 
Ukrayna,  and  his  report  received  the  medal  of 
the  Geographical  Society,  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ence also  recognizing  its  value  by  awarding  to 
its  author  one-half  of  the  Demidoff  prize.  In 
1855-56  he  was  in  Bessarabia  in  command  of  the 
Serpukhoff  detachment  of  the  Moscow  levy  dur- 
ing the  Crimean  War.  He  established  the  Den, 
a  weekly  paper  published  from  1861  to  1865, 
and  the  Moskvaf  a  daily  paper,  which  was  estab- 
lished in  1867.  This  latter  sheet  was  suppressed 
three  times  by  the  Government  within  twenty- 
two  months,  these  suppressions  aggregating 
thirteen  months  of  that  period.  During  its  sup- 
pression, the  Moskvich  was  published  in  its  place, 
ostensibly  under  another  editor.  Aksakoff  was 
the  leader  of  the  Panslavist  party  in  Russia, 
and,  as  a  chairman  of  the  Slavic  Philanthropic 
Society,  worked  incessantly  in  the  interest  of 
a  united  state  of  all  the  Slavic  nations.     During 


the  Russo-Turkish  War  he  became  the  recognized 
leader  of  all  those  influences  that  brought  about 
the  War  of  Liberation  of  the  Balkan  Slavs,  and 
his   speeches    in   support   of   this   cause  had  a 
world-wide  circulation.     On  July  4,  1878,  during 
a  session  of  the  Slavic  Philanthropic  Society,  he 
made  an  impassioned  speech,  in  which  he  ar- 
raigned the  Russian  diplomats,  charging  them 
with  vacillation  and  treacherous  submission  in 
the  presence  of  the  other  members  of  the  Berlin 
Congress  there  sitting.     He  called  upon  the  Em- 
peror to  fulfill  his  promises  of  "carrying  this 
sacred  undertaking  to  its  very  end,"  and  demand- 
ed the  rescue  "of  Russian  glory,  honor,  and  eon- 
science  that  were  being  buried  at  the  Congress." 
The  Moscow  Slavic  Committee  was  suppressed, 
and  Aksakoff  was  banished  from   Moscow,  but 
was  permitted  to  return  in  December  of  that 
year.    From  1880  until  his  death  he  published 
the  weekly  Rus  in  the  interests  of  the  Slavophil 
party.     In   December,    1885,   he  made    a   bitter 
attack  on  Russian  diplomacy  in  Bulgaria,  with 
the  result  that  an  official  reprimand  was  issued 
against  his  paper  for  "discussing  current  events 
in   a   tone  inconsistent   with    true   patriotism.** 
Aksakoff  replied  in  an  even  more  pointed  article, 
in  which  he  defined  true  patriotism.     He  took 
the  rebuke  very  much  to  heart,  however,  and  his 
death  on  February  8,  1886,  is  supposed  to  have 
been  hastened  by  the  effect  which  the  reprimand 
produced   upon   him.     He  was   the  best  known 
poet  of  the  Slavophil  cailse.     His  complete  works 
were  published  posthumously. 

AKSHEHB,  fik'shenr  (Turk.  White  To\ni, 
ancient  Gk.  ^i?.ofi^Xiov,  Philofn^lion) .  A  city  in 
the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Konieh,  Asia  Minor,  situa- 
ted on  the  Scutari-Konieh  line,  south  of  the  Lake 
of  Akshehr  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  D  3).  It 
lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Sultan-Dagh  in  a  fruitful 
and  well-watered  region,  and  has  a  considerable 
trade  and  manufactories  of  carpet.  Pop.,  about 
15,000. 

AKSXT,  ftk-sSo^  A  town  of  Eastern  Turkestan. 
It  is  situated  in  W  7'  N.  lat.  and  81  *»  E.  long., 
260  miles  northeast  of  Yarkand,  west  of  the 
River  Aksu,  at  an  altitude  of  over  3000  feet 
( Map :  Asia,  H  4 ) .  It  is  surrounded  by  a  strong 
wall  and  is  of  considerable  strategic  importance. 
It  is  a  meeting  place  for  the  caravans  from  Rus- 
sia, China,  West  Turkestan,  Kashmir,  and  India. 
The  inhabitants  are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  manu-  . 
facture  of  metal  ware,  cotton  goods,  and  har- 
ness. In  1718  Aksu  was  nearly  destroyed  by  an  ' 
earthquake.  In  1867  it  was  taken  by  the  Khan 
of  Kashgar,  but  was  recaptured  by  the  Chinese 
in  1877.     Its  population  is  estimated  at  40.000. 

AKTAB,  ak-yllb'.  A  town  of  Burma,  India. 
The  chief  seaport  of  the  district  of  Akyab  or 
Arakan  proper,  and  the  capital  of  the  province  of 
Arakan  (Map:  Asia,  J  7).  It  is  situated  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  island  of  Akyab,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Kuladan  River,  in  lat.  20*  7'  N.,  190  miles 
southeast  of  Calcutta.  The  houses  are  well  built, 
the  streets  broad  and  regular,  and  it  has  a  fine 
and  well -protected  harbor.  Its  chief  article  of 
export  is  rice.  The  United  States  is  represented 
by  a  consular  agent.  Its  rise  from  a  fishing  vil- 
lage dates  from  its  choice  as  a  port  and  the  cap- 
ital of  the  province  in  1826.     Pop.,  1891,  38.000. 

AL,  al.  The  article  in  the  Arabic  language. 
The  pronunciation  of  the  initial  vowel  is  vague, 
so  that  the  article  vacillates  between  al  and  el. 
Before  dentals,  sibilants,  and  liquids,  the  I  sound 


I 


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AL. 


249 


is  assimilated  to  the  following  consonant,  so 
that,  e.g.,  el-shams  (the  sun)  becomes  esh-skams; 
and  again,  the  initial  vowel  is  frequently  elided, 
wlien  the  word  preceding  the  vowel  ends  in  a 
vowel,  e.g.,  AhU'l-Feda  for  Ahu-al-Fcda,  The 
essential  element  of  the  article  is  the  I,  which 
belongs  to  the  category  of  natural  sounds  having 
a  demonstrative  force.  The  Arabic  article  ap- 
pears in  such  English  words  as  aleebra,  alchemy, 
alcove,  and  Alhambra,  which  are  directly  derived 
from  the  Arabic. 

ALABAMA.  A  river  formed  by  the  junction 
of  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa  rivers,  about  10  miles 
north  of  Montgomery,  Ala.  (Map:  Alabama, 
B  4).  Its  general  course  is  westward  to  Selma, 
thence  south-westward  to  about  50  miles  north 
of  Mobile,  where  it  meets  the  Tombigbee,  and 
^-ith  that  stream  forms  the  Mobile  River.  It  is 
320  miles  long,  and  navigable  from  its  mouth  to 
Montgomery,  nearly  its  entire  length. 


L,  fil'A-ba'mA,  known  as  the  "Cot- 
ton State."  One  of  the  Gulf  States  of  the 
American  Union,  situated  between  lat.  30°  10' 
and  35**  N.,  long.  84**  53'  and  88*»  30'  W.  It 
is  bounded  on  the  north  by  Tennessee,  on  the 
east  by  Georgia,  on  the  south  by  Florida  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  west  by  Mississippi; 
lenjirth,  about  336  miles  from  north  to  south; 
average  width,  175  miles;  total  area,  52,250 
square  miles,  of  which  710  square  miles  is  water 
(Map:  United  States,  J  4).  Alabama,  by  the 
census  of  1900,  ranks  as  the  eighteenth  State 
in  the  Union  in  population,  the  twenty-seventh 
in  size,  and  ninth  in  order  of  admission. 

TopoGRAPHT.  The  southern  extremity  of  the 
Appalachian  mountain  system  extends  into  the 
State  from  northern  Georgia  in  a  series  of  low 
parallel  ranges.  Of  these,  Raccoon  and  Lookout 
mountains  are  the  most  prominent,  but  do  not 
attain  any  great  elevation.  They  are  flat-topped 
ridges,  about  1000  feet  in  elevation  at  the  (Geor- 
gia line,  gradually  lowering  to  the  westward, 
the  Raccoon  Mountains  extending  in  a  very  low 
range  (called  Sand  Mountains)  well  across  the 
State,  while  the  Lookout  Mountains  terminate 
abruptly  after  reaching  a  distance  of  about  60 
miles  within  the  State.  To  the  southeast  of 
these  ranges  lies  the  comparatively  level  Pied- 
mont region.  To  the  touthwest,  at  the  very  ter- 
minus of  the  mountain  system,  is  the  low-lying 
Cumberland  plateau — the  coal-fields  of  Alabama. 
On  the  north  of  all  these  are  the  lower  lands  of 
the  Tennessee  valley.  The  whole  region  just  de- 
J^ribed  includes  the  northeast  two-fifths  of  the 
State.  The  remainder,  the  southwest  three-fifths 
of  the  State,  constitutes  the  Costal  plain,  which 
slopes  gradually  from  an  elevation  of  about  600 
feet  to  sea  level. 

Climate  and  Soil.  Excepting  in  the  lowland 
along  the  rivers,  the  'climate  is  very  healthful, 
particularly  in  the  north.  Extremes  of  tempera- 
ture are  rare,  the  mean  temperature  for  January 
oeing  42.9'»  and  for  July  83.9°.  The  summer  heat 
»&  tempered  by  winds  from  the  gulf.  Snow  falls 
occasionally  in  January  and  February,  but  rare- 
ly in  the  south ;  the  frost  limits  at  Montgomery 
*i;e  October  10  and  April  25.  The  prevailing 
'^ds  for  the  whole  year  are  from  the  south  and 
southwest. 

The  average  temperature  and  rainfall  in  the 
»orth  are  59.70**  and  54  inches  respectively,  grad- 
'^ly  increasing  to  66.60**  and  63  inches  in  the 
wuth. 

The  valley  of  the  Tennessee  has  chiefiy  a  deep 


red  calcareous  soil,  utilized  for  the  cultivation 
of  cereals;  that  in  the  metamorphic  region  is 
a  red  or  gray  loam  with  clay  subsoil ;  in  the  coal 
regions  it  is  sandy,  with  sand  or  clay  subsoil; 
the  north  or  middle  divisions  are  bordered  by  a 
wide  belt  of  red  or  yellow  loam  over  stratified 
rocks  and  pebbles,  and  are  heavily  wooded ;  the 
cotton  belt  has  a  heavy  black  calcareous  soil 
from  two  to  twenty  feet  deep,  forming  a  portion 
of  the  so-called  "black  belt"  of  the  Southern 
States.  South  of  this,  brown  and  red  clay  loams 
predominate.  In  the  extreme  southern  counties 
the  soil  is  light  and  sandy.  Swamp  land  occu- 
pies considerable  areas  in  various  parts  of  the 
State. 

Geoloot.  The  stratified  rocks  represent  every 
formation  occurring  in  the  Appalachian  region. 
There  are  three  geological  divisions  of  Alabama, 
namely:  The  northern,  containing  most  of  the 
State  north  and  west  of  a  line  from  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  State  through  Birmingham  nearly 
to  Tuscaloosa,  and  including  the  great  Tennessee 
valley,  in  which  the  rock  masses  belong  to  the 
Sub-carboniferous  lime-stones  and  the  Coal  meas- 
ures; their  strata  approximately  horizontal. 
Adjoining  this  on  the  east  is  the  middle  region, 
bounded  by  a  line  drawn  from  Tuscaloosa 
through  Centreville,  Clanton,  and  Wetumpka  to 
Columbus,  Ga.  This  includes  (1)  the  metamor- 
phic region,  with  altered  and  crystalline  sedi- 
ments of  Silurian  or  preceding  ages — quartzites, 
marbles,  granites,  and  gneisses;  the  strata  in 
many  places  disintegrated  into  masses  of  strati- 
fied clay  and  interlaminated  with  quartz  seams. 
(2)  The  Coosa  valley,  with  prevailing  calcareous 
rocks.  (3)  The  Coosa  and  Cahaba  coal  fields, 
their  strata  consisting  of  sandstones,  conglom- 
erates, shales^  and  coal  beds,  tilted  and  unequally 
de-graded.  This  division  contains  some  of  the 
highest  land  in  the  State.  The  southern  divi- 
sion, south  and  west  of  these  limits,  including 
the  cotton  belts,  consists  largely  of  drift  deposits 
irregularly  stratified  over  the  eroded  surface  of 
Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  rocks.  Clark  Countv, 
between  the  Alabama  and  Tombigbee,  is  rich  in 
fossil  remains  of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  age. 

Mineral  Resources.  The  southern  limit  of 
the  mineral  region  may  be  indicated  by  a  line 
passing  through  Pikeville,  Tuscaloosa,  and  We- 
tumpka to  Columbus,  Ga.  Within  this  area  are 
the  comparatively  insignificant  gold  deposits  of 
Randolph  County,  and  three  fields  of  bituminous 
coal  over  8660  square  miles  in  extent,  named 
from  the  rivers  that  drain  them — ^the  Warrior, 
the  Cahaba,  and  the  Coosa.  Cannel,  free-burn- 
ing, lump,  coking,  gas,  and  other  coals  of  supe- 
rior quality  are  found.  There  are  extensive 
beds  of  iron  ore,  including  red  hematite,  limonite, 
black-band,  drift,  magnetic,  and  specular;  and 
the  Choccolocco,  Anniston,  Coosa,  Cahaba,  Bir- 
mingham, and  other  valleys  are  noted  for  the 
abundance  of  their  iron  ore.  Among  other  miner- 
al products  are  asbestos,  asphalt,  copper,  corun- 
dum, emery,  fire-clay,  graphite,  granite,  litho- 
graphic stone,  manganese,  white  and  variegated 
marble,  marl,  red  ochre,  phosphates,  bauxite, 
pottery  and  porcelain  clays,  salt  (in  the  south- 
west), slate,  soapstone,  and  small  amounts  of 
silver  and  tin.  Natural  gas  has  been  discovered. 
See  Birmingham,  Alabama. 

Mining. — It    is    not   until    recent    veaTS  \}mX 
the  great  mineral  resources  of  th%    ft\^te  ^a-^® 
been  extensively  exploited.     This  f^^  -.v  growth 
of  the  raining  industry  has  been  la^^*      tC^V^^*^' 
ble  for  the  quickening  of  the  getv^^^\^ ,   A.uft^^^*^ 


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250 


AT.APATWA 


life  of  the  State,  and  the  creation  of  a  most  op- 
timistic spirit  concerning  her  future  industrial 
progress.  Coal  and  iron  are  the  leading  miner- 
als, and  the  immediate  proximity  of  these  con- 
stitute an  advantage  not  enjoyed  in  the  more 
^extensively  developed  iron  mining  districts  of 
Lake  Superior.  The  industry  has  attained  its 
greatest  development  in  the  Birmingham  region. 
The  value  of  bituminous  coal  mined  in  the  State 
rose  from  $2,500,000  in  1886  to  $5,000,000  in 
1898  and  $10,000,000  in  1900.  This  gave  the 
State  fifth  rank  in  the  amount  and  sixth  rank 
in  the  value  of  the  output.  A  large  portion  of 
the  coal  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  coke,  the 
State  taking  third  rank  in  the  production  of  that 
article.  The  growth  of  iron  mining  has  been  no 
less  striking.  In  1880  there  were  171,000  long 
tons  mined;  in  1889,  1,670,000  tons;  and  in  1899, 
2,662,000  tons,  the  value  for  the  latter  year  be- 
ing $2,600,000,  and  ranking  the  State  next  to 
Michigan  and  Minnesota  in  importance.  Sev- 
enty-two per  cent,  of  the  product  is  red  hematite 
and  28  per  cent,  brown  hematite.  Virginia  alone 
produces  a  larger  amount  of  the  latter  variety 
of  ore.  Limestone  is  quarried  extensively,  and 
most  of  it  is  burned  into  lime  or  used  as  a  flux. 
The  average  annual  value  for  the  last  decade 
was  about  $300,000.  Bauxite  is  mined  in  Chero- 
kee (bounty,  and  graphite  in  Cleburne  County. 
Building  clays,  sandstone,  and  mineral  springs 
are  each  of  some  commercial  value  in  the  State. 

Fisheries.  Owing  to  the  limited  coast  line 
of  the  State,  its  sea  fisheries  are  of  less  impor- 
tance than  those  of  the  other  Gulf  States.  The 
industry  gives  employment  to  less  than  a  thou- 
sand men,  and  the  value  of  the  product  is  only 
about  $150,000. 

Agriculture.  Agriculture  is  the  leading  in- 
dustry of  the  State,  but  it  is  not  keeping  pace  ■ 
with  the  other  rapidly  developing  industries  or 
with  the  increase  of  population.  Agriculture  re- 
ceived a  decided  setback  from  the  Civil  War,  and 
has  not  yet  completely  adjusted  itself  to  the  new 
industrial  regime.  The  acreage  of  farm  land  and 
the  percentage  of  improved  land  (about  40  per 
cent.)  are  but  little  larger  than  they  were  in 
1860,  while  the  valuation  of  farm  land  and  the 
amount  and  value  of  almost  every  kind  of  farm 
property  and  produce  is  less  than  it  was  in  1860. 
The  old  plantation  system  of  large  farms,  whose 
cultivation  was  carried  on  under  the  direction 
of  the  owner,  has  given  way  to  a  system  of  small 
rented  farms.  The  average  size  of  farms,  which 
was  347  acres  in  1860,  has  decreased  about  60 
per  cent.,  and  the  rented  farms  constitute  almost 
half  of  the  entire  number — ^both  methods  of  rent- 
ing, that  for  a  fixed  money  payment  and  that 
for  a  share  of  the  product  being  equally  in  vogue. 
The  farm  land  is  still  held  by  a  comparatively 
few  individuals,  a  considerable  proportion  of 
whom  are  representative  of  the  merchant  class. 
The  holdings  are  divided  into  convenient  por- 
tions, and  the  negro  renter  receives  a  mea- 
gre supply  of  farm  equipments,  upon  which,  as 
also  upon  the  prospective  crop,  the  merchant 
holds  a  lien.  The  negro  becomes  the  customer 
of  the  merchant  and  can  seldom  catch  up  with 
his  obligations.  The  merchant  finds  his  rent 
most  certain  and  his  sale  of  provisions  greatest 
when  the  renter  confines  himself  largely  to  the 
cultivation  of  cotton,  which  he  willingly  does, 
and  thus  cotton  remains  king.  The  continu- 
ous planting  of  this  crop  before  the  war,  as 
well  as  since  tiiat  time,  has  resulted  in  the  ex- 


haustion of  a  naturally  fertile  soil.  While  cot- 
ton is  grown  in  most  parts  of  the  State,  much 
the  greater  portion  is  raised  in  the  "cotton  belt," 
a  narrow  strip  of  black  prairie  land  extending 
east  and  west  across  the  State  in  the  latitude  of 
Montgomery.  Alabama  usually  ranks  fourth 
in  the  value  of  her  cotton  product.  Com  is 
next  in  importance,  and  its  acreage  is  almost 
equal  to  that  of  cotton,  but  the  product  is  of 
much  less  value.  Oats  are  the  only  crop  that 
has  experienced  a  remarkable  increase  in  culti- 
vation— an  increase  about  commensurate  with 
the  decrease  in  the  cultivation  of  wheat, 
which  has  become  relatively  unimportant,  though 
the  past  decade  has  witnessed  a  revival.  These 
and  small  quantities  of  other  cereals  are 
grown  most  extensively  in  the  "cereal  belt," 
or  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee  River  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  State.  This  valley  is 
also  very  favorable  for  the  raising  of  apples 
and  other  fruits,  the  mountains  on  either 
side  giving  protection  from  the  heat  of  the  aouth 
and  the  winds  of  the  north.  Peanuts  are  raised 
in  the  southeast.  The  State  takes  a  high  rank 
in  the  production  of  peaches  as  well  as  melons. 
Cowpease,  sweet  potatoes,  and  sugar  cane  are 
extensively  grown  throughout  the  State.  Most 
of  the  sugar  cane  in  recent  years  is  manufactured 
into  molasses.  There  is  much  barren  wa>*te 
land  in  the  mountain  regions  of  the  north,  ^hile 
forests  still  cover  the  greater  portion  of  the 
southern  end  of  the  State.  Cotton  beinp  the 
predominant  crop,  the  conditions  are  not  favor- 
able for  the  extensive  raising  of  stock.  Such  an 
is  raised  goes  to  supply  the  local  needs.  The 
following  tables  indicate  the  trend  of  the  agri- 
cultural industry: 


ll 

II 

1 
1 

K 

1900 

183,600 
1890 

121,200 

182,900 
184,800 

97,000 

281,800 
292,000 

279,000 
488,500 

1,866,000 
1,421,800 

m.axi 

386,000 

i 

a? 

s'i 

II 

hi 

ri 

1900 

'^.aoo,ooo 

1890 
80,000,000 

4,800,000 
8,880,000 

916,000 
206,000 

1,061,000 
915,000 

2,800,000 

1M«» 

94,000 
54,000 

There  is  to-day  evidence  of  a  growing  senti- 
ment in  favor  of  diversified  farming  and  an  in 
creasing  tendency  toward  the  raising  oi  pea?-**, 
alfalfa,  and  other  leguminous  plantsi  which  are 
of  special  value  to  the  soil,  and  there\  is  in  gen- 
eral a  more  hopeful  view  of  the  agricultural 
future,  and  a  belief  that  it  is  sharing  in  the 
general  industrial  awakening  of  the  South. 

Manitfactubbs.  Recent  years  havft  clearly 
demonstrated  that  Alabama  possesses  a  combi- 
nation of  advantages  for  manufacturii*^  ^^^' 
prise  such  as  are  scarcely  found  in  any  other 
part  of  the  country,  and  which  promise  to  pla« 
her  in  the  front  rank  of  mani^&ctiring 
States.      The  raw  material  and  the  1  auxiliary 


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ARBA  AND  POPULATION  OF  ALABAMA  BY  OOUNITBa 


County. 


Antauga 

Baldwin  . . . . 

Barbour 

Bibb 

Blount 

Bullock 

BuUer 

Calhoun 

ChainberB . . . 
Cherokee.... 

Chilton 

Choctaw 

Clarke 

Clav 

Clebnme 

Coffee 

Colbert 

Conecuh  . . . . 

Cooea 

Covington... 

Crenshaw  . . . 

Cullman 

Dale 

Dallaa 

Dekalb 

Elmore 

Escambia . . . 

Etowah 

Fayette 

Franklin .... 

Geneva  

Greene 

Hale 

Henry 

Jackson 

Jefferson... 

Lamar 

Lauderdale.. 

Lawrence . . . 

Lee 

Limestone . . . 

Lowndes 

Macon 

Madison 

Marengo .... 

Marion 

Marshall 

MobUe 

Monroe. 

Montgomery 

Morgan 

Perry 

Pickens 

Pike 

Randolph . . . 

Russell , 

Bt.  Clair..... 
Shelby 

Sumter 

Talladega . . . 
Tallapoosa . . 
Tuscaloosa.. 

Walker 

Washington . 

Wilcox 

Winston 


Map 
Index. 


C8 
B5 
D4 
B3 
CI 

D3 
C4 
D2 
D8 
Dl 

C3 
A4 
B4 
D2 
D2 

C4 
Bl 
B4 
C3 
C4 

C4 
CI 
D4 
B3 
Dl 

C8 
B4 
CI 
B2 

Al 
D4 
B3 
B3 
D4 
CI 
C2 
A2 
Bl 

Bl 
D8 
Bl 
C3 
D8 

CI 
B8 

Al 
CI 
A5 

B4 
C8 
CI 
B8 
A2 

C4 
D2 
D3 
C2 
C2 

AS 
C2 
D3 
B2 

B2 

A4 

B3   Bl 

Bl 


County  Seat 


Area  in 
square 
miles. 


Prattvillc. 
Daphne . . . 

Clayton 

("enterville. 
Oueonto... 

I'^nlon  Si 
(iruenville 

Anuiston 

Lafayette 

Center 

(ianton 

Butler 

Grovehlll 

Ashland  

EdwardsvUle . . 

Elba 

TuHCumbia 

Evergreen 

Roclcford 

Andalusia 

Luveme 

Cullman 

Ozark 

Selma 

Fort  Payne 

Wetumpka 

Brewton 

Gadsden 

Fayette 

Russcllville  . . . . 

(ieneva 

Eutaw 

Greensboro  ..  . 

Abbeville 

Scottsboro 

Birmingham.... 

Vernon 

F'lorence 

Moulton 

Opelika, , 

Athens 

llayneville 

Tuskegee  

HnntsvUle 

Linden 

Hamilton 

Guntersville.... 
Mobile 

Monroeville . . . . 
Montgomery . . . 

Decatur   

Marlon 

Carrollton 

Troy 

Wedowee 

Seale 

Asheville 

Columbiana .... 

Livingston 

I'alladega 

Dodeville 

Tuscalootw 

Jasper 

Saint  Stephens. 

Camden , 

Double  Springs. 


506 
1,591 
920 
623 
752 

609 


590 
5»2 

708 
912 
1,213 
694 
563 

677 
581 
831 

6n 

1,029 

612 
.•^ 
654 
982 
f82 

631 
968 
5.83 
M7 

689 

662 

682 

726 

992 
1,163 
1,059 

606 

702 

M2 
631 
600 
747 
615 

806 
978 
744 
590 

1,278 

1,037 
809 
589 
758 
937 

mi 

579 
m2 
650 
829 

896 

677 

759 

1,871 

800 

1,050  I 

914  I 

631  I 


Population. 


1890.  1900. 


18,390 
8,&41 
»1,898 
13,8:)»4 
21,927 

27,068 
21, Ml 
33,835 
26,319 
20,459 

14,549 
17.526 
22,624 
15,766 
18,218 

12,170 
20,189 
14,594 
15,906 
7,586 

15,425 
18,439 
17,226 
49,850 
21,106 

21,782 

8,666 

21,926 

12,(«3 

10,681 
10,690 
22,007 
27,Ji01 
24,W7 
28,096 
88,501 
14,187 
23,799 

20,725 
28,694 
21,201 
31,550 
18,439 

38,119 
3.'i,095 
11,847 
18,935 
51,587 

18,990 
56,1?2 
24,089 
29,.332 
22,470 

24,423 
17,219 
24,(193 
17.3.'>8 

80,886 

29,.^74 
29,H4« 
2.'),4«0 
30,352 

16,078 
7,0:ir> 

30,816 
6,552 


17,916 
13,194 
aMSS 
18,498 
28,119 

81,944 
26,761 
84,874 
82,554 
21,096 

16,522 
18,186 
27,7W 
17,099 
13,206 

20,972 
22,841 
17,514 
16,144 
15,846 

19,668 
17,849 
21,189 
64,657 
23,558 

26,099 
11,820 
27,881 
14,132 

16,511 
19,096 
24,182 
31,011 
88,147 
80,506 
140,420 
16,064 
26,569 

•20.124 
81,826 
22,887 
35,651 
23,126 

48,702 
38,815 
14,494 


I 


62,740 

28,666 
7«,047 
28,tti0 
81,788 
24,402 

29,172 
21,647 
27,088 
19,425 
33,684 

32,710 
36,773 
29,675 
86,147 

25,168 
11,134 
85,6Hl 


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251 


AT.A-RA-M-4. 


agencies  of  manufacture  are  found  in  close  prox- 
imity. In  the  north  iron  ore  is  found  in  the 
same  locality  with  coal,  limestone,  and  dolomite, 
making  possible  a  minimum  cost  of  production 
for  iron  and  its  manufactures.  The  immense  for- 
ests of  the  South  supply  material  for  the 
lumber  industry,  and  the  production  of  tar, 
turpentine,  and  resin.  The  numerous  water  falls 
and  rapids  in  the  State  supply  the  needed  power 
for  turning  the  cotton  crop  into  the  manufac- 
tured product,  though  the  abundance  and  cheap- 
ness of  coal  has  much  retarded  the  utilization 
of  this  power.  With  these  advantages  must  also 
be  considered  the  lesser  cost  of  liWng  in  the 
South,  thus  making  a  lower  wage  possible.  The 
comparative  scarcity  of  strikes  and  the  absence 
of  labor  legislation  and  prohibition  of  child 
lalior  in  the  State  have  served  as  an  additional 
attraction  for  capital  from  the  North.  The 
greatest  and  almost  the  sole  obstacle  in  the  way 
of  manufacturing,  especially  of  iron  products, 
has  been  the  high  railway  freight  rates,  which 
make  it  difficult  to  compete  with  the  products  of 
the  North.  The  improvement  of  the  water- 
course of  the  Warrior  River,  already  partially 
executed,  will  reduce  80  per  cent,  the  cost  of 
conveying  iron  products  to  Mobile,  which  will 
result  in  a  large  increase  of  the  exports  of  pig 
iron  to  foreign  countries,  already  amounting  in 
1900  to  1 13,000  tons,  and  exceeding  those  from  any 
other  State.  The  following  table  for  the  eleven 
leading  industries  shows  a  remarkable  develop- 
ment during  the  decade  in  nearly  every  industry. 
The  iron  and  steel  industry  leads.  Steel  manu- 
facture in  Alabama  is  of  recent  origin.  Ala- 
bama iron  ores  are  not  suited  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  steel  by  the  Bessemer  process,  and  it 
was  not  until  the  recently  manifested  preference 
for  steel  manufactured  by  the  open  hearth  proc- 
ess that  profitable  manufacture  of  steel  in  Ala- 
bama was  possible.  Of  the  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products,  cast  iron  pipe  is  the  most  im- 
portant, the  other  leading  products  being  stoves, 
car  wheels,  boilers,  and  engines.  While  the 
State  was  behind  some  of  her  sister  States  in 
developing  cotton  manufactures,  the  progress 
from  1890  to  1900,  which  was  greater  than  that 
for  any  other  industry,  leaves  no  doubt  of  the 
future  prominence  of  the  State  in  the  production 
of  cotton  goods.  Fertilizers  are  produced  by  a 
process  of  combining  Alabama  cottonseed  meal 
with  phosphates  from  Florida  mines.  In  the 
following  table  the  comparisons  of  wage  earners, 
while  not  exact,  are  reasonably  indicative  of  the 
actual  facts. 

COMPARATIVE  SUMMARY  OP  ELEVEN  LEADING 
INDUSTRIES. 


COMPABATITS  SUMM ABY  OT  BlKVBN  LkADINO  InDVSTRISS. 

{Continued,) 


a 

1 

1 

h 

II 

a 

Value  of  Pro<lucU, 
including  Cu.^tom 
Worlc  and  Re- 
pairing. 

Total  foruelected  Indartrles 
for  DtAte 

1900 
1890 

3,886 
1,544 

87,847 
20,657 

$62,381686 
84,814,502 

locreaae,  1800  to  1900 

1,791 
118.0 

50.5 
61.9 

16.600 
80.8 

70.6 
66.8 

27,568, 184 

Per  cent,  of  increase 

79.2 

Per  cent,  of  toUl  of  all  \n- 
daiitri«fl  in  state...   

1900 
1890 

75.3 
68.0 

Cars  and  general  shop  con- 
struction and  repairs  by 
steam  railroad  companies.. 


Coke   

Cotton,  ginning* 

Cotton  goods 

Fertllizen 

Flooring    aud    grist    mill 
prodacts 

Fbandry  and  machine  shop 
prodacts 

Iron  and  steel 

Leather,     tanned,     curried 
and  finished 

Lumber  and  timber  products 

Oil,  cottonseed  and  cake.. 


1 

^  1 

{H 

^1 

a-" 

1900 
1890 

19 
12 

4,080 
1,878 

10(10 
1890 

16 
19 

1,592 
1,120 

1900 
1890 

1.216 
212 

1,518 
79-J 

1900 
1890 

81 
18 

8.882 
2,088 

1900 
1890 

17 
8 

489 
280 

1900 
1890 

781 
702 

640 
1,018 

1900 
1890 

74 

41 

8,461 
1,400 

1900 
1890 

25 
86 

7,288 
6,685 

1900 
1890 

18 
21 

165 
41 

i9no 

1890 

1,111 
472 

9,278 
6,885 

1900 
1890 

28 
9 

759 
490 

4,17^198 
1,581,207 

8,726.488 
2,474,877 

1,818,288 
218,529 

8,158,186 
2,100,7n 

2,068,168 
765,000 


8,810,757 
8,060,452 


6,488,441 
2,195,918 

17.892,488 
12,544,227 


1,005,358 
77,066 

12,867,551 
8,507,971 

2,085.890 
M,203,089 


•Does  not  include  many  ginneries  operated  In  connection 
with  saw,  grist,  and  cottonseed  oil  mills,  or  for  the  use  exclu- 
sively of  plantations  on  which  they  are  located. 

Tbansfobtation  and  Commebce.  The  Ala- 
bama and  Toinbigbee  rivers,  with  their  more  im- 
portant tributaries,  and  the  Chattahoochee  River 
on  the  east  boundary,  offer  excellent  facilities  for 
navigation.  Railroad  construction  was  very 
slow  in  developing,  but  has  made  a  steady 
increase  in  recent  years,  in  marked  contrast  with 
most  Northern  States.  The  mileage  in  1880 
amounted  to  1843  miles,  but  increased  to  4226 
in  1900,  or  more  than  half  the  mileage  of  the 
State  of  New  York.  There  were  7.81  miles  for 
every  100  square  miles  of  territory,  and  22.55 
miles  for  every  10,000  inhabitants.  Almost  every 
trunk  line  of  the  South  passes  through  Birming- 
ham. There  is  a  State  Railroad  Commission, 
which  fixes  rates,  but  railroads  are  not  bound 
to  adopt  them.  In  case  of  damage  suits,  how- 
ever, the  rates  fixed  by  the  commission  are  prima 
facie  reasonable.  Mobile  is  the  only  seaport, 
and  the  chief  exports  are  cotton,  coal,  and  lum- 
ber. New  Orleans  takes  the  bulk  of  the  cotton 
for  export  trade,  and  Pensaoola  the  lumber. 

Banks.  On  October  31,  1900,  there  were  forty- 
three  national  banks  in  the  State,  thirty  of  which 
were  in  operation.  The  capital  stock  amounted 
to  $3,556,000;  circulation  outstanding,  $1,968,- 
000;  deposits,  $10,933,000;  and  reserve  held, 
$3,104,000.  On  June  30,  1900,  there  were  twenty 
State  banks,  having  total  resources  aggregating 
$7,129,000;  capiUl  stock,  $742,000,  and  deposits, 
$3,489,000. 


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Finance.  In  1000  the  finances  of  the  State 
were  in  the  best  condition  they  have  reached 
since  the  Civil  War.  The  bonded  debt  of  $9,357,- 
000,  created  during  the  "carpet-bag"  regime,  con- 
stitutes the  tax-payer's  heaviest  burden.  Provis- 
ions have  been  made  by  law  for  the  refunding  of 
this  debt,  but  none  looking  to  its  final  extinc- 
tion. According  to  the  new  constitution,  new 
debts  can  be  incurred  only  for  purposes  of  repel- 
ling an  invasion  or  suppressing  an  insurrection. 
The  valuation  of  property  in  this  State  has  in- 
creased steadily  from  $139,000,000  in  1880  to 
$226,000,000  in*  1900.  The  general  tax  increased 
during  the  same  period  from  $908,000  to  $1,467,- 
000.  ITie  general  purpose  tax  rate  for  six  years 
has  been  two  and  one-half  mills,  and  for  two 
years  there  has  been  a  special  soldier  and  special 
school  tax  rate  of  one  mill  each.  The  receipts 
for  1900  amounted  to  $2,656,000,  this  being  an 
increase  of  about  $400,000  over  the  average  of 
previous  years.  The  principal  items  of  revenue 
are:  General  taxes,  60  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
revenue ;  licenses,  about  9  per  cent. ;  pension  fund 
taxes,  10  per  cent.;  special  school  tax,  10  per 
cent.;  hire  of  convicts,  less  than  5  per  cent.; 
poll  tax  ($1  per  poll,  $150,000).  As  there  are 
over  400,000  people  subject  to  a  poll  tax  in  the 
State,  it  is  evident  that  this  tax  is  generally 
disregarded. 

Education.  Education  in  Alabama  is  in  a 
very  unsatisfactory  but  hopeful  condition.  The 
percentage  of  her  illiteracy  is  exceeded  in  but 
three  other  States.  There  are  great  difficulties 
in  the  way  of  maintaining  satisfactory  educa- 
tional standards,  such  difficulties  as  are  incident 
to  the  breakdown  of  an  industrial  system  and 
the  presence  of  a  large  ex-slave  class.  The 
schools  have  lacked  financial  support,  partially 
through  the  fault  of  the  law,  for  there  has  been 
no  provision  for  local  taxation  for  educational 
purposes.  The  new  constitution,  however,  pro- 
vides for  county  school  taxes.  Many  of  the 
teachers  lack  proper  qualifications  (especially 
the  colored  teachers ) ,  the  schools  are  not  graded, 
and  heretofore  have  been  very  inadequately  su- 
pervised. The  length  of  the  school  term  is  com- 
monly less  than  ninety  days  per  year ;  but  in  the 
white  schools  the  teachers  are  often  retained  for 
longer  terms,  at  the  expense  of  the  parents  of 
the  school  children.  Of  late,  however,  public  in- 
terest in  the  matter  has  been  aroused.  Laws  now 
make  it  possible  to  secure  better  qualified  teach- 
ers and  provide  a  better  financial  support.  The 
school  appropriation,  which  for  a  long  time  had 
amounted  annually  to  about  $650,000,  was  in- 
creased in  1900  to  $1,000,000;  but  even  this 
makes  the  sum  for  each  child  of  school  age  only 
about  $1.50.  The  white  children  of  school  age 
numbered  350,000  in  1900;  the  black  children, 
282,000.  In  1899  the  enrollment  of  white  chil- 
dren amounted  to  196,000;  of  blacks,  122,000. 
Thirteen  hundred  children  were  enrolled  in  pub- 
lic high  schools,  and  a  somewhat  less  number 
in  private  secondary  schools.  The  State  sup- 
ports, together  with  the  aid  of  the  Peabody  Fund, 
seven  normal  schools,  three  of  which  are  for 
colored  students.  A  district  system  of  agricul- 
tural schools  has  been  established  by  the  State, 
there  being  nine  such  district  schools.  The  State 
also  supports  an  agricultural  and  mechanical 
college  ( colored ) ,  four  normal  schools,  a  Poly- 
technic Institute  at  Auburn,  a  girls*  industrial 
school  (white)  at  Montevallo,  and  a  university 
at  Tuscaloosa.     Private  institutions  of  learning 


are  as  follows:  Blount  College,  Blountsville;  St 
Bernard  College,  Cullman ;  Howard  College,  East 
Lake;  Southern  University,  Greensboro;  Lafay- 
ette College,  Lafayette;  Lineville  College,  Line- 
ville;  Selma  University,  belma;  Spring  Hill  Col- 
lege, Spring  Hill,  and  eight  colleges  for  women. 
The  Industrial  Institute  (colored)  at  Tuskegee 
(q.v.)  has  become  famous  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Booker  T.  Washington  for  the  efficient 
way  in  which  it  is  helping  to  solve  the  race  ques- 
tion. 

Charitable  and  Penal.  The  State  institu- 
tions comprise  the  Alabama  Institution  for  the 
Deaf,  the  Alabama  School  for  Negro  Deaf  Mutes 
and  Blind,  and  the  Alabama  Academy  for  the 
Blind,  all  at  Talladega;  a  hospital  for  the 
insane,  at  Tuscaloosa;  a  penitentiary,  at  We- 
tumpkat,  and  two  prisons  at  Pratt  Mines.  The 
State  owns  a  cotton  farm  and  cotton  milk 
where  labor  is  performed  by  boys  and  women 
convicted  of  oifenses  by  the  courts.  The  convict 
system  has  undergone  radical  improvements,  but 
prisoners  are  still  leased  to  contractors  for  vari- 
ous kinds  of  work.  In  1898  the  convicts  num- 
bered 1763. 

Religion.  As  in  other  portions  of  the  South, 
the  Baptists  and  the  Methodists  have  the  field 
almost  to  themselves.  The  other  denominations, 
of  which  the  strongest  are  the  Presbyterian, 
Catholic,  Christian,  and  Episcopalian,  are  small 
in  numbers. 

Popui-\TiON.  The  population  of  the  State  by 
decades  was  as  follows:  1820, 127.901 ;  1830, 30d!- 
527;  1840,  690,756;  1850,  771,623;  I860,  964, 
201;  1870,  996,992;  1880,  1,262,605;  1890,  1,513,- 
017;  1900,  1,828,697.  Her  rank  rose  from  nine- 
teenth in  1820  to  twelfth  in  1840;  since  1860  it 
has  been  gradually  falling  back,  being  eighteenth 
in  1900.  The  population  increased  20.9  per  cent. 
for  the  last  decade,  or  at  a  ratio  almost  identical 
with  that  of  the  nation.  The  number  of  inhabitants 
per  square  mile  in  1900  was  35.5,  as  against  25.6 
for  the  whole  country.  In  common  with  the  other 
Southern  States,  the  population  is  almost  entire- 
ly native  born,  the  foreign  born  never  having  ex- 
ceeded 15,000  for  the  whole  State.  The  negroes 
in  1900  numbered  827,000,  but  three  other  States 
containing  a  larger  number.  They  are  centred 
largely  in  the  cotton  belt,  where  in  certain  coun- 
ties they  outnumber  the  whites  five  to  one,  while 
this  ratio  is  just  reversed  in  a  number  of  counties 
north  and  south  of  this  belt.  Owing  to  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  agriculture,  the  population  is 
largely  rural,  but  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  living 
in  cities  of  4000  population  and  over  in  1900. 
With  the  development  of  mining  and  manufactur- 
ing the  urban  element  has  rapidly  increased,  the 
number  of  places  containing  a  population  of  more 
than  4000  having  risen  from  ten  in  1890  to 
sixteen  in  1900.  While  the  n^roes  engage  but 
little  in  these  occupations,  they  yet  show  a  strong 
inclination  to  gravitate  to  the  urban  centres. 
For  the  population  of  the  State  by  counties, 
see  back  of  map. 

Cities.  The  census  of  1900  gives  the  follow- 
ing figures  for  the  population  of  the  largest 
cities:  Mobile,  38,460;  Birmingham,  38,415,  and 
I^iontgomery,  30,346. 

Government.  The  present  constitution  was 
adopted  by  a  vote  of  the  people  in  November, 
1901.  The  right  of  suffrage  is  restricted  to  those 
who  have  resided  two  years  in  the  State,  one  year 
in  the  county,  and  three  months  in  the  precinct 
or  ward,  and  having  paid  the  required  poll  tax 


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253 


ALABAMA. 


and  registered.  In  order  to  register  prior  to 
December  20,  1902,  the  applicant  must  have  en- 
gaged in,  or  been  a  descendant  of,  one  who  has 
participated  in  one  of  the  following  events:  the 
War  of  1812,  the  Mexican  War,  any  war  with  the 
Indians,  the  war  between  the  States,  the  war 
with  Spain,  or  served  with  the  forces  of  the  Con- 
federate States,  or  of  the  State  of  Alabama  in  the 
war  between  the  States ;  and  he  must  be  an  indi- 
vidual of  good  character,  and  who  understands 
the  duties  and  obligations  of  citizenship  under  a 
republican  form  of  government.  After  January 
1,  1903,  the  qualifications  just  mentioned  are  to 
be  modified,  the  chief  new  requisites  beins  the 
ability  to  read  and  write  any  clause  of  the 
Vnited  States  Constitution  in  English,  and  the 
pursuit  of  some  lawful  calling  for  the  greater 
part  of  the  twelve  months  preceding  the  time 
of  registration  will  be  prerequisites  for  voting. 
These  qualifications  are  not  required  of  those 
who  own  individually  or  through  their  wives, 
a  certain  amount  of  property  free  from  tax 
incumbrances.  Any  person  guilty  of  a  criminal 
offense,  including  the  selling,  buying,  or  offering 
to  sell  or  buy,  a  vote,  is  debarred  from  voting. 
The  constitution  contains  a  detailed  statement 
of  the  proper  procedure  in  registration,  of  pen- 
alties, etc.  Each  county  is  to  have  a  board  of 
registrars,  consisting  of  three  members,  who 
issue  life  certificates  to  those  who  are  entitled  to 
them.  An  amendment  to  the  constitution  may 
be  secured  by  a  three-fifths  vote  of  each  house, 
ratified  by  a  vote  of  the  people.  A  constitutional 
convention  may  be  called  when  voted  by  a  major- 
ity of  each  house,  and  ratified  by  the  people, 
and  the  power  of  such  convention  in  altering, 
revising,  or  amending  the  constitution  is  subject 
to  no  restrictions. 

Leffialaiive, — ^The  l^islative  body  consists  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives,  the 
maximum  limit  of  membership  being  35  and  105 
respectively.  The  number  of  senators  must  not 
be  more  than  one-third  nor  less  than  one-fourth 
that  of  representatives.  Senatorial  districts  are 
composed  of  contiguous  undivided  counties. 
Elections  are  held  the  first  Tuesday  after  the 
first  Monday  in  November  of  every  fourth  year, 
and  the  legislature  meets  on  the  second  Tuesday 
in  the  following  January,  the  session  being  lim- 
ited to  fifty  days.  Members  are  paid  $4  per  day 
and  traveling  expenses.  Revenue  bills  originate 
in  the  House,  and  cannot  be  passed  in  the  last 
five  days  of  the  session.  The  legislature  must 
provide  for  the  revision  of  the  statutes  every 
twelfth  year.  One  of  the  numerous  legislative 
prohibitions  prevents  the  State  from  engaging 
in  or  aiding  in  internal  improvements. 

Executive, — A  governor,  lieutenant-governor, 
attorney-general.  State  auditor,  secretary  of 
State,  State  treasurer,  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion, and  commissioner  of  agriculture  and  indus- 
tries are  elected  every  fourth  year,  at  the  time 
and  place  appointed  for  the  election  of  members 
of  the  legislature.  None  of  these  officers  is  elig- 
ible for  reflection,  and  the  governor  is  not  elig- 
ible to  election  or  appointment  to  any  office  in 
the  State,  or  to  the  Senate  of  the  United  States, 
<iuring  his  term  or  within  one  year  after  the 
expiration  thereof.  The  lieutenant-governor  is 
ex-officio  president  of  the  Senate,  and  succeeds 
to  the  office  of  governor  in  case  that  office  becomes 
vacant.  The  attorney-general,  Secretary  of  State, 
and  State  auditor  constitute  a  board  of  pardons, 
to  hear  petitions  for  pardons,  commutation,  or 


parole  in  cases  of  felony,  and  advise  the  governor 
thereon;  but  the  decision  of  the  governor  does 
not  need  to  conform  with  that  of  the  board.  The 
governor  may  veto  any  bill,  or  any  item  of  an 
appropriation  bill;  but  a  majority  vote  of  each 
house  may  override  the  veto  of  the  governor.  A 
bill  becomes  law  if  the  governor  fails  to  pass 
upon  it  within  one  week  after  it  has  been  sub- 
mitted to  him. 

Judiciary. — ^The  judicial  power  of  the  State 
is  vested  in  the  Senate,  sitting  as  a  court  of  im- 
peachment, a  supreme  court,  circuit  courts, 
chancery  courts,  courts  of  probate,  such  courts 
of  law  and  equity  inferior  to  the  supreme  court, 
consisting  of  not  more  than  five  members,  as  the 
legislature  from  time  to  time  may  establish,  and 
such  persons  as  may  be  by  law  invested  with 
powers  of  a  judicial  nature.  A  circuit  court,  or  a 
court  having  the  jurisdiction  of  a  circuit  court,. 
is  held  in  each  county  of  the  State  at  least  twice 
every  year.  The  State  is  divided  into  chancery 
divisions,  with  a  chancellor  for  each  division. 
The  divisions  are  subdivided  into  districts,  in 
each  of  which  the  chancellor  holds  court  at  least 
twice  each  year.  The  legislature  may  establish 
courts  of  probate  in  each  county.  Judges  of  the 
supreme,  circuit,  chancery,  and  probate  courts 
are  elected  for  a  term  of  six  years.  For  each 
judicial  circuit  a  solicitor  (prosecutor)  is  elected 
for  a  term  of  four  years.  Each  precinct  has  two 
justices  of  the  peace  and  one  constable,  excepting 
precincts  lying  within  towns  of  over  1500  in- 
habitants, in  which  precincts  the  legislature 
may  establish  inferior  courts  in  lieu  of  the  jus- 
tices of  the  peace. 

Local  Government, — Both  county  and  munic- 
ipal corporations  are  limited  in  their  taxing 
and  debt  incurring  powers.  Each  county  elects  a 
sheriff,  who  serves  for  a  term  of  four  years,  but 
he  cannot  be  reelected.  One  year's  residence  is 
necessary  to  secure  a  divorce,  the  principal 
causes  for  which  are  desertion  (two  years)  and 
habitual  drunkenness. 

The  State  has  nine  representatives  in  the 
national  House  of  Representatives.  Montgo- 
mery is  the  capital. 

Militia. — ^The  authorized  National  Guard  of 
Alabama  numbers  7788,  while  the  organized 
body  consists  of  2471  men.  The  census  of  1900 
found  328,000  males  of  militia  age,  of  whom 
166,000  are  liable  to  military  duty.  The  Na- 
tional Guard  is  formed  into  one  brigade,  and 
consists  of  three  regiments  of  infantry,  of  twelve 
companies  each;  one  battalion  of  artillery,  com- 
posed of  three  batteries;  one  squadron  of  cavalry, 
composed  of  four  troops. 

Htstoby.  In  1540  De  Soto  passed  through  the 
territory  now  included  in  Alabama,  and  found 
it  occupied  by  powerful  Indian  nations.  Among 
them  were  the  Alibamas,  who  gave  their  name  to 
the  country;  the  Chickasaws,  the  Choctaws,  and 
the  Creeks,  together  constituting  the  Muskhogean 
family;  the  Cherokees  and  Apalaches.  Alabama 
was  included  under  Carolina  in  the  royal  grants 
made  by  the  Stuarts  in  1629  and  1663,  but  no 
attempts  at  settlement  were  made  by  the  English. 
In  1702,  the  French,  under  Bienville,  removed 
from  Biloxi  Bay,  where  a  fort  had  been  built 
some  years  previous,  and  erected  Fort  St.  Louis, 
on  Mobile  Bay.  Mobile  was  founded  in  1711, 
and  until  1726  was  the  capital  of  Louisiana. 
In  1714  Fort  Toulouse  was  built  at  the  junction 
of  the  Coosa  and  Tallapoosa.  The  growth  of  the 
colony  was   hindered  by  disease   and   poverty; 


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the  Chickasaws  remained  hostile,  and  the  Eng- 
lish planted  their  trading  posts  in  the  wilderness 
north  of  Mobile.  When  France  ceded  her  posses- 
sions east  of  the  Mississippi  to  England,  in 
1763,  Alabama,  north  of  32**  40',  was  added  to 
the  Illinois  territory,  and  the  part  south  of  the 
line  to  West  Florida.  During  the  Revolution, 
West  Florida,  which  had  by  that  time  gained 
English  and  Scotch  settlers,  remained  loyal,  and 
in  1779-80  Spain  took  advantage  of  her  own  war 
with  Great  Britain  to  seize  the  province.  After 
1783,  the  United  States,  as  the  successor  of  Eng- 
land, claimed  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-first  de- 
gree, but  Spain  continued  to  hold  the  territory 
south  of  32**  40'  till  1795.  Georgia,  too,  asserted 
her  title  to  West  Florida,  but  abandoned  her 
rights  in  1802.  In  1798  Congress  organized  the 
region  included  between  the  Mississippi  River  on 
the  west,  the  Chattahoochee  on  the  east,  the  31st 
parallel  on  the  south,  and  a  line  drawn  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Yazoo  into  Mississippi  Terri- 
tory, and  in  1804  extended  its  northern  boundary 
to  Tennessee;  in  April,  1813,  the  Mobile  district 
was  taken  from  the  Spanish  by  the  United  States 
and  annexed  to  Mississippi  Territory. 

Incited  by  the  British,  the  Creeks  and  their 
allied  tribes  rose  in  1812  against  the  whites, 
their  atrocities  culminating  in  the  great  massacre 
at  Fort  Mimms,  on  the  Alabama  River,  August 
30,  1813.  General  Jackson  headed  the  forces 
sent  against  the  Indians,  and  by  his  victories 
at  Talladega  and  the  Horse  Shoe  Bend  of  the 
Tallapoosa,  1813-14,  forced  them  to  surrender 
their  territory  west  of  the  Coosa  and  south  of 
Wetumpka.  In  a  number  of  subsequent  treaties 
the  Indians  gradually  abandoned  the  larger  por- 
tion of  their  land,  until,  between  1830  and  1836, 
they  were  removed  in  a  body  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. ( See  Cheek  War,  The.  )  Mississippi  was 
set  off  March  1,  1817,  and  on  March  3  was  formed 
the  territory  of  Alabama,  with  its  se^-t  at  St. 
Stephens.  The  first  legislature  met  at  Hunts- 
ville,  January  19,  1818,  and  the  State  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union  December  14,  1819.  In  1820 
the  seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Cahaba, 
in  1826  to  Tuscaloosa,  and  in  1847  to  Mont- 
gomery. The  people  of  Alabama  were  aggressive 
champions  of  territorial  expansion  for  slavery 
purposes,  and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  Mexi- 
can War.  They  entered  very  zealously  into  the 
secession  movement,  and  early  in  December,  1860, 
urged  the  Southern  States  to  withdraw  from  the 
Union.  At  Montgomery,  on  January  11,  1861,  an 
ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  by  a  vote  of 
61  to  39 — the  minority  representing  the  northern 
part  of  the  State,  where  the  Whig  party  had 
been  especially  strong.  Forts  Gaines  and  Mor- 
gan, at  the  entrance  to  Mobile  Bay,  were  seized, 
and  on  January  21  the  senators  and  representa- 
tives withdrew  from  Congress.  Delegates  from 
the  seceded  States  met  at  Montgomery,  February 
4,  and  organized  the  Confederate  Government. 
A  Confederate  arsenal,  foundry,  and  navy  yard 
were  soon  established  at  Selma,  In  February 
and  April  of  1862  Federal  troops  occupied  the 
Tennessee  Valley.  In  August,  1864,  Farragut 
destroyed  a  Confederate  fleet  in  Mobile  Bay, 
and,  aided  by  General  Granger  with  a  land  force, 
reduced  Forts  Gaines  and  Morgan.  In  April, 
1865,  the  Union  forces  took  Selma,  Tuscaloosa, 
Montgomery,  and  Mobile.  A  provisional  govern- 
ment was  established  June  21,  1866,  and  a  con- 
vention repealed  the  act  of  secession  and  altered 
the  constitution.     State  officers  and  members  of 


Congress  were  chosen;  but  Congress,  in  conflict 
with  President  Johnson,  refused  admission  to  the 
representatives  from  Alabama.  By  the  reconstruc- 
tion act  of  March  2,  1867,  Alabama  was  included 
with  Georgia  and  Florida  in  the  third  military 
district,  under  General  Pope.  In  November  a 
new  constitution  was  framed,  which  received,  Feb- 
ruary, 1868,  70,182  votes  out  of  71,817  cast,  and 
though  the  majority  of  registered  voters  had  re- 
mained away  from  the  polls.  Congress  declared 
the  constitution  operative,  and  it  continued  in 
force  till  1875,  when  a  new  constitution  ^m 
adopted.  On  July  14,  1868,  military  rule  ceased, 
and  on  November  16,  1870,  the  State  ratified 
the  fifteenth  amendment  to  the  Federal  consti- 
tution. For  a  decade  after  the  Civil  War,  Ala- 
bama suffered  from  maladministration.  Party 
spirit  ran  very  high,  and  elections  were  bitterly 
contested.  The  dishonesty  of  officials  and  the 
extravagant  railway  Jpolicy  they  pursued  brought 
the  State  and  the  chief  towns  into  serious  finan- 
cial difficulties.  With  the  reorganization  of  the 
public  debt  in  1876  began  an  era  of  quiet  and 
prosperity.  Cotton  and  steel  manufactures  and 
the  mining  industries  thrived  enormously,  and 
many  large  towns  sprang  up  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  State.  Lumbering,  too,  became  of  great 
importance.  The  agricultural  interests,  by  com- 
parison, showed  little  growth.  Educational 
progress  did  not  keep  up  with  economic  develop- 
ment until  the  end  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
Since  1874  Alabama  has  been  invariably  Demo- 
cratic. In  1901  a  constitutional  convention  was 
busy  with  the  problem  of  changing  the  organic 
law  in  such  a  manner  as  te  insure  political  su- 
premacy te  the  white  population. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  governors  of  the 
State,  and  the  parties  to  which  they  belonged: 

TERRITOBIAL  GOVERNOR. 

William  W.  Bibb 181719 

STATE    GOVEBNOBS. 

W.  W.  Bibb Democrat 1819-20 

Thomas  Bibb "         1820-21 

Israel   Pickens.... "         1821-25 

John  Murphy "         1825-29 

Gabriel  Moore *'        1829-31 

Samuel  B.  Moore *'        1831 

John  Gavle «         1831-35 

Clement  "^C.  Clay **         1835-37 

Hugh  McVay **        1837 

Arthur  P.  Bagby "        1837-41 

Benjamin  Fitzpatrick . .         **        1841-45 

Joshua  L.  Martin **         1845-47 

Reuben  Chapman "        1847-49 

Henry  W.  Collier **        1849  53 

John  A.  Winston "        1853-57 

Andrew  B.  Moore "        1857-61 

John  G.  Shorter «         1861-63 

Thomas  H.  Watts "         1863-65 

Lewis  E.  Parsons Provisional 1865 

Robert  M.  Fatten Republican 1865-67 

Wager  Swayne.  ..(military  governor)  . ..  1867-68 

William  H.  Smith Republican 1868-70 

Robert  B.  Lindsay Democrat 1870-72 

David  P.  Lewis Republican 1872-74 

George  S.  Houston Democrat 1874-78 

Rufus  W.  Cobb "         1878-82 

Edward  O'Neal "        1882-86 

Thomas    Seay **        1886-90 

Thomas  G.  Jones "        1890-94 

William  C.  Gates **        1894-96 

Joseph  F.  Johnston ....         "        ....   18961900 

William  J.  Sanford. ...         "        1900 


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ALABAMA  CLAIMS. 


Bibliography.  Brown,  School  History  of  Ala- 
bama (1900)  ;  Phillips,  Iron  Making  in  Alabama 
(Montgomery,  Ala.,  1890;  second  edition,  1898)  ; 
Owen,  bibliography  of  Alabama,  in  1898  Annual 
Report  of  American  Historical  Association 
(Washington,  1897);  Clark,  History  of  Educa- 
tion in  Alabama,  1702-1899  (Washington,  1889)  ; 
Hillyard,  The  New  South  (Baltimore,  1887); 
Brewer,  Alabama  (Montgomery,  1872). 

ALABAMA  CLAIMS.  A  series  of  claims 
for  indemnity  made  upon  Great  Britain  by  the 
United  States,  based  upon  the  alleged  omission 
of  Great  Britain  to  observe  the  obligations  im- 
posed by  international  law  upon  neutral  nations 
with  reference  to  their  dealings  with,  and  duties 
to,  belligerents.  The  claims,  in  most  particulars, 
arose  from  damages  inflicted  by  vessels  in  the 
Confederate  service  which  had  been  fitted  out  or 
built  in  English  waters  and  allowed  to  sail 
thence.  The  Declaration  of  Paris  (q.v.),  adopt- 
ed in  1856  by  most  of  the  nations  of  Christendom, 
had  abolished  privateering,  and,  though  the 
United  States  was  not  a  party  to  the  convention, 
thiii  decree  had  become  a  recognized  principle  of 
international  law.  Moreover,  both  the  United 
States  and  England  had  passed  acts  early  in  the 
century  prohibiting  the  equipment  of  land  or 
sea  forces  for  the  purpose  of  operating  against 
the  territory  or  commerce  of  a  friendly  nation, 
and  making  it  the  duty  of  the  Government  .to 
pre\*ent  such  filibustering  (Act  of  Congress  of 
April  20,  1818,  3  Stats,  at  Large,  448;  Foreign 
Enlistment  Act,  69  George  III.,  cap.  69).  It 
was  upon  these  acts  and  principles  affecting 
international  relations,  that  the  claims  of  the 
United  States  were  founded. 

The  facts  of  the  case  were  these:  Following 
President  Lincoln's  call  for  volunteers,  President 
Davis  of  the  Confederate  States  offered  letters 
of  marque  and  reprisal  (q.v.)  to  private  vessels 
to  prey  upon  the  commerce  of  the  United  States. 
Prompt  advantage  was  taken  of  this  offer,  and 
numerous  privateers  issued  from  southern  ports 
to  harry  the  New  York  and  New  England  mer- 
chant marine.  Meanwhile,  Queen  Victoria  had 
issued  her  proclamation  of  neutrality,  for- 
bidding her  subjects  to  take  part  with  either  side, 
and  directing  her  official  servants  to  accord  bel- 
ligerent rights  to  both  parties  to  the  struggle. 
Equipment  was  forbidden  the  vessels  of  both 
belligerents.  Noth  with  standing  this  proclama- 
tion, and  the  repeated  and  urgent  protests  of  the 
American  minister,  Charles  Francis  Adams,  the 
sympathy  of  British  officials,  especially  in  the 
colonial  ports,  with  the  Southern  cause  was  noto- 
rious, and  harbors  like  Nassau  in  the  West  Indies 
l>ecame  the  refuge  of  Confederate  cruisers. 

The  history  of  the  Alabama  is  typical  of  the 
more  flagrant  cases  submitted  td  the  tribunal  of 
arbitration.  She  was  built  at  Birkenhead,  Eng- 
land, under  circumstances  of  great  suspicion. 
Tlie  attention  of  the  British  Government  was  re- 
peatedly called  to  the  case,  and  finally  some  steps 
were  taken  by  the  authorities  to  detain  the  ves- 
sel: but  "No.  290,"  as  she  was  called,  left  port 
without  register  or  clearance  papers,  July  29, 
1862,  and,  taking  on  her  equipment  in  the  Azores 
from  two  English  vessels,  assumed  the  name 
ihbama,  under  which  she  became  famous,  and 
^  out  on  her  career  of  destruction.  In  much 
the  same  manner  the  Florida,  Georgia,  Shenan- 
doah, and  various  other  cruisers  eluded  the 
watchfulness  of  British  officials.  Before  her 
destruction  by  the  Kearsarge,  June  19,  1864,  the 


Alabama  is  said  alone  to  have  captured  and 
destroyed  seventy  vessels  of  the  United  States.. 
The  first  phase  of  the  controversy  appeared 
in  1862,  in  the  negotiations  between  the  Ameri- 
can minister,  Mr.  Charles  Francis  Adams,  and 
Lord  John  Russell,  with  reference  to  the  alleged 
violation  of  England's  Foreign  Enlistment  Act 
by  the  Alabama,  and  the  obligation  of  the  Eng- 
lish Government  to  detain  her;  and  though  the 
English  Government  manifested  a  different  pol- 
icy subsequent  to  the  sailing  of  the  Alabama,  and 
prevented  the  sailing  of  ships  which  were 
equipped  in  violation  of  law,  several  ships  which 
had  come  from  English  ports  were  nevertheless 
on  the  seas,  and  the  total  damage  inflicted  by 
them  upon  American  shipping  was  enormous. 
The  whole  matter  constituted  the  most  important 
problem  of  diplomacy  left  as  a  result  of  the  Civil 
War.  As  early  as  1865,  steps  were  taken  to 
determine  a  method  of  adjustment;  but  it  was 
not  till  1871  that  a  basis  for  adjudication  was 
agreed  upon,  in  the  important  Treaty  of  Wash- 
ington, May  8.  By  this  treaty,  it  was  stipulated 
that  all  claims  known  generically  as  the  "Ala- 
bama claims"  should  be  submitted  to  the  decis- 
ion of  five  arbitrators,  one  named  by  England, 
one  by  the  United  States,  and  one  each  by  the 
King  of  Italy,  the  Emperor  of  Brazil,  and  the 
President  of  the  Swiss  Confederation.  For  the 
guidance  of  this  court  of  arbitration,  the  Treaty 
of  Washington  laid  down  the  important  "three 
rules"  defining  the  obligation  of  a  neutral  power 
to  use  "due  diligence"  to  prevent  the  hostile  use 
of  its  ports  against  a  friendly  nation.  In  accord- 
ance with  this  arrangement,  the  court  met  at 
Geneva,  December  15,  1871.  The  chairman  of 
the  court  was  Count  Federigo  Sclopis,  the  arbi- 
trator named  by  the  King  of  Italy;  and  the 
other  members  were  Baron  d*Itajuba,  Brazilian 
minister  at  Paris,  Jacob  Stsempfli,  for  three 
terms  president  of  the  Swiss  Confederation,  Sir 
Alexander  Cockburn,  and  Mr.  Charles  Francis 
Adams.  The  chief  counsel  for  England  was  Sir 
Boundell  Palmer,  and  the  American  counsel  were 
William  M.  Evarts,  Caleb  Gushing,  and  Morrison 
R.  Waite.  The  American  case,  however,  was 
prepared  by  Mr.  J.  C.  Bancroft  Davis.  Both 
the  case  and  the  counter-case  were  prepared  and 
maintained  with  great  ability  and  acumen,  and 
the  arguments  were  followed  with  marked  inter- 
est. More  than  once,  however,  a  premature  ter- 
mination of  the  proceedings  was  threatened  by 
the  insistence  of  the  American  counsel  upon  the 
fact  that  in  estimating  the  indemnity  not  only 
direct  damages  should  be  considered,  but  also 
such  indirect  losses  as  had  befallen  citizens  of 
the  United  States  through  the  decrease  of  trade, 
the  increase  of  insurance  rates,  the  prolongation 
of  the  war,  and  the  additional  cost  of  the  prose- 
cution of  the  war  caused  by  these  cruisers. 
Finally,  the  claims  of  the  United  States  for 
indirect  damages  were  unanimously  rejected,  on 
the  ground  that  the  principles  of  international 
law  did  not  sanction  an  award  of  compensation 
between  nations  upon  claims  of  that  indefinite 
character.  On  September  14,  1872,  the  final 
award  was  signed,  by  which  it  was  decreed 
that  England  had  incurred  no  liability 
arising  from  the  action  of  the  Sumter,  the 
Nashville,  the  Georgia,  the  Tallahassee,  and 
the  Chiclcamauga,  or  of  their  tenders,  and 
by  a  vote  of  three  to  two  that  England  had 
incurred  no  liability  for  the  work  of  the  Retri- 
bution.   It  was,  however,  determined,  by  a  vote 


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of  three  to  two,  that  England  was  responsible  for 
^  a  portion  of  the  acts  committed  by  the  Shenan- 
doah; by  a  vote  of  four  to  one  that  England 
was  liable  for  the  results  of  all  the  operations 
of  the  Florida;  and  bv  a  unanimous  vote  that 
England  was  responsible  for  all  the  depredations 
of  the  cruiser  Alabama;  and  that  liability 
also  attached  to  the  acts  of  the  tenders  of  the 
Florida  and  the  Alabama,  The  consideration  of 
claims  arising  from  the  operations  of  other  ves- 
sels was  excluded  for  want  of  evidence.  Instead 
of  awarding  specific  damages  apportioned  against 
the  several  ships  and  among  the  several  private 
parties  injured,  the  court  awarded  a  single  sum 
of  $15,500,000,  as  a  full  indemnity  of  all  claims 
against  Great  Britain.  This  amount  was  accord- 
ingly paid  in  the  following  year.  In  order  to 
determine  the  claims  of  private  owners,  and  to 
distribute  the  fund  among  such  claimants,  Con- 
gress created,  by  the  statute  of  June  23,  1874, 
a  claims  court  by  which  judgments  were  ren- 
dered aggregating  $9,315,753.  A  second  and  sim- 
ilar court  was  established  by  the  statute  of  June 
5,  1882.  The  indirect  results  of  this  arbitration 
— which  belong  rather  to  the  history  of  inter- 
national law  than  to  that  of  the  case  under  con- 
sideration— were  of  even  greater  importance  than 
its  direct  results.  In  strengrthening  the  prin- 
ciple of  arbitration  as  a  means  of  settling  grave 
international  differences,  in  furnishing  a  high 
example  of  justice  and  disinterestedness  in  judg- 
ing between  nations,  and  in  defining  and  elevat- 
ing the  conception  of  national  responsibility,  the 
Geneva  tribunal  rendered  an  incalculable  service 
to  humanity.  The  rules  laid  down  for  the  gov- 
ernment of  the  arbitrators  and  the  court  will 
be  found  under  the  title  Geneva  Arbitration. 
For  its  permanent  contributions  to  international 
law,  see  that  title.  The  circumstances  under 
which  the  case  was  submitted  to  arbitration,  and 
its  relation  to  other  questions  of  difference  be- 
tween England  and  the  United  States  existing 
at  the  time,  are  explained  in  the  articles  on 
Arbitration  ;  International  Law,  and  Treaty 
OF  Washington. 

Bibliography.  For  the  most  recent  and  com- 
plete work  upon  the  Geneva  arbitration,  consult : 
J.  B.  Moore,  International  Arbitrations,  pages 
495-682  (Washington,  1898)  ;  and  for  a  discus- 
sion of  the  claims  courts,  pages  4039-4685  of  the 
same  work;  also  Balch,  The  Alabama  Arbitra- 
tion (Philadelphia,  1900)  ;  Beaman,  The  Ala- 
bama Claims  and  their  Settlement  (Washington, 
1871)  ;  Davis,  Mr.  Fish  and  the  Alabama  Claims 
(Boston,  1893)  ;  C.  F.  Adams,  Life  of  Charles 
Francis  Adams  (Boston,  1900)  ;  Gushing,  The 
Treaty  of  Washington,  an  authoritative  work 
upon  the  preliminaries  (Washington,  1873)  ;  for 
discussions  of  special  phases  of  the  subject,  Bul- 
lock, Secret  Service  of  the  Confederate  States 
(London,  1883)  ;  R.  Semmes,  The  Cruise  of  the 
Alabama  (London,  1864)  ;  and  A.  Sinclair, Tiro 
Years  on  the,  Alabama  (Boston,  1895).  A  re- 
markable collection  of  printed  and  manuscript 
official  papers  pertaining  to  the  arbitration  was 
made  by  Hon.  J.  A.  J.  Creswell  and  given  to  the 
Johns  Hopkins  University. 

ALABAMA  STATE  AG'BICUL^URAL 
AND  MECHANICAL  COLOiEGE,  originally 
Alabama  Polytechnic  Institute.  An  Ameri- 
can college,  situated  at  Auburn,  Ala.  It  was 
organized  in  1872,  under  the  Federal  land  grant 
act  of  1862.  The  value  of  its  grounds,  build- 
ings, and  equipment  is  $476,000,  and  its  total 


income  is  about  $51,000.  It  has  a  campus  and 
forum  of  304  acres;  library,  15,000  volumts: 
faculty,  29 ;  actual  number  of  students,  384.  in 
preparatory,  collegiate,  chemical  and  agricultu- 
ral, pharmaceutical,  and  engineering  courses. 

AI/ABASTEB  (Gk.  aXd^Moc,  alaha8t[r]os, 
a  box  or  casket  of  alabaster,  the  name  of  thp 
mineral  being aXa3affT\p]iTfK,alaba8t[r^itfy,  whicb 
according  to  Pliny,  N.  H.  xxx^'ii,  10,  54,  §  143. 
was  derived  from  the  Egyptian  town  Alabastron. 
where  it  was  quarried)'.  A  name  given  to  two 
kinds  of  white  stone,  chemically  distinct,  but 
resembling  each  other  in  appearance,  and  both 
used  for  ornamental  purposes. 

Alabaster  proper  is  a  white,  granular,  semi- 
transparent  variety  of  Gypsum  (q.v.)  or  sulphate 
of  lime.  It  occurs  in  various  countries,  but  the 
finest  is  found  near  Volterra,  in  Tuscany,  where 
it  is  worked  into  a  variety  of  the  smaller  object? 
of  sculpture,  vases,  time-piece  stands,  etc.  Gyp- 
seous alabaster  of  good  quality  is  also  found*  in 
Derbyshire,  England,  and  many  ornamental  arti- 
cles are  made  of  it  at  Matlock  and  other  places. 
Being  slightly  soluble  in  water,  it  cannot  be 
exposed  to  the  weather;  and  its  softness  causes 
the  surface  to  easily  become  rough  and  opaque. 
Nor  is  it  generally  found  in  sufficient  masses  for 
large  works. 

The  other  stone  is  a  compact,  crystalline  car- 
l)onate  of  lime,  deposited  from  water  in  the  form 
of  stalagmite,  etc.  It  is  distinguishable  from 
the  gypseous  alabaster  by  its  effervescing  with 
an  acid,  and  by  its  greater  hardness;  real  ala- 
baster may  be  scratched  with  the  nail.  Pots  of 
perfume  were  called  alabastra,  even  when  made 
of  other  materials.  Alabaster  has  not  been 
found  in  commercial  quantities  in  the  United 
States.     See  Gypsum. 

ALABASTEB,  William  (1667-1640).  An 
English  divine,  scholar,  and  poet,  born  at  Had- 
leigh,  Suffolk.  He  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Cambridge,  and  in  1696,  as  chaplain  to 
Robert,  Earl  of  Essex,  accompanied  the  expedi- 
tion led  by  the  latter  against  Cadiz.  In  Spain  he 
was  converted  to  the  Roman  Catholic  faith; 
but  having  subsquently  again  become  Protestant, 
he  was  appointed  a  prebendary  of  St.  Paul's 
Cathedral,  and  was  presented  to  the  living  of 
Tharfield,  Hertfordshire.  "He  was,"  says  Fuller 
{Worthies  of  England),  "an  excellent  Hebrician, 
and  well  skilled  in  cabalistical  learning:" 
statements  verified  by  such  treatises  as  the 
Apparatus  in  Revelationem  Jesu  Christi  (1607), 
and  the  Commentarius  de  Bestia  Apocalyptica 
( 1621 ) ,  and  by  his  Lexicon  Pentaglotton  { 1637 ) . 
By  Anthony  a  Wood  {Ath€n(B  Oxonienses)  he  i*5 
w^ith  sonic  hyperbole  styled  "the  rarest  poet  and 
Grecian  that  any  one  age  or  nation  produced." 
His  poetic  reputation  must  depend  largely  on 
his  Latin  tragedy  Roxana  (1632),  written  in  the 
Senecan  manner,  and  frequently  presented  in 
the  hall  of  Trinity.  This  tragedy  was  referred 
to  by  Dr.  Johnson  {Life  of  Milton)  as  the  only 
noticeable  specimen  of  Latin  verse  of  English 
authorship  previous  to  the  appearance  of  Mil- 
ton's elegies. 

ALACOQUE,  &'l&'k6k'.  Marguerite  Marie 
(1647-90).  A  French  nun,  whose  visions  gave 
rise  to  the  adoration  of  the  Sacred  Heart  of  Jesus. 
She  was  born  in  Burgundy,  and  July  22, 1647, she 
took  the  veil  in  the  convent  of  the  Order  of  the 
Visitation,  at  Paray-le-Monial,  where  she  is  said 
to   have   performed  miracles,   prophesied,  made 


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ALA-KITL. 


revelations,  and  held  direct  communication  with 
God  and  the  angels.  She  foretold  the  day  of  her 
death  (October  17,  1690),  and  cut  the  name 
Jesus  Christ  on  her  bosom  with  a  knife.  She  was 
beatified  by  Pius  IX.  in  1846. 

ALACBLANES,  ft'lAkr^nes.  A  group  of 
small  islands,  surrounded  by  dangerous  reefs 
in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  100  miles  north  of  Sisal,  in 
ttie  State  of  Yucatan,  Mexico. 

ALA-DAQH,  ft'lft-dftg'  (Turk.  Mottled  Moun- 
tain). A  mountain  chain  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  over 
11,000  feet  high,  with  the  Mount  of  Euphrates 
on  its  northern  slope  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia, 
K  3).  The  chief  portion  of  the  chain  is 
above  the  basin  of  Lake  Van,  between  39**  and 
40**  N.  lat.  and  42''  and  44''  £.  long.,  forming 
part  of  the  water-shed  between  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

ATiATVPiy.  The  hero  of  the  Arabian  Nights 
tale  of  Aladdin  and  the  Wonderful  Lamp,  He 
is  a  poor  boy  in  China,  who,  through  a  strange 
adventure,  gets  possession  of  an  old  lamp  and 
ring  of  magical  properties.  A  chance  rubbing 
of  the  former  calls  to  his  service  a  mighty  genius 
id  jinn),  the  "slave  of  the  lamp,"  who  q^uickly 
brings  him  to  wealth,  and,  having  given  him  the 
princess  for  his  bride,  builds  him  a  magnificent 
palace  in  a  single  night.  Later  the  lamp  is  lost, 
in  the  absence  of  Aladdin,  through  the  trick  of 
the  African  magician  who  had  formerly  owned  it, 
and  who  now,  as  a  peddler,  offers  the  princess 
"new  lamps  for  old."  He  by  its  agency  carries  off 
the  whole  establishment  to  Africa,  but  the  ''slave 
of  the  ring"  enables  Aladdin  to  follow,  and  in 
the  end  the  magician  is  slain,  the  lamp  recov- 
ered, and  Aladdin,  with  his  home  and  bride,  re- 
turned to  prosperity  in  China.  Aladdin's  lamp 
has  become   a   proverbial  expression. 

ALADJA  dAGH,  k'Wik  d&o.  A  mountain 
region  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  occupying  the 
eastern  part  of  the  province  of  Kars.  It  is  noted 
as  the  place  of  a  decisive  engagement  between 
the  Russian  forces  under  the  Grand  Duke  Michael 
and  the  Turks  under  Mukhtar  Pasha  on  October 
15,  1877.  The  Russians  surrounded  the  Turkish 
force,  which  was  entrenched  at  Aladja  Dagh, 
with  the  result  that  a  part  of  them  fled  toward 
Kars,  while  about  7000  surrendered.  This  vic- 
tory had  a  decisive  effect  on  the  course  of  the 
war. 

ALAOOAS,  na&-gO^&s.  The  former  capital  of 
the  State  of  Alagoas,  Brazil,  situated  on  the 
south  side  of  the  I^ke  of  Manguaba  ( Lagoa  Man- 
guaba  (Map:  Brazil,  K  5).  its  chief  trade  is  in 
hides,  rum,  sugar,  cotton,  and  iron.    Pop.,  4000. 

ALAGOAS.  A  State  of  Brazil,  formerly  a 
district  of  the  State  of  Pernambuco,  which  sur- 
rounds it  on  the  north  and  west.  Its  southern 
and  eastern  boundaries  are  formed  by  the  River 
SHo  Francisco  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  respec- 
tively. Its  area  is  22,580  square  miles.  In  spite 
of  the  fertile  soil  and  abundance  of  water,  the 
province  is  very  sparsely  settled  and  agricul- 
ture is  pursued  only  on  a  limited  scale,  owing 
V)  the  deadly  climate  and  prevalence  of  cholera 
and  fever.  The  chief  agricultural  products  are 
sugar,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  some  coffee.  Pop., 
1890,  511,000.  Capital,  Macei6  (q.v.).  Consult 
^cenaeamenio  do  eatado  das  Alagdas  (Rio  de 
Janeiro,   1898). 

ALAI  rH'W)  MOUNTAINS.  A  mountain 
ninge  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  in  the  territory 
VouL— 17 


of  Ferghana,  north  of  the  Pamirs.  It  consists 
of  a  number  of  parallel  ranges,  and  is  separated 
by  the  valley  of  the  Waksh  River  from  the  Trans- 
Alai  chain.  Its  average  altitude  is  nearly  16,000 
feet,  while  a  few  peaks  rise  beyond  20,000  feet. 

ALAIN  DE  LILLE,  A'lftN'  de  UV  (1114?— 
1203 T).  A  Flemish  Cistercian  monk,  called  "the 
universal  doctor;"  distinguished  in  philosophy, 
theology",  history,  science,  and  poetry.  He  was 
appointed  bishop,  but  soon  resigned  to  enter  a 
monastery.  He  wrote  chiefly  in  verse  on  al- 
chemy, natural  philosophy,  and  doctrinal  sub- 
jects. There  is  confusion  about  his  identity  and 
comparatively  little  is  known  of  his  life;  but 
he  received  his  name  from  Lille,  in  Flanders, 
probably  his  birthplace. 

ALAISy  k'W,  A  town  of  the  department  of 
Gard,  France,  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Gardon  at  the  base  of  the 
C<5vennes  Mountains,  23  miles  northwest  of 
Ntmes,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  railway 
(Map:  France,  L  7).  Alais  is  a  very  flourish- 
ing town,  and  owes  its  prosperity  chiefly  to  the 
mineral  wealth  of  the  surrounding  district,  which 
produces  coal,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  and  manganese. 
The  blast  furnaces,  mines,  and  factories  of  vari- 
ous kinds  give  emplojrment  to  large  numbers  of 
men,  and  Gard  may  be  justly  called  the  Black 
Country  of  France.  Pop.,  1901,  18,108.  Alais 
sided  with  the  Protestants  in  the  religious  wars 
of  the  seventeenth  centurv,  and  Louis  XIII.  in 
person,  accompanied  by  the  Cardinal  de  Riche- 
lieu, besieged  it,  and  having  taken  it  in  1629, 
demolished  its  walls.  Three  years  later  the 
Baron  of  Alais,  having  taken  part  in  the  re- 
bellion of  Montmorency,  the  castle  was  destroyed. 
Protestantism  still  prevails  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent. Consult  Memoirs  et  Comptes-rendus  dc 
la  8oci6i4  Scientifique  et  LittSraire  d* Alais, 

ALAIS,  PEACE  OF.  A  treaty  which  ended 
the  Huguenot  wars  in  France.  It  was  signed 
June  28,  1629,  after  the  taking  of  Alais  by  the 
royal  forces.  La  Rochelle  having  fallen  by  the 
policy  of  Richelieu  the  year  before.  By  its  terms 
the  fortifications  of  the  Protestant  towns  were 
razed  and  the  Catholic  worship  reestablished  in 
them,  but  amnesty  and  freedom  of  conscience 
were  granted  to  the  rebels. 

ALAJTTELA,  n&-Hwan&.  The  largest  city 
of  the  province  of  Alajuela,  Costa  Rica,  13  miles 
wept  of  San  Joh^,  and  a  little  on  the  western  side 
of  the  water-shed  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Pacific  (Map:  Central  America,  £  5).  The  city 
is  very  prosperous,  because  of  the  neighboring 
coffee  and  sugar  plantations  and  the  large  cattle 
ranches.  Here  many  of  the  insurrections  against 
the  republic  had  their  rise,  notably  the  dar- 
ing attempt  in  1824  of  the  Spaniard  Jos^  Za- 
mora  to  bring  the  State  once  more  under  Span- 
ish rule.    Pop.,  1897,  about  15,000. 

ALA-KUL,  al&-k<5?JK  (Kirghiz,  Turk.,  Mot- 
tled Lake ) .  The  name  of  two  lakes  in  the  terri- 
tory of  Semirietchensk,  on  the  Russian-Chinese 
frontier,  64  miles  east  of  the  lake  of  Balkash, 
Central  Asia  (Map:  Asia,  H  4).  The  Greater, 
or  Eastern  Ala-Kul,  called  also  Atsh-Kul,  covers 
an  area  of  790  square  miles,  is  39  miles  long,  28 
miles  wide,  and  has  an  average  depth  of  about 

13  or  14  feet.  Its  banks  are  low  and  sandy, 
and  it  is  fed  by  six  insignificant  streams.  The 
western  Ala-Kul  or  Sassyk-Kulya,  separated 
from  the  eastern  lake  by  a  marshy  neck  of  land 

14  miles  wide,  is  but  28  miles  long  and  11  miles 


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258 


ALAND  ISLANDS. 


wide,  and  is  fed  by  small  streams.    The  water 
of  both  lakes  is  salty,  and  fish  is  scanty. 

ALALONGA,  &r&ltiD^s&,  or  ALILONGHI, 

fill-lflu'gl.   The  long-flnned  tunny  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean.   See  TuNNT. 

ALAKAN,  ft'lA-mttn^  Lt^CAS  (1775-1855).  An 
eminent  Mexican  statesman  and  historian.  For 
a  time  he  was  a  deputy  of  the  colony  in  the 
Spanish  Cortes,  but  in  1823,  upon  the  downfall  of 
Iturbide,  returned  to  Mexico.  As  minister  of  do- 
mestic and  foreign  affairs  under  two  successive 
administrations  he  developed  industry,  agricul- 
ture, and  education.  In  1834  he  was  director  of 
the  industrial  commission  appointed  by  Santa 
Anna,  in  whose  dictatorial  measures  he  subse- 
quently (1853)  took  part.  He  wrote  an  ex- 
tremely valuable  Hiatoria  de  M^jico,  chiefly  de- 
voted to  the  nineteenth  century  (5  volumes, 
1849-52).  His  further  publications  include  Di- 
aertacionea  aobre  la  Historia  Mejicana  ( 1844-49) . 

AL^AJCANCE,  Battle  of.  See  Nobth  Cabo- 

UNA. 

AL'AKANan.     See  AuEMAirm. 

ALAKANNI,  ft'lft-mftn^nd,  Luioi  ( 1495-1550) . 
An  Italian  poet.  He  was  born  in  Florence,  and, 
like  Dante,  was  destined  to  spend  his  best  years 
in  exile.  The  Alamanni  were  zealous  partisans 
of  the  Medici,  whose  favor  Lui.q^  himself  enjoyed 
until  some  fancied  grievance  led  him  to  conspire 
against  the  life  of  the  cardinal,  Giulio  de'  Medici, 
later  Pope  Clement  VII.  Being  detected,  he  fled, 
and  eventually  took  refuge  at  the  French  court, 
where  he  stood  high  in  favor  with  Francis  I. 
and  afterward  with  Henry  II.,  both  of  whom  as- 
signed him  to  important  embassies.  Except  for  a 
brief  interval,  Avhen  Florence  threw  off  the  yoke 
of  the  Medici  and  he  returned  home  to  urge,  un- 
successfully, that  the  republic  should  seek  the 
protection  of  the  Emperor,  Charles  V.,  Alamanni 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  in  France,  and 
there  most  of  his  poems  were  written.  His  col- 
lected works  include  translations,  epigrams, 
plays.  La  coltivazione,  a  didactic  poem  in  imita- 
tion of  VergiPs  Oeorgics;  Opere  toscanCy  vigor- 
ous satires  which  have  been  imitated  in  English 
by  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt;  and  two  long  poems  based 
upon  the  Arthurian  romances;  Oirone  il  Cortese, 
in  twenty-four  cantos,  and  the  Avarchide,  in 
twenty- five,  the  latter  being  in  structure  the 
story  of  the  Iliad,  freely  adapted  to  fit  the  siege 
of  Avarco  (the  modern  Bruges),  and  chiefly  in- 
teresting as  marking  the  transition  from  the 
complicated  adventures  of  Ariosto's  Orlando 
Furioso  to  the  classic  unity  of  Tasso,  Alamanni's 
Vcrsi  e  prose,  edited  with  a  biography,  by  P. 
Kaffaelli,  was  issued  in  two  volumes  (Florence, 
1859). 

AL'AMAN'NIA.     See  Alemannia. 

ALAMEDA,  rift-mfl^dA.  A  beautiful  residen- 
tial city  in  Alameda  Co.,  California.  It  is  six 
miles  across  the  bay  from  San  Francisco,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  ferry  lines,  and  is  on 
the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad  (Map:  California, 
B  3).  The  executive  power  of  the  city  is  vested 
in  the  president  of  a  board  of  trustees,  consist- 
ing of  five  members.  The  electric  light  plant  is 
o^vned  and  operated  by  the  municipality.  In 
1854,  with  a  population  of  100,  Alameda  was 
incorporated.  Its  growth  has  been  rapid  since 
1870.     Pop.,  1890,  11,165;   1900,  16,464. 

ALAKINOS,    n&-me^n6s,    ANTOino    DE.     A 


Spanish  pilot,  one  of  the  first  to  take  vessels  to 
the  North  American  coast.  He  was  bom  at  Pa- 
loB,  Spain.  During  the  second  decade  of  the  six- 
teenth century  he  conducted  Ponce  de  Leon,  Her- 
nandez de  Cordova,  Francisco  de  (xaray,  and 
other  vovagers  who  wished  to  reach  the  shores  of 
the  northern  continent.  He  is  supposed  to  have 
been  the  author  of  the  earliest  detailed  map  of 
a  part  of  what  is  now  the  United  States,  de- 
signed to  show  the  limits  of  claims  by  discovery. 
This  map  was  first  printed  by  Kavarrete,  Colec- 
ci6n    (Madrid,  1829,  III.  148). 

ALAMO,  ft^-md,  The.  A  Franciscan  mis- 
sion, built  within  the  present  San  Antonio, 
Texas  (q.v.)  about  1722,  and  occasionally  used 
after  1793  as  a  fort.  It  consisted  of  a  church,  an 
inclosed  convent  yard  about  100  feet  square,  a 
convent  and  hospital  building,  and  a  plaza  oover- 
ing  about  two  and  one-half  acres,  and  protected 
by  a  wall  8  feet  high  and  33  inches  thick.  In 
1830,  during  the  war  for  Texan  independence,  a 
remarkable  conflict  occurred  here  between  a 
small  company  of  Texans  and  Americans,  includ- 
ing Colonel  David  Crockett  and  Colonel  Janie> 
Bowie,  who  held  the  fort  under  Colonel  W.  B. 
Travis,  and  some  Mexicans  who  attacked  it  un- 
der Santa  Anna  (q.v.).  After  a  bombardment 
lasting  almost  continuously  from  February  23 
to  March  6,  a  small  breach  was  made  in  the  walls, 
and  early  on  the  morning  of  the  6th  the  Mex- 
icans assaulted  in  force.  They  w^ere  twice  driven 
back  with  great  loss,  but  scaled  the  parapet  in 
the  third  attempt  and  a  desperate  hand-to-band 
conflict  ensued,  in  which  the  Texans,  though  al- 
ready greatly  weakened  by  privations  and  fa- 
tigue, fought  with  the  utmost  valor  until  only 
five  of  their  number  remained  alive.  These  were 
captured  and,  on  Santa  Anna's  order,  were 
killed  in  cold  blood.  Three  women,  two  chil- 
dren, and  a  negro  boy  alone  survived  out  of 
a  garrison  which,  including  a  reinforcement  of 
thirty-two  men  that  arrived  en  March  1,  had 
numbered  about  180.  The  Mexican  loss  was 
probably  as  large  as  500,  though  Santa  Anna,  in 
his  untrustworthy  report,  gave  it  as  70  killed 
and  300  wounded.  "Remember  the  Alamo!"  be- 
came a  war-cry  of  the  Texans,  who  finally  de- 
feated and  captured  Santa  Anna  at  San  Jacinto 
(q.v.).  In  allusion  to  the  heroism  sho^Ti  by  the 
small  garrison,  Alamo  has  been  called  "the  Ther- 
mopylae of  America."  Consult:  J.  L.  Ford,  Ori- 
gin and  Fall  of  the  Alamo  (San  Antonio,  1896) ; 
A.  M.  Williams,  Sam  Houston  and  the  War  of  In- 
dependence in  Texas  (Boston,  1893)  ;  and  Cor- 
ners, San  Antonio  de  Bexar  (San  Antonio,  1890). 

Alamos,  }i^&-mds,or  beal  de  los  (r&-sr 

dft-los)  ALAMOS  (Sp.,  the  poplars  or  syca- 
mores). A  town  in  the  State  of  Sonora,  Mexico, 
125  miles  northwest  of  Sinaloa  (Map:  Mexico. 
D  4).  Of  itself  the  town  is  unimportant,  but 
the  region  is  famous  for  its  silver  mines.  Pop. 
about  10.000. 

ALAN,  al'an,  William.  See  Allen,  Wil- 
liam. 

AL^AN-A-DALE^  One  of  the  companions 
of  Kobin  Hood  (see  Hood,  Robin)  in  the  old' 
ballads  and  in  Scott's  Ivanhoe.  In  the  former 
he  is  a  light-hearted  young  man,  much  addicted 
to  the  "chanting"  of  roundelays,  whom  Robin 
assists  to  elope  with  his  love. 

Aland  islands,  O'l&nd.  An  archipelago 
of  some  300  small  islands  and  rocks,  in  the  Gov- 


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259 


AI.ABCON  Y  MENDOZA 


ernment  of  Abo-Bj($rneborg,  Finland,  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  ( Map :  Russia,  B  2 ) . 
The  narrow  pass  of  sea  separating  them  on  the 
west  from  the  Swedish  coast  at  Grisselhamn  is 
known  as  the  Aland  Bay  (Alandshaf).  About 
eighty  of  them  are  inhabited.  The  group  has  an 
area  of  556  square  miles..  Pop.,  18,400.  Al- 
though these  rocky  isles  are  covered  with  but  a 
thin  stratum  of  soil,  they  bear  Scotch  fir,  spruce, 
and  birch  trees,  and  with  proper  cultivation  pro- 
duce barley  and  oats,  besides  affording  subsist- 
ence to  a  hardy  breed  of  cattle.  The  inhabitants, 
of  Swedish  origin,  are  skillful  sailors,  fishermen, 
and  seal-hunters.  The  largest  of  the  islands, 
which  gives  its  name  (signifying  "land  of 
streams")  to  the  whole  group,  is  about  18  miles 
long  by  14  broad.  It  is  tolerably  wooded  and 
fruitful.  These  islands  belonged  formerly  to 
Sweden,  but  were  seized  by  Russia  in  1809.  Pre- 
vious to  this  they  had  several  times  changed 
hands  between  these  two  powers.  In  1717  the 
Swedes  were  defeated  by  the  Russians  in  a  naval 
engagement  near  Aland,  the  first  important  ex- 
ploit of  the  Muscovite  navy.  The  importance  of 
these  islands  as  a  military  position  led  to  the 
construction,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Nicho- 
las I.,  of  those  strong  fortifications  at  Bomar- 
sund,  which,  in  August,  1854,  were  destroyed  by 
the  Anglo-French  force,  commanded  by  Sir 
Charles  Napier  and  Baraguay  d'Hilliers. 

ATiA^yi  (Gk.  'Ahivol,  Alanoi).  Nomadic 
tribes  of  Eastern  origin  who  spread  over  Europe 
during  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire.  They 
probably  were  first  encountered  by  the  Romans 
when  Pompey,  in  the  Mithridatic  War,  led  an 
expedition  into  the  Caucasus.  In  276  a.d.  they 
were  checked  by  the  Emperor  Tacitus  in  their  at- 
tempt to  go  eastward  into  Persia.  The  Huns 
gave  them  a  severe  defeat  on  the  Tanals  (now 
Don)  in  375,  and  then  the  Alani  divided,  some 
j^oing  east,  but  the  larger  portion  joining  their 
conquerors  in  an  onslaught  upon  the  Goths.  With 
the  Vandals  and  Suevi  they  entered  Gaul  in  406, 
and  later  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  founded  set- 
tlements in  Lusitania,  where  they  lived  for  some 
time  in  peace.  In  418  they  were  attacked  by 
the  Visigoths,  their  king  was  slain,  and  they 
became  subject  to  Gunderic,  king  of  the  Vandals, 
losing  completely  their  national  independence. 
I-ater  they  served  under  the  Visi-Gothic  King, 
Theodoric,  but  they  sympathized  with  the  Huns, 
and  their  desertion  at  Chalons  ( 451 )  came  near 
bringing  defeat  upon  the  Roman  army.  They 
were  mentioned  occasionally  in  later  times,  and 
seem  to  have  kept  their  independence  in  the  East 
after  the  sixth  century.  In  1221  Genghis  Khan 
defeated  them,  and  they  were  so  completely  sub- 
jugated in  1237  by  Batu  Khan  that  their  name 
disappeared  from  history. 

AXA^NTTS  AB  IN^SULIS.  See  Alain  de 
Lille. 

AL-AJtA7,  kl-H^T&t    See  Abaf. 

ALABG6n,  aaar-k6n',  HEBNAinK)  DE. 
A  Spanish-American  navigator,  and  the  first 
European  to  ascend  the  Colorado  River.-  On 
May  9,  1540,  he  sailed,  with  two  vessels,  from 
Acapulco,  with  instructions  from  the  Viceroy 
Mendoza  to  cooperate  with  the  expedition  under 
Vasqucx  Coronado,  which  had  gone  in  search  of 
the  Seven  Cities -of  Cibola,  in  what  is  now  New 
Mexico.  Alarc6n  sailed  to  the  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  California,  and  completed  the  explorations 
begun  by  Ulloa  in  the  preceding  year,  by  satis- 


fying himself  that  there  was  no  open  water  pas- 
sage between  the  Gulf  and  the  South  Sea  or  Pa- 
cific Ocean.  Subsequently  he  entered  the  Colorado 
River,  which  he  named  the  Buena  Guia.  With 
two  small  boats  he  ascended  the  river  for  a 
considerable  distance,  making  important  obser- 
vations of  the  natives.  On  the  second  voyage 
he  probably  proceeded  past  the  present  site  of 
Fort  Yuma.  He  learned  that  Coronado  had 
reached  Cibola,  but  was  unable  to  communicate 
with  him.  A  map  drawn  by  Domingo  del  Cas- 
tillo, one  of  Alarc6n's  pilots,  in  1541,  is  the  ear- 
liest detailed  representation  of  the  Gulf  and  the 
lower  course  of  the  river,  of  which  it  gives  a 
very  accurate  idea.  It  was  first  engraved  for 
the  Archbishop  Lorenzana  in  1770,  and  is  given 
in  facsimile  by  Wihsor,  Narrative  and  Critical 
History  of  America  (Boston,  1886).  Consult 
Winship,  "Coronado,"  in  Reports  of  Bureau  of 
Ethnology  (Washington,  1895). 

AXABC6n,  Pedro  Antonio  db  (1833-91).  A 
modem  Spanish  novelist  and  statesman,  born  at 
Guadix,  in  Granada.  He  began  his  professional 
career  as  a  journalist,  and  wrote  for  the  Eco  del 
Occidente  of  Cadiz,  and  after  the  outbreak  of  the 
revolution  in  1854  edited  for  a  time  a  radical 
satirical  paper.  El  Ldtigo,  But  he  soon  with- 
drew from  participation  in  politics  and  began  the 
series  of  snort  stories  and  essays  which  after- 
ward were  collected  into  numerous  volumes,  such 
as  Coaaa  que  fueron  (1871)  ;  Amorea  y  amorios 
(1875);  Juicioa  literarioa  y  artisticos  (1883). 
His  share  in  the  Morocco  campaign  of  1859  bore 
fruit  in  his  Diario  de  un  teatigo  de  la  guerra 
de  Africa  (1860),  a  chronicle  noteworthy  for  its 
vivid  picturesqueness  and  stirring  patriotism. 
For  many  years  after  this  he  took  an  active  part 
in  national  affairs,  and  served  successively  as 
deputy,  member  of  the  Council  of  State,  and  am- 
bassador to  the  Porte.  Of  his  many  later  novels, 
El  cscdndalo  (1875),  written  in  defense  of  the 
Jesuits,  made  the  greatest  sensation  at  the  time, 
and  led  him  to  write  other  novels  with  religious 
themes:  El  nino  de  la  hola  (1880),  and  La  pr6- 
diga  (1881).  But  their  fame  was  transitory, 
and  he  will  be  much  longer  remembered  for  his 
less  pretentious  stories  and  sketches,  his  His- 
iorietas  nadonales,  and  his  El  sombrero  de  tres 
picos  (1874),  a  study  of  rustic  manners,  truly 
Spanish  in  its  atmosphere,  which  shows  Alarc6n 
at  his  best.  His  last  volume  was  a  brief  account 
of  his  works,  Hiatoria  de  mia  libroa  (1884),  a 
sort  of  literary  testament. 

AIiABC6n  Y  MENDOZA,  A'lftr-kdn^  3  m^n- 
do'thi,  Don  Juan  Ruiz  de  (?— 1639).  A 
Spanish  dramatist  of  importance,  born  in  the 
province  of  Tosco,  Mexico.  At  least  as  early  as 
1022  he  was  in  Spain,  where  he  was  appointed 
prolocutor  to  the  royal  council  for  the  Indies, 
and  where  he  published,  in  1628,  a  volume  of 
eight  dramas.  He  added,  in  1635,  a  second  vol- 
ume, containing  twelve  others.  His  haughty 
remonstrance  against  the  inadequate  apprecia- 
tion of  his  merit  made  him  the  object  of  the 
often  boorish  ridicule  of  Lope  de  Vega,  G6ngora, 
and  other  contemporary  poets.  Moreover,  many 
of  his  works  passed  current  under  the  names  of 
others,  by  whom  they  were  appropriated,  or  to 
whom  they  were  attributed.  Thus,  his  Verdad 
aoapechoaa  ("Truth  Suspected") ,  which  served  as 
prototype  for  the  Mentcur  of  Corneille,  was  by 
the  latter  originally  deferred  to  Lope  de  Vega.  In 
the  opinion  of  Ticknor :  "He  is  to  be  ranked  with 


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ALABCON  Y  KENDOZA 


260 


ALABH. 


the  very  best  Spanish  dramatists,  during  the 
best  period  of  the  national  theatre/'  Of  his 
more  important  plays  may  further  be  mentioned: 
Ij€18  paredea  oyen  ("Walls  Have  Ears")  and  El 
iexedor  de  Segovia  ("The  Weaver  of  Segovia"). 
The  best  edition  is  that  of  J.  E.  de  Hartzenbusch 
(Madrid,  1852;  Volume  XX.  of  the  Bihlioteca 
de  autorea  Eapanoles).  Consult:  Ticknor,  H%8' 
tory  of  Spanish  Literature  (New  York,  1849; 
sixth  American  edition,  Boston,  1888). 

ALABD,  ft'iar',  Jean  Deu»hin  (1815-88). 
A  French  violinist.  He  was  born  at  Bayonne, 
March  8,  1815*  the  son  of  an  amateur  violinist; 
studied  in  Paris  under  Habeneck  and  F^tis,  and 
won  the  notice  of  Paganini  when  he  appeared  in 
concerts.  In  1840,  Alard  succeeded  Baillot  as 
first  violinist  to  the  king,  and  in  1843  became 
professor  of  the  violin  at  the  Paris  Conserva- 
toire, a  post  he  held  until  1875.  Sarasate  (q.v.) 
'was  among  his  pupils.  He  was  a  representative 
of  the  modem  French  school  of  violin  playing, 
composed  nocturnes,  duos,  etudes,  etc.,  for  the 
violin,  and  was  the  author  of  an  Ecole  du  violon, 
which  was  adopted  by  the  Conservatoire.  He 
died  in  Paris,  February  22,  1888. 

AL^ABIC  (Goth,  from  al,  all  +  reiks,  ruler). 
The  great  chieftain  of  the  Visigoths.  He  makes 
his  first  appearance  in  history  in  394  A.D.,  as 
leader  of  the  Gothic  auxiliaries  of  Theodosius  in 
his  war  with  Eugenius;  but  after  the  death  of 
the  former  he  took  advantage  of  the  dissensions 
and  weakness  that  prevailed  in  the  Eastern  Em- 
pire to  invade  (395)  Thrace,  Macedon,  Thessaly, 
and  Illyricuni,  devastating  the  country  and 
threatening  Constantinople  itself.  Rufinus,  the 
minister  of  Arcadius,  appears  to  have  sacrificed 
Greece  in  order  to  rescue  the  capital,  and  Athens 
was  obliged  to  secure  its  own  safety  by  ransom. 
Alaric  proceeded  to  plunder  and  devastate  the 
Peloponnesus,  but  was  interrupted  by  the  land- 
ing of  Stilicho  in  Elis  with  the  troops  of  the 
West.  Stilicho  endeavored  to  hem  in  the  Groths 
on  the  Peneus,  but  Alaric  broke  through  his  lines 
and  escaped  with  his  booty  and  prisoners  to 
Illyricum,  of  which  he  was  appointed  governor 
by  the  Emperor,  Arcadius,  who,  frightened  by 
his  successes,  hoped  by  conferring  this  dignity  on 
him  to  make  him  a  peaceful  subject  instead  of  a 
lawless  enemy  (396).  In  401  he  invaded  upper 
Italy,  and  Honorius,  the  Emperor  of  the  West, 
fled  from  Rome  to  the  more  strongly  fortified 
Ravenna.  On  the  way  to  Gaul,  in  402  or  403, 
Alaric  encountered  Stilicho  at  Pollentia  on  the 
Tanarus ;  and  soon  after,  the  result  of  the  battle 
of  Verona  forced  him  to  retire  into  Illyriciun. 
Through  the  mediation  of  Stilicho,  Alaric  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  Honorius,  according  to 
which  he  was  to  advance  into  Epirus,  and  thence 
attack  Arcadius  in  conjunction  with  the  troops 
of  Stilicho.  The  projected  expedition  did  not 
take  place,  yet  Alaric  demanded  indemnification 
for  having  undertaken  it,  and  Honorius,  by  the 
advice  of  Stilicho,  promised  him  4000  pounds 
of  gold.  When,  after  the  death  of  Stilicho  (q.v.) , 
Honorius  failed  to  fulfill  his  promise,  Alaric  ad- 
vanced with  an  army  and  invested  Rome,  which 
«  he  refused  to  leave  until  he  had  obtained  the 
promise  of  5000  pounds  of  gold  and  30,000  of 
silver.  But  neither  did  this  negotiation  produce 
any  satisfactory  result,  and  Alaric  again  be- 
sieged Rome  (409  A.D.).  Famine  soon  rendered 
it  necessary  that  some  arrangement  should  be 
made,  and  in  order  to  do  it,  the  Senate  pro- 


claimed Attains,  the  prefect  of  the  city,  emperor 
instead  of  Honorius.  But  Attains  displayed  so 
little  discretion  that  Alaric  obliged  him  publicly 
to  abdicate.  The  renewed  negotiations  with 
Honorius  proved  equally  fruitless  with  the  form- 
er, and  Alaric  was  so  irritated  at  a  perfidious 
attempt  to  fall  upon  him  by  surprise  at  Ravenna 
that  he  advanced  on  Rome  for  the  third  time. 
His  victorious  army  entered  the  city  August  14, 
410,  and  continued  to  pillage  it  for  three  d&js, 
Alaric  strictly  forbidding  his  soldiers  to  dis- 
honor women  or  destroy  religious  buildings. 
When  Alaric  quitted  Rome  it  was  only  to  prose- 
cute the  conquest  of  Sicily  and  Africa.  The  oc- 
currence of  a  storm,  however,  which  his  ill- 
constructed  vessels  were  not  able  to  resi*;t, 
obliged  him  to  abandon  the  project.  He  died 
before  the  close  of  the  year  at  Consentia  ( Cosen- 
za),  in  Bruttium.  Legend  says  that  in.  order 
that  his  body  might  not  be  discovered  by  the 
Romans  it  was  deposited  in  the  bed  of  the  river 
Busentinus,  which  was  temporarily  diverted 
from  its  course,  and  that  the  captives  who  had 
been  employed  in  the  work  were  put  to  death. 
Rome  and  all  Italy  celebrated  the  death  of  Alaric 
with  public  festivities.  Consult:  Hodgkin, /fa/j/ 
and  Her  Invaders  (Oxford,  1885)  ;  F.  A.  Grego- 
rovius,  History  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Ages,  Eng- 
lish translation.  Volume  1.  (New  York,  1892): 
R.  Lanciani,  The  Destructiwi  of  Ancient  Rom( 
(Boston,  1899). 

ALABIC  n.  King  of  the  Visigoths,  485- 
507.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Euric.  He  was  of 
a  peaceful  disposition,  and  wished  to  live  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  Franks.  His  dominions 
were  very  extensive.  Besides  Hispania  Tarra- 
conensis  and  Bsetica,  he  possessed  numerous  rich 
provinces  in  Gaul,  and  formed  an  alliance,  which 
still  further  increased  his  power,  with  Gonde- 
band  and  Theodoric,  the  latter  of  whom  was  his 
father-in-law  and  King  of  the  East  Goths.  At 
length,  however,  he  came  into  collision  with  the 
Frankish  monarch,  Clovis,  whose  cupidity  had 
been  excited  by  the  extent  and  fertility  of  the 
territories  over  which  Alaric  II.  ruled.  An  e?c- 
cuse  was  found  for  breaking  the  peace  which 
existed  between  the  two  nations  in  the  fact  that 
Alaric  II.  was  a  zealous  Arian.  This  circum- 
stance had  given  great  offense  to  many  of  his 
subjects,  who  were  orthodox  Catholics ;  and  osten- 
sibly to  vindicate  the  true  doctrine,  the  newly 
converted  barbarian  Clovis  declared  war  against 
him.  The  result  was  fatal  to  Alaric  II.  He 
was  slain  by  the  hand  of  Clovis  himself  at 
Vouill6,  near  Poitiers,  and  his  forces  routed. 
Alaric  II.  is  said  to  have  been  indolent  ahd 
luxurious  in  his  youth ;  but  this  may  simply  im- 
ply that  he  was  not  fond  of  those  sanguinary 
pleasures  which  captivated  his  savage  contem- 
poraries. He  was  tolerant  in  his  religious  con- 
victions. Though  an  Arian,  he  did  not  persecute 
the  Catholics.  He  enacted  several  useful  stat- 
utes, and  kept  a  watchful  eye  on  all  parts  of  his 
kingdom.  It  was  during  hfs  reign  that  the  Bre- 
viarium  Alaricianum,  or  Breviary  of  Alaric  II. 
(q.v.),  was  dra^Ti  up.  It  is  a  selection  of  im- 
perial statutes  and  writings  of  the  Roman  juris- 
consults. Alaric  II.  sent  copies  of  it  to  all  hi* 
governors,  ordering  them  to  use  it  and  no  other. 
An  edition  of  it  was  published  by  H&nel  (Leipzig, 
1849). 

AIiABM^  (Fr.  alarme.  It.  alVarme,  to  arms, 
from  Lat.  pi.  armaj  arms).    In  military  usage  a 


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ATiAKM. 


261 


ALASHEHB. 


tenn  which  is  not  so  important  now  as  formerly. 
Onginally  an  alarm  was  signified  by  the  burning 
of  a  beacon,  the  ringing  of  a  bell,  beating  of 
drums,  or  the  firing  of  a  gun.  Now,  in  most 
instances,  an  alarm  is  transmitted  by  telegraph, 
telephone,  signal  lamps,  and  heliograph,  among 
other  devices.  In  military  camps,  army  posts  or 
barracks  there  is  generally  an  alarm  or  assem- 
bly post  arranged,  where  the  troops  may  assem- 
ble in  response  to  calls  of  sudden  emergency, 
such  as  fire,  riot,  or  other  unusual  occurrence. 

ALARM.  A  self-acting  contrivance  employed 
to  call  attention  to  danger  or  accidents,  or  to 
arouse  persons  from  sleep.  The  common  alarm- 
clock  is  a  familiar  example  of  such  a  device, 
and  the  electric  burglar-alarm  is  another.  The 
simplest  and  most  common  arrangement  of  bur- 
glar-alarm consists  of  an  electric  bell  with  wires 
leading  to  all  parts  of  the  windows,  doors,  and 
other  parts  of  the  building  to  be  protected.  The 
terminals  of  these  wires  are  set  m  the  framing 
of  the  windows  and  doors,  so  that  if  they  are 
opened  the  action  presses  springs  together  and 
rings  the  bell  in  precisely  the  same  way  as  by 
pressing  the  ordinary  push-button.  All  special 
kinds  of  alarms  for  house  protection  consist  of 
modifications  in  the  method  of  making  the  con- 
tart  suitable  for  special  purposes,  such  as  laying 
sheets  of  tin  under  the  carpet  to  make  contact 
with  the  wires  when  the  carpet  is  stepped  upon. 
Means  are  also  generally  introduced  for  indicat- 
ing which  window  the  signal  comes  from.  This 
is  done  by  leading  the  wires  from  each  window 
separately  through  an  annunciator,  which  shows 
through  which  wire,  and  consequently  from  which 
window,  the  signal  came.  Tne  alarm  will  also 
sound  if  a  window  is  carelessly  left  open.  The  en- 
tire wiring  of  houses  is  also  frequently  connected 
with  the  police  station  by  wire,  so  that  it  is 
notified  of  any  tampering  with  the  house  in  the 
absence  of  its  occupant.  Bank  vaults  and  safes 
are  also  protected  by  numerous  complicated 
mechanical  and  electrical  devices  which  in- 
stantly give  an  alarm  to  watchmen  or  police 
officers  of  any  disturbance  due  to  tampering  or 
attempted  burglary.  Automatic  fire  alarms  are 
made  in  a  variety  of  forms.  A  frequent  arrange- 
ment consists  of  a  string  supporting  a  weight 
whose  fall  sets  in  operation  a  train  of  mechan- 
ism which  sounds  a  bell  alarm.  The  weight  is 
caused  to  fall  by  the  burning  of  the  supporting 
string.  (See  FiBE  Alabmb.)  In  steam  boilers 
an  alarm  check  valve,  operating  under  the  pres- 
sure of  steam,  is  employed  to  give  the  alarm  when 
the  injector  ceases  to  work,  or  when  the  water 
falls  below  the  point  of  safety.  In  locomotive 
boilers  a  fusible  plug  is  set  into  the  crown  sheet 
over  the  firebox;  this  plug  remains  intact  as 
long  as  water  covers  the  crown  sheet,  but  melts 
should  it  become  dry,  allowing  the  steam  to  es- 
cape into  the  firebox  and  warn  the  engineer  of 
the  danger.  Telegraph  and  telephone  lines  usu- 
ally have  some  arrangement  by  which  a  break 
in  the  wires  is  indicated  by  a  bell  alarm.  Fog 
bells,  fog  whistles,  and  whistling  buoys  are  forms 
of  alarms,  and  there  are  a  great  variety  of  other 
forms,  such  as  alarm  compasses,  which  are  con- 
trived to  sound  an  alarm  when  the  vessel  de- 
viates from  its  course;  alarm  funnels  contrived 
to  ring  a  bell  when  the  liquid  has  reached  a  cer- 
tain height  in  a  cask  which  is  being  filled,  and 
typewriter  alarm  bells  which  ring  as  the  end  of 
the  line  being  written  is  approached. 


AL'ABOa>IAN.  A  term  derived  from  the 
Alarodii  of  the  classical  geographers  and  Herod- 
otus, applied  by  Sayce  and  some  other  ethnogra- 
phers and  philologists  to  the  linguistic  stock 
represented  especially  by  the  Georgian  among 
the  numerous  languages  of  the  region  of  the  Cau- 
casus. The  Alarodii  dwelt  about  Mount  Ararat, 
and  are  supposed  by  some  to  be  identical  with 
the  Urartu  of  the  Assyrian  inscriptions. 

AIiABY,  &'l&'ry,  JxTLEa  (1814  — ).  A 
French  dramatic  composer.  He  was  bom  at 
Mantua,  Italy,  of  French  parentage,  and  was 
educated  at  the  Milan  Conservatory.  After  fre- 
quent tours  through  Europe  he  became  estab- 
lished at  Paris  as  musical  director  at  the  Thea- 
tre des  Italiens.  Among  his  principal  works  are: 
Rosamonda,  an  opera  (Teatro  de  la  Pergola, 
Florence,  1840)  ;  La  Redemption,  an  oratorio 
(Paris,  1851)  ;  Sardanapale,  an  opera  (St.  Pe- 
tersburg, 1852)  ;  La  Voix  Humaine  (Royal  Op- 
6ra,  Paris,  1861)  ;  Locanda  Gratis,  opera-bouffe 
(Th^fttre  des  Italiens,  1866). 


\f  A-lSs',  Leofoldo  (1852  — ).  A  Span- 
ish journalist  and  novelist,  and  professor  of  law 
at  the  University  of  Oviedo.  As  a  critic,  he  is 
noted  for  his  intolerance  of  pretense  and  medi- 
ocrity, and  for  the  fearlessness  with  which  he 
speaks  his  mind  regarding  men  of  established 
reputation.  As  a  noveli«»t,  he  has  produced  an 
unimportant  work.  Su  tnico  Hijo,  a  volume  of 
short  stories  called  Ptpa,  and  one  serious  novel. 
La  Regenta,  an  analytical  study  of  criminal  pas- 
sion, revealing  a  rare  subtlety  of  observation. 
Alas  is  justly  regarded  by  many  critics  as  one  of 
the  most  promising  figures  in  contemporary 
Spanish  literature.  In  journalism  he  is  best 
known  under  the  pseudonym  of  Clarin. 

ALAS^CANS.  A  designation  of  foreism 
Protestants  in  London  in  the  time  of  Edward  "^I. 
from  the  name  of  John  k  Lasco  (or  Laski),  a 
Polish  reformer  and  refugee,  who,  in  1550,  was 
appointed  by  the  King  as  superintendent  of  the 
foreign  congregation  there. 

ALAS'CO.  In  Scott's  Kenilworth  (q.v.),  an 
astrologer,  also  known  as  Dr.  Demetrius  Do- 
boobie,  who  aids  the  evil  designs  of  Richard 
Varney  against  Amy  Robsart. 

A  IiASCO,  a  Ifis^d,  JoHAXNEs,  or  Jan  Laski 
(1499-1560).  A  Polish  nobleman  and  traveler, 
born  in  Warsaw.  He  imbibed  the  doctrines  of 
Zwingli  at  Zttrich.  He  also  knew  Erasmus,  who 
esteemed  him  highly,  and  in  his  will  provided 
for  the  sale  of  his  library  to  him.  He  returned 
to  Poland,  1526,  but  left  in  1536,  on  his  declara- 
tion of  Protestantism,  and  went  to  Frisia.  There 
he  preached  Protestantism,  but,  anticipating  per- 
secution, he  went  to  London,  on  Cranmer's  invita- 
tion, and  became  superintendent  of  the  congre- 
gation of  the  foreign  Protestant  exiles.  On  the 
accession  of  Mary,  in  1553,  he  and  all  his  congre- 
gation were  banished.  In  1556,  he  returned  to 
Poland,  where  he  died,  at  Pirchow,  January  13, 
1560.  He  wrote  many  treatises,  and  was  one 
of  the  eighteen  divines  who  prepared  the  Polish 
version  of  the  Bible.  For  his  biography,  con- 
sult H.  Dalton   (London,  1886). 

ALASHEHB,  a'lA-shCHr'  (Turk.  Mottled 
City).  A  city  in  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Aidin, 
or  Smyrna,  lying  about  75  miles  east  by  south  of 
Smyrna,  on  the  northern  slope  of  Mount  Tmolus 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  0  3).    It  is  surrounded 


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by  a  partly  ruined  wall,  and  contains  eight 
mosques  and  five  Greek  churches.  Remains  of 
ancient  sculpture  are  to  be  found.  Alashehr  is 
connected  by  rail  with  Manissa,  and  is  the  seat 
of  a  Greek  archbishop.  The  population  is  esti- 
mated at  about  20,000.  Alashehr  was  founded 
by  Attains  Philadelphus,  King  of  Pergamos, 
about  200  B.C.,  and  is  supposed  to  be  one  of  the 
"seven  churches  of  Asia"  mentioned  in  the  Apoc- 
alypse. 

ALASKA  (said  to  derive  its  name  from  an 
English  corruption  of  Al-ay-ek-sa,  the  great  land, 
and  formerly  known  as  Russian  America) .  A 
territory  of  the  United  States,  comprising  the 
extreme  northwestern  part  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can continent,  together  with  all  the  islands  near 
its  coast  and  the  whole  of  the  Aleutian  Archipel- 
ago, excepting  Bering's  and  Copper  islands,  lying 
off  the  coast  of  Kamtchatka.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  on  the  east  by 
the  Yukon  District  of  Canada  and  by  British 
Columbia,  on  the  south  by  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  Bering  Sea, 
and  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  greater  part  of  the 
mainland  lies  between  the  Hist  and  168th  me- 
ridians of  western  longitude,  but  the  most  west- 
erly of  the  islands,  Attoo,  lies  in  187*  W.  The 
mainland  on  the  north  extends  to  71**  3(y  N. 
lat.,  and  on  the  south,  a  narrow  strip,  about 
30  miles  wide,  stretches  down  the  Pacific  coast 
to  54°  40'  N.  lat.  at  the  meridian  of  130*»  W. 
long.;  total  length  of  mainland  from  southeast 
to  northwest  is  about  1150  miles;  greatest  width, 
800  miles;  area,  about  590,000  square  miles, 
exceeding  that  of  the  original  thirteen  States, 
and  equal  to  nearly  one-sixth  of  that  of  the 
United  States. 

Topography.  Alaska  is  divided  by  its  physi- 
cal features  into  four  regions,  distinguished  by 
great  differences  of  climate  and  productions: 
(1)  The  .southern  coast  region,  or  Sitka  dis- 
trict, extending  from  Dixon  Sound  northwest- 
ward to  Cook's  Inlet  and  bounded  inland  by  the 
watershed  between  the  coast  and  the  Tanand.  and 
Kuskokwim  rivers.  (2)  The  Aliaskan  Peninsula 
and  Aleutian  Islands.  (3)  The  triangular 
drainage  area  of  the  Kuskokwim  River,  between 
the  Alaskan  Mountains  southward  and  the 
Yukon  watershed  on  the  north.  (4)  The  basin 
of  the  Yukon,  and  the  plains  northward  of  it 
to  the  shores  of  Bering  and  the  Arctic  seas. 

( 1 )  The  Coast  District. — This  consists  of  many 
islands,  a  narrow  coastal  table-land,  and  the 
western  extensions  of  the  Coast  Range,  which  are 
from  50  to  75  miles  wide,  and  which  northward 
of  Lynn  Canal  run  behind  (east  of)  the  St.  Elias 
Alps,  pass  through  Canadian  territory,  and  then 
reappear  to  swing  around  and  down  into  the 
Aliaska  Peninsula  as  the  Alaskan  Range;  while 
the  St.  Elias  Alps  border  the  coast  from  Cross 
Sound  westward  to  the  Kenai  Peninsula.  The 
Coast  ranges  consist  of  many  irregular  and 
nearly  equal  uplifts,  set  with  peaks  reaching 
about  8000  feet  of  altitude.  The  St.  Elias  Alps, 
however,  are  narrower  and  more  regular,  and 
contain  some  of  the  highest  peaks  on  the  conti- 
nent, and  their  western  continuation,  the  Chu- 
gatch  Alps,  bear  the  greatest  glaciers  known 
outside  of  the  polar  regions;  this  range  is  dis- 
tinct from  the  Coast  Range  topographically  and 
geologically.  Among  its  most  prominent  peaks 
(in  their  order  northwestward)  are:  Moimt 
Crillon  (altitude,  15,900  feet).  Mount  Fair- 
weather    (15,292  feet),  Mount  Vancouver    (15,- 


666  feet) ,  Mount  Cook  ( 13,758  feet) ,  and  Mount 
St  Elias  ( 18,024  feet) .  ( See  Mount  St.  Euas.) 
In  an  isolated  position,  about  100  miles  north  of 
the  mouth  of  Copper  River,  is  the  volcano  Mount 
Wrangel  (altitude  17.500  feet),  which  was  in  a 
state  of  eruption  during  the  early  years  of  the 
century.  Along  the  southern  coast  are  numerous 
(1100)  rocky,  mountainous,  forested  islands, 
separated  by  glacier-cut  "sounds"  and  channels, 
forming  the  Alexander  Archipelago  (area,  13.000 
square  miles),  whose  largest  islands  are  Prince 
of  Wales,  Admiralty,  Baranov,  and  Chichagov. 

The  coast  confronting  these  islands,  and  west- 
ward to  the  Aliaskan  Peninsula,  is  the  region 
of  the  massive  glaciers  and  magnificent  scenery 
for  which  Alaska  is  famous.  Rivers  of  ice  occu- 
py every  gorge  in  the  littoral  mountains,  fill 
the  head  of  each  of  the  many  deep  fiords  that 
penetrate  the  coast  (all  eroded  by  the  still  great- 
er glaciers  of  the  past,  for  everywhere  the  ice 
is  steadily  diminishing),  and  increase  in  size 
successively  northwestward.  Among  the  best 
known  are  those  about  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal, 
and  those  coming  down  to  Glacier  Bay,  where 
two  glaciers  are  especially  noteworthy — ^the  Muir 
and  the  Pacific.  Tlie  former  discbarges  into  the 
head  of  the  bay,  and  its  front  presents  a  line 
of  ice-cliffs  over  200  feet  in  height,  and  more 
than  three  miles  long.  The  Pacific  glacier  de- 
scends from  the  Fair  weather  Range  west  of  the 
bay,  and,  like  the  Muir,  discharges  daily  an 
enormous  number  of  icebergs,  sometimes  of  huge 
size.  Wherever  the  mountain  channel  down 
which  the  ice  flows  opens  at  a  distance  back  from 
the  shore  it  spreads  out  like  a  fan  or  delta,  and 
the  confluence  of  groups  of  such  glaciers  forms 
the  mighty  ice-walls  that  border  the  coast  west- 
ward, of  which  the  Malaspina  Glacier  in  Yakutat 
Bay  is  most  conspicuous.  This  is  described  by 
Russell  as  a  plateau  of  ice  having  an  area  of 
five  to  six  hundred  square  miles,  and  a  surface 
elevation  of  about  1550  feet.  Another  scientific 
explorer  says  of  it  that  the  greatest  of  the  Swiss 
glaciers  would  appear  as  mere  rivulets  on  its 
surface,  yet  many  other  masses  of  moving  ice 
reaching  tidewater  to  the  westward  approach  or 
even  exceed  it  in  dimensions  and  grandeur.  The 
well-known  Valdez  Glacier  has  fifteen  miles  of 
frontal  ice-cliffs,  and  many  lives  have  been  lost 
since  1897  in  attempting  to  cross  it  to  the  inte- 
rior.    (See  Glacieb.) 

The  principal  rivers  of  this  district  are  the 
Copper,  with  its  affluent  the  Chechitna,  both 
practically  unnavigable  on  account  of  rapids; 
and  more  westerly,  flowing  into  Cook's  Inlet,  are 
the  Matanuska,  Knik,  and  Suchitna.  The  last- 
named  is  navigable  for  light-draught  boats  for 
about  110  miles,  while  its  main  tributary,  the 
Yetna,  is  navigable  for  100  miles  above  its 
mouth,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  route  to  the 
Kuskokwim  Valley.  This  coast  district  is  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  the  watershed  between  it  and 
the  TananA  and  Kuskokwim  rivers,  consisting 
of  a  line  of  very  lofty  elevations  called  the  Alas- 
kan Mountains,  which  continue  the  Coast  ranges 
behind  the  St.  Elias  Alps  and  around  west- 
ward to  the  Kenai  and  Aliaskan  peninsulas.  It 
is  studdied  with  lofty  peaks,  increasing  in  height 
toward  the  west,  where  the  uplift  culminates, 
about  100  miles  north  of  Cook's  Inlet,  in  Mount 
McKinley,  20,4G4  feet  in  altitude,  which  is  the 
highest  peak  in  all  North  America.  Close  by 
are  unnamed  peaks  nearly  its  equal.  Other  great 
mountains  in  the  same  uplift  are  the  Iliamna 


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ALASi 

ANDTHI 

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ALASKA. 


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ALASKA. 


and  Redoubt  volcanoes  (about  12,000  feet), 
Drum  (13,300  feet),  Hayes  (14,500  feet),  Kim- 
ball (10,000  feet),  Lituya  (11,832  feet),  Sanford 
(14,000  feet),  Tillman  (13,300  feet),  and  many 
others  unmeasured.  Many  passes  admit  of  trav- 
el routes  (mere  trails)  from  the  coast  across  to 
the  Kuskokwim,  Yukon,  and  Ta^anft  valleys. 
The  Kenai  Peninsula  is  an  important  part  of  this 
district. 

(2)  The  Aliaskan  and  Aleutian  District. — This 
is  the  mountainous  prolongation  of  the  continent 
southwestward,  from  the  great  Iliamna  Lake, 
-continued  by  the  Aleutian  Islands,  a  chain  of 
half-submerged  mountains  (about  150  in  num- 
ber) which  reaches  out  almost  to  the  Siberian 
coast,  and  separates  the  Pacific  from  Bering  Sea. 
All  these  islands  are  lofty,  some  peaks  rising  to 
8000  feet,  and  including  several  occasionally 
active  volcanoes ;  and  all  are  treeless,  but  clothed 
with  grass,  herbage,  and  some  shrubs.  The 
large,  mountainous  and  forested  Kadiak  Island, 
off  the  eastern  shore  of  the  peninsula,  may  be 
included  in  this  division. 

(3)  The  Kuskokwim  District. — The  triangular 
territory  drained  by  the  Kuskokwim  River  and 
its  branches  forms  a  large  area  likely  to  be 
made  serviceable  in  futurej  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  great  river  itself  is  so  obstructed  at 
its  delta  and  so  shallow  as  not  to  admit  of 
entrance  and  navigation  by  large  boats.  The 
climate  is  endurable  in  winter,  and  in  summer 
admits  of  hay  culture  and  gardening  along  the 
lower  river,  where  the  country  is  open,  while 
the  Eastern  part  of  the  district  lies  among  min- 
eral-bearing mountains.  A  comparatively  low 
watershed  separates  it  from  the  Lower  Yukon. 

(4)  Yukmi  Valley  and  Arctic  Alaska. — The 
northern  district  embraces  all  of  Alaska  from  the 
course  of  the  Yukon  northward.  Along  the  Cana- 
dian boundary  it  is  mountainous,  the  TananlL 
coming  in  from  the  southeast  and  the  Porcupine 
from  the  northeast,  both  draining  rough,  ele- 
vated regions.  The  river  is  much  impeded  by 
shallows  and  islands  through  the  middle  part  of 
its  course,  and  broadens  into  an  extensive  delta, 
with  outer  bars,  at  its  mouth,  so  that  it  can  be 
navigated  only  by  flat-bottomed  steamboats  of 
light  draught,  and  only  from  mid-June  to  mid- 
September.  Northward  of  the  river  the  country 
is  for  the  most  part  an  almost  treeless  plain, 
swampy,  descending  gradually  to  the  coast,  where 
the  more  northern  part  is  a  broad  area  of 
marshy  waste,  or  tundra,  similar  to  that  of 
Liberia.  The  coast  region  north  of  the  mouth  of 
the  river,  however,  is  mountainous  and  deeply 
indented  by  Norton  .Sound,  in  which  lies  the 
island  of  St.  Michael,  near  the  south  shore. 
North  of  Norton  Sound  a  mountainous  peninsula 
stretches  westward  to  Bering  Strait,  terminating 
in  Cape  Prince  of  Wales,  only  48  miles  from  the 
easternmost  point  (East  Cape)  of  Kamtchatka. 
Northward  of  this  peninsula  is  Kotzebue  Sound, 
opening  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  receiving 
such  large  rivers  as  the  Selawik  and  Noatak, 
while  the  Kowak  and  Colville  descend  from  the 
unknown  interior  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  the  latter 
far  to  the  eastward.  The  northernmost  point 
of  this  coast  is  Point  Barrow,  where  the  Govern- 
ment maintains  intermittently  a  weather  obser- 
vation station  and  a  relief  house  for  whalers. 
Out  in  the  middle  of  Bering  Sea  is  the  large 
island  of  St.  Lawrence,  the  Diomed  Islands  lie 
in  the  throat  of  Bering  Sea,  and  the  Pribylov  or 
Seal  Islands  form  a  small,  desolate  group  about 


250  miles  north  of  Oonalashka.  Owing  to  its 
irregular  contour,  the  coast  line  of  Alaska  meas- 
ures about  8000  miles,  exceeding  the  entire  coast 
line  of  the  United  States  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean; 
an  idea  of  its  extent  can  be  best  conveyed  by 
quoting  the  statement  of  Professor  Guyot:  that 
the  island  of  Attoo  is  as  far  west  of  San  Fran- 
cisco as  the  coast  of  Maine  is  east  of  that  city. 

CJltmate  and  Soil.  Alaska  varies  in  climate 
and  soil  according  to  the  divisions  above  noted, 
and  according  to  altitude  and  nearness  to  or 
remoteness  from  the  sea.  The  climate  of  the 
south  coast  region,  however,  is  so  modified  by  the 
shielding  mountains  and  the  presence  of  the 
ocean  (where  the  Japan  current  flowa  along  the 
coast  from  the  eastward)  that  this  part  of  Alas- 
ka may  be  called  temperate,  and  its  climate  and 
productions,  as  far  north  as  Sitka,  at  least, 
differ  little  from  those  of  British  Columbia.  The 
isotherm  of  40°  mean  annual  temperature,  which 
passes  through  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  Valley 
on  the  eastern  side  of  the  continent,  curves  north- 
Avard  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  is  the 
mean  annual  isotherm  of  the  southern  Alaskan 
coast  region;  but  the  climate  of  this  region  ex- 
hibits less  extremes  between  winter  and  summer 
temperature  than  does  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
Valley,  and  is  far  more  rainy,  as  must  neces- 
sarily be  the  case  where  the  prevailing  winds 
come  off  the  ocean  and  almost  immediately  strike 
against  snowy  mountains  which  condense  and 
precipitate  their  moisture  almost  incessantly. 
Days  without  rain  are  rare,  and  fogs  prevail. 
These  conditions  89  modify  the  temperature  of 
the  coast  that  the  mercury  rarely  descends  beloxv 
zero  or  rises  above  SO^  F.  Much  the  same 
temperature  exists  over  Kadiak.  Island  and  the 
Aleutian  chain,  but  with  greater  cold  and  more 
wind  and  snow  in  winter.  Cook's  Inlet  has  the 
agreeable  peculiarity  of  being  almost  free  of  the 
fogs  so  prevalent  elsewhere.  North  of  the  moun- 
tains, where  the  country  is  barricaded  against 
the  tempering  influence  of  the  Pacific  and  ex- 
posed to  the  northern  winds,  lower  temperature 
and  drier  conditions  prevail. 

Data  for  the  Kuskokwim  division  are  scanty, 
but  indicate  that  the  average  for  midwinter  ap- 
proaches zero  and  for  midsummer  about  50**.  In 
the  lower  Yukon  Valley  semi-arctic  conditions 
prevail,  a  brief,  warm  summer,  averaging  about 
60°  F.  for  July,  being  followed  by  a  long  winter 
of  excessive  cold,  the  average  temperature  from 
December  to  March  at  Nulato  being  about  16° 
below  zero,  with  frequent  "spells"  of  — 40°  to 
— 50°  F.  It  is  colder  further  up  the  river, 
where  navigation  is  limited  to  four  months.  ( See 
Yukon.)  At  St.  Michael's  Island  and  on  the 
neighboring  coast  (Nome)  of  Norton  Sound,  the 
temperature  is  more  moderate  than  in  the  inte- 
rior, the  winter  being  less  protracted  and  severe. 
Along  the  northern  coast  the  climate  is  truly 
arctic,  the  annual  mean  at  Point  Barrow  being 
about  25°  F.  The  northern  interior,  wherever 
level,  is  swampy,  and  the  soil  is  permanently 
frozen  a  vard  or  so  Ijelow  the  surface.  In  the 
southerly' half  of  Alaska,  at  least,  the  soil  is 
fertile  enough,  so  far  as  its  qualities  go. 

Flora.  All  Alaska  north  of  the  Yukon  and 
west  of  the  mountains  along  the  Porcupine  River, 
near  the  Canadian  boundary,  is  swampy  tundra, 
bearing  only  small  bushes  and  some  dwarf  wil- 
lows and  spruce.  The  hills  of  the  northwestern 
coast  are  barren,  and  those  of  the  Kuskokwim 
Valley  only  lightly  wooded,  except  toward  its 


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head,  where  spruce  forests  clothe  the  bases  of  the 
mountains,  separated  by  grassy  valleys,  exhibit- 
ing a  wide  diversity  of  tall  flowering  herbage 
and  low  shrubs.  Tlie  Aleutian  Islands  are  en- 
tirely without  trees,  except  a  few  scrub  willows ; 
but  some  have  great  numbers  of  bushes  allied  to 
the  cranberry  and  whortleberry.  Under  the 
moist  and  temperate  influences  heretofore  men- 
tioned, the  coastal  strip,  however,  from  Kadiak 
down  to  British  Columbia,  is  clothed  with  a 
forest  which  becomes  of  great  size,  variety,  and 
economic  value  from  Cross  Sound  southward. 
Deciduous  (hard-wood)  trees  are  white  birches, 
poplars  (often  very  large),  alders  and  similar 
kinds,  usually  of  small  size  and  importance; 
but  coniferous  trees  form  extensive  forests  over 
all  the  islands  and  around  the  bases  of  the  moun- 
tains  up  to  the  edge  of  the  ice  or  snow,  which 
lies  permanently  at  an  average  elevation  of 
about  2000  feet.  The  most  widely  distributed 
species  is  the  Sitka  or  Alaskan  spruce  {Abies 
sitchensis),  which  is  scattered  over  the  whole 
territory  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle,  but 
reaches  a  useful  size  only  on  the  shores  of  Prince 
William  Sound  and  on  the  islands  of  the  Alex- 
ander Archipelago.  (See  Spruce.)  It  is  the 
tree  which  serves  most  of  the  wants  of  the 
natives  for  house-building,  fire- wood,  torches,  and 
general  purposes,  and  is  the  principal  resource 
for  lumber  for  mining  and  other  rough  purposes 
on  the  coast  and  in  the  interior;  but  owing  to 
its  slow  growth  the  timber  is  knotty  and  not 
adapted  to  the  finer  uses.  The  hemlock  {Abies 
martensiana)  and  the  balsam  fir  may  exceed 
the  Sitka  spruce,  but  are  uncommon  and  of 
little  service,  except  that  the  bark  of  the  latter 
is  useful  for  tanning  hides.  The  yellow  cedar 
{Cupresstis  nutkaensis),  however,  is  very  valu- 
able. It  has  been  nearly  exterminated  on  Bar- 
anov  Island,  but  remains  numerous  and  of  large 
size  on  several  islands  southward;  it  is  from 
this  that  the  great  dug-out  boats  of  the  Haida 
Indians  are  made.  Its  wood  is  clear-grained 
and  very  durable. 

Fauna.  The  fauna  of  Alaska  is  very  extensive 
and  economically  valuable.  The  catalogue  of  its 
mammals  and  birds  forms  a  long  list  of  high 
zoological  interest.  Reptiles  and  amphibians 
are  of  course  few,  but  insects  present  a  wide 
variety,  diminishing  toward  the  north;  among 
these  mosquitoes  are  painfully  conspicuous, 
swarming  in  summer  on  the  central  and  northern 
plains  in  such  dense  masses  as  to  make  life  in 
the  lowlands  almost  impossible  for  either  men  or 
animals.  The  neighboring  seas  are  peculiarly 
rich  in  small  marine  creatures  (see  Arctic  Re- 
gion) ;  hence  fishes  abound,  and  these  support 
numerous  marine  carnivores,  such  as  seals,  etc., 
to  be  spoken  of  later.  The  larger  land  animals 
include  the  moose,  south  of  the  Yukon;  caribou, 
formerly  widely  numerous,  but  now  nearly  ex- 
terminated, whence  the  efforts  of  the  Govern- 
ment to  restock  the  country  with  reindeer;  and, 
in  the  southeastern  mountains,  sheep  and  goats. 
Porcupines  and  hares  of  various  species  abound, 
and  fonn  an  important  food  resource  for  the 
inland  natives,  besides  lemmings,  marmots,  squir- 
rels, mice,  etc.:  while  suitable  streams  every- 
where south  of  the  Arctic  borders  support  bea- 
vers (now  uncommon)  and  muskrats.  These 
animals  supply  food  for  bears,  lynxes,  and  a  long 
list  of  smaller  fur-bearing  carnivores.  The  bears 
include,  besides  the  polar,  grizzly,  and  black 
species,  the  huge  Kaaiak  bear  and  the  glacier 


bear,  which  are  exclusively  local.  (See  Bear.) 
The  marine  manunals  are  whales  of  several 
kinds,  the  Pacific  walrus,  Steller's  sea-lion,  and 
five  other  species  of  hair  seals  (see  Seai.),  and 
the  fur-seal.  The  fur  animals  embrace  gray 
wolves,  the  basal  stock  of  the  native  sledge-dogs; 
the  white  arctic  fox,  common  near  the  coasst 
from  the  Aliaska  Peninsula  northward,  and  on 
the  islands  of  Bering  Sea,  while  its  ''blue"  vari- 
ety inhabits  the  Aleutian  Islands;  the  red  fox, 
and  its  variety,  the  "cross"  fox,  occur  every- 
where; but  the  black  variety  is  rare  and  almost 
unknown,  except  in  the  eastern  mountains.  Of 
the  mustelines,  the  sable  is  numerous  wherever 
coniferous  forests  extend;  and  more  generally 
distributed  are  the  weasels  (ermine)  and  wol- 
verines, while  minks  are  common  along  all  water- 
courses, and  otters  less  so.  The  most  notable  of 
Alaskan  fur  animals,  however,  is  the  sea  otter 
{Latax  lutris),  which  formerly  was  numerous 
along  the  entire  southern  coast,  but  now  is  found 
only  on  a  few  remote  islands,  where  it  will  soon 
become  extinct  unless  rigorously  protected. 
Choice  skins  are  now  worth  $100  to  the  hunter, 
and  bring  $500  in  New  York  or  London.  With 
their  disappearance  will  go  the  last  resources  of 
many  Aleuts.  In  1899  the  catch  reported  in 
San  Francisco  was  154  skins,  worth  $30,000. 

Sealing,  Whaling,  Fub-Huntino,  and  Fish- 
eries. The  seals  that  visit  the  shores  of  Alaska, 
especially  from  the  Aleutian  Islands  northward, 
are  the  main  dependence  of  the  natives  for  food, 
furnishing  materials  for  boat-building,  house- 
making,  aog-harness,  etc.,  and  are  hunted  jlerti- 
naciously  with  guns,  spears,  nets,  etc.,  and  their 
skins  are  an  article  of  intertribal  trade.  To 
white  men  they  are  of  small  importance.  The 
walrus  is  almost  the  sole  dependence  of  the 
Eskimos  at  and  beyond  Bering  Strait,  and  is 
steadily  diminishing,  because  it  is  also  hunted 
by  white  men  for  the  sake  of  its  ivory.  Fossil 
elephant  ivory  is  also  collected  extensively  by 
the  Eskiipos.  The  white  whale  and  the  great 
arctic  whales  are  also  of  prime  importance  to 
the  Arctic  Alaskans,  and  these  animals  attract 
annually  a  considerable  whaling  fleet,  which  en- 
deavors to  leave  the  Arctic  Ocean  before  the 
straits  are  obstructed  by  ice;  vessels  often  fail 
to  do  so,  however,  and  must  pass  the  winter  in 
the  ice  along  the  north  shore  of  Alaska.  In 
1898  the  catch  of  whales  was  140. 

The  fur-seal  (q.v.)  was  formerly  abundant 
along  both  coasts  of  the  strait  and  on  most 
islands  in  Bering  Sea;  now  it  is  restricted  to 
the  Copper  Islands  of  the  Siberian  coast,  and 
to  the  Pribylov  group  or  Seal  Islands,  where 
it  is  theoretically  protected  by  the  government 
under  the  care  of  an  American  corporation  whose 
rentals  have  yielded  much  more  than  the  amount 
paid  for  the  purchase  of  Alaska.  The  Congres- 
sional regulations,  however,  have  failed  to  put 
an  end  to  pelagic  sealing,  in  the  suppression  of 
which  Great  Britain  will  not  join.  In  oont^e- 
quence,  the  herds  of  seals  resorting  to  the  Priby- 
lov Islands  to  breed,  from  which  an  annual 
quota  of  30,000  (formerly  100,000)  skins  is 
permitted  to  be  taken,  have  steadily  diminished. 
The  catch  for  1898  was  18,032.  But  35  Cana- 
dian vessels  took  in  pelagic  catch  from  Ameri- 
can herds  28,132.  This  ruthless  takinsof  the  seals 
threatens  their  early  extinction.  This  would 
mean  the  loss  to  Alaska  of  the  most  valuable 
item  in  the  fur  trade  of  the  world.  The  fur 
trade  was,  indeed,  the  first  inducement  for  the 


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early  settlement  of  Alaska,  and  until  recently 
her  principal  commercial  resource.  Wasteful- 
ness, competition,  and  the  degradation  of  the 
natives  have  greatly  reduced  the  output;  yet 
large  numbers  of  skins  of  foxes,  martens,  er- 
mines, beaver,  and  similar  furs  are  still  col- 
lected; and  on  several  of  the  Aleutian  Islands 
blue  foxes  are  being  reared  in  semi-domesticity 
for  the  sake  of  their  pelts,  so  that  a  regular  in- 
dustry in  that  direction  is  arising.  The  annual 
market  value  of  the  fur  product  of  Alaska  was 
estimated  in  1980  by  Petrov,  United  States  Cen- 
sus Agent,   at  $2,250,000. 

The  fisheries  of  Alaska  were  naturally  unex- 
eelled  by  those  of  any  part  of  the  world. 
Cod,  halibut,  and  other  valuable  deep-sea  fishes 
inhabit  the  waters  off  the  coast  in  seemingly 
inexhaustible  quantities,  and  a  beginning  has 
been  made  of  a  regular  fishery  by  vessels  from 
San  Francisco.  The  anadromous  fishes  are  nu- 
merous and  of  the  finest  quality.  Every  stream, 
from  the  farthest  north  to  British  Columbia,  is 
crowded  with  some  species  of  salmon  (q.v.), 
herring,  whitefish,  smelt  (see  Candle-Fish),  or 
other  fish,  ascending  them  to  spawn.  Without 
these  hordes  of  river  fish  no  Indian  could  long 
exist  in  the  more  northern  portions  of  the  terri- 
tory, and  the  natives  catch  and  preserve  vast 
quantities  for  winter  use.  The  salmon  have 
long  been  the  object  of  extensive  civilized  indus- 
tries along  the  southern  coast,  and  for  years  the 
output  of  salmon  has  exceeded  600,000  cases, 
and  in  1898  reached  almost  1,000,000  cases.  In 
1899  the  canners  employed  1298  white  men,  830 
natives,  and  1859  Chinese.  The  industry  is  of 
little  service  to  the  territory,  however,  as  nearly 
all  the  labor  and  the  material  used  are  extra- 
neous, comparatively  n«ne  of  the  wages  earned 
is  paid  or  spent  in  Alaska,  and  the  fisheries  are 
being  conducted  in  a  recklessly  wasteful  man- 
ner. 

Agriculture.  Alaska  is  too  far  north  to  be 
of  any  importance  as  an  agricultural  country, 
yet  the  southern  coast,  the  Kenai  Peninsula,  and 
the  Aleutian  Islands  possess  possibilities  of  a 
limited  agricultural  development.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  but  the  expense  of  preparing  it  for 
cultivation  is  enormous.  The  census  of  1900 
returns  only  159  acres  of  farm  land;  but  the 
cultivation  of  this  showed  that  the  hardier, 
quick-growing  vegetables,  such  as  turnips,  ruta- 
bagas, potatoes,  carrots,  beets,  etc.,  could  be  very 
successfully  raised.  Grasses  of  highly  nourish- 
ing qualities  grow  luxuriantly,  furnishing  excel- 
lent grazing  facilities.  The  climate  does  not 
admit  of  the  ripening  of  oats  or  the  curing  of 
hay,  but  grass  can  be  stored  in  silos  for  winter. 
Two  enterprises  which  have  been  encouraged  by 
the  national  government  are  worthy  of  note. 
One  is  the  development  of  fox  farming,  the  foxes 
being  bred  for  tneir  furs,  as  heretofore  noted. 
Ill  is  industry  promises  to  become  of  considerable 
importance  in  some  of  the  western  islands.  The 
other  is  the  introduction  of  the  reindeer  into 
the  far  northwestern  region.  The  latter  is  dis- 
cussed n>ore  particularly  elsewhere  (see  Rein- 
DEEB) ;  but  it  may  be  said  here  that  about  3500 
reindeer  are  now  in  use  in  Alaska,  of  which  only 
about  one-sixth  belong  to  the  Government,  the 
remainder  being  owned  by  missions  and  natives. 
They  thrive  upon  the  moss,  but  are  in  danger 
from  dogs,  wolves,  and  reckless  prospectors  and 
hunters.  They  are  used  as  draught  animals 
Bjainly,  and  have  been  of  great  service  in  carry- 


ing mails  in  winter,  and  in  transporting  pro- 
visions, rescuing  lost  oi*  starving  parties  of  min- 
ers and  soldiers,  and  in  various  other  ways. 
Their  introduction  seems  to  be  a  success.  The 
annual  appropriations  for  their  care  and  for 
new  importations  from  Siberia  have  been  recent- 
ly* $25,000  annually. 

Gboloot  and  Mineral  Resources.  The  coast 
ranges  of  the  southern  extremity  of  Alaska  are 
granitic  in  character,  and  their  elevation  was 
comparatively  recent,  geologically,  being  probab- 
ly at  some  time  between  the  Triassic  and  Creta- 
ceous eras.  The  archipelagoes  belong  to  them  in 
geological  character  and  history,  and  everywhere 
there  is  evidence  of  great  glaciation.  Much  more 
recent  than  this,  even,  and  probably  the  youngest 
mountain  range  on  the  continent,  are  the  St. 
Elias  Alps,  which  Russell  considers  to  have  been 
elevated,  with  tremendous  disturbance  of  the 
strata,  since  the  close  of  the  Tertiary  period,  when 
the  rocks  of  the  Yakutat  series  were  deposited. 
The  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  the  Aleutian  chain, 
and  the  hills  along  the  border  of  Bering  Sea 
are  mainly  of  volcanic  origin,  including  several 
volcanoes  which  have  been  active  within  historic 
times  or  are  now  subject  to  frequent  eruptions. 
(See  BooosLOV.)  Hot  medicinal  springs  are  nu- 
merous, and  might  be  of  great  hygienic  impor- 
tance to  the  skin-diseased  natives  if  they  could  be 
induced  to  utilize  the  waters.  The  line  of  vol- 
canic upheaval  and  activity  along  the  south 
coast  is  as  long  as  the  distance  from  Florida  to 
Nova  Scotia,  and  the  whole  of  Alaska  and  the 
Bering  Sea  basin  are  steadily  rising.  The  moun- 
tains of  the  southeastern  interior  and  along  the 
Canadian  border  consist  of  an  ancient  granitic 
axis  overlaid  by  schists,  quartzites,  and  other 
stratified  rocks,  which  have  been  uplifted  and 
greatly  disturbed  and  altered  by  dikes  and  other 
igneous  intrusions  and  overflows,  and  are  sub- 
stantially a  part  of  the  northern,  mineral-bearing 
Rocky  Mountain  system  traceable  southward  into 
central  British  Columbia. 

.  Coal  has  been  found  in  many  places  in  Alaska. 
Its  deposits  near  Cape  Lisbourne  and  elsewhere 
along  the  Arctic  coast  have  long  been  known 
and  occasionally  utilized  by  whaling  steamers 
and  revenue  cutters.  It  also  occurs  on  the  Yu- 
kon, in  the  Aleutian  Islands,  near  Kadiak,  on  the 
Kenai  Peninsula,  at  the  head  of  Prince  William 
Sound,  and  elsewhere.  Costly  experiments  have 
been  made  in  mining  and  using  it  on  the  south 
coast,  but  it  is  everywhere  found  to  be  only  a 
lignite,  frequently  good  enough  for  domestic 
use,  but  poor  for  steam-making,  because  so  full 
of  sulphur,  etc.  This  poor  quality,  together  with 
the  competition  of  im ported  coal,  has  prevented 
its  serious  use  thus  far.  Petroleum,  somewhat 
exploited,  iron  of  poor  quality,  copper,  and  many 
minerals,  earth  and  building  stones  (marble, 
etc.)  are  known,  but  are  not  yet  commercially 
valuable.  Silver  ore  has  been  found  in  alloy 
wherever  gold  occurs,  and  some  galena  ores  are 
known,  but  little  profitable  working  has  been 
undertaken.  The  total  value  of  the  silver  prod- 
uct in  1899  was  estimated  at  $181,000.  Gold, 
however,  is  widespread,  and  is  now  the  chief 
source  of  attractiveness  and  wealth  in  Alaska. 

Gold  Mining. — The  presence  of  gold  in  the 
sands  of  interior  rivers  and  on  the  southern 
beaches  was  known  to  the  Russians  and  to  the 
fur-traders  long  ago,  but  prospecting  ^^8  ^^*" 
couraged.  About  1870  prospecting  b^g^tl,  *^^ 
resulted  in  discoveries  of  auriferoua  m^^  JL^  ^n^ 


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qiiartz  veins  of  varying  richness.  The  first  one 
of  importance  was  on  Douglas  Island,  where  a 
"camp"  of  miners  soon  gathered  to  work  the 
placers.  Soon  afterward  ledges  of  quartz  ore 
were  discovered,  and  bought  by  John  Treadwell, 
who  organized  a  company  to  develop  the  mines. 
Works  were  erected,  the  town  of  Juneau  arose 
on  the  neighboring  mainland,  and  these  mines 
are  now  one  of  the  richest  gold-producing  prop- 
erties in  the  world.  The  ore  is  easily  crushed, 
can  be  rolled  down  into  the  stamp-mills  by  grav- 
ity-tramways, and  all  machinery  (including 
electric  hoists,  etc. )  is  operated  by  water  power. 
This  cheapness  enables  a  low  grade  of  ore  to 
be  worked  at  a  large  profit,  and  about  1500 
stamps  are  kept  in  continuous  and  almost  auto- 
matic operation,  while  Douglas  Island  and  the 
space  under  Gastineau  Channel  and  the  neigh- 
boring shore  are  being  completely  honeycombed 
with  tunnels  and  stopes.  Many  other  good 
mines  have  been  opened  in  the  neighborhood ;  and 
workings  have  been  developed  satisfactorily  on 
Baranov  Island  near  Sitka,  on  Sumdum  Bay,  at 
the  head  of  Lynn  Canal,  and  elsewhere  in  the 
Alexander  Archipelago  and  on  the  mainland. 
The  beach  sands  and  river  gravels  have  yielded 
profitable  gold  about  Yakutat  Bay,  at  Tumagain 
Arm  at  the  head  of  Cook's  Inlet,  and  on  the 
shores  of  Kadiak  and  Unga  islands.  The  discov- 
ery of  rich  gold  placers  in  the  Yukon  district 
in  1897  led  to  vigorous  prospecting  of  the  whole 
Yukon  Valley  and  its  tributaries  within  the 
mountains,  and  auriferous'  deposits,  often  of 
great  richness,  were  found  along  the  river  course 
at  and  near  the  Canadian  boundary  and  especial- 
ly along  the  Tananft.  (See  Yukon.)  This  led 
to  an  exploration  of  the  coast  hills,  and  resulted 
in  several  "finds"  about  Norton  Sound,  of  which 
the  most  remarkable  was  that  at  Cape  Nome, 
where  the  sands  of  the  beach  yielded  extraordi- 
nary richness,  and  where  later  extensive  placers 
were  disclosed  along  neighboring  streams.  The 
output  of  the  whole  territory  increased  from 
452,700,000,  in  1897,  to  $7,531,000  in  1900.  The 
output  in  1900  surpassed  that  of  the  preceding 
year  by  $2,406,000,  the  Nome  district  being  re- 
sponsible for  the  greater  part  of  this  amount. 
Circle  City,  Jack  Wade,  Munock,  and  Kyokuk 
districts  in  the  interior  of  Alaska  produced  alto- 
gether about  $1,000,000. 

Transportation  and  Commerce.  The  south- 
ern coast  of  Alaska  has  numerous  excellent  har- 
bors, which  are  accessible  the  year  round,  as 
far  north  as  Sitka  and  Juneau.  The  bays  of  the 
farther  coast  (except  Valdez)  become  filled  with 
bergs  from  glaciers  and  pack-ice  in  winter,  thus 
elosing  the  head  of  Cook's  Inlet  and  compelling 
the  people  of  Sunrise  City  to  travel  to  Resurrec- 
tion Harbor,  on  the  south  side  of  Kenai  Penin- 
sula, in  order  to  take  ship  most  of  the  year. 
It  would  seem  as  though  these  people  might  eas- 
ily pass  from  Tumagain  Arm  across  the  narrow 
isthmus  to  Prince  William  Sound,  and  so  effect 
a  great  saving  of  distance ;  but  Morey  learned  in 
1899  that  the  crags  and  glaciers  which  consti- 
tute that  neck  of  land  were  practically  uncross- 
able,  except  on  sledges  or  snow-shoes  in  winter, 
when  the  adj.icent  harbors  are  useless.  The 
harbors  of  the  Aleutian  Islands  are  open  all 
winter,  but  drifting  ice  packs  and  freezes  along 
the  shores  of  the  shallow  Bering  Sea  closing 
the  bays  early  in  November;  after  which  St. 
MichaeVs  Island,  Nome,  and  all  other  ports  of 
that  coast  are  closed  until  the  ice  comes  out 


of  the  Yukon  and  dissolves  in  the  sea.  This 
rarely  happens  before  June  15,  after  which  that 
river  is  navigable  for  about  three  months,  Sep- 
tember 15  being  the  latest  date  when  it  is  consid- 
ered safe  to  leave  Eagle  City  for  the  last  out- 
ward trip.  (See  Yukon  River.)  There  are 
few  safe  harbors  along  this  coast,  where  the 
water  is  exceedingly  shallow  for  a  long  distance 
from  shore,  and  the  deltoid  river-mouths  are 
obstructed  by  bars;  and  at  St.  Michaels,  Anvik. 
Nome,  and  other  settlements  vessels  must  anchor 
in  the  offing  and  load  and  unload  by  means  of 
lighters,  with  constant  readiness  to  steam  away 
from  storms,  so  that  expensive  delays  are  likelv. 

All  the  traffic  of  the  Yukon  River  is  by  way 
of  the  island  and  port  of  St.  Michaels,  some  60 
miles  from  the  Yukon  mouth,  long  ago  estab- 
lished as  a  fur-trading  station.  Here  ocean 
steamers  land  and  receive  passengers  and  cargoes 
during  the  open  season,  which  are  tJiere  trans- 
ferred to  and  from  the  river-boats.  These  are 
flat-hottomed,  stern- wheeled  steamboats,  the  larg- 
est of  which  may  draw  four  feet  of  water:  the 
distance  to  the  eastern  boundary  of  Alaska 
(Eagle  City)  is  about  1500  miles,  and  sufficient 
boats  are  in  service  to  fill  the.  needs  of  traffic, 
and  afford  a  regular  and  constant  means  of 
transportation  between  the  upper  river  and  the 
coast,  where  regularlv  sailing  steamers  ply  be- 
tween Nome  or  St.  Michaels  and  Victoria,  B.  C, 
or  Seattle  or  San  Francisco.  There  is  also  more 
irregular,  but  frequent  communication  between 
Sitka  and  all  the  places  of  call  along  the  south 
coast  and  the  Aleutian  archipelago.  Steamer  com- 
munication between  Sitka,  Skagway,  Juneau,  or 
Fort  Wrangel.  and  either  Vancouver  or  Victoria, 
B.  C,  or  the  ports  of  Puget  Sound  or  California, 
is  almost  daily  in  summer  and  at  frequent  inter- 
vals in  winter.  From  Skagway  a  railroad  crosses 
White  Pass  to  Whitehorse  Rapids,  where  pas- 
sengers and  freight  are  transferred  to  the  steam- 
boats of  the  upper  Yukon  lines,  by  which  the 
journey  is  continued  to  Dawson.  Thus,  in  sum- 
mer regular  and  comfortable  means  of  acces^ 
are  open  to  all  parts  of  the  Yukon  Valley.  The 
White  Pass  Railroad  is  operated  as  continuously 
through  the  winter  as  the  weather  permits,  and 
travel  and  the  carriage  of  mails  continue  more 
or  less  regularly  by  means  of  public  stages  and 
private  dog-sledges.  Several  other  railway 
routes  have  been  sketehed  out,  and  a  wagon  road 
has  been  built  from  Port  Valdez  to  the  Copper 
River. 

Telegraph  Lines. — ^The  Canadian  Government 
has  constructed  a  telegraph  line  from  the  summit 
of  White  Pass,  continuing  a  line  from  Skagway, 
down  the  Yukon  Valley  to  the  boundary,  where  it 
connects  with  an  American  telegraph  line  from 
that  point  (Eagle  City)  to  Valdez.  A  telegraph 
cable  is  in  operation  between  St.  Michaels  and 
Nome,  and  an  overland  line  is  building  from 
Nome,  via  Eaton  (reindeer  station),  Nulato,  and 
other  landings  along  the  Yukon,  to  Eagle  City. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Alaska  has  been  steadily 
increasing.  There  are  no  statistics  of  the  com- 
merce between  Alaska  and  the  ports  of  the 
United  States,  inasmuch  as  it  is  administered 
as  a  customs  district.  The  foreign  commerce 
for  the  year  ending  June  30,  1901,  shows  that 
the  imports  of  merchandise  for  that  year  amount, 
ed  to  $55S.000,  and  the  exports  of  merchandise 
to  $2,5.34.000,  of  which  $2,018,000  was  domestic 
mercliandise.  The  imports  of  gold  amounted  to 
$15,816,000,  of  which  a  large  part  was  the  pn)d- 


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ALASKA. 


267 


ALASKA. 


uct  of  the  Yukon  district  in  Canada  which 
passed  through  Alaska  for  exportation.  One 
hundred  and  eighty-six  American  and  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-seven  foreign  vessels  entered 
Alaskan  ports  during  the  year. 

Population.    The  natives  of  Alaska  consisted 
of  several  different  peoples.    The  bulk  of  north- 
ern Alaska  and  its  coasts  were  originally  occu- 
pied by  people  of  Eskimo  stock.    These  were  in 
contact    with    the    Athabascan    Indians,    who 
occupied  the  mountains  eastward,  the  valley  of 
the  Yukon,  and  the  south  coast  region  as  far 
west  as  Cook's  Inlet,  beyond  which  the  Aleutian 
Islands  were  possessed  by  an  entirely  separate 
people,  the  Aleuts.    The  coast  and  islands  from 
Yukatat  Bay  southward  to  Puget  Sound  were 
held  by  the  advanced  and  skillful  tribes  of  the 
Thlinkeet  race.     The  numbers  of  all  these,  when 
^rst  encountered  by  the  Russians,  can  only  be 
surmised.     The  first  careful  census  was  that  of 
1880,  which  gave  31,240  as  the  total  native  pop- 
ulation of  unmixed  blood.     The  census  of  1900 
reported  29.536.     More  than  half  of  these  are 
Eskimos.     The  natives  of  Alaska  have  shown  a 
greater  willingness  to  adopt  a  civilized  manner 
of  life  than  most  of  the  other  native  American 
tribes.     Whole  communities  have  taken  up  the 
vocations  of  white  men.     The*  native  shows   a 
willingness   to   work,   which   is   quite   unusual 
among  people  of  his  race.     The  United  States 
has  not  forced  the  reservation  system  upon  him, 
and  he  has  always  been  self-supporting.  However, 
his  present  status,  in  many  instances,  is  most 
pitiable.    Fishing  companies,  in  disregard  of  the 
rights  or  interests  of  the  natives,  have  depleted 
many  of  the  streams  of  their  supply  of  fish,  thus 
destroying  the  Indians'  principal  source  of  a  live- 
lihood.    The  det?truction  of  fur-bearing  animals 
does  him  similar  injury.     The  denial  of  citizen- 
ship, which  he  is  eager  to  assume,  prevents  him 
from  locating  mining  claims,  acting  as  pilot,  and 
enjoying  other  privileges  which  arc  granted  as  a 
matter  of  course  to  his  intruding  white  neighbor. 
Other   influences  toward  his  decrease  and  deg- 
radation are  the  ease  with  which  he  may  obtain 
or  make  intoxicating  liquor,  despite  prohibitory 
laws,  and  the  spread  of  syphilitic  diseases.     For 
an  ethnological  description  of  the  natives,  see 
articles  Aleut,  Athabascan,  and  Eskimo. 

The  white  population  for  many  years  after  the 
departure  of  the  Russians  consisted  only  of  fur- 
traders  and  similar  wanderers.  In  1880  only 
430  white  persons  and  1756  half-breeds  were  to 
be  counted  in  all  Alaska.  The  subsequent  dis- 
covery of  gold  caused  an  influx  of  population, 
and  the  census  of  1900  reported  a  white  popu- 
lation of  30,507,  only  one- tenth  of  which  was 
female.  The  increase  was  mainly  in  the  valley 
of  the  Yukon  and  on  the  Norton  Sound  Coast, 
and  later  accessions  to  the  Nome  district  prob- 
ably added  25,000  to  this  during  1901  and  1002. 
The  largest  town  is  Nome  (q.v.),  near  Cape 
Nome,  on  the  northern  shore  of  Norton  Sound, 
which  in  1902  had  a  population  of  about  40,000. 
Anvik  and  many  other  settlements  and  mining 
camps  are  near  it,  where  a  large  part  of  the 
population  spend  the  brief  summer  at  work, 
gathering  in  Nome  for  the  winter.  Eagle  City 
is  at  the  point  where  the  Yukon  crosses  the 
Canadian  boundary,  and  has  a  customs  and  mili- 
tary garrison  ( Fort  Egbert) .  Circle  City,  near 
t.be  Arctic  Circle,  is  the  river-port  for  the  gold 
Riggings  in  Birch  Creek  and  in  the  central 
^ananH  Valley,  and  has  a  fluctuating  population 


of  from  500  to  1500.  There  is  a  military  post 
(Fort  Liscomb)  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tanan&. 
Sunrise  City,  at  the  extreme  head  of  Cook's 
Inlet,  is  the  supplying  point  for  a  group  of  placer 
cliggings  on  the  Kenai  Peninsula,  and  contains 
from  1000  to  2000  people.  Settlements  are 
found  on  Kadiak  Island  (St.  Paul's  or  Kodiak) 
and  on  Unga.  Valdez,  at  the  head  of  Valdez 
Bay,  an  inlet  from  Prince  William  Sound,  is  of 
permanent  importance  as  the  port  of  entry  for 
the  Copper  River  Valley,  to  which  a  wagon  road 
leads  eastward,  since  it  has  been  made  the 
military  and  surveying  headquarters  of  the  Gov- 
ernment, which  has  erected  a  garrison  there, 
and  the  village  contains  several  hundred  people. 
Sitka  is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  on  the 
northwest  coast,  and  was  the  Russian  head- 
quarters. (See  Sitka.)  It  is  now  the  judicial 
and  official  centre  of  the  territory ;  but  owing  to 
its  distance  from  important  mines,  fisheries, 
etc.,  had  a  population  in  1900  of  only  1396. 
Larger  and  more  active  is  the  gold  mining  town 
of  Juneau,  at  the  entrance  of  Taku  Inlet,  which 
is  the  centre  of  a  fairly  permanent  population  of 
about  3000.  At  the  head  of  Taku  Inlet  is  Skag- 
way,  the  seaport  of  the  White  Pass  Railway, 
with  a  population  of  about  1500.  Fort  Wran- 
gel,  a  settlement  formerly  of  importance,  but 
now  in  decline,  and  scattered  fishing  villages, 
occupied  chiefly  by  Indians,  complete  the  list  of 
toAvns.  Seventy  -  eight  settlements  altogether 
were  reported  in  the  census  of  1900. 

Government.  Alaska  is  an  unorganized  Ter- 
ritory, there  being  no  general  legislative  body. 
Alaska  is  controlled  by  laws  passed  by  the  United 
States  Congress,  and  its  administrative  and  ju- 
dicial officers  —  governor  (residing  at  Sitka), 
surveyor-general,  attorneys,  judges,  and  others 
—  are  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  United 
States.  Towns  of  a  certain  size  are  allowed  to 
incorporate  and  elect  governing  bodies.  Legis- 
lation in  1900  divided  Alaska  into  a  judicial 
district,  with  three  courts;  at  Juneau,  St.  Mi- 
chaels, and  Eagle  City.  These  judges  are  au- 
thorized to  appoint  commissioners  throughout 
Alaska,  who  are  to  act  as  justices  of  the  peace, 
recorders,  probate  judges,  and  perform  other 
duties  civil  and  criminal.  A  new  criminal  code 
for  Alaska  was  adopted  in  Congress  in  1899, 
and  a  new  civil  code  the  following  year.  As 
yet,  it  is  impossible  for  settlers  to  acquire  title 
to  the  public  lands.  In  1898  Congress  extended 
the  operation  of  the  homestead  law  to  Alaska, 
but  has  failed  to  provide  for  a  survey  of  the  land 
and  thus  render  settlement  possible. 

Much  trouble  has  grown  out  of  the  working 
of  the  mining  laws.  The  right  to  locate 
claims  by  power  of  attorney  granted  by  these  laws 
results  in  extensive  districts  being  staked  and 
then  abandoned,  awaiting  such  developments 
as  will  give  the  holdings  a  speculative  value. 
Much  "claim  jumping"  has  been  practiced;  in- 
deed, there  have  been  but  few  paying  claims  that 
have  not  been  involved  in  litigation.  It  has  been 
impossible  to  anticipate  the  emergencies  which 
have  arisen  from  the  sudden  addition  to  the 
population,  and  oftentimes  civil  order  has  been 
disrespected  and  legal  justice  has  been  extremely 
tardy.  This  was  conspicuous  at  Nome;  but  the 
evils  there  were  corrected  in  1901,  and  proper 
laws  put  into  operation.  Military  force  at  tiwes 
has  had  to  assert  its  authority,  and  g^^  cotva^^* 
erable  force  was  maintained  in  the  tpYTiiot^ 
from    1899    onward.    On    the    whole^     ^  ijcV^^' 


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ATiARTTA. 


268 


AIiATAXJ. 


while  the  miners  have  been  a  law  unto  them- 
selves, the  instinct  for  good  and  for.  order  has 
been  in  the  ascendency,  and  remarkably  few 
excesses  have  been  perpetrated. 

Education.  In  1900  the  United  States  Bu- 
reau of  Education  maintained  twenty-five  public 
schools  in  the  Territory  on  an  inadec^uate  annual 
appropriation  of  $30,000;  but  incorporated 
towns  may  provide  for  themselves  by  their  privi- 
lege of  using  one-half  of  the  money  collected 
from  license  fees  for  educational  purposes. 

llELioiON.  The  Russian  Greek  Church  was  the 
first  in  the  field,  and  continues  to  support 
churches  and  schools  at  different  points.  The 
Episcopalians,  Presbyterians,  and  other  religious 
denominations  carry  on  extensive  missionary  and 
educational  work  in  the  Territory.  The  Presby- 
terians maintain,  moreover,  an  industrial  train- 
ing school  at  Sitka.  Almost  the  whole  native 
population  has  been  brought  under  the  influence 
of  Christian  teaching. 

History.  In  July,  1740,  the  Russian  discov- 
erer, Bering,  sighted  the  American  continent,  and 
discovered  a  number  of  islands,  among  them  that 
bearing  his  name.  Russian  explorers  and  trad- 
ers gradually  pushed  further  eastward  and  came 
into  conflict  with  the  natives,  whom  they  cruelly 
maltreated.  The  coast  of  Alaska  was  visited 
by  Captain  Cook  in  1778,  and  by  the  Spaniards 
at  about  the  same  time.  In  1778  a  Russian 
company  was  organized  to  exploit  the  new  coun- 
try. In  1784  the  first  permanent  settlement  was 
made  at  Three  Saints,  on  Kadiak  Island,  and  in 
1790,  Alexander  Baranov  was  made  manager  of 
the  trading  company.  In  1799  the  Russian- 
American  Company  was  chartered,  and  was 
granted  control  of  all  Russian  interests  in  North 
America  for  twenty  years.  Trading  posts,  in- 
cluding Sitka  (1799),  and  missions  of  the  Greek 
Church  were  established  at  many  new  points. 
The  charter  of  the  Russian- American  Company 
was  renewed  in  1820  and  1844.  In  1864-67  parts 
of  the  country  were  explored  by  the  Western 
Union  Telegraph  Company,  with  the  object  of 
connecting  Europe  with  America  by  telegraph  at 
Bering  Strait,  but  the  project  was  abandoned 
when  the  Atlantic  cable  became  successful.  In 
March,  1867,  the  Territory  was  ceded  to  the 
Ignited  States  for  $7,200,000  in  gold,  and  on 
October  18  a  military  force  of  the  United  States 
at  Sitka  took  formal  possession.  In  1868  the 
laws  of  the  United  States  relating  to  customs, 
commerce,  and  navigation  were  extended  over 
the  mainland,  islands,  and  waters.  A  military 
post  was  maintained  at  Sitka  for  ten  years,  and 
other  garrisons  were  established,  but  in  1877 
all  troops  were  withdrawn.  In  maintenance 
of  its  claim  to  joint  possession  with  Russia  of 
Bering  Sea  (q.v.)  as  an  inland  water,  the  United 
States  several  times  seized  British  vessels  en- 
gaged in  taking  fur  seals,  and  the  complications 
resulting  therefrom  were  made  the  subject  of 
prolongSi  negotiation  between  the  United  States 
and  Great  Britain.  The  whale  and  seal  fisheries 
of  Alaska  were  rapidly  approaching  exhaustion, 
when  the  discovery  of  gold  along  th6  Yukon  in 
1896-97.  and  at  Cape  Nome  on  the  west  coast 
in  1898-99,  completely  changed  economic  condi- 
tions there,  and  caused  a  sudden  inroad  of  popu- 
lation. The  vast  importance  of  the  Canadian 
Klondike  region  brought  the  long  -  standing 
boundary  dispute  between  the  United  States  and 
Canada  to  a  crisis.  Canada  demanded  such  a 
rectification  of  the  line  in  the  region  of  the  Lynn 


Canal  as  would  have  given  her  Skagway,  Pyra- 
mid Harbor,  and  Dyea,  the  principal  entrances 
to  her  gold-fields.  In  1901  only  a  modus  vivendi 
between  the  two  countries  had  been  arrived  at. 
By  a  congressional  act  of  June  6,  1900,  Alaska 
was  made  a  civil  and  judicial  district. 

Bibliography.  Abercrombie,  Copper  River 
Exploring  Expedition  (Washington,  1900): 
Schwa tka,  Along  Alaska's  Great  River  (New 
York,  1885);  Swineford,  Alaska:  Its  History, 
Climate,  and  Natural  Resources {ChieAgOy  1898) : 
Bruce,  A^ska:  Its  History  and  Resources  (Seat- 
tle, 1895)  ;  Bancroft,  Alaska  (San  Francisco, 
1886)  ;  Elliott,  Our  Arctic  Province  (New  York, 
1886)  ;  John  Burroughs  et  al,,  Hai-riman  Alaska 
Expedition  (New  York,  1901)  ;  Emmons, "Alaska 
and  Its  Mineral  Resources,"  National  (Geograph- 
ical Magazine  (Washington,  1898)  ;  Ingersoll, 
Golden  AUuka:  A  Complete  Account  of  the  Yu- 
kon VaUey  (Chicago,  1897) ;  Heistand,  The  Ter- 
ritory of  Alaska  (Kansas  City,  1898)  ;  Dall 
"Report  on  Coal  and  Lignite  of  Alaska,"  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  Seventeenth  Annual 
Report,  Part  I.  (Washington,  1896)  ;  Reports 
and  Bulletins  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  for  1899  (Washington,  1899)  ;  United 
States  Geological  Sui-vey,  Explorations  in  Alaska 
(Washington,  1900)  ;  Reports  of  the  United 
States  Board  of  Education,  of  the  Treasury^  and 
War  Departments  (Washington,  1899-1901); 
Reports  of  the  Governor  of  Alaska  to  the  Secre- 
tary of  the  Interior;  United  States  Military 
Affairs  Committee;  Narratives  of  Explorations 
in  Alaska  (Washington,  1900)  ;  bibliography  in 
Appleton's  Guide  to  Alaska  (New  York,  1896); 
Ray  and  Murdock,  Report  of  the  International 
Polar  Expedition  to  Point  Barrow,  Alaska 
(Washington,  1885)  ;  Nelson,  Report  on  Natural 
History  Collections  Made  in  Alaska,  1877  to 
183 1  (Washington,  1887) ;  Turner,  Contributions 
to  the  Natural  History  of  Alaska  (Washington, 
1886). 

ALASKA  SA^LE.    See  Skunk. 

ALASSIO,  A-las^syd.  A  seaport  of  Italy  on 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  57  miles  southwest  of  the 
city  of  Genoa  ( Map :  Italy,  C  3 ) .  In  winter  it 
is  frequented  by  foreigners,  particularly  by  Eng- 
lish-speaking people,  and  in  summer  the  excellent 
bathing  attracts  Italians.  The  natives  are  most- 
ly fishermen  and  boat  builders.  Pop.,  1901, 
5630.  Consult  Scheer's  Alassio  and  seine  Urn- 
gehung  (Weisbaden,  1880). 

ALASTOB  (Gk.'A;iaor«p).  1.  An  avenging, 
haunting  spirit.  Among  the  Greeks  the  name 
was  sometimes  applied  to  Zeus  as  an  avenging 
deity;  also  to  the  Furies.  In  the  Middle  Ages 
it  was  given  to  one  of  Satan's  chief  ministers,  a 
demon  supposed  to  execute  his  purposes. 

2.  A  poem  by  Shelley  published  in  1816,  en- 
titled in  full,  Alastor,  or  the  Spirit  of  Solitude, 

ALATAU,  a'lA-tou'  (Turk.  Mottled  Mountain 
Range) .  A  name  given  to  a  range  of  lofty  moun- 
tains forming  the  boundary  between  Turkestan 
and  Mongolia  and  the  northern  limit  of  the 
great  tableland  of  Central  Asia  (Map:  Asia, 
G  4).  It  is  made  up  of  three  sierra-like  sub- 
ranges, the  Dzungarian,  the  Trans-Ili,  and  the 
Kuznets  Alatau.  These  are  all  grouped  around 
Lake  Issik-Kul  as  a  central  point.  The  peaks  of 
the  Alatau,  which  are  principally  of  granitic 
formation,  attain  an  elevation  of  over  15,000 
feet 


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ALBANI. 


AL'ATEB^NUS  (Lat.).  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Rhamnacese,  akin  to  Rham- 
nus  (see  Buckthorn),  but  more  generally  re- 
garded as  a  sub-genus  of  Rhamnus.  It  consists 
of  evergreen  shrubs,  of  which  the  best  known  is 
Alaternus  phillyrea  or  Rhamnus  alaternus,  a 
large  shrub,  densely  branched,  with  shining  al- 
ternate, more  or  less  ovate,  leaves.  The  flowers 
are  dioecious,  racemed,  numerous,  and  small, 
much  sought  after  by  bees.  This  shrub  is  abun- 
dant in  Europe.  The  berries  partake  of  the  pur- 
gative qualities  attributed  to  Rhamnus  cathar- 
tica. 

ALATBI,  &-l9,^trd.  An  episcopal  city  in  south 
Italy,  nine  miles  north  of  Frosinone  (Map:  Italy, 
H  6).  The  C/yclopean  gateway  and  walls  of  the 
ancient  aletrium  are  splendidly  preserved.  It 
has  many  cloth  factories.     Pop.,  1881,  5500. 

ALATYB,  a'l&-ter^.  The  chief  town  of  a  dis- 
trict in  the  government  of  Simbirsk,  Russia,  on 
the  Sura,  107  miles  northwest  of  Simbirsk  (Map: 
Russia,  G  4 ) .  It  has  two  cathedrals,  four  mon- 
asteries, a  hospital,  schools,  etc.  Milling,  brew- 
ing, and  brick-making  are  the  principal  indus- 
tries. Pop.,  1897,  11,100.  It  was  founded  in 
1552  by  Ivan  the  Terrible. 

ALAUSf,  a'lou-s6^.  A  town  on  the  Alausl 
River,  in  the  province  of  Chimborazo,  Ecuador, 
75  miles  east  of  Guayaquil  (Map:  Ecuador,  B  4). 
It  is  situated  on  a  plateau  of  the  Andes,  in  a 
fertile  region,  abounding  in  hot  springs.  Pop., 
6000. 

ALATJX,  i\'l6'.  Jean,  called  le  Romain  ( 1786- 
1864).  A  French  historical  painter,  born  at 
Bordeaux.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Vincent  and 
Ou^rin,  and  in  1815  won  the  Grand  Prix  de 
Rome.  He  was  director  of  the  French  Academy 
at  Rome  from  1846  to  1853,  and  in  1851  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  Institute.  His  works 
include  "Pandora  Brought  from  Heaven  by  Mer- 
euiT"  (palace  of  St.  Cloud,  destroyed  1870), 
"Burial  of  Our  Lord"  (Notre  Dame  de  Loretto, 
Paris),  and  twenty-nine  canvases  in  the  museum 
of  Versailles. 

AIiAVA,  aiA-va,  Don  Miguel  Ricardo  de 
(1771-1843).  A  Spanish  general.  He  was  born 
at  Vittoria.  Spain,  and  died  at  Bardges,  France. 
Sprung  from  a  noble  family,  he  entered  the  navy 
in  early  life,  but  changed  later  to  the  land  ser- 
vice. His  political  conscience  was  as  flexible  as 
his  political  career  was  checkered.  He  aban- 
doned Ferdinand  VII.  for  the  French  in  1808; 
left  the  French  for  the  English,  in  1811,  and 
entered  once  more  into  the  service  of  Ferdinand, 
in  1815,  as  minister  to  The  Hague.  In  1820, 
he  was  leader  of  the  Liberals  in  the  Cortes;  in 
1822  he  fought  against  Ferdinand's  guards  at 
Madrid,  and  the  next  year  he  negotiated  with 
the  Due  d'AngoulGme  for  the  restoration  of 
Ferdinand  to  his  throne.  Fearing  Ferdinand's 
vengeance,  however,  Alava  fled  the  country. 
From  his  exile  in  England  he  was  recalled  by 
Maria  Christina,  who  made  him  ambassador, 
first  to  London,  in  1834,  and,  in  1835,  to  Paris. 
The  following  year  he  refused  to  swear  to  the 
institution  of  1812,  reestablished  by  the  insur- 
rection of  La  Granja,  and  retired  to  France. 

ALAY,  k'W.  A  Turkish  ceremony  on  the 
assembling  of  the  forces  at  the  breaking  out  of 
a  war,  the  chief  feature  of  which  is  a  public 
display  of  the  sacred  standard  of  Mohammed, 
which  may  be  looked  upon  only  by  Moslems  and 


touched  only  by  emirs.     It  is  a  capital  offense 
for  a  Christian  to  look  upon  the  banner. 

ALB,    See  Costume,  Ecclesiastical. 

ATjBA,  lll^b&  (ancient  Lat.  Alha  Pompeia, 
White  Pompeia).  An  episcopal  city  of  north 
Italy,  situated  on  the  rignt  bank  of  the  Tanaro, 
31  miles  southeast  of  Turin  (Map:  Italy,  C  3). 
The  vast  Gothic  cathedral  dates  from  1486,  and 
there  are  rich  collections  of  ancient  manuscripts, 
coins,  vases,  and  household  utensils.  The  coun- 
try produces  wine,  grain,  cattle,  silk,  truffles,  and 
cheese.     Pop.,  1881,  6900. 

ALBA,  al^b&.     See  Alva. 

AIiBACETE,  arb&-tha^t&.  A  town  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  in 
Murcia.  It  is  situated  an  altitude  of  more 
than  3800  feet;  138  miles  southeast  of  Madrid, 
and  on  the  railway  which  runs  from  Madrid  to 
Alicante  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  It  stands  in  a 
fertile  but  treeless  plain;  consists  of  an  upper 
and  a  lower  town,  the  latter  of  which,  being  mod- 
ern, is  built  with  some  degree  of  regularity,  and 
contains  a  number  of  squares  and  many  good 
houses.  It  is  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  and 
is  noted  in  Spain  for  the  manufacture  of  knives 
and  other  steel  goods.  Annual  cattle  fairs  are 
held  here.    Pop.,  1887,  20,700;  1900,  21,373. 

AL^ACOBE,  or  Al/BICOBE  (Portug.  and 
Sp.  albacora,  from  Ar.  al,  the  +  hakr,  a  young 
camel,  a  heifer).  A  tunny,  especially  the  long- 
finned,  or  alalonga.     See  Tunny. 

AL^A  LON^QA.  An  ancient  town  of 
Latium,  founded,  according  to  the  popular  ac- 
count (Livy  i  :  3),  by  Ascanius,  son  of  iEneas, 
on  a  ridge  overlooking  the  Alban  Lake.  Here 
lived  several  generations  of  kings,  and  here  were 
born  the  twins  Romulus  and  Remus,  sons  of  the 
King's  daughter,  Rhea  Silvia,  by  the  god  Mars. 
Alba  Longa  was  destroyed  under  Tullus  Hos- 
tilius,  third  king  of  Rome,  and  never  rebuilt, 
its  inhabitants  being  removed  to  Rome.  The 
legend,  in  its  general  outline,  is  doubtless  based 
on  facts.  In  1817  a  remarkable  pre-historic  ne- 
cropolis was  found  here,  buried  under  volcanic 
ashes,  and  containing  burial-urns  in  the  form  of 
round  huts.  (See  ABciiiEOLOGY. )  The  site  of 
the  town  seems  to  have  been  near  the  modern 
Castel  Gandolfo.  The  Emperor  Domitian  had  a 
villa  here. 

ALBAN,  fll'ban.  Saint.  According  to  legend, 
the  first  martyr  of  Britain.  He  was  born  at 
Verulam  in  the  third  century,  and  after  having 
long  lived  as  a  heathen,  was  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity, but  put  to  death  in  304.  His  day  is 
June  22.  The  town  of  St.  Albans,  which  bears 
his  name,  is  believed  to  stand  on  the  site  of  his 
birthplace  or  the  scene  of  his  martyrdom.  See 
St.  Albans. 

ALBA'NI.  In  ancient  times,  a  people  in  Asia 
inhabiting  the  country  between  the  Caucasus 
and  the  Cyrus  River,  and  between  Armenia  and 
the  Caspian  Sea,  corresponding  with  the  modern 
Daghestan,  Shirvan,  and  Laghistan.  The  an- 
cient Albanians  were  described  as  tall,  strong, 
and  of  graceful  appearance.  They  were  nomads. 
A  Roman  army  under  Pompey  first  encountered 
them  in  65  B.C.,  and  found  a  force  of  60,000  irt- 
fantry  and  22,000  cavalry  opposing  it.  Poitvpey 
secured  a  nominal  submission,  but  they  eoT\t\nued 
practically  independent. 


ALBANI,   &l-b&^n6.     A   rich   and 


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ALBANI. 


270 


ALBANIAN  LANaUAQE. 


family  of  Home,  who  came  originally  from  Al- 
bania in  the  sixteenth  century  and  settled  first 
at  Urbino.  The  great  influence  of  the  family 
dates  from  the  accession  (1700)  of  Giovanni 
Francesco  Albani  to  the  papal  throne  as  Clement 
XI.  It  has  since  furnished  a  succession  of  car- 
dinals. Cardinal  Alessandro  Albani  (1692- 
1779)  made  the  celebrated  art  collection  of  the 
Villa  Albani  at  Rome. 

AXBANI,  Alessandro  (1692-1779).  A 
nephew  of  Pope  Clement  XI.,  created  cardinal 
by  Innocent  XIII.  in  1721.  He  was  born  at  Ur- 
bino, and  was  a  brother  of  Annibale  Albani. 
Under  Maria  Theresa,  he  served  as  minister  at 
the  papal  court  and  crown-protector  of  Austria. 
After  his  death  his  collection  of  statues  and 
other  works  of  art  was  bought  by  Greorge  III. 

ALBANI,  Emma  (1S51— ).  The  stage  name 
of  Marie  Louise  Cecilia  Emma  Lajeunesse.  A 
Canadian  dramatic  soprano.  She  was  born  at 
Chambly,  near  Montreal,  November  1,  1851.  She 
made  her  first  public  appearance  at  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  when  but  twelve  years  old.  She  studied  un- 
der Duprez,  of  Paris,  and  Lamperti,  of  Milan, 
made  her  d^hut  at  Messina  as  Amina  in  La  8on- 
namhula  (1870),  and  has  sung  in  opera  in  Lon- 
don, Paris,  Berlin,  St.  Petersburg,  and  many 
cities  of  the  United  States.  Among  her  imper- 
sonations are:  Senta  in  the  Flying  Dutchman, 
Elisabeth  in  Tannhaiiser,  Elsa  in  Lohengrin, 
Marguerite,  Lucia,  Mignon,  Ophelia,  and  Isolde. 
Madame  Albani  has  also  sung  in  oratorio.-  She 
married  Mr.  Gye,  of  London,  in  1878.  Consult 
TI.  S.  Edwards,  The  Prima  Donna  (London, 
1888). 

ALBANI,  Francesco  (1678-1660.  An  Ital- 
ian painter  of  the  Caracci  School,  a  follower  or 
imitator  of  Guido  Reni.  He  was  born  and  lived 
at  Bologna.  He  leaned  to  the  classical  in  sub- 
ject, and  although  he  was  styled  the  Anacreon  of 
painting,  his  manner  was  far  removed  from  the 
dignified  simplicity  of  Greek  art.  His  figures 
were  charming  and  graceful,  but  were  gay  and 
sportive  rather  than  dignified.  Albani  opened 
an  academy  in  Rome,  and  it  is  in  that  city  that 
the  chief  memorials  of  his  works  are  to  be  found. 
By  a  second  marriage  he  became  the  father  of 
twelve  children,  all  of  whom  were  so  beautiful 
that  they  served  as  models  for  his  most  famous 
paintings.  He  executed  frescoes  in  the  Tortoni 
Palace,  Rome.  His  "Four  Seasons"  are  in  the 
Borghese  Gallery,  and  his  "Toilet  of  Venus"  rep- 
resents him  at  the  Louvre.  Consult :  A.  G.  Rad- 
cliffe.  Schools  and  Masters  of  Painting  (New 
York,  1898)  ;  C.  E.  Clement,  Painters,  Sculptors, 
Architects,  and  Engravers  (Boston,  1899). 

ALBANI,  Matthias.  The  name  of  two 
famous  Tyrolese  violin  makers,  father  and  son. 
The  father  was  born  in  1621  at  Bozen.  He  was 
a  pupil  of  Stainer.  The  son  studied  with  the 
masters  of  violin  making  at  Cremona,  and  after- 
ward settled  at  Rome.  He  died  in  1673.  The 
instruments  he  made  between  the  years  1702  and 
1709  are  exceedingly  valuable,  and  are  by  some 
considered  equal  to  those  of  Amati. 

ALBANI,  Villa.  The  palace  of  the  Albani 
family  at  Rome,  containing  a  famous  collection 
of  antique  works  of  art. 

ALBANIA,  ftl-bfl'nl-A;  Mod,  Qh.  ftl'BA-ne'A 
(Turk.  Arnaut) .  A  country  in  the  western  part 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  embracing,  in  the  wid- 
est sense  of  the  name,  the  Turkish  vilayets  of 


Janina,  Monastir,  Scutari,  and  a  part  of  Kos- 
sovo  (Map:  Turkey  in  Europe,  C  4).    It  takes 
in  ancient  Illyria,  most  of  Epinis,  and  parts  of 
Macedonia,  and  covers  an  area  estimated  at  from 
16,000  to  22,000  square  miles,  according  as  the 
name  is  taken  in  a  narrower  or  broader  seiue. 
It  borders  on  Montenegro  and  the  Sanjak  of 
Novipazar  on  the  north,  Macedonia  on  the  et$t, 
Greece  on  the  south,  and  the  Adriatic  Sea  on  the 
west.    The  whole  region  is  traversed  by  numer- 
ous high   mountain   chains,   separated  by  long 
and  narrow  valleys,  running  from  northwest  to 
southeast.    The  elevated  plateaus  found  among 
the  mountain   chains   are   mostly   fruitful  and 
well  populated,  and  some  of  them  inclose  lakes. 
The  rivers  of  Albania,  of  which  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  Boyana,  Drin,  Devol,  and  Voyus- 
sa,  have  an  exceedin|rly  tortuous  course,  on  ac- 
count of  the  mountainous  character  of  the  sur- 
face.   The  climate   is   healthful   and  moderate, 
and  the  soil  for  the  most  part  fertile.    Grain  and 
tobacco  grow  well,  and  the  olive  is  cultivated  ex- 
tensively and  exported  on  a  considerable  scale. 
Some  fish  and  sea  salt  are  also  exported.     The 
population  of  Albania,  within  the  broader  limits 
given  above,  is  probably  not  far  from  2,000,000, 
but  Albania  proper,  or  the  region  which  is  in- 
habited mainly  by  Albanians,  has  a  much  smaller 
population.    The  Albanians,  or  Amauts,  who  in 
their  own  language  call  themselves  Shkipetars 
(Skipetars),  are  the  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Illyrians,  and  occupy  a  unique  position  among 
the   Caucausian    races.     Only   slightly  civilized 
and  very  warlike,  they  keep  the  country  in  a 
constant   state  of  turmoil.     The   differences  in 
religion  of  the  various  tribes,  their  strong  feeling 
of  clanship,  together  with  the  warlike  spirit  of 
the  people,  afford  ample  opportunity  for  civil 
strife.     In  their  form  of  government  the  Alba- 
nians still  retain  some  of  the  patriarchal  insti- 
tutions, and  Turkish  authority  is  only  slightly 
recognized.    The  Mohammedan  religion  is  pro- 
fessed by  most  of  them,  while  the  Christians 
number  190,000,  divided  almost  equally  between 
Roman  and  Greek  Catholics.     There  are  nearly 
200,000  Albanians   in  Greece,  found  chiefly  in 
Attica,  Megaries,  and  the  islands  of  the  ^Egean; 
about   100,000   in   southern   Italy,   and  smaller 
groups   in   the  Slavonic   provinces  of   southern 
Austria.     The  turbulent  tribes  which  inhabited 
the  region  in  antiquity  resisted  all  attempts  at 
subjugation,   and   except   during   the   reign  of 
Pyrrhus  of  Epirus  (290-272  b.c.)  never  acknowl- 
edged any  supreme  authority.     In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  inhabitants  displayed  the  same  obsti- 
nacy in  their  resistance  to  the  Turkish  power. 
Their  great  leader,  George  Castriota,  or  Scander- 
beg   (1404-68),  overwhelmed  twenty-three  Otto- 
man armies,  some  of  them  commanded  by  the 
sultan  in  person,  and  though  after  the  fall  of 
Scutari,  in  1478,  the  nominal  authority  of  the 
Porte   was   acknowledged,    the   country   at  all 
times  enjoyed  a  very  large  measure  of  freedom. 
From  1807*  to  1822  Albania  was  practically  inde- 
pendent under  the  rule  of  Ali  Pasha  (q.v.),  the 
Lion  of  Janina.     The  feeling  of  inveterate  hos- 
tility for  the  Greeks  kept  the  Albanians  from 
embracing  their  cause  in  the  war  of  liberation. 
Consult:  H.  Callan, "Albania  and  the  Albanian* " 
in  Scottish  Geographical  Magaziner^  Volume  X^. 
(Edinburgh,  1899);   P.  Trieger,  "Mittheilungen 
und    Funde   aus   Albanien,"   in   Zeitschrift  fur 
Ethnologic,  Volume  XXXII.  (Berlin,  1900). 
ALBA^NIAK  LAN'OUAGE.     The  Albanian 


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ALBANIAN  LANGUAGE. 


271 


ALBANY. 


forms  one  of  the  eight  chief  divisions  of  the 
Indo-Grermanic  languages  (q.v.)>  &nd  is  a  de- 
scendant of  the  ancient  Illyrian,  of  which  only 
a  few  words  are  preserved.  On  account  of  the 
large  number  of  Greek  loan-words  in  its  vocabu- 
lary, the  Albanian  was  formerly  thought  to  be- 
long to  the  Hellenic  branch  of  dialects;  but  it  is 
now  known  to  be  quite  independent,  and  to  form 
a  branch  by  itself,  akin  rather  to  the  Slavic  fam- 
ily than  to  the  Greek  group.  Geographically,  the 
language  is  not  confined  to  Albania  alone,  but 
may  be  traced  also  in  southern  Italy  and  Sicily. 
Two  main  dialect-groups  of  the  language  may  be 
distinguished.  The  northern  class,  called  Gegish, 
is  the  more  primitive,  while  the  southern,  or 
Toskish,  is  permeated  with  loan-words.  Of  all 
the  languages  of  the  Indo-Germanic  group,  Al- 
banian has  been  the  most  changed  in  vocabulary 
by  borrowed  words,  although  it  has  preserved  in 
the  main  its  structure.  The  vocabulary  of  loan- 
words is  chiefly  Latin,  augmented  by  Slavic  and 
Greek  accretions,  and,  in  Gegish  especially,  by 
numerous  Turkish  words.  In  point  of  literary 
culture  Albanian  is  the  most  backward  of  all 
the  Indo-Germanic  languages,  and  it  can  scarcely 
be  said  to  possess  a  literature.  While  rich  in 
folk-songs,  tales,  and  proverbs,  it  is  only  within 
a  comparatively  short  time  that  any  systematic 
endeavor  has  been  made  to  cultivate  the  literary 
potentialities  of  the  people.  In  the  Gegish  dia- 
lects the  alphabet  usually  employed  is  the  Ro- 
man, with  certain  modifications,  while  the 
Toskish  adopts  the  Greek  letters  with  some  slight 
changes.  Consult:  Pisko,  Kurzgefasstes  Hand- 
buck  der  nordalbanesischen  Sprachen  (Vienna, 
1896)  ;  Dozon,  Manttel  de  la  langue  chkipe  ou 
Albanaise  (Paris,  1878)  ;  G.  Meyer,  Kurzgefasste 
albanesische  Grammatik  (Leipzig,)  1888)  ;  Ety- 
mologisches  Worterbuch  der  albanesischen 
Sprache  (Strassburg,  1891);  Pedersen,  Alba- 
nesische  Texte  (Leipzig,  1896). 

ALBAN  (fil^ban)  MOUNTAINS.  A  group 
of  volcanic  mountains  in  central  Italy,  13  miles 
southeast  of  Rome,  with  several  extinct  craters, 
two  of  which  are  occupied  by  sombre  Lake  Al- 
ba no  and  beautiful  Lake  Nemi  (Map:  Italy, 
G  6).  The  central  crater  terminates  in  Punta 
Faette  and  in  Monte  Cavo,  3145  feet  above  the 
sea,  on  which  stood  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Lati- 
nris,  w^here  the  sacrificial  festival  of  the  Feriae 
Latinae  was  celebrated  annually.  The  scanty 
ruins  of  the  temple  disappeared  about  1777,  when 
Cardinal  York,  the  last  of  the  Stuarts,  built  on 
the  spot  a  Passionist  monastery.  From  here 
there  is  a  splendid  view  of  the  sea,  the  Cam- 
pagna,  and  the  surrounding  mountains.  The 
beauty  of  the  scenery  and  the  agreeableness  of  the 
climate  have  made  the  Alban  Mountains  a  favor- 
ite summer  resort  of  the  Romans  from  the  most 
ancient  times.  Places  that  are  worthy  of  a  visit 
by  the  tourist  are  Frascati  (q.v.),  Albano, 
Grotta  Ferrata  (q.v.),  Marino  (q.v.),  Castel 
Gandolfo  (q.v.),  and  Rocco  di  Papa  (q.v.).  The 
site  of  Alba  Longa  (q.v.),  Rome's  mother  city, 
was  on  the  east  side  of  Lake  Albano. 

ALBANO,  Al-ba^nd.  A  town  of  Italy,  about 
18  miles  from  Rome,  on  the  declivity  of  the 
lava- walls  which  encompass  Lake  Albano  (Map: 
Italy,  G  6) .  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  has  about 
7000  inhabitants,  and  is  surrounded  by  hand- 
some mansions  of  the  wealthier  Romans.  It  is 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  lake  from  the  site  of 
Alba  Longa,  and  owed  its  origin  to  the  villas  of 


ancient  Roman  magnates,  such  as  Pompey,  Domi- 
tian,  and  Clodius.  A  valuable  wine  is  produced 
in  the  environs.  Near  the  town,  on  the  old  Ap- 
pian  Way,  are  found  the  remains  of  an  amphi- 
theatre and  ancient  tombs.  The  Alban  Lake,  or 
Lago  di  Castello,  is  formed  in  the  basin  of  an  ex- 
tinct volcano,  has  a  circumference  of  6  miles,  with 
a  depth  of  about  350  feet.  Its  elevation  is  nearly 
1000  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Ancient  writers 
say  that,  while  the  Romans  were  at  war  with  the 
Veientes  (398  B.C.),  this  lake  rose  to  an  extra- 
ordinary height  in  the  heat  of  summer.  Etruscan 
diviners  declared  that  the  conquest  of  Veii  dc' 
pended  upon  letting  off  the  waters  of  the  lake, 
stimulated  by  this,  the  Romans,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Etruscans,  opened  an  emissary  or 
tunnel  through  the  lava-wall  on  the  northwest. 
In  the  execution  of  this  work  they  acquired  the 
art  of  mining,  which  they  now  applied  to  under- 
mine the  walls  of  Veii.  The  tunnel,  which  still 
remains,  and  still  fulfills  its  ancient  office,  is 
more  than  a  mile  in  length,  with  a  height  of  7 
feet  and  a  width  of  4  feet.  On  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  lake  rises  Monte  Cavo,  the  ancient  Alba- 
nus  Mons,  3000  feet  high,  which  commands  an 
extensive  and  magnificent  view.  Upon  its  sum- 
mit once  stood  the  magnificent  temple  of  Jupiter 
Latiaris,  which  was  approached  by  a  paved  way, 
for  the  ascent  of  the  solemn  processions  of  the 
Latin  confederation  {FericB  Latin<B),  and  for 
the  ovations  of  Roman  generals.  The  road  re- 
mains, in  great  part,  perfect  to  this  day.  The 
Albano  stone,  called  peperino,  was  much  used  in 
Roman  buildings.  It  is  a  kind  of  volcanic  tufa, 
of  an  ash-color,  and  is  still  quarried  extensively 
at  Albano. 

ALBANO.  A  lake  in  Italy,  near  the  town  of 
the  same  name  (Map:  Italy,  G.  6).  It  is  situ- 
ated in  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  at  an 
elevation  of  970  feet  above  the  sea.  Its  only 
outlet  is  a  tunnel  built  by  the  Romans  during 
the  siege  of  Veii  in  the  fourth  century  b.c.  The 
lake  is  about  1000  feet  deep,  full  of  fish,  and 
famous  for  its  beautiful  scenery.  On  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  lake  rises  Monte  Cavo,  or  Albano, 
3000  feet  above  the  sea,  with  the  ruins  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Latiaris  on  its  summit. 

ALBANS,  ftl'banz,  St.    See  St.  Albans. 

ALBANY,  ftl'bA-nl.  A  fortified  seaport  and 
municipality  of  Plantagenet  Co.,  West  Australia, 
on  King  George's  Sound,  362  miles  southeast  by 
south  of  Perth  by  rail  (Map:  Australia,  B  6). 
It  is  noted  for  its  fine  harbor,  is  a  station  and 
port  of  call  for  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental  Com- 
pany's steamers,  and  is  also  a  coaling  depot. 
The  United  States  has  a  resident  consular  agent. 
Pop.,  3000. 

ALBANY.  Capital  of  New  York  State,  and 
county  seat  of  Albany  Co.,  and  an  important 
railroad  and  commercial  city.  It  is  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  nearly  six  miles  below 
the  head  of  navigation,  145  miles  north  of  New 
York  City  and  164  miles  west  of  Boston  (Map: 
New  York,  G  3). 

A  narrow  alluvial  plain  extends  along  the 
river,  and  from  this  the  ground  rises  sharply  to 
a  sandy  plateau  about  two  hundred  feet  above 
tide  level,  with  valleys  separating  the  four  ridges 
into  which  the  slope  is  divided.  The  principal 
streets  are  Broadway,  and  North  and  South 
Pearl  streets,  which  run  parallel  to  the  river, 
and  State  Streot,  which  runs  westward,  ascend- 
ing the  face  of  the  hill  at  a  very  steep  grade.  The 


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most  striking  feature  as  well  as  the  most  impor- 
tant edifice  in  Albany  is  theCapitol,whichi8  built 
of  Maine  granite,  in  the  Renaissance  style.  Since 
its  corner-stone  was  laid,  in  1871,  it  has  cost 
over  twenty-four  million  dollars.  The  edifice 
has  been  built  with  the  advantage  of  large 
ideas  and  limitless  resources,  and  the  disadvan- 
tages of  a  succession  of  architects  with  changing 
views;  these  circumstances  have  left  their  im- 
print on  the  structure.  But  when  all  has  been 
said  in  criticism  of  details,  the  general  plan,  and 
unused  possibilities,  it  must  ^  ranked  among 
the  great  buildings  of  the  country.  Within 
are  rooms  for  the  Assembly,  Senate,  Court  of 
Appeals,  the  State  Library  of  over  430,000  vol- 
umes, the  governor,  and  other  State  officials. 
Many  relics  of  the  Revolution  and  Civil  War  find 
place  in  its  spacious  corridors.  Facing  the  Cap- 
itol are  the  State  Hall,  and  the  city  hall,  of  red 
sandstone,  with  Romanesque  doorways  and  ma- 
jestic campaniles.  The  Federal  building,  contain- 
ing the  custom  house  and  post  office,  is  at  the 
foot  of  State  Street,  and  on  the  same  avenue, 
about  a  block  below  the  Capitol,  is  the  State 
Museum  of  Natural  History.  In  the  residence 
districJts,  the  most  important  architectural  fea- 
tures are  the  churches,  four  of  which  have  more 
than  a  local  interest:  The  North  Dutch  church, 
St.  Peter's  Church,  "one  of  the  richest  specimens 
of  French  Gothic  in  this  country,"  the  cathedral 
of  All  Saints,  and  the  cathedral  of  the  Immacu- 
late Conception,  with  lofty  double  spires  and  a 
spacious  interior  treated  with  taste  and  dignity. 

Other  important  buildings  are  the  new  Union 
Station,  the  Hotel  Ten  Eyck,  the  Albany  Acad- 
emy, Harmanus  Bleecker  Hall,  and  the  State 
Arsenal.  The  second  Van  Rensselaer  manor 
house,  built  in  1765,  was  removed  in  1893  to  the 
campus  of  Williams  College  at  Williamstown, 
^lass.  The  old  Schuyler  mansion  is  now  used  as 
an  orphan  asylum  by  the  Sisters  of  Charity.  Al- 
bany is  the  seat  of  a  State  Normal  College,  and 
contains  the  law  and  medical  departments  of 
Union  University  at  Schenectady,  and  also  Dud- 
ley Observatory,  in  the  southwest  corner  of  the 
city.  Near  the  latter  are  the  pavilions  of  the 
new  hospital,  built  in  1899;  and  in  the  same 
section  is  the  State  penitentiary,  opened  in  1848, 
which  confines  annually  between  300  and  400 
prisoners,  the  majority  sentenced  for  short  terms. 

The  city  has  470  acres  devoted  to  parks,  the 
largest  of  which,  Washington  Park,  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  the  city,  contains  a  lake  1700 
feet  long,  and  two  fine  bronzes:  Calverley's 
statue  of  "Robert  Burns,"  and  Rhind's  statue 
of  "Moses  at  the  Rock  of  Horeb."  In  the  beau- 
tiful Rural  Cemetery  about  four  miles  north  of 
the  city  is  the  tomb  of  President  Arthur. 

Trade  and  Transportation.  Albany  is  a 
terminus  of  the  Boston  and  Albany  railroad, 
and  the  division  terminus  on  the  main  lines  of 
the  West  Shore,  the  New  York  Central  and  Hud- 
son River  and  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  rail- 
roads. It  is  thus  at  the  intersection  of  the  great 
thoroughfares  of  traffic  and  travel  from  Boston 
and  New  York  to  the  west  and  the  north  H  also 
has  direct  steamboat  communication  by  day  and 
night  lines  with  New  York  and  Hudson  River 
points,  while  by  the  Erie  and  the  Champlain 
canals  it  has  water  routes  to  the  interior  of  the 
State  and  the  west  and  north.  It  still  remains 
an  important  centre  of  passenger  travel,  but  the 
great  bulk  of  freight  movement  now  passes  the 
city  in  through  shipments.    Manufacturing  inter- 


ests in  Albany  have  increased  considerably  during 
the  last  ten  years.  The  most  important  in- 
dustries now  include  iron,  wood,  and  brass  manu- 
factures; printing  and  engraving;  shirt,  collar, 
and  cufif  manofac^res ;  manuf ac^es  of  clothing, 
caps,  and  knit  goods;  brewing;  tobacco  and  cigar 
manufactures ;  and  carriage  and  wagon  building. 

Within  the  city  are  alK>ut  28  miles  of  street 
railways,  and  electric  lines  connect  also  with 
towns  some  distance  from  Albany.  There  are 
three  bridges  across  the  river  to  Rensselaer,  two 
of  which  are  used  by  the  railroads  and  foot  pas- 
sengers, and  the  third  only  is  open  to  wagon 
traffic.  The  water  supply  is  furnished  in  part  by 
a  gravity  supply,  from  a  lake  five  miles  distant'; 
but  a  large  proportion  is  pumped  from  the  Hud- 
son River,  and  an  improved  filtration  system 
has  recently  been  adopted  for  the  latter  supply. 
There  are  about  82  miles  of  paved  thoroughfares, 
some  of  which  are  laid  with  asphalt  and  brick, 
though  most  of  the  important  streets  are  paved 
with  granite  blocks  and  many  still  have  cobble- 
stone pavements. 

Administration.  As  provided  by  legislative 
enactment  for  cities  of  the  second  class,  the 
government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected  bien- 
nially; a  city  council,  the  president  being  elected 
at  large  and  the  aldermen  oy  wards ;  and  admin- 
istrative departments  constituted  as  follows: 
Finance — comptroller,  treasurer,  and  a  board  of 
estimate  composed  of  the  mayor,  comptroller,  cor- 
poration counsel,  president  of  the  common  coun- 
cil, city  engineer,  and  treasurer;  Puhlie  TFor^-s— 
commissioner,  who  appoints  superintendents  of 
water  works  and  parks,  city  engineer;  and  a 
board  of  contract  and  supply,  composed  of  the 
mayor,  comptroller,  commissioner  of  public 
works,  corporation  counsel,  and  city  engineer; 
Public  Safety — commissioner, who  appoints  chiefs 
of  police  and  fire  departments,  with  their 
subordinates,  and  a  health  officer  and  district 
health  physicians;  Aaae^sment  and  Taxation— 
four  assessors,  two  elected  every  two  years  for 
a  term  of  four  years ;  Charities  and  Correction— 
commissioner,  who  appoints  an  overseer  of  the 
poor  and  assistants;  Judiciary — one  police  court 
justice  who  holds  office  for  six  years,  and  three 
city  court  justices;  Law — corporation  counsel, 
who  appoints  an  assistant  and  subordinates.  Of 
these  officials,  the  -comptroller,  treasurer,  asses- 
sors, and  police  and  city  court  justices  are  elect- 
ed ;  all  others  are  appointed  by  the  executive.  A 
sealer  of  weights  and  measures  is  also  appointed 
by  the  mayor,  and  supervisors  are  chosen  by 
popular  election. 

The  annual  expenditures  of  the  city  amount 
to  about  $2,800,000,  the  principal  items  of  ex- 
pense (for  maintenance  and  operation)  beinp 
about  $160,000  for  the  police  department,  $140.- 
000  for  the  fire  department,  $290,000  for  schools. 
$300,000  for  bureau  of  waters,  and  $90,000  for 
street  lighting. 

Pop.,  1870,  69,422;  1880,  90,758;  1890,  94,923: 
1900,  94,151,  including  17,700  persons  of  foreign 
birth  and  1200  of  negro  descent. 

History.  Albany  claims  to  be  the  second  old- 
est permanent  settlement  within  the  limits  of  tho 
thirteen  colonies,  and  has  a  much  greater  histori- 
cal significance  on  account  of  its  strategic  im- 
portance during  the  century  of  conflict  between 
the  English  and  French  in  America  and  in  the 
American  Revolution.  As  early  as  1524.  the 
French  navigator  Verrazano  sailed  up  the  Hud- 
son River,  and  about  1540  a  French  trading  post 


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ALBANY. 


was  set  up  near  the  present  site  of  Albany.  But 
this  proved  only  temporary,  and  the  continuous 
history  of  the  place  dates  from  the  effective  dis- 
covery of  the  region  by  Henry  Hudson  in  1609. 
Hudson's  voyage  was  followed  by  Dutch  traders, 
who,  in  1614,  esta'blished  a  trading  station  on 
Castle  Island  under  the  name  of  Fort  Nassau. 
Three  years  later,  the  trading  post  was  removed 
to  the  mainland  and  given  the  name  Be-^erwyck. 
The  first  actual  settlers,  however,  were  eighteen 
Walloon  families,  who  arrived  in  1624.  During 
the  same  year,  Fort  Orange,  or  Aurania,  was 
built,  near  the  site  of  the  present  State  Capitol. 
Two  years  later  an  Indian  war  broke  up  the 
settlement  for  a  time.  In  1G29,  Killiaen  Van 
Kensselaer  obtained  an  extensive  grant  of  land 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Fort  Orange,  and  sent 
over  settlers  from  Holland,  who  rented  their 
land  from  him  as  their  patroon,  or  lord  of  the 
manor.  ( See  Patroon.  )  On  the  transfer  of  New 
Netherlands  to  the  English,  in  1664,  the  name 
of  Albany  was  given  to  the  settlement,  in  honor 
of  the  Duke  of  York  and  Albany,  afterward 
James  II. ;  and  shortly  afterward  a  long-standing 
dispute  as  to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  patroon 
over  the  earlier  settlements  was  compromised. 
In  1686,  Albany  received  a  city  charter  from 
Governor  Dongan,  providing  for  an  elected  coun- 
cil and  a  mayor  to  be  appointed  by  the  governor. 
The  first  mayor,  Peter  Schuyler,  continued  to 
serve  until  1694.  The  settlement  continued  to 
be  inhabited  mainly  by  the  Dutch,  but  the 
increase  in  the  English  population  is  indicated 
by  the  erection  of  an  English  church  in  1714. 

As  a  frontier  town  open  to  Indian  attacks, 
Albany  was  protected  not  only  by  the  fort,  but 
by  a  stockade  surrounding  the  compactly  built 
area.  During  the  French  and  Indian  wars,  the 
city  was  the  storehouse  for  munitions  of  war, 
the  rendezvous  for  the  troops,  and  a  place  of 
safety  for  refugees  and  wounded  soldiers.  In 
1754,  there  was  held  at  Albany  the  first  general 
Congress  (see  Albany  Contention)  of  all  the 
colonies,  at  which  plans  of  union  were  discussed. 

Burgoyne's  campaign  in  1777  was  directed 
against  Albany,  as  the  key  to  the  situation  in 
the  north;  but  the  battle  of  Saratoga  preserved 
this  strategic  point  to  the  patriots.  During  the 
next  twenty  years  Albany  was  at  times  the  head- 
quarters of  the  State  government;  in  1797  it 
was  made  the  permanent  capital  of  the  State, 
and  the  first  State  house  was  built  a  few  years 
later. 

In  1820.  Albany  had  a  population  of  only 
12,630;  but  the  Erie  Canal  opened  a  new  field 
for  commercial  activity,  and  brought  a  rapid 
development.  By  1840  the  population  was  33,- 
721,  or  nearly  treble  that  of  twenty  years  before; 
by  1860  it  had  reached  62,367,  but  since  then 
the  increase  has  been  at  a  slower  rate.  In  1839 
there  began  the  "Anti-Rent  War"  (see  Anti- 
Rkntism  ) ,  the  result  of  an  attempt  by  the  Van 
Kennsselaer  heirs  to  collect  the  quit-rents  on  the 
old  leases  made  in  the  pre-Revolutionary  days. 
Albany  has  been  visited  by  several  disastrous 
fires,  those  in  1797  and  1848  being  the  most 
destructive.  The  lower  part  of  the  city  has  often 
been  inundated  by  spring  fioods  in  the  river.  In 
1886  the  bi-centennial  of  the  incorporation  of 
the  city  was  celebrated  with  elaborate  ceremo- 
nies; and  on  January  6,  1897,  the  centennial  of 
the  selection  of  the  city  as  the  State  capital  was 
also  commemorated.  In  1894,  the  Delavan 
House,  for  fifty  years  the  resort  of  politicians 
Vol.  I.— 18 


and  eminent  men,  was  burned.  See  A.  J.  Weise, 
The  History  of  the  City  of  Albany  (Albany, 
1884) ;  J.  Munsell,  The  Annals  of  Albany,  10  vol- 
umes (Albany,  1850-59),  and  Collections  on  the 
City  of  Albany,  4  volumes  (Albany,  1865-71); 
and  a  sketch  in  L.  P.  Powell's  Historic  Towns 
of  the  Middle  States  (New  York,  1899). 

ALBANY.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Linn 
Co.,  Oregon,  85  miles  south  by  west  of  Portland, 
on  the  Willamefte  Biver,  and  on  the  Southern 
Pacific  and  the  Corvalli  and  Eastern  railroads 
(Map:  Oregon,  C  5).  The  river,  crossed  here 
by  a  fine  steel  bridge,  supplies  good  water  power. 
There  are  wagon  and  furniture  factories,  saw 
and  planing  mills,  foundries  and  machine  shops, 
a  wire  mattress  factory,  brickyards,  and  woolen 
and  flouring  mills.  Flour,  grain,  and  sandstone 
are  exported.  Albany  was  settled  about  1850, 
and  was  incorporated  in  1864.  Pop.,  1890,  3079; 
1900,  3149. 

ALBANY.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Dough- 
erty Co.,  Ga.,  107  miles  south  by  west  of 
Macon;  on  the  Flint  River,  at  the  head  of  hi^h 
water  navigation,  and  on  the  Central  of  Georgia, 
the  Plant  System,  the  Seaboard  Air  Line,  and 
the  Albany  and  Northern  railroads  (Map:  Geor- 
gia, B  4).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and 
controls  large  commercial  interests,  particularly 
in  cotton,  cottonseed  oil,  bricks,  fertilizers,  lum- 
ber, etc.  The  city  has  "wide  streets  and  hand- 
some residences;  is  the  home  of  the  Georgia 
Chautauijua ;  and  is  noted  for  numerous  artesian 
wells,  which  are  the  exclusive  source  of  the  water 
supply.  Settled  in  1836,  Albany  was  incorpo- 
rated two  years  later.  The  government,  under  a 
charter  of  1899,  is  administered  by  a  mayor, 
elected  every  two  years,  and  a  city  council,  whose 
consent  is  required  for  all  appointments  of 
administrative  officials  made  by  the  mayor.  The 
water  works  and  electric  li^ht  plant  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  municipality.  Pop.,  1890, 
4008;  1900,  4606. 

ALBANY.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Gentry 
Co.,  Mo.,  50  miles  northeast  of  St.  Joseph,  on 
the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad 
(Map:  Missouri,  B  1).  It  is  a  residential  place, 
with  commercial  interests  and  some  industrial 
•establishments,  but  is  known  primarily  as  the 
seat  of  Central  Christian  College  (Christian), 
opened  in  1892,  and  of  the  Northwest  Missouri 
College  ( Methodist  Episcopal,  South ) ,  opened  in 
1893.  Settled  in  1840  and  incorporate  about 
two  years  later,  Albany  is  governed,  under  a 
charter  of  1807,  by  a  mayor,  biennially  elected, 
and  a  city  council.  The  water  works  and  electric 
light  plant  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  muni- 
cipality.   Pop.,  1890,  1334;  1900,  2025. 

ALBANY,  or  AL3AINN.  An  ancient  name 
for  Scotland,  retained  in  poetical  usage  down  to 
our  own  day.  Connected  with  it  is  the  term 
Albiones,  applied  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  entire 
British  Islands  in  Festus  Avienus's  account  of 
the  voyage  of  Hamilcar,  the  Carthaginian,  in 
the  fifth  century  B.C.;  also  the  term  Albion 
(q.v.),  which  appears  as  the  name  of  the  islands 
in  Aristotle's  Treatise  of  the  World,  It  may,  in- 
deed, be  assumed  that  Albion,  or  Albany,  was  the 
original  name  of  Britain  among  Its  Celtic  popu- 
lation, and  that  it  only  became  restricted  to  the 
northwest  provinces  of  Scotland  when  the  Celts 
had  for  the  most  part  become  confined  to  the 
same  region.  The  modern  use  of  the  name  Al- 
bany may  be  said  to  have  taken  its  rise  in  an 


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ALBATB0S8. 


act  of  a  Scottish  council,  held  at  Scone,  in  June, 
1398,  when  the  title  oif  Duke  of  Albany  was 
conferred  on  the  brother  of  King  Robert  III., 
then  acting  as  regent  of  the  kingdom.  The  title, 
being  forfeited  in  the  grandson  of  the  first  holder, 
was  afterward  conferred  on  Alexander,  second 
son  of  King  James  II.,  in  the  person  of  whose 
son,  John,  it  became  extinct  in  1536.  Subse- 
quently it  was  conferred  on  a  number  of  princes 
of  the  royal  family.  Prince  Charles  Stuart,  as- 
sumed the  appellation  of  Count  of  Albany  as 
an  incognito  title,  and  gave  the  title  of  Duchess 
of'  Albany  to  his  legitimated  daughter.  The 
title  was  restored  in  1881  and  conferred  upon 
Prince  Leopold,  and  after  his  death  upon  his 
son.     See  Leopold,  Stuart. 

ALBANY,  Duke  of.  See  Leopold,  George 
DuNCAX  Albert. 

ALBANY,  Duke  of.  In  Shakespeare's  King 
Lear  (q.v.),  the  husband  of  Lear's  daughter 
Goner il    ( q.v. ) . 

ALBANY,  Louisa  Maria  Caroline,  also 
Aloysia,  Countess  of  (1753-1824).  The  wife 
of  Charles  Edward  Stuart  (q.v.),  grandson  of 
James  II.  of  England.  She  was  the  daughter  of 
Prince  Gustavus  Adolphus  of  Stolberg-Gedern, 
who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Leuthen  in  1757.  Dur- 
ing her  married  life  she  bore  the  name  of  the 
Countess  of  Albany.  She  had  no  children,  her 
marriage  proved  an  unhappy  one,  and  in  order 
to  escape  from  the  ill-usage  of  her  husband,  who 
lived  in  a  state  of  continual  drunkenness,  she 
sought  refuge  in  a  nunnery,  1780.  At  the  death 
of  the  Prince,  in  1788,  the  court  of  France  al- 
lowed her  an  annual  pension  of  60,000  livres. 
She  outlived  the  house  of  the  Stuarts,  which  be- 
came extinct  at  the  death  of  her  brother-in-law, 
Cardinal  York,  in  1807.  At  Florence,  where 
she  lived  for  a  long  time,  her  palace  was  a 
notable  resort  for  men  famous  in  political  and 
literary  circles.  Her  name  and  her  misfortunes 
have  been  transmitted  to  posterity  through  the 
works  and  autobiography  of  Al fieri  (q.v.),  whose 
mistress  she  was  after  the  death  of  the  Prince, 
and  through  the  treasures  of  the  Mus^  Fabre, 
founded  by  another  of  her  lovers.  Her  body  and 
that  of  Alfieri  repose  in  the  same  tomb  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  between  the 
tombs  of  Macchiavelli  and  Michael  Angelo.  Con- 
sult: Lee,  The  Countess  of  Albany  (London, 
1884)  ;  Reumont,  Die  Oriifin  von  Albany  (Berlin, 
18(i0). 

ALBANY  CONVENTION  OF  1754.  In 
1754,  when  hostilities  were  about  to  begin  be- 
tween the  French  and  English  in  America,  the 
lords  of  trade  recommended  that  an  intercolonial 
convention  be  called  to  "confirm  and  establish  the 
ancient  friendship  of  the  Five  Nations"  and  con- 
sider plans  for  a  permanent  union  among  the 
colonies.  On  June  10,  coramisHioners  from  Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  New  York 
assembled  at  Albany,  and,  after  arranging  for 
the  participation  of  the  Indians  in  the  war, 
adopted,  with  some  modifications  (July  11),  a 
plan  of  intercolonial  union  proposed  by  Frank- 
lin. This  plan  provided  for  the  appointment  by 
the  crown  of  a  president-general,  who  was  to 
nominate  military  officers,  commission  all  offi- 
cers, and  have  veto  power  over  the  acts  of  the 
Grand  Council:  and  for  a  Grand  Council,  to  be 
made  up  of  representatives  chosen  by  each  col- 
ony every  three  years,  no  colony  to  have  more 


than  seven  members  nor  less  than  two.  Thi« 
council  was  not  to  be  prorogued,  dissolved,  or 
kept  in  session  longer  than  six  weeks  against  its 
consent)  and,  with  the  approval  of  the  president- 
general,  was  to  manage  Indian  affairs,  authorize 
new  settlements,  nominate  all  civil  officers,  im- 
pose taxes,  enlist  and  pay  troops,  and  construct 
forts,  all  of  its  acts  to  be  valid  unless  vetoed  by 
the  crown  within  three  years.  The  plan  wis 
everywhere  rejected — ^by  the  court  and  the  royal 
governors,  because  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the 
colonies;  by  the  colonies,  because  it  gave  too 
much  power  to  the  king.  It  is  notable  as  being 
the  first  comprehensive  scheme  of  union  formally 
proposed  to  the  various  colonial  government  in 
America.  Consult:  New  York  Colonial  Docu- 
ments, Volume  VI.;  and  R.  Frothingham,  Rise 
of  the  Republic  (Boston,  1872). 

ALBANT  BE^OENCYy  The.    A  name  popu- 
larly given  to  a  group  of  New  York  Democrats 
living  at  Albany,  who,  from  1820  to  about  1850, 
controlled  the  nominating  conventions  and  pat- 
ronage of  their  party  within  the  State,  and  by 
dictating  its  general  policy,  exerted  a  powerful 
influence  in  national  as  well  as  State  politics. 
They    derived    their    power    largely    from   their 
great  personal  influence  and  remarkable  political 
sagacity,  and  were,  for  the  most  part,  earnest 
opponents  of  political   corruption,  though  they 
uniformly  acted  upon  the  principle,  first  formu- 
lated in  1833  by  one  of  their  number  (Maroy), 
that  "to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils."    Among 
those  who  at  various  times  were  members  of  this 
unofficial  body  were :  ^fartin  Van  Buren,  William 
L.   Marcy,   Silas  Wright,  John  A.   Dix,  Edwin 
Croswell,  Benjamin  F.  Butler,  A.  C.  Flagg,  Dean 
Richmond,   and    Samuel   A.   Talcott,   several  of 
whom  "graduated"  from  it  into  high  offices  under 
the  national  government.     The  Regency's  los«»  of 
prestige  dated  from  about  1848,  when  their  op- 
ponents adopted  methods  similar  to  their  own, 
and   the   Democratic   party   in   the    State   split 
into  irreconcilable  factions.    (See  Babnburnebs.) 
Consult:   J.  D.  Hammond,  History  of  Political 
Parties  in  the  State  of  New  York  ( Cooperstown, 
1846)  ;    Morgan   Dix,   Memoirs   of  John  A.  Dix 
(New  York,  1883). 
AL'BATEGanrcrS.     See  Al-Battanl 
AI/BATB0S8    (Corrupted   from   Portug.  al- 
catraZy  the  cormorant,  from  Ar.  al,  the  -f  qAdus, 
bucket,  referring  to  its  water-carrying  pouch). 
A  popular  name  for  the  large  marine  birds  of  the 
family  Diomedea,  closely  related  to  the  petrels 
(q.v.)".     Albatrosses  are  among  the  most  exclu- 
sively   pelagic    birds    known.      They    occur    on 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  ocean,  excepting  only  the 
north  Atlantic,  and  even  there,  owing  to  their 
extraordinary  powers  of  flight,  they  are  occa- 


BEAK  OF  AN  ALBATBOS8. 


sionally  seen.     Like  the  petrels,  albatrosses  have 
the  hind  toe,  or  hallux,  reduced  to  a  mere  claw. 


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ALBEDO. 


or  entirely  wanting,  while  the  other  three  toes 
are  fully  webbed.  The  nostrils  also  open  at  the 
ends  of  nearly  cylindrieal,  horizontal  tubes,  a 
character  upon  which  the  order  Tubinares  is 
based.  Albatrosses  differ  from  petrels,  however, 
not  only  in  their  great  size,  but  also  in  having 
the  nostril  tubes  placed  one  on  each  side  of  the 
bill,  at  its  base,  instead  of  close  together  on  top. 
The  bill  of  an  albatross  is  a  heavy  and  powerful 
structure,  four  inches  long  or  more,  and  strongly 
hooked  at  the  tip.  The  covering  consists  of  sev- 
eral distinct  plates  of  horn.  The  plumage  of  the 
body  is  very  thick  and  compact,  and  well  adapted 
to  withstand  not  only  water  but  cold.  Experi- 
ment has  shown  that  an  albatross  can  withstand 
a  temperature  far  below  freezing  for  weeks  at  a 
time,  even  when  confined,  so  that  active  move- 
ment is  impossible.  The  tail  is  comparatively 
short  ai^  more  or  less  rounded,  but  the  wings 
are  exceedingly  long  and  pointed.  The  great 
length  of  wing  is  largely  due  to  the  unusual 
length  of  the  humerus  and  the  radius  and  ulna. 
Owing  to  this  great  length  of  upper  arm  and 
forearm,  the  number  of  flight-feathers  carried 
on  the  wing  exceeds  that  of  any  other  known 
bird,  the  number  of  secondaries  being  about 
forty.  As  might  be  supposed  from  their  size, 
albatrosses  are  very  voracious.  Their  food  is  all 
gathered  from  the  surface  of  the  sea,  as  they  do 
not  dive.  Fishes,  pelagic  mollusks,  and  other 
floating  animal  matter,  including  the  offal  of 
vessels,  compose  the  food  of  these  birds,  and  they 
may  be  caught  from  a  vessel  with  hook  and 
line  baited  with  salt  pork.  Their  power  of  flight 
is  very  remarkable,  and  they  occasionally  follow 
vessels  for  days  at  a  time.  Because  of  this  habit, 
and  because  they  are  almost  the  only  visible  in- 
habitants of  the  wastes  of  the  southern  oceans, 
sailors  regard  them  with  superstitious  affection, 
and  it  is  considered  a  forerunner  of  most  serious 
misfortune  to  kill  an  albatross.  This  fact  has 
passed  into  literature  in  Coleridge's  Rime  of 
the  Ancient  Mariner,  The  best  modem  descrip- 
tion of  the  bird  is  in  Froude's  Oceana.  Alba- 
trosses seldom  visit  land,  and  then  only  remote 
antarctic  islands,  to  breed.  Usually  no  nest  is 
made,  but  the  single  egg  is  dropped  on  the  bare 
earth.  The  egg  is  large  and  white,  and  somewhat 
ellipsoidal  in  shape. 

The  number  of  species  of  albatross  is  still 
doubtful,  but  it  is  probably  not  less  than  ten, 
nor  more  than  a  dozen.  Of  these  all  but  one  or 
two  are  placed  in  the  genus  Diomedea.  The 
largest,  and  perhaps  the  best  known,  species  is 
the  wandering  albatross  (Diomedea  exulana), 
wliich  is  found  throughout  the  southern  oceans, 
and  oocasionally  strays  to  Europe  and  to  Florida. 
The  plumage  of  the  adult  is  chiefly  white,  but 
the  larger  wing-coverts  and  part  of  the  back  are 
more  or  less  barred  with  black.  The  young  are 
dusky,  lightest  on  the  head.  This  species  is 
four  or  five  feet  in  length,  and  ten  to  twelve  feet 
in  extent  of  wings.  On  the  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America  occur  two  species,  the  short-tailed 
{Diomedea  albatrus)  and  the  black- footed  {Dio- 
medea nigripes),  both  of  which  are  said  to  be 
abundant.  They  are  rather  small  for  albatrosses, 
only  three  feet  long  and  about  seven  feet  across 
the  wings.  Another  species  of  about  the  same 
size,  widely  distributed  over  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
is  the  sooty  albatross  (Phoehetria  fuliffinosa). 
These  three  species  are  easily  distinguished  by 
their  color:  The  short-tailed  albatross  is  white, 
with  dark  wings  and  tail  and  flesh-colored  feet; 


the  black-footed  is  dark  chocolate  brown,  whiten- 
ing on  the  head,  and  the  feet  are  black ;  while  the 
sooty  albatross  is  uniform  sooty-brown,  with 
light-colored  feet.  The  last  species  also  has  a 
wedge-shaped  tail  and  a  slender  bill.  The  yellow- 
nosed  albatross  {Diomedea  ohlorohyncha) ,  so 
called  from  the  color  of  the  bill,  is  a  well-known 
southern  species.  All  these  small  forms  are 
known  to  sailors  as  "mollymucks."  See  Plate  of 
Auks,  Albatbosses,  etc. 

AL-BATTA^NI,  Muhammed  ben  Jabib  ben 
Sin  AN,  Abu  Addallah  (so-called  from  Bat- 
tan  in  Mesopotamia)  (c.  850-920).  An  Arab 
chief,  one  of  the  most  famous  astronomers  and 
mathematicians  of  his  race.  His  first  astronom- 
ical observations  were  made  at  Rakka  (877- 
878),  and  extended  over  a  period  of  more  than 
forty  years.  He  also  made  several  important 
contributions  to  pure  mathematics.  He  used 
the  sine  of  an  angle  in  place  of  the  chord  of 
double  the  angle  (an  idea  that  had  occurred  to 
Aryabhatta),  computed  a  table  of  cotangents, 
and  formulated  certain  propositions  in  spherical 
trigonometry.  His  astronomical  works  were  first 
made  generally  known  to  European  scholars 
through  a  translation  by  Plato  of  Tivoli,  under 
the  title  Mahometis  Alhatenii  de  acientia  atel- 
larum  liher.  This  was  printed  at  Nuremberg  in 
1537,  and  again  at  Pologna  in  1645,  with  notes  by 
Regiomontanus.  He  corrected  numerous  errors 
of  Ptolemy,  whom,  in  general,  he  followed;  e.g., 
he  gave  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic  as  23**  35' 
instead  of  23**  61'  20".  He  also  gave  the  length 
of  the  tropical  year  as  365  days,  5  hours,  46 
minutes,  24  seconds;  too  short  by  2  minutes,  26 
seconds,  but  an  improvement  upon  that  of  Hip- 
parchus,  who  gave  365^,4  days  —  ^^  day,  which 
was  too  short  by  4  minutes,  48  seconds. 

ALBATJGH,  ftl'bft,  John  W.  (1837—).  An 
American  actor  and  manager.  He  was  born  Sep- 
tember 30,  1837,  at  Baltimore,  where  he  made 
his  first  appearance  as  Brutus  in  a  play  called 
Brutus,  or  the  Fall  of  Tarquin  (1855),  on  a 
stage  managed  by  Joseph  Jefferson.  Of  Mr.  Al- 
baugh's  many  subsequent  impersonations,  per- 
haps his  best  known  was  that  of  Louis  XI.,  at 
what  later  became  Daly's  Theatre,  in  New  York. 
Since  1868  he  has  been  manager  of  theatres  in 
St.  Louis,  New  Orleans,  and  Albany,  and  for  a 
number  of  years  in  Washington  and  Baltimore, 
where  he  owns  the  new  Lyceum.  He  retired  from 
the  stage  in  1899.  Much  of  his  leisure  in  recent 
years  has  been  devoted  to  his  noted  stock  farm 
near  Washington.  Consult  Clapp  and  Edgett, 
Playei's  of  the  Present,  Dunlap  Society,  publish- 
ers (New  York,  1899). 

ALBAYy  &l-bl'.  A  province  and  a  town  of 
Luzon,  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  The  prov- 
ince takes  in  the  southern  end  of  the  island  and 
contains  an  area  of  2262  square  miles,  and  a 
population  of  296,850  (Map:  Philippine  Islands, 
F  6).  The  surface  bears  traces  of  volcanic 
origin,  and  the  province  has  several  extinct  vol- 
canoes and  the  active  volcano  of  Mount  Mayon. 
It  is  well  watered  and  has  good  roads.  A  con- 
siderable part  is  covered  by  thick  forests,  full  of 
good  timber  and  game.  The  chief  city  is  situated 
near  the  eastern  coast,  on  the  Bay  of  Albay.  It 
has  a  good  harbor  and  is  the  seat  of  a  consider- 
able trade.    Pop.,  about  14,000. 

ALBE^DO  (Lat.  whiteness).  In  astronomy, 
the  refiecting  power  of  a  planet's  surface.  The 
quantity  of  refiected  solar  light  received  by  us 


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from  any  given  planet  depends,  of  course,  on  the 
character  of  that  planet's  surface.  If  it  were 
like  polished  silver,  for  instance,  the  albedo 
would  be  very  high;  much  higher,  indeed,  than 
the  power  actually  possessed  oy  the  surface  of 
any  known  planet.  Astronomers  designate  the 
albedo  of  any  planet  b^  means  of  a  fraction  in- 
dicating the  ratio  of  light  reflected  to  the  total 
quantity  of  light  received.  Thus  the  moon's 
average  albedo  is  0.13,  which  means  that  about 
one-sixth  of  the  light  received  by  the  moon  from 
the  sun  is  again  reflected.  The  albedo  of  mer- 
cury is  0.14;  of  Venus,  0.76;  of  the  earth  (rough- 
ly), 0.20;  of  Mars,  0.22;  of  Jupiter,  0.62;  of 
Saturn,  0.72;  of  Uranus,  0.60;  and  of  Neptune, 
0.52. 

AXBEMAHTjE,  first  Ditkb  of.  See  Monk 
or  Monk,  George. 

ALBEHABLEy  The.  A  Confederate  "^  ram, 
which,  after  doing  great  damage  to  the  Federal 
shipping,  was  blown  up  and  completely  destroyed 
on  the  night  of  October  27,  1864,  by  W.  B.  Gush- 
ing.    See  CusHiNO,  W.  B. 

ALBEMABLE,   or  ISABELLA,   ISLAND. 

The  largest  of  the  Galapagos  Islands  (q.v.), 
lying  between  lats.  0**  15'  N.  and  1**  5'  S.,  and 
longs.  90**  50'  W.  and  91*  45'  W.  It  is  of  volcanic 
origin  and  irregular  in  form,  its  greatest  length 
about  90  miles  and  its  greatest  breadth  about 
50.  The  surface,  which  covers  an  area  of 
1650  square  miles,  is  elevated,  reaching  an  alti- 
tude of  4700  feet.  Albemarle  Point  is  the  north- 
ernmost extremity  of  the  island. 

ALBEMABLE  SOTTHD.  An  inlet  in  the 
coast  of  North  Carolina,  60  miles  long  and  4  to 
15  miles  wide,  separated  from  the  ocean  by  an 
island,  and  not  appreciably  affected  by  the  tides 
(Map:  North  Carolina,  F  1).  It  receives  the 
Roanoke,  Chowan,  Perquimans,  Little,  and  Pas- 
quotank rivers,  and  is  connected  with  Currituck 
and  Croatan  sounds,  the  latter  of  which  flows 
into  Pamlico  Sound.  It  is  about  12  miles  in 
length,  and  its  greatest  depth  is  18  feet.  It  is  so 
shallow  in  some  places  that  it  is  of  little  value 
for  navigation. 

ALBEB,  al'bfir,  Matthaus  (1495-1570).  A 
German  theologian,  one  of  the  promoters  of  the 
Reformation.  He  was  bom  at  Reutlingen,  near 
Stuttgart,  was  educated  at  Ttibingen,  and  in 
1521  returned  to  preach  in  Reutlingen,  where 
he  introduced  the  Reformation.  He  rejected 
Latin,  and  used  the  native  tongue  in  church 
services,  put  out  the  images,  and  took  a  wife. 
He  was  summoned  before  the  imperial  chambers, 
and  charged  with  nearly  seventy  distinct  heresies, 
to  all  of  which,  save  that  of  speaking  disrespect- 
fully of  the  mother  of  Christ,  he  confessed  guilty. 
He  was  tried,  but  set  free  without  punishment. 
Alber  was  a  friend  and  ally  of  Luther.  He  has 
been  called,  indeed,  the  "Luther  of  Suabia," 
because  of  the  great  part  he  played  in  that 
country.  Some  of  his  sermons,  a  catechism,  and 
a  work  on  Providence  have  been  published.  For 
his  life  consult:  J.  Hartmann  (Tttbingen,  1863). 

ALBEBDn^GK  THYM,  ai'ber-dlok  tim', 
JosEPHUS  Albertus  (1820-89).  A  Dutch  author, 
born  at  Amsterdam.  In  1876  he  was  appointed 
professor  of  cesthetics  in  the  Art  Academy  at 
Amsterdam.  From  1852  he  edited  the  V'olks- 
almanak  voor  Nederlandsche  Katholickeriy  and 
from  1865  De  Dietsche  Warande,  devoted  to 
the  art  and  literature  of  the  Middle  Ages.     He 


published  newspaper  criticisms,  Drie  Gedichtn 
(1844),  De  Klok  v<m  Delft  (1846),  Palet  en 
Harp  (1849),  Verspreide  VerKalen  in  Proza  (3 
volumes,  1879-83),  and  other  volumes.  His 
prose  fiction  is  considered  his  best  work.  Con- 
sult the  biography  by  Van  der  Duys  (1889). 

ALBEBIC  I.,  &l^r-Ik  (died  925).  An  adven- 
turer, of  Lombard  extraction,  who  appeared  in 
Rome  in  889.  He  soon  joined  his  fortunes  with 
those  of  Berengar  (q.v.),  became  Margrave  of 
Camerino,  and  later  Duke  of  Spoleto.  He  mar- 
ried Marozia  (q.v.)  before  915,  and  in  916  joined 
John  X.  in  expelling  the  Saracens,  who  had  ter- 
rorized Italy  for  more  than  thirty  years.  For 
his  sen-ices  he  was  probably  made  "Consul  of  the 
Romans."  Nothing  definite  is  known  of  his  later 
years ;  but  he  is  said  to  have  ruled  Rome  despot- 
ically for  a  time,  to  have  been  driven  /rom  the 
city,  to  have  summoned  the  Hungarians  to  his 
aid,  and  to  have  been  slain  by  the  Romans  about 
925. 

ALBEBIC  n.  (?-954).  The  son  of  Alberic 
I.  and  Marozia.  In  932  he  led  the  Romans  in 
a  successful  attempt  to  achieve  their  indepen- 
dence, and  was  elected  "prince  and  senator  of 
all  the  Romans."  Until  his  death,  in  954.  he 
ruled  the  city  absolutely,  but  wisely  and  mod- 
erately. He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Octavian, 
who  became  Pope,  as  John  XII.,  in  955. 

ALBEBONI,    arbfi-ro'nd,   Gitlio,    Cabdixal 
(1664-1752).    An   Italian   prelate,   minister  of 
Philip  V.  of  Spain.     He  was  the  son  of  a  poor 
vine-dresser,   and   was   born   at   Firenzuola.  in 
Parma.     From  a  chorister  in  a  church  at  Piacen- 
za,  he  quickly  rose,  through  his  abilities,  to  the 
dignity    of    chaplain    and    favorite    of    Count 
Roncovieri,  bishop  of  San  Donino.    After  some 
diplomatic    service    in    Italy    and    a    visit    to 
Paris,  he  was  sent  by  the  Duke  of  Parma  as 
chargS  d'affaires  to  Madrid,  where  he  speed  iljr 
gained  the  favor  of  Philip  V.    He  brought  about 
the  king's  marriage  to  Elizabeth  Farnese,  over- 
threw the  powerfid  Countess  Orsini,  and  rapidly 
became  grandee,  cardinal,  and   prime  minister 
(1717).     Into   the   languid   body   of   moribund 
Spain  he  infused  new  energy,  invigorated  her 
government,  revived  her  commerce  and  her  manu- 
factures,   reconstructed    her    army,    rebuilt    her 
fleet.    But  Alberoni  was  ambitious,  and  in  order  to 
gratify  the  covetous  desires  of  Elizabeth  Farnese, 
he  suddenly  invaded  Sardinia,  in  violation  of  the 
Peace  of  Utrecht,  cherishing  the  hope  of  reestab- 
lishing the  monarchy  of  Charles  V.  and  Philip 
II.,  and  startling  Europe  by  his  insolent  audac- 
ity.    The  regent  of  France  broke  off  his  alliance 
with  Spain,  and  united  himself  with  England 
and    Austria.     Alberoni     was     not    dismayed. 
Even  when  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  Mediterra- 
nean was  destroyed  by  an  English  one,  he  con- 
templated an  extensive  war  by  land,  in  which  all 
the   European   powers  were  to   have  been   en- 
tangled.   He  patronized  the  Pretender,  to  annoy 
England,  and  the  French  Protestants,  to  annoy 
France.    He  sought  to  unite  Peter  the  Great  and 
Charles  XII.  with  him,  to  plunge  Austria  into 
a  war  with  the  Turks,  and  to  stir  up  an  insurret  - 
tion  in  Hungary;  and,  through  his  influence  with 
one  of  the  parties  at  the  French  court,  he  actu- 
ally accomplished  the  arrest  of  the  r^ent  himself 
(the  Duke  of  Orleans).     But  so  universal  be- 
came   the    complaints    against    Alberoni,    that 
Philip  lost  courage,  and  made  peace,  agreeing  to 
the  dismissal  of  the  Cardinal.    In  1719  Alberoni 


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received  a  command  to  quit  Madrid  within  eight 
days  and  the  kingdom  within  three  weeks. 
Exposed  to  the  vengeance  of  every  power  whose 
hatred  he  had  drawn  upon  himself,  he  knew  no 
land  where  he  could  remain.  Not  even  to  Rome 
could  he  venture,  for  Clement  XI.  was  more  bit- 
terly inimical  to  him  than  was  any  secular  poten- 
tate. He  wandered  about  in  disguise  and  under 
fictitious  names.  At  length  he  was  imprisoned 
in  the  Genoese  territory,  through  the  solicitation 
of  the  Pope  and  the  Spanish  monarch;  but  he 
speedily  recovered  his  liberty,  and  two  years  after 
the  death  of  Clement,  was  reinstated  by  Innocent 
XIII.  in  all  the  rights  and  dignities  of  a  car- 
dinal. In  1740  he  retired  to  Piacenza,  where  he 
died  twelve  years  after,  at  the  age  of  eighty- 
eight.  He  bequeathed  his  possessions  in  Lom- 
bardy  to  Philip  V.,  while  his  cousin  and  heir, 
Cesare  Alberoni,  became  possessor  of  1,000,000 
ducats.  Consult:  Rousset,  Histoire  du  Cardinal 
Alheroni  (The  Hague,  1719),  English  translation 
(I^ndon,  1719)  ;  Bersani,  Storia  del  cardinale 
Qiulio  Alheroni    (Piacenza,  1862). 

AIiBEBS,  ftl^rs,  Johann  Fbiedrioh  Her- 
mann (1805-67).  A  German  physician,  profess- 
or of  pathology  at  Bonn.  He  established  there 
an  asylum  for  the  treatment  of  insanity  and 
nervous  diseases,  and  was  director  of  the  phar- 
macological cabinet.  His  atlas  of  pathological 
anatomy  (Bonn,  J8d2-62,  287  plates)  and  books 
on  various  branches  of  medical  science  were 
regarded  as  standard  works,  and  are  still  useful 
and  interesting. 

ALBEBT,  &in)9rt;  Ger,  pron.  ftl^rt.  In 
Goethe's  Sorrows  of  Werther  (q.v.),  the  husband 
of  Lotte,  with  whom  Werther  is  in  love.  The 
character  is  said  to  be  taken  from  that  of 
Goethe's  friend  Kestner. 

ALBEBT,  hVh^Ti.  A  character  in  Sheridan 
Knowles's  comedy.  The  Beggar  of  Beihnal  Oreen 
(q.v)  ;  the  beggar,  who  is  Lord  Wilfrid  in  dis- 
guise. 

ALBEBT,  Ger.  ALBBECHT,  &ia)reKt.  The 
name  borne  by  five  dukes  of  Austria,  of  whom 
two  (I.  and  V.)  were  also  emperors  of  Ger- 
many. Albert  I.,  Archduke  of  Austria  and  Em- 
peror of  Germany,  was  the  eldest  son  of  Rudolph 
of  Hapsburg,  and  was  born  in  1248.  Rudolph, 
before  his  death,  endeavored  to  have  Albert  ap- 
pointed as  his  successor  in  the  Empire;  but  the 
Electors,  already  aware  of  the  tyranny  of  Albert, 
refused  to  comply.  After  the  old  king's  death 
Austria  and  Styria  revolted ;  but  Albert,  having 
^igorou8Iy  crushed  the  rebellion,  turned  his  at- 
tention toward  the  Empire.  The  Archbishop  of 
^lainz,  an  instrument  of  the  Pope,  secured  the 
privilege  of  appointing  the  imperial  candidate, 
and  named  his  cousin,  Adolphus  of  Nassau,  in 
1292.  Albert  took  the  oath  of  allegiance  and 
quietly  awaited  developments.  In  1298,  Adol- 
phus, who  had  disgusted  his  subjects,  was  de-  . 
posed  and  Albert  was  elected.  He  was  obliged  to 
fight  for  the  new  honor,  and  met  his  rival  in  a 
battle  near  Worms,  in  which  Adolphus  was  de- 
feated and  slain.  Albert  was  crowned  at  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  August,  1298;  but  Pope  Boniface 
VIII.  declared  that  he  alone  was  empero^,  and 
denied  the  right  of  the  princes  to  elect  Albert  or 
to  recognize  him.  Albert,  however,  made  an  alli- 
ance with  Philip  the  Fair  of  France,  and  secur- 
ing the  neutrality  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg, 
invaded  the  Electorate  of  Mainz  and  forced  the 
Archbishop  to  make  an  alliance  with  him,  thus 


securing  a  former  ally  of  the  Pope.  Boniface 
was  alarmed  by  his  success  and  entered  into 
negotiations  with  him.  As  a  result,  Albert  broke 
his  alliance  with  Philip,  recognized  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  Pope,  and  promised  to  defend  the 
rights  of  the  Roman  court  whenever  called  upon. 
Boniface  then  excommunicated  Philip,  and 
offered  the  throne  to  Albert  in  1303;  but  Philip 
soon  retaliated  by  getting  the  Papacy  under  the 
power  of  the  French  crown.  After  this  Albert 
fought  unsuccessfully  against  Holland,  Zealand, 
Friesland,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  and  Thuringia. 
In  January,  1308,  news  arrived  of  a  rebellion 
among  the  Swiss  in  Unterwaldcn,  Schwyz,  and 
Uri,  and  the  Emperor  seized  this  pretext  to  sub- 
jugate the  country.  An  act  of  injustice,  how- 
ever, occasioned  a  crime  which  put  an  end  to  his 
life.  His  nephew,  Duke  John,  claimed  Suabia 
as  his  rightful  inheritance,  but  had  urged  his 
claims  in  vain.  When  Albert  was  departing 
for  Switzerland,  John  renewed  his  demands,  but 
was  refused,  and  so  he  resolved  to  be  revenged. 
He  conspired  against  his  uncle's  life  and  assas- 
sinated him  on  the  road  to  Rheinfelden,  while 
separated  from  his  followers  by  the  River  Reuss. 
The  Emperor  expired  May  1,  1308,  in  the  arms 
of  a  beggar  woman.  His  daughter,  Agnes,  Queen 
of  Hungary,  revenged  her  father's  death.  (See 
John,  the  Parricide.)  Albert  left  six  sons  and 
five  daughters,  the  children  of  his  marriage  with 
Elizabeth,  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Tyrol.  The 
story  of  William  Tell  is  connected  with  Albert  I. 
Albert  V.  (as  German  king,  Albert  II.),  was 
born  in  1397  and  inherited  the  duchy  of  Austria 
while  still  a  child.  After  receiving  what  was 
for  the  times  an  excellent  education,  he  assumed 
direct  control  of  the  government  in  1411.  In 
1422  he  married  the  daughter  of  the  Emperor 
Sigismund,  and  on  the  death  of  the  latter,  in 
1437,  succeeded,  by  election,  to  the  crowns  of 
Hungary  and  Bohemia.  In  March,  1438,  he  was 
elected  King  of  Germany.  Wars  with  the  Turks 
and  disorders  in  Bohemia  and  Hungary  disturbed 
his  short  reign.     He  died  October  27,  1439. 

ALBEBT  (?-1412).  Duke  of  Mecklenburg 
and  King  of  Sweden,  a  son  of  Duke  Albert 
I.  of  Mecklenburg.  Within  a  year  after  he  was 
proclaimed  King  of  Sweden  (1364)  he  was  com- 
pelled to  fight  against  his  uncle,  Magnus  II., 
whom  he  defeated  and  captured  at  the  battle  of 
Enk5ping.  Hakon  of  Norway,  a  son  of  the  lat- 
ter, who  had  also  disputed  the  right  of  succes- 
sion, fled  after  the  battle,  but  was  compelled  to 
sign  a  treaty  of  peace  in  which  he  renounced  all 
claims  to  the  throne.  The  victory,  however,  was 
bought  at  the  price  of  great  concessions  to  the 
Royal  Council,  and  Albert  could  find  no  sup- 
port among  the  people,  who  were  heavily  bur- 
dened with  taxes.  Consequently,  an  attempt  to 
restore  his  power  failed,  and  Margaret,  widow  of 
King  Hakon  of  Norway,  was  invited  to  the 
throne.  Albert  was  defeated  and  captured  at 
the  battle  of  Falkoping  (February  24,  1389), 
and  was  not  liberated  until  1396,  when  he  for- 
mally resigned  all  rights  to  the  crown,  and  re- 
tired to  Mecklenburg,  which,  as  Duke  Albert 
II.,  he  ruled  until  his  death.  The  accession  of 
Margaret  to  the  throne  of  Sweden  led,  in  1397, 
to  the  formation  of  the  celebrated  Union  of  Kal- 
mar,  by  which  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark 
were  formed  into  one  kingdom. 

ALBEBT  (1490-1568).  The  last  Grand  Mas- 
teV  of  the  Teutonic  Order  and  first  Duke  of  Prus- 


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ALBEBT. 


sia.  He  was  the  son  of  the  Margrave  Frederic 
of  Ansbach,  who  wished  him  to  enter  the  Church. 
He  was  educated  under  the  care  of  Archbishop 
Hermann,  of  Cologne,  where  he  became  a  canon. 
He  did  not,  however,  neglect  knightlj  exercises. 
He  accompanied  the  Kmperor  Maximilian  I.  in 
his  expedition  against  Venice,  and  was  present 
at  the  siege -of  Pavia.  In  1511,  when  scarcely 
twenty-one  years  old,  he  was  chosen  Grand  Mas- 
ter of  the  Teutonic  Order,  the  knights  expecting 
their  feudal  allegiance  to  Poland  to  be  abolished* 
on  account  of  his  near  relationship  to  Sigismund, 
the  monarch  of  that  country,  while  they  also 
hoped  for  protection  against  the  Poles  from  his 
friends  in  Germany.  He  was  consecrated  at 
Mergentheim  with  his  father's  consent.  In  1612 
he  removed  to  KOnigsberg,  having  been  acknowl- 
edged by  Poland  likewise;  but  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance,  he  was  plunged  into  a  war 
with  Sigismund  in  1520.  The  year  after,  a  four 
years'  truce  was  agreed  to  at  Thorn.  Albert 
next  made  his  appearance  at  the  Imperial  Diet 
at  Nuremberg  as  a  German  prince  of  the  Empire, 
to  induce  the  other  princes  to  assist  him  against 
the  Poles.  But  Germany  could  at  that  time 
grant  no  assistance  to  any  one.  Disappointed  in 
his  hopes,  Albert  threw  himself  into  the  cause 
of  the  Reformation,  which  had  rapidly  spread 
into  Prussia  and  broken  the  last  strength  of  the 
declining  order,  whose  possessions  now  appeared 
a  certain  prey  to  Poland.  He  still  hoped  to  pre- 
serve  these  by  acting  upon  Luther's  advice  to 
declare  himself  secular  Duke  of  Prussia  and 
place  his  land  under  the  sovereignty  of  Sigis- 
mund. This  was  done  with  great  pomp  at  Cra- 
cow in  April,  1525,  the  duchy  being  secured  to 
him  and  his  descendants.  During  the  remainder 
of  his  life  Albert  zealously  sought  to  further  the 
welfare  of  his  duchy.  He  regulated  the  adminis- 
tration of  all  affairs,  both  secular  and  ecclesias- 
tical, established  the  ducal  library,  founded  in 
1544  the  University  of  KOnigsberg,  gathered 
many  literary  men  around  him,  and  caused  their 
works  to  be  printed.  In  1527  he  married  Doro- 
thea, daughter  of  Frederick,  King  of  Denmark. 
Albert  earnestly  desired  peace,  but  found  himself 
entangled  in  conflicts  with  the  nobles  and  in  theo- 
logical disputes,  which,  along  with  other  troubles 
of  a  more  personal  character,  saddened  the  close 
of  his  life.  Consult :  Lohmeyer,  Herzog  Alhrecht 
von  Preusaen  (Dantzic,  1890)  ;  and  for  the  part 
played  by  Albert  in  the  Reformation,  Tschakert, 
Herzog  Alhrecht  von  Preusaen  (Halle,  1894). 

ALBEBT  (1559-1621).  Archduke  of  Austria. 
He  was  the  sixth  son  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
11.  He  was  brought  up  at  the  Spanish  court, 
and  dedicated  himself  to  the  Church.  In  1577 
he  was  made  cardinal,  in  1584  Archbishop  of 
Toledo,  and  during  the  years  1594-96  held  the 
office  of  Viceroy  of  Portugal.  He  was  next  ap- 
pointed stadtholder  of  the  Netherlands.  In  1598 
he  resigned  his  ecclesiastical  offices  and  left  the 
Church,  and  married  the  Infanta  Isabella,  re- 
ceiving with  her  the  Netherlands  and  Franche 
Comt6.  Had  it  been  possible  to  regain  by  any 
means  Spain's  rebellious  provinces,  Albert's  mild 
character  and  conciliatory  policy  might  have 
done  so.  As  it  was,  he  became  engaged  in  con- 
stant warfare  prosecuted  with  little  success  and 
marked  by  bitter  feeling  on  both  sides.  Later  in 
life  he  became  fanatic,  priest-ridden,  and  in  a 
measure  incapable  of  efficient  rule.  Consult: 
Dubois,  Hiatoire  d' Albert  et  d'laahelle  (Brussels, 


1847);  Schmolke,  Albert  und  laahella   (Berlin, 
1878). 

AI«BEBT  (1490-1545).  Archbishop  of  Mag- 
deburg and  Elector  of  Mainz,  generally  call^ 
Albert  of  Brandenburg.  He  was  the  younger  son 
of  the  Elector,  John  Cicero  of  Brandenburg,  and 
was  born  in  Brandenburg,  June  20,  1490.  In  1513 
he  became  Archbishop  olf  Magdeburg,  and  also 
administrator  of  the  bishopric  of  Halberstadt. 
and  in  the  next  year  Archbishop  and  Elector  of 
Mainz.  Leo  X.  granted  him  permission  to  sell 
indulgences,  on  condition  that  he  should  deliver 
up  half  the  proceeds  of  the  Papal  exchequer,  and 
Albert  appointed  the  Dominican  Tetzel  "indul- 
gence preacher,"  who,  by  the  shameless  manner 
in  which  he  went  about  his  work,  first  stirred 
Luther  to  post  up  his  well-known  ninety-fire 
theses.  He  was  made  a  cardinal  in  1518.  Even 
in  the  Archbishop's  own  diocese  the  reformer's 
doctrines  found  not  a  few  adherents,  so  that  Al- 
bert was  compelled  at  the  Imperial  Diet  at  Augs- 
burg ( 1530 )  to  act  the  part  of  peacemaker.  W^n 
he  joined  the  holy  alliance  against  the  League  of 
Schmalkalden.  Luther  made  a  fierce  att4u;k  on 
him  in  writing.  He  was  the  first  of  all  the  Ger- 
man princes  who  received  the  Jesuits  into  his  do- 
minions. In  1541  he  granted  religious  liberty 
to  his  subjects,  under  the  condition  that  they 
should  pay  his  debts,  amounting  to  500,000  flor- 
ins. He  died  at  Mainz,  September  24,  1545. 
For  his  life  consult:  J.  May  (Munich,  1865-75); 
Redlich,.  Albert  und  daa  Neue  8tift  $gu  HaUe 
(Mainz,  1000). 

ALBEBT,  called  Achilles  (1414-86).  Elec- 
tor of  Brandenburg,  third  son  of  Friedrich  1. 
and  Elizabeth  of  Bavaria.  He  was  born  at  Tan- 
germtlnde,  and  after  the  death  of  his  father,  in 
1440,  succeeded  to  the  margraviate  of  Ansbach, 
where,  together  with  severed  other  feudal  lords, 
he  soon  came  into  conflict  with  the  inhabitants 
of  the  cities  of  South  (Sermany,  which  were  unit- 
ed against  him.  In  1449  he  attacked  Xurem- 
berg,  but  was  defeated  at  Pillenreut  and  com- 
pelled to  effect  a  permanent  compromise 
(1453).  By  the  death  of  his  brother  John  he 
succeeded  to  the  margraviate  of  Bayreuth,  and  in 
1470  his  brother  Friedrich  II.  transferred  to 
him  the  margraviate  of  Brandenburg  and  the 
electoral  dignity.  He  was  fond  of  display  and 
amusements,  and  was  distinguished  by  an  en- 
lightenment far  in  advance  of  his  age. 

ALBEBTy  called  Alcibiabes  (1522-57).  A 
margrave  of  Brandenburg,  who  was  born  at 
Ansbach.  Although  reared  in  the  Protestant 
faith,  his  military  enthusiasm  and  love  of  power 
induced  him  to  serve  in  the  army  of  Charles  V., 
and  he  fought  in  the  campaign  against  France 
in  1543.  Afterward  he  conspired  against  the 
Emperor  with  Maurice  of  Saxony  and  several 
other  princes,  and  was  personally  instrumental 
in  arranging  the  Treaty  of  Chambord  with 
Henry  II.  of  France  (January  15,  1552).  In 
consequence  of  differences  with  his  confederates, 
he  suDsequently  again  embraced  the  cause  of 
Charles,  who  ratified  his  territorial  claims.  In 
an  endeavor  to  carry  these  into  effect,  however, 
Albert  was  twice  defeated  (July  9  and  Sep- 
tember 12,  1553).  He  was  soon  afterward  out- 
lawed by  the  Emperor,  and  fled  to  France  ( 1554) . 
He  died  shortly  after  his  return  to  Germany  in 
1556. 

ALBEBT,    called   Tus   Bold    (1443-1500). 


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ALBEBT. 


Duke  of  Saxony,  founder  of  the  Albertine  line. 
He  was  a  younger  son  of  the  Elector  Frederick, 
called  "the  Gentle."  From  1464  he  reiffned  con- 
jointly with  his  brother  Ernest,  who  had  been  in- 
vested with  the  electoral  dignity,  and  gradually 
obtained  »uch  valuable  accessions  of  territory 
in  Thuringia  and  elsewhere  that  a  separation 
into  the  Ernestine  and  Albertine  branches  be- 
came necessary.  At  the  Reichstag  held  at  Frei- 
burg, in  1498,  he  was  appointed  "hereditary 
governor  and  potentate"  of  Friesland.  A  magni- 
ficent bronze  monument  was  dedicated  to  him  at 
Meissen  in  1876. 

ALBEBT,  Al'b&r^,  Alexandre  Mabtin  (1815- 
95).  One  of  the  leading  members  of  the  pro- 
visional government  of  ]4*rance  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  February,  1848.  Though  a  poor  me- 
chanic, he  took  great  interest  in  the  political 
questions  of  his  time,  and  participated  in  the  rev- 
olutions of  1830  and  1848.  While  keeping  at  his 
trade,  he  edited  a  workingman's  paper,  started 
in  1840,  called  L'Atelier.  He  was  summoned  by 
Louis  Blanc  from  his  shop,  where  he  was  mak- 
ing buttons,  to  the  presidency  of  the  committees 
on  the  national  workshops  and  national  re- 
wards, but  presently  resigned  and  entered  the 
assembly.  For  his  participation  in  the  attempt 
of  May  15,  1848,  to  overthrow  the  government,  he 
was  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  life,  but  was 
pardoned  in  1859  by  Louis  Napoleon.  He  ap- 
peared for  a  moment  during  the  Commune  of 
1871,  but  sank  back  into  obscurity.  ,He  was 
known  in  French  politics  as  Uouvrier  Albert. 

ALBEBTy  al^rt,  Abistides  Elphonso  Pe- 
ter (1853  — ).  A  bishop  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  (South) ,  and  also  a  practicing  phy- 
sician and  surgeon.  His  father  was  a  French- 
man, his  mother  a  slave,  and  he  was  born  in  St. 
Charles  parish,  Louisiana.  Freed  by  the  war,  he 
removed  with  his  mother  to  New  Orleans.  He 
graduated  in  arts  and  theology  at  Straight  Uni- 
versity, New  Orleans,  and  in  medicine  at  New 
Orleans  University  (1892).  After  holding  vari- 
ous appointments  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  South,  including  that  of  editor-in-chief 
of  the  Southwestern  Christian  Advocate  (five 
years)  and  the  presidency  of  Gilbert  College, 
Baldwin,  La.  (1896-1900),  he  became  pastor 
of  Wesley  Chapel,  New  Orleans.  He  represented 
his  conference  in  the  Ecumenical  Conference  in 
London  in  1901. 

ALBEBT,  Count  of  Bollstadt  (c.  1193- 
1280).  A  German  philosopher,  usually  called  Al- 
bertus  Magnus,  and  styled  Doctor  Universalis, 
who  was  distinguished  for  the  extent  of  his  ac- 
quirements and  for  his  efforts  to  spread  knowl- 
edge, especially  of  the  works  and  doctrines  of 
Aristotle.  He  was  bom  at  Lauingen,  in  Suabia, 
probably,  in  1193,  but  the  date  is  disputed.  After 
studying  principally  at  Padua,  he  entered  the  or- 
der of  tiie  Dominican  friars  in  1221  and  taught 
at  Bologna,  Strassburg,  Freiburg,  and  Cologne, 
where  Thomas  Aquinas  became  his  pupil.  He 
afterward  repaired  to  Paris,  where  he  expounded 
the  doctrines  of  Aristotle.  In  1259  he  received 
from  Pope  Alexander  IV.  the  bishopric  of  Ratis- 
bon.  But  in  1262  he  retired  to  a  convent  at 
Cologne  to  devote  himself  to  literary  pursuits. 
Here  he  composed  a  great  number  of  works,  es- 
pecially commentaries  on  Aristotle.  In  1270  he 
preached  a  crusade.  He  died  November  25,  1280. 
The  fullest  edition  of  his  works  was  prepared 
by  Jammy  (21  volumes,  Lyons,  1651),  but  it  is 


uncritical  and  far  from  complete.  Many  of  the 
writings  attributed  to  him  seem  to  be  spurious, 
among  others,  that  entitled  De  Secretis  Muli- 
erum,  which  was  widely  circulated  during  the 
Middle  Aged.  The  extensive  chemical  and  me- 
chanical knowledge  which  Albert  possessed,  con- 
sidering the  age  in  which  he  lived,  brought  upon 
him  the  imputation  of  sorcery,  and  in  German 
tradition  he  has  a  very  ambiguous  reputation. 
It  is  related,  for  instance,  that  in  the  winter  of 
1240  he  gave  a  banquet  at  Cologne  to  William  of 
Holland,  King  of  the  Romans,  and  that  during 
the  entertainment  the  wintry  scene  was  suddenly 
transformed  into  one  of  summer  bloom  and 
beauty.  This  myth  may  rest  on  the  fact  that 
Albert  had  a  greenhouse.  The  scholastics  who 
followed  Albert's  opinions  took  the  name  of  Al- 
bertists.  His  best-known  works  are  Summa  The- 
ologicB  and  Summa  de  Creaturia, 

ALBEBT,  Count  of  Geierstein,  gl^gr-stln.  In 
Scott's  novel,  Anne  of  Oeierstein  (q.v.),  the  head 
of  the  "Secret  Tribunal."  At  various  times  he 
appears  in  monkish  disguise;  later  he  slays 
Charles  of  Burgundy  in  battle. 

ALBEBT,  al'hert;  Oer.  pron.,  ftl^rt,  Ed- 
UARD  (1841-1000).  An  Austrian  surgeon.  He 
was  born  at  Senf  tenberg,  in  Bohemia,  and  studied 
medicine  at  Vienna.  In  1873  he  was  made  pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  Innsbruck.  From  1881  until 
his  death  he  was  clinical  professor  of  surgery  at 
Vienna.  His  published  works  include:  Beitrage 
zur  Operativen  Chirurgie  (Vienna,  1878-80)  ; 
Diagnostik  der  Chirurgischen  Krankheiten  (sev- 
enth edition,  Vienna,  1896) ;  and  a  text-book  of 
surgery  in  four  volumes,  which  has  passed 
through  several  editions.  Albert's  original  re- 
searches resulted  in  valuable  contributions  to 
surgical  diagnosis,  to  operative  surgery,  and  to 
other  branches  of  his  profession. 

ALBEBT,  Fr.  pron.,  Al'bar',  Euoen  Francis 
Charles  d'  (1864 — ).  A  pianist  and  composer; 
born  at  Glasgow,  April  10,  1864;  the  son 
of  Charles  d' Albert,  a  rrench  musician  and  dan- 
cing-master, who  was  his  first  teacher.  He 
studied  in  the  National  Training  School,  London, 
under  Sir  Arthur  Sullivan,  Prout,  and  Pauer, 
and  in  1881  gained  the  Mendelssohn  scholarship; 
under  Hans  Richter  in  Vienna  and  under  Liszt 
in  Weimar.  In  the  same  year  he  made  his  first 
appearance  at  a  philharmonic  concert  in  Vienna 
with  brilliant  success.  He  was  soon  made  court 
pianist  in  Weimar,  traveled  in  Europe,  and  came 
to  America  in  the  season  of  1889-90.  His  inter- 
pretations of  Bach  and  Beethoven  have  been  gen- 
erally deemed  the  most  forceful  heard  in  recent 
years.  His  mastery  of  technique,  intellectual 
grasp,  force,  and  fire  place  him  among  the  most 
eminent  pianists  of  the  world.  His  compositions 
include  pianoforte  music,  a  suite,  symphony, 
two  quartets  for  strings,  several  songs,  and  the 
operas  Der  Rubin  (1893);  Ohismonda  (1895); 
Gemot  (1897);  Die  Abreise  (1898);  and  Kain 
( 1900) .  Only  in  the  last  opera  did  the  composer 
free  himself  from  adherence  to  Wagner's  for- 
mulas. In  1892  he  married  the  pianiste  Teresa 
Carrefio  (q.v.),  but  separated  from  her  in  1895. 
ALBEBT,  ftl^rt;  Oer,  pron,,  al'hert,  Francis 
Charles  Augustus  Emanuel  (1819-61).  Prince 
of  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha,  and  the  husband  of 
Queen  Victoria  of  Great  Britain.  He  is  popu- 
larly known  as  Prince  Albert  and  the  Prince 
Consort.  He  was  born  at  Rosenau  Castle,  near 
Coburg,  August  26,  1819,  the  second  son  of  Er- 


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nest,  Duke  of  Saze-Coburg-Gotha,  and  his  wife 
Louise,  daughter  of  Augustus,  Duke  of  Saxe- 
Gotha-Altenburg.  Tn  the  Prince's  sixth  year  his 
parents  separated,  and  he  never  afterward  saw 
his  mother,  who  died  in  1S31.  The  Prince  and 
his  elder  brother,  under  a  private  tutor,  received 
a  carefui  education,  and  after  a  year  of  study  at 
Brussels  he  attended  the  University  of  Bonn, 
where,  in  addition  to  the  sciences  connected  with 
statecraft,  he  devoted  himself  with  ardor  to  the 
study  of  natural  history  and  chemistry,  and  dis- 
played great  taste  for  the  fine  arts,  especially 
painting  and  music.  Several  compositions  of  his 
obtained  publicity,  and  an  opera,  afterward  per- 
formed in  London,  is  said  to  have  been  com- 
posed by  him.  He  was  gifted  with  a  handsome 
figure,  and  obtained  expertness  in  all  manly 
exercises.  He  married  the  young  Queen  of  Great 
Britain  on  February  10,  1840.  On  his  marriage 
Prince  Albert  received  the  title  of  Koyal  High- 
ness, was  naturalized  as  a  subject  of  Great 
Britain,  and  obtained  the  rank  of  field-marshal, 
the  knighthood  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath,  and  the 
command  of  a  regiment  of  hussars.  As  the  union 
proved  in  the.  highest  degree  a  happy  one,  the 
Prince  was  loaded  with  honors  and  distinctions 
both  by  the  Queen  and  the  nation.  The  title  of 
Consort  of  Her  Most  Gracious  Majesty  was  for- 
mally conferred  in  1842,  and  that  of  Prince  Con- 
sort, in  1857,  made  him  a  prince  of  the  United 
Kingdom.  He  was  also  made  a  member  of  the 
Privy  Council,  governor  and  constable  of  Wind- 
sor Castle,  colonel  of  the  Grenadier  Guards,  act- 
ing Grand  Master  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath,  chan- 
cellor of  the  University  of  Cambridge,  the  stand- 
ard of  which  he  succeeded  in  raising  consider- 
ably, and  Master  of  the  Trinity  House.  Notwith- 
standing his  high  and  favored  position  as  the 
Queen's  trusted  counselor,  the  Prince,  with  rare 
prudence  and  tact,  abstained  from  meddling  with 
State  affairs,  and  thus  escaped  the  jealousy  and 
detraction  of  parties,  gradually  attaining,  in- 
deed, the  widest  popularity.  When  the  Whig 
ministry  in  1840  proposed  to  him  the  income  of 
£50,000,  as  consort  of  Queen  Victoria,  the  Tories, 
in  conjunction  with  the  Radicals,  succeeded  in 
limiting  the  sum  to  £30,000.  This  incident, 
which  occurred  before  the  marriage,  appears  to 
have  been  the  only  instance  of  any  manifestation 
of  party  feeling  with  reference  to  the  Prince.  On 
the  other  hand,  he  opened  for  himself  an  influ- 
ential sphere  of  action,  in  the  encouragement  and 
promotion  of  science  and  art,  appearing  as  the 
patron  of  many  useful  associations  and  public 
undertakings.  The  Exhibition  of  1851  owed  its 
origin  and  the  greater  part  of  its  success  to  the 
Prince.  An  incessant  worker  in  the  interests  of  his 
adopted  country,  his  toil  undermined  his  con- 
stitution, and  he  succumbed  to  an  attack  of  ty- 
phoid fever,  December  14,  1801.  His  memory  is 
perpetuated  under  the  surname  "Albert  the 
Good."  The  last  of  his  political  acts,  one  of 
particular  interest  to  the  United  States,  was 
instrumental  in  preventing  a  war  which  threat- 
ened to  arise  out  of  the  seizure  of  the  Confederate 
envoys  on  the  English  steamer  Trent.  The  draft 
of  the  ministerial  ultimatum  submitted  to  the 
Queen  seemed  to  the  Prince  fraught  with  perilous 
irritation.  Weak  then  from  the  beginning  of  his 
last  illness,  he  arose  at  seven  the  next  morning 
(December  1,  1801),  and  wrote  and  presented  a 
memorandum  of  his  objections  to  the  Queen.  His 
suggestions,  adopted  by  Lord  Russell,  proved  ac- 
ceptable to  President  Lincoln.    Consult:  Martin, 


Life  (London,  1875-80)  ;  Vitzthum,  Retnini9ceMei 
(English  translation,  1887);  Grey,  The  £arly 
Years  of  His  Royal  Highness  the  Prince  Consort 
(New  York,  1867) ;  Dunchley,  The  Crown  and  the 
Cabinet:  Five  Letters  on  the  Biography  of  the 
Prince  ConsoH  (Manchester,  1878)  ;  Kenyon, 
Albert  the  Good  (London,  1890);  Wintle,  Vke 
Story  of  Albert  the  Good  (London,  1897) ;  Stock- 
mar,  Denktoiirdigkeiten  aus  den  Papieren  des 
Freiherm  Christian  Friedrich  von  Stockmar 
(Brunswick,  1872),  translated  by  G.  A.  M.  under 
the  title  Memoirs  of  Baron  Stockmar  (London, 
1873). 

ALBEBT,  Fbedebick  Augustus  (1828—). 
The  reigning  kin^  of  Saxony.  He  served  in  the  first 
Schleswig-Holstein  War,  and  after  his  fathers 
accession  in  1854,  presided  over  the  Ooun- 
cil  of  State.  In  1866  he  commanded  the  Saxon 
army,  cooperating  with  Austria  against  Prussia. 
On  the  entrance  of  Saxony  into  Uie  North  (kr- 
man  Confederation,  this  force  became  the  twelfth 
corps  of  the  North  Crerman  army,  and  with  them 
the  Prince  won  high  honors  at  Gravelotte  and 
Sedan,  receiving  the  Prussian  Iron  Cross  and 
the  command  of  the  newly  formed  fourth  armj, 
at  the  head  of  which  he  entered  Paris  with  the 
Emperor  and  the  Grerman  princes.  He  succeeded 
his  father  on  the  throne  in  1873.  He  married, 
June  18,  1853,  Caroline,  daughter  of  Prince 
Gustavus  Vasa.  Consult  Dittrich,  Konig  Albert 
und  Prinz  Oeorg  von  Sachstn   (Minden,  1896). 

ALBEBT,  Frederick  Rudolph  (1817-95), 
generally  spoken  of  by  English  writers  as  the 
Archduke  Ai.brecht.  Archduke  of  Austria,  son 
of  Archduke  Charles,  grandson  of  Leopold  11., 
and  first  cousin  of  the  father  of  the  reigning 
emperor.  He  was  distinguished  in  youth  as  a 
cavalry  commander,  doing  good  service  in  the 
battle  of  Novara  in  1840.  He  was  governor  of 
Hungary,  1851-60;  in  1806  he  commanded  the 
Austrians  in  Venetia,  and  won  the  victory  of 
Custozza,  June  24 ;  but  Benedek's  defeat  at  ^do- 
wa,  July  3,  made  his  success  nugatory.  He  be- 
came Field-Marshal  in  1863  and  Inspector-Gen- 
eral of  the  Austrian  Army  in  1866.  Albert 
married.  May  1,  1844,  Archduchess  Hildegarde. 
daughter  of  Ludwig  £.  of  Bavaria.  She  died 
April  2,  1864. 

ALBEBT,  Heinbich  ( 1604-51 ) .  A  celebrated 
German  composer,  sometimes  erroneously  called 
Alhertiy  who  was  instrumental  in  developing  the 
present  form  of  the  German  Lied.  He  was  bom 
at  Lobenstein,  Saxony,  and  in  1622  went  to 
Dresden  to  study  music  under  his  uncle,  the 
Kapellmeister  Heinrich  Schiltz.  In  conformity 
with  the  wishes  of  his  parents,  however,  he  dis- 
continued his  musical  studies  and  entered  the 
University  of  Leipzig  to  study  law.  He  resumed 
the  study  of  music  at  KOnigsberg  in  1626,  under 
Stobtlus,  and  three  years  later  became  organis^t 
at  the  cathedral  in  that  city.  Albert  was  not 
only  a  fine  musician,  but  a  poet  of  distinction  as 
well,  and  the  verses  which  he  set  to  music  were 
usually  of  his  own  composition.  Several  of 
these,  however,  were  written  by  the  poet  Simon 
Dach,  an  intimate  friend  of  Albert,  and  one 
whose  influence  is  still  evident  in  the'  well-de- 
fined poetic  rhythm  of  the  song-forms  created 
by  the  latter.  Albert  published  eight  books  of 
arias  (1638-50)  and  the  Kurbishutte  (1645).  a 
collection  of  chorals,  arias,  and  Licder  for  one  or 
several  voices.  Many  of  his  hymn-tunes,  such 
as  the  well-known  Oott  des  Himmels  und  der 


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Erden,  loh  bin  ja,  Herr,  in  Deiner  MacHi  and 
I'Mer  Heil  is  Kommen,  are  still  extensively  used 
in  the  Protestant  service.  A  selection  of  his 
songs,  with  l^e  music,  has  been  published  in  the 
work  entitled  Neudrucke  Deutscher  lAtteratuT' 
iDerke  (Halle,  1883). 

ALBEBT,  Joseph  (1825-86).  A  German 
photographer,  who  was  born  and  died  at  Munich. 
He  established  a  photographer's  studio  at  Augs- 
burg in  1840,  and  removed  to  Munich  in  1858. 
About  1867  he  introduced  an  improvement  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  photo-mechanical  print- 
ing {Lichtdruck),  It  had  been  known  since 
about  1854  that  a  film  of  gelatine  containing  po- 
tassium-bichromate does  not  receive  greasy  inks 
unless  it  Imis  been  previously  subjected  to  the 
action  of  light  and  damping.  This  fact  had  been 
utilized  for  printing  purposes  by  coating  a  metal 
plate  with  gelatine  containing  some  bichromate 
of  potash  and  chloride  of  mercury,  treating  with 
silver  oleate,  and  exposing  to  the  action  of  li^ht 
through  a  negative.  On  washing  and  inking 
with  a  lithographic  roller,  the  plate  could  be 
used  for  printing.  The  soft  gelatine  coating, 
however,  was  extremely  perishable,  and  therefore 
the  process  was  capable  of  only  limited  applica- 
tion, until  Albert  introduced  his  improvement. 
Albert  found  that  the  gelatine  could  be  sufficient- 
ly hardened  and  rendered  durable  simply  by  the 
action  of  light.  In  place  of  the  ola  metallic 
plates,  he  therefore  substituted  transparent 
plates,  the  uncoated  side  of  which  he  exposed  to 
the  action  of  light.  In  this  manner  it  became 
possible  to  obtain  more  than  a  thousand  "Alber- 
type"  copies  from  one  plate,  and  the  process  was 
adopted  in  general  use.    See  Gelatine  Pbockss. 

ALBEBT  I.,  called  The  Beab  (1106-70). 
^largrave  of  Brandenburg.  He  was  the  son  and 
successor  of  Otto  the  Rich,  Count  of  Ballenst&dt, 
and  of  Eilika,  daughter  of  Magnus,  Duke  of  Sax- 
ony. Having  aided  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  who 
became  the  Emperor  Lothair,  he  received  from 
the  latter  Lusatia,  to  be  held  as  a  fief  of  the 
Kmpire,  and  later  the  northern  "mark."  In  the 
year  1138,  Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  having  been 
put  under  the  imperial  ban,  the  duchy  was  given 
to  Albert,  when  he  took  the  title  of  Duke  of 
Saxony.  Henry,  however,  was  victorious  in  the 
contest  which  followed,  and  Albert  was  com- 
pelled to  flee,  and  retained  only  the  margraviate 
of  Northern  Saxony.  Afterward  Suabia  was 
given  to  him  as  an  indemnity.  Returning  to 
his  own  country,  he  had  himself  invested  with 
the  lands  which  he  had  conquered  from  the 
Wends,  as  a  hereditary  fief  of  the  Empire,  and 
thus  became  the  founder  and  first  margrave  of 
the  new  State  of  Brandenburg.  Consult  Heine- 
mann,  Albrechi  der  Bar  (Darmstadt,  18G4). 

AI.BEBT  I.  (1317-79).  Duke  of  Mecklen- 
burg, founder  of  the  present  reigning  dynasty. 
He  was  a  son  of  Prince  Henry  II.,  the  Lion,  and 
reigned  as  prince  from  1329  until  1348,  when  he 
was  appointed  duke  by  the  Emperor  Charles  IV. 
Relying  upon  the  cities  of  his  realm,  he  sought 
to  suppress  the  frequent  feuds  of  the  nobles,  and 
to  find  advantages  by  active  participation  in 
the  affairs  of  the  Empire.  Upon  the  extinction 
of  the  dynasty  of  Schwerin,  he  united  the  do- 
mains of  that  principality  with  his  own  (1358). 
He  was  also  instrumental  in  securing  the  crown 
of  Sweden  for  his  son,  afterward  known  as  Al- 
bert II.    See  Albert,  King  of  Sweden. 


ALBEBT  II.,  Duke  of  Meckxenbubo.  See 
Albert,  Kino  of  Sweden. 

ALBEBT  IV.,  called  The  Wise  (1447-1608). 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  third  son  of  Albert  III.,  sur- 
named  "the  Pious."  After  the  death  of  his 
father  in  1460  he  was  placed  under  the  guardian- 
ship of  his  elder  brothers,  John  III.  and  Sigis- 
mund,  who  had  conjointly  succeeded  to  the  regen- 
cy; and  upon  the  death  of  John  ( 1463 ) ,  he  became 
co-regent  with  Sigismund.  The  ac(juisition  of 
the  territories  of  the  house  of  Bavaria-Landshut 
greatly  increased  the  extent  of  his  possessions. 
In  consequence  of  this  increase  of  power,  how- 
ever, he  became  involved  in  a  feud  with  several 
members  of  the  nobility,  and  his  interference  in 
the  affairs  of  Kegensburg  (Ratisbon)  finally 
aroused  the  displeasure  of  the  Emperor  and  he 
was  placed  under  the  ban.  His  principal 
achievement  was  the  establishment  of  the  law 
of  succession  in  the  dukedom  of  Bavaria  (July 
8,  1506). 

ALBEBT  V.  (1528-79).  Duke  of  Bavaria, 
a  son  of  Duke  William  IV.  and  Maria  Jakob&a 
of  Baden.  He  succeeded  to  power  in  1550,  and 
soon  became  involved  in  religious  and  other  dis- 
putes, in  consequence  of  which  the  power  of  the 
feudal  barons  in  his  dominions  was  completely 
broken.  He  banished  the  Protestants  from  his 
dominions  and  prohibited  the  publication  of 
books  favorable  to  them.  It  was  due  to  his  in- 
itiative that  Munich  afterward  became  a  great 
centre  of  art.  He  greatly  encouraged  engraving, 
painting,  brass-founding,  and  the  industrial  arts, 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  museum  of  art  as 
well  as  of  a  museum  of  antiquities,  a  gallery  of 
paintings,  and  a  royal  library.  Upon  his  death 
he  left  debts  to  the  amount  of  two  and  a  half 
million  florins. 

ALBEBTA,  &l-bgr^t&.  A  district  in  Canada, 
formed  in  1882  out  of  the  northwest  territories, 
containing  100,000  square  miles  (Map:  North- 
western Territories,  F  4 ) .  It  is  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Athabasca,  on  the  east  by  Saskatch- 
ewan and  Assinboia,  on  the  south  by  the 
United  States,  and  on  the  west  by  British  Co- 
lumbia, the  western  boundary  running  northwest 
and  southeast  along  the  line  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain divide.  It  lies  between  lat.  49*»  and  55**  1', 
and  long.  Ill**  and  120**.  Topographically,  the 
eastern  half  of  the  district  is  a  part  of  the  great 
central  plain,  the  western  half  oelonging  to  the 
Rocky  Mountain  re^on.  The  ascent  from  the 
plain  to  the  mountain  is  very  steep.  The  head- 
waters of  three  great  river  systems,  which  reach 
the  sea  in  three  different  directions,  have  their 
origin  within  the  district;  the  Athabasca  and 
other  streams  of  the  north  drain  northward  into 
the  Mackenzie  system,  the  tributaries  of  the 
Missouri  drain  the  southern  portion  into  the 
Mississippi  system,  while  between  the  two  the 
Saskatchewan  and  its  tributaries  drain  the  re- 
gion into  the  Hudson  Bay,  through  the  Nelson 
system.  The  plain  is  prairie  land,  but  the  foot- 
hills of  the  mountains  are  well  wooded.  The 
rain  and  snowfall  are  light,  and  the  atmosphere 
clear  and  invigorating.  Sudden  and  decided  ex- 
tremes in  temperature  are  common  in  winter  and 
summer.  The  winter  winds  from  the  northeast 
are  at  times  very  severe,  while  the  western  winds 
— the  Chinooks — are  warm  and  pleasant.  The 
prairie  affords  excellent  grazing,  and  there  are 
some  large,  well-stocked  cattle  ranches.  Mixed 
farming  has  been  found  practicable  at  a  few 


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places,  particularly  in  the  valley  of  the  Bed 
Deer  River.  The  greatest  wealth  of  the 
district,  however,  is  in  its  mineral  resources. 
The  coal  area  is  very  extensive,  and  recent  inter- 
est in  its  mining  indicates  an  enormous  growth  of 
this  industry  in  the  near  future.  Gold  is  found 
near  Edmonton.  Two  branches  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway  cross  the  district  from  east  to 
west,  while  a  third  branch  extends  northward  to 
Edmonton.  The  country  is  but  sparsely  settled 
(for  population  see  article  Nobtuwest  Tebbi- 
TOHIE8),  most  of  the  settlements  being  dose  to 
the  railway  lines.  There  are  a  number  of  small 
foreign  colonies  along  the  line  running  north  to 
Edmonton. 

AI/BEBT  CHAP^Ii.  A  memorial  chapel  in 
Windsor  Castle.     See  Windsob. 

ALBEBT  EIXWABD.     See  Edward  VII. 

ALBEBT  EIXWABD  NYAN'ZA,  called  by 
the  natives  Mwxjta-Nzioe.  A  lake  in  central 
Africa,  a  little  south  of  the  equator,  on  the 
boundary  line  between  the  Kongo  Free  State  and 
the  British  protectorate  of  Uganda  (Map:  Africa, 
E  3^ .  It  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  more  than 
3100  feet,  and  is  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Nile. 
It  is  about  50  miles  long,  and  is  connected  by  the 
Semliki  River  (about  130  miles)  with  the  Al- 
bert Nyanza  on  the  north.  The  lake  was  dis- 
covered' in  1876  by  Stanley,  who  regarded  it  as 
the  southern  part  of  Albert  Nyanza.  On  his 
subsequent  visit,  18S9,  he  explored  it  thoroughly, 
and  named  it  in  honor  of  the  then  Prince  of 
Wales,  now  King  Edward  VII.  For  geological 
features,  see  Albert  Nyanza,  and  Rift  Vai^let, 

ALBEBT  EMBANK^MENT.  The  name  giv- 
en to  a  part  of  the  Thames  Embankment  (q.v.), 
London. 

ALBEBT  HALL,  The  Royal.  A  large  am- 
phitheatre in  Kensington,  London,  built  in  1867- 
71  for  concerts  and  other  great  assemblies.  In 
shape  the  building  is  oval,  270  by  240  feet  in 
dimensions;  it  seats  8000  people.  Its  style  is 
Italian  Renaissance,  the  material  bein^  brick 
and  the  chief  external  ornament  a  frieze  m  terra 
cotta,  representing  the  different  races  of  men. 
Its  organ,  which  has  nearly  9000  pipes,  is  famous 
as  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world. 

ALBEBTI,  Al-bgr'ti,  Domexico  (1707-40). 
An  Italian  composer.  He  was  born  in  Venice, 
and  died  in  Formio.  A  style  of  broken  chord 
bass-accompaniment,  which  he  developed,  still 
is  called  "Alberti"  or  "Albertinian"  bass. 

ALBEBTI,  Leone  Battista  degli  (1404-72). 
An  Italian  architect  and  writer,  born  in  Venice, 
of  the  noble  Florentine  family  of  the  Alberti, 
recalled  from  exile  in  1428.  He  was  the  leader 
in  the  second  phase  of  early  Italian  Renaissance 
architecture,  both  by  the  works  he  executed  and 
by  his  theoretical  writings  and  teachings.  He 
lived  principally  in  Rome,  and  was  for  a  time 
charged  with  the  projects  for  rebuilding  St. 
Peter's  and  the  Vatican.  The  purity  of  his 
classic  taste  is  shown  in  the  facade  of  St.  Francis 
at  Rimini,  reproduced  from  a  Roman  triumphal 
arch.  His  intended  use  here  of  the  dome,  his 
barrel  vaults  at  St.  Andrea  in  Mantua,  show  how 
in  construction  he  also  returned  to  the  forms 
of  ancient  Roman  architecture.  He  had  a  num- 
ber of  pupils  and  associates,  who  carried  out 
his  plans :  Matteo  dei  Pasti,  at  Rimini ;  Fancelli, 
at  Mantua;  Bertini  in  the  facade  of  St.  Maria 
Novella  at  Florence   (where  he  so  successfully 


copied  the  mediaeval  style  of  incrusted  marbles) ; 
and  Rossellino  in  the  famous  Ruccllai  Palace 
(1446-61)  at  Florence,  which  combined  the  older 
rustic  bossed  work  with  the  smooth  pilastcred 
style,  and  caused  a  revolution  in  palace  archi- 
tecture. His  book,  De  Re  ^dificatoria  (1485) 
was  the  first  great  work  on  architecture  of  the 
Renaissance,  and  had  been  preceded  by  a  manual 
on  the  five  orders,  as  well  as  by  other  manuals 
on  statuary  and  painting.  He  prepared  the  way 
for  Brunelleschi. 

ALBEBTI,  LuiGi  Mabul  d'  (1841—).  An 
Italian  traveler,  born  at  Voltri.  He  attended 
the  College  of  Savona,  and  served  in  the  anny 
of  Garibaldi  in  1860.  From  1871  to  1878  he 
made  a  careful  exploration  and  study  of  the 
Island  of  New  Guinea.  The  results  of  this 
expedition  he  published  in  his  Ewploraasione  dtUa 
Nuova  Guinea  (1880;  English  translation,  1880). 

ALBEBTINEIiLI,  il-ber't^neH^,  Mabiotto 
(1474-1515).  An  Italian  painter.  He  was  born 
at  Florence,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Cosimo  Rosselli, 
and  a  friend  of  Fra  Bartolommeo,  with  whom  he 
collaborated  in  painting  an  "Assumption  of  the 
Virgin"  (Berlin  Museum)  and  a  "Last  Judg- 
ment" (Santa  Maria  Novella,  Florence).  His 
own  principal  works  are  a  "Visitation"  (Uflfizi 
Gallery) ,  a  "Crucifixion"  (Certosa) ,  a  "Madonna 
with  Saints"   (Museum  of  the  Louvre). 

AI/BEBTITE.  A  form  of  asphaltic  coal 
obtained  at  Hillsborough,  Albert  Co.,  New  Bruns- 
wick, Canada,  where  it  occurred  in  a  fissure  vein 
in  rocks  of  the  Upper  Devonian  age.  It  is  a  soft, 
jet  black  mineral  that  has  been  deriv^  from 
petroleum  by  oxidization  of  the  oily  contents, 
and  it  was  at  one  time  highly  prized  as  a  gaa- 
enricher.    See  Asphaltic  Coal. 

Al/BEBT  LEA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Freeborn  Co.,  Minn.,  110  miles  south  of  Minne- 
apolis, on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul, 
the  Minneapolis  and  St.  Louis,  the  Burlington, 
Cedar  Rapids  and  Northern,  and  other  railroads 
(Map:  Minnesota,  E  7).  The  city  has  a  fine 
location  between  two  lakes,  in  a  r^ion  popular 
as  a  place  of  resort;  it  is  the  seat  of  Albert  Lea 
College  for  women  (Presbyterian),  opened  in 
1885,  and  contains  a  public  library  and  a  hand- 
some court  house.  It  is  the  market  for  the  agri- 
cultural and  dairy  products  of  the  surrounding 
region,  and  has  grain  elevators,  flour  mills,  foun- 
dries and  machine  shops,  briclc^ards,  wagon  and 
plow  works,  a  woolen  mill,  etc.  There  are  some 
twenty  artesian  wells  of  chalybeate  waters. 
Pop.,  1890,  3305;  1900,  4500. 

ALBEBT  MEIVAL.  A  decoration  instituted 
in  England  (1866) — in  memory  of  Prince 
Consort  xMbert,  whose  name  it  bears — to  reward 
heroic  acts  in  saving  life  at  sea.  In  1877  it  was 
extended  to  acts  of  gallantry  in  preventing  loss 
of  life  in  perils  on  land.  There  are  two  classes, 
the  first  of  gold  and  the  second  of  bronze,  with 
the  words  "For  Gallantry  in  Saving  Life  at 
Sea"  or  "on  Land,"  as  the  case  may  be.  See 
Medal. 

ALBEBT  KYAN^A,  called  by  the  natives 
MwuTA-NziGE.  A  large  lake  of  British  East 
Africa,  one  of  the  reservoirs  of  the  Nile,  situa- 
ted in  a  deep  rock-basin,  80  miles  northwest 
of  the  Victoria  Nyanza.  (Map:  Africa,  F  2). 
This  lake  is  the  northernmost  of  a  series  of  five 
that  occupy  the  lower  basins  of  a  great  rift 
valley,  that  extends  for  1000  miles  in  a  general 


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southerly  direction  to  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Zambezi  River.    Tanganyika  and  Nyassa  occupy 
other  portions    of   the   same   rift   valler.    Ttie 
Albert  Nyanza  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  and  is  100 
miles  long  from  northeast  to  southwest,  and  25 
miles  broad,  having  an  area  of  about  2000  square 
miles.    It  is  intersected  by  lat.  2**  N.  and  long. 
31**  £.    The  Nile  issues  from  the  northern  end 
of  the  Albert  Nyanza,  where  the  outlet  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza,  the  Victoria  Nile,  discharges 
into  the  lake.    At  its  south  end  the  lake  receives 
the  Semliki,  the  outlet  of  the  Albert  Edward 
Nyanza.    On  the  east  it  is  fringed  by  precipitous 
cliffs,  having  a  mean  altitude  of  1500  feet,  with 
isolated  peaks  rising  from  5000  to  10,000  feet. 
The  surface  of  the  lake  is  about  2100  feet  above 
the  sea ;  its  water  is  fresh  and  sweet,  and  of  great 
depth  toward  the  centre.   The  northern  and  west- 
em  shores  of  the  lake  are  Ijordered  by  a  massive 
range  of  hills,  called  the  Blue  Mountains,  which 
have  an  elevation  of  about  7000  feet.    The  exist- 
ence of  this  vast  lake  first  became  known  to 
Europeans  through  Speke  and  Grant,  who,  in 
1862,  heard  of  it  under  the  name  of  the  Luta- 
Nzige.    It  was  described  by  the  natives  as  only  a 
narrow  reservoir  forming  a  shallow  back-water 
of  the  Nile.     When  Speke  and  Grant,  after  the 
discovery  of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  were,  in  1863, 
descending  the  Nile  on  their  return  to  Europe, 
they  met,  at  Gondokoro,  Sir  Samuel  White  Baker 
{(j.v.),  who  was  ascending  the  river.    After  a 
toilsome  march  and  many  adventures,  his  party 
came,  early  in  1864,  in  sight  of  the  lake,  which 
Baker  named  in  honor  of  Prince  Albert,  who  was 
but  recently  dead.    The  extent  and  general  out- 
lines of  the  lake  were  not  accurately  determined 
until  1876,    when    it   was   circumnavigated   by 
Signer  Rornolo  Gessi,  an  Italian  explorer  at- 
tached to  General  Gordon's  Egyptian  expedition. 
A  year  later,  in  1877,  Colonel  Mason,  an  Ameri- 
can officer  in  the  service  of  the  Egyptian  govern- 
ment, made  a  more  careful  survey  of  the  lake, 
fully  confirming  Gessi's  report.    See  Rift  Val- 

LET. 

AXBEB^TTJS  HAO^TJS.  See  Albert,  Count 

or  BOLLSTADT. 

ALBI,  ftl^bd,  or  ALBY.  The  capital  of  the 
department  of  Tarn  in  France,  built  on  a  height 
overlooking  the  river  Tarn,  which  is  crossed  by 
a  beautifm  stone  bridge  (Map:  France,  I  8). 
Albi  suffered  greatly  during  the  religious  wars 
which  devastated  the  land  in  the  time  of  the 
Albigenses,  who  took  their  name  from  this  town. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  built 
of  brick  in  a  unique  style,  and,  inside,  deco- 
rated on  wall  and  roof  with  frescoes  executed 
by  the  first  Italian  painters  of  the  day.  The 
south  portal  is  a  remarkable  example  of  deco- 
rated Gothic.  It  is  dedicated  to  St.  Cecilia,  and 
adorned  with  an  exauisite  recumbent  statue  of 
the  martyr  in  marble.  The  town  maintains  a 
library  of  over  30,000  volumes  (including  many 
incunabula)  and  a  museum.  There  are  large 
brickyards  at  AIM,  and  it  has  a  considerable 
trade  in  com,  wine,  fruit,  etc.,  and  linen,  cotton, 
woolen,  and  leather  manufactures.  Pop.,  1896, 
14,083. 

AI/BTA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Monroe 
Co.,  la.,  67  miles  southeast  of  Des  Moines,  on  the 
Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy,  the  Iowa  Cen- 
tral, the  Wabash,  and  other  railroads  (Map: 
Iowa,  E  3).  With  its  excellent  transportation 
facilities,  the  city  controls  an  extensive  trade 


in  coal,  which  is  mined  in  the  surrounding  coun* 
try,  and  in  agricultural  products,  live  stock, 
and  grain.    Pop.,  1890,  2359;    1900,  2889. 

AX'BIGEM'^SES.  A  name  applied  to  the  heret- 
ical Cathari  in  the  south  of  France,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century.  The  name 
arose  from  the  circumstance  that  the  district  of 
Albigeois,  about  Albi,  in  Languedoc,  was  the  first 
point  in  southern  France  where  the  Cathari  ap- 
peared. The  so-called  Albigensian  Crusade  was 
undertaken  by  Pope  Innocent  III.  in  1209.  The 
immediate  occasion  of  it  was  the  murder  of  the 
papal  l^ate  and  inquisitor,  Pierre  de  Castelnau, 
who  had  been  commissioned  to  extirpate  heresy 
in  the  dominions  of  Count  Raymond  VI.  of  Tou- 
louse; but  its  real  purpose  was  to  deprive  the 
Count  of  his  lands,  as  he  had  become  an  object 
of  dislike  from  his  toleration  of  the  heretics. 
It  was  in  vain  that  he  had  submitted  to  the  most 
humiliating*  penance  and  flagellation  from  the 
hands  of  the  legate  Milo,  and  had  purchased 
the  papal  absolution  by  ^reat  sacrifices.  The 
legates  Arnold,  Abbot  of  Citeaux,  and  Milo,  who 
directed  the  expedition,  took  by  storm  B^ziers, 
the  capital  of  Raymond's  nephew,  Roger,  and 
massacred  20,000  of  the  inhabitants.  Catholics 
as  well  as  heretics.  "Kill  them  all,"  Arnold 
is  reported  to  have  said,  "God  will  know  his 
own!"  Simon  de  Montfort,  who  conducted  the 
war  under  the  legates,  proceeded  in  the  same 
relentless  way  with  other  places  in  the  territories 
of  Raymond  and  his  allies.  Of  these,  Roger  of 
B^ziers  died. in  prison,  and  Peter  I.  of  Aragon 
fell  in  battle.  The  conquered  lands  were  given 
as  a  reward  to  Simon  de  Montfort,  who  never 
came  into  quiet  possession  of  the  gift.  At  the 
siege  of  Toulouse,  1218,  he  was  killed  by  a 
stone,  .and  Counts  Raymond  VI.  and  VII.  dis- 
puted the  possession  of  their  territories  with 
his  son.  But  the  papal  indulgences  drew  fresh 
crusaders  from  every  province  of  France  to 
continue  the  war.  Ilaymond  VII.  continued  to 
struggle  bravely  against  the  legates  and  Louis 
yill.  of  France,  to  whom  Montfort  had  ceded 
his  pretensions.  Aft«r  many  thousands  had  per- 
ished on  both  sides,  a  peace  was  concluded,  in 
1229,  at  which  Raymond  purchased  relief  from 
the  ban  of  the  Church  by  immense  sums  of 
money,  gave  up  Narbonne  and  several  lordships 
to  Louis  IX.,  and  had  to  make  his  son-in-law, 
the  brother  of  Louis,  heir  to  his  other  posses- 
sions. The  Albigenses  were  left  without  a  pro- 
tector. The  heretics  were  handed  over  to  the 
proselytizing  zeal  of  the  order  of  Dominicans  and 
the  severe  tribunals  of  the  Inquisition ;  and  both 
used  their  utmost  power  to  bring  the  recusant 
Albigenses  to  the  stake,  and  also,  by  inflicting 
severe  punishment  on  the  penitent  converts,  to 
inspire  dread  of  incurring  the  Church's  displeas- 
ure. From  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  centur^ 
the  name  of  the  Albigenses  gradually  disappears. 
The  remnants  of  them  took  refuge  in  the  east, 
some  settling  in  Bosnia. 

AIiBI^O  (Portug.  and  Sp.,  from  Lat.  alhus, 
white).  A  term  first  applied  by  the  Portuguese 
to  the  white  negroes  of  west  Africa ;  now  applied 
to  any  individual  in  whom  there  is  congenital 
deflciency  of  pigment  in  skin,  hair,  iris,  and 
choroid  of  the  eye.  The  skin  is  abnormally  pale, 
the  hair  is  white  or  pale  flaxen,  and  the  iris  is 
pink.  An  albino  is  termed  leuccethiop  by  the 
Latins,  kakerlak  by  the  Germans,  hedo  in  Cey- 
lon, and  dondo  in  Africa.    The  absence  of  pig- 


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ment  in  the  iris  renders  an  albino's  eye  sensitive, 
and  partially  blind  in  the  sunlight.  Albinism, 
or  alphoeis,  is  found  in  many  races  as  a  rare 
condition.  Gushing  found  it  frequently  among 
the  Zufli  and  other  tribes  in  Arizona.  It  is 
sometimes  a  family  trait.  It  occurs  frequently 
among  rabbits,  mice,  birds,  and  other  lower  ani- 
mals.   See  also  Somatoloot  and  Vitiligo. 

AL3IK0VA'in7S,  Gaius  Pedo.  A  Roman 
epic  writer;  a  friend  and  contemporary  of  Ovid, 
who  addressed  to  him  one  of  his  EpistolcB  ex 
Ponto.  In  addition  to  his  epic  on  the  exploits 
of  Germanicus,  fragments  of  which  are  preserved 
in  the  Suasoria  of  Seneca,  he  is  said  to  have 
written  a  poem  entitled  Theseis,  an  epic  on  con- 
temporary history,  and  numerous  epigrams;  but 
he  was  probably  not  the  author  of  the  elegy  on 
the  death  of  Drusus,  Epicedion  Drusi,  which 
has  been  attributed  to  him.  Albinovanus  is 
quoted  by  the  younger  Seneca,  who  calls  him 
Fdhulator  ElegantiasimuB,  and  is  mentioned  bv 
Martial  and  Quintilian.  Consult:  Wernsdorf, 
PoetcB  Laiini  Minores,  Volume  IV.;  Bfthrens, 
PoetcB  Latini  MinoreSf  Volume  I.  (Leipzig, 
1879)  ;  and  Haupt,  Opuacala,  Volume  I.  (1875). 

ALBI^TTSy  CLODnjs,  the  popular  name  for 
I>ECiMus  Clodius  CEioNrcs  Septimius  Albiivus 
( ?-197  A.D.).  A  Roman  commander.  He  was  a 
governor  of  Gaul  and  Britain  at  the  time  of 
the  death  of  the  Emperor  Commodus  (192),  and 
was  made  Ctesar  by  Septimius  Severus  in  194. 
After  defeating  his  rivals,  however,  Severus 
turned  his  arms  against  Albinus,  and  at  the 
battle  near  Lugdunum  (Lyons)  in  Gaul  (197 
A.D.),  Albinus  was  defeated  and  killed.  (Dio. 
Cass.  Ixx.  4,  Vita  Alb.). 

AI/BION  AND  ALBA^NITJS.  An  opera  or 
masque  by  John  Dryden,  written  to  celebrate  the 
successes  of  the  Stuarts  after  the  restoration. 
It  was  produced,  with  music  by  Louis  Grabut, 
in  1865,  and  first  published  the  same  year.  It 
is  an  allegory,  with  classical  nomenclature. 
Albion  represents  Charles  II.,  and  Albanius, 
James,  the  Duke  of  York. 

ALBION  (Lat.,  Gk.  'AXovtov,  Alou'i(hi,  from 
Lat.  alhus,  white,  referring  to  the  chalk  cliffs  of 
the  southern  coast).  The  most  ancient  name 
on  record  of  the  island  of  Great  Britain.  See 
Albany. 

ALBION.  A  city  in  Calhoun  Co.,  Mich.,  20 
miles  west  of  Jackson,  on  the  Michigan  Central, 
Lake  Shore,  and  Michigan  Southern  railroads 
(Map:  Michigan,  J  6).  The  city  owns  its  water 
supply,  has  a  city  library  and  park,  and  is  the 
seat  of  Albion  College,  under  Methodist  Episco- 
pal control.  Its  principal  manufactures  are 
plow  works,  carriage  works,  malleable  iron 
works,  flour  mills,  and  agricultural  implements. 
Albion  was  first  settled  in  1830,  and  is  governed 
by  a  charter  adopted  in  1896,  revised  in  1897  and 
in  1899,  which  provides  for  a  mayor,  elected  an- 
nually, and  a  city  council,  composed  of  the 
mayor,  city  clerk,  and  eight  aldermen.  Pop., 
1890;  3763;  1900,  4519. 

ALBION.  A  village,  the  county  seat  of 
Orleans  Co.,  N.  Y.,  30  miles  west  of  Rochester, 
on  the  Erie  Canal  and  the  New  York  Central 
Railroad  (Map:  New  York,  B  2).  The  Western 
House  of  Refuge  for  Women,  the  Swan  Library, 
the  high  school,  the  court  house,  Pullman  Memo- 
rial Church,  and  Mt.  Albion  Cemetery  are  the 
more  prominent  features  of  interest.     Agricul- 


ture and  quarrying  are  the  leading  industries. 
Albion  is  governed,  under  a  revised  diarter  of 
1890,  by  a  mayor,  elected  every  three  years,  and 
a  board  Of  trustees.  Pop.,  1890,  4586;  1900, 
4477. 

ALBION,  New.  The  name  given  by  Sir  Frtn- 
cis  Drake  to  the  western  coast  of  North  Amerini, 
which  he  visited  in  1679.  It  waa  originally  ap- 
plied to  the  whole  region  including  the  peninsula 
of  Lower  California,  but  was  restricted  by 
Humboldt  and  other  geographers  to  the  section 
actually  explored  by  Drake  between  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay  and  the  Columbia  River.  Consult  the 
map  in  the  Hakluyt  Society's  edition  of  Fletcher's 
World  Encomp<iaaed  by  Sir  Francis  Drake, 

ALBION  COLLEGE.  An  American  college, 
situated  at  Albion,  Mich.  It  was  established  as 
a  seminary  in  1836,  and  organized  as  a  college 
in  1861.  In  1901  it  had  21  professors  and  in- 
structors, and  224  students  in  the  college  depart- 
ment, 245  in  the  schools  of  music,  oratory,  and 
painting,  115  in  the  business  department,  and 
133  in  the  preparatory  department.  The  endow- 
ment fund  is  $225,466,  the  value  of  buildings  and 
grounds  $140,000,  and  the  annual  income  from 
$32,000  to  $35,000.  The  library  contains  13,800 
volumes  and  4000  pamphlets. 

ALBION'S  ENGKLAND.  A  long  narrative 
poem  on  English  history,  by  William  Warner 
(c.  1558-1609).  It  was  first  published  in  1586, 
in  four  books  on  legendary  incidents  from  Noah's 
time  to  that  of  William  the  Conqueror ;  but  other 
books  were  successively  added,  till  there  were  sii- 
teen,  bringing  the  story  down  to  the  reign  of 
James  I.  Many  of  its  materials  have  been  used 
by  later  poets. 

ALBISTAN,  al^«.stan^  or  EL-BOSTAN,  & 
bd-stan'  (Turk.  The  Garden).  A  town  in  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  Aleppo,  about  40  miles  north- 
northeast  of  Marash,  on  the  small  river  of  Jihun 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  G  3).  It  is  situated  in 
a  fertile  portion  of  Anatolia,  and  has  a  consid- 
erable trade  in  grain.  Its  population  is  about 
8000. 

AL^ITE  (Lat.  alhua,  white).  A  sodium 
feldspar  or  sodium  aluminum  silicate  that  crys- 
tallizes in  the  triclinic  system.  It  is  a  constitu- 
ent of  many  alkaline  rocks,  and  is  found  exten- 
sively in  the  United  States.  Certain  varieties 
called  moonstones,  having  a  blue  chatoyant  effect, 
are  cut  and  polished  as  gems. 

ALBO,  al^bd,  Joseph  (c.  1380-1444).  A  Jew- 
ish preacher  and  theologian  of  Spain.  He  was 
born  probably  at  Monreal,  Aragon,  studied  un- 
der the  speculative  philosopher  Hasdai  Crescas, 
and  in  1413-14  seems  to  have  taken  part  in  the 
extended  theological  discussion  at  Tortosa.  He 
is  known  chiefly  for  his  apologetic  entitled,  Jfc- 
karim  (Principles),  which  has  exerted  wide  in- 
fluence. The  work  was  first  published  in  1485, 
and  was  translated  into  German  by  Schlesinger 
(1844).  Consult:  Back,  Joseph  Albo  (1869). 
and  TUnzer,  Die  Religiansphilosophie  des  Joseph 
Alho  (1896). 

ALBOnr,  al'boin  (?-c.  573).  The  founder  of 
the  Lombard  dominion  in  Italy.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  561  ▲.D.  as  King  of  the  Lombard^. 
who  were  at  that  time  settl^  in  Noricum  and 
Pannonia.  He  first  aided  Narses  against  the 
Ostrogoths,  and  afterward,  allying  himself  with 
the  Avars,  attacked  the  Gepidie  and  defeated 
them  in  a  great  battle  (566),  slaying  their  king. 


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ALBBIZZI. 


Cunimund,  with  his  own  hand.  On  the  death  of 
his  first  wife,  Chlotsuinda,  he  married  Rosamund, 
daughter  of  Cunimund.  He  invaded  Italy  in  568 
with  his  own  nation  of  Lombards,  some  of  the 
Gepidie,  20,000  Saxons,  and  adventurers  from 
other  nations;  overran  Venetia  in  668,  Ligu- 
ria  in  569,  and  Etruria  in  570,  and  captured 
Bene ven turn  in  571.  Pavia  was  conquered  in 
572,  after  three  years  of  siege.  During  a  feast 
at  Verona  he  made  his  queen  drink  out  of  the 
skull  of  her  father,  which  he  had  converted  into 
a  wine-cu}).  In  revenge  she  incited  her  para- 
mour, Helmichis,  to  murder  her  husband  ( 572  or 
573 ) .  To  escape  the  fury  of  the  Lombards,  Rosa- 
mund fled  with  her  associate  and  the  treasure 
to  Longinus,  the  exarch,  at  Ravenna.  Longinus 
becoming  a  suitor  for  her  hand,  she  administered 
poison  to  Helmichis,  who,  discovering  the  treach- 
ery, caused  her  to  swallow  the  remainder  of  the 
cup,  and  she  died  with  him.  For  several  centu- 
ries the  name  of  Alboin  continued  to  be  famous 
among  the  German  nations,  who  celebrated  his 
praises    in   martial   songs. 

ALBONI,  ftl-bc/n^,  Mabietta  (1823-94).  An 
Italian  contralto,  born  at  Cesena,  in  the  Romag- 
na,  March  10, 1823.  A  pupil  of  Madame  Bertolotti, 
and  later  of  Rossini,  she  made  her  d^but  at  the 
age  of  fifteen  at  Bologna  as  Orsini  in  Lucrezia 
Borgia^  and  her  success  led  to  an  engagement  at 
La  Scala,  Milan.  In  1846-47  she  sang  in  all  the 
principal  cities  of  Europe;  in  London,  at  Covent 
Garden,  in  rivalry  with  Jenny  Lind,  who  was  at 
Her  Majesty's  Theatre.  In  1852  she  visited  the 
United  States,  singing  in  the  chief  towns  in  opera 
and  concert.  With  the  exception  of  Malibran 
(q.v.),  she  was  the  greatest  contralto  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  Her  voice,  a  fine  contralto 
with  a  compass  of  two  and  one-half  octaves, 
ranging  as  high  as  mezzo-soprano,  possessed  at 
once  power,  sweetness,  fullness,  and  extraordi- 
nary flexibility.  In  passages  requiring  elevation 
and  semi-religious  calmness  she  had  no  peers, 
owing  to  the  moving  quality  of  her  voice.  She 
possessed  vivacity,  grace,  and  charm  as  an  ac- 
tress of  the  comedienne  type,  but  her  attempt  at 
a  strongly  dramatic  part,  like  Norma,  turned 
out  a  failure.  She  married  Count  Pepoli,  of  the 
Papal  States,  but  kept  her  maiden  name  on  the 
stage,  appearing  in  opera  at  Munich  as  late  as 
1872.  Her  husband  died  in  1866,  and  in  1877 
she  married  M.  Zieger,  a  French  officer.  She 
died  at  Ville  d'Avray,  near  Paris.  Consult  G. 
T.  Ferris,  Great  Singers  (New  York,  1893). 

ALBCXNTON.    See  Eubofe. 

ALBOBNOZ,  &l-bdr^ndth,  Gil  Alvarez  Cab- 
ILLO  DE  (c.  1310-1367).  A  warlike  Spanish 
prelate.  He  was  bom  at  Cuenca,  studied  at  Tou- 
louse, and  subsequently  became  almoner  to  Al- 
fonso XI.,  King  of  Castile,  who  appointed  him 
Archdeacon  of  Calatrava  and  finally  Archbishop 
of  Toledo.  He  took  part  in  the  wars  against  the 
Moors,  saved  the  life  of  the  King  in  the  battle  of 
Tarifa,  and  was  present  at  the  siege  of  Algeciras, 
where  the  King  dubbed  him  knight.  On  account 
of  the  boldness  with  which  he  denounced  the 
criminal  excesses  of  Peter  the  Cruel,  he  fell  into 
disgrace,  and  fled  to  Pope  Clement  VI.  at  Avig- 
non, who  made  him  a  cardinal.  Innocent  VII. 
also  recognized  his  abilities  as  an  astute  diplo- 
niat  and  sent  him  as  cardinal- legate  to  Rome, 
where,  by  his  tact  and  vigor,  he  secured,  in  spite 
of  the  intricate  complications  of  afl'airs,  the 
restoration  of  the  papal  authority  in  the  States 


of  the  Church  (1353-60).  Pope  Urban  V.  owed 
the  recovery  of  his  dominions  to  him,  and  out  of 
gratitude  appointed  him  legate  at  Bologna,  in 
1367.  In  the  same  year  he  died,  at  Viterbo;  but 
as  he  had  expressed  a  wish  to  be  buried  at  To- 
ledo, Henry  of  Castile  removed  his  body  with 
almost  royal  honors,  and  Urban  even  granted  an 
indulgence  to  all  who  had  assisted  in  transfer- 
ring the  body  from  Viterbo  to  Toledo.  He  left 
a  valuable  work  upon  the  constitution  of  the 
Roman  Church,  printed  for  the  first  time  at 
Jesi  in  1473,  and  now  very  rare.  By  his  will  he 
provided  for  the  foundation  of  the  College  of 
Spain  at  Bologna. 

ALBBECHT,  al^r^Kt.     See  Albert. 

ALBBECHTSBEBGEB,  al^r^xts  -  b^rK^^r, 
JoHANN  Geobq  (1736-1809).  An  Austrian  musi- 
cian, one  of  the  most  learned  contrapuntists  of  his 
age.  In  1772  he  was  appointed  court  organist, 
and  in  1792  kapellmeister  of  St.  Stephen's  cathe- 
dral. Among  his  pupils  were  Beethoven  (whose 
genius  he  failed  to  recognize),  Hummel,  Mos- 
cheles,  Seyfried,  and  Weigl.  Of  his  numerous 
compositions,  few  are  performed  nowadays.  His 
most  important  contributions  to  music  were  his 
theoretical  works,  the  Chriindliche  Antoeisung  zur 
Komposition  (1818),  and  Kurzgefasste  Methode, 
den  Generalhdsa  zu  erlemen  (1792),  which  are 
still  valuable. 

ALBRET,  Al'brA',  Jeanne  d'  (1528-72). 
Queen  of  Navarre,  only  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of 
Navarre,  and  Margaret,  sister  of  Francis  I. 
Jeanne  married  Antoine  de  Bourbon.  She  was 
celebrated  for  her  intellectual  strength  and  per- 
sonal beauty.  She  embraced  Calvinism,  and,  in 
spite  of  Spanish  menaces  and  Roman  intrigue, 
kept  her  possessions.  In  1567  she  declared  the 
reformed  religion  established  in  the  kingdom, 
and  in  1669,  with  her  children,  Henry,  afterward 
Henry  IV.  of  France,  and  Catherine,  she  brought 
a  small  band  of  Huguenots  to  Coligny  at  La 
Rochelle,  and  after  the  murder  of  the  Prince 
of  Cond^  she  was  looked  upon  as  the  only  sup- 
port of  the  Protestants.  She  wrote  prose  and 
verse,  and  some  of  her  sonnets  have  been  pub- 
lished. Consult:  Mdmoirea  ei  podaies  de  Jeanne 
d'Alhret  (Paris,  1893)  ;  Freer,  Life  of  Jeanne 
d'Alhret   (London,  1856). 

ALBBIOHT,  8in)r{t,  Jacob  (1759-1808).  The 
founder  of  the  Evangelical  Association  (q.v.). 
He  was  born  near  Pottstown,  Pa.,  May  1,  1759, 
and  died  at  Mtihlbach,  Pa.,  May  8,  1808.  In  1792 
he  joined  the  Methodist  Church,  in  1796  began 
his  very  successful  career  as  preacher  among  the 
Germans,  and  in  1807  was  elected  first  bishop 
of  the  church  which  he  founded. 

AIiBBIGHT  BBETH^EN.  See  Evangeli- 
cal Association. 

ALBBIZZIy  &l-bret^s^,  Isabella  Teotochi, 
Countess  d*  (1763-1836).  An  Italian  author. 
She  was  born  at  Corfu,  of  Greek  parentage.  As 
the  wife  of  the  inquisitor  of  state,  Count 
Giuseppe  Albrizzi,  her  home  in  Venice  became 
the  rendezvous  for  many  celebrities  of  the  day, 
such  as  Alfieri,  Foscolo,  and  Byron.  With 
Cicognara,  she  was  one  of  the  first  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  genius  of  Canova,  to  whom  she  paid 
a  glowing  tribute  in  her  celebrated  work,  Opere 
di  Scultura  e  di  Plastica  di  Ant.  Canova  descritte 
da  J.  A.  (Florence,  1809)  ;  also  published  under 
the  title  De^crizione  delle  Opere  di  Canova,  5 
volumes    (Pisa,    1821-25).     Her   othex'   writiBgs 


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ALBTJQXTEBQUE. 


include  Ritratti  (Brescia,  1807;  Pisa,  1826) ;  sev- 
enteen  essays  on  distinguished  contemporarieSi 
and  a  life  of  Vittoria  Colonna   (Venice,  1836). 

ALBBTT^A.  A  C^erman  seer  of  the  time  of 
the  Roman  Emperor  Augustus.  She  is  men- 
tioned by  Tacitus  {Germania,  VIII.),  and  is 
supposed  to  have  acquired  renown  during  the 
campaigns  of  Drusus  and  Tiberius.  Albruna  is 
the  same  as  the  Old  Norse  alfrunOf  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  helrun,  and  is  the  collective  term 
for  the  wise  women  of  the  ancient  Germans. 

AX'BUCA^SIS.     See  Abulcasim. 

ALBTTEBA,  &l-bwft'r&.  A  hamlet  in  the 
Spanish  province  of  Badajoz.  It  is  insignificant 
in  itself,  but  famous  for  the  battle  of  May  16, 
1811,  between  the  combined  English,  Spanish, 
and  Portuguese  forces  under  General  Beresford, 
and  the  French  under  Marshal  Soult,  who  were 
not  so  numerous  as  the  allies,  but  had  abundant 
artillery.  The  object  of  the  French  was  to  com- 
pel the  English  to  raise  the  siege  of  Badajoz. 
The  result  was  that  Soult  was  obliged  to  retreat 
to  Seville  with  the  loss  of  8000  men;  the  loss 
of  the  allied  forces  was  about  7000.  In  propor- 
tion to  the  numbers  engaged,  the  battle  was  the 
most  sanguinary  in  the  whole  contest.  The 
French  had  at  first  got  possession  of  a  height 
which  commanded  the  whole  position  of  the  allied 
army,  but  they  were  driven  from  it  by  6000 
British,  only  1600  of  whom  reached  the  top 
unwounded. 

ALBTJFEBA,  ftl'boo-fa'ri  (Ar.  al,  the  +  hu- 
haira,  coast-lake).  A  lake  near  Valencia,  in 
Spain,  about  10  miles  in  length  and  the  same  in 
breadth.  It  is  separated  from  the  sea  by  a  nar- 
row tongue  of  land,  and  a  canal  connects  it  with 
the  city  of  Valencia  (Map:  Spain,  E  3).  It  is 
rich  in  fish  and  fowl,  and  is  said  to  have  been  ex- 
cavated by  the  Moors.  From  it  Marshal  Suchet 
(q.v.)  took  the  title  of  duke. 

ALBTJ^GK).     Sec  Leucoma. 

AXBlTIiAy  Iil^b<5i?-1A.  A  river  in  the  canton 
of  Grison,  or  Graubundcn,  Switzerland  (Map: 
Switzerland,  D  2).  The  Albula  is  the  largest 
tributary  of  the  Hither  Rhine,  and  rises  in  the 
Albula  Pass,  flowing  through  the  Albula  Valley 
to  empty  into  the  Hither  Rhine  after  a  course 
of  20  miles.  Its  outlet  is  4500  feet  lower  than  its 
source. 

ALBTJXA  PASS.  A  high,  rocky  pass  in  which 
rises  the  Albula  River,  Switzerland  (Map: 
Switzerland,  D  2).  It  is  situated  7600  feet 
above  sea  level,  and  lies  between  the  peak  of 
Crasta  Mora  (9600  feet  high)  and  the  Pitz 
Urtsch  or  Albulahorn  (10,700  feet  high).  Over 
it  runs  the  road  from  Tiefenkasten  to  Ponte,  the 
shortest  route  into  the  Engadine.  A  railroad 
has  recently  been  constructed. 

AX^TJM  (Lat.  neut.  of  alhus,  white).  Among 
the  Romans,  a  wooden  tablet  whitened  with 
gypsum,  on  which  were  written  in  black  letters 
the  Annates  Maofimi  of  the  pontifex,  edicts  of 
the  praetor,  and  public  announcements  of  the 
magistrates  generally.  The  word  was  also  ap- 
plied to  the  contents  of  such  a  board,  and  as  lists 
of  corporations  had  to  be  published,  album  came 
to  denote  any  such  catalogue;  e.g.,  Album  Senor 
torium,  the  official  list  of  the  Senate.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  the  word  was  used  to  denote  any 
list,  catalogue,  or  register,  whether  of  saints, 
soldiers,  or  civil  functionaries.  In  the  gymnasia 
and  universities  on  the  Continent,  the  list  of  the 


names  of  the  members  is  called  the  album.  The 
name  is  also  applied  to  the  "black  .board''  on 
which  public  notifications  of  lectures,  etc,  are 
written  up.  But  its  popular  signification  in 
modern  times  is  that  of  a  book  U)r  containing 
photographs,  or  a  blank  book  for  a  drawing-room 
table,  intended  to  receive  the  fugitive  pieces 
of  verse,  or  the  signatures  of  distinguished  per- 
sons, or  sometimes  merely  drawings. 

ALBU^XBN  Lat.,  the  white  of  an  egg.  from 
albus,  white).  In  plants,  a  name  formerly  ap- 
plied to  the  nutritive  tissue  of  seeds,  now  com- 
monly known  as  *'endosperm."    See  Seed. 

ALBUMisNy  or  AXBTTMHr.  The  most  im- 
portant ingredient  in  the  white  of  egg.  It 
abounds  in  the  blood  and  more  or  less  in  all 
the  serous  fluids  of  the  animal  body.  It  also 
exists  in  the  sap  of  vegetables,  and  in  their  seeds 
and  edible  parts.  Albumen  is  often  used  as 
a  mordant,  to  fasten  various  colors  on  cotton. 
It  is  prepared  industrially  in  considerable  quan- 
tities by  drying  the  white  of  egg  without  allow- 
ing it  to  coagulate.  For  this  purpose  the  white 
of  egg  is  placed  in  shallow  vessels  and  kept  at 
a  temperature  of  about  50'  C.  (122*  F.)  in 
well-ventilated  chambers.  Unless  coagulation 
has  taken  place,  the  dried  albumen  remains  com- 
pletely soluble  in  water.  Albumen  is  also  used 
in  photographic  printing,  and  its  property  of 
coagulating  with  heat  into  an  insoluble  variety 
renders  it  useful  in  clarifying  solutions,  as  in 
sugar  refining.  With  corrosive  sublimate  (bi- 
chloride of  mercury)  and  other  poisonous  salts. 
albumen  forms  insoluble  compounds ;  it  is,  there- 
fore, often  used  in  medicine  as  an  antidote.  See 
Albuminubia. 

AXBU^IirOIDS.     See  Pboteids. 

AIi'BirMINXT^BIA(Lat.  alhumen  -f-  Gk.ovpov, 
ouron,  Lat.  urina,  urine).  Generally,  a  symptom 
of  disease  of  the  kidneys; notably  Bright's  disease 
(nephritis).  It  consists  of  the  presence  of  alhu- 
men in  the  urine.  Tests  for  albuminuria:  (1) 
Pour  into  a  small  test  tube  a  little  fresh  urine, 
then  gently  add  about  one-half  the  same  amount 
of  cold  nitric  acid.  The  presence  of  a  white 
ring  at  the  junction  of  the  liquids  indicates 
albumen.  (2)  Partly  fill  a  test  tube  with  fresh 
urine;  add  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid;  boil  the 
top  of  the  liquid.  Coagulation  indicates  the 
presence  of  albumen.  Physiological  albuminuria 
occurs  in  young  adults,  after  muscular  exercise, 
and  also  in  some  people  after  cold  baths  and 
during  indigestion.  It  may  not  be  present,  even 
in  severe  Bright's  disease,  and  it  is  not  always 
an  indication  of  disease.    See  Brioht's  Disease. 

ALBirSfOIi,  ftl'bSo-nydK.  A  town  of  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Granada,  41  miles  southeast  of 
Granada,  and  about  3  miles  from  the  coast  of  the 
Mediterranean  (Map:  Spain,  D  4).  It  is  a  well- 
built  town,  with  clean,  paved  streets.  The  sur- 
rounding  district  abounds  in  vineyards,  and  is 
also  very  productive  of  figs  and  almonds.  The 
making  of  wine  and  brandy  and  the  drying  of 
raisins  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  inhabit^ 
anU  of  the  town  itself.  Pop.,  1900,  0356.  The 
2>ort  of  Aibufiol  is  a  small  place  called  Kegra. 

ALBTTQUEBQUE,  &l'b55-ker^&  (Sp.  from 
Lat.  albu8f  white -4- gtterciis,  oak-tree).  A  town 
of  Estremadura,  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Bada- 
joz, 24  miles  north  of  Badajoz,  and  about  10 
miles  from  the  Portuguese  frontier  (Map:  Spain, 
B  3).    It  was  once  fortified.    Cotton  and  woolen 


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ALCAICS. 


fabrics    are    manufactured,   and    a   considerable 
woolen  trade  is  maintained.     Pop.,  7500. 

ALBT7QXJEKQIJE.  The  county  seat  of  Ber- 
nalillo Co.,  New  Mexico,  on  the  Rio  Grande,  73 
miles  southwest  of  Santa  F6,  and  on  the  At- 
chison, Topeka  and  Santa  F^,  and  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  railroads  (Map:  New  Mexico,  E  2).  It 
has  an  elevation  of  5000  feet  above  the  sea,  is 
the  seat  of  the  University  of  New  Mexico  (or- 
^nized  1889),  a  government  school  for  Indians 
(founded  in  1881),  and  several  academies;  has 
a  large  trade  in  grain,  hides,  wool,  and  manufac- 
tures of  iron  and  brick,  and  in  the  vicinity  are 
silver,  gold,  copper,  and  iron  mines.  Albuquer- 
que was  founded  in  1700,  was  named  in  honor 
of  Albuquerque,  then  Viceroy  of  New  Mexico,  and 
was  a  prominent  settlement  during  the  Spanish 
regime.  The  new  town  really  dates  from  1880, 
and  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1892.  The 
mayor  is  elected  annually  and  the  city  council 
is  composed  of  eight  members.  Pop.,  1890,  3785; 
1900,  6238. 

ALBTTQTJBBQITE,  Afponso  db.  The  Great 
(1453-1515).  Viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  Indies. 
He  was  bom  at  Alhandra,  a  town  near  Lisbon, 
and  is  kno^'n  in  the  national  epics  as  ''the  Por- 
tuguese Mars"  and  as  "the  Portuguese  Caesar." 
Albuquerque  spent  his  youth  in  attendance  at 
the  palace  of  King  Alfonso  V.  He  took  part 
in  the  exjpedition  against  the  Turks,  which  ter- 
minated in  the  victory  of  the  Christians  at 
Otranto  in  1481.  In  1489  he  became  chief 
equerry  to  King  John  II.  He  was  assigned  to 
duty  on  the  Indian  fleet  of  1603,  and  acquitted 
himself  with  such  discretion  that  King  Emanuel 
appointed  him  vicerojr  of  the  Portuguese  posses- 
sions in  the  East  in  1506.  His  predecessor, 
Francesco  de  Almeida  (q.v.),  refused  to  give  up 
his  office,  however,  and  sent  Albuquerque  as  a 
prisoner  to  Cananore.  In  October,  1509,  he  was 
released,  and  took  over  the  authority  of  the  vice- 
roy. Albuquerque  captured  the  fortress  of  Goa, 
February  16,  1610,  but  was^forced  to  evacuate  it 
and  retire  to  Panjim,  where  he  awaited  reinforce- 
ments from  Europe^  with  whose  help,  on  Novem- 
ber 26,  1510,  he  recaptured  the  city,  which  has 
erer  since  been  the  chief  seat  of  Portuguese  power 
and  commerce  in  the  East.  He  gradually  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  Malabar,  Ceylon,  the  Sun- 
da  Isles,  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  and  (in  1515), 
the  island  of  Ormuz,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Per- 
sian Gulf.  He  made  the  Portuguese  name  respect- 
e<l  in  the  East,  and  many  of  the  princes,  especially 
the  kings  of  Siam  and  Pegu,  sought  his  alliance 
and  protection.  He  maintained  strict  military  dis- 
cipline, was  active,  humane,  respected,  feared  by 
his  neighbors,  and  beloved  by  his  subjects.  Not- 
withstanding his  valuable  services,  Albuquerque 
did  not  escape  the  envy  of  the  courtiers  and  the 
suspicions  of  King  Emanuel,  who  appointed 
Lopez  Soarez,  a  personal  enemy  of  Albuquerque, 
to  supersede  him  as  viceroy.  This  ingratitude 
affected  him  deeply.  IshmaSl,  the  Shah  of  Per- 
sia, offered  his  assistance  to  resist  the  arbitrary 
decree  of  the  Portuguese  court,  but  Albuquerque 
would  not  violate  his  allegiance.  A  few  days 
afterward,  commending  his  son  to  the  king  in  a 
•hort  letter,  he  died  at  sea  near  Goa,  December 
16.  1515.  Emanuel  honored  his  memory  and 
Ijised  his  son  to  the  highest  dignities  in  the 
^tate.  This  son,  whose  name,  Braz,  or  Blaaius, 
^as  altered  to  Aflfonso  after  his  father's  death, 
compiled  from  the  official  dispatches  and  private 


letters  of  the  viceroy  the  Commentarios  do 
Grande  Alfonso  d' Alhoquerque  (printed  in  Lis- 
bon  in  1557;  reprinted  in  1576  and  1774).  A 
translation,  edited  by  W.  de  G.  Birch,  published 
by  the  Hakluyt  Society  of  London,  in  four  vol- 
umes, 1875-84,  is  the  standard  authority  for  this 
period  of  Indian  history. 

ALBTJB^UM  (Lat.  sap-wood,  from  alhus, 
white).  An  old  name  for  the  sap-wood  of  ordi- 
nary trees  (Dicotyledons  and  Conifers).  As  the 
tree  adds  new  layers  of  wood,  the  ascending  sap 
abandons  the  deeper  seated  layers,  which  also 
become  modified  through  age.  This  leads  usually 
to  a  sharp  contrast  in  the  appearance  of  the  two 
regions,  the  outer  region  traversed  by  the  sap 
(alburnum)  being  lighter  in  color  and  consisting 
of  thinner- walled  cells  than  does  the  older  heart 
wood  or  "duramen."    See  Wood. 

ALBTJBY,  ftl'bSr-I.  A  border  town  of  New 
South  Wales,  Australia,  on  the  Murray  River, 
connected  with  the  State  of  Victoria  by  two 
bridges  (Map:  New  South  Wales,  D  5). 
It  is  sometimes  called  the  Federal  City.  It 
is  at  the  head  of  the  river  navigation,  190 
miles,  by  rail,  northeast  of  Melbourne,  and  has  a 
trade  in  the  agricultural  and  mineral  produce 
of  the  district.  Pop.,  5500.  Consult  The  Union 
Celebration  at  Alhury,  1883  (Sydney,  1883). 

AlfCa/XTS  (Gk.  'A^KOMc,  Alkaios).  One  of 
the  first  lyric  poets  of  Greece,  and  contemporary 
with  Sappho.  He  was  a  native  of  Mitylene,  and 
flourished  at  the  end  of  the  seventh  and  the  be- 
ginning of  the  sixth  century  b.c.  Alceus  was  of 
aristocratic  birth,  and  became  a  leader  against 
the  tyrants  of  his  native  city,  Myrsilus  andMe- 
lanchrus.  Being  banished  from  home,  he  traveled 
during  his  exile,  it  is  said,  as  far  as  Egypt. 
While  he  was  absent,  a  former  comrade  in  arms, 
Pittacus,  was  called  to  the  head  of  the  State  by 
the  people,  whereupon  Alcicus  took  up  arms 
against  him  as  a  tyrant;  but  in  attempting  to 
force  his  way  back  he  was  captured  by  Pittacus, 
who,  however,  generously  granted  him  his  life 
and  freedom.  Alcaeus's  odes  in  the  iEolic  dia- 
lect— arranged  in  ten  books  by  the  Alexandrians 
— contained  political  songs  bearing  on  the  strug- 
gles against  the  tyrants,  hymns,  and  drinking 
and  love  songs.  Only  fragments  remain.  Alcseus 
was  the  inventor  of  the  form  of  stanza  which  is 
named  after  him,  the  Alcaic;  this  Horace,  the 
most  successful  of  his  imitators,  transplanted 
into  the  Latin  language.  The  fragments  were 
collected  in  Bergk's  Poetw  Lyrid  Greed  iii  : 
fourth  edition,  pp.  147ff  (Leipzig,  1882).  Con- 
sult Smyth,  Greek  Melio  Poets  (New  York, 
1900). 

ALCA'ICS.  Certain  kinds  of  Greek  and  Latin 
logacudic  verse,  named  from  the  poet  Alca»us 
(q.v.),  their  reputed  inventor.  The  greater  Alcaic 
consists  of  a  preliminary  syllable  (anacrusis), 
a  trochaic  dipody,  cyclic  dactyl,  and  trochaic 
dipody  catalectic.  In  Horace  the  second  foot  is 
regularly  an  irrational  spondee, 

^  :  -  --  I   -  ^   I  — --  -  I   -  --   I    -  A 
The    lesser    Alcaic    is    composed    of    two    cyclic 
dactyls  and  a  trochaic  dipody  acatalectic, 

—  ^  I  e 
The  Alcaic  stanza  consists  of  two  gr^^^ter   Al- 
caics,  a   trochaic   quaternarius,   with     ^^^ctu^\*» 
and  a  lesser  Alcaic. 

luB  :  tam  et  te'naocm   I  propo<nl!tI  vilmirt 
non  i  civium  i   ardor  '  prava  lu  |  bentiun^ 
non  :  voUub  I   itiPtanltJe  ty  I  ranni  "^ 

meute  qua|tit  solilda,  neque  1    AuBt^^ 


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ALCAIDE. 


288 


ALCANTABA. 


ALCAIDE,  ftl-kfid';  8p.  pron.  h\-WDk 
(Sp.  from  Ar.  al,  the  +  q&id,  governor),  or 
ALCAYDE.  A  Moorish  title,  applied  by  Span- 
ish and  Portuguese  ^^Titers  to  a  military  officer 
having  charge  of  a  fortress,  prison,  or  town.  It 
has  also  been  used  to  designate  a  jailer.  It  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  alcalde,  which  indicates 
a  civil  officer. 

ALCALA  DE  GITADAIBA,  JirkA-lft^  dA  gw&- 
Dl'rA  (Ar.  al,  the -{- kalat,  kahih,  castle  +  Sp. 
dCfOi).  The  ancient  Carthagenian  Hienippa 
(place  of  many  springs).  A  town  of  Andalusia, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Seville,  seven  miles  east 
by  south  of  Guadaira,  partly  on  a  hill,  and  is 
overlooked  by  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Moorish 
castle,  once  one  of  the  most  important,  as  its 
ruins  are  still  among  the  finest,  in  Spain  (Map: 
Spain,  C  4).  The  town  is  beautifully  situat^^, 
and  on  account  of  the  salubrity  of  the  climate 
is  much  resorted  to  as  a  summer  residence 
by  the  inhabitants  of  Seville.  It  is  celebrated 
for  producing  the  finest  bread  in  Spain;  there 
are  numerous  bakeries  in  the  town  and  Se- 
ville is  chiefly  supplied  from  it.  Seville  is  also 
8Ui)plied  with  water  from  the  hill  above  Aldklft, 
which  is  perforated  by  tunnels,  forming  under- 
ground canals.  Some  of  the  tunnels  are  believed  to 
be  Roman  works,  but  most  of  them  are  known  to 
have  been  made  by  the  Moors.  Pop.,  1900,  8287. 

ALCALA  DE  HENABEjS,  ft-n^rgs.  An  old 
town  in  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Madrid,  sit- 
uated on  the  Henares,  22  miles  from  the  city  of 
Madrid  (Map:  Spain,  D  2).  It  boasts  of  a  uni- 
versity, which  was  founded  by  Cardinal  Xim- 
enes  in  1510,  and  once  enjoyed  a  world-wide 
fame,  second  to  that  of  Salamanca  alone.  When 
Francis  I.  visited  it,  while  a  prisoner  in  Spain, 
he  was  welcomed  by  1 1,000  students.  The  library 
contains  the  original  of  the  celebrated  polyglot 
Bible,  which  was  printed  in  this  town,  and  called 
the  Complutensian,  from  the  ancient  name  of  the 
place  (Compuum).  Alcalfl  de  Henares  has,  be- 
sides, a  cavalry  school,  a  collegiate  church,  and  a 
prison  for  eight  hundred  female  convicts,  the 
only  institution  of  its  kind  in  Spain.  Its  indus- 
tries include  a  linen  thread  factory,  soap  works, 
weaving  mills  of  various  kinds,  and  a  great 
leather  factory.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Cervan- 
tes. Pop.,  1900,  12,056.  Consult:  Calleja,  "Bos- 
quejo  Historico  de  los  Colegios  Seculares  de  la 
Universidad  de  Alcal&  de  Henares,"  in  Volume 
CXVI.  Kevista  Contemporanea   (Madrid,  1899). 

ALCALi.  LA  BEATi,  la  rA-Hr  (Ar.  al,  the  + 
kalatf  kalah,  castle,  fortress,  and  Sp.  la,  the-f- 
real,  royal).  A  city  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Jaen,  26  miles  northwest  of  Granada 
(Map:  Spain,  D  4).  It  is  situated  on  a  conical 
hill,  in  a  narrow  valley,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
mountains  which  separate  the  province  of  Jaen 
from  that  of  Granada,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly 
3000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  is  a  very  picturesque 
town,  irregularly  built,  with  steep  and  narrow 
streets  and  bold  towers.  It  has  a  hospital,  for- 
merly an  abbey,  a  very  fine  building.  The  neigh- 
borhood produces  grain  and  fruits  of  the  finest 
quality,  and  the  inhabitants  of  the  town  are 
mostly  engaged  in  agriculture.  There  is  some 
trade-in  wine  and  wool.  Pop.,  1900,  15  948.  The 
town  obtained  its  name  from  the  fact  tnat  it  was 
originally  the  Moorish  castle  and  stronsrhold  of 
Ibn  Zaide.  In  1340  the  place  was  raptured  by 
Alfonso  XT. 


ALCALDE,  &l-k&KdA  (Sp.  from  Ar.  ai,  the 
+  q&di,  judge) .  The  general  title  of  judicial  and 
magisterial  office.  Still  used  in  Spain  and  in 
countries  in  America  settled  by  the  Spaniards. 
The  mayor  of  the  pueblo  or  town  is  called  the 
alcalde,  and  is  invested  with  judicial  as  well  as 
executive  powers. 

ALCAK^ENES  (Gk.'AXjca//ii^c,  Alkamenia). 
A  famous  Athenian  sculptor,  said  to  have  been  a 
pupil  of  Phidias.  His  latest  work  is  dated  in 
403  B.C.,  but  his  most  famous  works  seem  to  hare 
been  executed  from  440  to  430  B.c.  His  greatest 
achievement  was  the  "Aphrodite  in  the  Gar- 
den" at  Athens,  of  which  the  "Venus  Genetrii" 
statues  are  probably  copies.  ^  If  Pausanias  ia 
right  in  attributing  to  Alcamenes  the  sculptiues 
in  the  west  pediment  of  the  temple  of  Zeuf^,  at 
Olympia,  and  a  statue  of  Hera  in  a  temple  de- 
stroyed by  the  Persians,  we  must  assume  that 
there  was  also  an  elder  sculptor  of  the  same 
name. 

ALCAKO,  ftl^kA-md.  A  city  in  Sicily,  835  feet 
above  the  sea,  5  miles  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Ca»- 
tellamare,  and  52  miles  by  rail,  plus  5  miles  by 
highway,  southwest  of  Palermo  (Map:  Italy,  H 
9) .  It  has  an  Oriental  appearance  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  in  1233,  after  an  insurrection,  Freder- 
ick II.  substituted  a  Christian  for  the  Saracenic 
population.  The  campanile  of  the  cathedral  con- 
tains a  "Crucifixion"  by  Gagini;  the  church  of 
San  Francesco,  statues  of  the  Renaissance  per- 
iod; and  the  church  Dei  Minor!,  a  "Madonna"  by 
Rozzolone.  Above  the  towQ  to  the  south  towers 
Mount  Bonifato  to  the  height  of  2700  feet,  from 
which  is  a  magnificent  prospect  of  the  gulf  to 
the  north.  The  country  is  agriculturallv  rich. 
Pop.  1881,  37,697;  1901,  51,809.  Consult  "Doc- 
umenti  sulle  chiese  di  Alcamo"  in  Archive  Sto- 
rico  Siciliano,  Vol.  XXV.     (Palermo,  1900). 

ALCANDBE,  ftincilN^dr'.  In  Mademoiselle 
de  Scud^ry's  OUlie,  Histoire  Romaine,  a  charac- 
ter representing  the  young  Louis  XIV. 

ALcInTABA,  &l-k&n^t&-rft   (Ar.  al,  the  + 

qantarah,  bridge).  The  Norba  Ciesarea  of  the 
liomans.  An  old  fortified  Spanish  town,  built 
by  the  Moors  in  the  province  of  Estremadiua 
(Map:  Spain  B  3).  It  is  noted  for  the  bridge, 
which  was  built  by  Trajan  early  in  the  second 
century.  This  is  670  feet  long  and  210  feet  high, 
with  six  arches,  and  was  constructed  of  stone 
without  cement.  In  1808  the  English  partially 
destroyed  the  bridge,  and  it  suffer^  again  in  the 
civil  war  of  1836.  From  that  time  until  1882, 
when  it  was  repaired,  the  inhabitants  used  a 
ferry.    Pop.,  1900,  3097. 

ALCAnTABA,  Obdeb  of.  A  religious  and 
-military  order  of  knighthood,  established  in 
1176  for  the  defense  of  Estremadura  against  the 
Moors.  In  1197,  Pope  Celestine  III.  confinn»>d 
the  privileges  of  the  order,  imposing  the  oaths  of 
obedience,  poverty,  chastity,  and  eternal  war 
against  the  Moors.  The  order  ^^tis  at  first  knoTm 
as  the  Knights  of  St.  Julian,  but  in  1217  Alfonso 
IX.  gave  them  the  town  of  AlcAntara.  which  he 
had  taken  from  the  Moors.  They  settled  in  this 
to>vn,  and  were  known  as  the  Order  of  Alcftntara. 
In  time  the  grand  mastership  of  the  Order  wa-* 
united  to  the  Spanish  crown  by  Pope  Alexander 
VI.,  in  1495,  when  the  former  Grand  Master  %va< 
made  Archbishop  of  Toledo  and  a  cardinal.  In 
1546  the  knights  .were  allowed  to  marry,  but  were 
obliged  to  take  an  oath  to  defend  the  Immacu- 


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alcAntaba. 


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ALCHEMY. 


late  Ck)nception.  *  For  a  time  in  their  early  his- 
tory the  Knights  of  Alcftntara  acknowledged  the 
superiority  of  the  Knights  of  Calatrava,  but 
later  were  independent.  In  1835  the  Order 
ceased  to  exist  as  an  ecclesiastical  body  and  be- 
came an  order  of  the  court. 

AIjCANTABA.  a  seaport  town  of  Brazil, 
in  the  province  of  Maranhao,  17  miles  northwest 
of  Maranh&o,  near  the  mouth  of  the  bay  of  St. 
Marcos  (Map  :  Brazil,  J  4).  It  was  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  province,  but  the  shallowness 
of  the  harbor  has  prevented  its  trade  from  in- 
creasing. There  are  two  salt-pits  not  far  from 
the  town.  Cotton,  rice,  and  salt  are  exported. 
Pop.,  about  10,000. 

ALCANTABA.  A  western  suburb  of  Lisbon, 
where,  in  1580,  the  invading  Duke  of  Alva  won  a 
victory  over  the  Portuguese.  It  is  now  a  part 
of  the  city. 

ALCAKTABA,  Doctor  of.  An  opera  by  Jul- 
ius Eichberg  (q.v.),  first  presented  in  Boston  in 
1862.  ^ 

ALCARAZ,  nrk&-rfith^  A  town  of  La  Mancha, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Albacete,  36  miles  west- 
southwest  of  Albacete  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  It 
stands  on  the  slope  of  an  isolated  hill,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Guadarmena,  a  feeder  of  the  Guadal- 
quivir. A  ruined  castle  crowns  the  summit  of 
the  hill,  and  there  are  also  the  remains  of  a  fine 
Roman  aqueduct.  The  town  owes  its  importance 
to  the  well-known  tin  and  zinc  mines  in  the  vi- 
cinity, which  give  employment  to  its  inhabitants. 
Pop.,  1900,  4503. 

ALCATBAZ',  or  PELICAN  IS'LAND.  An 
island  in  the  bay  of  San  Francisco,  nearly  3 
miles  northwest  of  the  city.  It  is  1650  feet  in 
length,  and  it  rises  130  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  bay.  The  United  States  Government  main- 
tains upon  it  an  important  fortification,  which 
commands  the  entrance  to  the  Golden  Gate 
(q.v.).  On  its  highest  ground  has  been  erected 
the  highest  lighthouse  on  the  Pacific  coast. 

ALCAVALA,  &rka-v&a&,  or  ALCABALA 
(Sp.  from  Ar.  ah  the  +  gahalah,  duty,  tax).  A 
duty  formerly  charged  in  Spain  and  her  colonies 
on  transfers  of  property,  whether  public  or  pri- 
vate. It  was  probably  instituted  in  1341  by  Al- 
fonso XI.,  beginning  with  5  per  cent.,  and  by  the 
seventeenth  century  had  increased  to  14  per  cent, 
of  the  selling  price  of  all  commodities,  raw  or 
manufactured,  charged  as  often  as  they  were  sold 
or  exchanged.  This  impost  was  enforced,  despite 
its  ill  effect  on  the  commerce  of  the  kingdom, 
down  to  the  invasion  of  Napoleon,  and  indeed, 
in  a  modified  form,  has  been  continued  to  the 
present  day.  Catalonia  and  Aragon  purchased 
from  Philip  V.  exemption  from  the  tax,  and, 
though  still  burdened  heavily,  were  in  a  flourish- 
ing state  in  comparison  with  districts  covered 
by  the  alcavala. 

ALCAZAB,  ftl-kft'zar;  8p.  pron,  &l-ka'thar 
(Sp.  from  Ar.  aZ,  the  +  plur.  of  qacr,  castle). 
The  name  given  in  Spain  to  the  large  palaces 
built  by  the  JVIoors,  especially  royal  palaces,  or 
those  of  great  eniirs.  They  are  often  even  more  in 
the  nature  of  strongholds  than  the  Florentine  pal- 
aces, being  built  around  one  or  more  large  colon- 
naded courts,  with  towers  at  the  angles,  heavy 
high  walls,  and  a  single  double  gateway.  Several 
still  exist  in  the  large  Spanish  cites,  dating  from 
Moorish  times,  as  at  Malaga.  Seville,  Toledo,  and 
Segovia.  The  alcazar  differs  from  the  real  fortress 
Vol.  I.-19 


palace  or  acropolis  fort,  called  "kal'at"  (such 
as  the  Alhambra),  in  being  within,  instead  of 
outside,  the  city  streets.  The  term  would  apply, 
however,  to  any  palace  throughout  Mohammedan 
countries.  The  best  preserved  imitation  in  Chris- 
tian art  of  this  type  is  the  princely  palace  at 
Ravello,  near  Naples,  built  under  the  influence 
of  Mohammedan  art. 

ALCAZAB  DE  SAN  JUAN,  &l-krthar  dft  ' 
sHn  Hwftn'.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Ciudad  Real,  situated  92  miles  by  rail  from 
Madrid  (Map:  Spain,  D  3).  It  lies  in  a  moun- 
tainous region  in  the  vicinity  of  extensive  iron 
mines.  It  has  a  number  of  soap,  powder,  and 
saltpetre  factories,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade 
in  wine.  The  environs  of  Alc&zar  are  believed 
to  have  been  described  by  Cervantes  in  Don 
Quixote.     Pop.,  1900,   11,292. 

ALCEa>0  (Lat.),  ALCY'ONE  (Gk. 'AX/a;<5yj; 
Alkyon^).  The  names  of  genera  of  kingfishers, 
in  allusion  to  a  classic  myth.  See  Halcyon  and 
Kingfisher. 

ALCEDO  Y  HEBBEBA,  &l-th&'D6  6  &r-ra^r&, 
Antonio.  A  Peruvian  soldier  and  historian, 
whose  Diccionario  geogrdfico-histdrico  de  las 
Indias  OccidcntaleSj  published  at  Madrid  in  four 
volumes  (1786-89),  supplies  much  exclusive 
information  concerning  the  middle  period  of 
Spanish-American  history.  The  original  work 
was  suppressed  by  the  Spanish  government.  An 
English  translation  by  G.  A.  Thompson  (London, 
1812-15),  contains  considerable  additions.  Alcedo 
was  also  the  compiler  of  an  important  biblio- 
graphical work,  the  Bihltoteca  Americana^  the 
numerous  manuscript  copies  of  which  are  fre- 
quently cited  by  writers  on  early  American  bibli- 
ography. 

ALCESTE,  Al'sfet'.  ( 1 )  A  character  in  Mo- 
li^re's  play  entitled  Le  Misanthrope  (q.v.). 
(2)  A  name  used  as  a  pseudonym  by  a  number 
of  modern  French  writers,  among  them  Am^d^e 
Achard,  Alfred  Assolai^,  Louis  Belmontet,  Hip- 
polyte  4e  Castille,  and  Edouard  Laboulaye.  (3) 
A  tragic  opera  by  Gluck,  first  performed  with  an 
Italian  text,  December  16,  1766,  at  Vienna.  Ten 
years  later  it  was  produced  in  French  at  Paris. 

ALCESTEBy  ^Kst^r,  Frederick  Beauchamp 
Paget  Seymour,  Baron  (1821-95).  An  English 
admiral.  He  was  born  in  London,  educated  at 
Eton,  and  entered  the  navy  in  1834.  He  became 
a  captain  in  1854,  a  rear  admiral  in  1870,  and 
an  admiral  in  1882.  In  1880  he  was  in  command 
of  the  allied  fieet  which  made  a  demonstration 
off  the  Albanian  coast  in  order  to  compel  the 
Turks  to  cede  Dulcigno  to  Montenegro.  For  this 
service  he  was  created  G.C.B.  In  the  Egyptian 
war  of  1882  he  commanded  the  British  fleet  at 
the  bombardment  of  Alexandria.  He  was  raised 
to  the  peerage  later  in  the  same  year. 

ALCES^IS.     See  Admetus. 

ALXHEMILOiA.     See  Lady*s  Mantije. 

AL^CHEMIST,  The.  A  noted  comedy  by 
Ben  Jonson,  acted  in  1610,  printed  in  1G12.  It 
makes  a  jest  of  the  then  popular  belief  in  the 
philosopher's  stone  and  the  elixir  of  \\fe;  ^^^ 
leading  character.  Subtle,  is  a  quack,  who  ^^' 
ludes  Sir  Epicure  Mammon  and  other  credu^®^® 
persons  till  he  is  finally  exposed. 


AX^CHEKY  (Ar.  at,  the  +  fcttntci 
Gk.   ;rJ7//M/a,    ch^m[€]ia;  see  below?'^  ^"^^^vetO^ 
is  to  modern  chemistry   what    a%^^  -     ^^\  ^^ 


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ALCHEMY. 


astronomy,  or  legend  to  history.  In  the  eye  of 
the  astrologer,  a  knowledge  of  the  stars  was  val- 
uable as  a  means  of  foretelling,  or  even  of  influ- 
encing, future  events.  In  like  manner,  the  gen- 
uine alchemist  toiled  with  his  crucibles  and 
alembics,  calcining,  subliming,  distilling,  with 
two  grand  objects,  as  illusory  as  those  of  the 
astrologer — to  discover,  namely,  (1)  the  secret 
of  transmuting  the  baser  metals  into  gold  and 
silver,  and  (2)  the  means  of  indefinitely  pro- 
longing human  life. 

Tradition  points  to  Egypt  as  the  birthplace  of 
the  science.  The  god  Hermes  Trismegistus  (q.v.) 
is  represented  as  the  father  of  it:  and  the  most 
probable  etymology  of  the  name  is  that  which  con- 
nects it  with  the  most  ancient  and  native  name 
of  Egypt,  Chemi  (the  Scripture  Cham  or  Ham). 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  under  the  empire  would 
seem  to  have  become  acquainted  with  it  from  the 
Egyptians:  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that 
in  early  times  either  people  had  the  name  or 
the  thing.  Chetnia  (Gk.  XW^'^"*  chSmeia)  occurs 
in  the  lexicon  of  Suidas,  written  about  the  elev- 
enth century,  and  is  explained  by  him  to  be  "the 
conversion  of  silver  and  gold."  It  is  to  the 
Arabs,  from  whom  Europe  got  the  name  and 
the  art,  that  the  term  owes  the  prefixed  article 
al.  As  if  chemia  had  been  a  generic  term  em- 
bracing all  common  chemical  operations,  such 
as  the  decocting  and  compounding  of  ordinary 
drugs,  the  grand  operation  of  transmutation 
was  denominated  the  chemia  {al-chemy) — ^the 
chemistry  of  chemistries.  The  Roman  Emperor 
Caligula  is  said  to  have  instituted  experiments 
for  the  producing  of  gold  out  of  orpiment  (sul- 
phide of  arsenic)  ;  and  in  the  time  of  Diocletian, 
the  passion  for  this  pursuit,  conjoined  with  mag- 
ical arts,  had  become  so  prevalent  in  the  Empire, 
that  that  Emperor  is  said  to  have  ordered  all 
Egyptian  works  treating  of  the  chemistry  of 
gold  and  silver  to  be  burned.  For  at  that  time 
multitudes  of  books  on  this  art  were  appearing, 
written  by  Alexandrine  monks  and  by  hermits, 
but  bearing  famous  names  of  antiquity,  such  as 
Democritus,  Pythagoras,  and  Hermes. 

At  a  later  period,  the  Arabs  took  up  the  art, 
and  it  is  to  them  that  European  alchemy  is 
directly  traceable.  The  school  of  polypharmacy, 
as  it  has  been  called,  flourished  in  Arabia  during 
the  caliphate  of  the  Abbasides.  The  earliest 
work  of  this  school  now  known  is  the  Summa 
Perfectionis,  or  "Summit  of  Perfection,"  com- 
posed by  Geber  (q.v.)  about  the  eighth  century; 
it  is  consequently  the  oldest  book  on  chemistry 
proper  in  the  world.  It  contains  so  much  of 
what  sounds  very  much  like  jargon  in  modern 
ears,  that  Dr.  Johnson  ascribes  the  origin  of 
the  word  "gibberish"  to  the  name  of  the  compiler. 
Yet,  when  viewed  in  its  true  light,  it  is  a  wonder- 
ful performance.  It  is  a  kind  of  text-book,  or 
collection  of  all  that  was  then  known  and  be- 
lieved. It  appears  that  these  Arabian  poly- 
pharmists  had  long  been  engaged  in  firing  and 
boiling,  dissolving  and  precipitating,  subliming 
and  coagulating  chemical  substances.  They 
worked  with  gold  and  mercury,  arsenic  and.  sul- 
phur, salts  and  acids,  and  had,  in  short,  become 
familiar  with  a  large  range  of  what  are  now 
called  chemicals.  Geber  taught  that  there  are 
three  elemental  chemicals  —  mercury,  sulphur, 
and  arsenic.  These  substances,  especially  the 
first  two,  seem  to  have  fascinated  the  thoughts 
of  the  alchemists  by  their  potent  and  penetrating 
qualities.     They  saw  mercury  dissolve  gold,  the 


most  incorruptible  of  matters,  as  water  dissolves 
sugar ;  and  a  stick  of  sulphur  presented  to  hot 
iron  penetrates  it  like  a  spirit,  and  makes  it 
run  down  in  a  shower  of  solid  drops,  a  new  and 
remarkable  substance,  possessed  of  properties 
belonging  neither  to  iron  nor  to  sulphur.  The 
Arabians  held  that  the  metals  are  compound 
bodies,  made  up  of  mercury  and  sulphur  in  dif- 
ferent proportions.  With  these  very  excusable 
errors  m  theory,  they  were  genuine  practical 
chemists.  They  toiled  away  at  the  art  of  making 
"many  medicines"  (polypharmacy)  out  of  the 
various  mixtures  and  reactions  of 'such  chemicals 
as  they  knew.  They  had  their  pestles  and  mor- 
tars, their  crucibles  and  furnaces,  their  alembics 
and  aludels,  their  vessels  for  infusion,  for  decoc- 
tion, for  cohabitation,  sublimation,  fixation,  lii- 
iyation,  filtration,  coagulation,  etc.  Their  scien- 
tific creed  was  transmutation,  and  their  methods 
were  mostly  blind  gropings ;  and  yet,  in  this  way, 
they  found  out  many  a  new  substance  and  invent- 
ed many  a  useful  process. 

From  the  Arabs,  alchemy  found  its  way  through 
Spain  into  Europe,  and  speedily  became  entan- 
gled with  the  fantastic  subtleties  of  the  scholas- 
tic  philosophy.    In   the   Middle   Ages,   it  was 
chiefly  the  monks  who  occupied  themiselves  with 
alchemy.     Pope  John  XXII.  took  great  delight 
in  it,  though  it  was  afterward  forbidden  by  his 
successor.    The  earliest  authentic  works  on  Euro- 
pean alchemy  now  extant  are  those  of  Roger 
Bacon  (died  about  1294)  and  Albertus  Magnus. 
Bacon  appears  rather  the  earlier  of  the  two  as 
a   writer,   and   is   really   the   greatest   man  in 
all  the  school.       He  was  acquainted  with  gun- 
powder.   Although   he  condemns  magic,  necro- 
mancy, charms,  and  all  such  things,  he  believes 
in  the  convertibility  of  the  inferior  metals  into 
gold,  but  does  not  profess  to  have  ever  effected 
the  conversion.    He  had  more  faith  in  the  elixir 
of  life  than  in  gold-making.     He  followed  Geber 
in  regarding  potable  gold — that  is,  gold  dissolved 
in  nitro-hydrochloric  acid  or  aqua  regia — as  the 
elixir  of  life.     Urging  it  on  the  attention  of  Pope 
Nicholas  IV.,  he  informs  his  Holiness  of  an  old 
man  who  found  some  yellow  liquor  ( the  solution 
of  gold  is  yellow)  in  a  golden  vial,  when  plowing 
one  day  in  Sicily.     Supposing  it  to  be  dew,  he 
drank   it   off.     He  was   thereupon   transformed 
into   a   hale,   robust,   and   highly   accomplished 
youth.     Bacon  no  doubt  took  many  a  dose  of  this 
golden  water  himself.    Albertus  Ma^us  had  a 
great  mastery  of  the  practical  chemistry  of  his 
times  J   he  was  acquainted  with   alum,   cau«»tic 
alkali,  and  the  purification  of  the  royal  metals  by 
means  of  lead.     In  addition  to  the  sulphur-and- 
mercury  theory  of  the  metals,  drawn  from  Geber, 
he  regarded  the  element  water  as  still  nearer  the 
soul  of  nature  than  either  of  these  bodies.    He 
appears,  indeed,  to  have  thought  it  the  primary 
matter,   or   the  radical   source   of  all   things — 
an  opinion  held  by  Thales,  the  father  of  Greek 
speculation.       Thomas    Aquinas    also   WTote   on 
alchemy,  and  was  the  first  to  employ  the  word 
amalgam   (q.v.).       Raymond    Lully    is    another 
great  name  in  the   annals     of     alchemy.       Hi* 
wTitings  are  much  more  disfigured  by  unintelli- 
gible jargon  than  those  of  Bacon  and  Albertus 
Magnus.    He  was  the  first  to  introduce  the  use 
of  chemical  symbols,  his  system  consisting  of  a 
scheme    of    arbitrary    hieroglyphics.     He    made 
much  of  the  spirit  of  wine  (the  art  of  distillinjr 
spirits  would  seem  to  have  been  then  recent), 
imposing  on  it  the  name  of  aqua  viiw  ardens. 


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291 


ALCIBIADES. 


In  his  enthusiasm,  he  pronounced  it  the  very 
elixir  of  life. 

But  more  famous  than  all  was  Paracelsus,  in 
whom  alchemy  proper  may  be  said  to  have  cul- 
minated. He  held  that  the  elements  of  compound 
bodies  were  salt,  sulphur,  and  mercury — repre- 
senting respectively  earth,  air,  and  water,  fire  be- 
ing already  regarded  as  an  imponderable — but 
these  substances  were  in  his  system  purely  repre- 
sentative. All  kinds  of  matter  were  reducible  un- 
der one  or  other  of  these  typical  forms;  every- 
thing Avas  either  a  salt,  a  sulphur,  or  a  mercury, 
or,  like  the  metals,  it  was  a  "mixt"  or  compound. 
There  was  one  element,  however,  common  to  the 
four;  a  fifth  essence  or  "quintessence"  of  crea- 
tion; an  unknown  and  only  true  element,  of 
which  the  four  generic  principles  were  nothing 
but  derivative  forms  or  embodiments;  in  other 
words,  he  inculcated  the  dogma  that  there  is 
only  one  real  elementary  matter — nobody  knows 
what.  This  one  prinie  element  of  things  he  ap- 
pears to  have  considered  to  be  the  universal  sol- 
vent of  which  the  alchemists  were  in  quest,  and 
to  express  which  he  introduced  the  term  alca- 
heat — ^a  word  of  unknown  etymology,  but  sup- 
posed by  some  to  be  composed  of  the  two  German 
words  all*  Qeist,  "all  spirit."  He  seems  to  have 
had  the  notion  that  if  this  quintessence  or  fifth 
element  could  be  got  at,  it  would  prove  to  be  at 
once  the  philosopher's  stone,  the  universal  med- 
icine, and  the  irresistible  solvent. 

After  Paracelsus,  the  alchemists  of  Europe 
became  divided  into  two  classes.  The  one  class 
was  composed  of  men  of  diligence  and  sense, 
who  devoted  themselves  to  the  discovery  of  new 
compounds  and  reactions — practical  workers  and 
observers  of  facts,  and  the  legitimate  ancestors 
of  the  positive  chemists  of  the  era  of  Lavoisier. 
The  other  class  took  up  the  visionary,  fantastical 
side  of  the  older  alchemy,  and  carried  it  to  a 
degree  of  extravagance  before  unknown.  Instead 
of  useful  work,  they  compiled  mystical  trash 
into  books,  and  fathered  them  on  Hermes,  Aris- 
totle, Albertus  Magnus,  Paracelsus,  and  other 
really  great  men.  Their  language  is  a  farrago 
of  mystical  metaphors,  full  of  "red  bridegrooms," 
and  "lily  brides,"  "green  dragons,"  "ruby  lions," 
"royal  baths,"  "waters  of  life."  The  seven 
metals  correspond  with  the  seven  planets,  th^ 
seven  cosmical  angels,  and  the  seven  openings 
of  the  head — the  eyes,  the  ears,  the  nostrils,  and 
the  mouth.  Silver  was  Diana,  gold  was  Apollo, 
iron  was  Mars,  tin  was  Jupiter,  lead  was  Saturn, 
etc.  They  talk  forever  of  the  power  of  attrac- 
tion, which  drew  all  men  and  women  after  the 
possessor;  of  the  alcahest,  and  the  grand  elixir, 
which  was  to  confer  immortal  vouth  upon  the 
student  who  should  prove  himself  pure  and  brave 
enough  to  kiss  and  quaff  the  golden  draught. 
There  was  the  great  mystery,  the  mother  of  the 
elements,  the  grandmother  of  the  stars.  There 
was  the  philosopher's  stone  and  there  was  the 
philosophical  stone.  The  philosophical  stone  was 
younger  than  the  elements,  yet  at  her  virgin 
touch  the  grossest  calx  (ore)  among  them  all 
would  blush  before  her  into  perfect  gold.  The 
philosopher's  stone,  on  the  other  hand,  was  the 
first-born  of  nature,  and  older  than  the  king  of 
metals.  Those  who  had  attained  full  insight  into 
the  arcana  of  the  science  were  styled  wise ;  those 
who  were  only  striving  after  the  light  were 
philosophers;  while  the  ordinary  votaries  of 
the  art  were  called  adepts.  It  was  these  vision- 
aries that  formed  themselves  into  Rosicrucian 


societies  and  other  secret  associations.  It  was 
also  in  connection  with  this  mock  alchemy,  mixed 
up  with  astrology  and  magic,  that  quackery  and 
imposture  so  abounded,  as  is  depicted  by  Scott 
in  the  character  of  Dousterswivel  in  the  Anti- 
quary. Designing  knaves  would,  for  instance, 
make  up  large  nails,  some  of  iron  and  some  of 
gold,  and  lacquer  them,  so  that  they  appeared 
common  nails,  and  when  their  credulous  and 
avaricious  dupes  saw  them  extract  from  what 
seemed  plain  iron  an  ingot  of  gold,  they  were 
ready  to  advance  any  sum  that  the  knaves  pre- 
tended to  be  necessary  for  applying  the  process 
on  a  large  scale.  It  is  from  this  degenerate  and 
effete  school  that  the  prevailing  notion  of  al- 
chemy is  derived — a  notion  which  is  unjust  to 
the  really  meritorious  alchemists  who  paved  the 
way  for  the  modern  science  of  chemistry.  Priest- 
ley, Lavoisier,  and  Scheele,  by  the  use  of  the 
balance,  tested  the  results  of  alchemy,  and  thence 
the  fundamental  ideas  of  modern  chemistry  were 
born;  but  the  work  had  already  been  begun  by 
men  of  genius,  such  as  Robert  Boyle,  Bergmann, 
and  others.  It  is  interesting  to  observe  that 
the  doctrine  of  the  transmutability  of  metals 
— ^a  doctrine  which  it  was  at  one  time  thought 
that  modern  chemistry  had  utterly  exploded — 
receives  not  a  little  countenance  from  a  variety 
of  facts  every  day  coming  to  light ;  not  to  speak 
of  the  periodic  law  of  the  elements,  which, 
while  separating  the  elements  as  a  class  from  all 
other  chemical  substances,  seems  to  indicate  the 
existence  of  unknown  relations  between  the  ele- 
ments themselves.  Consult:  J.  von  Liebig, 
Familiar  Letters  on  Chemistry,  original  in  Grer- 
man,  exists  in  translations  (London,  1851)  ;  F. 
H(5fer,  Histoire  de  la  Chimie  (Paris,  1869); 
G.  F.  Rod  well.  The  Birth  of  Chemistry  (London, 
1874)  ;  M.  Berthelot,  Les  Origines  do  VAlchimie 
(Paris,  1885)  ;  H.  Kopp,  Die  Alchemic  in  dlterer 
und  neuerer  Zeit  (1886),  etc.  The  literature  of 
alchemy  is  enormous.     See  also  Chemistry. 

ALCHYMIST,  Deb,  dSr  ftl'kfi-mtet.  A  Ger- 
man opera  by  Spohr,  th^  text  being  by  PfeifTer, 
produced  at  Cassel,  July  28,  1830.  It  is  founded 
on  Washington  Irving's  tale  of  The  Alchemist, 

ALCIATI,  &l-chrt«,  Andrea  (1492-1550). 
An  Italian  jurisconsult  of  the  Renaissance,  suc- 
cessively professor  of  law  in  the  universities  of 
Avignon,  Bourges,  Bologna,  Pavia,  and  Ferrara. 
He  improved  the  method  of  studying  Roman  law, 
by  substituting  historical  research  for  the  servile 
forms  of  the  glossarists.  He  wrote  many  legal 
works,  including  commentaries  on  the  Code  of 
Justinian  and  the  Decretals,  a  history  of  Milan, 
notes  on  Tacitus  and  Plautus,  and  a  Book  of 
Emblems f  or  moral  sayings,  in  Latin  verse,  which 
has  been  greatly  admired. 

AL'CIBFADES.  A  tragedy  in  five  acts  by 
Thomas  Otway,  produced  in  1675  at  Dorset  Gar- 
den Theatre,  London,  with  Betterton  in  the  title 
r6le. 

ALCIBIADES  (Gk. 'A^/c«^w%,  Alkihiad^s). 
(c.  450-404  B.C.).  An  Athenian  politician  and 
general.  He  was  the  son  of  Clinias  and  Dino- 
mache,  and  belonged  to  the  class  of  the  Eupatri- 
dae.  He  was  born  at  Athens,  lost  his  father  in  the 
battle  of  Coronea  in  446  B.C.,  and  was  in  conse- 
quence educated  in  the  house  of  Pericles,  his 
uncle.  In  his  youth  he  gave  evidence  of  his  future 
greatness,  excelling  both  in  mental  and  bodily  ex- 
ercises. His  handsome  person,  his  distinguished 
parentage,  and  the  high  position  of  Pericles  pro- 


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ALCIDAICAS. 


cured  him  a  multitude  of  friends  and  admirers. 
Socrates  was  one  of  the  former,  and  gained  con- 
siderable influence  over  him;  but  was  unable  to 
restrain  his  love  of  luxury  and  dissipation,  which 
found  ample  means  of  gratification  in  the 
wealth  that  accrued  to  him  by  his  union  with 
Hipparete,  the  daughter  of  Hipponicus.  His  pub- 
lic displays,  especially  at  the  Olympit^  Games,  in 
420  B.C.,  were  incredibly  expensive.  He  bore 
arms  for  the  first  time  in  the  expedition  against 
Potidsa  (432  B.C.),  where  he  was  wounded,  and 
where  his  life  was  saved  by  Socrates,  a  debt 
which  he  liquidated  eight  years  after  at  the  bat- 
tle of  Delium  by  saving,  in  his  turn,  the  life  of 
the  philosopher;  but  he  seems  to  have  taken  no 
considerable  part  in  political  matters  till  after 
the  death  of  the  demagogue  Cleon,  when  Nicias 
brought  about  a  treaty  of  peace  for  fifty  years 
between  the  Athenians  and  Lacedaemonians,  421 
B.C.  Alcibiades,  jealous  of  the  esteem  in  which 
Nicias  was  held,  set  himself  at  the  head  of  the 
war  party,  and  persuaded  the  Athenians  to  ally 
themselves  with  the  people  of  Argos,  Elis,  and 
Hantinea,  and  did  all  in  his  power  to  stir  up 
afresh  their  old  antipathy  to  Sparta.  It  was  at  his 
suggestion  that  they  engaged  in  the  celebrated  en- 
terprise against  Syracuse,  to  the  command  of 
which  he  was  elected,  with  Nicias  and  Lamachus. 
But  while  preparations  were  being  made,  it 
happened  during  one  night  that  all  the  statues 
of  Hermes  in  Athens  were  mutilated.  The  ene- 
mies of  Alcibiades  threw  the  blame  of  this  mis- 
chief upon  him,  but  postponed  the  impeachment 
till  he  had  set  sail,  when  they  stirred  up  the  peo- 
ple against  him  to  such  a  degree  that  he  was  re- 
called in  the  autumn  of  415  B.c.  in  order  to 
stand  his  trial. 

On  his  way  home,  Alcibiades  landed  at  Thurii, 
fled,  and  betook  himself  to  Sparta,  where, 
by  conforming  to  the  strict  manners  of  the  peo- 
ple, he  soon  became  a  favorite.  He  induced  the 
Lacedsemonians  to  send  assistance  to  the  Syra- 
cusans,  persuaded  them  to  occupy  permanently  a 
post  at  Decelea  in  Attica,  to  form  an  alliance 
with  the  King  of  Persia,  and  after  the  unfor- 
tunate issue  of  the  Athenian  expedition  in  Sicily, 
to  support  the  people  of  Chios  in  their  endeavors 
to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Athens.  He  went  thither 
himself,  and  raised  all  Ionia  in  revolt  against 
that  city.  But  Agis  and  the  other  leading  men 
in  Sparta,  jealous  of  the  success  of  Alcibiades, 
ordered  their  generals  in  Asia  to  have  him  as- 
sassinated. Alcibiades  discovered  this  plot  and 
fled  to  Tissaphernes,  a  Persian  satrap,  who  had 
orders  to  act  in  concert  with  the  Lacedcemonians. 
He  now  resumed  his  old  manners,  adopted  the 
luxurious  habits  of  Asia,  and  made  himself  in- 
dispensable to  Tissaphernes.  He  represented  to 
the  latter  that  it  was  contrary  to  the  interests  of 
Persia  entirely  to  disable  the  Athenians.  He  then 
sent  word  to  the  commanders  of  the  Athenian 
forces  at  Samos  that  he  would  procure  for  them 
the  friendship  of  the  satrap  if  they  would  control 
the  extravagance  of  the  people  and  commit  the 
government  to  an  oligarchy.  This  offer  was  accept- 
ed, and  in  411  B.C.  Pisander  was  sent  to  Athens, 
where  he  had  the  supreme  power  vested  in  a  coun- 
cil of  four  hundred  persons.  When  it  appeared, 
however,  that  this  council  had  no  intention  of  re- 
calling Alcibiades,  the  army  at  Samos  chose  him 
as  their  commander,  desiring  him  to  lead  them 
on  instantly  to  Athens  and  overthrow  the  ty- 
rants. But  Alcibiades  did  not  wish  to  return 
to  his  native  country  till  he  had  rendered  it  some 


service,  and  he  accordingly  attacked  and  de 
feated  the  Lacedsemonians  by  both  sea  and  lani 
Tissaphernes  now  ordered  him  to  be  arrested  at 
Sardis  on  his  return,  the  satrap  not  wishing  the 
King  to  imagine  that  he  had  been  accessory  to  his 
doings.  But  Alcibiades  found  means  to  escape, 
placed  himself  again  at  the  head  of  the  army, 
beat  the  Lacedaemonians  and  Persians  at  Cyzicus. 
took  Cyzicus,  Chalcedon,  and  Byzantium,  re- 
stored to  the  Athenians  the  dominion  of  the  sea, 
and  then  returned  to  his  country  (407  B.C.),  to 
which  he  had  been  formally  invited.  He  was  re- 
ceived with  general  enthusiasm,  as  the  Athe- 
nians attributed  to  his  banishment  all  the  mis- 
fortunes that  had  befallen  them. 

The  triumph  of  Alcibiades,  however,  was  not 
destined  to  last.  He  was  again  sent  to  Asia  with 
one  hundred  ships;  but,  not  being  supplied  with 
money  for  the  soldiers'  pay,  he  was  obliged  to 
seek  assistance  at  Caria,  where  he  transferred 
the  command  in  the  meantime  to  Antiochus,  who, 
being  lured  into  an  ambuscade  by  Lysander,  lost 
his  life  and  part  of  the  ships.  The  enemies  of  Al- 
cibiades took  advantage  of  this  to  accuse  him  and 
appoint  another  commander.  Alcibiades  went 
into  voluntary  exile  at  Pactye  in  Thrace,  one  of 
the  strongholds  which  he  had  built  out  of  his  ear- 
lier spoils.  But  being  threatened  here  with  the 
power  of  Lacedsemonia^  he  removed  to  Bithynia, 
with  the  intention  of  repairing  to  Artaxerxes,  to 
gain  him  over  to  the  interests  of  his  country.  At 
the  request  of  the  Thirty  Tyrants  of  Athens,  and 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  Spartans,  Phamaba- 
7:us,a  satrap  of  Artaxerxes,  received  orders  to  put 
Alcibiades  to  death.  He  was  living  at  this  time 
in  a  castle  in  Phrygia ;  Phamabazus  caused  it  to 
be  set  on  fire  during  the  night.  As  his  victim 
was  endeavoring  to  escape  from  the  flames,  he 
was  pierced  with  a  volley  of  arrows.  Thus  per- 
ished Alcibiades  (404  B.C.),  about  the  forty- fifth 
year  of  his  age.  He  was  singularly  endowed  by 
nature,  being  possessed  of  the  most  fascinating 
eloquence  and  having  in  a  rare  degree  the  ability 
to  win  and  to  govern  men.  Yet  in  all  his  trans- 
actions he  allowed  himself  to  be  directed  by  ex- 
ternal circumstances,  without  having  any  fixed 
principles  of  conduct.  On  the  other  hand,  he 
possessed  that  boldness  which  arises  from  con- 
scious superiority,  and  he  shrank  from  no  difll- 
culty,  because  he  was  never  doubtful  concerning 
the  means  by  which  an  end  might  be  attained. 
Consult:  The  Lives,  by  Plutarch  and  Nepos: 
Grote,  History  of  Greece  (New  York,  1853-56): 
Hertzberg,  AZH6io<te«,  der  Staatsmann  und  Fcld- 
herr  (Halle,  1853)  ;  Houssaye,  Hiatoire  d*Al' 
cihiade,  2  volumes  (Paris,  1873). 

ALCI^A:  Greene's  ^Ietamorphoses.  A 
pamphlet  by  Robert  Greene,  of  which  the  first 
known  edition  dates  from  1017,  though  it  was 
licensed  in  1588  and  probably  published  soon 
after.  It  contains  stories  illustrating  the  ills 
that  result  from  feminine  vanities. 

ALCIP^AMAS  {Gk.*A?.KiSafiac,  Alkidatnas), 
A  Greek  rhetorician,  pupil  of  €k)rgias  and  the 
Inst  of  the  Sophistical  school.  He  was  a  native 
of  ElaBa,  in  Asia  Minor,  but  between  432  and  411 
B.C.  gave  instruction  in  eloquence  at  Athens.  The 
only  extant  declamations  attributed  to  him  are: 
'Orfvaffcuc,  in  which  Odysseus  accuses  Palamedo-. 
of  treachery  to  the  Grecian  cause  during  the 
siege  of  Troy;  and  Uepl  lo^ffTuv,  against  the 
Sophists.  The  latter  oration,  which  is  said  t« 
have  been  directed  chiefiy  against  Isoerates,  the 


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contemporary  of  Alcidamas,  has  been  published 
by  Blass  in  his  second  edition  of  Antiphon  (p. 
193).  Consult  Bahlen,  Der  Rhetor  Alddamas 
(1861). 

ALdDEy  Al'sM^  Babon  de  M.    A  pseudonym 
of  Alfred  de  Musset,  used  about  1834  and  in  1864. 
ALOISES.     A  patronymic  of  Heracles,  from 
the  name  of  his  grandfather,  Alceus. 

AI/CIMTTS.  A  high  priest  of  the  Zadoldte 
family,  bom  about  200  B.C.,  and  raised  to  power 
by  Demetrius  Soter  (162  B.C.).  He  was  a  leader 
in  the  Hellenistic  party  which  opposed  the  Mac- 
cabees, and  is  said  on  the  occasion  of  the  defeat 
of  the  latter  (April,  160  B.C.)  to  have  torn  down 
the  wall  of  the  court  of  the  inner  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, probably  for  the  purpose  of  rebuilding 
it  on  a  more  magnificent  scale.  See  the  discus- 
sions of  his  career  in  Wellhausen,  Israeli tiache 
and  jiidiache  Oeschichte  (third  edition,  Berlin, 
1897),  and  BQchler,  Tohiadeti  und  die  Oniaden 
im  II.  Makkabaerbuche  (Vienna,  1809). 

ALCIK^OTTS  (Gk.  'AAk/vooc,  Alkinoos),  A 
mythical  king  of  the  mythical  Phseacians,  grand- 
son of  Poseidon.  His  daughter,  Nausicaa,  res- 
cued the  shipwrecked  Odysseus,  who  was  enter- 
tained and  sent  home  by  Alcinotts  and  his  queen. 
Arete.  His  people  are  skilled  seamen,  but  luxu- 
rious, and  his  domain,  Seheria,  a  Grecian  fairy- 
land. Later  tradition  identified  Seheria  with  the 
island  of   Corcyra    (Corfu). 

AI/CIFHBON  (Gk.  ^AXxtt^puv,  Alkiphron). 
A  Greek  rhetorician  who  flourished  probably 
about  the  close  of  the  second  century  a.d.  He 
was  the  author  of  118  letters  in  three  books, 
which  profess  to  be  epistles  written  by  common 
people — peasants,  fishermen,  courtesans,  and 
parasites.  Their  style  is  pure  and  their  form 
excellent;  they  are  valuable  as  character 
sketches,  which  picture  clearly  Athenian  life  of 
his  time ;  and  the  letters  of  the  courtesans,  being 
based  on  the  new  comedy,  especially  on  lost  plays 
of  Menander,  assist  us  to  recreate  that  literature. 
Edited  by  Meineke  (Leipzig,  1853)  ;  Wagner 
(Paris,  1878),  and  Hercher,  in  his  Epiatolo- 
grapki  Chrmci  (Paris,  1873).  There  is  an  Eng- 
lish translation  by  Beloe  (London,  1890). 

AIjCIFHBON.  The  hero  of  Thomas  Moore's 
novel,  The  Epicurean,  published  in  1827,  to 
which  was  appended,  in  1839,  the  poem  entitled 
Alciphron,  in  which  the  author  had  first  taken 
up  the  theme. 

ALCIPHBON,  or  THE  MINTTTE^  PHI- 
LOS^OPHEB.  A  work  by  Bishop  Berkeley, 
written  at  his  home  in  Rhode  Island,  and  pub- 
lished in  1732,  after  his  return  to  England.  It 
in  a  dialogue,  in  which  Alciphron,  a  skeptic,  is 
made  the  chief  speaker  for  the  sake  of  showing 
the  weakness  of  the  infidel's  position. 

AliCIRAy  &l-th^r&.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Valencia,  20  miles  south  by  west  of 
\'a]encia,  on  an  island  in  the  river  Jtkcar,  here 
crossed  by  fine  stone  bridges  (Map:  Spain,  E  3). 
It  is  surrounded  by  old  walls  with  strong  towers. 
The  principal  streets  are  wide,  but  the  town  is 
ill  built.  The  main  buildings  are  three  churches, 
six  monasteries,  and  a  theatre.  The  surround- 
ing country  is  fertile,  and  abounds  in  the  orange 
and  the  palm,  but  rice  swamps  fill  the  air  with 
malaria.  The  many  canals  admirably  illustrate 
the  system  of  irrigation  introduced  by  the  Moors. 
Pop.,  inOO,  19.906.  Alcira  was  know^n  in  Roman 
times  as  Ssetabicula,  and  was  the  chief  seat  of 


the  tribe  of  the  Contestant  The  district  about 
Alcira  is  sometimes  called  the  garden  of  the  king- 
dom of  Valencia. 

ALCMJE^ON  (Gk.  'Ahc/^aiuv,  Alkmaidn) ,  In 
Greek  legend,  the  son  of  Amphiarafis  (q.v.)  and 
Eriphyle,  and  brother  or  father  of  Amphilochus. 
He  was  the  leader  of  the  Epigoni  (q.v.),  who 
captured  Thebes  to  revenge  the  death  of  their 
fathers  in  the  War  of  the  Seven.  As  Eriphyle  had 
betrayed  her  husband  to  his  death,  Amphiarafis 
ordered  his  son  to  kill  her.  For  this  act,  madness 
came  upon  Alcmseon,  and  he  was  pursued  by  the 
Furies.  In  his  flight  he  came  to  Psophis,  in 
Arcadia,  whose  king,  Phegeus,  purified  him  and 
gave  him  his  daughter  ArsinoS.  Alcmeeon  gave 
her  the  necklace  and  peplus  of  Harmonia,  the 
bribe  of  Eriphyle.  Driven  by  the  Furies,  Alcmseon 
then  went  to' the  river-god  AcheloUs,  who  also 
purified  him  and  gave  him  his  daughter,  Callir- 
ho^.  For  her  lie  teok  his  gifts  from  his  former 
wife  under  pretense  of  dedicating  them  at  Delphi. 
When  his  father-in-law  heard  of  this  deceit,  he 
sent  his  sons,  who  killed  Alcm«eon,  but  Alcmaeon's 
sons  by  Callirho^  took  bloody  vengeance  at  her 
instigation.  There  are  indications  of  a  cult  of 
Alcmseon  at  Psophis,  where  his  tomb  was  shown, 
and  at  Thebes.  Later  stories  told  of  Alcmseon's 
conquest  of  Acarnania,  apparently  as  a  mythical 
prototype  of  the  Corinthian  civilization  of  that 
region. 

ALCILSON  (Gk. 'AXKfiaiov,  Alkmai6n).  A 
Greek  physician  and  naturalist,  who  lived  in  the 
last  half  of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  He  was  a 
native  of  Croton,  in  Italy,  and  is  said  to  have 
been  a  pupil  of  I^hagoras.  He  made  important 
discoveries  in  anatomy,  and  was  the  first  to  prac- 
tice dissection.  He  wrote  a  book  On  Nature,  of 
which  we  have  fragments. 

ALCnUEONOD^  (Gk.  'ATucfiaioviSai,  Alk- 
niaionidai,  descendants  of  Alcmieon).  A  distin- 
guished family  in  ancient  Athens,  whose  founder, 
Alcmieon,  according  to  tradition,  came  from  P^- 
los,  Messenia.  One  of  them  was  the  Archon 
Megacles,  who,  about  612  b.c.,  slew  the  conspira- 
tor Cylon  and  his  followers  at  the  altars  where 
they  had  fled,  in  spite  of  his  promise  to  spare 
them.  For  this  sacrilege  the  whole  family  was 
banished,  about  596  B.C.  They  maintained  a  con- 
flict for  many  years  with  Pisistratus  and  his 
sons,  however,  and  in  510  were  finally  brought 
back  to  Athens  by  the  help  of  the  Spartans,  who 
were  led  to  aid  them  by  the  partiality  of  the 
Delphic  oracle.  Cleisthenes  (q.v.),  then  the 
head  of  the  family,  was  the  noted  legislator. 
Even  more  famous  members  of  it  were  Pericles 
and  Alcibiades. 

ALC^MAN  rAXKfidv,  Alkman),  A  poet  of 
the  second  half  of  the  seventh  century  b.c.,  who 
is  considered  the  founder  of  Dorian  lyric  poetrv. 
He  was  born  at  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydia,  m 
Asia  Minor,  but  was  probably  of  Greek  extrac- 
tion. A  doubtful  tradition  said  that  he  was  a 
slave ;  in  any  case,  he  attained  to  a  high  position 
at  Sparta,  where  he  made  his  home,  and  became 
teacher  of  the  State  choruses.  In  the  Hellenistic 
period  six  books  of  his  poems  were  current,  com- 
prising partheneia,  hymns,  hyporchemes,  peeans, 
erotica,  and  hymenaia.  He  was  counted  the 
founder  of  erotic  poetry,  and  reached  great  pre- 
fection  in  his  partheneia.  His  dialect  was  the 
Dorian,  but  his  verses  show  many  .^olian  char- 
acteristirs.  Alcman  occupied  the  first  place  in 
the  Alexandrian  Canon.    The  bucolic  poets  re- 


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garded  him  as  their  predecensor,  and  we  know 
that  he  was  read  with  pleasure  in  the  second 
century  a.d.,  although  his  dialect  was  then  con- 
sidered harsh  and  unmusical.  Only  fragments 
of  his  poetry  remain,  edited  in  Bergk's  Poetce 
Lyrici  ChxBci,  III.  (fourth  edition,  pp.  14ff. 
(Leipzig,  1882;  ;  a  fragment  discovered  m  1896 
is  published  in  Oxyrhynchua  Papyri  1.,  No.  VIII. 

ALCHEOnS  (6k.  *AXKftffvtf,  Alkmeni).  In 
Greek  mythology,  the  daughter .  of  Electryon, 
Kinff  of  MycentB,  and  wife  of  Amphitryon, 
mother  of  Heracles,  by  Zeus,  who  came  to  her 
in  the  form  of  her  husband.  She  was  the 
mother  of  Iphicles  by  Amphitryon. 

AL^CO  (native  name).  A  small,  long-haired 
dog  of  tropical  America,  known  both  wild  and  in 
a  domesticated  condition.  In  the  latter  state  it 
is  gentle  and  home-keeping;  and  as  its  ears  are 
pendulous  it  is  considered  by  most  authorities 
as  a  species  introduced  in  the  early  days  of  the 
Spanish  conquest,  and  since  become  partly  feral. 
Consult  Gosse,  A  Naturaliat'a  Sojourn  in  Ja- 
maica (London,  1861). 

ALCOBACA.  A  town  of  the  province  of  Es- 
tremadura,  Portugal,  beautifully  situated  be- 
tween the  Alcoa  and  Baca  rivers,  four  miles  east 
of  Vallado,  the  nearest  railway  station.  On  the 
west  Alcobaca  is  dominated  by  a  range  of  hills 
crowned  with  the  ruins  of  a  Moorish  castle.  The 
town  is  famous  for  the  Cistercian  abbey  of  Santa 
Maria,  one  of  the  finest  and  richest  monasteries 
in  the  world.  It  contains  the  tombs  of  Inez  de 
Castro  and  of  some  of  the  Portuguese  kings.  The 
buildings  comprise  an  imposing  church  in  early 
Grothic,  five  cloisters,  seven  dormitories,  a  library 
containing  over  25,'000  volumes,  and  a  hospedaria. 
It  is  supplied  with  water  by  a  tributary  of  the 
Alcoa,  which  flows  through  the  enormous  kitchen. 
The  abbey  was  built  from  1148  to  1222,  was 
sacked  by  the  French  in  1810,  and  in  1834  was 
secularized.  The  north  part  of  the  structure  is 
now  used  as  a  barracks  for  cavalry.  Pop.  of 
town,  1890,  2003. 

ALCOCk,  al'k6k,  Sib  Rutherfobd  (1809-97). 
An  English  diplomatist  and  author,  born  in  Lon- 
don. He  studied  medicine,  and  became  distin- 
guished as  an  army  surgeon  and  hospital  in- 
spector, and  afterward  as  a  lecturer  on  surgery. 
In  1844  he  was  sent  as  British  consul  to  China, 
and  he  served  in  Amoy,  Fuchow,  and  Shanghai. 
He  won  such  distinction  in  these  services  that, 
in  1858,  he  was  made  consul  general  in  Japan. 
He  was  accredited  to  the  Shogun,  or  military 
mayor,  who  had  his  headquarters  in  Yedo,  in- 
stead of  to  the  Mikado,  or  true  emperor,  in  Kioto, 
and  was,  therefore,  like  the  other  foreign  min- 
isters, continually  under  the  menace  of  assassi- 
nation. Twice  the  legation  was  murderously 
attacked,  and  once  burned,  but  Alcock  insisted 
on  the  literal  fulfillment  of  the  treaties.  Under 
his  influence,  Shimonoseki  was  bombarded  in 
1864,  after  which,  the  Yedo  government  refusing 
to  open  more  ports  to  trade,  an  indemnity  of 
$3,000,000  was  extorted,  part  of  which  was  paid 
by  the  Mikado's  government  in  1874.  Recalled 
in  1865  from  Japan  for  his  action,  he  was  ap- 
pointed minister  plenipotentiary  to  Peking,  and 
served  from  1865  to  1871.  It  was  Alcock  who 
first  brought  Japanese  art  to  the  world's  notice, 
in  the  London  World's  Exposition  (1862).  He 
was,  from  1876,  for  a  long  time  the  presicjent  of 
the  Royal  Greographical  Societv.  His  publica- 
tions include:  Life's  Problems;  The  Capital  of  the 


Tycoon  (1863);  Art  and  Industries  in  Japan 
(1878),  and  many  geographical  and  other  ar- 
ticles in  periodicals.  For  further  account  of  hia 
career,  consult  R.  J.  Mitchie,  An  Englishman 
in  China  During  the  Victorian  Era  (Eddnbuigfa. 
1900). 

ALCOVBIBAS  NASIEB,  AKkd^fr^lA'  n&' 
syft^  The  pseudonym,  formed  anagrammatically 
from  his  own  name,  under  which  Francois 
Rabelais  published  his  Pantagruel,  etc 

Al/COHOL  (Ar.  al,  the  +  kohl,  exceedingly 
fine  powder  of  antimony  for  painting  eyebrows: 
hence  the  quintessence  of  something;  finally 
rectified  spirits,  alcohol),  or  Eth'tl  Alco- 
hol, C,H»OH,  often  called  Spirits  of  Wuie. 
A  chemical  compound  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
and  oxygen  that  has  been  known  and  ex- 
tensively used  from  the  earliest  times.  It  is 
consumed  in  very  large  quantities  in  the  form 
of  intoxicating  liquors,  and  is  used  for  various 
purposes  in  the  arts  and  manufactures.  The 
alcohol  of  commerce,  in  its  various  forms,  is  all 
made  by  fermentation.  Natural  products  con- 
taining a  large  amount  of  starch,  such  as  grain, 
rice,  potatoes,  etc.,  are  reduced  with  water  to  a 
paste,  and  a  small  quantity  of  malt  is  added  to 
produce  fermentation,  by  which  the  starch  is  in 
a  short  time  transformed  into  dextrin  and  a 
kind  of  sugar  called  maltose,  according  to  the 
following  chemical  equation : 

3C,HioO,  -f  HaO  =  C,H,oO,  +  CJSJOa 
Starch  Dextrin  Maltoae 

Then  yeast,  which  consists  of  living  plant  cells, 
is  added  to  set  up  a  new  process  of  fermentation, 
by  which  the  maltose  is  converted  into  alcohol, 
according  to  the   following  chemical   equation: 

C„H„Ou  +  H/)  =  4C,  Hrf)  +  400, 

Maltose  Alcohol 

The  manufacture  of  alcohol  thus  involves  two 
distinct  {processes  of  fermentation;  for  neither 
can  alcohol  be  obtained  from  maltose  by  the  ac- 
tion of  the  duistase  of  malt,  nor  can  maltose  be 
obtained  from  starch  by  the  action  of  yeast.  Small 
quantities  of  organic  substances  are  usually 
produced  along  with  ethyl  alcohol  during  fer- 
mentation; one  of  these  is  the  well-known  fusel 
oil,  a  mixture  of  alcohols  chemically  allied  to 
ordinary  alcohol  and  containing  mainly  amvl 
alcohol.  A  small  quantity  of  fusel  otitis  con- 
tained even  in  the  "raw  spirit,"  a  strong 
alcohol  obtained  by  distilling  the  weak  so- 
lution obtained  through  fermentation.  To 
free  the  raw  spirit  from  fusel  oil,  which  is  highly 
injurious,  it  Is  mixed  with  water,  filtered 
through  charcoal,  and  subjected  to  a  process  of 
fractional  distillation,  the  intermediate  fractions, 
called  rectified  spirit,  being  practically  free  from 
fusel  oil.  The  presence  of  the  latter  in  spirit- 
uous liquors  may  be  readily  detected  by  adding 
a  few  drops  of  colorless  aniline  and  two' or  three 
drops  of  sulphuric  acid,  a  deep- red  coloration 
being  produced  in  the  presence  of  fusel  oil.  The 
flavor  of  alcoholic  beverages  is  due  to  the  pres- 
ence of  various  organic  substances  often  produced 
by  modifying  the  process  of  manufacture.  Thus 
both  the  flavor  and  color  of  beer  depend  largely 
on  the  temperature  and  duration  of  heat- 
ing of  the  malt  before  using  it;  the  flavor  of 
Scotch  whisky  is  derived  mainly  from  the  peat 
used  in  drying  the  malt,  etc.  The  quantity  of  al- 
cohol contained  in  various  beverages  is  very  dif- 


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ferent:  gin,  rum,  and  the  strong  liquors  contain 
from  40  to  50  per  cent,  of  alcohol ;  port  contains 
from  15  to  25  per  cent. ;  sherry  or  madeira,  from 
15  to  20  per  cent.;  champagne  and  burgundy, 
from  10  to  13  per  cent;  hock,  from  10  to  12 
per  cent. ;  claret,  from  8  to  12  per  cent. ;  cider 
and  strong  ale,  5  to  9  per  cent.;  beer  or  porter, 
from  2  to  5  per  cent.;  kumyss,  from  1  to  3  per 
cent.  The  United  States  Pharmacopoeia  fixes  the 
specific  gravity  of  rectified  spirit  at  0.820, 
-which  corresponds  to  91  per  cent,  of  absolute  al- 
cohol. The  amount  of  alcohol  in  spirituous  liq- 
uids is  estimated  by  observing  their  specific 
gravity;  but  as  they  usually  contain  other  sub- ' 
stances  besides  water,  they  must  be  distilled  be- 
fore a  determination  can  be  made.  Alcohol  in 
its  various  forms,  especially  if  taken  habitually, 
is  highly  injurious  to  health.  While  it  promotes 
very  powerfully  the  secretion  of  the  gastric 
juice,  it  sets  up  inflammation  of  the  gastric  walls 
and  gradually  produces  chronic  dyspepsia.  ( See 
Alcohol,  Physiological  and  Poisonous  Action 
OF.)  The  eflfects  of  chronic  alcohol  poisoning  are 
described  in  the  article  Alcoholism  (q.v.). 

Alcohol  cannot  be  entirely  freed  from  water 
by  distillation.  Anhydrous,  or  absolute  alcohol, 
may  be  prepared  by  boiling  strong  commercial 
alcohol  with  unslaked  lime  until  a  small  sample 
is  turned  yellow  by  barium  oxide ;  to  remove  the 
last  traces  of  water  the  alcohol  thus  obtained 
may  be  further  treated  with  anhydrous  copper 
sulphate  and  finally  distilled  over  a  small  quan- 
tity of  metallic  sodium.  The  presence  of  traces 
of  water  may  be  readily  detected  by  the  use  of 
dehydrated  copper  sulphate,  which  remains  white 
only  in  perfectly  anhydrous  alcohol.  Absolute 
alcohol  acts  as  a  deadly  poison.  It  is  a  colorless 
liquid  of  specific  gravity  0.8062  at  0*";  it  boils 
at  78^  and  solidifies  at  about  130®  below  zero 
C.  It  is  extremely  hygroscopic  and  mixes 
in  all  proportions  with  water,  ether,  chloro- 
form, carbon  disulphide,  and  many  other 
liquids.  It  is  also  an  excellent  solvent  for  many 
substances,  such  as  fats,  oils,  gums,  resins,  and 
a  number  of  inorganic  compounds,  and  is  thus 
largely  employed  in  the  preparation  of  tinctures, 
varnishes,  dyes,  perfumes,  etc.  The  presence  of 
alcohol  in  aqueous  solutions  is  best  detected  by 
the  so-called  iodoform  reaction:  small  quantities 
of  iodoform  and  of  potash  almost  immediately 
produce  in  the  presence  of  alcohol  a  precipitate 
of  iodoform,  which  may  be  readily  recognized  by 
its  odor.  In  this  manner  it  has  been  demon- 
strated that  minute  quantities  of  alcohol  are 
present  in  the  soil,  in  water,  and  in  the  atmos- 
phere. Small  quantities  of  alcohol  have  likewise 
been  found  in  the  urine  in  diabetes.  When  acted 
on  by  an  excess  of  dry  chlorine  gas,  alcohol  is 
transformed  into  chloral,  from  which,  by  the  ac- 
tion of  alkali,  very  pure  chloroform  may  be  ob- 
tained; chloform  may  also  be  prepared  from  al- 
cohol directly  by  the  action  of  bleaching  powder 
(chloride  of  lime).  When  warmed  with  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid,  alcohol  yields  ordinary 
ether.  Alcohol  is  thus  extensively  employed  in 
the  manufacture  of  chloral,  chloroform,  and 
ether. 

Aqueous  alcohol  was  separated  by  distilla- 
tion from  the  mixture  obtained  through  fermen- 
tation in  the  Middle  Ages.  Lowitz  was  the  first 
to  prepare  anhydrous  alcohol  in  1796.  The  com- 
position of  alcohol  was  first  determined  by  Saus- 
sure  in  1808. 

Consult:     Stevenson,  A   Treatise  on  Alcohol, 


with  Tables  of  Specific  Gravities  (London, 
1888) ;  MnrcKer,  Handhuch  der  Spiritusfahri- 
kation  (Berlin,  1889;  French  translation,  two 
volumes,  Lille,  1889) ;  and  Roux's  series  of  seven 
books  on  the  manufacture  of  alcoholic  beverages, 
published  under  the  general  title  La  Fabrication 
de  VAlcool  (Paris,  1885-92).    See  Acetylene. 

ALCOHOL,  Phtsiological  and  Poisonous 
Action  of.  Alcohol  in  a  concentrated  form  ex- 
erts a  local  irritant  action  on  the  membranes  and 
tissues  of  the  animal  body,  mainly  through  its  ab- 
stracting water  from  the  tissues.  According  to 
its  greater  or  less  dilution,  the  quantitv  in  which 
it  is  administered,  the  emptiness  or  fullness  of 
the  stomach,  and  the  nature  of  the  animal  on 
which  the  experiment  is  made,  alcohol  may 
either  act  as  a  gentle  stimulus,  which  assists  the 
digestive  process,  or  it  may  excite  such  a  degree 
of  irritation  as  may  lead  to  the  disorganization 
of  the  mucous  membrane.  It  is  well  known  that 
dilute  alcohol  in  contact  with  animal  matter,  at 
a  temperature  of  from  60®  to  90®,  undergoes 
acetic  fermentation,  and  it  was  maintained  by 
Leuret  and  Lassaigne  that  a  similar  change  took 
place  in  the  stomach.  It  appears,  however,  that 
only  a  small  part  of  the  alcohol  undergoes  this 
change;  and  it  is  the  small  part  thus  changed 
which  produces,  with  other  fermentations  of  the 
fats  and  proteids,  the  penetrating  and  disagree- 
able character  of  the  eructations  and  vomited 
matters  of  drunkards.  Alcohol  is,  however,  for 
the  most  part,  rapidly  absorbed  in  an  unchanged 
state  either  in  the  form  of  liquid  or  vapor,  and 
this  absorption  may  take  place  through  the  cel- 
lular (or  connective)  tissue,  the  serous  cavities, 
the  lungs,  or  the  digestive  canal.  This  is  shown 
by  the  experiments  of  Orfila,  who  fatally  intoxi- 
cated dogs  by  injecting  alcohol  into  the  subcu- 
taneous cellular  tissue,  or  by  making  them 
breathe  an  atmosphere  charged  with  alcoholic 
vapor ;  and  by  Rayer,  who  injected  about  half  an 
ounce  of  proof-spirit  into  the  peritoneum  of  rab- 
bits which  almost  immediately  became  comatose 
and  died  in  a  few  hours.  It  is,  however,  only 
with  absorption  from  the  intestinal  canal  that  we 
have  to  deal  in  relation  to  man.  Almost  the 
whole  of  this  absorption  is  effected  in  the  stom- 
ach, and  it  is  only  when  alcohol  is  taken  in  great 
excess,  or  is  mixed  with  a  good  deal  of  sugar, 
that  any  absorption  beyond  the  stomach  occurs. 
The  rapidity  of  the  absorption  varies  according 
to  circumstances.  The  absorption  is  most  rapid 
when  the  stomach  is  empty  and  the  drinker  is 
fatigued,  while  the  action  is  delayed  by  a  full 
stomach,  and  especially  by  the  presence  of  acids, 
tannin,  or  the  mucilaginous  and  saccharine  in- 
gredients of  many  wines.  The  chief  action  of  al- 
cohol is  that  on  the  central  nervous  system; 
either,  as  some  hold,  stimulating  the  cells  of 
the  cerebrum  to  greater  activity,  or,  as  others 
claim,  exerting  a  paralyzing  action  from  the  very 
start  and  reducing  control  or  inhibition.  The 
self-restraint  that  regulates  thought  and  speech 
being  removed,  the  person  seems  more  brilliant 
and  capable.  Recent  studies,  however,  show  that 
under  the  infiuence  of  even  small  amounts  of 
alcohol  the  capacity  for  work  is  less  and  its 
quality  deteriorates.  Kraepelin,  in  studying 
some  of  the  simpler  problems  of  addition,  multi- 
plication, spelling,  and  pronunciation,  found  that 
the  acuteness  of  perception  was  diminished  and 
the  intellectual  powers  weakened.  Purely  mus- 
cular power  was  increased  with  small  doses  and 


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diminished  under  larger  doses.  On  tha  spinal 
cord  the  action  of  alcohol  is  depressing,  appar- 
ently from  the  very  beginning.  Lack  of  coordi- 
nation, leading  to  a  staggering  gait  and  blurring 
speech,  are  familiar.  Reflex  irritability  is  also 
diminished,  and  the  spinal  sensory  areas  ulti- 
mately paralyzed.  On  respiration,  alcohol  acts 
appreciably  only  in  large  doses.  The  function  is 
only  slightly,  if  at  all,  stimulated.  Nearing 
death,  the  respiratory  centre  in  the  medulla  is 
paralyzed.  Alcohol  increases  the  force  of  the 
heart-beat,  and  is  a  useful  heart  stimulant.  It 
is  a  vexed  question  whether  alcohol  is  a  food. 
In  one  sense  of  the  word  it  is.  It  is  capable  of 
being  oxidized  in  the  body,  and  is  thus  a  source 
of  heat  and  energy.  Atwater^has  shown  that  at 
least  two  ounces  of  alcohol  can  be  completely 
oxidized  by  the  body  in  twenty- four  hours  and 
none  of  it  be  found  in  any  of  the  excretory  prod- 
ucts. Alcohol,  therefore,  in  a  sense  saves  the 
use  of  fats  and  carbohydrates,  and  thus  the  body 
stores  up  fat  for  future  use.  This  is  one  expla- 
nation why  so  many  users  of  alcohol  grow  fat. 
The  drug  furnishes  heat,  and  the  fat  is,  therefore, 
not  used  up  but  is  stored  in  the  body.  The  doc- 
trine that  whisky  warms  the  body  is  false.  It 
really  lowers  the  temperature,  and  the  evap- 
oration of  the  increased  amount  of  perspiration 
further  diminishes  the  temperature.  It  imparts 
a  sense  of  warmth  to  the  skin  because  it  dilates 
the  blood  vessels  of  the  surface.  Persons  who  are 
to  be  exposed  to  cold  temperatures  would  derive 
more  valuable  effects  from  hot  drinks,  such  as 
cofTee,  or  cocoa,  or  milk,  from  the  eating  of 
fatty  food,  starches,  and  sugars  than  they  would 
from  consuming  any  alcoholic  drinks.  After  ex- 
posure is  ended  it  may  be  useful  to  hasten  reac- 
tion. 

As  alcohol  is  taken  up  directly  into  the  circula- 
tion wherever  it  comes  in  contact  with  any  tissue, 
an  irritation  is  produced  which,  if  continued  for 
any  length  of  time,  results  in  the  formation  of 
new  connective  tissue  cells.  These,  when  formed 
in  abnormal  numbers  in  various  organs,  lead  to 
disturbances  in  the  function  of  these  organs  and 
ultimately  to  disease.  The  blood  vessels  become 
harder  and  lose  their  elasticity.  (See  Arterio- 
ScLEBOSis.)  The  liver  may  become  larger  and 
harder.  The  new  connective  tissue  in  the  kid- 
neys may  cause  Bright's  disease  (q.v.).  Acting 
on  the  brain,  alcohol  may  cause  alcoholic  demen- 
tia; or  acting  on  the  superficial  nerves,  may 
cause  neuritis.  These  are  the  re«*iilts  of  chronic 
alcoholic  poisoning,  which  probably  exceeds  all 
other  agents  as  a  cause  of  poverty,  disease,  crime, 
and  death.  Consult:  Brunton,  "The  Phys- 
iological Action  of  Alcohol,**  in  Practitioner 
(Volume  XVI.,  London,  1876)  ;  Anstie's  Stim- 
vlants  and  Narcotics  (London,  1864)  ;  Atwater, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture^  Bulle- 
tins 63  and  69  (Washington,  1807-98)  ;  Rosen- 
f eld's  Der  Einfluss  des  Alkohols  auf  den  Organis- 
witi«  (Wiesbaden,  1901).  See  ALConoLisM;  Anti- 
dotes; Bbioiit's  Disease;  Food,  and  Intoxica- 
tion. 

AL^COHOLISM.  The  term  employed  to 
denote  the  symptoms  of  disease  produced  by 
alcoholic  poisoning.  In  acute  alcoholism,  which 
is  generally  caused  by  the  rapid  absorption  of 
a  large  qiiantity  of  alcoholic  drinks,  the 
first  symptoms  are  animation  of  manner,  ex- 
altation of  spirits,  and  relaxation  of  judgment. 
The  emotions  are  altered  and  often  perverted; 
muscular  movements  become  irregular  or  ataxic ; 


the  mechanism  of  speech  suffers.     The  fnrtlier 
development  of  the  symptoms  presents  a  variety 
of  effects.     In  the  ordinary  course  of  the  action 
of  the  drug,  dizziness,  disturbance  of  sight  and 
hearing,  and  other  troubles  due  to  disorder  of 
the  central   nervous   system,   ensue,    leading  to 
heavy  sleep  or  profound  coma,  from  which  it  is 
sometimes   impossible  to   rouse   the    individual, 
who  lies  completely  paralyzed,  breathing  ster- 
torously.      Sometimes    the    alcohol     affects   eo 
strongly  the  centres  of  respiration  and  circular 
tion  that  death  is  caused  by  paralysis  of  one  or 
other,  or  both.     This  condition  of  coma  requires 
to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  opium  poison- 
ing.    In  the  former,  the  face  is  usually  flushed 
and  the  pupils  dilated,  while  in  the  latter  the 
face  is  pale  and  the  pupils  contracted.     The  odor 
of  the  breath  is  no  criterion,  inasmuch  as  sjnn- 
pathizing    bystanders    are    apt    to    administer 
spirits  in  every  case  of  depression,  often  with 
hurtful  effects.     Fracture  of  the  skull,  delirinm 
of  meningitis,  and  coma  after  epilepsy  or  after 
cerebral  hemorrhage  are  often  undiscovered  by 
the  inefficient  ambulance  surgeon,  who  is  led  to 
diagnose  a  condition  from  an  alcoholic  breath. 
A  second  class  of  alcoholics  act  in  an  entirely 
different  manner.     Instead  of  sinking  into  stupor 
or  coma,  the  individual  becomes  more  and  more 
excited,   bursts   into   wild   mirth   or   passionate 
anger,   struggles   violently  with   those    who  at- 
tempt to  soothe  him,  and  may  grievously  harm 
himself  or  others.    This  is  the  condition  known 
as  alcoholic  mania — ^the  physical  explanation  of 
many  fearful  crimes.     It  is  more  apt  to  follow 
a  somewhat  protracted  debauch.     After  a  longer 
or  shorter  period  of  fierce  excitement,   it  is  in 
most  cases  succeeded  by  great  depression,  and 
sometimes  during  this  condition  there   may  be 
sudden  death  from  failure  of  the  respiration  or 
circulation.     In  some  patients  the  sta^^e  of  ex- 
citement culminates  in  a  convulsive  seizure.   The 
convulsions  are  repeated  at  intervals,  are  very 
complicated  in  character,  and  produce  remark- 
able  contortions    of    the    body.     These    usually 
grow  less  violent,  and,  passing  off,  end  in  deep 
sleep;  but  here  also  death  may  occur  from  the 
action  of  the  poison.     Such  cases  of  ''alcoholic 
epilepsy"  are  comparatively  rare,  and  occur  prin- 
cipally in  acute  exacerbations  of  chronic  alcohol- 
ism.   Acute  alcoholism  is  more  apt  to  occur  in 
those  who  are  of  unsound  mind  and  weak  nerv- 
ous system,  and  this  applies  especially  to  the 
two  last-described   forms   of   the  affection.     In 
the  treatment  of  acute  alcoholism,  it  is  always 
wise  to  wash  out  the  stomach,  in  case  alcoboris 
present,  or  to  accomplish  much  the  same  object 
by  free  vomiting  and   purgation.     In   the   pro- 
found coma,  the  administration  of  stimulants, 
such  as  ammonia  and  strychnine,  may  be  called 
for,  and  sometimes  artificial  respiration  may  be 
the  only  means  of  saving  life.     In  the  maniacal 
and  convulsive  forms  of  the  affection,  sedatives 
must  be  used^    After  the  immediate  symptoms 
have  passed  away  in  all  forms,  the  individual 
must  be  carefully  fed  with  nutrient  enemata,  on 
account  of  the  disturbance  of  the  digestive  sys- 
tem, along  with  remedies  which  will  subdue  the 
digestive  irritation  and  overcome  the  depression 
of  the  nervous  system. 

Chronic  alcoholism  is  caused  by  the  prolonged 
use  of  overdoses  of  various  alcoholic  drinks. 
Changes  (see  Alcohol,  Physiological  and 
Poisonous  Action  of)  are  caused  in  every  tissue 
of  the  body,  but  the  nervous,  respiratory,  and 


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circulatory  systems  are  more  especially  affected, 
together  with  the  liver  and  kidneys.  There  is 
always  more  or  less  catarrh  of  the  digestive 
organs,  shown  by  dyspepsia,  heart-burn,  vomit- 
ing—  especially  in  the  morning  —  and  usually 
diarrhea.  The  liver  becomes  enlarged  from  con- 
gestion, and  may  afterward  shrink,  pressing  on 
the  veins  and  bringing  back  blood  to  the  heart 
from  the  abdominal  viscera,  leading  to  conges- 
tion of  the  bowels,  hemorrhoids,  and  hemor- 
rhages. From  changes  in  the  organs  of  circula- 
tion there  is  a  tendency  to  palpitation,  fainting, 
and  breath lessness  on  exertion.  These  altera- 
tions are  degenerations  of  the  heart,  which  may 
be  soft  or  even  fatty;  fibrous  changes  in  the 
walls  of  the  arteries;  and  dilatation  of  the  cap- 
illaries from  paralysis  of  the  vaso-motor  nerves. 
This  last  condition  gives  the  florid  complexion 
and  mottled  appearance  to  chronic  drinkers. 
There  is,  besides,  usually  some  congestion  of  the 
kidneys;  but  it  is  erroneous  to  attribute  Bright's 
disease  mainly  to  alcohol.  The  lungs  are  subject 
to  chronic  congestion  and  catarrh  of  the  bron- 
chial tubes  and  lung  tissues.  The  muscular  sys- 
tem suffers,  the  muscles  becoming  flabby  and 
fatty.  There  is  a  great  tendency,  to  deposition 
of  fat,  and  skin  diseases  are  frequently  induced 
by  the  vaso-motor  changes. 

Two  characteristic  results  of  the  action  of  the 
drug  on  the  central  nervous  structures  are  delir- 
ium tremens  and  alcoholic  insanity.  ( See  Insan- 
ity.) In  treating  chronic  alcoholism  the  great 
point  is  to  prevent  the  employment  of  alcohol  in 
any  form,  and  to  invigorate  the  bodily  and  men- 
tal functions.    See  Delirium  Tremens. 

Alcoholism  is  also  the  term  used  by  many 
sociological  writers,  especially  French  and  Ger- 
man authors,  in  discussing  the  social  evils  aris- 
ing from  an  abuse  of  intoxicants.  Particularly 
important  are  the  investigations  of  the  relation 
of  alcoholism  to  pauperism  and  crime,  and  the 
legal  aspects  of  the  subject  as  exhibited  in  the 
way  various  communities  deal  with  drunkenness 
(q.V.). 

Bibliography.  The  Committee  of  Fifty  has 
made  the  best  study  of  the  subject  in  its  volume 
on  Economic  Aspects  of  the  Liquor  Problem 
(Boston,  1899).  And  consult  also:  "The  Rela- 
tions of  the  Liquor  Traffic  to  Pauperism,  Crime, 
and  Insanity,"  Twenty-sixth  Annual  Report  of 
the  Massachusetts  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 
(BoHton,  1895)  ;  and  "Economic  Aspects  of  the 
Liquor  Problem,"  Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Labor  (Washing- 
ton, 1898).     See  Temperance. 

AL'COHOLOM^TBY  (alcohol  -f  Gk.  fiirpov, 
metroHy  measure).  A  name  applied  to  any 
process  of  estimating  the  percentage  of  ab- 
solute alcohol  in  a  sample  of  spirits.  Certain 
chemical' methods  have  been  tried  for  the  pur- 
pose, but  the  one  usually  employed  consists  in 
determining  the  specific  gravity  of  the  spirit.  As 
liquors,  however,  generally  contain  other  sub- 
.stances  besides  water,  they  must  be  carefully 
distilled  before  a  determination  can  be  made. 
Every  mixture  of  alcohol  and  water  has  a  spe- 
cific gravity  of  its  own,  which  depends:  (1)  on 
the  relative  composition  of  the  mixture,  and  (2) 
on  the  temperature ;  once  the  specific  gravities  of 
various  mixtures  have  been  determined,  the  com- 
position of  a  sample  can  be  ascertained  by  de- 
termining its  specific  gravity  and  observing  the 
temjierature.  The  following  table  shows  the  spe- 
cific gravities  of  mixtures  of  alcohol  and  water. 


containing  5,  10,  15,  20,  etc.,  per  cent,  by  weight 
of  alcohol,  at  the  temperatures  0**,  10**,  20**,  and 
SO**  C: 


Percentage 
Ijy  Weight 

0« 

10« 

20« 

ao» 

6 

0.99186 

0.99118 

0.98945 

0.98680 

10 

0  98493 

0.98409 

0.98195 

0.97802 

15 

0.97995 

0.97816 

0.97527 

0.9n4S 

20 

0.97566 

0.97263 

0.96877 

0.96418 

S5 

0.97115 

0.96672 

0.96186 

0.96628 

ao 

0.96540 

0.95998 

0.05408 

0.94761 

85 

096784 

0.96174 

0.94514 

0.98818 

40 

0.94989 

0.94256 

0  98611 

0.92787 

46 

0.98977 

0.98254 

0.92498 

0.91710 

60 

0.92940 

0.92182 

0.91400 

0.90577 

66 

0.91848 

0.91074 

0.90275 

0.89466 

60 

0.90742 

0.80944 

0.89129 

0.88304 

66 

089595 

0.88790 

0.87961 

0.87125 

TO 

0.88420 

0.87818 

0.86781 

0.85926 

76 

0.87246 

0.86427 

0.85580 

0.84719 

80 

0.86086 

0.85215 

0.84866 

0.83488 

86 

0.84780 

0.88967 

0.88115 

0.82282 

90 

0.88482 

0.82665 

0.81801 

0.80918 

95 

0.82119 

0.a3291 

0.804&3 

0.79553 

100 

0.80625 

0.79^ 

0.78945 

0.78096 

See  also  article,  Htdroxxter. 

ALCOHOLS.  A  name  applied  in  organic 
chemistry  to  one  of  the  largest  and  most  impor- 
tant classes  of  carbon  compounds.  The  alcohols 
possess  in  common  certain  chemical  properties, 
though  they  are  otherwise  very  different  from 
one  another.  They  all  contain  one  or  more 
hydroxyl  groups  (OH)  linked  directly  to  some 
fatty  hydrocarbon  group  (such  as  methyl,  CH,, 
ethyl,  CjHft,  etc.),  and  are  subdivided  both  with 
reference  to  the  number  of  their  hydroxyl  groups, 
and  with  reference  to  the  nature  of  their  hydro- 
carbon groups.  When  the  alcohols  are  acted  on 
by  the  chlorides  or  bromides  of  phosphorus,  chlo- 
rine or  bromine  takes  the  place  of  their  hydroxyl 
groups,  and  as  a  result,  halogen  derivatives  of 
the  corresponding  hydrocarbons  are  produced. 
Thus,  by  the  action  of  phosphorus  pentachloride, 
ethyl  alcohol  may  be  transformed  into  ethyl 
chloride  (mono-chloro-ethane),  according  to  the 
f olloAving  chemical  equation : 

C,H,OH  +  PCI,  =  CaHaCl  +  POCl,  -f  HCl 
Ethyl  alcohol  Bthyl  chloride 

With  reference  to  the  number  of  their  hydroxyl 
groups,  the  alcohols  are  divided  into  mono- 
hydric,  di-hydric,  tri-hydric,  etc.  According  to 
the  nature  of  the  radical  to  which  these  groups 
are  attached,  alcohols  may  be  saturated  or  un- 
saturated, fatty  or  aromatic.  With  reference 
to  their  chemical  constitution  and  behavior 
toward  oxidizing  agents,  alcohols  are  further 
divided  into  primary,  secondary,  and  tertiary. 
The  primary  alcohols  are  characterized  by  the 
mono-valent  group  CH3OH;  the  secondary,  by 
the  di-valent  group  CHOII;  the  tertiary  by  the 
tri-valent  group  COH.  The  differences  in  their 
reactions  are  described  below. 

The  alcohols  are  in  certain  respects  analogous 
to  the  metallic  hydroxides  of  inorganic  chemis- 
try. As,  for  instance,  potassium  hydroxide 
(KOH)  may  be  considered  as  derived  from  water 
by  replacing  half  of  its  hydrogen  by  potassium, 
so  may  methyl  alcohol  be  considered  as  derived 
from  water  by  substituting  the  hydrocarbon  rad- 
icle called  methyl  (Clla)  for  half  of  its  hydrogen* 
the  corresponding  formulas  being: 


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ALCOHOLS. 


298 


ALCOHOLS. 


H  —  OH  K  — OH  CH,  — OH 

Water  Potasslnm  Methyl 

hydroxide  alcohol 

Again,  as  metallic  hydroxides  combine  with 
acids  to  form  salts,  so  alcohols  combine  with 
acids  to  form  esters  (ethereal  salts),  which  are 
perfectly  analogous  to  the  salts  of  inorganic 
chemistry.  The  following  two  equations  repre- 
sent, respectively,  the  formation  of  a  salt  and  of 
an  ester: 


KOH     + 

Potasslnm 
hydroxide 


HCl     = 

Hydrochloric 
acid 


CJI.OH    +    HC,H,0, 

Ethyl  Acetic 

alcohol  acid 


KCl     +  H,0 

Potasstam  Water 
chloride 

CHsCHgO,  -f   HgO 

Ethyl-acetic  Water 
ester 


The  hydrogen  of  the  hydroxyl  group  of  an 
alcohol  can  be  replaced  either  by  metals  or  by 
hydrocarbon  radicles.  In  the  former  case,  a 
metallic  alcoholate  is  obtained;  in  the  latter,  an 
^ther.  Thus,  by  the  action  of  metallic  sodium 
on  ordinary  (ethyl)  alcohol,  sodium  alcoholate 
is  obtained,  according  to  the  following  chemical 
equation : 

C,H.OH    -f    Na   =   C,H.ONa    -f    H 
Ethyl  alcohol  Sodium  alcoholate 

On  the  other  hand,  by  dehydrating  ethyl  alcohol, 
ordinary  ether  is  obtained,  as  follows: 

C2H5OH  +  C,H.OH  —  H,0  =  C,H,00,H, 
2  molecules  of  ethyl  alcohol  Ethyl  ether 

In  this  transformation  (usually  effected  by  the 
-dehydrating  action  of  sulphuric  acid),  the  ethyl 
group  of  one  molecule  of  alcohol  evidently  takes 
the  place  of  the  hydroxyl  hydrogen  of  another 
molecule.  An  analogous  reaction  takes  place 
when  a  mixture  of  two  different  alcohols  is  sub- 
jected to  the  dehydrating  action  of  sulphuric 
acid: 

CH^OH     -f     CHaOH    —    H,0     =    C^ftOCH, 


Ethyl 
alcohol 


Methyl 
alcohol 


Methvl-ethyl 
ether 


The  chemical  similarity  between  the  alcohol- 
ates  and  the  ethers  is  further  shown  by  the  fact 
that  the  latter  may  be  readily  obtained  from  the 
former.  Thus,  methyl  ether  may  be  obtained 
by  the  action  of  methyl  iodide  on  sodium-methyl- 
ate  (an  alcoholate),  according  to  the  following 
chemical  equation: 

CH«ONa    -f    CH,I    =    CH^OCH,    -f    Nal 
Sodium  Methyl  Methyl  Sodium 

methylate  iodide  ether  iodide 

The  chemical  transformations  characterizing  the 
three  sub-classes  of  the  alcohols,  viz.,  the  pri- 
mary, secondary,  and  tertiary  alcohols,  may  now 
be  briefly  considered. 

1.  It  was  mentioned  above  that  primary  alco- 
hols contain  the  group  CH,OH.  When  they  are 
oxidized,  this  group  is  changed  into  the  group 

/H 
C.       which  is  characteristic  of  the  aldehydes — 

another  important  class  of  organic  compounds. 
Thus,  when  ethyl  alcohol  is  oxidized  with  chromic 
acid,  ordinary  aldehyde  is  obtained,  according 
to  the  following  chemical  equation: 

CHjCHjOH    4-0    =    CH,CHO    +    H,0 
Ethyl  alcohol  Aldehyde 

By  further  combination  with  oxygen,  aldehydes 


readily  yield  acids,  the  group  CHO  being  ex- 

//O 
changed  for  the  acid  group  C----OH.    Thus,  when 
ordinary   aldehyde   is   oxidized,    acetic  acid  ii 
produced,  as  follows: 

CH,CHO    -f     0    =r:    CH,COOH 
Aldehyde  Acetic  add 

If  the  structural  formula  of  acetic  acid  and 
ethyl  alcohol  are  compared, 


Acetic  acid  Ethyl  alcohol, 

it  may  be  seen  that  the  gradual  oxidation  result- 
ed in  the  substitution  of  one  atom  of  oxygen  for 
the  two  atoms  of  hydrogen  linked  to  the  same 
carbon  atom  "to  which  the  OH  group  of  the 
alcohol  is  linked.  If  in  the  place  of  these  hydro- 
gens, the  alcohol  molecule  contained  atomic 
groups  like  methyl,  for  instance,  which  could 
not  be  replaced  by  oxygen,  the  acid  could  evi- 
dently not  be  made  by  oxidizing  the  alcohol. 
In  other  words,  unless  an  alcohol  contains  two 
hydrogens  linked  to  the  hydroxyl  group  OH 
through  a  carbon  atom,  it  could  not  be  trans- 
formed, by  simple  oxidation,  into  an  acid  con- 
taining the  same  number  of  carbon  atoms;  only 
primary  alcohols,  characterized  by  the  group 
CHzOH,  are  capable  6t  this  transformation. 

2.  When  secondary  alcohols  are  oxidized,  their 
characteristic  group  CHOH  is  converted  into  the 
group  CO,  and  as  a  result  ketones  are  produced. 
Thus,  when  iso-propyl  alcohol  is  acted  on  by 
oxidizing  agents,  ordinary  acetone  (di-methyl- 
ketone)  is  produced,  according  to  the  following 
chemical  equation: 
CH« 

\ 
CHOH     +     O     = 

/ 

CHa 


HjO 


Iso-propyl 
alcohol 


Acetone 


It  is  seen  that  the  molecule  of  acetone  contains 
the  same  number  of  carbon  atoms  as  the  molecule 
of  iso-propyl  alcohol. 

3.  Tertiary  alcohols  cannot  be  transformed  by 
simple  oxidation  into  a  compound  whose  mole- 
cule contains  the  same  number  of  carbon  atoms. 
In  the  language  of  the  structural  theory,  the 
primary  alcohols,  characterized  by  the  group 
into  which  their  COH  group  could  be  converted 
by  simple  loss  of  hydrogen  through  oxidation,  is 
tlie  group  CO.  Now,  the  COH  group  is  tri- 
valent,  and  is,  in  tertiary  alcohols,  combined  with 
three  radicles;  thus,  the  simplest  tertiary  al- 
cohol, called  tertiary  butyl  alcohol,  is  represented 
by  the  graphic  formula: 

CHaN 

CH,— C— O— H 

CH3/ 


Tertiary  butvl  alcohol 


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ALCOHOLS. 


299 


ALCOHOLS. 


If  its  COH  group  were  converted  into  CO,  a  com- 
pound would  be  obtained  in  which  carbon  would 
exist  in  the  penta-valent  form,  as  shown  by  the 
fonnula : 

CH,\ 

CHs— C=0 

CH,/ 

Neither  this,  nor  any  other  compound  containing 
pcnta-valent  carbon,  is  known.  In  reality,  when 
a  tertiary  alcohol  is  oxidized,  it  breaks  up  into 
various  compounds,  each  containing  less  carbon 
atoms  than  the  alcohol. 

The  three  sub-classes  of  alcohols  can  thus  be 
readily  distinguished  from  one  another  by  their 
behavior  toward  oxidizing  agents.  ^ 

Primary  alcohols  may  be  transformed  into 
corresponding  secondary  or  tertiary  alcohols 
with  the  aid  of  sulphuric  acid.  As  an  example 
may  be  mentioned  the  conversation  of  normal 
propvl  alcohol  (primary)  into  iso-propyl  alcohol 
( secondary ).  (1)  By  the  dehydrating  action  of 
sulphuric  acid  on  normal  propyl  alcohol,  the 
hydrocarbon  propylene  is  obteined,  according  to 
the  following  equation: 

CH^CH^CH^OH  —  H,0  =   CH,CH=CH, 
Normal  propyl  alcohol  Propylene 

(2)  When  propylene  is  dissolved  in  fuming  sul- 
phuric acid  and^  the  compound  thus  obtained  is 
boiled  with  water,  iso-propyl  alcohol  is  obtained: 

CH,CH:CH.    +    H.0    =    CH.CH(OH)CH, 

Propylene  Water  Iso-propyl  alcohol 

in  this  manner  a  hydroxyl  group  can  be  made  to 

change  its  position  in  the  molecule  by  simple 

laboratory  methods. 

The  di-hydric  alcohols,  as  the  name  indicates, 
contain  two  hydroxyl  groups.  Glycols  is  the 
name  usuallv  applied  by  chemists  to  the  di- 
hvdric  alcohols.  The  simplest  glycol,  derived 
from  methane  (CH4)— the  simplest  hydrocarbon 
—  should  be  represented  hj  the  formula 
CH^(OH),.  But  though  certain  compounds  of 
this  glycol  have  been  obtained,  the  glycol  itself 
could  not  be  prepared  in  the  free  state.  Expe- 
rience shows,  in  general,  that  the  formation  of 
a  compound  in  which  two  hydroxyl  groups 
might  be  attached  to  one  carbon  atom  is  almost 
invariably  accompanied  by  a  loss  of  the  elem^ts 
of  water.  The  imaginary  compound  CH,(OH), 
is  thus  split  up,  according  to  the  following  equa- 
tion: ^  ^ 
CHa(OH),    =    CH,0     +     H,0 

The  compound  CH,0  (formaldehyde)  is  there- 
fore obteined  in  reactions  which  might  be 
expected  to  result  in  the  formation  of  the  glycol 
CH,(OH),.  The  simplest  glycol  actually  pre- 
pared is  a  derivative  of  ethane  (C,H«),  one 
hvdroxyl  group  being  attached  to  each  of  the 
two  carbon  atoms   of  ethane,  and  its  formula 

CH,OH 
therefore  being   |  .    This  glycol  evidently 

CH,OH 
conteins  two  primary  alcohol  groups   (CH,OH), 
bv  the  oxidation  of  one  or  both  of  which  a  series 
of  interesting  compounds  is  obtained,  including: 

CHO  CHO  COOH 


Glycols  containing  two  tertiary-alcohol  groups 
(COH)  are  usually  called  pinacones,  the  sim- 
plest pinacone  known  being  represented  by  the 
following  graphic  formula: 

^HaXc-O-H 


CHjOH         

COOH  CHO  COOH 


OlycocoUic       Glyoxal 
acid 


Glyo3Wlic 


(:ooH 

Oxalic 
acid 


CH3/ 


I 


gH.\c.O-H 

Ordinary  pinacone 

The  simplest  and  best  known  tri-hydric  alco- 
hol is  the  well-known  glycerin  (q.v.),  which  may 
be  considered  as  derived  from  propane  (CH, 
CHjCHs)  by  the  substitution  of  hydroxyl  groups 
for  three  hydrogens  attached  to  three  different 
carbon  atoms;  the  constitutional  formula  of 
glycerin  is  CH,(OH).CH(OH).  CH,(OH). 

Among  the  few  other  poly-hydric  alcohols 
known  may  be  mentioned  the  hexa-hydric  alco- 
hol mannitoly  which  is  found  in  manna  (q.v.). 
The  poly-hydric  alcohols  generally  possess  a  sweet 
taste  and  are  insoluble  in  ether.  They  mostly 
occur  ready  formed  in  nature. 

The  mono-hydric  alcohols  are  rarely  found  in 
nature  in  the  free  state;  in  the  form  of  esters, 
however,  i.e.,  in  combination  with  acids,  they 
occur  largely  in  the  tegetable  kingdom.  The  for- 
mation of  alcohols  from  the  sugars  through 
fermentation  is  described  elsewhere.  (See  Alco- 
hol and  Fermentation.  )  It  remains  to  mention 
here  a  few  of  the  general  chemical  methods  by 
which  alcohols  are  made  artificially. 

1.  Many  alcohols  are  prepared  from  the  corre- 
sponding hydrocarbons  by  substituting  halogens 
for  part  of  their  hydrogen,  and  treating  the  halo- 
gen derivatives  thus  obtained  with  dilute  aque- 
ous alkalis  or  with  moist  silver  oxide.  The  fol- 
lowing equations  represent  examples  of  the  for- 
mation of  alcohols  from  halogen-substitutive- 
products  of  hydrocarbons: 

CH,Br    -f     KOH    =    CH5OH    +     KBr 

Hono-bromo-      Potaaeinm  Methyl  Potasslnm 

methane  hydroxide  alcohol  bromide 

C.HtI     +     AgOH     =     CHtOH     H-     Agl 

Mono-iodo  Silver  Propyl  Silver 

propane  hydroxide  alcohol  iodide 

2.  Since  aldehydes  are  produced  by  the  oxida- 
tion of  primary  alcohols,  the  latter  may  be 
obtained,  conversely,  by  reducing  aldehydes. 
Thus,  ethyl  alcohol  may  be  obtained  by  the  action 
of  nascent  hydrogen  upon  ordinary  aldehyde, 
according  to  the  following  equation: 

CH3CHO     -f     2H    =    CH^CHjOH 

Aldehyde  Ordinary  alcohol 

3.  Since  ketones  are  produced  by  the  oxidation 
of  secondary  alcohols,  the  latter  may,  conversely, 
be  prepared  from  ketones  by  reduction.  Thus, 
secondary  propyl  alcohol  may  be  obtained  by  the 
action  of  nascent  hydrogen  on  acetone  ( di-methyl- 
ketone),  according  to  the  following  equation: 


CH,.C0.CH3 
Acetone 


H-     2H     = 


CH3CH(OH)CH2 
l80-propyl  alcohol 


4.  Tertiary  alcohols  may  be  prepared  from 
chlorides  of  acid  radicals  with  the  aid  of  com- 
pounds of  zinc  and  hydrocarbon  radicals.  Thus, 
tertiary  butyl  alcohol  is  obtained  according  to 
the  following  equation: 


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ALCOHOLS.  300 

CH3COCI     +     2Zn(CH3)a     +     2H,0     = 
Acetyl  chloride  Zinc-methyl 

(CH,),COH   +   CHaZnCl    -f    Zn(OH),  +  CH4 
Tertiary  butyl  Zinc-chloro-  Zinc  Methane 

alcohol  methyl  hydroxide 

The  aromatic  alcohols  may  be  prepared  by 
methods  analogous  to  those  just  described.  Aro> 
matic  alcohols  must  be  distinguished  from  the 
phenols — a  class  of  hydroxyl  derivatives  of  the 
aromatic  hydrocarbons — which  are  in  many  re- 
spects quite  different  from  the  true  alcohols; 
thus,  phenates  of  the  alkali  metals  are  obtained 
by  the  action  of  alkaline  hydroxides  on  phenols, 
while  alcoholates  can  only  be  produced  from 
alcohols  by  the  action  of  the  alkali  metals  them- 
selves, their  hydroxides  having  no  action  on 
alcohols.  Theoretically  the  difference  between 
aromatic  alcohols  and  phenols  consists  in  this, 
that  in  the  latter  the  hydroxyl  groups  are 
attached  immediately  to  the  so-called  benzene 
ring,  while  in  the  former  they  are  attached  to  a 
side-chain.  The  difference  is  clearly  shown  by 
the  following  constitutional  formulee,  represent- 
ing, respectively,  a  well-known  phenol  and  the 
simplest   aromatic  alcohol   known: 


ALCOY. 


/OH 
C.H, 

\CH, 
Creeol  (a  phenol) 


CaH«— CHa—OH 
Ben  Kyi  alcohol  (an  alcohol) 


The  more  important  alcohols  are  described 
under  special  heads. 

ALCOLEA,  nrk6-lS'&,  Bridge  of.  A  bridge 
across  the  river  Guadalquivir,  eight  miles  north- 
east of  Cordova,  Spain,  the  scene  of  a  battle 
September  28,  1868,  between  the  revolutionary 
troops  of  Serrano  and  those  of  Queen  Isabella. 
The  latter  were  beaten  and  the  Queen,  dethroned, 
fled  to  France. 

ALCOItANy  al'kA-ran  or  al'kA-rUn'.  See 
Koran. 

ALCOBN,  al^ern,  James  Lusk  (1816-94). 
An  American  statesman,  born  in  Galconda,  Illi- 
nois. He  was  educated  at  Cumberland  Univer- 
sity, Kentucky,  and  became  a  lawyer  in  that 
State  and  sat  in  its  Legislature.  He  went  to 
Mississippi  in  1844,  and  served  in  the  State  Leg- 
islature from  1846  to  1865,  when  he  was  elected 
United  States  Senator,  but  was  not  then  per- 
mitted to  take  his  seat.  He  was  elected  governor 
on  the  Republican  ticket  in  1869,  but  resigned 
two  years  later  to  enter  the  United  States  Sen- 
ate, where  he  continued  until  1877.  In  1873  he 
was  defeated  for  governor  on  an  independent 
ticket.  He  was  the  founder  of  the  levee  system 
of  the  Mississippi. 

ALCOTT,  allcut,  Amos  Bronson  (1799- 
1888).  An  American  educational  reformer, 
conversationalist,  and  transcendental  philos- 
opher. He  was  born  at  Wolcott,  Conn.,  Novem- 
ber 29,  1799,  and  died  in  Boston,  March  4,  1888. 
He  was  the  son  of  a  farmer,  and  his  first  experi- 
ence of  life  Avas  gained  as  a  peddler  in  the  South. 
In  1828  he  became  an  educational  reformer  and 
established  in  Boston  a  school,  in  which  he  at- 
tracted much  attention  by  the  novelty  of  his 
methods.  Of  this  there  is  a  very  attractive  ac- 
count by  Elizabeth  Peabodv  {Record  of  a 
School,  1834;  third  edition,  1874).  His  method 
was  largely  conversational,  and  a  transcript  of 
his    talks    appeared    in    1836    as    Conversations 


toith  Children  on  the  Gospels.  Ways  that  would 
now  seem  more  commendable  than  noteworthv 
then  met  with  bitter  denunciation,  so  that  A\- 
cott  abandoned  his  school,  moved  to  Concord, 
and  sought  to  disseminate  his  views  on  theolo^, 
education,  society,  civics,  and  vegetarianism 
through  lectures,  winning  attention  by  his  origi- 
nality and  graceful  speech.  In  1842  he  visited 
England  and  returned  with  two  friends,  one  of 
whom  bought  an  estate  near  Harvard,  Mass., 
where  they  endeavored  to  found  a  community, 
"Fruitlands,"  which  speedily  failed.  Aleo'tt 
then  went  to  Boston,  and  thence  to  Concord, 
leading  the  life  of  a  peripatetic  philosopher,  and 
giving  "conversations,"  which  found  increasing 
favor,  especially  in  the  West.  In  later  years 
his  manner  became  more  formal  and  his  alvv'aTs 
nebulous  teaching  apparently  more  orthodox. 
Besides  frequent  contributions  of  '*Orphic  Say- 
ings" to  the  Transcendental  organ,  The  Dial,  he 
published  fragments  from  his  voluminous  diarv. 
Tablets  (1868);  Concord  Days  (1872);  Table 
Talk  (1877);  Sonnets  and  Canzonets  (1877), 
and  also  tfew  Connecticut  ( 1881 ) ,  and  an  ^*«ay 
on  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  His  Character  and 
Genius  (1882).  For  his  biography,  consult  San- 
born and  Harris,  Life  (Boston,  1893);  also 
Lowell's  contemporary  criticism,  in  A  Folk 
for  Critics  (New  York,  1848),  and  A  Study  from 
Two  Heads,  in  the  Poems. 

ALCOTT,  Louisa  May  (1832-88).  An 
American  novelist  and  juvenile  writer.  She 
was  bom  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  November  29, 
1832,  and  died  at  Boston,  March  6,  1888.  She 
began  her  active  life  as  a  teacher,  writin<» 
stories  of  harmless  sensation  for  weekly  jour- 
nals, and  publishing  the  insignificant  Floiccr 
Fables  (1855).  During  the  Civil  War  she  vol- 
unteered as  an  army  nurse,  and  wrote  for  a 
newspaper  the  letters  afterward  collected  as 
Hospital  Sketches  (1863).  She  first  attract«l 
notice  by  Little  Women  (1868;  second  part, 
1869) ,  the  best  and  most  popular  of  her  writings. 
Among  the  more  noteworthy  of  numerous  other 
contributions  to  the  literature  of  adolescence  are: 
An  Old-Fashioned  Girl  ( 1869 ) .  Little  Men  (1871 1 . 
Jo's  iJoys  (1886).  Her  novels,  Moods  (1863i 
and  Work  (1873),  attracted  little  attention.  In 
later  years  she  suffered  much  from  ill-health: 
but  her  writing  w^as  to  the  last  singularly  buoy- 
ant and  hopeful,  full  of  faith  in  human  nature, 
democracy,  and  freedom.  She  was  typical  in 
her  social  ethics  of  the  literary  generation  in 
which  her  father,  Amos  Bronson  Alcott  (q.v.), 
had  been  a  prominent  figure.  There  is  a  Z.»/"<\ 
by  Cheney  (Boston,  1889). 

ALCOTT,  May  (1840-79).  An  American  ar- 
tist, daughter  of  Amos  Bronson  Alcott,  and  wife 
of  Ernest  Nieriken.  She  was  born  at  Concord. 
Mass.,  and  after  attending  the  Boston  School  of 
Design,  studied  under  Krug,  Dr.  Rimmer. 
Hunt,  Vautier,  Johnston,  and  MttUer.  She 
showed  considerable  skill  in  still-life  studies, 
but  attained  her  greatest  success  by  her  oil  and 
water-color  copies  of  the  paintings  of  Turner, 
which  were  highly  praised  by  Mr.  Raskin,  and 
were  given  to  the  pupils  of  the  SouUi  Kensing- 
ton schools,  London,  to  work  from.  Mrs.  Xieri- 
ken  was  the  author  of  Concord  Sketches  {^Bo^- 
ton,  1869). 

ALCOY,  ftl-ko'^.  A  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Alicante.  It  is  situated  on  the  river 
Alcoy,  24  miles  north-northwest  of  the  citv  of 


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ALCOY. 


301 


ALPBOBOUaH. 


Alicante  (Map:  Spain,  E  3),  and  is  one  of  the 
most  busy  and  prosperous  of  Spanish  towns.  It 
is  picturesquely  placed  on  the  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Mariola,  whose  streams  afford  an  abun- 
dance of  water-power.  The  public  buildings 
include  a  consistory,  town  hall,  poor  house, 
and  public  granary.  The  city  is  the  great 
centre  of  paper  manufacture,  and  the  mills  are 
of  considerable  antiquity.  Their  production  is 
large.  The  cigarette  paper  of  Alcoy  is  known  to 
every  Spanish  smoker,  but  sugar-plums,  pela- 
dillaa  de  Alcoy,  woolen  cloth,  linen  and  cotton 
goods,  as  well  as  hardware,  also  form  important 
branches  of  manufacture.  Pop.,  1900.  31,578. 
The  prosperity  of  the  place  was  interrupted  for 
a  time  in  1873  by  an  insurrection  of  the  Spanish 
Internationals. 

AliCTTDIA,  ftl-k5<5'D*-&,  Manuel  de  Godot. 
See  Godot,  Manuel,  Duke  of  Alcudla. 

AliCrOTN,  fil^wln,  or  Flaccus  Albinus 
(c.  735-804).  The  most  distinguished  scholar  of 
the  eighth  century,  the  confidant  and  adviser  of 
C*harleniagne.  He  was  born  at  York,  was  edu- 
cated under  the  care  of  Archbishop  Ecbert,  and 
his  relative,  Albert,  and  succeeded  the  latter 
as  master  of  the  school  of  York.  Charlemagne 
became  acquainted  with  him  at  Parma,  as  he 
was  returning  from  Rome,  whither  he  had  gone 
to  bring  home  the  pallium  for  a  friend.  He 
invited  Alcuin  to  his  court,  and  had  his  assist- 
ance in  his  endeavors  to  civilize  his  subjects. 
As  a  result  of  this  association,  Alcuin  became  the 
preceptor  of  the  Emperor,  whom  he  instructed  in 
various  subjects,  especially  rhetoric  and  dia- 
lectics. To  render  his  instruction  more  available, 
Charlemagne  established  at  his  court  a  school 
called  Schola  Palatina,  the  superintendence  of 
which,  as  well  as  of  several  monasteries,  was 
committed  to  Alcuin.  In  the  learned  society  of 
the  court,  Alcuin  went  by  the  name  of  Flaccus 
Albinus.  Many  of  the  schools  in  France  were 
either  founded  or  improved  by  him.  He  retired 
to  the  abbey  of  St.  Martin,  in  Tours,  in  796,  and 
taking  as  his  model  the  school  of  York,  taught  at 
Tours.  WTiile  there  he  wrote  frequently  to  the 
Emperor.  He  died  May  19,  804.  He  left,  be- 
sides numerous  theological  writings,  a  number 
of  works  on  philosophy,  mathematics,  rhetoric, 
and  philology,  as  well  as  poems  and  a  great  num- 
ber of  letters.  His  letters,  while  they  betray  the 
uncultivated  character  of  the  age  generally, 
show  Alcuin  to  have  been  the  most  accomplished 
man  of  his  time.  He  understood  Latin,  Greek, 
and  Hebrew.  Editions  of  his  works  appeared  in 
1617  (Paris),  1777  (Ratisbon),  and  in  Migne's 
Patrologia.  Consult  :  Monnier,  Alcuin  et  Char- 
lemagyie  (Paris,  1864)  ;  Mullinger,  Schools  of 
Charles  the  Great  (London,  1877),  and  West, 
Alcuin  and  the  Rise  of  Christian  Schools  (New 
York,  1892). 

AIi'CTONA^BIA  (From  Gk.  alKv6v[E]iov, 
alkyon[e]ionf  bastard-sponge).  A  subclass  of 
the  Aiitho2Soa,  comprising  a  group  of  coral- 
polj-ps,  characterized  by  the  presence  of  eight 
tentacles  around  the  mouth  and  the  division  of 
the  gastrovascular  cavity  into  eight  chambers. 
Typical  forms,  like  the  .precious  red  corals,  fall 
into  the  subordinate  group  Alcyonacea;  the  sea- 
fans  constitute  the  .aroup  Gorgonacea;  and  the 
sea-pens  the  group  Pennatulacea.     See  Coral. 

AliCY'ONE,  or  HALCYONE  {Gk.'AUvdvrj, 
Alkyone).  In  later  Greek  legend,  the  daughter 
of  ^Eolus  and  wife  of  Ceyx.     Inconsolable  on  the 


death  of  her  husband,  she  threw  herself  into 
the  sea,  whereupon  she  and  her  husband  were 
changed  into  kingfishers  as  a  reward  of  their 
mutual  devotion.  Alcyone  is  originally  a  sea 
divinity,  and  appears  in  the  legends  of  Bceotia, 
Argos,  and  elsewhere.  The  myth  has  been  per- 
petuated in  zoology  by  the  name  of  a  genus  (Al- 
cyone) of  kingfishers;  and  these  birds  are  fre- 
quently called  halcyons  in  poetic  literature. 

ALCYONE  (Gk.  'A?jcv6vfj,  Alkyon€) .  The 
most  brilliant  of  the  "seven  stars"  or  Pleiades. 
This  is  the  star  which  was  supposed  by  MUdler 
to  be  the  central  sun,  in  reference  to  which  our 
sun  with  its  planets  and  all  other  known  systems 
are  moving,  perhaps  revolving  within  some  al- 
most incomprehensible  period  of  time.  It  has 
been  shown,  however,  that  any  central  sun  hy- 
pothesis is,  as  yet,  far  too  daring,  considering 
the  insufiicient  state  of  our  knowledge  of  sidereal 
systems  and  their  motions.     See  Pleiades.  ^ 

AX'DABELOiA.  (1)  In  Ariosto's  Orlando 
Furioso  (q.v.),  the  wife  of  Orlando,  daughter  of 
Monodantes  and  sister  of  Oliviero.  In  French 
and  Spanish  versions  of  the  Orlando  legends 
she  appears  as  Alda  and  Auda.  (2)  In  Dean 
Milman's  tragedy  of  Fazio  (q.v.),  a  fascinating 
but  wicked  woman,  of  whom  Bianca,  Fazio's 
wife,  has  cause  for  jealousy,  and  who  is  finally 
condemned  to  a  nunnery. 

ALDAN,  &l-diln^  An  affluent  of  the  Lena, 
rising  in  the  Siberian  territory  of  Yakutsk, 
near  the  mountain  ridge  of  Yablonov,  in  lat.  56° 
31'  N.,  and  long.  123*»  61'  E.  (Map:  Asia,  M  3). 
After  flowing  in  a  generally  northerly  direction 
for  1320  miles  it  empties  into  the  Lena,  111  miles 
below  Yakutsk.  It  is  navigable  for  a  distance 
of  over  600  miles.  It  abounds  in  sturgeon  and 
sterlet. 

ALT) AN,  &l-dftn^.  A  mountain  range  on  the 
left  shore  of  the  river  that  gives  it  its  name, 
between  55"  and  61°  N.  lat.  (Map:  Asia,  M  3). 
It  is  a  branch  of  the  Stanovoi,  about  400  miles 
long,  with  an  average  altitude  of  4000  feet. 

ALDBOBOUaH,  ald'bflr'A,  or,  colloquially, 
R'bro  (A.  S.  aid,  old).  An  ancient  village  in  the 
West    Riding    of    Yorkshire,     16     miles     west 


AliOTOIfARLA.. 

northwest  of  York  (Map:  England,  E  2).  It  is 
chiefly  remarkable  for  its  ancient  ruins.  It  was 
the  isurium  of  the  Romans,  and  after  York 
(Eboraeum)  the  most  considerable  Roman  camp 
north  of  the  Humber.  Remains  of  aqueducts, 
buildings,     tessellated    pavements,     implements. 


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ALDBOBOXTGH. 


302 


ALDEHYDE& 


urns,  and  coins  have  been  found  in  great  number. 
Pop.,  1901,  800. 

AliDEB'ABAN  (Ar.  aldahardriy  the  fol- 
lower, i.e.,  of  the  Pleiades).  The  name  of  a  star 
of  the  first  magnitude,  in  the  constellation  Tau- 
rus. It  is  the  largest  and  most  brilliant  of  a 
cluster  of  five  which  the  Greeks  called  the 
Hyades.  From  its  positipn  it  is  sometimes 
termed  "the  bull's  eye." 

AliDEGONDE,  Al'de-gGNd',  Philip  van  Mab- 
Nix,  Saint.     See  Mar  nix,  Philip  van. 

ALDEGBEVEBy  arde-grfi'vSr.  Heinbich 
(1502-c.  1562).  A  German  painter  and  engraver. 
From  his  style,  which  closely  resembles  his  mas- 
ter's, he  has  been  called  "the  Albrecht  Diirer  of 
Westphalia."  His  engravings  put  him  in  the 
first  rank  of  "little  masters."  They  include  por- 
traits of  Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  John  of  Ley- 
den.  Of  his  paintings,  the  most  noteworthy  are 
the  "Portrait  of  a  Young  Man"  (1544),  at  Vi- 
enna, and  a  "Resurrection,"  at  Prague. 

AITDEHYDE,  Acetic,  CH.CHO.  often  called 
Ordinary  Aldehyde,  or  simply  Aldehyde.  A 
colorless  liquid  having  a  peculiar  pungent  and 
suffocating  odor.  It  is  very  volatile  and  inflam- 
mable; it  boils  at  20.8*"  €.,  and  has  at  Of 
C.  a  specific  gravity  0.801.  It  occurs  in  crude 
alcohol  and  wood  spirit^  and  is  readily  made  from 
ordinary  alcohol  by  oxidation  with  chromic  acid. 
If  a  mixture  of  three  parts  of  alcohol  and  four 
parts  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  is  run  into  a 
vessel  kept  in  a  warm  water-bath  and  contain- 
ing three  parts  of  coarsely  powdered  potassium  bi- 
chromate and  twelve  parts  water,  a  reaction 
takes  place,  during  which  a  considerable  amount 
of  aldehyde  is  formed.  The  latter  is  isolated  in 
a  somewhat  impure  state  by  distillation,  and 
may  be  purified  by  the  use  of  ammonia.  Alde- 
hyde combines  with  ammonia  to  form  a  solid 
crystalline  substance  called  aldehyde-ammonia, 
and  having  the  formula  CH,CH(NH,)OH;  alco- 
hol and  acetal,  which  are  generally  contained 
as  impurities  in  crude  aldehyde,  form  no  solid 
compound  with  ammonia.  Therefore,  to  separate 
aldehyde  from  these  substances,  crystalline  al- 
dehyde-ammonia is  produced  by  the  direct  action 
of  ammonia,  washed  with  ether,  and  broken  up 
by  distillation  with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The 
aldehyde  thus  obtained  is  further  dehydrated  by 
distillation  with  dry  calcium  chloride.  Aldehyde 
is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  valuable 
dyes.  If  added  to  an  ammoniacal  solution  of  sil- 
ver nitrate,  it  produces  a  precipitate  of  metallic 
silver,  which  may  form  a  mirror  if  evenly  de- 
posited on  a  glass  surface.  By  the  action  of  re- 
ducing agents,  aldehyde  is  converted  into  alco- 
hol; oxidizing  agents  convert  it  into  acetic  acid. 
If  a  drop  of  strong  sulphuric  acid  is  added  to 
aldehyde,  the  latter  is  transformed  into  paralde- 
hyde^ a  colorless,  transparent  liquid  having  the 
molecular  formula  CoHuOa;  it  has  a  strong  char- 
acteristic odor  and  a  somewhat  burning  taste; 
if  cooled  below  0°  C,  it  solidifies,  form- 
ing crystals  which  melt  at  lO.S**  C.  Paralde- 
hyde is  moderately  soluble  in  water,. its  solubil- 
ity decreasing  with  an  increase  of  temperature. 
If  taken  internally  in  doses  of  from  one  to  four 
cubic  centimetres,  paraldehyde  produces  sleep 
without  affecting  the  heart;  it  is,  therefore,  used 
as  a  substitute  for  chloral,  though  it  has  the  dis- 
agreeable effect  of  imparting  a  persistent  and 
offensive  odor  to  the  breath.  Paraldehyde  may 
be  readily  reconverted  into  aldehyde  by  distilling 


with  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  By  the  action  of 
acids  on  aldehyde  at  a  low  temperature,  another 
compound  having  the  same  percentage  compo- 
sition as  aldehyde  is  obtained ;  this  compound  is 
called  metaldehyde;  it  is  colorless,  crystalline, 
insoluble  in  water,  and  is  readily  converted  into 
aldehyde  by  heating  with  dilute  acids.  Aldehyde 
was  first  isolated  and  studied  by  Liebig  in  1835. 

ALDEHYDES  (clipped  form  of  aZcohol  de- 
hydrogena.tum,  alcohol  deprived  of  hydrogen  |. 
An  imported  class  of  organic  chemical  com- 
pounds characterized  by  the  group  H  — C  =  0. 
The  aldehydes  are  derived  from  the  primary 
alcohols  (see  Alcohols)  by  removing  part  of 
the  hydrogen  of  the  latter  by  means  of  an  ox- 
idizing agent.  Thus,  when  ethyl  alcohol  i* 
oxidized  with  aqueous  chromic  acid,  ordinary 
aldehyde  is  produced  according  to  the  foUo^ng 
chemical  equation: 

CH«CH,OH  -f  O  =  CH,CHO  -f  H,0 

Ethyl  alcohol  Aldehyde 

Most  of  the  aldehydes  are  volatile  liquid  com- 
pounds, and  are  readily  converted  by  oxidizing 
agents  into  the  corresponding  organic  acid^ 
Thus  benzaldehyde  (benzoic  aldehyde)  is  read- 
ily oxidized  to  benzoic  acid,  according  to  the 
following  equation : 

CeHsCHO  +  0  =  CACOOH 
Benzaldehyde  Benzoic  acid 

The  aldehydes  react  with  a  great  variety  of 
substances,  and  by  the  use  of  them  chemists  have 
been  able  to  obtain  a  large  number  of  valuable 
organic  compounds.  Among  the  characteristic 
reactions  of  the  aldehydes  may  be  mentioned  the 
following: 

1.  Being  powerful  reducing  agents,  the  alde- 
hydes form  a  mirror  of  metallic  silver  when 
heated  in  a  glass  vessel  with  an  ammoniacal  so- 
lution of  silver  nitrate  to  which  some  caustic 
soda  has  been  added. 

2.  By  the  action  of  phosphorus  pentachloride. 
the  oxygen  atom  of  the  aldehyde  group  (CHO) 
is  replaced  by  two  atoms  of  chlorine.  Thus,  by 
the  action  of  phosphorous  pentachloride  upon  or- 
dinary aldehyde,  ethylidene-chloride  may  be  ob- 
tained according  to  the  following  equation: 

CH,CHO  +  PCI,  =  CH.CHC1,  -f  POCl, 
Aldehyde  Ethylldene 

chloride 

It  will  be  remembered  that  by  the  same  reagent 
the  hydroxyl  group  OH  of  alcohols  and  acids  is 
replaced  by  one  atom  of  chlorine.  Thus  ordinary 
alcohol  is  transformed  into  ethyl  chloride,  accord- 
ing to  the  following  equation: 

C,H«OH  -f  PCU  =  CACl  +  POCl,  +  HCl 
Ethyl  alcohol  Ethyl  chloride 

3.  The  aldehydes  combine  with  alcohols  to 
form  compounds  called  acetals.  Thus,  ordinary 
acetal  may  be  obtained  according  to  the  following 
equation : 

CH^CHO  +  2C.H5OH  =  CH,CH('^^^»  +  H,0 


Aldehyde  Alcohol 


Noc^, 

Acetal 


4.  The  presence  of  an  aldehyde  in  a  sample 
submitted  for  examination  (or  the  presence  of 
the  aldehyde  group  CHO  in  a  compound)  may 
be  demonstrated  by  adding  the  substance  to  a  so- 
lution of  a  rosanilin  salt  that  has  been  bleached 
by  sulphurous  acid   (SO^) :  the  appearance  of  a 


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ALDEHYDBS. 


303 


ALDEB. 


red  coloration  indicates  the  presence  of  an  alde- 
hyde. 

5.  When  treated  with  nascent  hydrogen,  the 
aldehydes  are  reconverted  into  the  alcohols  from 
which  they  are  derived ;  while,  as  has  been  stated 
above,  oxidizing  agents  transform  aldehydes  into 
the  corresponding  acids.  The  aldehydes  may, 
therefore,  be  said  to  be  intermediate  between  the 
alcohols  and  the  acids  of  organic  chemistry. 

ALDEN,^Kden,  Bradford  R.  (1800-70).  An 
American  soldier.  He  was  born  at  Meadville, 
Pa.,  and  in  1831  graduated  at  West  Point,  where 
he  was  an  instructor  from  1833  to  1840.  He  sub- 
sequently served  for  two  years  as  aide  to  General 
Scott,  and  from  1846  to  1852  was  commandant 
of  cadets  at  West  Point.  In  1853  he  organized 
and  led  an  expedition  against  the  Rogue  River 
Indians,  and  in  a  fierce  battle,  fought  near  Jack- 
sonville, Oregon,  was  so  severely  wounded  that 
he  was  soon  afterward  forced  to  retire  perma- 
nently from  the  army. 

ALDEN,  Henry  Mills  (1836 — ).  An  Amer- 
ican editor  and  author,  bom  at  Mount  Tabor 
(near  Danby),  Vermont.  He  graduated  in  1857 
at  Williams  College,  where  James  A.  Garfield 
and  JSorace  E.  Scudder  were  among  his  fellow- 
students,  and  in  1860  at  the  Andover  Theological 
Seminary.  Subsequently  he  was  licensed  to 
preach,  but  never  took  orders.  From  1863  to 
1 869  he  was  managing  editor  of  Harper's  Weekly, 
and  in  the  latter  year  became  editor  of  Harper's 
Monthly.  In  1863-64  he  lectured  before  the 
Lowell  Institute,  Boston,  on  "The  Structure  of 
Paganism."  He  is  known  as  a  classical  student 
of  large  acquirements,  particularly  in  connection 
with  Greek  literature  and  thought;  and  his  first 
literary  ventures  were  two  articles  contributed 
to  the  Atlantic  on  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries.  His 
long  editorial  service  has  been  unobtrusive  but 
distinctive.  His  personality  has  pervaded  Har- 
per's Maffo^zinef  in  which  he  has  aimed,  among 
other  things,  to  recognize  the  novice,  and  to  en- 
courage the  best  type  of  Americanism.  He  col- 
laborated with  A.  H.  Guernsey  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  Harper's  Pictorial  History  of  the  Oreat 
RehcUion  (1862-65)  ;  and  has  published  The  An- 
cient Lay  of  Sorrow,  a  poem  (1872),  and  two 
profound  metaphysical  essays,  Ood  in  His  World 
(1890,  published  anonymously),  and  A  Study  of 
Death  (1895),  both  extensively  read  and  en- 
thusiastically received  by  critics  and  thinkers. 
He  received  the  degree  of  L.H.D.  from  W^illiams 
in  1890. 

ALDENy  Mrs.  Isabella  McDonald  (1841 — ). 
An  American  author,  who  writes  under  the  pseu- 
donym of  "Pansy."  She  was  born  at  Rochester, 
N.  Y..  and  in  1866  was  married  to  the  Rev.  Dr.  G. 
R.  Alden.  In  addition  to  much  fiction  for  older 
readers,  her  works  include  the  Pansy  Books,  a 
series  of  about  sixty  juvenile  works.  She  edited 
the  young  folks'  journal  Pansy  from  1873  until 
1896,  and  has  been  on  the  editorial  staff  of  the 
Christian  Endeavor  World,  of  Boston,  and  vari- 
ous other  religious  magazines  of  Boston,  Phila- 
delphia, and  New  York.  Her  works  have  been 
translated  into  many  foreign  languages. 

ALDEN,  James  (1810-1877).  An  American 
naval  officer,  born  in  Portland,  Me.  He  entered 
the  navy  as  midshipman  in  1828,  was  in  the 
Wilkes  exploring  expedition  to  the  Antarctic 
(18.38-42),  in  several  naval  operations  of  the 
Mexican  War  (1848),  and  from  1848  to  1860 
in  the   coast    survey.       In    the   Civil    War   he 


commanded  the  sloop-of-war  Richmond  at  the 
capture  of  New  Orleans  and  the  attack  on 
Port  Hudson.  He  was  promoted  to  be  cap- 
tain in  1863,  and  commanded  the  sloop  Brook- 
lyn in  Mobile  Bay  and  at  Fort  Fisher.  He 
became  a  commodore  in  1866,  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Mare  Island  (Cal.)  navy 
yard  in  1868,  and  in  1869  was  appointed 
chief  of  the  bureau  of  navigation.  He  was  pro- 
moted to  the  rank  of  rear  admiral  in  1871  and 
took  command  of  the  European  squadron ;  he  was 
retired  in  1873. 

ALDEN,  John  (1699-1687).  One  of  the  Pil- 
grim Fathers.  He  was  born  in  England.  As  a 
cooper,  he  was  engaged  in  making  repairs  on 
the  Mayflower  at  Southampton,  and  sailed  in 
her,  signing  the  compact.  He  settled  at  Dux- 
bury,  Mass.,  and  married  Priscilla  Mullens. 
Their  courtship  formed  the  theme  of  Longfellow's 
poem.  The  Courtship  of  Miles  Standish,  He 
was  a  magistrate  for  more  than  fifty  years,  and 
greatly  assisted  in  the  government  of  the  infant 
colony.  He  outlived  all  of  the  other  signers  of 
the  compact. 

ALDEN,  Timothy  (1819-1858).  An  Amer- 
ican inventor  of  a  machine  for  setting  and  dis- 
tributing type.  He  was  born  at  Barnstable,. 
Mass.,  and  was  sixth  in  descent  from  John  Al- 
den, the  MayfUyicer  Pilgrim.  In  early  life  he 
was  a  compositor  in  his  brother's  printing  office, 
and  while  thus  engaged  is  said  to  have  declared: 
"If  I  live  long  enough  I  will  invent  a  machine 
to  do  this  tiresome  work."  After  the  inventor's, 
death  the  machine  was  improved  by  Henry  W. 
Alden. 

ALDEN,  W^iLLiAM  Livingston  (1837 — ). 
An  American  author.  'He  was  born  in  Williams- 
town,  Mass.,  and  was  educated  at  Lafayette  and 
Jefferson  colleges.  In  1865  he  joined  the  edi- 
torial staff  of  the  New  York  Times  and  at  once 
attracted  attention  by  his  humorous  writings. 
During  President  Cleveland's  first  administra- 
tion (1885-89)  he  was  consul-general  of  the 
United  States  at  Rome,  and  at  the  expiration  of 
his  term  was  made  chevalier  of  the  Order  of  the 
Crown  of  Italy  by  King  Humbert.  In  1893  he 
settled  in  London,  and  became  literary  corre-  - 
spondent  of  the  New  York  Times.  Among  his 
publications  are:  Domestic  Explosions  (1878); 
Shooting  Stars  (1879);  Moral  Pirates  (1881); 
Life  of  Christopher  Columhus  (1882)  ;  Cruise  of 
the  Canoe  Clul  (1883);  A  Lost  Soul  (1892); 
The  Mystery  of  Elias  G.  Roebuck  (1896),  and 
His  Daughter  (1897). 

ALDEB,  ftKder  (Lat.  alnus).  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  BetulacesB.  (See- 
Birch.)  The  genus  consists  of  trees  and  shrubs, 
natives  of  cold  and  temperate  climates ;  the  flow- 
ers in  terminal,  imbricated  catkins,  which  ap- 
pear before  the  leaves  in  some  species,  though  in 
other  species  leaves  and  flowers  appear  simul- 
taneously. In  Alnus  maritima  the  flowers  ap- 
pear in  the  autumn  and  the  fruits  ripen  in  the 
following  season.  The  common  or  black  al- 
der {Alnus  glutinosa)  is  a  native  of  Great 
Britain  and  of  the  northern  parts  of  Asia  and 
America.  It  has  roundish,  wedge-shaped,  obtuse 
leaves,  lobed  at  the  margin  and  serrated. 
The  bark,  except  in  very  young  trees,  is  nearly 
black.  It  succeeds  best  in  moist  soils,  and  helps 
to  secure  swampy  river-banks  against  the  effects 
of  floods.  It  attains  a  height  of  30  to  60  ^^^^• 
The  wood  is  of  an  orange-yellow    cci\oT.    ^^  ^* 


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not  very  good  for  fuel,  but  affords  one  of  the 
best  kinds  of  charcoal  for  the  manufacture  of 
gunpowder,  upon  which  account  it  is  often  grown 
as  coppice-wood.  Great  numbers  of  small  alder 
trees  are  used  in  Scotland  for  making  staves  for 
herring  barrels.  The  wood  is  particularly  valu- 
able on  account  of  its  property  of  remaining 
for  a  long  time  under  water  without  decay,  and 
is  therefore  used  for  the  piles  of  bridges,  for 
pumps,  sluices,  pipes,  cogs  of  mill-wheels,  and 
similar  purposes.  The  bark  is- used  for  tanning 
and  for  dyeing.  It  produces  a  yellow  or  red 
color,  or,  with  copperas,  a  black  color.  The 
leaves  and  female  catkins  are  employed  in  the 
same  way  by  the  tanners  and  dyers  of  some 
countries.  The  bark  is  bitter  and  astringent. 
The  individual  tree,  viewed  by  itself,  may  be  re- 


ALDER  LBAT  AND  CATKINS. 

garded  as  somewhat  stiff  and  formal  in  appear- 
ance, but  in  groups  or.  clusters  it  is  ornamental. 
The  northern  limit  of  the  common  alder  is  the 
Swedish  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  in  the 
south  of  Angermannland,  where  it  is  called 
the  sea  alder,  because  it  is  only  in  the  lowest 
grounds,  near  the  sea  that  it  occurs.  The 
gray  or  white  alder  (Alnus  incana),  a  native 
of  many  parts  of  continental  Europe,  especi- 
ally of  the  Alps,  and  also  of  North  America 
and  of  Kamtchatka,  but  not  of  Great  Britain, 
differs  from  the  common  alder  in  having  acute 
leaves,  do\\'ny  beneath,  and  not  glutinous. 
It  attains  a'  rather  greater  height,  but  in 
very  cold  climates  and  unfavorable  situations 
appears  as  a  shrub.  It  occurs  on  the  Alps 
at  an  elevation  above  that  to  which  the  common 
alder  extends,  and  becomes  abundant  also  where 
that  species  disappears  in  the  northern  part  of 


the  Scandinavian  peninsula.    The  wood  is  white, 
iine-grained,  and  compact,  but  readily  rots  under 
water.     The    bark    id    used    in    dyeing.    Alnus 
cordifolia  is  a  large  and  handsome  tree,  with 
cordate  acuminate  leaves,  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Italy,  but  found  to  be  quite  hardy  in  England. 
Some  of  the  American  species  are*mere  shrubs. 
The  bark  of  the  smooth  alder  {Alntis  aerrulata), 
found  from  south   New  England  to  Wisconsin, 
Kentucky,  and  Florida,  is  used  in  dyeing.    The 
green  or  mountain  alder  {Alnus  viridis)^  ranges 
from  north  New  England  to  the  shores  of  Lake 
Superior,and  northward  and  southward  to  North 
Carolina.     Alnus  oregona  is  a  handsome  species 
of   the   northern   Pacific   coast   region.     In  the 
mountain  regions  of  Alaska  and  elsewhere  alders 
are  the  first  aborescent  growth  to  succeed  coni- 
fers swept  away  by  avalanches  or  other  means. 
Several     species     are     natives     of     the    Hima- 
layas. 

Fossil  Forms.  Leaves  of  a  plant  doubtfully 
allied  to  the  alder  have  been  described  from  the 
cretaceous  rocks  of  Greenland  and  North  Amer- 
ica under  the  name  Alnophyllum,  while  true 
alders  attained  a  considerable  degree  of  develop- 
ment in  Tertiary  time  throughout  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa. 

ATiDFiTi  FLY.  One  of  the  semi-aquatic 
neuropterous  insects  of  the  family  Sialidae.    See 

COBTDAXIS. 

ALDEBMAK,  Al^d§r-man.  The  designation 
used  in  the  United  States,  for  the  representa- 
tive of  the  citizens  of  a  district  or  ward  in  a 
city  or  large  town,  whose  duty  it  is  to  attend 
the  local  legislature  and  enact  municipal  regula- 
tions. The  title  originally  derived  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  ealdormatif  compounded  of  ealdor, 
older,  and  man,  and  applied  to  persons  of  high 
and  hereditary  distinction,  such  as  princes,  earls, 
and  governors.  Whether  any  definite  and  invari- 
able functions  were  connected  with  the  ancient 
rank  of  ealdorman  does  not  seem  to  be  very 
clearly  ascertained.  Its  special  signification  in  the 
titles,  "Alderman  of  all  England"  {aldermannus 
totius  Anglice)  and  "King's  Alderman"  {alder- 
mannus regis),  is  not  distinctly  indicated.  There 
were  also  aldermen  of  counties,  hundreds,  cities, 
boroughs,  and  castles.  At  present  in  England. 
Wales,  and  Ireland,  aldermen  are  officers  in- 
vested with  certain  powers  in  the  municipal  cor- 
porations, either  as  civil  magistrates,  or  as  depu- 
ties of  the  chief  civil  magistrates  in  cities 
and  towns  corporate.  The  corresponding  title  in 
Scotland  is  bailie.  In  the  majority  of  American 
cities,  aldermen  form  a  legislative  body,  having 
limited  judicial  powers  in  matters  of  internal 
police  regulation,  etc.,  though  in  many  cities 
they  hold  separate  courts  and  have  magisterial 
powers  to  a  considerable  extent.  (See  sections 
on  Local  Grovernment  in  the  articles  on  the  im- 
portant countries,  and  for  the  powers  and  func- 
tions of  aldermen  in  American  cities,  see  the 
articles  on  cities.) 

ALDERMAN  LIZ'ABD.  The  name,  in  Cal- 
ifornia, of  the  obese  ChuckA\ralla   (q.v.). 

ALDEBNEY,  ftl'der-nl  (Fr.  Auriffny,  the 
Riduna  of  Antoninus).  One  of  the  Channel  Isl- 
ands (q.v.),  separated  from  Caj>e  La  Hague, 
France,  by  a  perilous  channel.  7  miles  wide, 
called  the  Race  of  Aldemey.  It  is  4^  miles  long, 
with  an  extreme  breadth  of  1^  miles  and  an 
area  of  3  square  miles  (1962  acres)  (Map: 
France,  D  2).    The  southeast  coast  is  lofty  and 


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AIiDINI. 


bold;  it  slopes  to  the  northeast  and  north,  form- 
ing siiiall  bays.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  and  at 
Braye  there  is  an  extensive  granite  breakwater, 
built  at  an  enormous  expense  by  the  British 
Government  in  order  to  form  a  naval  station  and 
harbor  of  refuge,  but  of  little  value.  St.  ^nne, 
in  the  centre  of  the  island,  is  the  chief  town. 
Alderney  is  included  in  the  bailiwick  and  ffover- 
norship  of  Guernsey,  but  has  minor  legislative 
and  judicial  administrations  locally  elected.  The 
dangerous  Casket  rocks,  surrounded  by  three 
splendid  lighthouses,  lie  6  miles  southwest.  Pop., 
1891,  1857;  1901,  2062. 
AliDEBNEY  CATTLE.     See  Cattle. 

AliDEBSGATE,  f^^d^rz-gU.  In  the  old  city 
wall  of  London,  the  gate  which  stood  at  the 
present  junction  of  Aldersgate  Street  and  St. 
ilar tin's- le-Grand.  It  was  between  Cripplegate 
and  Newgate.  The  mediseval  structure  having 
decayed,  it  was  rebuilt  in  1616,  with  figures  of 
King  James  I.  and  of  the  prophets  Jeremiah  and 
Samuel.  Early  forms  of  the  name  are  Ealdredes- 
gate  (in  the  laws  of  Ethelred),  Aldredesgate, 
and  Aldrichgate. 

AXiDEBSHOT,  ftlMer-sh5t  (for  Aldersholt; 
holt,  a  wood,  Ger.  J7ok,  wood) .  A  town  in  north- 
east Hampshire,  England,  14^  miles  east  of 
Basingstoke  (Map:  England,  F  5).  Its  impor- 
tance arises  from  the  vicinity  of  the  great  Alder- 
shot  military  camp  (q.v.).  It  is  a  busy  junc- 
tion of  the  London  and  Southwestern  B^ilway, 
with  two  depots,  and  has  all  the  elements  of  a 
thriving  town,  fine  buildings,  churches,  clubs, 
g\'mnasia,  libraries,  and  benevolent  institutions. 
Pop.,  1891,  25,600;  1901,  31,000.  Consult:  F. 
\V.  Andrewes,  Aldcrshoi  Camp  Sewage  Farm 
and  the  Dairy  Maintained  Upon  It  (London, 
1899)  ;  Sketches  of  the  Camp  at  Aldershot  {F&Tn- 
ham,  1858). 

AIjDEBSHOT  camp.  A  permanent  camp 
of  the  British  army,  situated  about  35  miles 
southwest  of  liondon,  England,  and  used  during 
the  spring  and  summer  for  army  manceuvres  on 
a  larger  scale  than  is  possible  elsewhere  in  the 
kingdom.  Up  to  the  Boer  War  of  1899,  the  Al- 
dershot  garrison  consisted  of  troops  equipped 
and  available  for  service  with  the  first  army 
corps.  It  is  also  used  by  volunteers  and  militia 
during  their  annual  training.  In  addition  to  its 
utility  as  a  camp  of  exercise,  it  is  also  the  head- 
quarters and  centre  of  instruction  for  army  sig- 
naling, field  firing,  field  cooking,  military  gym- 
nastics, military  ballooning,  and  also  for  the 
training  of  yeomanry  cavalry  officers. 

AXjDGATE,  nld'gate'.  The  eastern  gate  in 
the  old  city  wall  of  London,  standing  near  the 
present  junction  of  Houndsditch,  Aldgate  High 
Street,  and  the  Minories.  Its  date  and  the 
origin  of  the  name  have  been  much  disputed. 
The  gate  probably  dated  from  the  late  Saxon  or 
early  Norman  period,  and  the  name,  spelled 
Alegate  in  a  document  earlier  than  1115,  seems 
to  mean  the  "gate  free  to  all;"  the  theory  was 
formerly  held  that  it  was  for  Oldgate,  and  that 
through  it  passed  the  old  Roman  road  which 
crossed  the  Lea  at  Oldford. 

AliDHELK,  ald^^lm  (c.  640-709).  An  eccle- 
siastic, possibly  a  son  of  the  King  of  the  West 
Saxons.  He  was  educated  at  Canterbury,  be- 
came abbot  of  Malmesbury  about  676,  and 
Bishop  of  Sherborne  in  705,  but  continued  to 
act  as  abbot  of  his  monasteries.  He  was  a  fa- 
VoL.  I.— SO 


mous  scholar.  His  works  are  found  in  Migne, 
Patrologia  Latina,  Volume  liXXIX. 

Ali'DIBOBON^EPHOS'COPHOBmO.      A 

personage  in  the  burlesque  of  Chrononhotonthol- 
ogo8,  by  Henry  Carey.  The  name  is  noted  for 
having  been  applied  by  Sir  Walter  Scott  to  the 
pompous-mannered  printer,  James  Ballantyne. 
Compare  Rigdumfunnidos. 

AliDIE,  al'dl.  A  village  in  Loudon  Co., 
Va.,  about  35  miles  west  of  Washington,  D.  C. 
Here,  on  June  17,  1863,  during  Lee's  advance 
across  the  Potomac,  a  force  of  Federal  cavalry 
under  Pleasanton  defeated  a  force  of  Confederate 
cavalry  under  Stuart. 

AliDINE  (ftl'din  or  ftl'dln)  EDITIONS.  A 
name  given  to  the  books  printed  by  Aldus  Manu- 
tius  (see  Manutius,  Aldus)  and  his  family, 
at  Venice  (1490-1597),  prized  for  their  scholarly 
correctness,  beautiful  typography,  and  tasteful 
manufacture,  and,  latterly,  for  their  rarity. 
They  include  editions  of  Greek,  Latin,  and 
Italian  writers,  in  many  cases  the  earliest 
printed.  The  first  Aldus  was  an  innovator.  He 
first  used  italic  type  (1501)  and  introduced 
fine  paper  or  parchment  editions  (14^9).  He 
was  an  artist  in  the  designing  of  type,  having 
nine  varieties  of  Greek  and  fourteen  of  Roman 
letters.  The  establishment  remained  for  more 
than  a  century  in  the  family,  and  produced  908 
works,  which  bear  its  imprint  of  an  anchor 
with  twisted  dolphin,  often  with  the  Latin 
motto,  sudavit  et  alsit.  As  the  editions  gained 
in  reputation,  they  were  often  counterfeited  by 
printers  in  Lyons  and  Florence.  The  most  pre- 
cious are  those  of  the  first  twelve  years,  espe- 
cially The  Hours  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  (1497) 
and  the  Vergil  (1501).  For  a  full  catalogue  of 
Aldine  Editions,  consult:  Ebert,  Allgemeines 
htbliographisches  Lexikon,  Supplement,  Volume 
I.  (Leipzig,  1830)  ;  for  other  information. 
Renouard,  Annates  de  Vimprimerie  des  Aides 
(third  edition,  Paris,  1834)  ;  Didot,  Aide  Manuce 
(Paris,  1873). 

ALDINI,  Al-de'n*,  Antonio  (1756-1826).  An 
Italian  statesman  of  the  Napoleonic  era,  born  in 
Bologna.  He  studied  law  in  Rome  and  became 
professor  of  that  subject  and  a  practicing  bar- 
rister there.  After  the  separation  of  Bologna 
from  the  Papal  States,  he  went  to  Paris,  and 
upon  his  return  became  president  of  the  Council 
of  Ancients  of  the  Cisalpine  Republic.  He  was 
dismissed  from  this  position  in  1798  because  of 
his  opposition  to  the  measures  of  Napoleon, 
which  virtually  made  the  Cisalpine  Republic  a 
part  of  the  French  Republic,  but  in  1801  Napo- 
leon made  him  president  of  the  Council  of  State 
of  the  Italian  Republic.  Of  this  position,  how- 
ever, he  was  deprived  by  Melzi.  When  the  King- 
dom of  Italy  was  formed  in  1805  Aldini  was 
made  a  count,  and  Secretai-y  of  the  Interior,  in 
which  capacity,  at  the  command  of  Napoleon, 
he  drew  up  the  decree  dissolving  the  Papal 
States.  After  1816  he  lived  in  retirement  at 
Milan. 

AliDIKI,  Al-de'n^  Giovanni  (1762-1834).  A 
nephew  of  the  famous  Galvani  and  brother  of 
Count  Antonio  Aldini;  a  student  of  natural  sci- 
ence. He  held  the  chair  of  physics  at  Bologna. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  National  In- 
stitute of  Italy,  received  the  British  Royal  So- 
ciety's gold  medal,  and  was  made  Knight  of  the 
Iron  Crown  and  councillor  of  state  at  Milan.    He 


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spent  a  considerable  part  of  his  fortune  in  or- 
ganizing a  school  of  science  for  workingmen  at 
Bologna.  He  devoted  most  of  his  time  to  inves- 
tigations in  applied  science,  and  worked  out 
methods  of  applying  galvanism  to  various  useful 
purposes  in  medicine  and  in  the  industrial  arts. 

AIiDOBBANDINI,  Ul'dd-br&n-d^nd.  A  noble 
family  of  Florence,  raised  to  the  princely  dignity 
by  Pope  Clement  VIII.  Silvestbo  Aldobran- 
DiNi  (1499-1588).  A  famous  teacher  of  law  at 
Pisa.  He  was  banished  by  the  Medici  upon  his 
return  to  Florence  in  1530,  and  went  to  Rome, 
Naples,  and  Bologna,  where,  in  1538,  he  became 
papal  vice-legate  and  vice-regent.  Realizing  the 
futility  of  a  return  to  Florence,  he  went  to  Fer- 
rara,  whence  he  was  called  to  Rome  as  fiscal  ad- 
vocate of  Pope  Paul  III.  Ippolito  Aldobrandini 
(1636-1621).  A  son  of  the  preceding.  He  be- 
came Pope,  with  the  title  of  Clement  VIII.  ( q.v. ) . 
PiETRo  Aldobrandini  (1571-1621).  Cardinal; 
a  nephew  of  Pope  Clement  VIII.  He  con- 
tinued the  policy  of  Clement  and  zealously  pro- 
moted the  development  of  the  sciences.  The 
great  sums  of  money  which  he  had  accumulated 
he  sought  to  secure  by  the  purchase  of  Sulmona, 
Bari,  an(f  Bisignano.  He  became  Archbishop  of 
Ravenna  under  Pope  Paul  V.  When  the  Roman 
branch  of  the  family  became  extinct  (1681),  a 
dispute  as  to  inheritance  and  succession  arose 
between  the  Borghese  and  the  Pamfili  branches, 
in  consequence  of  which  the  princely  title,  as  well 
as  the  greater  part  of  the  fortune,  passed  to  the 
Borghese  branch. 

ALDOBRANDINI  MAB'BIAGE,  The.  A 
famous  mural  painting  in  the  Vatican  Library, 
found  in  1606  at  Rome,  and  named  after  its  orig- 
inal owner.  Cardinal  Aldobrandini.  It  is  prob- 
ably of  the  time  of  Augustus.  There  are  various 
interpretations  of  the  figures.  Some  think  it  the 
marriage  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  others  that  of 
Paris  and  Helen,  while  still  others  consider  it 
simply  an  ideal.  The  canvas  presents  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  frieze. 

ALDO  MANUZIO,  ftlMft  m&-n7R^ts^5.  See 
Manutius,  Aldus. 

ALDBED,  aPdr$d  (?-1069).  A  noted  Eng- 
lish ecclesiastic.  He  became  Abbot  of  Tavistock 
about  1027  and  Bishop  of  Worcester,  1044. 
He  made  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  in  1058; 
was  elected  Archbishop  of  York  in  1060, 
and  died  September  11,  1069.  He  was  very  influ- 
ential under  Edward  the  Confessor,  by  whom  he 
was  employed  on  embassies.  Probably  he  did 
not  crown  Harold,  although  Freeman  argues  that 
he  did.  He  submitted  to  and  crowned  William 
the  Conqueror.  He  was  noted  for  his  ability  and 
contemned  for  his  greed.  But  he  was  honest, 
instituted  many  reforms,  and  spent  his  wealth 
freely  in  the  service  of  the  Church. 

ALDBICH,  ^rdrlch  or  ftl^drij,  Anne  Reeve 
(1866-92).  An  American  poet  and  novelist, 
whose  few  works  gave  promise  of  a  brilliant 
future.  She  was  born  at  New  York,  April  25, 
1866,  and  died  there  June  22,  1892.  Her  first 
work.  The  Rose  of  Flnme  (1889),  was  followed 
by  The  Feet  of  Love,  a  novel,  in  1890.  Songs 
About  Life,  Love,  and  Death  appeared  posthu- 
mously in  1892.  The  general  characteristic  of 
her  works  is  intense,  passionate,  and  erotic. 

ALDBICH,  Charles  A.  M.  (1828—).  An 
American  journalist  and  legislator;  founder 
(1892)   of  the  Historical  Library  and  Memorial 


Hall  of  Iowa,  of  which  he  became  curator  in 
1900.  He  was  born  at  Ellington,  N.  Y.,  where 
he  received  a  common  school  education.  In  1857 
he  moved  to  Webster  City,  la.,  and  there  es- 
tablished the  Freeman,  a  Republican  paper, 
which  had  a  wide  influence  for  many  years.  He 
was  chief  clerk  of  the  Iowa  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives in  1860,  1862,  1866,  and  1870,  and  a 
member  of  the  body  from  1882  to  1883.  Durin<^ 
the  latter  period  he  attracted  national  attention 
by  introducing  a  bill  to  prevent  railroads  from 
issuing  passes  to  public  ofiicers.  The  agitation 
caused  by  his  speeches  and  published  articles 
on  the  subject  was  influential  in  securing  the 
passage  of  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act. 

ALDBICH,  Henry  (1647-1710).  An  EngUsh 
theologian,  musician,  and  architect,  dean  of 
Christchurch  College,  Oxford,  from  1689.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  treatise  on  logic,  Artis  Log- 
icce  Compendium  (1691),  which,  with  notes  br 
Dean  Hansel,  was  used  as  a  text-book  at  Oxford 
for  more  than  a  century.  He  designed  several  of 
the  buildings  at  Oxford,  but  is  best  known  for 
his  musical  attainments.  He  wrote  on  the  his- 
tory of  music,  and  composed  services  and  an- 
thems which  are  still  used.  His  song,  "Hark! 
the  Bonny  Christchurch  Bells,"  is  well  known. 
He  also  composed  several  smoking  and  drinking 
songs. 

ALDBICH,  Nelson  Wilmabth  (1841—). 
An  American  politician,  born  at  Foster,  R.  I. 
From  1869  to  1875  he  was  a  member  of  the  Prov- 
idence (R.  I.)  common  council,  and  from  1871 
to  1873  its  president.  In  1875-76  he  was  a 
member  of  the  Rhode  Island  General  Assembly, 
and  in  the  latter  year  Speaker  of  the  State  Hou.-»e 
of  Representatives.  He  was  elected  in  1878  to 
the  Federal  House  of  Representatives  (Forty- 
sixth  Congress)  and  was  reelected  in  1880.  In 
1881  he  resigned  to  take  a  seat  in  the  Senate. 
He  was  reelected  to  the  Senate  in  1886,  1892,  and 
1898.  Previously  a  prominent  member  of  the 
committees  on  ciVil  service  and  finance,  he  was 
chairman  of  the  committee  on  rules  for  the  Fifty- 
fifth  Congress.  He  has  rarely  taken  part  in  de- 
bate, but  has  been  recognized  as  a  careful 
legislator,  and  a  Republican  leader  in  the  Sen- 
ate. In  1878  he  was  elected  president  of  the 
Providence  Board  of  Trade. 

ALDBICH,  Thomas  Bailet  (1836 — ).  An 
American  poet,  novelist,  traveler,  and  editor. 
He  was  born  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  No- 
vember 11,  1836.  After  a  boyhood  spent  in  New 
England  and  in  Louisiana,  he  entered  a  countinfT* 
house  in  New  York  in  1854,  and  here,  at  the 
end  of  three  years,  attained  such  success  in  lit- 
erature that  he  was  employed  as  "reader"  in  a 
publishing  house,  and  served  successively  on  the 
stafi's  of  the  New  York  Evening  Mirror,  the  Home 
Journal,  and  the  Saturday  Press.  In  1866  he  re- 
moved to  Boston,  where  he  held  the  post  of  editor 
of  Every  Saturday  until  1874.  He  then  becawe 
a  regular  staflF  contributor  to  the  Atlantic 
Monthly,  and  on  the  retirement  of  Mr.  W.  D. 
Howells,  in  1881,  succeeded  to  the  editorship  of 
that  magazine,  a  position  which  he  held  until 
1890.  Afterward,  he  devoted  himself  to  liter- 
ary work  and  travel.  Mr.  Aldrich  is  bej^t 
known  as  a  poet.  He  has,  not  very  aptly,  been 
called  "the  American  Herrick,"  owing  to  the  fact 
that  his  verse  is  graceful,  light,  and  melodious, 
carefully  wrought,  restrained,  and  remini'<cent 
of  places  that  he  has  visited.    His  chief  publica* 


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tions  of  verse,  besides  the  collective  editions,  are : 
The  Bells  (1855),  The  Ballad  of  Bahie  Bell 
(1856),  Pampinea,  and  Other  Poems  (1861), 
Cloth  of  Gold,  and  OtJier  Poems  (1874),  Flower 
and  Thorn  (1876),  Friar  Jerome's  Beautiful 
Book  ( 1881 ) ,  Mercedes,  and  Later  Lyrics  { 1883) , 
Wyndham  Towers  (1889),  Unguarded  Gates,  and 
Other  Poems  (1895).  The  prose  of  Aldrich  con- 
sists of  novels  and  short  stories  and  books  of 
travel.  Like  the  poetry,  it  is  delicate  and  fin- 
ished in  style,  bnt  seems  to  lack  the  greater 
constructive  values.  The  best-known  piece  of 
fiction  that  Aldrich  has  written  is  probably 
Marjorie  Daw  (1873)  ;  and  his  Story  of  a  Bad 
Boy  ( 1870)  is  also  very  popular.  Other  novels 
are:  Out  of  His  Head,  a  Romance  (1862),  Pru- 
dence Palfrey  (1874),  The  Queen  of  Shcha 
( 1877),  The  Stillwater  Tragedy  (1880),  and  Two 
Bites  at  a  Cherry  (1893),  a  volume  of  short 
stories.  His  volumes  of  travel  and  reminiscence 
are:  From  Ponkapog  to  Pesth  (1883),  and  An 
Old  Town  hy  the  Sea  (1893^  Short  accounts  of 
Aldrich's  place  as  a  poet  and  brief  criticisms  of 
his  work  are  to  be  found  in  Stedman's  Poets  of 
America  (Boston,  1885),  and  Richardson's  Amer- 
ican Literature  (New  York,  1887-89). 

AXiDBIBOE,  a^drlj,  Ira  Frederick  (c.  1810- 
1867), "The  African  Roscius."  There  are  conflict- 
ing accounts  of  his  early  life.  One  is  that  he  was 
a  mulatto,  born  at  Bel  Air,  Md.,  about  1810,  was 
apprenticed  to  a  German  ship  carpenter,  accom- 
panied Edmund  Kean  to  England  as  a  servant, 
returned  in  1830  or  1831,  and  appeared  on  the 
stage  in  Baltimore  without  success;  after  which 
he  went  back  to  England  and  gained  a  high  repu- 
tation. Another  story  is  that  he  was  the  son  of 
a  native  of  Senegal,  who  was  brought  here  as  a 
slave,  became  a  Christian,  and  pastor  of  Greene 
Street  Chapel  (African)  in  New  York;  that  Ira 
was  born  in  that  city  in  1807,  and  though  fond 
of  dramatic  performances,  of  which  his  father 
disapproved,  was  sent  to  Glasgow  University  to 
be  -educated  for  the  ministry.  Still  preferring 
the  drama,  however,  he  made  his  d^but  at  the 
Royalty  Theatre,  London,  as  Othello,  and  be- 
came remarkably  popular.  He  played  also  Aaron 
in  Titus  Andronicus  (1852),  and  Zanga,  Orozem- 
bo,  RoUa,  and  other  characters  for  which  his 
color  was  suited,  throughout  England.  At  Bel- 
fast he  played  Othello  to  the  lago  of  Edmund 
Kean,  who  greatly  admired  him.  In  1852  he  ap- 
peared in  Brussels,  and  thereafter  on  the  conti- 
nent took  high  rank  in  Shakespeare's  tragedies 
and  kindred  characters.  He  received  crosses  and 
medals  from  the  emperors  of  Austria  and  Russia 
and  the  King  of  Prussia,  and  was  honored  with 
membership  in  several  of  the  great  academies. 
He  married  an  Englishwoman,  whom  he  left  a 
widow  in  London.  At  the  time  of  his  death, 
which  occurred  at  Lodz,  Poland,  August  7,  1867, 
he  was  on  his  way  to  fill  an  engagement  in  St. 
Petersburg,  and  had  expected  to  appear  in  New 
York  in  the  following  September. 

AXiI>BINOEB,  aKdrlng-er,  also  Altrixqer, 
or  Aldrixgex,  Jofiann,  Count  (1588-1634). 
A  general  in  the  imperial  German  army  during 
the  Thirty  Y'ears'  War.  He  was  born  at  Dieden- 
hofen  and  studied  at  the  University  of  Paris.  As 
a  reward  for  his  defense  of  the  Elbe  bridge  at 
I)p««2*au,  April,  1626,  against  Mansfeld,  hewaa  cre- 
ated a  count  in  1628.  He  was  in  high  favor 
with  Wallenstein,  and  after  the  conclusion  of 
peace  with  Denmark  was  appointed  major-gen- 


eral. In  this  capacity  he  served  with  distinc- 
tion  under  Collalto  at  the  siege  of  Mantua.  On 
his  return  to  Germany,  in  1631,  he  cooperated 
with  Tilly,  and  upon  the  death  of  that  command- 
er (1632),  became  his  successor.  As  field- 
marshal,  he  afterward  conducted  a  successful 
campaign  in  Franconia,  Bavaria,  and  Suabia 
against  the  Swedes.  Eventually  influenced  by 
the  court  party  against  Wallenstein,  he  defended 
the  imperial  cause,  although  by  a  series  of  delays 
he  adroitly  evaded  the  order  to  take  Pilsen.  Af- 
ter the  death  of  Wallenstein  he  fought  against 
the  Swedes  on  the  Danube,  where  shortly  after- 
ward he  met  his  death. 

ALDBOVAKDI,  Jll'drfi-van'd^,  Ulisse  (1522- 
1605).  An  Italian  naturalist.  He  was  of  noble 
birth,  received  an  excellent  education,  and  be- 
came, in  1554,  a  professor  of  philosophy  and  logic, 
and  in  1560  lectured  on  botany  in  the  University 
of  Bologna.  He  also  practiced  medicine,  knd  suc- 
ceeded, after  violent  popular  opposition,  in  estab- 
lishing an  inspectorship  of  drugs  and  pharmacies. 
The  Pope  confirmed  him  in  the  office.  Afterward 
he  became  professor  of  natural  history,  estab- 
lished the  Botanical  Garden  of  Bologna  in  1567, 
and  was  employed  for  many  years  in  forming  a 
collection  of  specimens  of  natural  history  as  a 
basis  for  an  encyclopcedic  work  on  the  ani- 
mal life  of  the  world.  To  this  end  he  trav- 
eled extensively,  and  enlisted  the  aid  of  Gesner 
and  others.  In  this  work^  and  in  the  preparation 
of  drawings,  he  expended  the  greater  part  of  his 
fortune.  He  ceased  teaching  in  1600,  and  de- 
voted himself  to  the  publication  of  his  great 
work,  issuing  four  volumes  in  Latin  on  orni- 
thology (1559-1603),  and  one  on  mollusks.  He 
bequeathed  his  collections  and  manuscripts  to 
the  Senate  of  Bologna;  the  collections  became 
the  nucleus  of  the  great  museum  of  that  city,  and 
the  manuscripts  remained  in  the  university  li- 
brary. Ten  other  volumes,  more  or  less  pre- 
pared by  him,  were  rapidly  brought  out  by  his 
colleagues  and  pupils;  but  a  large  number  of 
manuscripts  and  drawings  remain  unpublished. 
He  did  a  great  service  in  stimulating  the  study 
of  the  sciences,  previously  long  neglected,  and 
collected  an  enormous  number  of  facts  and  spec- 
imens; but  his  writings  were  prolix  and  not  dis- 
criminative. Nevertheless,  some  volumes,  as 
those  on  birds,  rapidly  ran  through  several  edi- 
tions, and  the  entire  series  was  epitomized  by 
Johnstone.  For  his  life  consult:  G.  Fantuzzi 
(Bologna,  1774)  ;  and  for  a  shorter  biography 
with  a  descriptive  list  of  his  writings  and  man- 
uscripts. i6.,  yotizie  degli  Scrittori  Bolognesi, 
Volume  L  (Bologna,  1781). 

AXDUSy  ai'dus.     See  Manutius  Aldus. 

AXE.    See  Beer  and  Brewing. 

AX'EANa)EB,  Hieronymus  ( 1480-1642 ) . 
An  Italian  humanist  and  papal  legate.  He  was 
born  at  Motta,  near  Treviso,  and  after  a  short 
course  in  medicine  devoted  himself  to  the  study 
of  theology  and  languages.  He  entered  the  serv- 
ice of  the  Bishop  of  Li^ge,  Eberhard  of  the 
Mark,  in  1514.  and  in  1519  he  went  as  papal 
legate  to  Germany,  charged  with  the  task  of 
combating  the  Lutheran  movement.  He  inspired 
the  famous  edict  of  Charles  V.  against  the  re- 
foi-mer  (Mny  26,  1521),  a  document  antedated 
May  8.  1521.  and  probably  emanating  from  the 
pen  of  Aleander.  As  legate  to  Germany  in  1532, 
he  unsuccessfully  endeavored  to  frustrate  the 
Peace  of  Nuremberg.     In   1536  Pope  Paul   III. 


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appointed  him  a  member  of  the  reform  commis- 
sion under  Contarini  (q.v.),  and  two  years  after- 
ward he  was  created  cardinal,  in  which  capacity 
he  was  again  sent  to  Germany;  but  his  mission 
proved  unproductive  of  results.  His  letters  and 
reports  are  valuable  historical  documents,  and 
his  celebrated  writing,  De  Concilio  Habendo,  is 
said  to  have  been  consulted  at  the  Council  of 
Trent.  For  his  biogi*aphy  down  to  1529,  consult: 
J.  Paquier  (Paris,  1900);  also  in  general,  Brie- 
ger,  Aleander  und  Luther y  1521  (Gotha,  1884)  ; 
KelkoflF,  Die  Depeschen  Aleandera  vom  Reichstag 
zu  Worms  (Halle,  1886). 

ALEABDI,  riA-ar'd*,  Aleardo  (1812-78). 
An  Italian  patriot  and  poet,  formerly  hailed  with 
misplaced  enthusiasm  as  a  rival  of  Prati.  He 
was  born  at  Verona,  studied  law  at  Padua,  and 
was  active  in  the  outbreak  of  1848.  His  connec- 
tion with  later  conspiracies  finally  caused  his 
imprisonment  in  Josefstadt,  where  he  remained 
until  liberated  by  the  peace  of  1866.  He  sub- 
sequently became  professor  of  sesthetics  at  Flor- 
ence, deputy  to  the  Italian  Parliament,  and  final- 
ly senator.  He  died  at  Verona,  which  has  per- 
petuated his  memory  by  a  monument  and  by 
9.  bridge  named  in  his  honor.  Aleardi's  poems 
w^ill  live  on  account  of  their  artistic  finish  and 
the  delicate  appreciation  which  they  show  for 
nature ;  but  they  are  marred  by  a  prevailing  lack 
of  force  and  are  overburdened  with  imagery. 
-  The  best  include:  II  Monte  Circello,  An  Hour 
of  My  Youth,  and  The  Seven  Soldiers,  which 
was  dedicated  to  Garibaldi.  His  collected  poems, 
Canti,  have  been  issued  in  several  editions,  the 
best  of  which  appeared  at  Florence  (1862). 

ALECSANDBI,  riek-s£lnMr«,  or  ALEXAN- 
DBI,  Vasilio,  or  Basil  (1821-1890).  A  Rou- 
manian patriot  and  poet.  He  was  born  at  Jassy, 
studied  at  Paris  from  1834  to  1839,  took  part  in 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848  in  Rouma- 
nia,  and  was  obliged  to  seek  refuge  in  Paris. 
From  1869  to  1860  he  was  minister  for  foreign 
affairs,  was  elected  to  the  upper  chamber  in  1879, 
and  in  1885  was  appointed  ambassador  to  Paris. 
He  was  always  active  in  seeking  the  freedom 
and  unity  of  Roumania.  He  collected  Pocsii 
Populare  a  le  Romanilor  (1853),  and  wrote  Les 
Doilies  (1853),  and  Doine  si  Lacrimioare  (1863), 
two  volumes  of  verse,  and  the  dramas 
Despot  Voda  ("Prince  Despot"  1880),  and  Fon- 
tana  Bandusiei  (1884).  His  Opere  appeared  in 
seven  volumes  in  1873-76. 

ALEC'TO  (Gk.  'AXj^ktw,  AlektOy  from  d,  a, 
priv.  -f-  Avyetv,  Ugein,  to  stop,  to  cease).  The 
name  of  one  of  the  three  Eumenides  (q.v.)  of 
Greek  mythology. 

ALEC^BOMAN'CY.     See  Superstition. 

AL'EDO.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Mercer 
Co.,  111.,  180  miles  west  by  south  of  Chicago, 
on  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad 
(Map:  Illinois,  B  2).  It  contains  the  Mercer 
County  Library.  The  city  has  commercial  inter- 
ests, principally  in  agricultural  produce,  and 
some  manufactures,  including  tile,  brick,  and  to- 
bacco.    Pop.,   1890,   1601;    1900,  2081. 

ALEE'.     See  Helm. 

ALEGBIA,  &-la'gr*-&.  A  town  of  Cebfl,  Phil- 
ippines, situated  90  miles  from  Cebfl.  Pop., 
11,400. 

ALEMAN,  a'lA-mHn',  Mateo.  A  famous 
Spanish  novelist,  born  at  Seville  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  ccnturv.    Little  is  kno^\•n  of  his 


life  except  that  he  took  his  bachelor's  degree  at 
Seville  in  1665,  was  appointed  to  the  royal  treas- 
ury in  1568 — a  position  which  he  resigned  after 
twenty  years  as  poor  as  when  he  entered  it— 
and  is  supposed  subsequently  to  have  found  his 
way  to  America,  and  to  have  died  in  Mexico 
during  the  reign  of  Philip  III.  His  writings  in- 
clude a  poetical  biography  of  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua  (1604)  and  an  Ortografia  casteUam 
(Mexico,  1608).  His  great  work,  however,  is 
Chizman  de  Alfarache  (1599),  a  novel  with 
a  rogue  for  the  hero,  which  revives  the  pictur- 
esque tradition  of  that  still  more  fainous 
novel,  Mendoza's  Lazarillo  de  Tormes.  Guzman 
at  once  became  exceedingly  popular,  and  within 
six  years  had  run  through  twenty-six  editions, 
aggregating  upward  of  50,000  copies,  besides 
being  translated  into  French  and  Italian.  In 
1623  James  Mabbe  published  the  first  English 
version,  of  which  Ben  Jonson  wrote:  "This 
Spanish  Proteus,  though  writ  but  in  one  tongue, 
was  formed  with  the  world's  wit."  Both  in  the 
delineation  of  manners  and  in  the  purity  of 
style  Aleman's  Guzman  unquestionably  ranks 
next  to  Mendoza's  Lazarillo^  which  has  often 
been  recognized  as  the  enduring  type  of  the  comic 
prose  epic.  While  lacking  Mendoza's  originality, 
conciseness,  and  caustic  humor,  Aleman  shows 
keen  powers  of  observation  and  a  wide  knowl- 
edge of  human  nature;  and  in  Guzman  he  has 
given  the  world  a  most  diverting  study  of  black- 
guardism, his  hero  showing  all  the  resources  of 
a  consummate  rascal  in  the  various  characters 
which  he  is  compelled  by  circumstances  to  as- 
sume, such  as  stable  boy,  beggar,  thief,  coxcomb, 
mercenary,  valet,  and  merchant.  The  book,  how- 
ever, is  marred  by  the  moral  reflections  of  the 
author,  w^hich  obtrude  themselves  with  some- 
what wearisome  persistence.  The  best  edition  of 
Aleman  is  found  in  Aribaus's  Biblioieca  dc 
autores  espanoles.  Volume  III.  (Madrid,  1846). 
AL'EMAN^I,  more  correctly  spelled  Air- 
man NT  (probably,  "all  men").  The  name  of  a 
military  confederacy  of  several  German  tribes 
which  began  to  appear  on  the  lower  and  middle 
Main  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  centurv. 
Caracalla  fought  with  them  first  on  the  Main 
in  211  A.D.,  but  without  conquering  them;  Alex- 
ander Severus  was  equally  unsuccessful,  but 
Maximinus  was  at  length  successful  against 
them,  and  drove  them  beyond  the  Rhine.  After  his 
death  they  again  invaded  Gaul,  but  were  defeated 
by  Postumus,  who  pursued  them  into  Germany, 
and  fortified  with  ramparts  and  ditches  the 
boundary  of  the  Roman  territory  called  the  Agri 
Decumates.  The  mounds  near  *Pf orung,  on  the 
Danube,  the  rampart  extending  through  the 
principality  of  Hohenlohe  to  Jaxthausen,  and  the 
ditch  with  palisades  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Main,  are  remains  of  these  works.  The  Alemanni, 
however,  did  not  desist  from  their  incursion*, 
although  they  were  repeatedly  driven  back. 
After  282,  being  pressed  upon  from  the  northea^^t 
by  the  Burgundians.  they  took  up  permanent  set- 
tlements within  the  Roman  boundary  from 
Mainz  to  Lake  Constance.  At  last  Julian  came 
(357)  to  the  relief  of  Gaul,  which  had  been  suf- 
fering from  the  incursions  of  the  Alemanni,  and 
soon  compelled  eight  of  their  chiefs  to  sue  for 
peace.  Their  united  force,  in  their  principal 
battle  with  Julian,  amounted  to  35,000  men. 
After  the  fifth  century  the  confederated  nation  is 
spoken  of  as  Alemanni  and  Suavi  or  Suevi.  In 
the  course  of  the  fourth  centurv  they  had  cros<e<l 


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the  Rhine,  and  extended  as  far  west  as  the  Vos- 
^s,  and  south  to  the  Helvetian  Alps.  At  length 
Clevis,  King  of  the  Franks,  broke  their  power  in 
496,  and  made  them  subject  to  the  Frankish 
dominion.  The  southern  part  of  their  territory 
was  formed  into  a  duchy,  called  Alemannia.  The 
name  of  Suabia  came  afterward  to  be  applied 
to  the  part  of  the  duchy  lying  east  of  the  Rhine. 
From  the  Alemanni  the  French  have  given  the 
name  of  Allemands  and  Allemagne  to  Germans 
and  Germany  in  general,  though  the  inhabitants 
of  the  north  of  Switzerland,  with  those  of  Alsace 
and  part  of  Suabia,  are  the  proper  descendants 
of  the  Alemanni. 

AL'EMAN'NIA,  or  AL'AMAN^NIA.  The 
country  of  the  Alemanni,  a  confederation  of  Ger- 
man tribes  which  occupied  southwestern  Germany 
after  the  third  century  a.d.  The  region  included 
part  of  the  later  Switzerland  and  Tyrol.  In  the 
tenth  and  eleventh  centuries  Alemannia,  or 
Suabia  (q.v.),  was  one  of  the  four  great  duchies 
of  the  German  kingdom. 

ALEMBEBT,  i'lttN^bar',  Jean  le  Rond  d'. 
See  IVAlehbert. 

ALEMBIC  (formed  by  the  Arabs  from  their 
article  al  and  Gk.  &fi0i^,  amhia,  a  goblet).  A 
form  of  still  introduced  by  the  alchemists,  who 
used  it  in  manipulative  chemistry  for  the  distil- 
lation and  sublimation  of  substances.  The  vessel 
consisted  of  a  body,  cucurbit  or  matrass,  A,  in 
which  the  material  to  be  volatilized  was  placed; 
a  head  or  capital,  B,  into  which  the  vapors  rose, 
were  cooled,  and  then  trickled  down  to  the  lower 


part,  (7,  from  whence  by  a  pipe,  D,  the  distilled 
product  passed  into  the  receiver,  E.  Where  very 
volatile  liquors  were  being  distilled,  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  introduce  the  receiver,  E,  into  a  vessel 
with  cold  water,  so  as  to  increase  the  effective- 
ness of  the  condensing  part  of  the  arrangement. 
The  alembic  has  now  been  entirely  superseded  by 
the  retort  and  receiver,  or  by  the  flask  at- 
tached to  a  Liebig's  condenser. 

ALEMTBJO,  ft'llN-ta'zhA  (Literally,  in  Por- 
tuguese, "beyond  the  Tagus").  A  province  in  the 
south  of  Portugal,  bounded  by  the  province  of 
Beira  on  the  north,  Spain  on  the  east,  Algarve 
on  the  south,  Estremadura  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  on  the  west  (Map:  Portugal,  B  3).  Its 
area  is  9431  square  miles.  Alemtejo  is  the 
largest  and  most  sparsely  populated  province  of 
Portugal.  The  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
province  are  covered  with  low  mountoiins,  rising 
to  nearly  2000  feet  on  the  southern  frontier.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Guadiana,  Tagus,  and  Sado. 
The  climate  is  hot  and  dry.  The  fertile  plains 
are  found  chiefly  in  the  northeast,  where  wheat, 


barley,  corn,  and  fruit  are  raised  in  quantities 
more  than  sufficient  to  satisfy  the  wants  of  the 
limited  population.  The  rearing  of  domestic  ani- 
mals is  also  an  important  occupation.  The 
manufacturing  industries  and  commerce  are  ut- 
terly neglected,  and  the  rich  mineral  resources  of 
the  province  are  left  untouched.  Administra- 
tively, Alemtejo  is  divided  into  the  three  dis- 
tricts of  Portalegre,  Evora,  and  Beja.  Pop., 
1890,  388,813. 

ALENCABy  a'lAn-cftr',  Josfe  Mabtiniano  d' 
( 1829-77 ) .  A  Brazilian  jurist  and  novelist,  born 
at  Fortabza.  He  studied  law  at  S5o  Paulo,  and 
in  1851  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  He  was  a 
brilliant  advocate.  In  1868  he  was  elected  dep- 
uty for  Cearft  as  a  conservative,  and  in  1868-69 
was  minister  of  justice.  His  works,  chiefly  fic- 
tion, most  of  the  material  for  which  is  drawn 
from  Indian  legend,  include  O  Ouarany,  Iracema, 
0  Gaucho,  and   Urahijara, 

ALEN9ON,  Fr.  ilriN'sON';  Eng,  4-len's6n. 
The  capital  of  the  department  of  Orne,  in  Nor- 
mandy, France,  situated  on  the  Sarthe,  near  its 
junction  with  the  Birante  (Map:  France,  F  3). 
It  is  one  of  the  brightest  and  freshest  looking 
towns  in  France.  It  is  the  see  town  of  a  bishop, 
and  the  cathedral  is  its  principal  building.  Three 
battlemented  towers,  the  only  portion  of  the 
old  castle  which  remains^  are  used  as  the 
Hotel  de  Ville.  The  town  church — a  structure 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  containing  the  remains 
of  the  tombs  of  the  Alencon  family,  which  were 
almost  completely  destroyed  at  the  Revolution 
— is  built  in  the  Gothic  style.     It  has  a  fine 

Sorch  and  some  good  stained  windows.  The  in- 
abitants  produce  excellent  woolen  and  linen 
stuffs,  embroidered  fabrics,  straw  hats,  lace 
work,  artificial  fiowers,  hosiery,  etc.  The  manu- 
facture of  point  d'Alencon,  and  of  AleuQon  dia- 
monds, is  no  longer  of  any  importance.  Pop., 
1901,  17,270.  Consult  Odolant-Desnas,  Mini- 
aires  historiqiies  sur  la  ville  dPAlengon  (Alen- 
con,  1787). 

AXEP^O  (Ar.  Haleh).  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant cities  of  Syria,  and  capital  of  the  Turk- 
ish vilayet  of  Aleppo  ( 30,340  square  miles ;  pop., 
995,800)  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  G  4).  It  is 
situated  about  80  miles  east  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  on  the  desert  stream  of  Nahr-el-Haleb,  in 
about  36**  12'  N.  lat.,  and  37**  12'  E.  long.  It  is 
surrounded  by  hills,  and  has  regular  and  clean 
streets.  In  the  northwestern  part  of  the  town 
stands  the  citadel,  situated  on  a  hill  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  deep  moat.  The  town  is  divided 
into  several  sections.  It  was  formerly  sur- 
rounded by  a  strong  wall,  of  which,  however, 
only  a  small  portion  is  left  in  the  western  part 
of  the  city,  the  remainder,  together  with  many 
of  the  public  buildings,  having  been  destroyed  by 
the  earthquake  of  1822.  The  bazaar  is  exten- 
sive and  well  built.  The  European  colony  of 
Aleppo  is  considerable,  and  there  are  a 
number  of  European  schools  and  Christian 
churches.  Among  the  mosques  the  most  note- 
worthy is  the  Great  Mosque,  or  J  ami  Sakarya, 
containing  the  alleged  remains  of  Zacharias,  the 
father  of  John  the  Baptist.  Before  the  disas- 
trous earthquake  of  1822,  and  repeated  visita- 
tions of  the  plague  and  cholera,  Aleppo  was  a 
great  commercial  centre  in  spite  of  its  inland 
position.  It  supplied  a  large  part  of  the  Orient 
with  various  fabrics  of  wool,  cotton,  silk,  and  sil- 
ver and  gold  ware.      The  trade  is  still  consid- 


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ALESSANDBIA. 


erable,  and  its  chief  exports  are  wool,  cotton, 
grain,  gums,  saffron,  sesame,  and  hides. 
Some  silk,  embroidery,  and  leather  goods  are 
manufactured.  The  chief  port  of  Aleppo  is 
Alexandretta  (q.v.).  The  direct  importation  of 
European  goods  by  native  merchants  is  increas- 
ing very  rapidly.  Aleppo  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  and  a  number  oi  European  consuls.  The 
population  is  estimated  at  125,000,  including 
about  20,000  Christians,  5000  Jews,  and  a  num- 
ber of  Armenians.  Aleppo  is  believed  to  be  of 
great  antiquity.  In  ancient  times  its  name  was 
Bercea,  given  to  it  by  Seleucus  Nicator.  It  was 
attacked  and  taken  repeatedly  by  the  Saracens 
and  Mongols,  and  suffered  considerably  from 
earthquakes  during  the  twelfth  century.  In 
1516  Aleppo  was  wrested  from  the  Mamelukes 
by  the  Turkish  Sultan  Selim,  and  it  became  the 
capital  of  a  pashalic.  The  city  is  supposed  to 
have  contained  in  those  times  about  300,000  in- 
habitants, and  carried  on  a  large  trade  by  cara- 
vans, which  subsequently  fell  off  on  account  of 
the  discovery  of  the  sea  route  to  the  East  Indies. 
In  1850  the  city  was  the  scene  of  an  uprising  of 
Christians,  which  was  suppressed  only  after 
considerable  bloodshed.  Consult  E.  Blochet, 
"L'Histoire  d'Alep,"  in  the  Revue  de  VOrient 
Latin  (Paris,  1897). 
ALEPPO  BITT>T?ON.    See  Boil. 

ALEB,  ftlCr,  Paul  ( 1656-1727 ) .  A  Jesuit  and 
scholastic,  born  at  St.  Veit,  Luxemburg.  After 
teaching  philosophy,  theology,  and  the  humani- 
ties at  Cologne,  he  was  appointed  professor  of 
theology  at  the  University  of  Treves,  and  in 
1703  regent  of  the  gymnasium  of  Cologne.  In 
1713  he  became  regent  of  the  gymnasia  at 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  Mttnster,  Treves,  and  Jfilich. 
His  best-known  work  is  the  Oradus  ad  Pantos- 
sum  (Cologne,  1702)  ;  eighth  reviSed  edition  by 
Koch   (Cologne,  1879). 

ALES,   a-l^s^   or  ALESSE  ALEXANDEB. 

See  Alesius  Alexander. 

ALESHKI,  &-l$sh^$,  formerly  Dnieprovsk. 
The  chief  town  of  a  district,  in  the  government 
of  Taurida,  Russia.  It  is  situated  near  the 
Dnieper  River,  3  miles  southeast  of  .Kherson, 
and  153  miles  northwest  of  Simferopol,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  government  (Map:  Russia,  D  5). 
Gardening  and  fishing  are  its  principal  indus- 
tries. It  is  famous  for  its  watermelons.  Pop., 
1897,  9100.  It  was  founded  by  the  Genoese  in 
the  tenth  century  and  called  by  them  Elice. 

ALESIA,  &-le^sh!-&.  A  town  of  Gaul,  the  cap- 
ture of  which,  in  52  B.C.,  forms  one  of  Caesar's 
greatest  exploits.  The  Gauls  were  making  a  last 
effort  to  shake  off  the  Roman  yoke,  and  Vercin- 
getorix,  their  bravest  leader,  after  several 
defeats,  had  shut  himself  up  with  80,000  men  in 
Alesia,  there  to  await  the  reenforcements  which 
he  expected  from  a  general  insurrection  of  the 
country.  The  town  was  situated  on  a  lofty  hill, 
and  well  calculated  for  defense.  Ciesar,  with 
his  army  of  60,000  men,  completely  surrounded 
the  place,  with  the  view  of  starving  it  into  a 
surrender.  He  fortified  his  position  by  two  lines 
of  ramparts  of  prodigious  extent  and  strength; 
one  toward  the  town,  for  defense  against  the 
sallies  of  the  besieged;  the  other  toward  the 
plain,  against  the  expected  armies  of  relief. 
Before  they  could  assemble,  250,000  strong,  he 
was  ready  for  them;  and  all  their  assaults, 
combined    with    the    desperate    efforts    of    the 


besieged,  were  of  no  avail.  Alesia  was  obliged 
to  surrender,  and  Vercingetorix  was  made  pris- 
oner. Alesia  was  afterward  a  place  of  some 
note  under  the  Empire,  but  was  destroyed  by  th<- 
Normans  in  864.  Near  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Alesia,  west  of  Dijon,  stands  the  modern  villajre 
of  Alise  Sainte-Reme,  near  which,  on  the  summit 
of  Mont-Auxois,  Napoleon  III.  erected  a  colossal 
statue  of  Vercingetorix. 

ALESIUS,  A-le'shl-lis,  Alexander  (1500-65). 
A  Protestant  theologian.  His  original  name  was 
Ales,  but  he  was  also  called  Alesse,  ab  Ales,  and 
A  lane.  He  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  studied  at 
St.  Andrew's,  became  a  canon  of  the  Collegiate 
Church,  and  contended  vigorously  for  scholastic 
theology  as  against  the  reformers.  He  was  ap- 
pointed (1528/  to  refute  the  reformed  views  of 
the  Scotch  protomartyr  Patrick  Hamilton. but  the 
result  was  that  his  own  faith  in  the  old  church 
was  shaken,  though  he  kept  the  fact  secret  for 
a  long  time.  For  a  sermon  against  dissoluteness 
among  the  clergy  he  was  put  in  prison  (1531), 
whence  he  escaped  to  the  continent  (1532),  trav- 
eled in  Europe,  and  settled  in  Wittenberg,  where 
he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Melanchthon.  Mean- 
time he  was  tried  in  Scotland  (1534),  and  con- 
demned for  heresy  without  a  hearing.  After 
Henry  VIII.  broke  with  the  Church  of  Rome, 
Alesius  went  to  England  (1535),  and  was  cor- 
dially received  by  the  king  and  Cranmer  and 
Cromwell,  and  through  the  latter's  influence  he 
was  appointed  lecturer  on  theology  at  Cambridge. 
But  he  gave  offense,  and  went  to  London  soon 
after  and  practiced  medicine  there.  In  1540  he 
returned  to  the  continent,  and  was  at  once  chosen 
to  a  theological  chair  at  Frankfort-on-the-Oder. 
and  was  the  first  professor  who  taught  the  re- 
formed doctrines.  In  1543  he  quitted  Frankfort 
for  Ijcipzig,  where  he  filled  a  similar  professor- 
ship until  his  death.  He  visited  England  in 
1549.     He  died  at  Leipzig,  March  17,  1565. 

ALESSANDBIA,  a'lgs-san'dr^-A.  The  capital 
of  the  Italian  province  of  the  same  name  (1950 
square  miles;  pop.,  1900,  812,022),  and  a  strong 
fortress,  situated  in  a  marshy  region  on  the 
Tanaro,  47  miles  from  Genoa  by  rail  (Map:  Italy. 
C  3).  Its  chief  ecclesiastical  buildings  are  the 
cathedral,  built  in  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  the  old  church  of  Sta.  Maria 
di  Castello.  There  is  also  a  royal  palace,  an 
old  castle,  and  extensive  barracks.  Among  the 
educational  establishments  of  the  city,  the  most 
noteworthy  is  the  academy  of  sciences  and  arts, 
founded  in  1562.  Of  industrial  eatablishmept*^, 
Alessandria  has  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  milU, 
hat  factories,  etc.  The  city  derives  considerable 
commercial  importance  from  its  position  on  the 
chief  railwav  lines  of  eastern  Italy.  Population 
of  commune",  1881,  62,464;   1901,  71,293. 

Alessandria  was  founded  in  1168  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Cremona,  Milan,  and  Placentia,  as  a  bul- 
wark against  Frederick  Barbarossa,  and  wa^ 
named  Alessandria  in  honor  of  Pope  Alexander 
III.  Frederick  endeavored  to  capture  it,  hut 
failed.  As  it  was  a  fortress  to  guard  the  passage 
of  the  Bormida  and  Tanaro.  and  also  the  central 
point  of  communication  between  Genoa.  Milan, 
and  Turin,  the  town  was  frequently  a  scene  of 
battle.  It  was  taken  and  plundered  in  1522  by 
Duke  Sforza;  besieged,  but  without  success,  by 
the  French,  under  the  Prince  of  Conti,  in  16-57: 
and  taken,  in  spite  of  obstinate  resistance,  by 
Prince  Eugene,  in  1707.    After  the  prostration 


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of  Austria  at  the  battle  of  Marengo,  in  1800, 
Bonaparte  concluded  an  armistice  at  Alessandria 
with  his  enemies,  in  accordance  with  which  upper 
Italy,  aa  far  as  the  Mincio,  was  ceded  to  the 
French,  with  twelve  fortresses.  It  was  the  prin- 
cipal armory  of  the  Piedmontese  during  the  in- 
surrection in  Lombardy  and  Venetia  m  1848- 
49,  when  many  new  fortifications  were  added 
to  it. 

AIiESSI,  A-les's^,  Galeazzo  (1512-72).  An 
Italian  architect  of  the  late  Renaissance,  born 
in  Perugia.  He  was  associated  with  Michelan- 
gelo at  Rome  in  1536,  but  followed  more  the 
manner  of  Vignola,  and  never  reached  the  fore- 
most ranks.  Aside  from  a  few  works  at  his 
native  place,  Perugia,  his  masterpieces  are  at 
Genoa,  whose  famous  palace  architecture  he  con- 
tributed to  develop,  especially  in  the  Cambiaso, 
Spinola,  and  Serra  palaces.  Of  his  Genoese  vil- 
las, the  most  beautiful  is  the  Pallavicini.  His 
infiued'ce  was  felt  not  only  throughout  Italy,  but 
even  in  France  and  Portugal,  and  especially  in 
Flanders. 

ALESXTHD,  a^e-8?^nd,  or  AALESXJND.  A 
town  on  the  west  coast  of  Norway,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Romsdal,  situated  on  two  islands  on  the 
outer  edge  of  the  Skj&rgaard  Archipelago  (Map: 
Norway,  A  5).  It  has  an  excellent  harbor,  and 
is  the  trading  centre  for  the  whole  region,  getr 
ting  a  large  revenue  from  cod-fishing.  Pop., 
1900,  11,700. 

AXETT^OMAN'CY.     See  Superstition. 

AXETTBONE,  &-lfl^rdn  (Gk.  akevpcv,  aleuron, 
wheaten  flower).  The  stored  proteid  which  oc- 
curs as  minute  granules  in  the  food-bearing 
tissue  (endosperm)  and  embryos  of  many  seeds. 
The  granules  are  much  smaller  than  starch 
^ains,  in  company  with  which  they  often  occur. 
They  are  usually  rounded  in  form   (though  the 


ALKURONB. 


1.  A  cell  from  the  Castor  bean,  as  seen  in  water,  showing 
roandish  alenrone  grains  imbedded  in  the  protoplasm.  In 
each,  one  or  more  crystals,  c^  and  usually  a  globoid^  g. 

2.  Isolated  aleurone  grains  of  the  same,  as  seen  in  olive  oil. 

so-called  proteid  crystals  of  some  plant  tissues 
are  angular),  and  may  be  simple  or  complex  in 
structure.  The  more  complex  form  of  granule 
consists,  in  great  part,  of  amorphous  proteid 
substance,  in  which  lie  imbedded  a  large  crystal- 
loid and  a  much  smaller  globoid.  The  crystal- 
loid is  an  angular  mass  of  proteid  material,  dif- 
fering from  most  true  crystals  in  its  power  of 
swelling  in  water;  the  globoid  is  a  nearly  spher- 
ical mineral  concretion,  consisting  mainly  of  a 
double  phosphate  of  magnesium  and  calcium. 
Seeds  rich  in  aleurone  are  the  Castor  bean 
{Ricinu8),  the  Brazil  nut  (Bertholletia) ,  peas, 
beans,  etc.     See  Pboteid. 


AliETTTIAN  ISLANDS,  A-la^shan,  also  called 
the  Catherine  Archipelago.  The  name  of  a 
group  of  islands,  numbering  above  one  hundred 
and  fifty,  and  consisting  of  several  clusters, 
which  form  an  insular  continuation  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Alaska  (q.v.),  in  the  shape  of  an  arch  or 
bridge  between  North  America  and  Asia  (Map: 
Alaska,  B  5).  They  lie  on  both  sides  of  the 
parallel  of  55°  N.  lat.,  separating  the  Sea  of 
Kamtchatka  from  the  Pacific,  and  naturally  sub- 
divide themselves  into  five  groups :  ( I )  the  Ko- 
mandorski  Islands,  sometimes  not  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  Aleutian  Islands;  (2)  the 
Sasignan,  or  "Nearest,"  Islands;  (3)  the  Rat 
Islands;  (4)  the  Andreianowsky,  which  are 
very  small  and  little  frequented;  (5)  the  Fox 
Islands,  among  which  is  tJnimak,  the  largest  in 
the  archipelago.  The  islands  are  all  craggy,  and 
have  a  desolate  appearance  from  the  sea.  They 
exhibit  traces  of  violent  internal  commotion. 
Several  volcanoes  are  still  periodically  active, 
and  warm  volcanic  springs  are  numerous.  Cool 
springs  are  frequent  and  form  broad,  rapid 
streams,  which  empty  in  adjacent  bays  or  collect 
in  rocky  depressions  and  form  lakes  which  dis- 
charge their  water  into  the  sea  by  natural  chan- 
nels. The  whole  chain  or  group  forms  a  con- 
necting link  between  the  volcanic  range  of  the 
west  coast  of  America  and  Kamtchatka.  On 
account  of  the  numerous  rocks  which  lie  off  their 
shores,  they  are  not  very  accessible  to  ships. 
There  are  plenty  of  low,  scrubby  bushes, 
grasses,  moss,  and  lichens,  but  no  strong  and 
stately  growth  of  trees.  Cultivated  plants  do  not 
succeed  well.  There  are  foxes  and  reindeer  upon 
the  islands,  while  in  the  neighboring  waters  are 
.seal,  fish  and  otter. 

The  natives  are  known  collectively  as  "Aleut" 
("Aleuts,"  "Aleutians,"  or  "Aleutian  Island- 
ers"), from  the  Russian  designation  of  a  people 
or  tribe  of  Eskimoan  stock  calling  them- 
selves Unungun.  They  are  closely  allied  in 
physical  characteristics,  as  in  language,  to  the 
Innuit,  or  Eskimo  proper;  their  vocabulary  dif- 
fers considerably  from  that  of  the  mainland 
Eskimo,  though  the  grammatic  structure  of 
their  language  and  many  of  the  vocables  are. 
similar.  They  formerly  occupied  nearly  all 
of  the  islands  of  the  Aleutian  chain,  and  were 
estimated  to  number  20,000  to  30,000;  in  1900 
the  population  was  barely  2000.  They  are 
vaguely  divided  into  two  tribes  or  sub-tribes, 
known  respectively  as  Unalaska  and  Atka.  They 
are  strong  and  agile,  capable  of  enduring  great 
fatigue  and  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  are 
peaceful  and  cheerful  in  disposition.  They  sub- 
sist by  hunting  and  fishing,  using  implements  of 
wood,  ivory,  bone,  and  stone,  with  the  two  types 
of  Eskimo  water  craft  (kayak  and  umiak)  ;  their 
summer  habitations  are  tents  or  huts  like  those 
of  the  mainland  Eskimo,  while  in  winter  they  oc- 
cupy huts  of  stone,  snow,  or  other  material,  or 
(especially  on  Fox  Island)  underground  dwell- 
ings. Originally  sharing  the  primitive  pantheism 
of  the  EskimoJ^  they  were  Christianized  by  Rus- 
sian missionaries,  and  are  now  nominally  con- 
nected with  the  Greek  Church. 

ALE-WIFE  (either  aloof e,  the  Indian  name 
of  the  fish,  or  from  its  resemblance  to  a  corpu- 
lent woman  who  keeps  an  alehouse).  A  small 
clupeoid  fish  (Pomolohus  pscudoharengus) ,  8  to 
10  inches  long,  very  closely  related  to  both  the 
herring  and  the  shad,  and  resembling  the  latter 


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AIiEXAHDEB. 


in  form  and  color.  It  is  exceedingly  abundant  on 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  United  States,  where  it 
enters  Chesapeake  Bay  and  its  rivers,  the  Hud- 
son, and  other  streams  in  dense  throngs  to 
spawn.  Their  time  of  arrival  depends  upon  the 
temperature,  but  usually  is  during  the  first  week 
of  April  in  the  Hudson,  somewhat  in  advance  of 
other  fishes.  "Their  eggs  are  adhesive,  like  those 
of  the  herring,  and  stick  to  the  bottom  in  shoal 
water,  or  to  anything  they  may  touch,  from 
60,000  to  100,000  being  laid  by  each  female  fish 
at  once,  almost  all  of  which  are  devoured  by 
countless  enemies  before  they  can  hatch."  They 
have  also  become  land-locked  in  several  of  the 
lakes  of  western  New  York.  Though  inferior  to 
the  shad  in  quality,  they  are  taken  in  vast  quan- 
tities (62,000,000  pounds  reported  in  1896),  and 
are,  next  to  the  shad,  the  most  important  Amer- 
ican anadromous  food- fish.  This  fish  is  called 
gaspereau  by  the  French  Canadian  fishermen  of 
the  northern  coast,  and  branch-herring  and  saw- 
belly  are  other  local  names.  In  Bermuda  the 
term  "alewife"  is  applied  to  the  round  pompano. 
See  plate  of  Herrings,  Shad,  etc. 

ALEX  A NDEBy  usually  distinguished  as 
The  Great  (b.c.  356-323).  One  of  the  most 
famous  soldiers  of  all  time.  He  was  the  son  of 
Philip,  King  of  Maeedon,  by  Olympias,  a  princess 
of  Epirus.  His  birthplace  was  Pella,  the  Mace- 
donian capital.  At  the  time  of  Alexander's 
birth,  the  Macedonian  kingdom  was  beginning  to 
acquire  that  ascendencv  over  Greece  which  was 
soon  to  become  an  absolute  mastery.  During  the 
previous  centuries  Macedonia  had  been  viewed 
as  beyond  the  pa'le  of  Hellas,  obscure,  and  com- 
pletely disregarded  by  the  Greeks,  who  deemed 
its  people  mere  barbarians,  although  the  royal 
line  was  Argive  in  its  origin.  By  degrees,  how- 
ever, the  kings  of  Maeedon  had  become  more 
and  more  involved  in  Grecian  political  affairs, 
until  the  immensely  able  Philip,  Alexander's 
father,  partly  by  his  consummate  diplomacy, 
partly  by  his  lavish  use  of  money,  and  most  of 
all  by  his  extraordinary  military  genius,  ac- 
quired so  finn  a  grasp  upon  the  Hellenic  States 
as  to  make  of  them,  in  all  but  name,  mere 
tributaries  and  dependencies  of  Macedonia. 

Alexander's  early  training  was  one  of  great 
strictness,  being  modeled  to  some  extent  upon 
the  Spartan  system  of  education.  He  was  bred 
up  for  a  soldier's  life,  to  be  a  fearless  horseman, 
an  accomplished  athlete,  a  master  of  the  sword 
and  lance.  But,  in  addition,  he  received  in- 
struction in  literature,  in  history,  and  in  polit- 
ical science — one  of  his  teachers,  for  a  short 
time,  having  been  the  celebrated  philosopher, 
Aristotle. 

In  the  year  336,  when  Alexander  was  but 
twenty  years  of  age,  Philip  fell  by  the  hand  of 
an  assassin,  leaving  to  his  son  the  throne  of 
Macedonia.  The  Greek  States,  thinking  him  too 
young  and  inexperienced  to  be  formidable,  plot- 
ted a  revolt;  but  Alexander,  who  was  absent  at 
the  time  in  Thrace,  at  once  returned  and  marched 
with  extraordinary  rapidity  against  Thebes,  which 
he  took  by  storm  and  leveled  to  the  ground.  Awed 
by  this  stem  punishment  and  by  the  vigor  of 
Alexander,  the  Greeks  sued  for  peace. 

A  short  time  before  his  death.  Philip  had  been 
chosen  to  command  the  combined  Grecian  forces 
in  a  war  which  had  been  declared  against  the 
Persian  Empire.  To  this  office  Alexander  now 
succeeded;  and  in  the  spring  of  334  he  crossed 
the  Hellespont  with  an  army  of  30,000  infantry 


and  6000  cavalry.  Marching  along  the  coast,  he 
encountered  a  Persian  force  of  40,000  troops,  of 
whom  at  least  half  were  Greek  mercenary  sol- 
diers. The  battle  which  ensued  on  the  banks  of 
the  river  Granicus  was  desperately  fought,  Alex- 
ander himself  charging  with  his  cavalry.  The 
result  was  a  decisive  victory,  which  was  fol- 
lowed up  by  a  swift  advance  through  Asia 
Minor,  where  the  various  cities  and  satrapies 
made  their  submission  to  the  conqueror.  Early 
in  the  following  year  (333)  Alexander  marched 
eastward,  and  at  Issus  found  a  Persian  army 
01  some  600,000  men  dratiii  up  to  bar  his  way. 
It  was  commanded  by  the  Persian  King,  Darius, 
in  person.  The  forces  of  Darius,  however,  wer& 
stationed  in  an  unfavorable  position,  of  which 
Alexander  was  quick  to  take  advanta^  with  the 
result  that  the  Persian  left  wing  was  aocm 
shattered  and  the  rest  of  the  army  thrown  into 
wild  confusion,  so  that  a  panic  rout  took  place, 
Darius  himself  escaping  upon  a  swift  horse. 

The  Persian  Empire  was  now  helpless  before 
the  Macedonian  invaders;  but  Alexander  de- 
cided, before  advancing  farther  into  the  interior,, 
to  break  the  sea-power  of  the  Persians  by  master- 
ing Egypt  and  Phcenicia,  their  two  important 
naval  bases.  Entering  Phomicia,  he  laid  siege  to 
Tyre  (332),  which  fell  only  after  an  obstinate 
resistance,  which  lasted  for  seven  months.  Hav- 
ing thus  subdued  Phgenicia,  Alexander  entered 
Egypt,  where  he  took  Gaza  after  a  month's  siegp, 
and  then,  sailing  down  the  Nile,  planned  the 
future  city,  Alexandria,  which  was  to  perpetuate 
his  name.  Leaving  Egypt,  he  returaed  to- 
Phoenicia  (331)  and  thence  marched  into  Syria. 
Darius,  who  had  already  tried  in  vain  to  secure 
terms  of  peace  from  Alexander,  had  now  as- 
sembled an  enormous  army,  estimated  by  some 
to  exceed  1,000,000  soldiers,  near  a  hamlet  called 
Gaugamela,  near  the  Tigris  River.  To  oppose 
this  vast  force,  Alexander  had  but  40,000  in- 
fantry and  less  than  10,000  horsemen;  yet  he 
advanced  with  superb  confidence.  Parmenio,  who 
commanded  the  Macedonian  left,  was  repulsed; 
but  Alexander,  leading  his  troops  against  the 
Persian  centre,  w^here  the  King  was  stationed, 
broke  through  the  lines,  and  after  much  hard 
fighting,  during  which  Darius  fled,  threw  the 
whole  Persian  force  into  a  panic.  This  battle 
is  frequently  mentioned  as  the  battle  of  Arbela, 
though  the  tovm  of  Arbela  was  60  miles  dis- 
tant. Soon  after,  Babylon,  Susa,  and  Persepolis 
surrendered  to  the  Macedonians,  and  Darius  was 
slain  by  one  of  his  own  satraps,  Bessus. 

From  330  to  327  Alexander  was  engaged  in 
subjugating  the  outlying  provinces  of  the  Per- 
sian Empire,  in  foimding  cities  (among  them  the 
modem  Herat),  and  in  reorganizing  me  admin- 
i5?tration  of  the  conquered  territory.  He  also 
defeated  the  Scythians.  Among  the  prisoners 
taken  in  one  of  his  expeditions  was  a  Deautiful 
Bactrian  girl,  Roxana,  whom  Alexander  married. 
Ii:  327,  eager  for  still  further  conquest,  he 
decided  upon  an  expedition  into  India.  Crossing 
the  Indus,  he  met  a  hostile  army  on  the  hanks  of 
the  Hydaspes,  under  the  command  of  the  Indian 
King,  Poms,  and  easily  defeated  it.  The  mareh 
proceeded  until  the  Hyphasis  was  reached,  when 
the  army,  worn  out  by  its  fatigues  and  danger^, 
refused  to  advance;  and  the  order  was  given  by 
Alexander  to  return  to  Persia. 

The  end  of  Alexander's  remarkable  career  was 
now  at  hand.  Establishing  his  court  at  Susa, 
he  instituted  games  and  festivals,  and  gave  him- 


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ALEXANDER   THE    GREAT 

MARBLE    BUST    IN    THE    BERLIN    MUSEUM 


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self  up  to  a  round  of  pleasures,  though  still 
planning  the  establishment  of  an  empire  which 
should  combine  both  Greeks  and  Persians  into  a 
single  people  under  his  supremacy.  He  took  as 
a  second  wife  Barsine,  a  daughter  of  Darius, 
and  urged  his  generals  and  his  private  soldiers 
also  to  intermarry  with  the  native  women.  Uis 
veteran  troops,  however,  were  thoroughly  dis- 
Hatished  with  the  prospect  of  a  perpetual  exile 
from  Greece,  and  also  with  the  arrogance  of  Alex- 
ander himself^  who  in  costume  and  in  bearing 
had  assumed  the  manner  of  an  Oriental  despot. 
At  last  a  mutiny  broke  out,  but  Alexander 
quelled  it  by  his  presence.  To  divert  himself 
and  to  signalize  his  supremacy  over  the  whole 
world,  he  now  revisited  Babylon,  and  there  en- 
joyed a  triumph  to  which  history  can  scarcely 
8bow  a  parallel.  It  was  at  this  climax  of  his  glory 
that  death  came  to  him.  He  fell  ill  of  a  fever 
and  of  it  he  died  in  June,  323,  at  the  age  of 
thirty-two.  He  left,  by  Roxana,  one  child,  a 
son,  bom  pc^thumously,  and  known  in  history 
as  Alexander  ^gus.  Alexander's  body  was  con- 
veyed by  Ptolemy  in  a  golden  coffin  to  Alex- 
andria, where  divine  honors  were  paid  to  him. 

Consult:  Droysen,  Geschichte  Alexanders  des 
Grosaen  (Gotha,  1898)  ;  Grote,  History  of  Greece 
(New  York,  1853-66)  ;  Holm,  Griechische  Ge- 
schichle.  III.  (Berlin,  1893)  ;  B.  I.  Wheeler's  Life 
(New  York) ,  1900) .  See  Alexai^deb,  Legend  of. 
AL'EXANa>EB.  The  name  of  eight  Popes. 
Alexander  I.,  Pope  about  109-117.  Alexander 
II.  (Anselm,  Bishop  of  Lucca),  Pope  1061-73. 
He  was  one  of  those  raised  to  the  papal  see  by 
Hildebrand,  and  showed  the  latter *s  zeal  in  abro- 
gating simony  and  clerical  marriages.  He  favored 
William  the  Conqueror's  invasion  of  England. 
Through  the  first  part  of  his  reign  there  was  an 
anti-pope,  Honorius  II.  Alexander  III.  Roland 
of  Siena),  Pope  1159-81.  He  had  the  active 
opposition  of  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.,  who  set 
up  three  anti-popes  in  succession.  But  he  finally 
overcame  all  his  rivals  and  the  emperor  himself. 
The  tragic  history  of  Thomas  ft  Becket  comes  in 
his  pontificate,  and  he  forced  the  unwitting  cause 
of  the  murder,  Henry  II.  of  England,  to  do  pen- 
ance for  the  deed  and  to  restore  the  church  prop- 
erty which  he  had  confiscated.  His  works  are  in 
Migne,  Pat.  Lat.,  Volume  CC.  His  Summa  was 
separateljr  edited  by  F.  Thaner  ( Innsbruck,  1874). 
For  his  life,  consult  H.  F.  Keuter,  three  volumes 
(Leipzig,  1860-64).  Alexander  IV.  (Rinaldo  de 
Conti),  Pope  1254-61.  He  had  a  controversy 
with  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.,  and  in  the  last 
year  of  his  pontificate  the  Flagellants  appeared 
in  Rome.  Alexander  V.  (Pietro  Philargi),Pope 
1409-10.  He  was  the  choice  of  the  Council  of 
Pisa,  and  designed  to  supersede  the  two  rival 
claimants  to  the  papal  succession.  But  his  rivals 
would  not  retire,  and  he  dismissed  the  council, 
thus  really  making  more  trouble.  He  conferred 
upon  the  medicant  monks  the  right  to  hear  con- 
fpjision.  Alexander  VI.  (Roderico  Lenzuoli  Bor- 
gia), Pope  1492-1503  (1431-1503).  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  eigfht  Popes  of  this  name,  and 
the  most  notorious  prince  of  his  age.  He  was  a 
native  of  Valencia  in  Spain.  He  was  hand- 
wme  and  gallant,  and  his  early  life  was  flagrant- 
ly dissolute;  but  he  was  made  a  cardinal  at  the 
apre  of  twenty-five  by  his  uncle,  Calixtus  III.,  and 
on  the  death  of  Innocent  VIII.  ascended  the  papal 
chair,  which  he  bought  virtually  in  the  open  maV- 
ket.  The  long  absences  of  the  Popes  from  Italy 
had  weakened  their  authority  and  curtailed  their 


revenues,  and  as  a  compensation  for  the  loss, 
Alexander  endeavored  to  break  up  the  power  of 
the  Italian  princes  and  to  appropriate  their  pos- 
sessions for  the  benefit  of  his  own  children,  Gio- 
vanni, Duke  of  Gandia,  Cesare,  Duke  of  Valen- 
*  tinois,  and  Lucrezia,  the  Duchess  of  Ferrara, 
borne  him  by  a  mistress  with  whom  he  lived  pub- 
licly even  during  his  occupation  of  the  papal  seat. 
To  gain  his  end  he  employed  the  favorite  weapons 
of  the  princes  of  the  Renaissance,  perjury,  poison, 
and  the  dagger.  He  died,  according  to  the  most 
widely  accepted  tradition,  of  poisoned  wine  in- 
tended for  his  guests.  The  most  memorable 
events  of  his  pontificate  were  the  burning  of 
Savonarola  (q.v.),  the  partition  of  the  New 
World  between  Portugal  and  Spain,  and  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Index  Expurgatoriua  of  pro- 
hibited books.  Alexander  VI.  came  down  to  re- 
cent times  as  one  of  the  most  nefarious  men  in 
history,  laden  with  such  vices  and  crimes  as  mur- 
der, treason,  incest,  and  apostasy.  In  the  nine- 
teenth century,  however,  serious  attempts  wer& 
made,  if  not  to  rehabilitate  his  character,  at 
least  to  mitigate  the  charges  brought  against 
him.  For  the  older  view  in  its  extremest  form, 
see  the  Diarium  of  Burchard,  master  of  cere- 
monies to  Alexander  VI.  (Paris,  1883,  three  vol- 
umes), and  Gordon,  Alexander  VI .  and  His  Son 
(London,  1729):  For  a  more  charitable  estimate, 
see  Roscoe's  Life-and  Pontificate  of  Leo  X,  (Lon- 
don, 1805),  and  for  a  well  sustained  apology,. 
Leonetti,  Papa  Alessandro  VI,  (Bologna,  1880)  ; 
Gregorovius,  History  of  Rome  in  the  Middle  Agea^ 
(Volumes  VI.  and  VII.,  English  translation, Lon- 
don, 1900),  while  inclining  to  the  generally  ac- 
cepted opinions,  deprives  Alexander  of  the  quali- 
ties of  sagacity  and  fearlessness  which  no  one  else- 
denies  him,  and  depicts  him  as  the  weak  instru- 
ment of  his  ambitious  son,  Cesare  Borgia.  Other 
biographies  are  by  F.  Kaiser  (Regensburg,1878), 
and  Clement  (Paris,  1882).  Alexander  VII. 
(Fabio  Chigi),  Pope  1655-67.  He  confirmed  the 
condemnation  of  Jan.senism,  and  had  the  satisfac- 
tion of  receiving  the  Swedish  Queen,  Christina, 
the  daughter  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  into  the 
Catholic  Church.  Consult  his  life,  by  S.  Palla- 
vicini  (Prato,  1839).  Alexander  VIII.  (Pietro 
Ottoboni) ,  Pope  1689-91.  He  published  the  Bull 
*'Inter  multiplices"  against  Gallicanism.  See  his 
bulls  in  the  twentieth  volume  of  Bullarium  (Tu- 
rin, 1870),  and  his  relations  with  Louis  XIV.,. 
treated  by  Gr^rin  (Paris,  1878). 

ALEXANDER  I.  (  T— 326  b.c.)  .  King  of  Epi- 
rus;  son  of  Neoptolemus  and  brother  of  Olym- 
pias,  the  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great.  He 
was  made  King  of  Epirus  by  Philip  of  Macedon, 
and  it  was  at  his  marriage  with  Philip's 
daughter  Cleopatra  (336  B.C.)  that  Philip  was 
assassinated  by  Pausanias.  At  the  request  of 
the  Tarentines,  Alexander  crossed  over  into  Italy 
(332),  to  aid  them  against  the  Lucanians  and 
Bruttii,  but  after  meeting  with  considerable  suc- 
cess, was  slain  by  the  Lucanians  at  the  battle 
of  Pandosia,  in  southern  Italy. 

ALEXANDER  II.  (c.  —242  B.C.).  King  of 
Epirus ;  son  of  Pyrrhus  and  of  Lanassa,  daughter 
of  the  Sicilian  tyrant  Agathocles.  He  succeeded 
his  father  in  272  B.C.  To  avenge  the  death  of 
Pyrrhus,  who  had  been  slain  while  fighting 
against  Antigonus  Gonatus,  he  seized  Mace- 
donia, the  latter's  kingdom.  Soon  afterward, 
however,  he  was  deprived  of  both  Macedonia  and 
his  owoi  dominions  by  Demetrius,  son  of  Antigo- 


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nusy  but  recovered  Epinis  by  the  aid  of  the  Ar- 
canians  (Just,  xxvi:  3;  xxxviii:  1;  and  Plut., 
Pyrrh,  9). 

ALEXANDEB  I.  (1857-1893).  Prince  of 
Bulgaria  from  1879  to  1886.  He  was  the  second 
son  of  Prince  Alexander  of  Hesse  by  a  mor- 
ganatic marriage  with  Countess  Julia  of  Hauck. 
He  served  in  the  Russo-Turkish  War  of  1877-78 
on  the  staff  of  General  Gurko  and  in  the  per- 
bonal  suite  of  the  Czar.  After  the  erection  of 
Bulgaria  into  an  autonomous  principality  he  was 
elected  hereditary  prince  April  29,  1879,  by  the 
Bulgarian  sohranye,  at  the  instance  of  Russia, 
and  the  choice  was  confirmed  by  those  powers 
which  had  participated  in  1878  in  the  Congress  of 
Berlin.  The  principality  was  subject  to  conflict 
between  Hellenic  and  Slavonic  influences,  and 
religious  disputes  between  the  Greek  and  Roman 
communions.  It  was  organized  under  Russian 
influence,  but  at  once  developed  political  par- 
ties— Radicals,  Liberals,  and  Conservatives — 
with  which  Alexander  had  to  deal.  He  began 
his  administration  with  a  Conservative  ministry, 
seeking  to  maintain  a  good  understanding  with 
Russia  and  to  establish  an  orderly  'government. 
He  then  tried  a  Nationalist  ministry,  but  in  1881 
dismissed  it,  convoked  the  National  Assembly, 
and  secured  special  powers,  under  which  he  ap- 
pointed a  Consei-vative  ministry,  headed  by  two 
Russian  generals,  Kaulbars  and  Soboleff.  The 
Conservative  party  was  but  a  small  faction,  and 
Prince  Alexander  now  allied  himself  with  the 
Nationalists,  who  were  enabled  to  assert  them- 
selves more  and  more  against  the  Russian  in- 
fluence. In  1885  Eastern  Roumelia  revolted 
against  its  governor-general,  sought  aid  from  Al- 
exander, who  assumed  the  title  of  Prince  of  the 
Two  Bulgarias,  and  accomplished  the  union  in 
spite  of  Russian  opposition,  securing  recognition 
as  governor  from  the  Porte.  This  brought  on  a 
war  with  Servia,  in  which  Bulgaria  triumphed. 
Prince  Alexander  conducting  his  army  with  cour- 
age and  skill.  In  the  night  of  August  20-21, 
1886,  a  conspiracy  headed  by  Zankoff,  and  in- 
spired by  Russian  machinations,  forced  him  to 
sign  his  abdication,  and  he  was  kidnapped  and 
taken  into  Russian  territory.  Popular  indigna- 
tion in  Bulgaria  procured  his  release,  but  on 
September  7  he  formally  abdicated,  believing  that 
it  was  for  the  good  of  the  country  in  view  of 
Russian  opposition.  He  had  shown  a  courage, 
ability,  and  a  loyalty  to  Bulgaria  such  as  had 
hardly  been  expected.  He  died  on  his  estate  at 
Gratz,  in  the  Austrian  province  of  Styria. 

Consult:  Soboleff,  Der  erste  Fiirst  v.  Bui- 
garien  (Leipzig,  1886),  translated  from  the  Rus- 
sian; Draudar,  Prince  Alexander  of  Battenherg 
(1884)  ;  A.  Koch,  Prinz  Alexander  v.  Battenherg 
(Darmstadt,  1887),  the  latter  written  by  Alex- 
ander's chaplain. 

ALEXANDEB  L,  Pavlovitch  (1777-1825). 
Emperor  of  Russia  from  1801  to  1825.  He  was 
born  December  23  ( 12  Old  Style) ,  1777,  at  St.  Pe- 
tersbiirg,  and  was  the  son  of  Paul  I.  and  Maria 
Feodorovna  (born  Dorothea  of  Wiirttemberg). 
The  violent  and  arbitrary  reign  of  Alexander's 
predecessor  produced  a  conspiracy  to  force 
his  abdication  in  favor  of  his  son.  The  Polish 
prince,  Adam  Czartoryaki,  a  friend  of  Alexander, 
who  gives  a  circumstantial  account  of  the  con- 
spiracy, says  that  Alexander  was  privy  t%  the 
plan  of  forced  abdication,  but  not  to  the  assassi- 
nation which  resulted  from  the  violence  of  some 


of  the  conspirators  who  hated  Paul  personally. 
The  news  of  the  accession  of  Alexander  was  re- 
ceived, according  to  the  Russian  historian 
Karamsin,  as  "a  message  of  redemption."  Alex- 
ander had  been  educated  under  the  direction  of 
his  grandmother,  Catherine  II.,  by  eminent  in- 
structors, chief  among  whom  was  the  SwIps 
Colonel  Laharpe,  whose  ability  and  liberal  views 
made  a  strong  impression  upon  the  imaginative 
character  of  his  pupil.  His  education,  however, 
was  still  incomplete  when  it  was  broken  off  by 
the  dismissal  of  Laharpe,  who  fell  into  disgrace 
on  account  of  his  sympathy  with  the  French 
Revolution.  Alexander  received  during  his 
father's  short  reign  a  military  training  which 
was  equally  incomplete.  His  defective  educa- 
tion, his  experiences  in  the  courts  of  his  great, 
but  despotic  and  immoral,  grandmother  and  of 
his  half-insane  father  produced  in  Alexander  a 
curious  mingling  of  characteristics  and  tenden- 
cies. Czartoryski  speaks  of  the  frank  avowal 
made  to  him  in  1796  by  Alexander  of  his  sym- 
pathy with  republicanism  and  his  belief  that 
hereditary  power  was  unjust  and  absurd.  The 
tragedy  with  which  his  reign  began,  one  of  the 
series  that  shadows  all  Russian  emperors,  also 
made  its  impression. 

He  began   his   reign  with   sweeping  reforms. 
He  abolished  the  barbaric  and  excessive  punish- 
ments in  use  under  his  predecessors,  restrained 
the  brutality  of  the  police,  did  away  with  the 
secret  tribunal,  pardoned  many  of  his  father's 
victims,  and  in  other  ways  reformed  the  laws 
and  procedure.    Restrictions  upon  literature,  art, 
and  trade  were  removed.     "I  would  not  place 
myself  above  the  law,  even  if  I  could,"  Alexander 
wrote  to  the  Princess  Galitzin,  "for  I  do  not 
recognize  any   legitimate  power  on  earth  that 
does  not  emanate  from  the  law.  .  .  .  The  law 
should  be  the  same  for  all."     He  was  aided  in 
his  work  by  four  intimate  friends,  young  men  of 
liberal    views— Count    Paul    Strogonoff,    Prince 
Victor   Kotchubei,    Nicholas    NovossiltsolT,   and 
Prince    Adam    Czartoryski.     These    Alexander 
called  his  "committee  of  public  safety."     They 
deliberated  together  concerning  the  duties  and 
the  limitations  of  the  imperial  power — a  new 
question   in  Russia,   and   not   much  considered 
since  that  time.     In  1801  the  Senate  was  made 
the  supreme  high  court,  conservator  of  the  laws, 
its  ukases  to  be  subject  only  to  the  imperial 
veto.     The  first  move  of  the  Senate  in  opposition 
to  the  Emperor,  however   met  with  a  sharp  re- 
buke, and  Czartoryski  well  explains  the  attitude 
of  Alexander  when  he  says:  "The  Emperor  liked 
the  forms  of  liberty  as  we  like  spectacles.  .  .  . 
He    would   have    willingly   consented    that   the 
whole  world  should  be  free  on  condition  that  the 
whole  world  should  submit  voluntarily  to  his 
single  will."     The  Russian  Senate,  in  which  the 
idle  and  useless  nobility  were  shelved,  was  not 
the  body  with  which  to  experiment   in  parlia- 
mentary government.      Alexander  and  his  asso- 
ciates discussed  the  emancipation  of  the  serf-': 
but  the  time  seemed  hardly  ripe  for  that  meas- 
ure.    An  imperial  ukase  of  March  3,  1804.  at- 
tempted to  ameliorate  their  condition. 

The  real  administrative  achievement  of  Alex- 
ander was  the  creation  by  the  ukase  of  Septem- 
ber 8,  1802,  of  the  ministries,  eight  in  number: 
Interior  and  Police,  Finance,  Justice,  Public  In- 
struction, Commerce,  Foreign  xVffairs,  Marine, 
and  War.  This  was  a  marked  step  toward  an  or- 
derly government  from  the  semi-Asiatic  methods 


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foy  which  the  growing  Empire  had  been  managed. 
Each  department  was  in  charge  of  a  minister  and 
an  adjunct,  these  officials  being  a  check,  one  upon 
the  other.  Progress  was  made  toward  a  codi- 
fication of  the  laws.  The  privilege  hitherto  held 
by  the  nobles  only,  that  their  patrimonial  estate 
should  not  be  confiscated  as  a  punishment,  was 
made  the  common  right  of  all  subjects.  An  im- 
perial bank  was  instituted,  Odessa  was  made  a 
free  port,  the  laws  regarding  debt  and  mortgages 
were  amended,  and  by  the  ukase  of  1818  peasants 
were  permitted  to  carry  on  manufactures.  Al- 
exander sent  expeditions  around  the  world,  and 
made  treaties  with  the  United  States,  Spain, 
Brazil,  and  Turkey.  Settlements  were  estab- 
lished on  the  northwestern  coast  of  America,  but 
the  enunciation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  in  1823 
checked  the  Russian  advance  in  the  last  direction. 
The  new  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction  meant 
much  for  the  Empire.  There  had  been  but  three 
iiniversities  in  Russia — ^Moscow,  Vilna,  and  Dor- 
pat.  These  were  strengthened,  and  three  others 
were  founded  at  St.  Petersburg,  Kharkov,  and 
Kazan.  Literary  and  scientific  bodies  were  es- 
tablished or  encouraged,  and  the  reign  became 
noted  for  the  aid  lent  to  the  sciences  and  arts  by 
the  -Emperor  and  the  wealthy  nobility. 

The  foreign  policy  of  Alexander  was  marked, 
like  his  internal  policy,  by  plans  outrunning  per- 
formance. In  consonance  with  his  general  char- 
acter as  a  liberal,  he  at  first  stood  as  an  advocate 
of  peace.  He  endeavored  to  obtain  from  Napo- 
leon just  compensation  for  the  German  States; 
but  becoming  convinced  of  Napoleon's  bad  faith, 
he  joined  the  coalition  of  1805.  He  was  the  ally 
of  Prussia  against  Napoleon  in  the  disastrous 
campaign  of  1806,  carrying  on  wars  at  the  same 
time  with  Persia  and  Turkey.  His  forces  fought 
an  indecisive  battle  at  Eylau  in  February,  1807, 
and  were  totally  defeated  at  Friedland  in  the  fol- 
lowing June.  In  July,  1807,  Alexander  signed 
the  Treaty  of  Tilsit,  in  which  he  abandoned 
Prussia  to  her  fate.  Dazzled  by  the  p;enius  of 
Napoleon  and  by  his  scheme  for  the  division  of 
the  world  into  an  Eastern  and  a  Western  Empire, 
Alexander  joined  the  Continental  System  (q.v.), 
declared  war  on  England  (1808),  and  wrested 
Finland  from  Sweden.  At  Erfurt  in  the  autumn 
of  1808  the  two  emperors  met  with  great  pomp, 
but  the  ill-assorted  alliance  soon  lost  force.  The 
pressure  of  the  Continental  System  on  the  mate- 
rial resources  of  Russia,  the  growth  of  the  Na- 
X}oleonic  despotism,  the  existence  and  aggrandize- 
ment of  the  Duchy  of  Warsaw,  were  utterly  op- 
posed to  Alexander's  theories  and  to  his  sense 
of  sound  Russian  policy.  At  length  in  1812  a 
rupture  ensued,  and  Napoleon's  grand  army 
swept  over  Russia,  but  only  to  be  destroyed  in 
the  retreat  from  Moscow.  Alexander  threw  him- 
self into  the  great  struggle  of  Europe  against 
the  French  Emperor,  and  raised  an  army  of 
nearly  900,000  men.  He  took  part  personally 
in  the  campaigns,  and  was  prominent  in  the 
negotiations  at  Vienna. 

At  Paris,  in  1814,  Alexander,  who  by  nature 
had  always  been  inclined  toward  religious  mys- 
ticism, fell  under  the  influence  of  Madame 
Krfldener  ( q.v. ) ,  and  was  ruled  for  several  years 
by  the  fantastic  theories  which  she  inculcated. 
It  was  under  this  influence  that  he  instituted  the 
Holy  Alliance  (q.v.),  the  declared  object  of  which 
was  to  make  the  principles  of  Christianity  rec- 
ognized in  the  political  arrangements  of  the 
world,  but  which  became  under  the  manipulation 


of  Metternich  a  mere  means  for  the  reSstablish- 
meht  of  political  absolutism.  The  latter  part 
of  Alexander's  reign  presents  a  strong  con- 
trast to  the  earlier.  The  ardent  young  re- 
former was  drawn  by  his  foreign  relations 
into  a  reactionary  course.  He  concurred 
in  the  Austrian  policy  of  Metternich,  and 
by  repressing  insurrection  in  Europe  assisted 
in  crushing  the  political  progress  of  the 
nations.  The  spread  of  education  and  of  liberal 
ideas  resulting  from  contact  with  revolutionary 
France,  the  exhaustion  of  the  treasury,  and  the 
disorder  of  the  finances,  due  to  Russia's  active 
part  in  the  Napoleonic  wars,  aroused  popular 
discontent,  which  was  put  down  by  such  re- 
pressive measures  as  the  censorship  and  police 
espionage,  measures  which  were  in  common  use 
in  Europe  at  that  time  and  have  survived  in 
Russia.  Alexander  became  morbid  and  embit- 
tered, and  sought  relief  alternately  in  dissipa- 
tion and  in  religious  mysticism.  Personal  ex- 
posure during  the  inundation  of  St.  Petersburg 
in  1824  undermined  the  Emperor's  health;  the 
death  of  a  favorite  daughter  and  the  discovery 
of  a  Russo-Polish  conspiracy  against  the  house 
of  Romanoff  aggravated  his  illness.  With  the 
Empress  he  sought  rest  in  the  Crimea,  but  was 
seized  by  illness  on  the  journey,  and  died  at 
Taganrog,  December  1  (November  19,  Old  Style), 
1825. 

Bibliography.  Schnitzler,  Hiatoire  intime  de 
la  Russie  sous  lea  Empereura  Alegfandre  I.  et 
Nicolaa  I,  (Paris,  1847)  ;  Bogdanovitch,  Hiatory 
of  the  Reign  of  Alexander  /.,  in  Russian  (St. 
Petersburg,  1869-71),  the  first  four  volumes  of 
which  are  translated  into  French;  Rabbe,  Hia- 
toire d* Alexandre  I.  (Paris,  1826)  ;  Countess 
Choiseul-ijrouffier,  M^moirea  hiatoriquea  aur  VEm- 
pereur  Alexandre  et  la  cour  de  Ruaaie  (Paris, 
1829),  English  translation  by  Patterson,  Hia- 
torical  Memoira  of  the  Emperor  Alexander  I, 
and  the  Court  of  Rtiaaia  (Chicago,  1900)  ;  C. 
Joyneville,  Alexander  I.:  Hia  Life  and  Timea 
(Tjondon,  1875)  ;  Mazade,  M^moirea  du  Prince 
Adam  Czartoryaki  et  aa  correapondance  avec 
VEmpereur  Alexandre  L  (Paris,  1887) ;  Vandal, 
Napoleon  et  Alexandre  I,,  V Alliance  ruaae  aoua 
le  Premier  Empire  (Paris,  1890-96)  ;  and  Bern- 
hardi,  Geachichte  Ruaalanda  und  der  europd- 
iachen  Politik  1814-1831  (Leipzig,  1863-77). 

ALEXANDER  II.,NiKOLAYEViTCH  ( 1818-81 ) . 
Emperor  of  Russia  from  1855  to  1881.  He  was 
born  April  29,  1818,  received  a  thorough  educa- 
tion, and  was  given  a  vigorous  military  training 
by  his  father,  Nicholas.  He  traveled  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  1841  married  Princess  Maria  of 
Hesse-Darmstadt.  He  also  journeyed  through 
European  Russia,  Siberia,  and  the  Caucasus,  and 
took  a  creditable  part  in  the  campaigns  against 
the  Tcherkesses.  On  succeeding  to  the  throne  in 
the  midst  of  the  Crimean  War  (March  2,  1856), 
he  assured  the  foreign  ambassadors  that  he 
should  adhere  to  the  policy  of  his  uncle  (Alex- 
ander I.)  and  his  father,  but  his  desire  was 
for  an  honorable  peace.  His  eflforts  could  not 
prevent  the  fall  of  Sebastopol,  in  September, 
1855,  and  in  March,  1856,  he  was  compelled  to 
sign  the  humiliating  Treaty  of  Paris.  Alexander 
had  not  been  in  sympathy  with  the  autocratic 
and  reactionary  course  of  his  father.  While  not 
a  liberal  in  the  current  sense  of  the  term,  nor  an 
idealist  like  the  first  Alexander,  he  represented 
the  intelligent  thought  of  modern  Russia,  and  be- 
lieved that  a  decided  transformation  was  needed 


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to  place  it  in  the  first  rank  among  nations.  He 
soon  announced  his  intention  to  promote  reforms, 
and  he  was  encouraged  in  this  by  the  shock 
which  the  Crimean  War  had  given  to  the  old 
corrupt  officialism  of  the  Empire.  Two  reform 
parties  arose,  one  a  liberal  constitutional  party, 
having  its  centre  at  St.  Petersburg,  the  other  an 
old  Russian  nationalist  party,  centring  at  Mos- 
cow. They  were  united  only  in  common  enmity 
to  the  bureaucracy.  In  response  to  their  wishes 
and  his  own  convictions,  Alexander  relaxed  the 
censorship  of  the  press,  permitted  travel,  exer- 
cised a  close  control  over  officials,  recalled  many 
who  had  been  exiled  to  Siberia  during  the  previ- 
ous reign,  extended  education,  and  without  in- 
stituting radical  changes  in  the  machinery  of  the 
government  greatly  widened  the  liberty  of  his 
subjects. 

The  greatest  of  his  administrative  achieve- 
ments w^as  the  emancipation  of  the  serfs.  With 
this,  of  necessity,  w^ent  a  reform  in  the  system  of 
land  tenure.  Nearly  all  of  Russia  was  held  in 
large  estates,  worked  by  serfs  who  were  nominally 
attached  to  the  land,  but  were  in  fact  almost  as 
much  at  the  disposal  of  their  masters  as  if  they 
had  been  slaves.  Nine-tenths  of  the  arable  land 
of  Russia  was  thus  held  by  the  imperial  family 
and  about  100,000  noble  families.  Naturally, 
the  great  landed  nobility  obstructed  the  Czar's 
reform ;  but  he  pressed  his  point  upon  the  nobles 
of  one  province  after  another,  and  had  a  com- 
mittee on  the  state  of  the  peasantry  prepare  a 
plan  for  emancipation.  Beginning  in  1858,  and 
setting  an  example  by  freemg  the  serfs  on  the 
estates  of  the  imperial  family,  the  Czar  com- 
pleted the  work  of  emancipation  by  the  ukase  of 
March  3  (February  19,  Old  Style),  1861.  Serfs 
who  had  been  domestic  servants,  not  attached  to 
the  land,  became  free  without  right  to  property. 
Those  who  had  been  attached  to  the  land  were 
enabled  by  a  State  loan,  payable  six  per  cent, 
annually  for  forty-nine  years,  to  purchase  the 
interest  of  the  former  landlords  in  a  certain 
share  of  the  land.  The  freed  men  thus  became 
peasant  proprietors,  the  land  being  held  by  the 
mirs,  or  village  communities,  which  could  as- 
sign it  to  the  members.  Police  authority  was 
put  in  the  hands  of  the  communal  assemblies, 
and  larger  powers  of  taxation,  administration, 
and  police  were  vested  in  district  and  pro- 
vincial councils.  If  the  economic  results  of  this 
arrangement  have  been  slow  in  development,  and 
not  altogether  satisfactory,  the  social  transfor- 
mation effected  by  the  emancipation  of  23,000,- 
000  people  was  great  and  immediate.  In  carry- 
ing out  his  plan,  Alexander  was  assisted  by 
Nicholas  Miliutin.  The  Emperor  also  instituted 
reforms  in  the  judicial  procedure,  and  established 
a  regular  system  of  courts.  Public  schools  were 
founded  after  the  model  of  Western  Europe,  and 
scientific  schools  were  erected  in  addition  to 
those  devoted  to  the  regular  classical  training. 
The  army,  which  in  the  Crimean  War  had  so 
disappointed  Nicholas  I.,  was  reorganized  on  the 
Prussian  plan.  While  Alexander  went  thus  far 
with  the  liberals,  the  Pan-Slavism  of  the  Na- 
tionalists found  equal  sympathy  with  him.  He 
said  to  the  Polish  deputies:  "Embrace  the  union 
with  Russia  and  abandon  all  thoughts  of  indepen- 
dence, now  and  for  evermore  impossible.  All  that 
my  father  did  was  rightly  done.  My  reign  shall 
be  a  continuation  of  his!"  The  Polish  national 
movement,  which  culminated  in  the  insurrection 
of  1803,  was  severely  repressed,  and  a  relentless 


process  of  Russification  was  instituted  under 
Michael  Muravieff.  Since  that  time  Poland  has 
remained  under  what  is  practically  martial  law. 
After '1863  there  was  a  gradual  return  to  absolu- 
tism in  Russia,  and  many  of  the  liberties  that 
had  been  granted  were  withdrawn  or  modified, the 
Czar  falling  more  under  the  influence  of  the  Con- 
servative Nationalist  party,  led  by  Katkoff,  the 
Moscow  editor.  For  a  few  years  the  liberals 
contented  themselves  with  criticism  of  the  con- 
servative position  and  legal  attempts  to  restore 
their  influence.  Then  began  the  revolutionary 
movement,  which  finally  developed  in  the  hands 
of  a  few  violent  spirits  into  terrorism  after 
1875.  (See  Nihilism.)  The  socialism  of  Marx 
and  Proudhon  had  by  this  time  been  brought  in 
from  Western  Europe. 

Between  1868  and  1881,  the  armies  of  Alexan- 
der .were  pushing  forward  the  Russian  frontiers 
in  Central  Asia.  In  1868  Samarkand  was  occn- 
pied ;  in  1873  the  Khan  of  Khiva  was  reduced  to 
vassalage;  in  1876  Khokand  was  annexed;  and 
in  1881,  just  before  the  assassination  of  the  Em- 
peror, G6k-Tepe,  the  stronghold  of  the  Teke  Tur- 
komans, was  taken.  The  vigorous  policy  adopt- 
ed after  1870  brought  on  a  war  with  Turkey  in 
1877-78,  in  which  the  Russian  standards  were 
carried  almost  to  Constantinople.  This  war  ap- 
pealed to  the  chivalric  spirit  of  Alexander,  who 
wished  to  be  known  as  the  Liberator  Czar,  be- 
cause it  was  in  a  sense  a  crusade  in  behalf  of  the 
oppressed  Christian  peoples  of  the  Balkans.  The 
hopes  of  a  Russian  hegemony  in  the  Balkan  Pe- 
1877-78,  in  which  the  Russian  standards  were 
overthrown,  however,  at  the  Congress  of  Berlin 
(q.v.)  by  the  restraint  put  upon  Russia  by  Great 
Britain  and  the  other  Powers. 

The  existence  of  the  liberal  and  reactionary 
parties  side  by  side  in  Russia  during  this  reign 
explains  some  of  the  inconsistencies  in  Alexan- 
der's character.  It  is  because  of  these  opposing 
influences,  both  patriotic,  that  progressive  and 
oppressive  measures  were  often  simultaneously 
enacted.  Personally,  Alexander  seems  to  have 
tended  always  to  the  liberal  side,  although  some- 
what embittered  by  the  spread  of  the  revolu- 
tionary agitation.  His  life,  during  the  year» 
1879-81,  was  never  safe  from  the  conspiracies  of 
the  extreme  revolutionists,  who  pursued  him  with 
a  remarkable  persistence  of  hatred.  After  the 
terrible  explosion  of  1880,  in  the  Winter  Palace, 
Alexander  gave  General  Louis  Melikoff,  a  dis- 
tinguished officer  of  liberal  tendencies,  an  extra- 
ordinary dictatorial  commission  for  six  months, 
and  it  is  said  that  under  Loris  Melikoff's  advi(v, 
he  was  deliberating  on  the  question  of  promul- 
gating a  constitution  by  ukase  when  he  was  iiii- 
sassinated  by  the  explosion  of  a  bomb  while  driv- 
ing from  the  parade  to  the  Winter  Palace  on 
Sunday,  March  13,  1881.  He  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  Alexander  III. 

Consult:  Haumant,  in  Lavisse  ei  Ramhavdy 
Hiatoire  Gdn^rale,  Volume  XI.  (Paris,  1900); 
Cardonne,  UEmpercur  Alexandre  IL  (Paris, 
1883)  ;  Golovin,  Rwtaland  unter  Alexander  IL 
(Leipzig,  1870)  ;  Lafert^  (pseudonym  of  the 
Princess  Dolgorouki),  Alexandre  1 1.,  Details 
inMits  8ur  sa  vie  intime  ct  sa  mort  (Basel, 
1882). 

ALEXAKDEB  m.,  Alexandbovitch  (1845- 
94).  Emperor  of  Russia  from  1881  to  1894.  He 
was  born  March  10,  1845,  and  he  succeeded  hi'* 
father,  March  13,  1881,  but  was  not  crowned  un- 
til Mav  27,  1883,  after  the  panic  caused  by  the 


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assassination  of  Alexander  II.  had  somewhat 
subsided.  Alexander  at  first  expressed  his  in- 
tention of  following  out  the  constitutional  re- 
forms of  Loris  Melikoff,  but  he  fell  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  leaders  of  the  old  Russian  Na- 
tionalist party,  Katoff,  Pobiedonostseff,  and  Ig- 
natieff,  and  restored  the  autocratic  system  of 
Nicholas  so  far  as  internal  affairs  were  con- 
cerned. He  pursued  a  stern  policy  of  repression 
with  regard  to  the  political  agitation  which  had 
caused  the  violent  death  of  his  father.  The  Ter- 
rorists were  practically  suppressed,  a  rigid  cen- 
sorship was  reestablished,  education  was  restrict- 
ed, and  dissenting  religions  were  persecuted. 
Among  the  sects  that  were  persecuted  were  the 
Jews;  and  as  a  result  of  the  persecution  great 
numbers  of  them  emigrated  from  the  country, 
chiefly  to  the  United  States  and  South  Africa. 
The  policy  of  the  Russification  of  the  non- 
Russian  provinces,  begun  by  Nicholas  I.  and*  dis- 
continued for  a  time  by  Alexander  II.,  was  re- 
sumed with  new  vigor.  The  finances  of  the  Em- 
pire were  well  managed.  The  revenue  was 
largely  increased,  and  a  protective  tariff  was  used 
as  a  part  of  the  system  to  strengthen  Russian 
nationality. 

In  his  foreign  policy  Alexander  did  not  follow 
the  example  of  Nicholas.  His  influence  was  di- 
rected toward  the  preservation  of  peace.  Russia 
and  France  were  drawn  into  closer  and  closer 
connection  in  opposition  to  the  Triple  Alliance 
of  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy.  Alexander  con- 
tinued the  policy  of  interference  in  the  affairs  of 
the  Balkan  States,  especially  Bulgaria,  bitterly 
resenting  that  spirit  of  nationalism  which  his 
father  had  regarded  as  ingratitude  toward  Rus- 
sia. He  endeavored,  not  very  successfully,  to 
counteract  Austrian  influence  among  the  Balkan 
peoples.  In  Asia  he  continued  to  round  out  the 
frontier  and  strengthen  Russia's  hold  on  its 
provinces.  Several  attempts  were  made  to  assas- 
sinate him,  but  they  lacked  the  completeness  of 
preparation  and  the  venomous  persistence  which 
had  pursued  his  father.  Alexander  married 
Dagmar  (re-baptized  into  the  Greek  Church  as 
Maria  Feoflorovna),  daughter  of  Christian  IX. 
of  Denmark,  November  0,  1863.  He  died  Novem- 
ber 1,  1894.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Nich- 
olas II. 

Consult:  Andrews,' Historical  Development  of 
Modem  Europe,  Volume  II.  (New  York,  1898)  ; 
Seignobos,  Political  History  of  Modem  Europe 
(Xew  York,  1900);  Samson  -  Himmelstierna, 
Russland  unter  Alexander  III.  mit  Ruckhlicken 
anf  die  jiingste  Vergangenheit  (Leipzig,  1891), 
translated  by  Morrison,  Russia  under  Alexander 
111.  and  in  the  Preceding  Period  (New  York, 
1893)  ;  Lowe,  C,  Alexander  III.  of  Russia  (Lon- 
don, 1895).  This  reign  has  claimed  very  little 
special  attention  from  historians. 

AXEXANBEB  I.  (c.  1078-1124).  King  of 
Scotland,  the  fourth  son  of  Malcolm  Canmore. 
He  succeeded  his  brother  Edgar,  in  1107,  but  he 
ruled  over  only  the  old  kingdom  of  Scotland, 
north  of  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  Cumbria  having 
been  made  practically  an  independent  principal- 
ity by  Edgar  on  his  deathbed.  Alexander  was 
called  "the  Fierce,"  as  a  result  of  his  campaign 
against  some  northern  clans  who  had  rebelled  be- 
cause of  their  aversion  to  the  introduction  of 
English  customs.  Alexander  was  naturally  in- 
clined to  follow  English  ways,  for  his  mother  was 
Mar^raret,  grandniece  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
his  wife  a  natural  daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  Eng- 


land, and  he  himself  had  been  educated  in  Eng- 
land. During  his  reign  there  was  peace  between 
England  and  Scotland.  Yet  he  worked  earnestly 
for  the  independence  of  Scotland,  and  especially 
to  free  the  Scottish  Church  from  its  subjection 
to  either  York  or  Canterbury.  He  bestowed  great 
gifts  on  the  Church,  and  founded  several  monas- 
teries, including  the  abbeys  of  Scone  and  Inch- 
colm.  He  died  April  27,  1124,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  David. 

ALEZANDEB  II.  (1198-1249).  King  of 
Scotland.  He  succeeded  his  father,  William  the 
Lion,  in  1214.  He  early  displayed  that  wisdom 
and  strength  of  character  by  which  he  won  the 
appellation  of  "the  peaceful,"  and  in  virtue  of 
which  he  holds  so  high  a  place  in  history  among 
Scottish  kings.  In  1214  he  joined  the  English 
barons  who  had  combined  to  resist  the  tyranny 
of  King  John,  and  who  secured  the  Magna 
Charta.  This  drew  down  upon  him  and  his 
kingdom  the  papal  excommunication;  but  sub- 
sequently the  ban  was  removed,  and  the  liber- 
ties of  the  Scottish  Church  were  confirmed.  On 
the  accession  of  Henry  III.  to  the  English 
throne,  Alexander  brought  the  feuds  of  the  two 
nations-  to  a  temporary  close  by  a  treaty  of 
peace  (1217),  and,  in  1221,  he  married  Henry's 
eldest  sister,  the  Princess  Joan.  The  alliance 
thus  established  was  broken  after  the  death, 
without  issue,  of  Queen  Joan  (1238),  and  the 
second  marriage  of  Alexander  with  the  daughter 
of  a  nobleman  of  France.  In  1244  Henry 
marched  against  Scotland  to  compel  Alexander's 
homage,  but  peace  was  concluded  without  an 
appeal  to  arms.  While  engaged  in  one  of  those 
warlike  expeditions  which  the  turbulence  of  his 
subjects  so  frequently  rendered  necessary,  Alex- 
ander died  of  fever  at  Kerrera,  a  small  island 
in  the  Bay  of  Oban. 

ATiEYANDEB  III.  (1241-85).  King  of 
Scotland.  He  succeeded  his  father,  Alexander 
IL,  in  1249,  and  two  years  afterward  he  mar- 
ried the  Princess  Margaret,  eldest  daughter  of 
Henry  III.  of  England.  Alexander's  minority 
enabled  Henry  to  prosecute  successfully  foV 
some  time  his  schemes  for  obtaining  entire  con- 
trol over  the  Scottish  kingdom;  but  long  before 
he  reached  manhood,  Alexander  displayed  so 
much  energy  and  wisdom  as  to  give  assurance 
that  when  the  administration  of  affairs  should 
come  under  his  personal  direction  it  would  be 
vain  to  think  of  reducing  him  to  submission. 
Very  shortly  after  he  had  come  of  age  his  ener- 
gies were  summoned  to  the  defense  of  his  king- 
dom against  the  formidable  invasion  of  Hakon, 
King  of  Norway  (1263),  who  claimed  the  sov- 
ereignty of  the  Western  Isles.  In  attempting  a 
landing  at  Largs,  on  the  coast  of  Ayr,  the  Nor- 
wegian prince  sustained  a  total  defeat,  and 
Alexander,  as  the  result  of  this  important  vic- 
tory, secured  the  allegiance  both  of  the  Hebrides 
and  of  the  Isle  of  Man.  An  alliance  was  formed 
between  Scotland  and  Norway,  and  strengthened 
in  1281  by  the  marriage  of  Alexander's  only 
daughter,  Margaret,  to  Eric,  King  of  Norway. 
This  princess  died  in  1283,  leaving  an  infant 
daughter,  Margaret,  commonly  called  the  Maiden 
of  Norway,  whose  untimely  death,  on  her  w^ay 
to  take  possession  of  her  throne,  was  the  occasion 
of  so  many  calamities  to  Scotland.  During  the 
concluding  years  of  Alexander's  reign  the  king- 
dom enjoyed  a  peace  and  prosperity  which  it  did 
not  taste  again  for  many  generations.    The  jus- 


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tice,  liberality,  and  wisdom  of  the  King  endeared 
his  memory  to  his  subjects,  while  the  misfor- 
tunes that  followed  his  death  heightened  the  na- 
tional sense  of  his  loss.  His  eldest  son,  Alexan- 
der, who  had  married  the  daughter  of  the  Count 
of  Flanders,  died  without  issue  in  1283.  Alexan- 
der contracted  a  second  marriage  in  1284  with 
Joleta,  daughter  of  the  Count  of  Dreux.  He 
was  killed  by  falling  from  a  precipice,  March 
16,  1285. 

ALEXANDEB  L  (1876^).  King  of  Ser- 
via.  The  son  of  King  Milan  and  Queen  Natalie, 
and  on  the  abdication  of  Milan,  in  1889,  he  was 
proclaimed  king,  under  a  regency.  In  1893  he 
assumed  personal  control  of  affairs,  and  in  1895 
promulgated  a  new  constitution.  In  July,  1900, 
he  married  Madame  Draga  Mashin,  a  widow 
much  older  than  himself. 

ALEXANDEB,  Abraham  (1718-86).  An 
American  legislator.  He  was  born  in  North 
Carolina,  and  in  early  life  was  a  magistrate  of 
Mecklenburg  County,  which  he  represented  in 
the  Colonial  Legislature  until  1775.  In  this  year 
he  served  as  chairman  of  the  county  convention, 
which,  on  May  31,  passed  a  series  of  resolutions, 
later  distorted  into  the  famous  "Mecklenburg 
Declaration  of  Independence''  (q.v.). 

ALEXANDEB,  Archibald  (1772-1851).  An 
American  Presbyterian  clergyman.  He  was 
born  in  Augusta  (now  Rockbridge)  County,  Va. 
He  was  self-educated,  and  was  led  to  religious 
study  in  the  revival  of  1789.  He  was  licensed 
to  preach  in  1791,  and  spent  several  yearis  as 
an  itinerant  missionarv,  and  was  president  of 
Hampden-Sidney  College,  1796-1801.  In  1802 
he  married  the  daughter  of  Rev.  Dr.  Waddell, 
the  blind  preacher  whose  eloquence  was  eulogized 
by  William  Wirt.  He  was  pastor  of  Pine  Street 
Presbyterian  Church,  Philadelphia,  from  1807  to 
1812,  and  was  at  the  organization  of  the  theo- 
logical seminary  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  at 
Princeton,  N.  J.  He  was  unanimously  chosen 
professor  of  theology,  the  position  which  he 
maintained  with  eminent  success  until  his  death 
there,  October  22,  1851.  His  best-known  work  is 
A  Brief  Outline  of  the  Evidences  of  the  Christian 
Religion  (Princeton,  1823), which  has  been  trans- 
lated into  many  languages  and  is  a  text-book 
in  colleges.  He  wrote  also  The  Canon  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testaments  Ascertained  (1826);  The 
Log  College  (1845),  and  Moral  Science^  which 
was  published  after  his  death  (1852).  Consult, 
for  his  life,  J.  W.  Alexander  (New  York,  1854). 

ALEXANDEB,  Barton  Stoxe  (1819-78). 
An  American  soldier.  He  was  born  in  Ken- 
tucky. He  graduated  at  West  Point  and  entered 
the  engineer  corps  in  1842.  He  was  engaged  in 
engineering  work  from  1842  to  1859,  superin- 
tending the  construction  of  the  military  asylum 
at  Washington,  the  marine  hospital  at  Chel- 
sea, Mass.,  and  the  Minot  Ledge  lighthouse,  and 
in  1860  was  employed  in  the  construction  of 
defenses  around  Washington.  Subsequently  he 
served  with  gallantry  in  the  Manassas  campaign 
and  in  the  battle  of  Bull  Run,  was  consulting 
engineer  on  the  staff  of  General  Sheridan 
(1864),  and  in  March,  1865,  was  brevetted 
brigadier-general.  For  two  years  (1865-67),  he 
was  in  charge  of  public  works  in  Maine.  He 
became  senior  engineer,  with  the  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant-colonel, in  1867,  and  he  was  a  member  of 
the  Pacific  board  of  engineers  for  fortifications 
from  that  time  until  his  death. 


ALEXANDEB,  Edward  Porter  (1835—). 
An  American  soldier  and  engineer.  He  was  bom 
at  Washington,  Ga.,  and  graduated  at  the  West 
Point  Military  Academy  in  1 857.  After  serving  as 
an  engineer  in  the  United  States  Army,  he 
joined  the  Confederacy  in  1861,  and  advanced  to 
the  rank  of  chief  of  ordnance  and  chief  signal 
officer  in  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  (1861- 
62).  In  February,  1804,  he  was  commissioned 
brigadier-general.  He  was  also  chief  of  artillery 
in  (jreneral  Longstreet's  corps,  and  served  in  thai 
capacity  in  the  battles  of  the  W'ildemess  and 
Spottsylvania,  and  at  the  siege  of  Petersburg. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  he  was  appointed  pro- 
fessor of  mathematics  and  engineering  at  the 
University  of  South  Carolina,  and  four  years 
afterward  began  his  career  as  general  manager 
and  president  of  various  Southern  railroads.  He 
was  a  government  director  of  the  Union  Pacific 
Kaili'oad  Company  from  1885  to  1887,  and  in 
1901,  as  engineer  arbitrator,  took  charge  of 
the  boundary  survey  between  Costa  Rica  and 
Nicaragua. 

ALEXANDEB,  George  (1858—).  An  Eng- 
lish actor  and  manager,  whose  full  name  is 
George  Alexander  Gibb  Samson.  He  was  bom 
at  Beading,  June  19,  1858,  and  was  educated  at 
Clifton,  Stirling,  and  Edinburgh.  Though  he 
studied  medicine  and  afterward  began  a  com- 
mercial career,  he  was  fond  of  amateur  acting, 
and  went  upon  the  professional  stage  in  1879. 
In  1881  he  joined  Irving's  company  at  the 
Lyceum,  where  later  he  won  particular  successes 
as  Faust  (1886)  and  Macduff  (1888).  In  the 
season  of  1884-85  he  accompanied  Mr.  Irving 
to  America.  Mr.  Alexander  began  management 
in  1890  at  the  Avenue  Theatre,  but  took  the  St. 
James  Theatre  in  the  next  year.  He  has  brought 
out  a  number  of  well-known  plays,  among  them 
The  Idler  (1891),  Lady  Windermere's  Fan 
(1892),  The  Second  Mrs.  Tanqueruy  (1893), 
The  Prisoner  of  Zenda  (1896),  and  In  Days  of 
Old  (1899),  besides  several  successful  Shake- 
spearean productions,  including  As  You  Like  It 
(1896),  and  Much  Ado  About  Nothing  (1898). 

ALEXANDER,  James  (1690-1756).  A  colo- 
nial lawyer.  He  was  born  in  Scotland,  emi- 
grated to  New  Jersey  in  1715,  practiced  law,  and 
was  temporarily  disbarred  for  defending  Peter 
Zenger  (q.v.),  when  he  w^as  accused  of  sedition 
in  1733.  He  held  many  responsible  public  of- 
fices, and  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Ameri- 
can Philosophical  Society.  He  was  the  father 
of  the  celebrated  revolutionary  soldier,  **Lord 
Stirling,"  or  William  Alexander   (q.v.). 

ALEXANDEB,  Sib  James  Edward  (1S03- 
85).  A  Scotch  officer,  traveler,  and  author.  He 
served  in  the  war  against  Burma  (1825),  and  in 
various  other  campaigns.  He  traveled  in  Per- 
sia and  South  America,  and  in  1836-37  con- 
ducted an  exploring  expedition  into  Africa.  He 
was  appointed  general  in  1882.  His  works  in- 
clude: Travels  from  India  to  England  (1827), 
Travels  Through  Russia  and  the  Crimea  (1830), 
Transatlantic  Sketches  (1833),  Expedition  of 
Discovery  into  the  Interior  of  Africa  (1838), 
L'Acadie  (1849),  Incide^its  of  the  Last  Maori 
War  ilSQS) ,  and  Bushfighting  (1873). 

ALEXANDEB,  James  Waddell  (1804-59). 
An  American  clergyman.  He  was  bom  near 
Gordonsville,  Louisa  County,  Va.,  March  13, 
1804,  a  son  of  Dr.  Archibald  Alexander. 
He    graduated    at    Princeton    College    in    1820 


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and  afterward  was  a  tutor  there.  He  was 
installed  pastor  of  the  Presbyterian  church 
at  Charlotte  Court  House,  Va.,  in  1827,  and  of 
the  First  Church  of  Trenton,  N.  J.,  in 
1829.  He  was  professor  of  BelJes  Lettres  and 
Latin  in  Princeton  College,  1833  to  1844,  pas- 
tor of  the  Duane  Street  Church,  New  York,  1844 
to  1849,  and  Professor  of  Ecclesiastical  History, 
Church  Government  and  Sacred  Rhetoric  in 
Princeton  Seminary,  1849-51.  When  the  Duane 
Street  Church  in  New  York  was  reorganized  as 
the  Fifth  Avenue  Church  at  the  corner  of  Nine- 
teenth Street,  he  again  became  its  pastor  and 
continued  to  be  until  his  death,  at  Red  Sweet 
Springs,  Va.,  July  31,  1859.  He  wrote  for  the 
Biblical  Repository,  Princeton  Review,  Presby- 
terian, American  Sunday  School  Union,  Ameri- 
can Tract  Society,  and,  under  the  name  "Csesari- 
ensis,"  for  the  Literary  World.  Among  his 
many  works  are  volumes  of  sermons:  Plain 
Words  to  a  Young  Communicant  (1854), 
Thoughts  on  Preaching  (1864),  The  American 
Mechanic  and  Workingman  (New  York,  1847, 
2  volumes),  and  a  biography  of  his  father 
(1854). 

ALEXANDEB,  John  Henry  (1812-67). 
An  American  scientist,  born  at  Annapolis, 
Md.,  and  educated  at  St.  John's  College 
there.  He  was  connected  with  the  Maryland 
geological  survev,  and  did  much  toward  opening 
the  coal  fields  of  that  State.  He  published,  in 
ISiO,  a  History  of  the  Metallurgy  of  Iron.  He 
was  active  in  estoblishing  a  uniform  standard  of 
weights  and  measures  throughout  the  United 
States,  and  published  a  Universal  Dictionary  of 
Weights  and  Measures  (1850).  He  also  strove 
for  an  international  coinage  between  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  United  States.  He  was  professor 
of  physics  for  two  years  in  St.  James  College, 
Md.,  and  held  a  similar  position  at  the  Univer- 
sity of  Pennsylvania.  Consult:  Hilgard,  Bio- 
graphical Memoir  of  John  H.  Alexander  (Wash- 
ington, 1877)  ;  National  Academy  of  Sciences, 
Biographical  Memoirs,  Volume  I.  (Washington, 
1866). 

ALEXANDEB  JOHN  1.  ( 1820-73) .  Prince  of 
Roumania  from  1859  to  1806.  He  was  a  Molda- 
vian boyar,  by  name  John  Cuza,  \Tho,  when  Mol- 
davia and  Wallachia  determined  to  form  a 
Roumanian  State,  was  elected  Prince  of  Rou- 
mania under  the  above  title  by  the  Assemblies. 
He  received  the  recognition  of  the  Sultan  in 
1861.  His  reign  was  arbitrary  and  unconstitu- 
tional, and  convinced  the  Roumanians  of  the  im- 
practicability of  having  as  sovereign  one  of  their 
own  number.  He  followed  the  example  of  Na- 
poleon III.  in  his  methods,  endeavoring  to  mask 
arbitrary  government  under  plebiscites  and  uni- 
versal suifrage.  He  became  exceedingly  unpop- 
ular, and  was  forced  £o  abdicate  in  1866. 

ALEXANDEB,  John  W.  (1856—).  An 
American  portrait  painter,  born  in  Allegheny 
City,  Pa.,  October  7,  1856.  He  was  a  pupil  at 
the  Royal  Academy  in  Munich,  and  also  studied 
under  Frank  Duveneck.  He  is  represented 
in  the  Luxembourg,  in  the  Pennsylvania  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  and  by  a  decoration, 
in  the  Congressional  Library  at  Washing- 
ton, and,  again,  in  the  Metropolitan  Museum  of 
Art,  New  York,  by  a  portrait  of  Walt  Whitman. 
It  is  the  decorative  quality  in  his  works  which 
first  arrests  attention;  they  have  a  quality  of 
distinction     and     a    marked     effect    of    chiar- 


oscuro. This  is  particularly  notable  in  the  por- 
trait of  Rodin,  which  was  exhibited  at  the  Paris 
Exposition  of  1900. 

ALEXANDEB,  Joseph  Addison  (1809-60). 
One  of  the  most  eminent  American  biblical 
scholars.  He  was  the  son  of  Dr.  Archibald 
Alexander,  and  was  born  in  Philadelphia,  April 
24,  1809.  He  was  a  pupil  of  his  father,  gradu- 
ated at  Princeton  College  in  1826,  was  adjunct 
professor  there  of  ancient  languages  and  litera- 
ture from  1830  to  1833,  instructor,  associate  pro- 
fessor, and  professor  of  Oriental  and  biblical  lit- 
erature in  Princeton  Seminary  from  1833  to 
1850;  of  church  history  and  government  from 
1851  to  1860,  of  New  Testament  literature  and 
biblical  Greek  from  1859  to  1860.  Among  his 
published  writings  are  commentaries  on  The 
Psalms  (New  York,  1850,  3  volumes)  ;  Isaiah 
(1846-47,  2  volumes);  Matthew  (1860);  Mark 
(1868);  Acts  (1856)  ;  all  drawn  largely  from 
German  sources.  He  was  an  admired  preacher 
{Sermons,  1860,  2  volumes).  He  died  at  Prince- 
ton, N.  J.,  Jan.  28,  1860.  Consult  his  Life  by 
H.  C.  Alexander   (New  York,  1869,  2  volumes). 

ALEXANDEB,  Legend  of.  A  famous  but 
largely  fictitious  account  of  the  adventures  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  which  was  the  basis  of  many 
romantic  works  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  origin- 
ated probably  at  Alexandria,  in  Egypt.  The  his- 
torical narrative  of  Callisthenes  (q.v.)  having 
been  lost,  there  appeared  about  200  a.d.  under  his 
name  (sometimes  referred  to  as  the  pseudo-Cal- 
listhenes)  a  Greek  story,  which  represented  Alex- 
ander as  really  the  son  of  Nectanebus,  the  last 
king  of  Egypt,  and  credited  him  with  a  fabulous 
series  of  exploits  in  connection  with  his  actual 
conquests.  This  was  translated  into  Latin  early 
in  the  fourth  century  by  Julius  Valerius.  His 
version  was  subsequently  abridged,  particularly 
in  the  account  called  Historia  de  Proeliis,  by 
Archbishop  Leo,  about  the  end  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury. About  the  twelfth  century,  the  period  of 
the  Chansons  de  geste  of  the  cycle  of  Charle- 
magne, several  French  poems  were  built  upon  the 
Alexander  Legend;  the  earliest  was  that  of  Al- 
beric  of  Besangon,  of  which  only  the  beginning  is 
extant;  the  best  known  is  the  great  Chanson 
d^ Alexandre,  by  Lambert  li  Cors  and  Alexandre 
de  Bernay.  The  twelve-syllable  lines  in  which 
this  was  written  gave  its  name  to  the  Alexan- 
drine verse.  The  Alexander  of  the  Middle  Ages 
was  essentially  a  mediaeval  knight  depicted  in 
the  manner  of  the  romancer's  own  ideals.  He  be- 
came one  of  the  "nine  worthies,"  and  one  of  the 
four  "kings"  in  the  game  of  cards.  More  or  less 
original  versions  of  the  legend  appear  in  poems 
of  nearly  every  European  country,  and  even  in 
the  Orient,  where  the  story  of  the  pseudo-Call is- 
thenes  was  rendered  into  Syrian  and  Armenian 
as  early  as  the  fifth  century.  Some  of  the  Slavic 
forms  of  the  tale  go  back  through  Byzantium  to 
this  Eastern  version.  Of  those  in  Western  Europe, 
most  notable  after  the  French  poems  are  per- 
haps those  in  German  by  Lamprecht,  who  trans- 
lated that  of  Alberic.  and  by  Rudolph  of  Hohe- 
nems,  of  the  thirteenth  century.  An  old  English 
version  of  Julius  Valerius  is  the  poem  called 
King  Alisaunder.  Consult:  Paul  Meyer,  A ?ea-a»- 
dre  Je  Grand,  histoire  de  la  Ugende  d* Alexandre 
dans  les  pays  romains  (Paris,  1886) ,  and  Spiegel, 
Die  Alexandersage  bei  den  Orientalen  (Leipzig, 
1851).  The  Latin  text  of  Julius  Valerius  was 
published  at  Milan,  1818. 


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ALEXANDER   JETOLUS. 


ALEXANDER,  Samuel  (1859 — ).  An  Eng- 
lish philosopher  and  educator,  bom  at  Syd- 
ney, N.  S.  W.  He  was  educated  at  the  University 
of  Melbourne  and  at  Balliol  College,  Oxford ;  was 
appointed  scholar  of  Balliol  in  1878  and  was 
Fellow  of  Lincoln  College  from  1882  to  1893.  In 
1893  he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  philosophy 
in  Owens  College  (Victoria  University).  In  ad- 
dition to  frequent  important  contributions  to  the 
International  Journal  of  Ethics,  to  Mind,  and 
other  technical  periodicals,  he  has  written  Moral 
Order  and  Progress  (London,  1889). 

ALEXANDER,  Stephen  (1806-83).  An 
American  astronomer.  He  was  born  at  Schenec- 
tady, N.  Y.,  and  was  educated  at  Union  College 
and  Princeton  Theological  Seminary.  He  re- 
mained at  Princeton,  becoming  adjunct  professor 
of  mathematics  (1834-45),  professor  of  mathe- 
matics (1845-54),  and  professor  of  astronomy 
from  1840  until  his  retirement  in  1878  as  profes- 
sor emeritus.  During  a  part  of  this  time  he  was 
professor  of  natural  philosophy.  In  1860  he  was 
at  the  head  of  the  expedition  Jto  Labrador  to  ob- 
serve the  solar  eclipse  of  July  18.  He  was  the 
author  of  many  scientific  papers,  chiefly  astro- 
nomical, such  as  Physical  Phenomena  Attendant 
Upon  Solar  Eclipses  (1843),  Origin  of  the  Forms 
<ind  Present  Condition  of  Some  of  the  Clusters  of 
£tars  (1850),  and  Harmonies  in  the  Arrange- 
ment of  the  Solar  System.  He  also  wrote  on  the 
Fundamental  Principles  of  Mathematics, 

ALEXANDER,  Sir  William,  Eabl  of  Stir- 
ling (c.  1568-1640).  A  Scottish  poet  and  states- 
man ;  born  probably  at  Menstrie.  He  was  educated 
at  Glasgow  University,  traveled  on  the  Continent, 
was  tutor  to  the  young  Earl  of  Argyle,  and  so 
found  access  to  the  court  of  James  I.  He  wrote 
sonnets,  the  Four  Monarchick  Tragedies,  Elegy 
on  the  Death  of  Prince  Henry,  Doomsday,  and 
many  minor  poems.  In  1621  he  received  the  larg- 
est gift  ever  bestowed  on  a  subject,  viz.,  a  "gift 
and  grant"  of  Canada,  including  Nova  Scotia  and 
Newfoundland;  a  striking  expression  of  royal 
ignorance  of  geographical  limits  iu  America. 
Charles  I.  confirmed  the  grant.  Alexander  was 
made  Secretary  of  State  for  Scotland  in  1626, 
and  in  1630  was  created  a  peer  as  Lord  Alexan- 
der of  Tullibody  and  Viscount  Stirling,  and  was 
made  judge  of  the  Sessions  in  1631.  The  next 
year  he  built  the  Argyle  House,  still  one  of  the 
sights  of  Stirling.  In  1633  he  was  made  Earl  of 
Stirling  and  Viscount  of  Canada,  and  in  1639 
Earl  of  Dovan.  Consult  Poetical  Works,  with 
memoir   (Glasgow,  1870-73). 

ALEXANDER,  William  (1726-83).  An 
American  soldier,  generally  called  "Lord  Stir- 
ling." He  was  born  in  New  York  City  and  was 
the  son  of  James  Alexander  (1690-1756),  a  colo- 
nial lawyer  and  attorney-general  of  New  York 
( 1721-23)  who  took  an  active  part  in  the  defense 
of  Zenger  (q.v.),  and  was  prominent  on  the  side 
of  the  colonists  in  the  early  disputes  with  the 
British  ministry.  He  served  in  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  first  as  commissary  and  then 
as  aide-de-camp  to  General  Shirley:  but  went 
to  England  in  1756  to  defend  Shirley 
against  the  charge  of  neglect  of  duty  (see 
Shirley,  Lord),  and  to  urge  his  claim  be- 
fore the  House  of  Lords  to  the  earldom  of 
Stirling,  through  descent  from  Sir  William  Alex- 
ander, Earl  of  Stirling  (1580-1640).  This  claim 
was  not  allowed,  and  in  1761  he  returned  to 
America.    He  soon  became  surveyor-general  and 


a  member  of  the  Provincial  Council,  and  in  N'o- 
vember,  1775,  enlisted  as  colonel  in  a  New  Jersey 
regiment.  In  January,  1776,  he  was  promoted  to 
the  rank  of  brigadier-general,  and  on  August  27 
took  a  conspicuous  part  in  the  battle  of  Long 
Island  ( q.v. ) ,  where  his  brigade  was  almost  an- 
nihilated and  he  himself  was  captured.  He  was 
exchanged  within  a  month,  became  a  major-gen- 
eral in  February,  1777,  served  with  great  gal- 
lantry and  efficiency  in  the  battles  of  Brandy- 
wine,  German  town,  and  Monmouth,  and  subse- 
quently was  in  command  at  Albany,  N.  Y.,  until 
his  death.  He  was  well  educated,  was  an  enthu- 
siastic student  of  mathematics  and  astronomy, 
and  was  one  of  the  founders  and  first  governor 
of  King's  College  (now  Columbia  University).  He 
published  a  pamphlet  entitled  The  Conduct  of 
Major-Oeneral  Shirley,  Briefly  Stated  (1756), 
and  An  Account  of  the  Cornet  of  June  and  July, 
1770.  Consult:  W.  A.  Duer,  Life  of  William  Alex- 
ander, Earl  of  Stirling,  in  the  collection  of  the 
New  Jersey  Historical  Society  for  1847,  and 
Charles  Rogers,  The  House  of  Alexander  (1877). 

ALEXANBEB,  William  (1824—).  Arch- 
bishop of  Armagh  and  primate  of  all  Ireland.  He 
was  born  at  Londonderry  and  was  educated  at 
Tunbridge  School  and  at  Exeter  and  Brasenose 
Colleges,  Oxford.  After  entering  holy  orders  he 
first  served  a  curacy  in  the  north  of  Ireland, 
and  later  became  chaplain  to  the  Marquis 
of  Abercorn,  Ix)rd  Lieutenant  of  Ireland.  He 
then  successively  occupied  the  positions  of 
Dean  of  Emly  (1863)  and  Bishop  of  Derry  and 
Raphoe  (1867).  In  1896  he  was  enthroned  as 
Archbishop  of  Armagh.  The  Bishop,  who  has  been 
select  preacher  before  the  Universities  of  Oxford 
(1870-72  and  1882),  Cambridge  (1872  and  1892) 
and  Dublin  ( 1879) ,  is  the  author  of  the  following 
important  works:  Witness  of  the  Psalms  to 
Christ  (Bampton  Lectures,  1874,  third  edition), 
Verhum  Cruoia  (fifth  edition).  Discourses  on 
Epistles  of  St,  John  (sixth  edition),  Commentar- 
ies on  Epistles  to  Colossians,  Thessalonians, 
Philemon  (Speakers'  Commentaries,  Volumes 
IV.,  v.). 

ALEXANBEB,  William  Lindsay  (1808-84). 
A  Scotch  divine,  born  in  Edinburgh.  He  was  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh  and  St.  Andrew's,  became  pas- 
tor in  Edinburgh,  1835,  and  professor  of  theology 
in  the  Congregational  Theological  Hall  in  that 
city,  1854.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment Company  of  the  Bible  Revision  Committee. 
His  publications  embrace,  The  Connection  and 
Harmony  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  (Lon- 
don, 1841;  second  edition,  1853);  The  Ancient 
British  Church  (1852;  edited  by  S.  G.  Green, 
1891)  ;  Christ  and  Christianity  (1854)  ;  Life  of 
Ralph  Wardlaw,  D.D.  (Edinburgh,  1856)  ;  Ijahor 
and  Adventure  in  Northern  Europe  and  Russia 
(edited  by  J.  Patcrson,  D.D.,  London,  1858): 
A  Commentary  on  Deuteronomy  (1881),  and  one 
on  Zechariah  (1885),  edited  with  a  life;  Charles 
Ferme's  Analysis  on  Romans  and  A.  Melville's 
Commentary  on  Romans;  both  translated  from 
Latin  (Edinburgh,  1860)  ;  and  the  third  edition 
of  Kitto's  Biblical  Encyclopcedia  (1862-66.  3 
volumes),  translated,  Haevernick's  Introdurtion 
(1852),  and  part  of  Dorner's  Person  of  Christ 
(1861.  For  his  biography,  consult  J.  Ross  (Ed- 
inburgh, 1886). 

ALEXANDEB  .fflTCLXTS  (Gk.  'AU^avApo^ 
6  AiTuXo^y  Alexandras  ho  Aitolos).  A  Greek 
poet  of  the  third  century  B,c.     He  was  born  in 


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ALEXANDER   OF   HALE& 


j^tolia,  but  lived  mainly  at  Alexandria,  where 
he  was  considered  one  of  the  seven  poets  of  the 
Alexandrian  tragic  pleiad.  He  also  wrote  short 
epics,  elegies,  and  epigrams,  of  which  fragments 
haVe  been  preserved.  These  fragments,  published 
in  Bergk's  Poetw  Lyrici,  attest  the  cultivated 
taste  of  the  writer,  and  prove  him  one  of  the  im- 
mediate predecessors  of  Callimachus.  See  Gouat's 
La  Poisie  Alexandrine  (1882). 

ALEXANBEB  ABCHTPELAGO.  A  group 
of  over  1100  islands  and  islets  off  the  west  coast 
of  Alaska,  United  States,  in  lat.  54*^  40'  to  68*» 
25'  N.  The  largest  are  Chichagov,  Baranov, 
Kupreanov,  Kulu,  Admiralty,  and  Prince  of 
Wales.  The  town  of  Sitka  is  on  Baranov  Is- 
land. 

AIiEXANBEB  BA^jAS.  A  man  of  lowly 
origin  whose  private  name  was  Balas  or  Baal, 
and  who  possessed  a  striking  resemblance  to 
Antiochus  V.,  Kupator,  and  was  therefore  pre- 
sented by  Attalus  of  Pergamus,  as  a  son  of 
Antiochus  IV.,  Epiphanes,  and  a  claimant  to  the 
Seleueid  throne.  He  was  successful  against 
Demetrius  Soter,  and  reigned  as  King  of  Syria 
from  154  to  145  B.C.  His  first  official  act  was 
to  appoint  Jonathan  the  Hasmoniean  as  high 
priest,  an  office  which  the  latter  publicly  assumed 
at  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  153  B.C.  In  150  B.C. 
Alexander  married  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Ptol- 
emy VII.,  Philometor,  and  on  that  occasion  con- 
ferred on  Jonathan  the  titles  of  military  and  civil 
governor.  In  147  B.C.  Apollonius,  Governor  of 
Coele-Syria,  took  up  arms  for  Demetrius  II.,  but 
was  defeated  by  Jonathan  at  Ashdod.  The  Has- 
monsans  had  every  reason  to  be  pleased  with  Al- 
exander Balas.  But  he  was  an  incapable  and  cor- 
rupt ruler  and  hated  by  his  soldiers,  who  de- 
serted him  in  145  n.c.  He  fled  to  Abbs,  in  Ara- 
bia, and  was  there  assassinated. 

AI^BXAWDEB  COI/XJIIN  (Russ.  Alekaan- 
drovakaya  Kolonna).  A  monument  to  Alexander 
I.  of  Russia.    See  St.  Petebsbubo. 

AXEXANDEB  FALLS.     See  Hay  River. 

ALEXANBEB  JAKNM^S  (Lat.  form  of 
Heb.  Yannai,  Jonathan  ( ? — 78  B.c. ) .  King  of  the 
Jews  from  104  to  78  b.c.  He  was  warlike  and  en- 
ergetic, and  during  his  reign  extended  the  fron- 
tiers of  the  kingdom  toward  the  west  and  the 
south.  Defeated  by  Ptolemy  Lathyrus  in  Galilee, 
he  formed  an  alliance  with  Cleopatra  of  Egypt, 
and  drove  the  invader  from  the  country. 
Wars  with  the  Moabites,  the  Ammonites,  and 
the  Arabians  engaged  his  attention  till  the  day 
of  his  death.  Internally  his  reign  was  marked 
by  bitter  conflicts  between  the  Sadducees,  of 
which  party  the  King  was  the  head,  and  the  Phar- 
isees, who  comprised  the  vast  mass  of  the  people. 
It  is  estimated  that  50,000  people  perished  in  the 
civil  strife.  In  putting  down  a  revolt  at  Jerusa- 
lem he  slaughtered  6(H)0  of  the  insurgents,  and 
in  the  year  86,  returning  triumphantly  from  ex- 
ile, where  he  had  been  driven  by  the  Pharisees, 
he  caused  800  rebels  to  be  crucified  in  his  pres- 
ence and  their  wives  and  children  to  be  butchered 
before  their  eyes.  Consult:  Josephus,  Antiquitiea 
of  the  Jews,  Book  xiii:  chaps.  12-15;  and  Jewish 
War,  Book  i  :  c.  4. 

AIiBXANDEB  KABAGEOBGEVITCH, 
ka'ril-gft-6r'gA-vTch  (1806-85).  Prince  of  Servia, 
born  at  Topola.  He  was  for  a  time  an  officer  in 
the  Russian  army,  and  was  chosen  prince  in  1842. 
Wholly  under  Austrian  influence,  he  angered  the 
Vol.  I.-91 


National  party  by  his  neutrality  during  the 
Crimean  War,  and  in  1858  was  deposed.  He 
was  accused  of  conspiracy  in  the  murder  of  the 
Prince  Michael  (1868),  and  was  sentenced  to  an 
imprisonment  of  twenty  years  in  contumaciam. 
The  few  reforms  accomplished  during  his  reign 
are  not  to  be  attributed  to  him. 

ALEXANDEB  LAND.  A  land  area  in  the 
Antarctic  (lat.  68''  43'  S.,  long.  70*»  to  75"  W.) 
discovered  by  Bellingshausen  in  1821. 

ALEXANDEB  NEVSKI,  nSf^sk^  (1220-63). 
A  Russian  hero  and  saint  He  was  born  at  Vlad- 
imir,  the  son  of  Prince  Yaroslav  of  Novgorod. 
In  order  to  defend  the  country,  which  was 
attacked  on  all  sides,  but  especially  by  the  Mon- 
gols, his  father  left  Novgorod,  intrusting  the 
government  \o  his  sons,  Peodor  and  Alexander. 
Feodor  died  soon  after.  Alexander  vigorously  re- 
sisted the  enemy,  but  Russia  was  forced  to  sub- 
mit to  the  Mongol  dominion  in  1240  a.d.  Alex- 
ander now  fought  to  defend  the  western  frontier 
against  the  Danes,  the  Swedes,  and  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  He  received  the  surname  of  Nevski  from 
the  splendid  victory  over  the  Swedes,  which  he 
won  m  1240  on  the  Neva,  in  the  region  where 
St.  Petersburg  now  stands.  In  1242  on  the  ice 
of  Lake  Peipus  he  defeated  the  Livonian  Knights 
of  the  Sword,  who  had  been  instigated  by  the 
Pope  to  attack  the  Russian  heretics.  Upon 
the  death  of  his  father,  in  1246,  he  became 
Prince  of  Vladimir.  Pope  Innocent  IV.  made  a 
diplomatic  attempt  in  1251  to  reunite  the  Greek 
and  Roman  Churches,  since  his  military  scheme 
had  failed,  and  with  this  end  in  view  sent  an 
embassy  to  Alexander,  which,  however,  proved 
ineffectual.  To  the  end  of  his  life  Alexander  re- 
mained a  vassal  of  the  Tartars  or  Mongols. 
Thrice  he  had  to  renew  his  oath  of  fealty  to  the 
Asiatic  barbarians,  making  in  each  instance  a 
journey  to  their  camp.  He  died  November  14, 
1263,  on  his  return  from  the  last  of  these  jour- 
neys. The  gratitude  of  the  nation  perpetuated 
his  memory  m  popular  songs,  and  even  canonized 
him.  Peter  the  Great  honored  his  memory  in 
1723  by  building  a  magnificent  convent  on  the 
spot  where  he  had  fought  his  great  battle,  and 
in  1725  founded  the  knightly  order  of  St.  Alex- 
ander Nevski. 

ALEXANDEB  OF  APH'BODISOAa  A 
Peripatetic  philosopher,  who  was  bom  at  Aphro- 
disias  in  Carta  and  lived  about  200  a.d.  He  was 
the  most  learned  and  intelligent  Greek  commen- 
tator of  Aristotle  (especially  on  the  metaphysics) 
and  was  known  as  "The  Exegetes,"  or  "The  Ex- 
pounder." His  works  were  early  translated  into 
Latin,  and  are  in  large  part  preserved.  He  also 
wrote  original  treatises,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  those  On  Fate  and  On  the  Soul,  At  the 
time  .of  the  Renaissance,  a*  philosophic  school 
which  adopted  Aristotle's  views  on  immortality 
was  named  after  him  "the  Alexandrist"    (q.v.). 

ALEXANDEB  OF  HALES,  hdlz  (Lat. 
Alexander  Halensis)  (? — 1245).  A  famous  Eng- 
lish theologian,  known  as  "the  Irrefragable  Doc- 
tor." He  was  born  in  Hales,  Gloucestershire,  but 
had  attended  the  schools  of  Paris,  had  taken  the 
degree  of  doctor,  and  had  become  a  noted  profess- 
or of  philosophy  and  theology  there,  when 
(1222)  he  suddenly  entered  the  Order  of  the 
Franciscans  and  became  a  lecturer  among  them. 
He  resigned  in  1238,  and  died  as  a  simple  monk 
in  Paris,  1245.  His  chief  and  only  authentic 
work  is  the  Summu  Universes  Theologiw    (best 


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ALEXANDRE   LE   GBAKD. 


edition,  Venice,  1576,  4  volumes),  written  at  the 
command  of  Pope  Innocent  IV.,  and  enjoined  by 
his  successor,  Alexander  IV.,  to  be  used  by  all 
professors  and  students  of  theology  in  Christen- 
dom. Alexander  gave  the  doctrines  of  the  Church 
a  more  rigorously  syllogistic  form  than  they  had 
previously  had,  and  may  thus  be  considered  as 
the  author  of  the  scholastic  theology.  Instead  of 
appealing  to  tradition  and  authority,  he  deduces 
with  great  subtlety,  from  assumed  premises,  the 
most  startling  doctrines  of  Catholicism,  especial- 
ly in  favor  of  the  prerogatives  of  the  papacy.  He 
refuses  any  toleration  to  heretics,  and  would  have 
them  deprived  of  all  property;  he  absolves  sub- 
jects from  all  obligation  to  obey  a  prince  who  is 
not  obedient  to  the  Church.  The  spiritual  power, 
which  blesses  and  consecrates  kings,  is,  by  that 
very  fact,  above  all  temporal  powers,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  essential  dignity  of  its  nature.  It  has 
the  right  to  appoint  and  to  judge  these  powers, 
while  the  Pope  has  no  jiidge  but  God.  In  ecclesi- 
astical affairs,  also,  he  maintains  the  Pope's  au- 
thority to  be  full,  absolute,  and  superior  to  all 
laws  and  customs.  The  points  on  which  Alexan- 
der exercises  his  dialectics  are  sometimes  simply 
ludicrous;  as  when  he  discusses  the  question 
whether  a  mouse  that  should  nibble  a  consecrated 
wafer  would  thereby  eat  the  body  of  Christ. 

ALEXANDEB  OF  THE  KOBTH,  The. 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden.  Sometimes  so-called 
from  his  warlike  exploits. 

ALEXANDEB  POL'YHI£rrOB  ( Gk.  HoXv/ff- 
Tcip,  polyhistGr,  very  learned).  A  famous  his- 
torian of  the  first  century  B.C.,  who  was  a 
native  of  Cottyacum,  in  Phrygia,  but  was  edu- 
cated at  Miletus.  In  Sulla's  war  against  Mith- 
ridates  he  was  taken  captive  and  brought  to 
Rome,  where  Cornelius  Lentulus  gave  him  his 
freedom.  Sulla  afterward  granted  him  Roman 
citizenship.  Alexander  gained  the  surname  Poly- 
histor  because  of  the  great  number  of  his  his- 
torical works;  but  he  also  wrote  on  geography, 
grammar,  science,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy.  All 
of  his  books  have  perished;  but  they  were  ex- 
tensively quoted  by  Pliny  the  Elder,  Diogenes 
Laertius,  and  particularly  Clement  of  Alexan- 
dria and  Eusebius.  These  excerpts  show  him  to 
have  been  a  rather  poor  compiler  without  marked 
literary  ability  or  historical  judgment.  But  he 
was  evidently  a  great  reader,  and  he  perused  Jew- 
ish and  Samaritan  works  as  well  as  Greek  au- 
thors. Thus  the  world  is  indebted  to  Alexander 
for  all  extant  information  concerning  such  Jew- 
ish writers  as  Philo,  the  epic  poet:  Ezekiel,  the 
tragedian;  Eupolemus,  the  historian;  Demetrius 
or  Artapanus,  the  chronicler;  Aristeas,  the  his- 
torian, and  such  Samaritan  writers  as  Theodotus 
and  Molon.  The  genuineness  of  these  fragments 
has  been  doubted  by  Ranch  and  Cruice;  but  the 
defense  by  Muller,'Freudenthal,  and  Schlirer  is 
quite  convincing.  Alexander  refers  twice  to  the 
Bible,  and  gives  from  Berosus  the  story  of  the 
Deluge  and  possibly  also  the  legend  of  the  con- 
fusion of  tongues.  The  text  of  the  fragments  will 
be  found  in  Eusebius,  Prceparatio  Evangelica 
(London,  1842),  Clement,  mromata,  i.,  21,  130 
(Oxford,  1869)  ;  MUller,  Fragmenta,  iii.,  211  ff., 
and  translated  in  I.  R.  Cory's  Ancient  Fragments 
(London,  1876),  J.  Freudenthal,  Hellenistiache 
Studien  (Breslau,  1875),  and  E.  SchUrer's 
Oeschichte  dcs  Jiidischen  VolkeSy  iii.,  346  ff. 
(Leipzig,  1898),  discuss  excellently  the* question 
of  their  genuineness. 


ALEXANDEB  SEVE'BXJS  (c.  205-235).  Em- 
peror of  Rome  from  222  to  235  and  cousin, adopted 
son,  and  successor  of  Elagabalus.  The  excellent  ed- 
ucation which  he  received  from  his  mother,  Julia 
Mammfca,  rendered  him  one  of  the  best  princes 
in  an  age  when  virtue  was  reckoned  more  dan- 
gerous than  vice  in  a  monarch.     He  sought  the 
society  of  the  learned;  Paulus  and  Ulpian  were 
his  counselors,  Plato  and  Cicero  were,  next  to 
Horace   and   Vergil,  his   favorite   authors.    Al- 
though a  pagan,  he  reverenced  the  doctrines  of 
Christianity,    and    often    quoted    that   saying: 
"Whatsover  ye  would  that  men  should  do  to  you, 
do  ye  even  so  to  them."    Beloved  as  he  was  by 
the  citizens  on  account  of  his  equity,  he  soon  be 
came  an  object  of  hatred  to  the  unruly  Praetorian 
Guards.  His  first  expedition,  against  Artaxerxes, 
King  of  Persia,  was  happily  terminated  by  a 
speedy  overthrow  of  the  enemy.    But  during'one 
which  he  undertook  against  the  Grermans  on  the 
Rhine,  to  defend  the  frontiers  of  the  Empire  from 
their    incursions,    an    insurrection    broke    out 
among   his   troops,   headed   by    Maximinus,  in 
which  Alexander  was  murdered,  along  with  his 
mother,  not  far  from  Mainz.    The  grateful  peo- 
ple,   however,    enrolled    him    among    the   gods. 
After  his  death,  military  despotism  obtained  the 
ascendency. 

ATiEXANPEB'S  FEAST,  or  the  Power  of 
Music.  An  ode  written  by  John  Dryden  for  St 
Cecilia's  Day,  1697.  It  contains  a  number  of 
lines  no^  familiar  from  quotation. 

ATiEYANPEB,  The  Paphi«agoxian.  A  cele- 
brated impostor  of  the  early  part  of  the  sec- 
ond century  a.d.,  of  whom  Lucian  gives  a. 
description.  He  was  born  at  Abonouteichos,  in 
Asia  Minor,  and  after  being  for  some  time  asso- 
ciated with  another  charlatan  named  Cocconas, 
of  Byzantium,  returned  to  his  native  place  and 
established  a  pretended  oracle  of  .^Esculapius, 
whom  he  showed  in  the  form  of  a  serpent.  Here 
he  gained  great  reputation,  which  extended  even 
to  Italy.  He  was  especially  resorted  to  during 
the  plague  of  166  a.d. 

AI<'EXAya)BA,  Caroline  Marie  Charlotte 
Louise  Julie  (1844 — ).  Queen  of  England.  She 
is  the  daughter  of  Christian  IX.,  King  of  Den- 
mark, and  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  December  1, 
1844.  She  was  married  to  Albert  Edward,  Prince 
of  Wales,  March  10,  1863,  and  has  had  three 
sons  (two  of  whom  have  since  died)  and  three 
daughters.  She  visited  Russia  at  the  time  of  the 
death  of  Alexander  III.,  and  has  also  made  sev- 
eral visits  to  Denmark.  She  is  interested  in 
many  benevolent  enterprises,  and  is  an  accom- 
plished musician,  holding  the  degree  of  honorary 
musical  doctor.  Upon  the  accession  of  Albert 
Edward  (q.v.)  to  the  throne  (1901),  she  became 
Queen  of  England.   See  Edward  VII. 

AXEXANDBAy  Feodorovna.  Empress  of 
Russia.    See  Nicholas  II. 

ALEXANDBE,  n&kB-an'dr&,  Rarbi  Aarox 
(c.  1766-1850).  A  German  chess-player,  bom 
at  Hohenfeld,  Bavaria.  He  went  to  Strassburg 
in  1893  as  an  instructor  in  German,  and  subse- 
quently to  Paris  and  London.  He  published  an 
EncyclopMie  dee  tehees  (1837) ,  and  a  Collection 
des  phiA  beaux  prohUmea  d*6checs  (1846),  both 
still  valuable. 

ALEXANDBE  LE  GBAND,  &n&ks'ftivMr'  k 
grftN'.  The  name  of  a  tragedy  by  Racine,  pro- 
duced in  1665.     The  actress  who  played  Axiane 


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AIiEXANBBE  LE   GBAND. 


323 


ALEXAKDBIA. 


In  this  piece  was  the  cause  of  a  bitter  rivalry 
between  Racine  and  Moli^re. 

AL^EX  A  TTOBET^T A,  or  ISKANBEBUN, 
Is-kiin'de-roon'.  A  seaport  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  in 
the  vilayet  of  Adana,  on  the  Gulf  of  Iskanderun, 
which  forms  the  extreme  northeast  nook  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  G  4) . 
It  is  surrounded  by  hills  in  a  very  picturesque 
locality.  The  harbor  is  naturally  one  of  the 
best  on  this  coast.  The  town  is  the  seat  of  an 
extensive  trade  in  silk  goods,  cloth,  and  some 
raw  products,  amounting  to  about  $5,000,000 
annually.  The  population  is  estimated  all  the 
way  from  1600  to  7000.  Alexandretta  is  the 
seat  of  a  United  States  vice-consul. 

AliEXANDBI,  aaeks-^nMrd.     See  Alecsan- 

DRI. 

AIi'EXANa)BIA  (Ar.  Iskanderieh) .  A  city 
founded  by  Alexander  the  Great,  in  the  win- 
ter of  332  B.G.,  on  the  site  of  an  Egyptian 
town.  Rhacotis  (Map:  Africa,  G^^  1).  It  was 
situated  at  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile,  on 
the  low  ridge  separating  Lake  Mareotis  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  was  laid  out  by  the  architect 
Dinocrates  of  Rhodes  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
gram, with  two  main  streets,  crossing  at  right 
angles,  though  somewhat  to  the  north  and  east 
of  the  centre  lines.  The  other  streets  were 
also  at  right  angles  with  one  another,  and 
the  arrangement  seems  to  have  remained 
undisturbed  for  a  long  period,  although  the 
level  of  the  city  was  raised  and  new  streets 
laid  out  above  the  old  ones.  The  city  had  a  fine 
double  harbor,  formed  by  building  a  mole  (the* 
Heptastadion),  seven  furlongs  in  length,  to  the 
island  of  Pharos,  on  the  northeast  end  of  which 
was  a  lighthouse,  regarded  as  one  of  the  wonders 
of  the  world.  (See  Phabos.)  The  small  harbor, 
on  the  west,  was  open,  but  the  large  harbor  was 
entered  only  by  a  narrow  passage  between  the 
Pharos  and  a  mole  built  out  from  the  promon- 
tory Lochias  on  the  east  of  the  city.  The  city 
grew  rapidly,  and  became  one  of  the  chief  centres 
of  the  trade  between  the  east  and  the  west,  while 
the  generous  policy  of  the  Ptolemies,  who  made  it 
their  capital,  attracted  a  large  foreign  popula- 
tion. 

Egyptians,  Greeks,  and  Jews  were  the*  chief 
elements,  each  gathering  in  a  special  quarter 
of  the  city.  On  Lochias  was  the  royal  palace, 
and  the  neighboring  part  of  the  city  was  filled 
with  magnificent  buildings,  including  the  mu- 
seum and  the  famous  library  (see  Alexandri- 
an Libbabt),  the  monument  of  Alexander, 
the  gi-aves  of  the  Ptolemies,  the  temple  of 
Poseidon,  and  the  Csesareum — afterward  a 
church,  and  once  marked  by  the  .two  obelisks 
known  as  Cleopatra's  needles,  of  which  one  was 
transported  to  the  Thames  Embankment  in  Lon- 
don in  1878,  and  the  other  to  Central  Park,  New 
York,  in  1881.  These  obelisks  were  originally 
erected  by  Thothmes  III.,  and  were  brought  to 
Alexandria  by  the  Romans.  Near  here  was  the 
great  emporium,  and  somewhat  to  the  south  lay 
the  Bruchion  {Ppi^x^ov  >,  a  residence  quarter.  The 
great  temple  of  Serapis  lay  in  the  southwest,  or 
Egyptian  quarter,  where  now  stands  a  solitary 
column,  the  so-called  Pompey's  Pillar,  a  mono- 
lith of  red  granite  73  feet  high,  erected  in  302  a.d. 
by  the  Roman  eparch,  Porapeius,  in  honor  of  Dio- 
cletian. Earthauakes  and  fioods  have  changed 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  but  few  remains 
are  now  visible,  though  excavations  conducted 


for  Napoleon  III.  in  1866  by  Mahmoud  Bey  re- 
vealed a  number  of  paved  streets,  and  those  of 
1898-99  by  Dr.  Noack  have  thrown  much  light 
upon  the  successive  periods  of  building  in  the 
city.  The  original  foundations  of  the  time  of 
Alexander  rest  on  the  natural  rock,  and  are  about 
14%  feet  below  the  paved  streets,  which  seem  to 
belong  to  an  extensive  rebuilding  of  the  city  by 
Antoninus  Pius,  and  are  now  covered  with  the 
earth  on  which  the  modern  city  stands.  The  pol- 
icy of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  and  his  immediate 
successors  drew  not  only  traders  but  learned 
men  to  the  city,  and  Alexandria  became  the  cen- 
tre of  Greek  intellectual  life  during  the  third 
and  second  centuries  b.c.  (See  Alexandrian 
Age.)  The  city  also  developed  a  very  charac- 
teristic type  of  art,  which  vied  with  that  of  Per- 
gamus,  and  seems  to  have  had  great  infiuence  on 
the  west.  Alexandrian  influence  is  marked  at 
Pompeii  and  in  Provence.  Consult  Mahmoud 
Bey,  Mimoire  sur  V Antique  Alexandrie  (Copen- 
hagen, 1872). 

In  30  B.C.  Egypt  passed  into  the  hands  of  the 
Romans  under  Octavius.  Under  Roman  rule  Al- 
exandria lost  much  of  its  former  preeminence  as 
the  capital  of  the  Hellenistic  world;  and  though 
for  many  centuries  it  continued  to  be  one  of 
the  greatest  cities  of  the  Empire,  its  decline 
from  the  magnificent  prosperity  it  had  enjoyed 
under  the  Ptolemies  was  rapid  after  the  first 
century  of  the  Christian  era.  The  Jewish  inhab- 
itants of  Alexandria  joined  in  the  great  national 
revolt  of  116  a.d.,  and  in  the  desperate  struggle 
which  ensued  the  Jewish  population  was  anni- 
hilated and  a  large  part  of  the  city  was  de- 
stroyed. The  excesses  of  the  Alexandrian  mob, 
famous  throughout  the  empire  for  its  fickleness 
and  its  violence,  plunged  the  city  into  misfortune 
twice  during  the  third  century.  In  215  the  se- 
ditious conduct  of  the  populace  led  to  a  general 
massacre  of  the  inhabitants  at  the  order  of  the 
Emperor  Caracalla.  Forty-five  years  later  civil 
war  broke  out  among  the  different  quarters  of 
the  city,  lasting  for  twelve  years  and  resulting 
in  the  destruction  of  the  Bruchion,  the  richest 
district  of  Alexandria,  with  its  ancient  palaces, 
temples,  and  public  buildings.  With  the  rise 
of  Alexandria  as  one  of  the  great  Christian  cap- 
itals of  the  empire,  religious  tumult  took  the 
place,  in  large  measure,  of  political  dissension, 
and  paganism  and  Christianity  fought  out  their 
battle  in  many  bloody  riots.  The  triumph  of 
the  new  faith  was  signalized  in  389  by  the 
destruction  of  the  Serapion,  the  last  refuge  of 
the  pagan  belief,  but  religious  peace  was  by  no 
means  secured.  Between  413  and  415  the  patri- 
arch Cyril  led  mobs  of  monks  against  the  heretics 
and  Jews,  and  one  of  these  militant  bands  tore 
to  pieces  the  beautiful  pagan  priestess,  Hypatia 
(q.v.).  In  616  Alexandria  was  taken  by  Chos- 
roes.  King  of  Persia.  In  December,  641,  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Amru,  the  Mohammedan  con- 
queror of  Egypt.  The  story  of  the  destruction 
of  the  famous  library  at  the  command  of  the 
Caliph  Omar  is  discredited.  With  the  Arabian 
conquest  a  period  of  swift  decay  set  in.  The 
commerce  of  the  city  was  almost  entirely  divert- 
ed to  other  cities,  the  last  remnants  of  its  pros- 
perity being  destroyed  by  the  discovery  of  the 
all-water  route  to  India.  Toward  the  end  of 
the  eighteenth  century  its  population  was  prob- 
ably less  than  7000.  On  July  2,  1798,  Alexan- 
dria was  taken  by  the  French,  who  held  it  until 
August  31,  1801.     In  the  nineteenth  century  the 


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ALEZANDBIA. 


324 


ALEXANDBIA. 


city  entered  upon  a  new  era  of  prosperity  under 
the  wise  rule  of  Mehemet  Ali.  During  the  dis- 
turbances in  connection  with  the  rebellion  of 
Arabi  Pasha  (q.v.),  Alexandria  was  bombarded 
by  the  English  fleet  under  Admiral  Seymour, 
July  1M2,  1882. 

Modern  Alexandria  is  divided  into  two  parts. 
The  peninsula  between  the  eastern  and  western 
harbors  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Mohammedans. 
It  has  crooked  and  narrow  streets,  a  large  num- 
ber of  mosques,  and  with  the  exception  of  the 
palaces  of  the  wealthy  Turks,  few  buildings  wor- 
thy of  notice.  The  European  quarter  is  situ- 
ated on  the  mainland  south  of  ttie  eastern  har- 
bor. It  is  well  built,  and  has  many  of  the 
improvements  essential  to  a  modern  city.  The 
centre  of  the  European  city  is  the  Mehemet  Ali 
Square,  containing  the  statue  of  Mehemet  Ali 
and  surrounded  by  the  official  buildings  and  the 
finest  residences  of  the  Europeans.  There  are 
three  theatre,  a  number  of  churches  of  different 
denominations,  and  the  museum  of  Grseco-Roman 
antiquities.  Alexandria  has  two  harbors.  The 
eastern  is  accessible  only  for  vessels  of  very  light 
draught,  and  is  used  mostly  by  fishing  vessels. 
The  western  harbor  is  the  chief  shipping  centre, 
and  is  visited  annually  by  over  2800  vessels,  with 
a  total  tonnage  of  about  2,500,000.  There 
is,  besides,  the  outer  harbor,  protected  by  a 
mole  nearly  two  miles  long.  Alexandria  is  at 
present  one  of  the  chief  commercial  ports  on 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  principal  port  of 
Egypt.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are 
grain,  cotton,  beans,  sugar,  and  rice.  With 
Cairo,  Alexandria  is  connected  by  rail  since  1855 
and  by  the  Mahmudieh  Canal.  Along  the  latter 
are  situated  the  summer  residences  of  the  Euro- 
peans. It  is  also  connected  by  cable  lines  with 
Malta,  Cyprus,  Crete,  and  Port  Said.  The  pop- 
ulation was  320,000  in  1897.  It  consists  chiefly 
of  Mohammedans,  with  about  60,000  Europeans, 
mostly  Greeks  and  Italians.  Consult:  Sharpe, 
Alexandrian  Chronology  (London,  1857)  ;  Kings- 
ley,  Historical  Lectures  and  Essays  (New  York, 
1889).    See  Egypt. 

ALEXANDRIA,  rieks-ilnMr^ft.  The  princi- 
pal town  of  the  district  of  the  same  name  in  the 
government  of  Kherson,  Russia,  situated  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Berezovka  and  Ingulets  rivers, 
210  miles  from  the  city  of  Kherson,  and  about 
950  miles  from  St.  Petersburg  (Map:  Russia, 
D  5).  The  principal  occupations  of  its  inhab- 
itants are  farming  and  cattle-raising,  and  much 
activity  is  displayed  in  its  tanning,  soap,  and 
candle-making  industries.  Pop.,  1885,  17,400; 
1897,  14,000. 

AL'EZANa)BLA.  A  magnificent  villa  and 
country  seat  in  Peterhoff,  one  of  the  summer 
residences  of  the  imperial  family  of  Russia. 
Planned  at  the  initiative  of  Alexander  I.,  the 
noble  structure  was  finished  and  the  splendid 
grounds  laid  out  only  in  1830,  during  the  reign 
of  Nicholas  I. 

ALEXANBBLA..  A  city  in  Madison  Co.,  In- 
diana, 48  miles  northeast  of  Indianapolis,  on  the 
Clevela^nd,  Cincinnati. Chicago  and  St.  Louis,  and 
Lake  Erie  and  Western  railroads  (Map:  Indiana, 
D  2).  It  has  extensive  manufactures  of  glass, 
paper  mills,  and  iron  and  steel  works.  The  city 
owns  and  operates  its  own  water  works.  Alexan- 
dria was  first  settled  in  1834,  and  is  governed 
under  a  charter  of  1893,  which  provides  for  a 
city  council  of  six  members,  and  places  the  may- 


or's term  at  four  years.    Pop.,  1890,  715;  1900, 
7221. 

ALEXANDRIA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Rapides  Parish,  La.,  196  miles  northwest  of  Nev 
Orleans,  on  the  Red  River,  and  on  the  Southern 
Pacific,  the  Texas  and  Pacific,  the  Kansas  City, 
Watkins  and  Gulf,  the  St.  Louis,  Iron  Moun- 
tain and  Southern,  and  other  railroads  (^lap: 
Louisiana,  C  2).  It  has  fine  government,  high 
school,  and  bank  buildings,  and  is  acrtas  the 
river  from  a  national  cemetery  which  contains 
1308  graves.  Until  the  Civil  War  the  SUte 
University  was  situated  two  miles  north  of  the 
city.  Alexandria  is  the  seat  of  important  com- 
mercial and  manufacturing  interests,  principally 
in  cotton,  cottonseed  oil  and  cake,  sugar,  m(> 
lasses,  etc.  Settled  in  1820,  Alexandria  was  in- 
corporated twenty  years  later.  Under  a  charter 
of  1898  the  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor, 
elected  biennially,  and  a  city  council,  which  con- 
trols appointments  of  the  majority  of  adminis- 
trative officials.  The  w^ater  works  and  electric 
light  plant  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  muni- 
cipality.   Pop.,  1890,  2861;  1900,  5648. 

ALEXANDRIA.  A  city  and  port  of  entry 
in  Alexandria  County,  Va.,  on  the  Potomac 
River,  about  six  miles  below  Washington,  on  the 
Southern,  Pennsylvania,  Baltimore  and  Ohio. 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio,  and  the  Norfolk  and  West- 
ern railroads  (Map:  Virginia,  H  3).  Al- 
exandria is  100  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Potomac,  but  the  stream  T/hich  forms  its  harbor 
is  a  mile  wide.  The  city  is  accessible  to  large 
vessels,  and,  therefore,  is  able  to  control  an 
extensive  and  increasing  trade.  It  has  several 
shoe  factories,  flour  mifis,  machine  shops,  plan- 
ing mills,  fertilizer  plants,  glass  works,  chemi- 
cal works,  brick  works,  and  breweries.  The 
citv  owns  and  operates  its  gas  and  electric 
light  plants,  and  has  a  public  library,  and 
notably  good  schools.  Alexandria  was  first  in- 
corporated in  1749,  and  is  now  governed  by  a 
charter  of  1879,  as  revised  in  1895.  The  mayor 
is  elected  biennially,  and  the  city  council  is  a 
bicameral  body.  The  people  elect  all  the  impor- 
tant officers,  such  as  treasurer,  auditor,  tax 
collector,  etc.,  the  city  council  electing  the  rest: 
the  lAayor  has  no  power  of  appointment.  At 
Alexandria,  originally  called  Belhaven,  Brad- 
dock  made  his  headquarters  before  marching 
against  the  French  in  1755,  and  here,  on  April 
13,  the  governors  of  New  York,  Massachusetts, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia  met  to 
concert  plans  for  the  expedition.  Alexandria  lay 
within  the  territory  ceded  by  Virginia  to  the 
United  States   in   1789,  but  was  retroceded  in 

1846,  and  again  became  a  part  of  Virginia  in 

1847.  In  1814,  the  inhabitants,  terrified  by  the 
approach  of  a  British  fleet,  secured  immunity 
from  attack  by  paying  the  equivalent  of  about 
$100,000.  During  the  Civil  War  Alexandria  was 
occupied  by  Federal  troops,  and  was  the  capital 
of  that  part  of  Virginia  which  adhered  to  the 
Union  and  recognized  Pierrepont  as  governor. 
Washington  was  one  of  the  first  vestrymen  of 
Old  Christ  Church  here.  Pop.,  1890,  14.339: 
1900,  14,528.  Consult  Celebration  of  the  First 
Centennial  of  the  Municipal  Oovemment  of 
Alexandria    (Alexandria,  1880). 

ALEXANDRIA.  A  village  and  county  seat 
of  Douglas  Co.,  Minnesota,  130  miles  northwest 
of  Minneapolis,  on  the  Great  Northern  RAilroad 
(Map:  Minnesota,  C  5).    It  is  admirably  situa- 


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AliEXAKBBIAN  AGE. 


ted  in  a  lake  region  which  is  popular  as  a  sum- 
mer resort,  is  the  centre  of  a  productive  wheat- 
growing  district,  and  manufactures  flour,  furni- 
ture, wagons,  sleighs,  plows,  cutlery,  beer,  etc. 
The  most  notable  building  is  the  county  court- 
house.    Pop.,   1800,  2118;    1000,  2681. 

AIiEXANDBIA  BAY.  A  village  in  Jeffer- 
son Co.,  New  York,  on  the  St.  Lawrence  River, 
30  miles  north  of  Watertown,  reached  by 
steamer  from  Clayton,  on  the  Rome,  Watertown, 
and  Ogdensburg  Railroad.  It  is  the  principal 
resort  among  the  Thousand  Islands,  which  lie 
opposite  and  below  the  village  in  the  St.  Law- 
rence. Many  of  these  islands  are  occupied  by 
private  owners,  who  have  elegant  villas  and  cot- 
tages, and  the  whole  series,  not  long  ago  almost 
unvisited,  forms  a  grand  natural,  though,  to  an 
extent,  also  artificially  improved,  park.  Alex- 
andria Bay  was  settled  about  1830,  and  was  in- 
corporated first  in  1870.  Pop.,  1800,  1123;  1000, 
1511. 

AI.'EXANa)BLA.N  AGE.  With  the  loss  of 
political  liberty  in  Greece  under  Macedonian 
domination,  creative  power  declined  also,  and 
Athens  ceased  to  occupy  the  preeminent  position 
in  literature  which  she  had  so  long  held.  During 
the  third  century  B.C.,  Alexandria  became  the  cen- 
tre of  science  and  literature  under  the  direction 
of  the  Ptolemies,  who  used  their  wealth  to  at- 
tract poets,  scholars,  and  urtists  to  their  capital. 
Ptolemy  Soter  invited  to  his  court  the  learned 
Peripatetic  philosopher,  Demetrius  of  Phalerum, 
under  whose  advice  he  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  later  collections  and  libraries.  His  son, 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus  (285-247),  however,  by 
his  large  expenditures,  became  the  actual  foun- 
der of  the  museum  and  libraries;  his  successor, 
Ptolemy  Euergetes  (247-222),  fostered  espe- 
cially mathematical  and  geographical  investiga- 
tions; and  the  succeeding  rulers  continued  the 
support  of  learning  in  varying  degrees.  The  cen- 
tre of  intellectual  life  was  the  library  in  con- 
nection with  the  museum.  This  was  enriched  in 
every  possible  way;  the  total  number  of  books 
about  250  B.C.  is  put  by  Tzetzes  at  upward  of 
530,000.  The  museum  had  porticoes,  lecture 
halls,  and  rooms  in  which  scholars  lived  free  of 
cost;  some  of  the  most  eminent  among  these 
received  large  annuities  from  the  royal  purse. 
The  school  thus  established  resembled  in  many 
ways  a  university.  The  highest  honor  attain- 
able was  the  position  of  librarian;  this  was  held 
between  285  and  160  B.C.  successively  by  Zenod- 
otus,  Callimachus,  Eratosthenes,  ApoUonius, 
Aristophanes,  and  Aristarchus.  The  chief  ac- 
tivity of  these  grammarians  was  directed  to  es- 
tablishing standard  editions  of  authors  and  the 
publication  of  explanatory  comments  on  them. 
Lists  of  the  best  authors  (Canons)  were  also 
drawn  up,  as  of  the  five  tragedians,  the  nine 
lyric  poets,  and  the  ten  orators.  Intellectual 
curiosity  and  the  cosmopolitan  character  of  the 
population  led  to  translation  into  Greek  of 
works  in  the  Semitic  tongues;  the  so-called 
Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testament  was 
made  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphus. 

Creative  poetic  impulse  was  now  nearly  dead,  ' 
although  bucolic  poetry,  epigram,  and  elegy 
Btill  show  originality.  Most  of  the  poets, 
however,  were  imitators  who  depended  on  art 
and  not  on  genius.  The  most  important  names 
are  Theocritus,  ApoUonius  Rhodius,  Callimachus, 
Aratus,     Xicander,     Euphorion,     and      Lycoph- 


ron.  At  this  time  mathematics  and  astronomy 
also  flourished.  The  most  important  names  in 
the  pre-Christian  period  are  Euclid,  ApoUonius, 
Eratosthenes,  Aristarchus,  Hipparchus,  and 
Hero,  with  whom  must  be  reckoned  also  Archi- 
medes, although  his  life  was  spent  at  Syracuse. 
Of  the  later  scholars,  Ptolemy  (Claudius  Ptole- 
mffius)  (second  century  a.d.)  is  famous  for 
his  geographical  and  astronomical  works.  Even 
after  the  fall  of  the  Ptolemaic  dynasty,  the 
museum,  libraries,  and  schools  continued  to 
make  Alexandria  a  great  intellectual  centre  for 
many  centuries;  the  schools  of  philosophy  in 
particular  enjoyed  great  prosperity,  but  lit- 
erary activity  had  centred  in  Rome.  Under 
Cssar  a  large  part  of  the  collection  of  books 
was  burned;  but  the  loss  was  repaired  in  some 
measure  by  the  removal  of  the  Pergamene  lib- 
rary to  Alexandria  and  by  acquisitions  else- 
where. During  the  fourth  century  a.d.  the  city 
suffered  severely  from  the  struggles  between 
Greeks  and  Christians,  and  finally  occidental 
learning  ceased  with  the  conquest  by  the  Arabs 
in  641. 

Alexandrian  Philosophy.  The  Alexandrian 
philosophy  is  characterized  by  a  blending  of 
the  philosophies  of  the  East  and  of  the  West, 
and  by  a  general  tendency  to  eclecticism,  as  it  is 
called,  or  an  endeavor  to  patch  together,  without 
really  reconciling,  conflicting  systems  of  specu- 
lation, by  bringing  together  what  seemed  prefer- 
able in  each.  Not  that  the  Alexandrian  philos- 
ophers were  without  their  sects;  the  most  fa- 
mous of  these  were  the  Neo-Platonists  (q.v.). 
Uniting  the  religious  notions  of  the  East  with 
Greek  dialectics,  they  represent  the  struggle  of 
ancient  civilization  with  Christianity;  and  thus 
their  system  was  not  without  influence  on  the 
form  that  Christian  dogmas  took  in  Egypt.  The 
amalgamation  of  Eastern  with  Christian  ideas 
gave  rise  to  the  system  of  the  Gnostics  (q.v.), 
which  was  elaborated  chiefly  in  Alexandria. 

On  the  museum  and  libraries,  consult: 
Ritschl,  Die  aleofandrinischen  Bihliotheken 
(Breslau,  1838)  and  Couat,  "Le  Mus^e  d*Alex- 
andrie,"  in  Annales  de  Bordeatue  (Paris,  1879)  ; 
also,  in  general  matters,  Simon,  Histoire  de 
V^cole  d'Ai<?a?andrie(  second  edition,  Paris,  1845)  ; 
Saint-Hilaire,  De  V6cole  d*Alexandrie  (Paris, 
1844-45),  and  Vacherot,  Histoire  critique  de 
^r^cole  d'Alexandrie  (Paris,  1840-51). 

Alexandrian  Art.  The  style  of  art  inau- 
gurated in  the  time  of  Alexander,  centring  in 
the  city  of  Alexandria.  It  prevailed  through- 
out the  Graeco-Oriental  States  up  to  the  time  of 
the  Roman  conquest,  and  even  then  continued  to 
exercise  great  influence  on  the  formation  of 
Roman  art.  Its  characteristics  were :  ( 1 )  Regu- 
larity of  plan  in  laying  out  cities;  (2)  love  of 
the  colossal,  exaggerated,  and  picturesque  in  ar- 
chitecture and  sculpture;  (3)  invasion  of  the 
element  of  color  and  pictorial  effect  in  all  arts; 
(4)  love  of  the  comic  and  the  obscene;  (5)  rise 
of  portraiture  and  genre.  The  old  Hellenic  poise 
had  departed  and  the  art  was  one  of  extremes; 
it  sought  its  models  in  everyday  life  and  did  not 
care  for  types  of  gods  or  men.  The  art  of  Pom- 
peii shows  how  this  art  permeated  Roman  civi- 
lization at  the  beginning  of  the  Empire.  Con- 
sult: G.  Schreiber,  Die  Hellenistischni  Relief- 
hilder  (Leipzig,  1894)  ;  Collignon,  Histoire  de  la 
sculpture  Grecque  (Paris,  1892-97)  ;  Gardner 
Handhook  of  Greek  Sculpture  (London,  1896- 
97)  ;   Mitchell,  A  History  of  Ancient  Sculpture 


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ALEXANDKOFOH 


(New  York,   1883),  and  Woltmann  and  Woer- 
mann,  Geschichte  der  Malerei  (English  transla- 
tion, New  York,  1880). 
ALEXANDRIAN"  COa)EZ.    See  Bible. 

ALEXANDRIAN  U^RABY.  The  plan 
for  this,  the  most  famous  collection  of  the  ancient 
world,  seems  to  have  been  formed  by  Ptolemy  I., 
Soter  ( died  283  b.g.  ) ,  perhaps  at  the  suggestion 
of  the  Athenian,  Demetrius  of  Phalerum.  The 
development  of  this  plan,  and  the  connection  of 
the  library  with  the  museum  was  the  work 
of  Ptolemy  II.,  Philadelphus,  about  275  B.C., 
who  collected  books  on  a  hitherto  unknown 
scale  and  placed  them  at  the  disposal  of  the 
learned  men  gathered  in  the  museum.  The  man- 
agement was  intrusted  to  a  series  of  scholars, 
whose  labors  led  them  to  a  careful  study  of 
Greek  literary  history  and  the  classification  of 
writers,  with  results  of  great  importance  for  the 
transmission  of  classical  texts  to  our  own  time. 
The  first  librarian  was  Zenodotus  of  Ephesus, 
under  whom  the  poets  were  arranged.  The  first 
catalogue  seems  to  have  been  the  work  of  Calli- 
machus,  and  included  a  classification  of  the  au- 
thors, according  to  their  principal  themes,  as 
historians,  orators,  etc.  Under  each  author's 
name  was  given  a  brief  biographical  sketch,  a 
list  of  his  genuine  and  spurious  works,  the  open- 
ing words  of  each  work,  a  brief  table  of  contents, 
and  the  number  of  lines  occupied  in  the  standard 
MS.  Variations  in  names  or  titles  were  carefully 
noted.  In  the  time  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  the 
number  of  rolls  in  the  main  library  was  490,000, 
and  in  the  annex,  in  the  temple  of  Serapis,  42,- 
800.  At  the  time  of  Csesar's  visit,  in  47  B.C., 
the  number  had  risen  to  700,000,  of  which  a 
large  part  was  consumed  in  a  great  fire,  which 
spread  from  the  burning  fleet.  This  loss  was  in 
part  replaced  by  the  library  of  Pergamus,  which 
Antony  gave  to  Cleopatra.  In  Roman  times, 
however,  the  chief  literary  centre  seems  to  have 
been  the  library  in  the  Serapeum  which  was 
destroyed  when  the  Christians  sacked  the  tem- 
ple (390  A.D.).  The  fate  of  the  rest  of  the  li- 
brary after  the  loss  of  its  most  valuable  part 
is  unkno\ni,  but  it  seems  likely  that  much  of  it 
had  been  lost  before  the  surrender  of  the  city  to 
the  Arabs.  The  story  of  the  destruction  of  the 
books  by  order  of  the  Caliph  Omar  is  now  uni- 
versally discredited,  as  resting  on  very  unreli'^ 
able  sources.  Consult:  Ritschl,  Die  alexan- 
drinischen  Bibliotheken,  in  his  Opuscula  Philolo- 
gica  7.  (Leipzig,  1867-79),  and  Susemihl,  Oes- 
chichte  der  griechischen  Litteratur  in  der  Alex- 
andrinerzeit  (Leipzig,  1891-92). 

AL'EXAN^RIANSy  Epistle  to  the.  See 
Apocrypha,  New  Testament. 

ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL.  A  school  of 
theology  founded  in  Alexandria  by  Pantaenus 
(180-203),  taught  hy  Clement  of  Alexandria  and 
by  Origen,  and  carried  on  until  the  end  of  the 
fourth  century.  It  presented  Christian  truth  as 
modified  by  philosophic  speculation.  It  was 
well  attended  and  very  influential.  Many  of  the 
great  leaders  of  orthodoxy  came  from  it,  as 
Athanasius,  Cyril,  the  two  Gregories,  and  Basil. 
In  biblical  interpretation  it  stood  for  the  alle- 
gorical method.  Consult  Kingsley,  Alexandria 
and  Her  Schools  (London,  1854). 

AL'EXANa)RINES.  Rhyming  verses,  con- 
sisting each  of  twelve  syllables  of  six  measures. 
The  name  is  most  probably  derived  from  an  old 


French  poem  on  Alexander  the  Great,  belonging 
to  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century,  in  which 
this  measure  was  first  used;  according  to  others, 
it  was  so  called  from  the  name  of  the  author  of 
that  poem.  The  Alexandrine  has  become  the 
regular  epic,  or  heroic,  verse  of  the  French, 
amofig  whom  each  line  is  divided  in  the  middle 
into  two  hemistichs,  the  sixth  syllable  aliirars 
ending  a  word.  In  English,  this  rule  is  not  al- 
ways observed,  as  in  the  following  verse  from 
Spenser : 

That  all  the  woods  shall  anlswer,  and  their  eeho  ring. 

The  only  considerable  English  poem  wholly  writ- 
ten in  Alexandrines  is  Drayton's  Poly'olhion: 
but  the  Spenserian  stanza  regularly  ends  in  an 
Alexandrine,  and  the  measure  occurs  occasion- 
ally in  blank  verse  and  in  our  common  heroic 
verse,  as  the  last  verse  of  a  couplet:     . 

When  both  are  foil,  they  feed  our  blest  abode. 

Like  those  that  watered  onoeithe  paradise  of  Qod.'-Jkydtn. 

AL'EXANa)RISTS.  Those  Renaissance  fol- 
lowers of  Aristotle  who  attached  themselves 
with  much  zeal  to  the  interpretation  of  Aris- 
totle given  by  Alexander  of  Aphrodisias..  They 
stood  in  bitter  rivalry  with  the  Averroists 
and  the  Thomists.  The  dispute  concerned  it- 
self chiefly  with  the  relation  between  the 
individual  ■  soul  and  the  universal  reason,  and 
with  the  consequences  of  this  relation  for 
personal  immortality.  The  Thomists,  follow- 
ing Thomas  Aquinas,  held  that  Aristotle  re- 
garded reason  as  belonging  to  the  individual 
soul;  the  Alexandrists  maintained  that  Aris- 
totle considered  the  individual  soul  as  a  merely 
animal  and  mortal  function,  which  during 
the  earthly  life  alone  is  rationalized  by  the 
informing  power  of  universal  reason;  the  Aver- 
roists  held  the  intermediatSe  view,  viz.,  that  the 
universal  reason  works  upon  the  soul  and  makes 
it  actual  intelligence,  and  then  incorporates  this 
actual  intelligence  with  its  own  eternal  nature. 
Accordingly,  the  Thomists  believed  in  individual 
immortality,  the  Alexandrists  in  no  individual 
immortality,  and  the  Averroists  in  the  immor- 
tality of  what  had  been  the  individual,  but  has 
lost  its  individuality,  to  be  taken  up  as  a  Pf'* 
manent  element  in  the  life  of  God.  The  leading 
Averroists  were  Nicoletto  Vemias  (died  1499), 
Alessandro  Achillini  (died  1518),  and  Agostino 
Nifo  (1473-1546);  the  leading  AlexandrisU 
were  Ermolao  Barbaro  (1454-93)  and  Pietro 
Pomponazzi  (1462-1524),  the  leading  Aris- 
totelian of  his  time;  among  the  Thomists  of  the 
Renaissance  may  be  mentioned  Francis  Suarez 
(1548-1617).  Consult:  Ueberweg-Heinze,  Grund- 
riss  der  Geschichte  der  Philosophic  (Berlin, 
1894-98;  English  translation  by  Morris,  New 
York,  1871)  ;  E.  Kenan,  Averrods  et  VAverroHsme 
(Paris,  1862). 

AL'EXANa)RITE.    See  Chbtsobebtl. 

ALEXANDROPOL,  ri&ks-iln-dr(/pdl  {Ales- 
ander-\'  Gk.  6?.ig,  polis,  city),  formerly  GiTCW. 
A  fortified  town  in  the  Caucasus,  85  miles 
southwest  of  Tiflis,  and  30  miles  from 
Kars  (Map:  Russia,  F  6).  It  is  an  important 
strategic  point  commanding  the  entrance  to  Ar- 
menia. The  fort  is  300  feet  above  the  town  level, 
and  is  large  and  strong,  capable  of  accommo- 
dating 10,000  soldiers.  The  chief  industry  of  the 
town  is  the  manufacture  of  silk.  It  was  the 
scene  of  several  encounters  between  the  Russians 


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ALEXIS 


and  the  Turks  before  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
former  in  1853.    Pop.,  1885,  22,600;  1897,  32,000. 

AT.EYANDBOV,  n^ks-iinMrof.  A  town  in 
Russia  in  the  government  of  Vladimir,  on  an  af- 
fluent of  the  Kliasma,  a  branch  of  the  Volga,  72 
miles  east  of  Moscow  ( Map :  Russia,  E  3 ) .  It  was 
a  favorite  summer  residence  of  the  Czar  Ivan 
the  Terrible,  who  introduced  there  the  first  print- 
ing-press known  in  Russia,  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. It  has  a  magnificent  imperial  stud,  estab- 
lished by  the  Empress  Elizabeth  in  1761  and 
completed  about  twenty  years  after.  It  is  note- 
worthy for  its  convent,  in  the  burial  grounds  of 
which  are  kept  the  remains  of  two  sisters  of 
Peter  the  Great.     Pop.,  1885,  6700;   1897»  6848. 

AliEXANDBOVSK,  a'leks-ftnMrofsk.  A  for- 
tified town  in  the  south  of  Russia,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Yekaterinoslav,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Dnieper,  below  the  cataracts,  56  miles  south 
of  Yekaterinoslav  (Map:  Russia,  £  5).  Inland 
productions  are  shipped  here  for  the  Black  Sea, 
and  it  is  known  for  its  large  storage  houses  and 
other  storing  facilities,  but  it  has  no  considerable 
trade  of  its  own.  In  its  vicinity  there  are  many 
hillocks,  Or  mounds,  which  are  in  all  probability 
the  graves  of  the  great  chiefs  of  the  ancient 
Scythians.  Opposite  the  town  is  the  Khortista 
Island,  the  chief  seat  of  the  famous  Dnieper 
Cossacks  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Pop.,  1885, 
6700;   1897,  16,393. 

AliEXANDBOVSK-GBUSHEVSKI,  grl5^ 
sh^f^skd.  A  town  in  the  territory  of  the  Don 
Cossacks,  Russia,  situated  on  the  River  Grushev- 
ka,  about  20  miles  from  Novotcherkask.  It  is 
well  known  for  the  rich  coal  mines  in  its  vicinity, 
notably  along  the  banks  of  the  Grushevka.  The 
anthracite  coal  of  these  deposits  is  of  remarkable 
purity,  containing  as  much  as  94  per  cent,  of 
carbon,  the  highest  percentage  found  anywhere. 
The  discovery  of  coal  in  this  region  dates  as  far 
back  as  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, but  the  exploitation  of  the  mines  was  not 
commenced  until  1839.  The  yearly  output  of  the 
mines  averages  over  half  a  million  tons,  and 
thev  employ  about  10,000  men.  Pop.,  in  1897, 
10,250. 

AliEXEI,  a'leks-&^  ArxxANDRoviTCH  (1850- 
— ).  Grand  Duke  of  Russia.  He  is  the  fourth 
son  of  Alexander  II.,  and  was  born  on  January 
14,  1850.  In  1872  he  traveled  through  the 
United  States,  meeting  with  a  very  kind  recep- 
tion. He  is  commander-in-chief  of  the  fieet  and 
head  of  the  ministry  of  marine,  admiral-general, 
and  president  of  the  Admiralty  Council. 

AT.EXF.T  MIKHAILOVITCH,  m6-kin6-vteh 
(1629-76).  Russian  Czar,  second  of  the  Roman- 
offs. He  succeeded  his  father,  Michael  Feodoro- 
vitch,  in  1645.  The  young  Czar  yielded  himself 
to  the  control  of  his  Chancellor,  Plessoff,  and  his 
tutor,  Morosoff,  and  the  avarice  of  these  two  ad- 
visers caused  an"  insurrection  in  1648,  in  which 
Plessoff  lost  his  life.  Popular  discontent  favored 
the  plans  of  two  pretenders  to  the  throne — 
Demetrius  III.  (q.v.)  and  Ankudinoff.  The  lat- 
ter, professing  to  be  a  son  of  the  Czar  Vasili 
Shuiski,  was  executed  at  Moscow  in  1653. 
Alexei  possessed  good  qualities,  which  appeared 
when  he  came  to  riper  years.  In  his  two  csLxn- 
paij>iis  against  the  Poles  (1654-56  and  1660-67), 
he  took  Smolensk,  overran  and  devastated  al- 
most the  whole  of  Lithuania,  and  even  se- 
cured for  himself  the  possession  of  several  prov- 


inces. He  also  gained  a  part  of  the  Ukraine; 
and  though  his  war  with  Sweden  (1656-58) 
was  unfortunate,  he  lost  nothing  by  the  follow- 
ing peace.  Alexei  conferred  great  benefits  on 
his  countrymen  by  the  introduction  of  various 
important  reforms  into  the  Russian  laws;  he 
ordered  translations  of  numerous  scientific 
works,  chiefiy  of  a  military  nature,  and  even 
ventured  on  some  ecclesiastical  changes.  In  his 
private  character  he  w^as  amiable,  temperate, 
and  pious.  By  his  second  wife,  the  beautiful 
Natalia  Naryshkin,  he  was  the  father  of  Peter 
the  Great. 

ALEXEI  PETBOVITCH  ( 1690-17 18 ) .  The 
eldest  son  of  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia.  He  was 
born  at  Moscow.  Because  he  had  shown  himself 
opposed  to  the  reforms  and  innovations  made  by 
the  Emperor,  Peter  threatened  to  exclude  him 
from  the  succession  to  the  throne.  With  this 
prospect  he  appeared  to  be  satisfied,  and  declared 
his  intention  of  spending  the  remainder  of  his 
days  in  a  monastery.  But  when  Peter  the  Great 
undertook  his  second  tour  in  Western  Europe, 
Alexei,  under  the  pretense  of  following  the  Czar, 
escaped  in  1717  to  Vienna,  and  thence  went  to 
Naples.  He  was  induced  to  return  to  Russia, 
where,  by  the  ukase  of  February  14,  1718,  he  was 
disinherited,  and  an  investigation  was  ordered, 
for  the  purpose  of  detecting  persons  concerned 
in  his  fiight.  A  widespread  conspiracy  to  undo 
all  of  Peter's  reforms  was  discovered.  Eudoxia, 
the  mother  of  Alexei,  with  Maria  Alexeyevna, 
step-sister  of  the  Czar,  and  several  other  person- 
ages were  made  prisoners,  and  either  executed  or 
otherwise  punished.  Alexei  was  condemned  to 
death,  but  soon  afterward  received  a  pardon. 
Terror  and  agitation  of  the  trial,  however, 
and  the  actual  torture  to  which  he  was  subjected, 
so  affected  his  health  that  he  died  in  1718.  The 
Czar,  to  avoid  scandal,  ordered  the  trial  to  be 
published.  Other  accounts  assert  that  Alexei 
was  beheaded  in  prison.  By  his  wife,  Charlotte 
Christine  Sophie,  Princess  of  Brunswick- Wolfen- 
blittel,  Alexei  left  a  son,  who,  as  Peter  II.,  was 
elevated  to  the  throne  in  1727.  Consult  Brfick- 
ner,  Der  Zarewitch  Alexander  (Heidelberg,  1880). 

ALEZOANS.     See  Alexius. 

ALEXIS.  In  The  Faithful  BhepherdesB 
(q.v.),  by  John  Fletcher,  the  name  of  a  shep- 
herd. 

•  ALEXIS  (c.  300-288  B.C.).  A  Greek  drama- 
tist of  the  period  of  "Middle  Comedy"  at  Athens, 
whither  he  came  in  early  life  from  Thurii,  Italy, 
his  native  place.  He  is  said  to  have  written 
245  plays,  of  which  some  hundreds  of  lines  have 
come  down  to  us  in  fragments. 

ALEXIS,     or    ALEXIUS,     COMNE^XJS 

(1048-1118)  (Gk.  'AAtitof  }L6fivfivoq,  Alexias  Kom- 
nSnos),  One  of  the  ablest  rulers  of  the  Byzan- 
tine Empire.  He  was  born  at  Constantinople,  the 
son  of  John  Comnenus,  brother  of  the  Emperor 
Isaac  Comnenus.  In  his  youth  Alexis  gave  bril- 
liant promise  of  the  vigorous  military  genius 
which  he  afterward  manifested,  and  at  length, 
after  a  series  of  anarchic  reigns  of  brief  dura- 
tion, his  soldiers  succeeded  in  elevating  him  to 
the  throne,  while  the  old  and  feeble  Xicephorus 
Botaniates,  his  predecessor,  was  obliged  to  retire 
to  a  monastery  (1081).  Gibbon  graphically 
paints  the  position  and  achievements  of  Alexius 
in  the  forty-eighth  chapter  of  his  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire.    Everywhere  he  was 


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encompassed  with  foes.  The  Scythians  and 
Turks  were  pouring  down  from  the  north  and 
northeast,  the  fierce  Normans,  who  had  violently 
effected  a  lodgment  in  Italy  and  Sicily,  were 
menacing  his  western  provinces ;  and,  finally,  the 
myriad  warriors  of  the  First  Crusade  burst 
into  his  Empire  on  their  way  to  Palestine,  and 
encamped  around  the  gates  of  his  capital.  Yet 
he  contrived  to  avoid  all  perils  and  disgraces 
by  the  wisdom  of  his  policy,  the  mingled  pa- 
tience and  promptitude  of  his  character,  and  nis 
discipline  in  the  camp.  He  reigned  for  thirty- 
seven  years,  and  if  it  had  been  possible  to  pre- 
serve the  By74Lntine  Empire  in  its  integrity,  a 
ruler  like  Alexis  might  have  done  it. 

Undoubtedly,  the  great  interest  which  attaches 
to  Alexis  arises  from  his  relations  to  the  Cru- 
saders. Historians  differ  as  to  the  purity  and 
sincerity  of  his  conduct  toward  them.  His 
daughter  Anna  (q.v.),  who  wrote  his  life,  de- 
fends his  '^policy"  with  filial  piety;  but  it  is 
clear  that  he  entertained  a  profound  dread  and 
suspicion  of  the  half-civilized  Franks,  and,  know- 
ing the  weakness  of  his  own  Empire,  was  com- 
pelled to  dissimulate.  He  promised  them  help, 
and  persuaded  them  to  go  off  into  Asia;  but 
he  did  not  fulfill  his  promises,  and  simply  used 
them  as  his  instruments  to  reconquer  from  the 
Turks  the  islands  and  coasts  of  Asia  Minor. 
Perhaps,  however,  little  apology  is  needed  for  a 
monarch  who  "subdued  the  envy  of  his  equals, 
restored  the  laws  of  public  and  private  order, 
caused  the  arts  of  wealth  and  science  to  be  cul- 
tivated, and  transmitted  the  sceptre  to  his  chil- 
dren of  the  third  and  fourth  generations." 

ALEXIS,  or  ALEXIUS,  H.,  COMNEinTS 

(c.  11 68-83).  Emperor  of  Constantinople.  He 
succeeded  his  father,  Manuel  I.,  about  1180,  and 
was  deposed  and  strangled  by  his  uncle,  An- 
dronicus   (1183). 

ALEXIS  m.,  AKGELXJS  ( ?-1210).  Brother 
of  Isaac  Angelus,  Emperor  of  Constantinople, 
whose  throne  he  usurped  in  1195.  In  1203  his 
capital  was  besieged  and  taken  by  the  Venetians 
and  an  army  of  French  Crusaders,  who  reinstated 
Isaac  II.  On  the  capture  of  the  city  Alexis  III. 
fled,  and  died  a  few  years  afterward  in  exile. 

ALEXIS  IV.,  ANGELXJS  (  ?-1204) .  Byzan- 
tine  emperor  in  1203-04,  son  of  Isaac  II.  (An- 
gelus). After  the  flight  of  his  uncle,  Alexis 
III.,  he  was  associated  with  his  father  in  the 
government.  After  reigning  only  a  few  months, 
however,  he  was  deposed  and  put  to  death  by 
Alexis  V. 

ALEXIS  v.,  surnamed  Duiuvs  Murtzuphlos 
(T — 1204).  Byzantine  emperor  in  1204.  After 
the  murder  of  Alexis  IV.  (1204),  he  usurped  the 
throne,  but  at  the  end  of  a  few  weeks  was  de- 
posed by  the  Crusaders,  who  had  resolved  on  a 
partition  of  the  Empire  of  the  East.  He  fled  to 
the  Morea,  where  he  was  seized  by  the  Latins, 
tried  for  the  murder  of  Alexis  IV.,  and  cast  from 
the  top  of  Theodosius's  Pillar. 

ALEXIS,  or  ALEXIUS,  COHNENXJS  (c. 
1180-1222).  A  grandson  of  Andronicus  I.  When 
Constantinople  was  captured  by  the  Crusaders 
in  1204,  Alexis,  taking  advantage  of  the  situa- 
tion, captured  Trebizond  and  some  other  cities 
on  the  Black  Sea.  He  took  the  title  of  Em- 
peror of  Trebizond,  and  was  obliged  to  carry  on 
a  continuous  war  against  the  Turks. 

ALEXaS  (Gk.  'A;Le^f)  or  Thurh.    A  Greek 


comic  poet  of  the  third  century  B.c.  He  was 
born  at  Thurii,  in  Magna  Grsecia,  was  uncle  and 
instructor  of  Menander,  and  wrote  at  Athenis 
where,  according  to  Plutarch,  at  the  age  of  106, 
he  died  on  the  stage  while  being  crowned  as  yi^ 
tor.  Suidas  assigns  to  him  245  comedies,  of  whidi 
the  remaining  fragments  exhibit  elegance  and 
wit.  His  delineations  of  the  parasite  were 
skillful.  See  the  edition  by  Hirschig  (1840)  and 
Meinike,  in  his  FragmentaComicorum,  Volume  I. 

ALEXIS,  WnxiBALD  (1797-1871).  The  as- 
sumed name  of  Wilhelm  Hftring,  a  (German  nov- 
elist. He  was  born  at  Breslau,  June  23,  1797, 
and  died  at  Arnstadt,  December  16,  1871.  He 
was  in  his  early  works  an  imitator  of  Walter 
Scott,  from  whom  his  first  romance,  Walladm<tr 
(1823),  and  his  second,  8chlo88  Avalon,  purport- 
ed to  be  translations.  Later  Alexis  took  Prussia 
for  his  scenes.  His  best  novels  are:  Cahanis 
( 1832 ) ,  Der  falscke  Waldemar  ( 1842 ) ,  and  Ruhe 
ist  die  erate  BUrgerpflicht  (1852).  Here  the  in- 
terest is  well  maintained,  the  characters  clearly 
seen  and  firmly  drawn,  but  the  novels  are  marred 
by  mannerisnis  and  over-elaboration.  Through 
all  runs  a  vein  of  patriotic  feeling  that  still  sus- 
tains their  popularity.  Alexis's  poems,  though 
superficially  attractive,  lack  depth  and  fertility 
of  invention. 

ALEXISBABy  ft-Uks^^s-b&d.  A  watering-place 
in  the  duchy  of  Anhalt,  Germany  (Map:  Ger- 
many, D  3).  It  has  two  kinds  of  spring.  The 
Selke  spring  is  used  for  bathing,  and  contains 
chloride  and  sulphate  of  iron,  while  the  Alexis 
spring  contains  carbonic  acid,  and  is  used  for 
drinking  purposes.  Alexisbad  was  established 
as  a  watering-place  by  the  Duke  of  Anhalt-Bem- 
burg  in  1810. 

ALEXnUS.  A  Roman  saint  of  the  fifth 
century,  patron  of  the  society  of  Alexians  or 
Cellit^.  He  is  said  to  have  been  a  Roman 
senator,  but  gave  up  the  world  for  a  life  of  pov- 
erty and  celibacy.  His  relics  are  said  to  have 
accomplished  marvelous  cures.  Alexius  is  hon- 
ored in  the  calendars  of  the  Latins,  Greeks, 
Syrians,  Maronites,  and  Armenians.  His  fes- 
tival occurs  on  July  17.  He  was  a  favorite  sub- 
ject among  the  poets  of  the  Middle-Hiifh-German 
period.  Consult :  Massmann,  Sankt  Alewiw  Lehen 
( Quedlinburg,  1843)  ;  Paris  and  Pannier,  La  Vie 
de  Saint  Alexis  (1872);  Blau,  Zur  Ale^9- 
legende,  in  the  Gemujmia  (1888),  Volume 
XXXIII.,  and  A.  Amiaud,  La  L^gende  Syriaque 
de  Saint  Alexis  ilSSd). 

Al/VA.  One  of  the  varieties  of  esparto 
(q.v.)  A  plant  which  grows  in  North  Africa. 
Its  fibre  is  valuable  for  paper-making. 

ALFAI/FA  (Sp.  from  Ar.  ahfacfacah,  the 
best  feed),  also  called  LuCiawfK.  A  legumi- 
nous plant,  widely  used  in  Europe  and  in  XMurts 
of  North  and  South  America  as  a  forage  and 
hay  crop  for  stock.  The  plant  {Medicago 
sativa)  is  a  native  of  the  valleys  of  central 
western  Asia.  It  has  been  cultivated  in  Europe 
for  more  than  2000  years,  and  was  introduced 
into  Mexico  and  South  America  at  the  time  of 
the  Spanish  conquests.  In  1854,  it  was  brought 
from  Chile  to  California,  whence  it  spread  rapid- 
ly over  the  arid  regions  of  the  Pacific  and  Rocky 
Mountain  States,  where  it  is  now  more  exten- 
sively grown  than  any  other  forage  crop.  The 
plant  is  an  upright,  branching  perennial,  one  to 
three  feet  high,  with  triple  parted  leaves  and 


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AL-FABABI 


purple,  pea-like  flowers  which  grow  in  long, 
loose  clusters.  On  loose,  permeable  soils,  the 
top  root  frequently  descends  ten  to  twelve  feet, 
and  has  been  said  to  reach  even  fifty  feet.  Al- 
falfa has  been  raised  with  more  or  less  success  in 
different  parts  of  the  United  States  at  elevations 
from  sea  level  to  7000  feet.  It  grows  best  on 
rich,  sandy,  well-drained  loams  of  a  calcareous 
nature,  and  does  not  succeed  on  damp  soils. or 
tenacious  clays.  It  seems  especially  adapted  to 
the  rich  soils  of  the  arid  West,  where  water  is 
supplied  chiefly  by  irrigation.  Young  alfalfa 
plants  are  relatively  tender,  and  two  years  are 
required  thoroughly  to  establish  a  field;  but 
when  once  established,  the  plant  endures  for 
many  years.  In  the  United  States  it  is  seeded: 
in  the  North,  in  spring;  in  the  South,  in  either 
September  or  February;  and  in  California  and 
the  Southwest,  from  August  to  the  middle  of 
December,  and  from  February  to  April.  Alfalfa 
is  grown  for  seed  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Ne- 
braska, Colorado,  and  Kansas.  The  crop  is  cut 
when  the  plants  are  coming  into  bloom,  and 
again  from  two  to  six  times,  according  to  the 
length  of  the  season.  The  ordinary  annual  yield 
varies  from  three  to  eight  tons  of  dry  hay  per 
acre,  and  sometimes  reaches  ten  or  twelve  tons. 
The  crop  is  seeded  either  broadcast  or  in  drills, 
at  the  rate  of  fifteen  to  twenty- five  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre.  Alfalfa^  like  other  leguminous 
plants,  takes  up  nitrogen  from  the  air.  It  also 
brings  up  from  the  subsoil  considerable  amounts 
of  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  lime,  and  other  min- 
eral matters.  It  is  therefore  valuable  for  green 
manuring.  The  roots  and  stubble  from  an  acre 
contain  about  twenty  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 
thirty-eight  pounds  of  potash,  and  ninety  pounds 
of  nitrogen. 

A  variety  of  alfalfa  known  as  Turkestan  alfal- 
fa {Medicago  aativa  turkestanica) ,  is  the  chief 
forage  plant  grown  in  Central  Asia  and  Turkes- 
tan for  cattle.  It  has  been  widely  tested  in  the 
United  States.  In  the  States  west  of  the  Mississ- 
ippi River  and  north  of  Kansas  and  California,  it 
seems  to  endure  drought  better,  is  not  so  easily 
affected  by  freezing,  and  gives  better  results  on 
strong,  alkali  soils  than  the  alfalfa  commonly 
grown  {Medicago  sativa) .  Two  other  forms  of 
alfalfa,  sometimes  cultivated,  are  the  intermedi- 
ate alfalfa  ( Medicago  media ) ,  and  the  yellow  or 
sand  lucerne  (Medicago  falcata).  The  seed  of 
these  varieties  are  sometimes  used  to  adulterate 
that  of  Medicago  sativa.  For  illustration,  see 
Plate  of  Forage  Plants. 

Feeding  Value.  Alfalfa  is  used  as  a  soiling 
crop,  as  pasturage,  and  in  the  form  of  silage  and 
hay.  Green  or  cured  as  hay,  it  is  relished  by 
all  farm  animals.  It  may  be  used  either  for 
fattening  stock  or  for  milk  production.  The 
green  product  has  the  following  percentage  com- 
position: water,  71.8;  protein,  4.8;  ether  ex- 
tract, 1 ;  nitrogen  free  extract,  12.3 ;  crude  fibre, 
7.4;  and  ash,  2.7.  When  cured  as  hay,  alfalfa 
has  the  following  percentage  composition: 
water,  8.4;  protein,  14.3;  fat,  2.2;  nitrogen  free 
extract,  42.7;  crude  fibre,  25,  and  ash,  7.4. 
Like  other  leguminous  crops,  alfalfa  is  compar- 
atively rich  in  nitrogen.  The  different  crops  and 
cuttings  do  not  vary  greatly  in  composition. 
When  alfalfa  flowers  begin  to  appear,  the  stalk 
constitutes  about  50  or  60  per  cent.,  and  the 
leaves  40  or  50  per  cent,  of  the  whole  plant. 
At  the  usual  time  of  cutting,  alfalfa  leaves  con- 
tain one-third  more  of  the  total  dry  matter  of 


the  crop.     The   leaves   contain    one-quarter    to 
one-third  as  much  crude  fibre  as  the  stalks,  and 
two  or  three  times  as   much  albuminoids.     As 
shown  by  experiments  with  cattle,  the  following 
percentage  amounts  of  the  ingredients  are  usual- 
ly digested:   60.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  organic 
matter,  72  per  cent,  of  the  protein,  and  69.2  per 
cent  of  the  nitrogen  free  extract.     Of  the  crude 
fibre  of  alfalfa  hay,  about  46  per  cent,  is  on  an 
average  digestible.     Chemical  analysis  and  diges- 
tion experiments  show  that  alfalfa  compares  very 
favorably  with  red  clover,  both  as  green  fodder 
and  as  hay.    When  fed  as  a  soiling  crop,  it  should 
be  partially  wilted  or  mixed  with  hay  or  straw. 
In  dry  regions  of  the  West  it  is  much  used  for 
pasturage,  especially  in  the  fall.     But  there  is 
always  more  or  less  danger  of  its  causing  the 
cattle  to  bloat  or  of  the  plants  being  killed  by 
too  close  pasturage.     Alfalfa  has  proved  a-  sat- 
isfactory green  crop  for  pigs.     It  is  as  hay  that 
alfalfa   finds   perhaps    its   most    extended    use. 
Cattle,  sheep,  and  horses  seem  to  thrive  on  it. 
To  secure  a  well-balanced  and  economical  ration, 
alfalfa  hay,  which  contains  a  fairly  large  pro- 
portion of    protein,  should  be  fed    with    corn, 
wheat,  oat  straw,  root  crops,  etc.,  which  contain 
comparatively   large   amounts   of   carbohydrates 
and    fat.     In    many    instances    farmers    might 
profitably  raise  alfalfa  as  a  substitute  for  the 
wheat-bran,  cottonseed  meal,  and  other  materials 
containing  large  amounts  of  protein,  which  they 
now  buy  in  order  to  utilize  by  combination,  in 
the  form  of  well-balanced  rations,  the  excess  of 
carbohydrates  produced  in  corn  and  other  crops. 
Alfalfa  Diseases.    The  principal  diseases  to 
which  alfalfa  is  subject  are  a  leaf  spot  and  a 
root-rot.  The  leaf-spot,  due  to  the  fungus,  Pseu- 
dopeziza  medicaginiSf  is  found  in  nearly  every 
locality    where    alfalfa    is    grown.       Sometimes 
seedling  plants   are   attacked,  but   usually  the 
fungus  occurs  on  the  leaves  of  older  plants.     It 
may  be  recognized  by  the  occurrence  of  minute 
brown  spots  of  irregular  shape  upon  the  green 
or  discolored  leaflets.     The  disease  readily  sur- 
vives the  winter,  and  in  severe  attacks  to  pre- 
vent spreading  the  plants  should  be  covered  with 
straw  and  burned.     The  root-rot   is  caused  by 
a  fungus,  Ozonium  auricomum^    which    attacks 
the  plants  at  the  crown,  following  the  root  down- 
ward for  some  distance,  and  ultimately  killing 
the  plant.     The  disease  spreads  in  the  field,  in 
almost  perfect  circles,  and  sometimes  causes,  in  a 
single  season,  bare  places  fifty  feet  or  more  in 
diameter.     Alfalfa  is  also  attacked  by  a  para- 
sitic flowering  plant  known  as  Dodder  (q.v.). 

BiBLiOGBAPHY.  J.  G.  Smith,  "Alfalfa,  or  Lu- 
cerne," United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Farmers*  Bulletin,  31  (Washington,  1896)  ; 
Colorado  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  35; 
Kansas  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  85;  Wi/- 
oming  Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  33;  Utah 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  31;  New  Jersey 
Experiment  Station  Bulletin,  iJfS.  See  also 
bibliography  of  Alkali  Soil. 

Ali-FABABI,  nrfft-raO)^,  Abu  Nasr  Moham- 
med IBN  Tarkhan  ibn  Uzladj  al-Farabi  ( — 950 
A.D.).  One  of  the  earliest  of  Arabian  phi- 
losophers, who  lived  in  the  tenth  century. 
His  family  was  Turkish.  He  was  born  in  Farab, 
but  proceeded  to  Bagdad,  where  he  devoted  him- 
self to  the  study  of  medicine,  mathematics,  and 
philosophy.  From  Bagdad  he  went  to  Haleb 
(Aleppo),  where,  except  for  his  close  relations 
to  the  Saif  ed  Daula,  the  ruler  of  the  place,  he 


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lived  a  life  of  scholastic  retirement.  He  died 
in  Damascus,  while  on  a  visit  to  that  place,  in 
company  with  Saif  ed  Daula.  Although  a  pro- 
lific writer,  who  occupied  himself  with  philoso- 
phy, medicine,  natural  science,  mathematics,  and 
music,  Al-Farabi  never  worked  out  a  system  of 
philosophy,  and  since  only  part  of  his  works  have 
survived,  it  is  not  easy  to  get  a  comprehensive 
view  of  his  activity.  His  philosophy  is  largely 
influenced  by  Aristotle,  although  it  has  also  in 
it  a  Neo- Platonic  element.  He  was  distinguished 
for  the  clearness  of  his  thought  and  the  excellence 
of  his  style,  but  such  was  the  fame  acquired  by 
his  successor  Avicenna.  that  Al-Farabi  was  al- 
most completely  eclipsed.  Among  his  writings 
was  an  encyclopedia  of  the  sciences.  Consult 
M.  Steinschneider,  Al-Farabi  (St.  Petersburg, 
1869)  ;  F.  Dieterici,  Al-Farabi's  Philosophiache 
Abhandlungcn    (Leyden,   1890). 

ALFIEBI,  &l-fya^r6,  Ce8are,  Mabquis  di  Sos- 
TEGNO  (1796-1869).  An  Italian  diplomat  and 
statesman,  a  kinsmfin  of  Vittorio  Alfieri,  the 
poet.  He  was  born  at  Turin,  August  13,  1796, 
and,  having  early  devoted  himself  to  affairs  of 
State,  was  successively  secretary  of  the  Sardin- 
ian legations  at  Paris,  The  Hague,  St.  Peters- 
burg, Berlin,  and  Florence.  Returning  to  Turin 
in  1831,  he  was  associated  with  Cavour.  When 
the  Reform  Commission  was  appointed,  Alfieri 
became  its  president,  and  accomplished  much  for 
the  elevation  of  universities  and  for  advanced 
study  in  general.  He  was  for  a  very  short  time 
in  1848  Prime  Minister,  then  Vice-President  of 
the  Senate,  and,  from  1856  to  1860,  its  president. 
He  died  at  Florence,  April  16,  1869. 

ALFIEBI,  Vittorio,  Count  (1749-1803). 
The  most  important  of  the  Italian  dramatic 
poets,  a  younger  contemporary  of  Metastasio  and 
Goldoni,  a  man  as  unique  in  his  personality  as 
in  his  writings,  and  held  in  honor  to-day  by  his 
countrymen  less  for  the  tragedies  which  first 
made  him  famous  than  as  the  reviver  of  a  nation- 
al spirit  in  modern  Italy.  The  salient  facts  of 
his  life  are  known  mainly  through  his  Autobiog- 
raphy, a  work  exceptional  in  its  class  for  its 
frank  sincerity  and  keen  personal  interest.  He 
was  bom  January  17,  1749,  at  Asti,  in  Pied- 
mont, which  in  those  days  was  looked  upon  by 
the  mass  of  Italians  almost  as  alien  territory.  Of 
the  misspent  youth  which  he  afterward  so  keenly 
regretted, eight  years  were  passed  in  the  Academy 
of  Turin — years  of  "uneducation,"  he  calls  them. 
Eight  years  more  were  equally  wasted  in  roving 
through  France,  England,  and  Holland,  and  in 
an  idle  and  dissolute  life  in  Turin.  It  was  not 
until  his  twenty-sixth  year  and  his  fourth  serious 
infatuation — this  time  for  a  certain  Marchesa 
Turinetti  di  Prie — that  he  felt  himself  inspired 
with  lofty  aims,  and  especially  with  a  desire  to 
make  a  name  for  himself  in  the  field  of  dramatic 
poetry.  Under  this  inspiration  he  made  his  first 
dramatic  essay,  some  scenes  of  a  Cleopatra ^  re- 
sumed his  serious  studies,  and  removed  to  Flor- 
ence in  order  to  perfect  himself  in  the  correct 
Tuscan  idiom,  for  his  Italian  at  this  time  was 
scarcely  better  than  his  French.  In  Florence 
he  first  met  the  Countess  of  Albany,  the  unhappy 
wife  of  Charles  Edward  Stuart,  and  formed  for 
her  that  life- long  attachment  which  he  defined  as 
a  "degno  amore,"  and  which  has  become  historic. 
After  her  separation  from  her  husband  in  1780, 
Alfieri  joined  her  for  a  time  in  Rome,  and  after 
the  Pretender's  death,  was  seldom  separated  from 


her  during  the  remainder  of  his  own  life.  There 
is,  however,  no  ground  for  believing  that  they 
were  secretly  married.  For  several  years  they 
lived  in  Paris,  but  narrowly  escaped  in  the  Reign 
of  Terror,  and  being  forced  to  flee,  took  refuge 
once  more  in  Florence.  Here  Alfieri  died  October 
8,  1803,  and  here,  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce, 
the  Countess  caused  a  monument  to  be  erected  by 
Canova  to  his  memory. 

Besides  his  tragedies  and  autobiography,  Al- 
fieri's  literary  activity  produced  numerous  son- 
nets and  odes,  his  Misogallo,  a  fierce  denuncia- 
tion of  France,  in  mingled  prose  and  verse,  BOine 
unimportant  prose  writings,  and  six  comedies, 
four  of  which,  UUno,  I  Pochi,  I  Troppi,  UAnii- 
doto,  form  a  political  tetralogy  intended  to  show 
that  the  best  government  is  that  founded  upon 
the  will  of  the  people.     The  series  of  tragedies) 
began  with  Cleopatra,  first  produced  at  Turin  in 
1775,  and  continued  until  1789.     The  most  im- 
portant are  Virginia,  Agamennone,  Oreste,  Timo- 
leonCf  Maria  Stuarda,  and  Saul  which  is  still 
regarded  as  his  masterpiece.    They  are  all  ob- 
viously cast  in  one  and  the  same  mold,  and  that 
a  narrow  one ;  all  classically  correct,  yet  full  of 
dignity  and    lofty  sentiments.    The    principles 
which   he  laid  down  he  rigidly   followed.      He 
did  not  permit  himself  to  imitate  or  even  to  read 
Shakespeare;  but  adhered  to  the  model  of  Greek 
and  French  tragedy,  and  followed  to  a  large  ex- 
tent the  classic  unities.    A  tragic  subject,  in  hi^ 
opinion,  was  one  which  permitted  a  powerful  ex- 
citation of  good  or  evil  passions ;  his  own  theme;) 
were  regularly  drawn  from  some  stirring  event  of 
history  or  mythology.     His  highest  aim  ^-as  to 
unite  "artistic  truth  with  moral  truth,  beauty 
with  morality."'   He  wished  the  theatre  to  be 
"a  school  in  which  men  might  learn  to  be  free, 
brave,  and  generous,  inspired  by  true  virtue,  in- 
tolerant of  violence,  full  of  love  for  their  country, 
with  a  true  knowledge  of  their  personal  rights, 
and  in  all  their  passions  enthusiastic,  upright, 
and   magnanimous."     It    was   Matthew  Arnold 
who   summed    up   Alfieri   as   "a    noble-minded, 
deeply-interested  man,  but  a  monotonous  poet;" 
but  his  poetry  was  not  found  monotonous  by  his 
own  or  the  following  generation.     What  he  did 
for  tragedy  was  carried  on  by  Afonti,  by  Foscolo, 
by  Pellico,  and  others.     What  he  did  for  Italian 
unity  is  harder  to  measure.     An  entire  genera- 
lion  of  patriots  was  inspired  by  his  Virginia  and 
Brutus   and    Timoleotie,   and   drew   freely   upon 
them  for  passages  with  which  to  inflame  their 
hearers.     His   persistence   in   regarding  himself 
primarily  a  native  of  Italy,  and  in  speaking  and 
writing  in  classic  Tuscan,  bore  special  fruit  in  his 
native  Piedmont.     In  the  words  of  his  fellow- 
countryman,  Gioberti,  **the  revival  of  civil  order 
throughout  the  peninsula,  the  creation  of  a  laic 
Italy,  is  due  to  Vittorio  Alfieri,  who,  like  a  new 
Dante,  was  the  true  secularizer  of  the  spirit  of 
the  Italian  people,  and  gave  to  it  that  strong 
impulse  which  still  lives  and  bears  fruit." 

The  complete  edition  of  Alfieri's  works  is  thai 
published  at  Pisa  (1805-15),  in  twenty-two  vol- 
umes. The  first  edition  of  the  tragedies  is  that 
of  Siena  (1783),  containing  only  ten  tragedies. 
Good  editions  of  selected  tragedies  are  those  ed 
ited  by  G.  Falorsi  (Florence,  Barbera) ;  Pisan- 
eschi  (Turin,  Paravia)  ;  and  TreWsan  (Verona). 
For  biographical  and  critical  details,  consult: 
Autobiography,  translated  by  Lestor  (New  York, 
1845)  ;  Ceniofa,nt\,Trag€dieevitad*Alficri  (Flor- 
ence, 1842)  ;  Copping,  Alfieri  and  Goldoni,  Their 


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ALFIEBI. 


331 


ALFONSO. 


Lives  and  Adventures  (London,  1857)  ;  Howells, 
Life  of  and  Essays  on  Alfieri  (Boston,  1877)  ; 
Antonini  and  Cognetti,  Vittorio  Alfieri  (Turin, 
1898)  ;  G.  Carducci,  Primi  Saggi  (Bologna, 
1889) ;  and  E.  Panzacchi,  Vita  italiana  nel  set- 
tecento  (Milan,  1896). 

ALFTTiARTA,  &l-fir&-i^&.    See  Geranium. 

ALFINOEB,ftrnng-er,AMBBOSiooE  ( T— 1532). 
A  German  soldier  of  fortune,  who  in  1628  be- 
came the  agent  of  the  Welser  family  of  Augs- 
burg, to  finish  for  them  the  conquest  of  Vene- 
zuela ;  this  being  the  condition  under  which  they 
held  title  to  the  country  from  Castile.  He  lod 
out  a  company  of  Grermans,  but  his  expedition  to 
the  neighborhood  of  Lake  Maracaibo  and  to  New 
Granada  was  notorious  for  its  cruelties,  and  he 
was  killed  by  an  Indian. 

Ali'FIOafA  (Mex.  Sp.).  The  largest  of  the 
California  surf  fishes.     See  Subf  Fish. 

ALFONSINE,  al-fdn^sln,  or  ALPHONSINE 
TABLES.  Certain  astronomical  calculations 
made  by  the  ablest  men  of  the  period  for  Alfonso 
X.  of  Castile.  A  room  in  the  palace  at  Segovia 
is  still  shown  as  Alfonso's  observatory.  The 
tables  were  completed  in  1252,  the  year  that 
Alfonso  came  to  the  throne,  and  first  published 
in  1483. 

AliFOK^SO  I.  OF  Castile  and  VI.  of  Leon, 
"the  Valiant"  (1030-1109).  He  was  the  son  of 
Ferdinand  the  Great,  King  of  Castile  and  Leon, 
licon  was  given  to  him  by  his  father ;  Sancho,  the 
eldest  son,  received  Castile;  Garcia,  youngest  of 
the  three,  a  part  of  Galicia  and  Portugal.  Al- 
fonso came  to  the  throne  in  1065.  War  soon  broke 
out  between  the  brothers,  and  in  1068  Sancho 
defeated  Alfonso  in  a  bloody  battle  on  the  Pisu- 
erga.  Three  years  later  Alfonso  defeated  Sancho 
on  the  Carrfdn;  but  Sancho,  reenforced,  it  is 
said,  by  the  renowned  Cid,  Roderigo  Diaz  de 
Bivar,  nearly  annihilated  the  Leonese  army, 
took  Alfonso  prisoner,  compelled  him  to  abdi- 
cate, and  shut  him  up  in  a  monastery.  Alfonso 
escaped  and  sought  shelter  with  the  Moorish  King 
of  Toledo.  Sancho  took  possession  of  Leon  and 
immediately  attacked  Garcia,  defeating  and  cap- 
turing him  at  Santarem.  In  1072  Sancho  was 
assassinated  by  a  Castilian  knight,  and  Alfonso, 
upon  solemnly  declaring  himself  innocent  of  the 
murder,  was  reinstated  in  his  kingdom  of  Leon, 
to  which  was  added  Castile.  His  brother  Gar- 
cia, who  was  preparing  to  recover  the  throne  of 
Galicia,  was  treacherously  invited  to  his  court, 
made  a  prisoner,  and  died  in  confinement  ten 
years  later.  Alfonso  now  ruled  over  nearly  all 
of  his  father's  kingdom,  and  went  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  Moorish  King,  who  had  befriended 
him  and  whose  kingdom  was  being  invaded  by 
Cordovans.  Alfonso's  gratitude  ended  with  the 
death  of  the  old  king ;  he  did  not  scruple  to  at- 
tack his  son,  and  soon  captured  the  city  of  To- 
ledo, thus  adding  New  Castile  to  his  dominions. 
Alfonso  was  monarch  of  most  of  dliristian  Spain, 
when  a  powerful  Almoravide  army  from  Africa, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  King  of  Seville,  in- 
flicted upon  him  a  terrible  defeat,  in  1086,  near 
Zalaoa.  He  gradually  retrained  strength,  but  in 
1108  the  Moors  destroyed  his  army  and  killed 
his  only  son.  The  next  year  Alfonso  died  and 
was  succeeded  by  his  daughter,  Urraca,  who  be- 
came the  wife  of  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon.  His 
illegitimate  daughter,  Theresa,  married  Henry  of 
Burgundy,  and  gave  birth  to  the  first  King  of 
Portugal. 


ALFONSO  HI.,  surnamed  "the  Great."  (848- 
912).  King  of  Leon,  Asturias,  and  Galicia.  He 
succeeded  his  father,  Ordofio  I.,  in  866,  but  had 
to  maintain  his  rights  by  force  of  arms  against 
Count  Fruela,  who  had  usurped  the  throne.  Hav- 
ing caused  the  latter  to  be  executed,  by  the  or- 
der of  the  Senate  of  Oviedo,  he  proceeded  sternly 
to  reduce  to  obedience  the  powerful  nobility  of 
the  kingdom,  who  did  not  wish  the  monarchy  to 
remain  in  one  family.  From  870  to  901  he  was 
constantly  at  war  with  the  Moors,  and  gained 
many  victories.  Crossing  the  Douro,  he  hum- 
bled Coimbra,  penetrated  to  the  Tagus  and  Es- 
tremadura,  enlarged  his  territories  by  a  portion 
of  Portugal  and  Old  Castile,  and  repeopled  the 
conquered  and  desolate  Burgos,  making  of  it  the 
first  town  in  Castile.  These  wars  entailed  great 
expense  and  misery  upon  the  nation.  As  a  con- 
sequence, in  888,  Garcia,  the  son  of  Alfonso, 
raised  the  standard  of  revolt.  Alfonso  collected 
his  forces,  conquered  his  son,  and  threw  him  into 
prison.  But  Garcia's  mother,  with  the  help  of 
several  of  the  grandees,  excited  a  new  conspiracy, 
which  resulted  in  the  abdication  of  the  monarch 
in  favor  of  his  imprisoned  son,  in  910.  In  order, 
however,  to  be  still  useful  to  his  country,  Al- 
fonso became  commander  of  Garcia's  forces  in 
an  expedition  against  the  Moors.  After  return- 
ing in  triumph,  he  died  at  Zamora,  December  20, 
912. 

ALFONSO  VI.  OF  Leon.  See  Alfonso  I.  of 
Castile. 

ALFONSO  X.  (1221-84).  King  of  Leon  and 
Castile,  surnamed  "the  Astronomer,"  "the  Phil- 
osopher," or  "the  Wise"  {El  Sabio),  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father,  Ferdinand  III.,  in  1252.  As 
early  as  the  storming  of  Seville,  in  1248,  he  had 
given  indications  of  his  courageous  spirit.  But 
instead  of  wisely  confining  his  efforts  to  the  con- 
quest of  the  Moors  and  the  repression  of  the 
nobility,  he  lavished  the  resources  of  his  kingdom 
in  efforts  to  secure  the  imperial  throne  of  Ger- 
many, to  which  he  was  elected  in  1257.  Richard 
of  Cornwall  was  chosen  in  opposition  to  him. 
Neither  could  succeed  in  securing  recognition, 
and  ultimatelv  the  imperial  crown  was  placed 
upon  the  head  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  (1273). 
While  Alfonso  was  striving  for  the  crown  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  his  throne  was  threatened 
by  the  turbulence  of  the  nobilitj',  and  at  the 
same  time  he  had  to  contend  with  the  Moors. 
The  latter,  however,  he  defeated,  in  1262,  in  a 
bloody  battle.  In  1270  an  insurrection  broke  out 
in  his  dominions,  at  the  head  of  which  was  his 
brother  Philip.  Later  his  son  Sancho  also  re- 
belled, and  in  1282  deprived  him  of  his  throne. 
He  now  sought  the  help  of  the  Moors,  but  after 
fruitless  efl^orts  to  recover  his  power,  he  died  at 
Seville,  April  4,  1284.  He  was  the  most  learned 
prince  of  his  time,  and  has  acquired  lasting  fame 
through  the  completion  of  the  code  of  laws  called 
the  Siete  Partidas,  which  200  years  later  became 
the  universal  law  of  the  land.  There  are  still 
extant  several  long  poems  of  his,  a  work  on 
chemistry,  El  Lihro  del  Tesoro,  translated  later 
by  Brunetto  Latini  (q.v.),  and  various  transla- 
tions of  Arabic  works.  He  labored  much  to  re- 
vive knowledge,  increasing  both  the  privileges 
and  professorships  of  the  University  of  Sala- 
manca. He  sought  to  improve  the  Ptolemaic 
planetary  tables,  whose  anomalies  had  struck  ob- 
servers even  at  that  early  time.  For  this  pur- 
pose, in   1240,  he  assembled  at  Toledo  upward 


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ALFOHSO. 


of  50  of  the  most  celebrated  astronomers  of  that 
age.  His  improved  tables,  stilj  known  under  the 
name  of  the  Alfonsine  Tables,  were  completed  in 
1252.    See  Alfonsine  Tables. 

ALFONSO  I.  OF  Naples  and  Sicily.  See  Al- 
fonso V  OF  Aragon. 

ALFONSO  L  (t-1134).  King  of  Navarre 
and  Aragon,  who  succeeded  Pedro  I.,  in  1104. 
His  marriage  with  Urraca,  heir  of  Alfonso  VI., 
of  Leon  and  Castile,  brought  that  kingdom  un- 
der his  sway.  Misunderstandings  soon  arose  with 
Urraca,  and  a  divorce  was  granted.  Alfonso, 
however,  continued  to  fight  against  Castile,  thus 
prolonging  the  final  strife  with  the  Moors.  He 
was  called  "emperor"  and  "fighter;"  the  latter 
name  he  won  by  his  victories  over  the  Moors.  In 
1114  he  began  the  siege  of  Saragossa,  which  he 
captured  four  years  later.  In  1120  he  slew 
20,000  Moors  on  the  field  of  Daroca.  In  1123  he 
invaded  Valencia,  and  two  years  later  he  went 
to  the  aid  of  the  Christian  Moors  in  Andalusia. 
In  1130  he  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  captured 
Bordeaux  and  Bayonne.  In  1133  he  besieged 
Fraga  on  the  Cinca.  The  contest  was  long  and 
severe,  bringing  from  Africa  10,000  Almoravides. 
Finally,  however,  the  Christians  were  defeated. 
Alfonso  died  in  1134. 

ALFONSO  (Vort.  Alfonso)  L  (1109-85).  First 
King  of  Portugal,  son  of  Henry  of  Burgundy, 
conqueror  and  Count  of  Portugal.  His  father 
died  when  he  was  about  two  years  old,  and 
the  management  of  affairs  fell  into  the  hands 
of  his  ambitious  and  dissolute  mother,  Theresa 
of  Castile,  from  whom  he  was  compelled  to  take 
it  by  force  on  attaining  his  majority.  He  was 
forced  into  war  with  Castile,  whose  supremacy 
he  did  not  recognize.  He  then  attacked  the 
Moors  and  won  a  brilliant  victory  on  the  plains 
of  Ourique  ( 1 139) ,  where,  according  to  the  legend, 
200,000  Moors  perished.  From  that  day  he  took 
the  title  of  king.  He  w^as  crowned  by  the  abbot 
of  Larvao,  and  the  coronation  was  sanctioned  by 
the  Pope  in  1169.  On  October  23,  1147,  he  took 
Lisbon,  with  the  aid  of  some  English  crusaders 
under  William  Longsword,  on  their  way  to  the 
Holy  Land.  The  booty  was  so  rich  that  most  of 
the  Crusaders  returned  home.  In  1158,  after  a 
two  months'  siege,  he  became  master  of  Alcazar 
de  Sal.  He  took  by  assault  the  fortress  of  San- 
tarem  from  the  Saracens,  in  1171,  and  annihil- 
ated the  garrison ;  at  the  same  place  he  defeated 
the  Almohade  ruler,  Jusef-ben-Jakub,  in  1184. 
He  invited  to  his  land  the  Knights  Templars  and 
the  Knights  of  St.  John,  and  established  the  Or- 
ders of  Avis  and  of  St.  Michael.  He  died  at 
Coimbra,  December  6,  1185. 

ALFONSO  V.  (1432-81).  King  of  Portugal, 
surnamed  "the  African,"  in  honor  oi  his  victo- 
ries over  the  Moors  in  Algiers.  At  his  father's 
death,  in  1438,  there  was  a  fierce  struggle  for  the 
regency  between  the  Queen  Mother  and  the  uncles 
of  the  King.  Finally  the  Queen  was  defeated  and 
hi»  uncle  Pedro  became  regent.  In  1448  Alfonso 
assumed  the  government,  declared  his  uncle  a 
rebel,  and  defeated  him  in  battle.  After  a  cam- 
paign in  Africa,  Alfonso  undertook  to  seize  upon 
Castile  and  Leon,  but  was  defeated  at  Toro.  Al- 
fonso endeavored  to  get  assistance  from  the  King 
of  France,  but,  finding  that  he  was  being  de- 
ceived, he  abdicated  in  faVor  of  his  son,  Juan,  in 
1476.  He  was  forced,  how^ever,  to  ascend  the 
throne  again.  In  1479  he  signed  the  treaty  of 
Alcantara  with  Castile.    In  1481  he  died  of  the 


plague.  He  founded  the  Order  of  the  Tower  and 
Sword  under  the  invocation  of  San  Diego.  In 
his  reign  the  explorations  of  the  Portuguese 
•along  the  western  coast  of  Africa  were  pushed 
beyond  the  emiator.  As  a  patron  of  literature  he 
was  the  first  Portuguese  king  to  collect  a  library, 
and  also  the  first  to  have  national  histon* 
treated  by  competent  writers. 

ALFONSO  V.  (1385-1458).  King  of  Aragon, 
Naples,  and  Sicily.  He  reigned  from  1416  to 
1458,  receiving  the  surname  "Magnanimous," 
because  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  he  de- 
stroyed a  document  containing  the  names  of  all 
the  grandees  who  were  hostile  to  him.  He 
is  renowned  cliiefly  for  having  brought  southern 
Italy  under  the  dominion  of  Aragon.  In  1420  he 
attacked  Corsica,  but  speedily  hastened  to 
Naples  at  the  request  of  Queen  Joanna  II.,  who 
in  return  for  his  assistance  against  Louis  of 
Anjou  named  him  as  her  heir.  For  some  time 
he  enjoyed  her  highest  favor;  but  in  1423,  hav- 
ing thrown  into  prison  her  minion,  Caraceiolo, 
who  w^as  his  enemy,  the  Queen  declared  for  his 
rival,  Louis.  At  her  death,  in  1435,  Alfonso  re- 
solved to  claim  the  kingdom ;  but  Ren6  of  Anjou, 
whom  Joanna  had  appointed  her  successor  after 
the  death  of  Louis,  opposed  him.  Rome  and 
Genoa  sided  with  Ren4.  The  Genoese  fleet  in- 
flicted a  most  serious  defeat  upon  the  Aragonese 
fleet,  and  Alfonso  was  captured.  He  was  sent  to 
the  Duke  of  Milan,  who,  charmed  by  his  man- 
ner and  talent,  set  him  at  liberty,  and  even  formed 
an  alliance  with  him.  After  several  battles  Al- 
fonso overthrew  his  adversary  and  entered  Naples 
in  triumph.  Having  once  firmly  established  his 
power,  he  proceeded  to  suppress  the  disorders 
which  had  sprung  up  during  the  reign  of  Joanna, 
and  honorably  distinguish^  himself  by  his  pat- 
ronage of  letters.  He  died  at  Naples,  June  27, 
1458,  while  his  troops  were  besieging  G«noa. 

ALFONSO  VI.  ( 164383 ) .  King  of  Portugal. 
An  incapable  and  dissolute  prince,  who  drove  his 
mother,  the  regent,  from  court,  and  put  the  su- 
preme power  into  the  hands  of  a  worthless  favor- 
ite. Count  Castel-Melhor.  His  wife,  whom  he 
neglected,  conspired  with  his  brother,  Dom  Pedro, 
against  him.  Alfonso  was  dethroned  anj  im- 
prisoned (1668).  and  Dom  Pedro  took  his  place 
as  King  of  Portugal,  and,  after  the  deatn  of 
Alfonso,  as  husband  of  his  queen. 

ALFONSO  XIL  (1857-85).  King  of  Spain. 
The  son  of  the  deposed  Queen  Isabella  II.  He 
was  born  at  Madrid  and  was  proclaimed  king 
December  30,  1874.  On  January  23,  1878,  he 
married  Princess  Maria  de  las  Mercedes  (young- 
est daughter  of  the  Due  de  Montpensier),  who 
died  soon  after.  In  1879  he  married  Archduchess 
Maria  Christina  of  Austria,  by  whom  he  had 
three  children.  Returning  from  aif  informal 
visit  to  Grermany,  1883,  he  was  publicly  insulted 
in  Paris,  and  war  with  France  was  for  a  few  days 
thought  probable.  Alfonso  gave  Spain  a  just  and 
firm  government,  but  vainly  tried  to  reconcile 
the  numerous  factions  into  which  the  country 
w^as  divided.  ■  His  posthumous  child,  Alfonso 
XIII.,  succeeded  him. 

ALFONSO  XIIL  (1886—).  King  of  Spain. 
He  was  born  May  17,  1886,  the  posthumous  son 
of  Alfonso  XII.  and  of  Maria  Christina,  Arch- 
duchess of  Austria,  who  was  appointed  regent 
during  his  minority.  The  reign  of  the  young 
King  has  l>een  marked  by  mutinies  abroad,  while 
at  home  dissatisfaction  "has  found  expression  in 


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AliFONSO. 

cabinet  crises  and  military  insurrections,  labor 
riots,  and  Anarchistic  disturbances.  In  1894  and 
1805  insurrections  broke  out  in  the  Philippines 
and  in  Cuba.  In  1898  the  United  States  declared 
war  on  Spain,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  De- 
cember 10,  1898,  deprived  her  of  Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  and  the  Philippines,  practically  blotting 
out  Spain's  colonial  empire.    See  United  States. 

AUPONSO  MABIA  DE  LIOUOSI,  mA-r^& 
dA  U•-g^v6'rA.     See  I.iguori. 

ALFOTSfBO  OP  BOUB'BON  (1849—).  In- 
fanta of  Spain,  a  brother  of  the  pretender  to  the 
crown,  Charles  VII.,  nephew  of  the  former  pre- 
tender, Don  Carlos.  (See  Carlos,  Don.)  He 
participated  in  the  struggle  of  the  Carlists  ( 1873- 
74),  and  together  with  his  wife,  Maria  de  las 
Nievas,  .became  notorious  by  reason  of  sangui- 
nary deeds  at  the  siege  of  Cuenca. 

AUPOBD,  ftl'ferd,  Henry,  D.D.  (181071). 
An  English  biblical  critic  and  poet.  He  was  born 
in  London,  October  7,  1810,  and  educated  at  Trin- 
ity College,  Cambridge.  He  became  Fellow  of 
Trinity  in  1834,  Vicar  of  Wymeswold,  a  college 
living,  in  the  diocese  of  Peterborough,  1835; 
minister  of  Quebec  Chapel,  Marylebone,  London, 
1853;  Dean  of  Canterbury,  1857.  He  was  very 
versatile,  could  play  and  sing,  carve  and  paint. 
He  wrote  poetry  and  sermons.  He  was  a  literary 
critic  and  editor.  But  his  reputation  rests  upon 
his  edition  of  the  Greek  New  Testament,  in  which 
for  the  first  time  the  treasures  of  German  lin- 
guistic and  exegetical  studies  were  introduced 
in  comprehensive  fashion  to  those  unfamiliar 
w^ith  German.  It  was  begun  in  1845  and  the 
fourth  and  last  volume  published  in  1861.  For 
the  day  it  was  a  great  service.  He  enabled  the 
mere  English  reader  to  reap  a  great  part  of  his 
harvest  bv  his  New  Testament  for  English  Read- 
ers (London,  1868,  4  volumes).  Other  of  his  writ- 
ings have  had  much  vogue,  especially  his  poetry, 
The  School  of  the  Heart,  and  Other  Poems,  etc., 
which  is  characterized  not  so  much  by  depth  or 
originality  as  by  freedom  from  affectation,  ob- 
scurity or  bombast.  Among  his  latest  writings 
was  A  Plea  for  the  Queen's  English  ( sixth  edition, 
1880),  which  excited  considerable  discussion.  He^ 
also  published  several  volumes  of  sermons.  He' 
died  at  Canterbury,  January  12,  1871.  Consult 
The  Life  of  Dean  Alford,  by  his  widow  (London, 
1373). 

Ali'FRED.  A  village  in  Allegany  County, 
N.  Y..  12  miles  southwest  of  Hornellsville,  on  the 
Erie  Railroad  (Map:  New  York,  C  3).  Alfred 
was  settled  in  1807  and  was  incorporated  in 
1887;  it  is  known  principally  as  the  site  of  Al- 
fred University,  a  Seventh  Day  Baptist  institu- 
tion, organized  in  1836.  The  New  York  State 
School  of  Clay  Working  and  Ceramics  is  also 
situated  here.     Pop.,  1800,  786;   1900,  756. 

AliFBED  OP  BEVEBLEY  (born  c.  -1100). 
An  old  English  chronicler,  about  whom  little  is 
known.  He  describes  himself  as  treasurer  and 
sacrist  of  the  church  of  Beverley,  in  Yorkshire, 
where  he  wrote  in  Latin  a  chronicle  history  of 
Britain,  from  the  fabulous  period  down  to  1129, 
called  the  Annalcs  (in  9  books).  It  is  mostly  a 
compilation.  An  inferior  MS.  was  printed  by 
T.  Hearne  (1716). 

AJ^FBJSDf  or  MLFBXDf  the  Great  (849- 
901 ) .  King  of  Wessex  from  871  to  901.  He  was 
bom  at  Wantage,  in  Berkshire,  in  849.  His 
father  was  ^thdwulf,  King  of  the  West  Saxons. 


333 


ALFBED. 


Alfred,  the  youngest  of  five  sons,  succeeded 
to  the  throne  in  871,  on  the  death  of  his 
brother  ^Ethelred.  His  reign,  which  lasted  more 
than  thirty  years,  is  noteworthy  first,  because 
of  the  wars  with  the  Danish  invaders;  second, 
because  of  the  interest  which  the  King  took  in 
education.  Before  discussing  his  real  achieve- 
ments, however,  it  may  be  well  to  speak 
briefly  of  some  things  erroneously  attributed  to 
him.  In  the  popular  legends  he  has  been  re- 
garded as  the  author  of  many  reforms  and  in- 
stitutions which  were  in  no  way  due  to  him. 
His  real  and  great  merits  have  been  overlooked 
because  of  the  actions  incorrectly  credited  to  him. 
Except  for  the  false  statements  in  many  seconda- 
ry works,  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  say  that  he 
did  not  institute  trial  by  jury,  and  that  he  was 
not  the  founder  of  the  University  of  Oxford.  The 
picturesque  tales  of  his  hiding  from  the  Danes,  of 
the  burned  cakes,  and  of  his  visit  to  the  Danish 
camp  disguised  as  a  harper,  are  inventions  of  a 
later  age. 

Alfr^  became  king  in  the  midst  of  a  Danish 
invasion.  After  several  battles  he  was  able  to 
make  peace  with  the  enemy,  probably  by  paying 
them  money.  In  the  following  yeal-s  Danis>h  ma- 
rauding expeditions  were  frequent,  and  in  878 
there  was  a  great  invasion.  For  a  few  months 
the  Danes  were  successful  almost  everywhere,  and 
met  with  no  general  resistance.  About  Easter, 
Alfred  established  himself  at  Athelney,  and 
gathered  there  all  the  forces  that  he  could. 
Seven  weeks  afterward  he  marched  to  Brixton, 
gathering  troops  as  he  went,  and  in  the  battle 
of  Ethandun,  probably  Edington  in  Wiltshire, 
he  defeated  the  Danes  and  captured  their 
stronghold.  The  Danish  King  Guthrum  was 
baptized,  and  the  peace  of  Wedmore  followed. 
There  were  some  less  important  engagements  in 
the  following  years,  but  on  the  whole,  for  the 
next  fifteen  years  Alfred  was  able  to  give  his 
time  to  the  internal  affairs  of  his  kingdom.  In 
893  the  Danes  who  had  been  driven  away  by  Ar- 
nulf.  King  of  Germany  (q.v.),  made  a  descent 
upon  England.  For  more  than  four  years  the 
warfare  went  on  almost  continuously,  but  at  last 
the  Danes  were  driven  out.  These  Danish  inva- 
sions had  an  important  influence  on  the  history 
of  England.  By  crushing  the  individual  king- 
doms, they  worked,  unwittingly,  for  the  unity  of 
England.  Alfred,  by  withstanding  them  success- 
fully, made  his  kingdom  the  rallying  point  for 
all  the  Saxons,  and  prepared  the  way  for  the 
eventual  supremacy  of  his  descendants.  He  died 
October  28,  901. 

Alfred  was  an  enthusiastic  scholar  and  a 
zealous  patron  of  learning.  When  he  came  to 
the  throne,  as  he  himself  wrote,  he  found  little 
or  no  interest  in  education,  and  few  learned 
men.  He  invited  to  his  court  native  and  foreign 
scholars,  of  whom  the  best  known  are  Asser  and 
John  Scotus  Erigena.  He  labored  himself,  and 
encouraged  others  to  labor,  for  the  education  of 
his  people.  The  composition  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronirle  may  have  been  due  to  his  initiative. 
He  himself  translated  works  which  he  thought 
would  be  useful  to  his  people,  and  instead  of 
merely  translating  literally,  he  expanded  or 
omitted  portions  in  order  to  make  the  work  more 
serviceable.  His  principal  works  were  transla- 
tions of  the  following:  BoSthius,  Consolation 
of  Philosophy;  Orosius,  History  of  the  World; 
and  Gregory  the  Great,  Pastoral  Care.  Of  the 
last  there  is  an  excellent  edition  in  the  publica- 


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334 


ALQM. 


tions  of  the  Early  English  Text  Society.  He  is 
said  to  have  translated,  or  to  have  had  trans- 
lated, the  Soliloquies  of  St,  Augustine.  It  was 
believed  formerly  that  Alfred  translated  Bede's 
Ecclesiastical  History,  but  more  critical  study 
has  shown  that  the  translation  is  made  into  the 
Anglian  dialect  and  not  the  West  Saxon.  It 
was  certainly  not  the  work  of  Alfred,  although 
it  may  have  been  made  imder  his  direction,  ^e 
Miller,  The  Old  English  Version  of  Bede's  Ec- 
clesiastical History,  Early  English  Text  Society 
(London,  1890)  ;  Schipper,  Konig  Alfreds  Ueber- 
setzung  von  Hedas  Kirchengeschichte  (Leipzig, 
1897). 

His  laws  show  no  striking  changes  from  the 
laws  of  earlier  kings;  in  fact,  he  disclaimed 
originality  and  spoke  of  his  work  as  mainly 
a  compilation  of  existing  laws.  But  they  are 
marked  by  two  characteristics  which  deserve 
notice:  first,  they  are  intensely  religious;  sec- 
ond, they  make  no  distinction  between  English 
and  Welsh,  as  the  earlier  laws  had  done. 

The  millenary  of  King^  Alfred  was  celebrated 
on  September  18,  1901,  at  Winchester,  the  for- 
mer capital  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kingdom.  The 
commemorative  exercises  were  participated  in 
by  many  distinguished  men  from  all  English- 
speaking  countries.  On  September  20,  the  day 
of  the  most  important  functions,  all  the  delegates 
joined  in  a  great  procession  and  marched  to  the 
site  where  the  colossal  statue  of  Alfred,  the  work 
of  Thornycroft,  was  unveiled,  and  the  oration 
was  delivered  by  Lord  Rosebery. 

In  the  United  States  the  Society  of  American 
Authors  encouraged  the  celebration  of  "the  one 
thousandth  anniversary  of  the  founder  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  race."  Exercises  were  held  on  Oc- 
tober 28  in  libraries  and  schools  in  various  cities. 
The  chief  celebration  was  in  New  York  City, 
where  Alfred  Bowker,  the  Mayor  of  Winchester, 
was  the  guest  of  honor. 

The  great  contemporary  sources  of  information 
for  Alfred's  life  are  Asserts  Life  of  Alfred  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle.  Of  each  of  these  there 
are  several  editions  in  the  original  Latin ;  trans- 
lations can  be  found  in  the  Bonn  Library,  in  Ste- 
venson's Church  Historians  of  England,  and  else- 
where. The  genuineness  of  Asser's  work  has  been 
the  subject  of  much  controversy,  but  most  schol- 
ars now  believe  it  to  be  a  contemporary  work, 
with  some  later  interpolations.  ( See  Assbr.  )  Of 
secondary  works  Pauli's  Konig  Alfred,  edited  by 
Thomas  Wright,  is  still  deserving  of  mention. 

Bibliography.  The  constitutional  events  of 
the  reign  are  described  in  Stubbs,  Constitutional 
History,  Volume  I.  (Oxford,  1891).  The  mil- 
lenary celebration  caused  the  production  of 
many  books  and  articles.  Of  these  the  following 
may  be  mentioned:  Bowker,  Alfred  the  Qreat 
(London,  1899),  which  contains  seven  special 
studies  by  Sir  Walter  Besant,  Sir  Frederick  Pol- 
lock, Frederic  Harrison,  and  others;  Conybeare, 
Alfred  in  the  Chroniclers  (London,  1900)  ; 
Draper,  Alfred  the  Qreat  (London,  1901)  ;  Har- 
rison, Writings  of  King  Alfred  (New  York, 
1901);  Hughes,  Alfred  the  Great,  new  edition 
(Tx)ndon,  1901)  ;  Jeffery,  A  Perfect  Prince,  The 
Story  of  the  England  of  Alfred  the  Great  (Lon- 
don, 1901)  ;  Macfayden,  Alfred  the  West  Saxon 
(London,  1901);  Wall,  Alfred  the  Great,  his 
Abbeys  of  Hyde,  Athelney,  and  Shaftesbury 
(London,  1900).  Frederic  Perry  is  preparing  a 
volume,  Alfred  the  Truth  Teller,  for  the  Heroes 
of  the  Nations  Series.    Mr.  Slade,  of  the  Library 


of  OonffresB,  has  prepared  a  bibliography  of  Al- 
fred, which  aims  at  completeness. 

AIiFBED  IT'NIVEli'SITY.  An  American 
university,  situated  at  Alfred,  N.  Y.  It  was 
organized  as  a  school  in  1836  and  as  a  university 
in  1857.  Its  total  endowment,  including  equip- 
ment, etc.,  was  in  1901  about  $445,000.  The 
library  has  13,000  volumes.  The  university  has 
collegiate,  industrial  mechanics,  fine  arts,  music, 
theological  and  preparatory  departments,  and  a 
State  school  of  clay  working  and  ceramics.  In- 
structors (1900)  26,  studenta  210.  President, 
Rev.   B.   C.   Davis,   Ph.D. 

AIiFBETON,  fiKfer-ton.  A  market  town  of 
Derbyshire,  England,  about  12  miles  north  of 
Derby  (Map:  England,  E  3).  Its  foundation 
is  ascribed  to  Alfred  the  Great.  It  has  of  late 
become  a  flourishing  manufacturing  town. 
Among  its  industries  are  pottery  works,  col- 
lieries, and  iron  foundries.  Pop.,  1891,  15,400; 
1901,  17,600. 

AliFUBESE,  kVPS^r^  or  &l'f55-r§s^  ALFTT- 
BU,  ftl-HRJ^rSo,  or  ALATOBA,  Al-fo^r&  (Ar.  al, 
the  -♦-  Portug.  fora,  outside,  thus  probably  mean- 
ing the  outsiders).  In  Celebes,  the  Moluccas, 
etc.,  a  term  applied  to  the  tribes,  of  the 
interior  especially,  who  seem  to  differ  from  the 
more  or  less  prevalent  Malay  type,  being  per- 
haps pre-Malay  aboriginals.  The  name  can 
hardly  have,  however,  any  strict  anthropological 
connotation.  In  dlelebes  the  Alfurese  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  north,  in  Gilolo  in  the  central 
regions,  while  in  Ceram  they  are  the  predomi- 
nant race.  The  Alf prese  of  Celebes  are  probably 
not  so  different  from  the  Malayans  as  has  hith- 
erto been  believed,  being  a  mixed  race.  The 
Alfurese  of  Gilolo  were  considered  by  Wallace 
the  true  aborigines  of  the  island,  and  those  of 
Ceram,  etc.,  to  be  of  Papuan  stock  at  bottom. 
There  are,  evidently,  several  kinds  of  Alfurese 
(the  word  has  somewhat  the  sense  of  our  "gen- 
tile," "pagan"),  some  Malays  doubtless,  others 
pre-Malay,  still  others  of  Papuan  affinities.  See 
Celebes;  Moluccas. 

AIiO.fi,  fiKj4  (Lat.  nom.  pi.  of  alga,  seaweed). 
A  group  of  chlorophyll-bearing  or  colored  thallo- 
phytes  containing  the  lowest  forms  of  plant  life. 
The  algae  are  contrasted  with  the  fungi,  which 
latter  are  devoid  of  chlorophyll.  There  is  an 
obvious  relationship  between  the  algae  and  the 
fungi,  the  latter  (q.v.)  probably  having  been 
derived  from  the  former.  Consequently,  a  per- 
fectly natural  classification  should  combine  both 
groups;  but  botanists  are  hardly  ready  at  this 
time  to  attempt  so  difficult  a  problem.  Although 
the  fungi  have  come  from  algal  ancestry,  they 
have  undoubtedlv  been  derived  from  two  or  more 
widely  separated  regions  of  the  algsB.  Thus,  the 
Bacteria  {Schizomycetes)  have  probably  come 
from  the  lowly  Blue-green  Algce  ( Cyanophyc€<r) , 
while  the  Phycomycetes  (molds  of  various 
kinds)  have  their  origin  from  much  higher  levels. 
It  follows,  therefore,  that  the  Fungi  contain  sev- 
eral groups  with  no  generic  relation  except 
through  a  roundabout  algal  ancestry.  Cons«e- 
quently  the  division  of  the  Thallophytes  into 
tne  AlgBB  and  Fungi  is  largely  a  classification  of 
convenience,  based  upon  the  physiological  char- 
acter of  the  presence  or  absence  of  chlorophyll 
(green  pigment)  or  of  pigments  related  to  chlo- 
rophyll. 

Classification.  The  Algse  are  readily  divid- 
ed into   four  groups,  which  have  the  rank  of 


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ALOJE. 


classes:  viz.,  the  Blue-green  Algie  [Cyanophy- 
c€(b).  Green  Algse  [Chlorophycecd) ,  Brown  Algse 
( PhcBophycew) ,  and  Red  Algse  (Rhodophyceoe) . 
Under  the  scientific  names  there  will  be  found 
accounts  of  their  general  habits  and  most  strik- 
ing characteristics.  From  the  names  of  these 
classes  one  might  imagine  that  the  groups  are 
distinguished  by  color  marks;  but  in  reality 
fundamental  morphological  characters  form  the 
basis  of  the  classification.  Although  it  is  con- 
venient to  think  of  the  Algs  as  distinguished 
by  their  color,  there  are  many  exceptions  to  the 
rule,  and  color  should  never  be  regarded  as  the 
foundation  of  the  classification. 

CTANOPHTCEiE.  Blue-greeu  Algse  are  remark- 
able for  the  simplicity  of  their  cell  structure. 
There  are  probably  never  present  distinct  cell 
organs  (nucleus,  etc.)»  the  blue-green  pigment 
being  diffused  through  the  outer  re^^ions  of  the 
protoplasm.  It  is  this  extreme  simplicity  of 
cell  structure  that  seems  to  unite  these  Algse 
with  the  Bacteria.  In  addition  to  the  vegetative 
cells,  there  are  in  the  filamentous  forms  peculiar 
empty  cells  called  Heterocysts  (q.v.) ,  which  have 
an  important  relation  to  the  method  of  growth 
termed  "false  branching."  (See  Cy anoph YCEiE. ) 
At  the  approach  of  an  unfavorable  season,  as 
cold  or  drought,  certain  cells  take  on  thick  walls, 
becoming  reproductive  cells  or ""  spores.  There 
is  no  method  of  sexual  reproduction.  The  Cyano- 
phyceae  comprise  two  orders:  the  Coccogonales, 
containing  the  unicellular  forms,  and  the  Hor- 
mogonales,  which  comprise  the  filamentous  types. 
The  latter  order  takes  its  name  from  the  peculiar 
method  of  vegetative  reproduction,  whereby  the 
filaments  break  up  into  segments  called  hormo- 
gonia,  which  separate  and  develop  new  plants. 

CHiiOROPHTCEiG.  The  Green  Algse  form  a  large 
assemblage,  varying  from  unicellular  forms  of 
very  siihple  life  history  to  groups  with  highly 
differentiated  vegetative  structure  and  methods 
of  sexual  reproduction.  It  is  perhaps  the  best 
group  of  plants  for  illustration  of  the  steps  and 
conditions  of  the  evolution  of  sex.  Sexual  cells 
or  Gametes  (q.v.)  are  unquestionably  derived 
from  the  asexual  reproductive  cells  called  zoo- 
spores or  swarm  spores,  which  are  the  common- 
est reproductive  elements  in  the  Chlorophycese. 
The  zodspores,  after  taking  on  sexual  characters, 
are  further  differentiated  into  large  non-motile 
eggs  and  the  highly  specialized  sperms.  One 
may  find  in  the  Chlorophycese  various  stages  in 
this  process  of  sexual  differentiation,  and  it  is 
interesting  to  note  that  sex*  has  arisen  in  several 
groups  independently  of  one  another.  Further- 
more, the  production  by  many  Algae  of  asexual 
spores  on  the  one  hand,  or  sexual  cells  (gametes) 
on  the  other,  is  known  to  be  determined  by 
environmental  factors,  such  as  heat,  light,  and 
the  character  of  the  food.  The  same  plant  may 
be  made  to  produce  in  succession  non-sexual 
reproductive  cells,  or  sexual  elements,  by  merely 
modifying  the  life  conditions.  The  most  con- 
spicuous groups  of  the  Chlorophycese  which  may 
be  ranked  as  orders  are  the  Protococcales,  Con- 
fervales,  Conjugales,  Diatomales,  Siphonales,  and 
Cha  rales. 

The  Protococcales  include  unicellular  forms 
and  the  cell-colonies  called  Coenobia  (q.v.), 
there  being  several  divergent  lines  of  develop- 
ment. One  of  the  simpler  types  is  Pleurococcus, 
which  grows  thickly  upon  the  north  side  of  trees. 
This  plant,  contrary  to  many  statements,  never 
develops  spores,  and  reproduces  entirely  by  cell- 


division.  It  should  not  be  confused  with  Proto- 
coccus  (or  Chlorococcus ) ,  a  much  rarer  form, 
far  more  complicated  in  structure  and  life  his- 
tory. The  Protococcales  are  believed  to  repre- 
sent the  starting  point  of  the  main  line  of  ascent 
which  runs  through  the  Confervales  to  the  Bryo- 
phytes  (liverworts  and  mosses).  There  are  also 
represented  in  this  group  several  other  well- 
marked  lines,  which,  however,  ending  blindly, 
bear  no  relation  to  other  plants.  The  develop- 
ment of  these  lines  is  determined  by  the  degree 
of  emphasis  that  is  laid  upon  certain  phases  of 
the  varied  life  history  of  the  Protococcales. 
Thus,  the  Volvocacese  have  developed  especially 
the  motile  condition;  the  Hydrodictyaceje,  the 
colony  (coenobium)  condition;  and  the  Pleuro- 
coccaceae,  the  life  of  vegetative  cells,  reproducing 
by  simple  division. 

The  Confervales  comprise  the  many-celled 
filamentous  and  membranous  forms  that  are 
nearest  to  the  theoretical  main  line  of  ascent 
to  the  Bryophytes  (liverworts  and  mosses). 
The  simpler  types,  such  as  Ulothrix  and  Ulva, 
have  similar  swimming  sexual  cells  (gametes), 
which  fuse  (conjugate)  in  pairs  in  the  water. 
Higher  members,  as  (Edogonium  and  Coleochsete, 
have  distinct  eggs  and  sperms,  but  there  are  cer- 
'  tain  forms  which  present  intermediate  conditions, 
that  show  clearly  that  the  sexual  differentiation, 
of  the  highest  types  (heterogamy)  has  developed 
from  the  simplicity  illustrated  by  Ulothrix,. 
whose  gametes  cannot  be  distinguished  (isoga- 
my).  In  Coleochsete  there  is  the  further  com- 
plication of  Alternation  of  generations  (q.v.). 
The  fertilized  egg^  instead  of  developing  directly 
into  a  new  Coleochsete  plant,  forms  a  small 
body  (sporophyte)  which  contains  spores,  each 
of  which  produces  a  new  sexual  Coleochsete  plant, 
(gametophyte).  The  appearance  of  this  sexless 
generation  in  Coleoch&'te  is  strikingly  like  the- 
sporophyte  of  the  simpler  liverworts. 

The  Conjugales,  or  Pond  Scums  (see  Chloro- 
PHYCEiG)  are  peculiar  by  reason  of  the  sexually^ 
formed  spore  that  results  from  the  union  of  non- 
motile  cells  whose  contents  fuse  directly,  never 
presenting  a  free  swimming  condition.  The- 
order  contains  such  well-known  filamentous 
forms  as  Spirogyra  and  Zygnema,  and  the  large 
group  of  the  Desmids,  the  latter  mostly  unicellu- 
lar. The  Conjugales  are  chiefly  remarkable  for 
the  extreme  beauty  of  their  cell  contents,  the 
green  color  body  being  especially  well  developed. 
They  are  not  closely  related  to  any  other  group 
of  Algse,  and  their  origin  is  problematical.  The 
method  of  sexual  reproduction  is  unique,  having 
little  resemblance  in  manner  and  form  to  the 
sexual  processes  of  other  Chlorophycese. 

The  Diatomales,  or  Diatoms  (q.v.),  have  an 
uncertain  position,  but  ^ow  certain  affinities  to 
the  Desmids.  Their  color  body  is  generally 
brown,  but  is  green  in  some  species.  The  Siphon- 
ales  form  a  large  group,  chiefly  marine.  Certain 
members  (e.g.,  Caulerpa)  have  a  high  grade  of 
vegetative  organization,  presenting  a  stem-like 
axis  that  bears  leaf -like  expanded  lateral  out- 
growths, and  in  addition  colorless  root-like  pro- 
cesses (rhizoids)  which  grow  into  the  substra- 
tum. The  commonest  illustration  is  Vaucheria, 
the  only  member  of  the  order  with  distinct  eggs 
and  sperms  (heterogamy,  q.v.).  The  vegeta- 
tive body  of  the  Siphonales,  however  complex, 
has  no  partitions,  but  is  a  continuous  tube  or 
system  of  branching  tubes  through  which  the 
protoplasm  slowly  circulates.     Such  a  structure 


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is  called  Coenocyte  (q.v.).  Another  interesting 
genus  is  Botrydium,  which  has  the  form  of  a 
green,  swollen  bladder  about  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head,  and  is  attached  to  moist  soil  by  a  system  of 
branching  root-like  filaments.  Botrydium  and 
Vaucheria  are  practically  the  only  terrestrial 
or  fresh  water  representatives  of  this  order. 

The  Charales  form  the  highest  group  of  the 
Chlorophyeeae  in  respect  to  vegetative  structure. 
The  forms  are  remarkable  for  the  symmetry  of 
their  parts,  a  condition  which  results  from  a 
well-defined  method  and  order  of  growth.  The 
growth  is  dominated  by  a  terminal  cell,  whose  di- 
visions determine  with  mathematical  regularity 
the  position  and  structure  of  the  nodes  (joints) 
and  internodes.  The  system  of  growth  is  even 
followed  in  the  development  of  the  leaf-like 
branches,  ordinary  branches,  and  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  female  sex  organ  (oogonium).  The 
sexual  organs  are  complex,  especially  the  male 
organ  ( antheridium ) ,  which  develops  thousands 
of  sperms.  The  eggs  are  large  and  are  protected 
by  a  set  of  envel(^ing  filaments,  the  whole  con- 
stituting a  complex  female  organ. 

PHiEOPHYOE^.  The  Brown  Algae  also  form  a 
very  large  group,  which  contains  diverse  lines 
of  development,  the  forms  ranging  from  simple 
filaments  to  the  gigantic  Kelp  or  Devil's 
Apron  (q.v.),  and  highly  specialized  rock  weeds. 
This  class  also  presents  excellent  illustrations 
of  the  principal  stages  in  the  evolution  of  sex. 
There  are  two  sub-classes;  the  Pheeosporese, 
whose  reproductive  cells,  whether  sexual  or 
asexual,  are  swimming  spores,  and  the  Cyclo- 
sporetE,  whose  Teproductive  cells  are  large  eggs 
fertilized  by  highly  specialized  sperms.  The 
motile  reproductive  cells  of  the  group,  whether 
sexless  spores  or  gametes  ( sexual  cells ) ,  are 
peculiar  in  being  bean-  or  kidney-shaped,  with 
the  pair  of  cilia  inserted  laterally.  There  are 
a  dozen  or  more  orders  in  this  group,  the  largest 
being  the  Ectocarpales,  comprising  some  of  the 
simplest  filamentous  forms;  the  Laminariales  or 
kelps,  and  the  Fucales,  which  include  the  rock 
weeds  and  Sargassiun.  In  vegetative  complexity 
some  of  the  Fucales  are  probably  the  highest  of 
all  the  Algsp.    For  illustration  see  Htdbofuttes. 

RHOOOPUYCEiE.  The  Red  Algse  are  acknowl- 
edged to  be  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  Algse, 
because  of  the  delicacy  of  their  structure  and 
brilliancy  of  color.  The  vegetative  structure  is 
not  so  highly  difTerentiated  as  in  some  of  the 
Brown  and  Green  AlgsB,  but  the  method  of  sex- 
ual reproduction  is  especially  complex.  As  the 
result  of  the  fertilization  of  the  female  cell  by 
the  fusion  of  a  sperm  with  the  Trichogyne  (a 
hair-like  process  of  the  female  cell,  q.v.),  there 
arises  a  growth  of  filaments  constituting  a  new 
generation  (sporophyte) ,  which  remains  at- 
tached to  the  parent  plant.  The  filaments  of  this 
sporophyte  sometimes  establish  secondary  con- 
nections with  the  sexual  plant"  (gametophyte) 
for  purposes  of  nutrition.  Certain  cells  of  the 
sporophyte  become  spores  (carpoapores) .  The 
masses  of  spores  constitute  the  fruit,  called  a 
cystocarp,  which  frequently  includes  a  highly 
developed  receptacle  formed  from  the  tissue  of 
the  parent  plant.  The  sperms  of  the  Red  Algs 
are  non-motile.  There  is  an  asexual  method  of 
reproduction  by  tetrasporcs,  so  called  because 
they  are  generally  formed  in  the  mother-cell  in 
groups  of  four.  For  illustration  see  Hydrophytes, 

The  Algae  furnish  especially  good  illustrations 
of  some  biological  phenomena  of  general  interest. 


Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  are  the  physiologi- 
cal conditions  surrounding  the  development  of 
the  reproductive  cells.    The  commonest  form  of 
reproductive  cell  is  the  swimming  spore,  which 
became  established  very  early   in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Algae,  as  far  back  as  the  Proto- 
coccales,  whose  members  frequently  pass  a  con- 
siderable part  of  their  life  history  in  a  motile 
condition,  essentially  like  that  of  a  swimming 
spore.     Whenever  a  higher  alga  develops  swim- 
ming spores,  which  generally  happens  at  a  cer- 
tain period  of  its  life  histoiy,  it  may  be  said 
to  return  to  one  of  the  conditions  of  its  early 
ancestors.    As  has  been  mentioned  before,  the 
simple  motile  sex  cells    (gametes)    which  fuse 
in  pairs  in  the  water  are  unquestionably  swim- 
ming spores  endowed  with  sexual  qualities,  or, 
stated  differently,  lacking  the  power  to  develop 
independently  into  new  plants.     It  has  been  thor- 
oughly established  by  many  experimental  studies 
that  these  peculiarities  are  determined  by  envi- 
ronmental factors.    As  an  example,  almost  all 
Hydrodictyon  plants  will  produce  sex  cells  after 
cultivation  in  a  solution  of  cane  sugar  and  under 
subdued   light.    Asexual   spores   will   be  devel- 
oped by  the  same  plants  when  cultivated  in  a 
nutrient  salt  solution  with  bright  illumination. 
As  would  be  expected  in  a  group  where  sex  begins, 
there  are  a  great  many  illustrations  of  partheno- 
genesis among  the  Algae;  that  is,  sex  cells  verr 
frequently  develop  new  plants  asexual  ly  f without 
fusing).     There  are  instances  of  parthenogeneiis 
in  almost  all  large  groups  of  the  Algae,  and  the 
phenomenon   is   frequently   related   to  seasonal 
and  other  environmental  conditions.    See  Par- 
thenogenesis. 

The  Algae,  as  a  whole,  must  be  considered  aa 
a  complex  of  divergent  lines  of  development, 
very  few  of  the  living  types  being  near  the 
theoretical  main  line  of  ascent  to  the  Bryophytes 
(liverworts  and  mosses).  The  various  lines 
have  frequently  worked  out  similar  vegetative 
conditions,  and,  what  is  most  interesting,  several 
groups  have  arrived  independently  at  the  same 
condition  of  sexual  differentiation.  For  illus- 
trations, see  articles  Chloroph  ycea  ;  Cya- 
NOPHYCRffi;  Ph^ophyce^ee.  and  Rhodophyce-*. 

For  general  description  of  Algs,  consult :  Eng- 
ler  and  Prantl,  Die  Natiirliohen  Fflanzenfamilien 
(Berlin,  1899,  et  seq.)  ;  Murray,  Introduction 
to  the  Study  of  Seaweeds  (London.  1895)  ;  Far- 
low,  Marirui  AlgcB  of  New  England {Stilem,\SB\ ) ; 
Cook,  British  Fresh  Water  Algce  (London,  1881- 
83)  ;  Kirchner,  "Kryptogamen-flora  von  Sohle- 
sien,"  in  Schlesische  Ocsellschaft  fur  Vaterland- 
ische  Kultur  (Breslau,  1876-89). 

ALOABDI,  ftl-gftr^d*,  Alessaxdbo  (1602-54). 
A  famous  Italian  sculptor  and  engraver.  He 
was  born  at  Bologna,  and  studied  under  the 
Caracci;  but  preferring  sculpture  to  painting, 
left  the  school  and  became  a  pupil  of  Conventi. 
His  first  important  work  in  marble  (1640)  wa* 
a  colossal  statue  of  San  Filippo  Neri.  Other 
well-known  pieces  of  his  are  the  statue  of  Inno- 
cent X.  for  the  Capitol,  produced  upon  that  pon- 
tiff's accession  to  the  papal  throne,  and  an  alto- 
rilievo  of  Attila,  in  St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  M- 
gardi  had  great  technical  skill,  and  used  it  in 
producing  effects  of  pathos  which  have  been 
deemed  inappropriate  to  the  sphere  of  sculpture. 
His  portrait  busts  and  groups  of  children  were 
among  his  best  works.  As  an  engraver  he  exe- 
cuted "The  Blind  Beggar  and  His  Dog,"  after 
Caracci,  and  eighty  plates  of  the  "Cries  of  Bo- 


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logna,"  after   the   same   master.     See   Clement, 
Painters,  Sculptors,  Architects,   and  Engravers 
(Boston,  1899). 
AL'GABCXBA.     See  Mesquite  Tbee. 
ALGABOTTI,  ar^-r5t^t^,  Francesco,  Count 
(1712-64).     An  Italian  author.     He  was  born  in 
Venice,  studied  at  Rome  and  Bologna,  and  when 
twenty-one  years  old  published  in  Paris  his  Neu- 
tonianismo  per  le  donne  ("The  Newtonian  Phi- 
losophy for  Ladies"),  a  work  on  optics,  on  which 
his  reputation  was  founded.   Until  1839  he  lived  in 
France,  and  for  many  years  enjoyed  the  friend- 
ship of  Voltaire.    On  his  return  from  a  journey 
to  Russia  he  first  met  Frederick  the  Great,  who 
bestowed  upon  him  the  title  of  count,  and  in  1747 
made  him  court  chamberlain.  He  also  enjoyed  the 
favor  of  Augustus  III.  of  Poland,  and  lived  alter- 
nately in   Berlin  and  Dresden  until  his  return 
to  Italy  in  1754.    He  died  at  Pisa,  where  Fred- 
erick the  Great  raised  a  monument  to  his  memory 
in  the  Campo  Santo.     He  was  a  versatile  man 
and  a  voluminous  writer.    In  his  day  he  was  con- 
sidered a  good  judge  of  painting  and  architecture, 
and  his   reputation   is   confirmed  by  his  Saggi 
sopra  la  belle  arti  ("Essays  on  the  Fine  Arts"), 
and  by  the  paintings  he  selected  for  the  Dresden 
Gallery.    His  chief  defect  of  style  was  the  strong 
Gallic  flavoring,  due  to  a  too  faithful  study  of 
French    literature.      English    readers    are    most 
likely  to  think  of  him  as  Carlyle's  "young  Ve- 
netian gentleman  of  elegance  in  dusky  skin  and 
very  white   linen."    Algarotti's   collected  works 
appeared,    with    biography    by    D.    Michelessi, 
Venice,  1791-94. 

ALOABOVZLLA,  ftrg&-rd-veKy&  (Sp.  algar- 
Toba,  from  Ar.  al-kharruhah,  the  carob  tree). 
An  astringent  product  of  the  Juga  marthce,  an 
acacia  growing  in  Colombia,  the  pods  of  which 
are  said  to  be  four  times  as  rich  in  tannin  as  the 
best  oak  bark.  Black  ink  is  made  from  it ;  also 
a  yellow  dye;  and  it  is  useful  in  medicine. 

ALQABVE,  Al-£^r^vft.  The  smallest  and 
most  southerly  of  the  provinces  of  Portugal, 
situated  between  Andalusia  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  (Map:  Portugal,  A  4).  Its  area  is  1873 
square  miles.  The  northern  part  of  the  province 
is  occupied  by  a  range  of  mountains  of  an  aver- 
age height  of  4000  feet,  which  form  the  continua- 
tion of  the  Sierra  Morena  of  Spain,  and  termi- 
nate in  Cape  St.  Vincent,  the  south-western  ex- 
tremity of  Europe.  The  highest  ridges  are  desti- 
tute of  vegetation,  and  the  mountainous  regions 
are  but  little  adapted  for  agricultural  purposes. 
From  the  main  ridge  the  country  slopes  south- 
ward in  jagged  terraces  and  low  hills,  leaving  a 
level  tract  of  a  few  miles  along  the  coast.  The 
African  heat  of  the  climate  is  mitigated  by  the 
cool  sea  breeze.  The  only  river  of  importance  is 
the  Guadiana,  on  the  frontiers  of  Spain.  The  soil 
of  the  plain  is  but  indifferently  suited  for  the 
production  of  grain,  or  even  of  pasturage ;  but  it 
produces  many  kinds  of  southern  fruit,  including 
figs,  almonds,  olives,  and  grapes.  The  mineral 
wealth  is  considerable,  but  its  exploitation  is  in- 
significant. The  principal  occupations  of  the  in- 
habitants are  agriculture,  fishing,  and  the  pro- 
duction of  sea  salt.  Population,  1890,  228,635. 
The  inhabitants  have  preserved  many  of  the 
characteristics  of  the  Moors.  The  chief  town  is 
Faro.  In  ancient  times  it  was  much  more  exten- 
sive. It  received  its  name  from  the  Arabs,  in 
whose  language  Algarve  signifies  "a  land  lying 
to  the  west."  It  was  a  Moorish  province  till 
Vol.  I.-28 


1253,  when  Alfonso  III.  united  it  to  the  crown 
of  Portugal  as  a  separate  kingdom. 

AL-OA2ALI,  nVgk'zA'\6,  or  AL-OA2EL,  &1' 
gh'Z&V,  Abu  Hamid  Mohammed  ( 1058- 1111).  A 
celebrated  Arabian  theologian  and  philosopher, 
born  at  Tun,  in  the  province  of  Khorassan,  in 
eastern  Persia.  He  became  a  leader  of  the 
school  of  the  Ascharites,  or  Orthodox,  and  was 
for  a  time  professor  of  theology  in  the  university 
at  Bagdad.  Subsequently  he  assumed  the  rule 
of  the  Sufis  (q.v.),  or  Mystics,  and  thus  for  the 
most  part  continued  until  his  death.  His  elo- 
quence as  a  lecturer  won  for  him  the  title  of 
Zein-ed-Din,  or  "Ornament  of  Religion,"  and  his 
Revivification  of  the  Sciences  of  Religion  was  so 
highly  esteemed  by  Mussulmans  that  the  saying 
arose  that  if  only  this  work  were  preserved  the 
loss  of  all  the  rest  of  Islam  would  be  but  slight. 
He  wrote  also  The  Destructi<tn  of  the  Philoso- 
phers, in  refutation  of  the  ancient  philosophic 
doctrine.  He  was  severely  attacked  by  Averro^s 
(q.v.). 

AI/OAZEL  (Alls  the  Ar.  article  the),  A  ga- 
zelle ;  ordinarily  the  dorcas.    See  Gazelle. 

AI/OEBBA.  A  branch  of  pure  mathematics 
that  materially  simplifies  the  solution  of  arith- 
metical problems,  especiallv  through  the  use  of 
equations.  It  also  forms  the  introduction  to  all 
of  the  higher  branches  of  mathematical  science, 
except  pure  geometry. 

The  name  is  derived  from  the  title  of  the 
Arabic  work  by  Al-Khowarazmi  (q.v.),  Ilm  al- 
jahr  waH  muqabalah,  meaning  "the  science  of  re- 
dintegration and  equation;*'  that  is,  the  science 
that  relates  to  the  reduction  of  equations  to  in- 
tegral form  and  to  the  transposition  of  terms. 
The  title  appeared  thereafter  in  various  forms, 
as  Indus  algehrw  almugrabalcsque,  and  algiebar 
and  almachabel,  but  the  abbreviation  algebra  was 
finally  adopted.  The  science  also  went  under 
various  other  names  in  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  as  the  ars  magna  (Cardan,  1545),  the 
arte  maggiore,  the  regola  de  la  cosa  (because  the 
unknown  quantity  was  denominated  cosa,  the 
"thing"),  and  hence  in  early  English  the  cossike 
art,  and  in  German  the  Coss. 

The  exact  limitations  of  algebra  are  not  gener- 
ally agreed  upon  by  mathematicians,  and  hence 
various  definitions  have  been  proposed  for  the 
science.  It  has  been  proposed  to  limit  it  to  the 
theory  of  equations,  as  the  etymology  of  the  word 
would  suggest;  but  this  has  become  a  separate 
branch  of  mathematics.  Perhaps  the  most  satis- 
factory definition,  especially  as  it  brings  out  the 
distinction  between  algebra  and  arithmetic  is 
that  of  Comte:  "Alpbra  is  the  calculus  of  func- 
tions, and  arithmetic  is  the  calculus  of  values." 
Tliis  distinction  would  include  some  arithmetic 
in  ordinary  school  algebra  (e.  g.,  the  study  of 
surds),  and  some  algebra  in  common  arithnietic 
(e.g.,  the  formula  for  square  root). 

The  oldest  known  manuscript  in  which  al- 
gebra is  treated  is  that  of  Ahmes,  the  Egyptian 
scribe,  who,  about  1700  B.c.,  copied  a  treatise 
dating  perhaps  from  2500  B.C.  In  this  ap- 
pears the  simple  equation  in  the  form,  "Hau 
(literally  heap),  its  seventh,  its  whole,  it  makes 
19,"    which,    put    in    modern    symbols,    means 

^-f  iF=19.     In   Euclid's   Elements    (about   300 

B.C.)  a  knowledge  of  certain  quadratic  equations 
is  shown.  It  was  Diophantus  of  Alexandria  (q.v. ) , 
however,   who   made  the   first  attempt    (fourth 


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century  a.d.)  to  work  out  the  science.  In  the  fol- 
lowing century  Aryabhatta  (q.v.)  made  some 
contributions  to  the  subject.  Little  was  then 
done  until  about  800  a.d.,  when  Al-Khowarazmi 
wrote.  His  efforts  were  followed  by  another 
period  of  comparative  repose,  until  the  Italian 
algebraists  of  the  sixteenth  century  undertook 
the  solution  of  the  cubic  equation.  (See  Equa- 
tion.) In  this,  building  upon  the  efforts  of 
Ferreo  and  Tartaglia,  Cardan  was  successful 
(1545),  although  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
the  real  honor  belongs  to  Tartaglia.  Soon  after, 
Ferrari  and  Bombelli  (1579)  gave  the  solution  of 
the  biquadratic  equation. 

The  principal  improvements  in  the  succeeding 
century  related  to  symbolism.  It  took  a  long 
time,  however,  to  pass  from  the  radical  sign  of 
Chuquet(1484),  3*.  10  through  various  forms,  as 
f^j^lO,  to  our  common  symbol  fHTJ  and  to  the 
more  refined  lOj^,  Similarly  it  was  only  by  slow 
steps  that  progress  was  made  from  Cardan's 
cubus  p  6  rebus  equalis  20,  for  a;*  -|-  6«  ^  20, 
through  Vieta's 

W  —  SQ  +  IGN  cequ.  40,  for  «*  —  8aj«  -f  IGar  =  40 

and  Descartes' 

a^  (X  CUD  —  66,   for   a^^ax  —  6", 

and  Hudde's 

Of  a  qx.  r,  for  a^  =  ^a?  +  r. 

to  the  modern  notation.  To  the  Frenchman 
Vieta,  whose  first  book  on  algebra,  In  Artem 
Analyticam  Isagoge,  appeared  in  1591,  credit  is 
due  for  the  introduction  of  the  use  of  letters  to 
represent  known  as  well  as  unknown  quantities. 

The  next  step  led  to  the  recognition  of  the 
nature  of  the  various  number  systems  of  algebra. 
The  meaning  of  the  negative  number  began  to  be 
really  appreciated  through  the  application  of 
algebra  to  geometry  by  Descartes  ( 1637) ,  and  the 
meaning  of  the  so-called  "imaginary,"  when  Wes- 
sel  (1797)  published  his  memoir  on  complex 
numbers,  or,  more  strictly,  when  Gauss  (q.v.) 
brought  the  matter  to  the  attention  of  mathema- 
ticians (1832). 

The  effort  to  solve  the  quintic  equation,  seri- 
ously begun  in  the  sixteenth  century,  had  met 
with  failure.  It  was  only  after  the  opening  of  the 
nineteenth  century  that  Abel,  by  the  use  of  the 
theory  of  groups  discovered  by  Galois,  gave  the 
first  satisfactory  proof  of  the  fact,  anticipated 
by  Gauss  and  announced  by  Ruffini,  that  it  is  im- 
possible to  express  the  roots  of  a  general  equation 
as  algebraic  functions  of  the  coefficients  when  the 
degree  exceeds  the  fourth. 

Among  the  later  additions  to  the  science  of 
algebra  may  be  mentioned  the  subjects  of  Deter- 
minants (q.v.).  Complex  Number  (q.v.).  Sub- 
stitutions and  Groups  (q.v.),  Form  (q.v.),  and 
the  modern  treatment  of  Equation  (q.v.) .  Under 
these  heads  may  be  found  historical  sketches 
dealing  with  the  recent  developments  of  algebra. 

Bibliography.  For  the  modern  history,  con- 
sult :  M.  Merriman  and  Woodward,  Higher  Math- 
ematics (New  York,  1896),  and  Fink,  History 
of  Mathematics  (Chicago,  1900) .  For  elementary 
theory.  Smith,  Teaching  of  Elementary/  Mathe- 
matics (New  York,  1900).  For  modern  higher 
algebra,  Netto,  Vorlesungen  iiher  Algebra  (Leip- 
zig, 1898-1900)  ;  Biermann,  Elemente  der 
hoheren  Mathematik;  H.  Weber,  Lehrbuch  der 
Algebra  (Leipzig,  1895),  and  Salmon,  Modern 
Higher   Algebra    (Dublin,    1885) ;    for    a    com- 


pendium. Fund,  Algebra  mit  Einschluss  der 
elementaren  Zahlvntheorie  (Leipzig,  1899); 
Pierce,  Linear  Associative  Algebra  (New  YotI^ 
1882). 

AL'OEBBAOIC  CUBVE.     See  Curve. 

ALOECIBAS,  arj^-sl^ras,  Sp.  pron.  fA'Bk- 
the'rAs  (From  Ar.  al-jazirah,  the  island,  penin- 
sula ) .  A  seaport  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Cadiz,  six  miles  west  of  Gibraltar  (Map:  Spain, 
C  4).  Its  harbor  is  good,  and  protected  by  a 
fort.  It  is  a  well-built  city,  with  fine  churches 
and  monasteries.  It  maintains  a  brisk  and  prof- 
itable coasting  trade.  Pop.,  1900,  13,131.  This 
was  the  Pontus  Novus  of  Roman  times,  and 
later  was  the  first  place  seized  by  the  Moors 
from  Africa  (711).  They  called  it  Algeciras, 
the  green  island,  from  the  islet  at  the  har- 
bor's mouth,  still  known  as  Isla  Verde.  Alfonso 
XI.  besieged  it  for  twenty  months,  and  took  it 
after  his  victory  at  Rio  Salado,  1344.  The  Moors 
are  said  to  have  used  gunpowder  for  the  first 
time  at  this  siege,  at  which  all  Christendom  was 
represented  by  the  knights  and  crusaders  who 
mustered  under  Alfonso's  banner.  Consult: 
Roure,  "Bahla  de  Algeciras,"  in  Memo,  de  inge- 
nieros  del  ejircito,  Vmume  XVL  (Madrid,  1899). 

AL^OEB,  Horatio  (1834-99).  An  American 
writer  of  juvenile  literature.  He  was  bom  at 
Revere,  Mass.,  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1852,  and 
afterward  at  the  Harvard  Divinity  School.  He 
became  pastor  of  the  Unitarian  church  at  Brew- 
ster, Mass.,  in  1864,  but  two  years  later  went 
to  New  York,  where  he  labored  for  the  improve- 
ment of  the  condition  of  street  boys.  He  wrote 
much  for  newspapers  and  periodicals,  and  pub- 
lished about  seventy  books,  of  which  nearly  800,- 
000  copies  have  been  sold.  These  writings 
include  the  popular  Ragged  Dick,  Tattered  Tom, 
and  Luck  and  Pluck  series. 

ALOEBy  Russell  Alexander  (1836 — ).  An 
American  soldier  and  politician,  born  in  Lafay- 
ette, O.  Orphaned  at  eleven,  he  worked  on  a 
farm,  attended  Richfield  Academy  (Ohio)  for 
several  winters,  studied  law  at  Akron,  O.,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1859,  and  began  practice 
at  Cleveland.  He  removed  to  Michigan  in  Janu- 
ary, I860,  and  in  September,  1861,  enlisted  in 
the  Union  Army  as  a  volunteer,  serving  succes- 
sively as  captain,  major,  and  lieutenant-colonel, 
and  being  brevetted  first  as  brigadier-general 
and  then  as  major-general  "for  gallant  and 
meritorious  services."  He  returned  to  Michigan 
in  1864,  and  engaged  in  the  lumber  business,  in 
which  he  soon  amassed  a  large  fortune.  He  took 
an  active  interest  in  both  local  and  national 
politics,  and  was  Governor  of  Michigan  from 
1885  to  1886.  He  was  chosen  Commander-in- 
Chief  of  the  G.  A.  R.  in  1889,  and  in  1897  became 
Secretary  of  War  in  President  Mckinley *s  cab- 
inet. His  administration  of  the  department  dur- 
ing the  Spanish-American  War  met  with  the  most 
vigorous  criticism.  He  was  charged  with  being 
directly  or  indirectly  responsible  for  the  unsan- 
itary condition  of  camps,  the  overcrowding  and 
unfitness  of  transports,  the  insufficiency  of  phy- 
sicians and  medicines,  the  bad  quality  of  food, 
and  the  incompetence  of  subordinate  officers. 
An  investigating  committee,  appointed  by  the 
President,  in  the  main  exonerated  Alger.  He 
resigned  August  I,  1899.  He  wrote  The  Spanish- 
American  War  (New  York,  1901). 

ALOEBy  VVILLLA.M  ROUNSEVILLE  ( 1822^-) .    An 


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ALOEB. 


American  Unitarian  clergyman  and  ethical 
writer,  born  at  Freetown,  MaBS.,  December  30, 
1822.  He  graduated  at  the  Harvard  Theological 
School  in  1847,  held  pastorates  successively  at 
Roxbury,  Boston,  New  York,  Denver,  Chicago, 
and  Portland,  Me.,  and  afterward  lived  in  Boston. 
He  wrote  Poetry  of  the  Orient  (1856),  History 
of  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  Life,  which  contains 
a  remarkable  bibliography  on  the  subject  by 
Ezra  Abbot  (1863),  The  Genius  of-  Solitude 
{ 1 865 ) ,  Life  of  Edtain  Forrest,  2  volumes  ( 1878 ) , 
Symbolic  History  of  the  Cross  (1881),  and  The 
School  of  Life  (1881). 

AliOE^IA  (Ar.  Al-jazirah,  the  island;  Fr. 
Alff4^ri€),  A  French  colony  in  north  Africa,  sit- 
uated between  lat.  30**  and  37**  N.  and  long.  2** 
10'  W.  and  8"  50'  E.  (Map:  Africa,  El).  It  is 
about  550  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  and  ex- 
tends inland  from  320  to  380  miles.  Its  area, 
exclusive  of  the  Algerian  Sahara,  is  estimated 
at  184,000  square  miles,  and  inclusive  of  the 
Sahara  region,  at  about  300,000.  Its  boundaries 
are  formed  by  the  Mediterranean  on  the  north, 
Morocco  on  the  west,  Sahara  on  the  south,  and 
Tunis  on  the  east. 

Physiography.  The  entire  northern  part  is 
traversed  by  a  section  of  the  Atlas  Moun- 
tains, which  cover  the  northern  part  of  Africa 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Gulf  of  Gabes.  The 
mountain  system  of  Algeria  may  be  divided  into 
two  principal  chains,  running  parallel  to  each 
other  and  connected  by  small  ridges.  The  north- 
ern chain,  called  Little  or  Maritime  Atlas,  runs 
along  the  coast.  Of  its  several  ranges,  the  Jur- 
jura,  to  the  east  of  Algiers,  rises  to  a  height  of 
about  7500  feet.  The  Great  Atlas  is  situated 
south  of  the  Little  Atlas,  and  contains  some  of 
the  highest  peaks  of  Algeria,  as  Mount  Shelia 
(about  7600  feet)  in  the  Jebel  Aures.  This 
range  presents  a  steep  wall  toward  the  Sahara, 
but  slopes  more  gradually  on  their  northern  side, 
where  the  mountains  are  covered  with  extensive 
forests.  They  are  furrowed  by  deep  and  tortuous 
defiles.  The  Algerian  Sahara  is  a  rocky  pla- 
teau, with  an  average  elevation  of  about  1500 
feet.  Some  geographers  distinguish  a  third 
chain,  the  Sahara  Border  Range,  situated  be- 
tween the  Great  Atlas  and  the  Sahara  Desert. 
The  coast  of  Algeria  is  much  broken,  and  forms 
numerous  bays,  the  principal  among  them  being 
the  Bay  of  Algiers  and  the  gulfs  of  Bougie  and 
Bona. 

The  surface  of  Algeria  represents  three  natural 
divisions  or  zones.  The  first,  known  as  the  Tell, 
ia  the  most  northern  part  of  the  country,  extend- 
ing inland  for  about  fifty  miles,  and  taking  in 
the  northern  slope  of  the  Little  Atlas.  It  is  the 
most  productive  and  best  watered  part  of  the 
country,  and  contains  most  of  the  European  set- 
tlements. The  second,  central  zone  includes  the 
elevated  steppes  south  of  the  Tell  and  the  Great 
Atlas  Mountains.  It  is  interspersed  with  nu- 
merous saline  lakes  or  shotts,  which  generally 
evaporate  during  the  dry  season,  leaving  a  thick 
s^tratum  of  salt  on  the  bottom.  In  this  section 
there  are  only  a  few  little  streams,  which  dry  up 
for  a  part  of  the  year.  The  third  zone  is  the 
Algerian  Sahara,  with  an  area  estimated  at  up- 
ward of  100,000  square  miles.  It  is  subdivided 
into  three  parts,  called  Fiafi,  Kifar,  and  Falat, 
respectively.  The  first  term  is  generally  applied 
to  the  oases  of  the  desert.  They  are  mostly  well 
watered  and  covered  with  vegetation,  and  contain 
numerous  thriving  villages  and  settlements.   The 


second  refers  to  those  parts  of  the  desert  which 
are  covered  with  grass  part  of  the  year.  They 
have  no  settled  population,  but  are  visited  by 
the  nomadic  tribes  on  account  of  the  grass.  Tlie 
third  part  includes  the  rest  of  the  desert,  which 
is  utterly  devoid  of  vegetation,  and  unfit  for 
human  habitation.  A  remarkable  feature  of  the 
Algerian  Sahara  is  the  dried  up  river  courses. 
At  present,  only  two  such  courses  are  known, 
called  the  Wady  Igharghar  and  Wady  Miya, 
respectively.  The  first  begins  south  of  Algerian 
Sahara  and  runs  due  north,  terminating  at  the 
Shott  Melghir.  Its  length  is  over  700  miles, 
and  its  breadth,  even  at  present,  is  about  four 
miles  in  some  parts.  The  Wady  Miya  is  a 
branch  of  Igharghar,  which  it  joins  about  60 
miles  south  of  Shott  Melghir.  There  is  still 
some  water  running  beneath  its  bottom. 

Algeria  is  rich  in  minerals.  Among  the 
metals  which  are  obtained  are  iron,  lead,  copper, 
and  quicksilver.  Sulphur  is  found,  and  there 
are  valuable  deposits  of  phosphates.  Salt  is  a 
most  important  product.  Onyx  and  beautiful 
white  and  red  marbles  are  quarried. 

The  most  important  river  of  Algeria  is  the 
Sheliff,  which  has  in  the  main  a  westerly  course, 
and  empties  into  the  Mediterranean  hear  Mosta- 
ganem.  Its  length  is  about  400  miles.  Among 
other  streams  are  the  Seybouse,  which  empties 
into  the  Gulf  of  Bona,  the  Wad-el-Kebir,  which 
flows  past  Constantine,  and  the  Tafna  in  the 
extreme  west.  None  of  these  rivers  is  navigable, 
but  they  all  contribute  considerably  to  the  fer- 
tility of  the  regions  through  which  they  flow. 

The  climate  of  Algeria  is  generally  healthful, 
except  in  the  marshy  lowlands.  The  rainy  sea- 
son on  the  coast  lands  lasts  from  October  to 
March. 

The  mountain  forests  are  filled  with  cedars  and 
different  kinds  of  oak,  as  well  as  pines,  ashes, 
junipers,  aloes,  dwarf  palms,  and  cactuses,  but 
they  are  rapidly  disappearing,  giving  place  to 
pastures.  The  flora  of  the  central  zone  is  con- 
fined mainly  to  grasses  and  some  aromatic  herbs. 
Myrtles,  olives,  pistachias,  and  dwarf  palms  are 
among  the  characteristic  plants  of  the  northern 
zone.  The  fauna  of  Algeria  is  generally  African 
in  its  character.  The  lion  (now  getting  scarce) 
and  other  large  carnivora  are  found,  and  gazelles 
are  numerous. 

Products.  Algeria  is  chiefiy  an  agricultural 
country,  and  its  importance  is  increasing  at  a 
steady  rate.  A  peculiar  feature  about  Algeria 
is  the  proportion  of  Europeans  engaged  in  agri- 
cultural pursuits.  In  1897  the  total  agricul- 
tural population  of  the  colony  was  given  as 
3,644,614  (of  a  total  population  of  4,479,000), 
of  which  207,310  were  Europeans,  mostly  French- 
men. The  greater  part  of  the  area  under  cultiva- 
tion is  devoted  to  grain  crops.  The  average  an- 
nual output  of  cereals  amounts  to  over  6,000,000 
quintals  of  wheat,  from  7,000,000  to  8,000,000 
quintals  of  barley,  and  about  7,000,000  quintals 
of  oats.  (The  quintal  is  equivalent  to  220.46 
pounds.)  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  has  grad- 
ually assumed  greater  importance,  so  that  at 
present  the  annual  production  of  wine  exceeds 
5,000,000  hectolitres.  The  cultivation  of  silk, 
olives,  dates,  and  other  fruits  is  also  becoming 
more  and  more  important,  and  is  participated  in 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  Europeans.  Pota- 
toes, carrots,  onions,  and  asparagus  constitute 
important  articles  of  export.  Alfa  grass  is  ex- 
l)orted  in  large  quantities  to  England.     The  for- 


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«st  area  is  estimated  at  about  3,300,000  hectares, 
of  which  over  50  per  cent,  belongs  to  the  state. 
The  exploitation  of  the  forests  is  considerably 
hindered  by  their  inaccessibility,  a  large  part  of 
them  being  situated  in  uninhabitable  regions. 
Considerable  attention  is  given  to  mining,  which 
is  carried  on  chiefly  by  English  firms.  Among 
other  industries  may  be  mentioned  pottery, 
leather  dressing,  weaving,  and  the  production  of 
esparto  goods. 

The  commerce  of  Algeria  is  constantly  on  the 
increase,  the  total  value  having  amounted  to 
nearly  650,000,000  francs  for  1899,  against  540,- 
000,000  francs  for  1895,  an  increase  of  over  20 
per  cent,  within  five  years.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant article  of  export  is  wine,  of  which  France 
alone  imported  from  Algeria  in  1899  to  the  value 
of  over  140,000,000  francs.  Next  to  wine  the 
most  important  exports  are  cereals,  live  animals, 
alfa,  cork,  and  mineral  ores.  Imports  consist 
chiefly  of  textiles,  clothing  furniture,  machinery, 
coffee,  tobacco,  timber,  and  coal.  Out  of  a  total 
commerce  of  about  650,000,000  francs  in  1899, 
over  540,000,000  was  with  France,  not  including 
the  French  colonies.  Outside  of  France  the  com- 
mercial relations  of  Algeria  are  chiefly  with  Great 
Britain,  Spain,  Italy,  and  Brazil.  The  total 
length  of  the  railway  lines  of  Algeria  is  over 
1800  miles.  Algeria  has,  besides,  a  good  system 
of  national  roads,  and  about  100  miles  of  tram- 
way lines.  The  annual  entries  at  the  Algerian 
ports  amount  to  about  1,200,000  tons,  mostly 
in  French  bottoms. 

The  administration  of  Algeria  is  vested  in  a 
Governor-General,  who  is  assisted  by  a  council. 
All  the  laws  for  Algeria  are  framed  by  the  French 
National  Assembly.  A  part  of  the  territory 
is  still  under  military  rule,  supervised  by  the 
Governor.  The  three  departments  of  Algiers, 
Oran,  and  Constantine,  into  which  Algeria  is 
divided,  have  their  own  councils,  who  send  dele- 
gates to  the  Superior  Council,  meeting  once  a 
year  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  the  budget. 
Each  department  sends  one  senator  and  two 
deputies  to  the  National  Assembly.  Justice  is 
administered  by  courts  of  first  instance,  of  which 
there  are  sixteen,  justices  of  the  peace,  commer- 
cial courts,  and  a  Court  of  Appeal,  situated  at 
Algiers.  Criminal  justice  is  organized  on  the 
same  basis  as  in  France.  For  the  transaction  of 
affairs  between  the  natives  and  the  Europeans 
or  the  government  there  are  organized  so-called 
Bureaux  Arahes,  which  also  supervise  the 
religious  affairs  of  the  natives.  The  military 
forces  of  Algeria  number  about  57,000  men,  and 
consist  of  the  Nineteenth  Army  Corps  and  the 
Territorial  Army.  The  financial  system  of  Al- 
geria closely  resembles  that  of  France.  The 
revenue  is  obtained  from  customs,  monopolies, 
and  direct  taxes,  thd  latter  being  the  only  tax 
paid  by  the  natives.  The  budget  for  1901,  ex- 
cluding the  departments  of  marine,  war,  and 
public  debt,  balanced  at  a  little  over  55,000,000 
francs.  The  military  forces  have  been  main- 
tained hitherto  by  the  French  Government,  and 
the  cost  is  included  in  the  French  budget.  By 
the  law  promulgated  December  19,  1900,  Algeria 
has  been  granted  financial  independence,  its 
budget  being  excluded  from  that  of  France, 
and  it  has  been  endowed  with  the  power 
of  granting  railway  franchises,  awarding  public 
contracts,  etc.  Education  and  religion  are  sup- 
ported by  the  State.  The  elementary  schools,  of 
which  there  were  1160  in  1897,  are  either  French 


or  Arabic,  and  are  attended  chiefly  by  foreign- 
ers and  Jews,  the  Mussulman  children  forming 
only  about  19  per  cent,  of  the  total  attendance. 
The  latter  have  their  own  schools  for  secondary 
education.  Lyc^s  are  found  in  the  larger 
cities,  and  there  are  nine  commercial  schools  in 
the  city  of  Algiers,  as  well  as  an  institution  for 
higher  instruction  with  several  faculties.  Xo 
particular  religion  is  recognized  by  the  State, 
but  all  religions  represent^  are  subsidized,  the 
total  amount  of  grants  for  religious  purposes  in 
the  budget  for  1900  amounting  to  1,263,700 
francs.  The  population  of  Algeria,  according  to 
the  census  of  1901,  was  4,774,042,  against  3,817.- 
000  in  1886  (not  including  the  military).  The 
native  population,  numbering  3,664,941,  consii^ts 
chiefly  of  Berbers,  or  Kabyles,  and  Arabs.  The 
former  number  about  2,000,000,  and  are  the 
original  inhabitants  of  the  land.  In  their  com- 
plexion they  do  not  differ  much  from  white  men, 
and  have  a  higher  standard  of  morality  than  the 
Arabs.  They  are  Mussulmans,  but  do  not  prac- 
tice polygamy.  At  the  invasion  of  the  Arabs 
they  were  driven  into  the  mountains  and  the 
oases,  where  they  established  well-populated 
settlements.  The  Arabs  number  over  1,000,000, 
and  are  to  a  considerable  extent  intermixed 
with  the  Berbers.  They  inhabit  chiefly  the  Tell 
region  and  the  towns.  Part  of  them  are  orga- 
nized in  tribes,  under  chiefs  who  are  not  recog- 
nized, however,  by  the  French  Government.  In 
religion  they  are  Mohammedan,  and  practice  po- 
lygamy. The  nomadic  part  of  the  Arab  popula- 
tion, among  whom  the  tribal  system  is  chiefly  de- 
veloped, hold  their  land  in  common,  each  tribe 
being  entitled  to  a  certain  territory  by  virtue  of 
tradition.  The  foreign  population  in  1896  num- 
bered 764,480,  of  whom  about  42  per  cent,  were 
French,  as  compared  with  422,000,  of  whom  51 
per  cent,  were  French,  in  1886.  The  foreign 
population  increased  from  3,228  in  1831  to 
131,283  in  1851,  245,117  in  1872,  and  374,000  in 
1881.  The  number  of  Jews  was  47,564  in  1891. 
Negroes  and  Turks  are  found  only  in  very  small 
numbers.  The  capital,  Algiers,  had  a  popula- 
tion of  96,784  in  1899. 

HiSTOBY.  In  ancient  times  the  Numidians  oc- 
cupied Eastern  and  the  Moors  (or  Mauri)  Wes^t- 
ern  Algeria.  Under  the  Romans  the  former  pos- 
sessed the  province  of  Numidia,  the  latter  that  of 
Mauretania  Ctesariensis.  Like  all  of  northern 
Africa,  these  provinces  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of 
prosperity  and  civilization  under  Roman  sway, 
which  was  checked  by  the  Vandal  conquest  about 
440  A.D.  The  settlement  of  Arabic  immigrants  in 
the  country  after  the  Mohammedan  conquest  in 
the  seventh  and  eighth  centuries  reared  an  Orien- 
tal civilization  in  place  of  that  of  Rome,  and 
Arab  princes  ruled  the  land  until  the  rise  of  the 
Alniohades  (q.v.),  who  governed  until  1269, 
after  which  the  country  was  split  up  into  small 
states.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Moors  from 
Spain  in  1492,  they  settled  in  Algeria,  and  b^an 
that  career  of  piracy  against  the  Christian  na- 
tions which  gave  the  country  its  evil  reputation 
through  many  centuries.  Hard  pressed  by 
Spain,  one  of  the  Algerine  chiefs,  the  Emir  of 
Metidja,  called  in  the  Turkish  corsair,  Horuk. 
known  as  Barbarossa  (q.v.),  a  renegade  Greek, 
who  turned  against  the  Emir,  and  made  himself 
Sultan  of  Algiers.  He  was  overthrown  by  the 
Spaniards,  and  beheaded  in  1518 ;  but  his  brother, 
Khair-ed-Din,  also  known  to  the  Christiana  as 
Barbarossa,  succeeded  him,  repulsed  the  Span- 


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iards  with  the  assistance  of  a  Turkish  army,  and 
established  a  military  despotism  sustained  by 
piracy,  which  lasted  until  the  French  conquest. 
Khair-ed-Din  placed  the  country  under  the  su- 
zerainty of  the  Turkish  Sultan.  The  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  in  1541,  led  a  great  expedition  against 
this  daring  corsair,  but  met  with  disaster.  In 
1600  the  soldiery  of  Algiers  obtained  from  the 
Turkish  Sultan  the  privilege  of  setting  up  an 
officer,  called  the  Dey,  who  was  to  share  the 
authority  with  the  Turkish  Pasha.  The  history 
of  Algiers  in  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies is  a  part  of  the  history  of  the  Barbary 
pirates,  and  of  the  fruitless  efforts  of  the  Chris- 
tian powers  to  suppress  them.  Spanish,  French, 
English,  and  Dutch  were  equally  unsuccessful. 
Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  the  Dey  AH  Baba 
effected  the  virtual  emancipation  of  the  country 
from  the  dominion  of  Constantinople.  He  ban- 
ished the  Turkish  Pasha,  who  had  heretofore 
represented  the  Sultan,  persuaded  the  latter  to 
leave  the  power  solely  in  his  hands,  and  paid  no 
more  tribute. 

Algeria  was  now  ruled  by  a  military  oligarchy, 
at  the  head  of  which  stood  the  Dey,  and  after 
him  the  powerful  Turkish  militia,  recruited  from 
Constantinople  and  Smyrna.  Besides  these, 
there  was  a  divan  or  Council  of  State,  chosen 
from  the  sixty  principal  civil  functionaries.  The 
internal  history  of  the  country  henceforth  pre- 
sents nothing  but  a  bloody  series  of  seraglio 
revolutions  caused  by  the  Janissaries,  who  per- 
mitted few  of  the  deys  to  die  a  natural  death. 
Algeria  continued  to  defy  the  greater  Christian 
powers,  and  to  enforce  tribute  from  the  lesser. 
A  final  Spanish  attack,  made  on  a  formidable 
scale  in  1775,  was  as  unfortunate  as  those  that 
had  preceded.  During  the  French  Revolution 
and  the  time  of  the  Empire,  its  aggressions  were 
much  diminished,  in  consequence  of  the  presence 
of  powerful  fleets  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  but 
at  the  close  of  the  Napoleonic  wars  they  were 
recommenced  vigorously.  The  first  substantial 
rebuke  was  administered  by  a  small  United 
States  squadron,  commanded  by  the  younger  De- 
catur, which  defeated  an  Algerine  squadron  off 
Cartagena,  June  20,  1815,  and  compelled  the  Dey 
to  acknowledge  the  inviolability  of  the  American 
flag.  About  the  same  time.  Admiral  Lord  Ex- 
mouth,  with  a  strong  English  and  Dutch  fleet, 
bombarded  the  capital,  and  compelled  the  Dey 
to  conclude  a  treaty  (1816),  by  which  all  Chris- 
tian slaves  were  released  without  ransom,  and 
a  promise  was  given  that  both  piracy  and  Chris- 
tian slavery  should  cease  forever.  The  pledges 
were  not  kept.  As  early  as  1817,  Algerine 
pirates  ventured  as  far  as  the  North  Sea,  and 
seized  all  ships  in  their  course  not  belonging  to 
any  of  the  Powers  that  sent  them  tribute,  as  was 
done  by  Sweden,  Denmark,  Portugal,  Naples, 
Tuscany,  and  Sardinia.  Treaties  were  of  no 
avail.  The  Spanish,  the  Italian,  and  in  particu- 
lar the  German  shipping  suffered  severely.  In 
1817  the  Dey  Ali  greatly  curtailed  the  power 
of  the  Janissaries.  His  successor,  Hussein,  by 
his  rash  conduct,  brought  on  the  conflict  with 
France,  which  broke  the  Moslem  power  in  Al- 
geria and  made  it  a  French  province.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  standing  grievances  against  Algeria, 
there  was  a  dispute  regarding  the  payment  of  a 
debt  incurred  by  the  French  Government  to  two 
Jewish  merchants  of  Algiers  at  the  time  of  the 
expedition  to  Egypt.  This  matter  had  long  been 
pending  in  the  French  Courts,  and  as  the  Dey  was 


a  creditor  of  these  Jews,  he  took  a  personal  in- 
terest in  the  matter,  and  wrote  to  the  King  of 
France,  who  did  not  reply.     At  a  reception  of 
the  consuls,  he  taxed  the  French  consul  with  this, 
and  when  the  latter   replied   that  "a  King  of 
France  could  not  condescend  to  correspond  with 
a  Dey  of  Algiers,"  Hussein  angrily  struck  him. 
This  high  crime  against  the  dignity  of  nations 
brought  the  retribution  which  had  not  followed 
years  of  barbarous  piracy.     In  1830  the  Dey  and 
the  Turks  were  expelled  by  a  French  fleet  and 
a  strong  army  under  Bourmont.     The  excesses  of 
the  French  soldiers  awoke  the  resentment  of  the 
native  population,  who  regarded  all  restraints 
as   removed  when  their  Turkish   masters   were 
driven    out.     For   seventeen    years    the    Arabs 
maintained  a  vigorous  resistance  to  the  French, 
and  after  them  the  Kabyles,  the  native  popula- 
tion of  the  original  Berber  stock,  still  continued 
the  struggle  in  a  desultory  manner.     The  drastic 
measures  of  the  French  military  government  did 
not  tend  to  pacify  the  people,  whose  antagonism 
was  inflamed  by  race  hatred  and  religious  fanati- 
cism.    For  many  years  the  French  commanders 
were  men  trained  in  the  Napoleonic  school,  such 
as  Bourmont,  Clausel,  and  Bugeaud;  and  mean- 
while a  new  set  of  younger  officers,  like  Changar- 
nier  and  Cavaignac,  who  were  to  become  known 
under  the  Second  Empire,  were  trained  in  the 
severe  school  of  Algerian  service.     Bourmont  was 
succeeded  by  Clausel,  Berthez^ne,  and  the  Duke 
of  Rovigo,  all  of  whom  failed  to  master  the  sit-, 
nation.    Abd-el-Kader,   a  young  Arab  emir   of 
marked  abilities  and  dauntless  spirit,  had  mean- 
while brought  together  and  organized  the  scat- 
tered forces  of  rebellion,  and  was  secretly  as- 
sisted by  the  Emperor  of  Morocco.     A  treaty  was 
concluded  with  him  during  the  the  provisional 
administration  of  General  Voirol,  and  an  attempt 
was  made  to  promote  the  material  interests  of 
the  country.     Toward  the  end  of  1834  there  was 
an  effort  to  organize  the  administration  on  a 
permanent  civil  basis,  and  General  Drouet  d'Er- 
lon  was  made  Governor-General,  but  a  renewed 
outbreak  by  Abd-el-Kader  led  to  his  recall  and 
that  of  the  military  commandant.     Clausel,  now 
a  Marshal,  was  sent  back  to  the  Regency  in  1835, 
but  had  to  be  reinforced  by  Bugeaud,  who  made 
a  peace  with  the  Arab  chieftain.  May  20,  1837, 
by  which  Abd-el-Kader  recognized  the  sovereign- 
ty of  France,  but  received  in  return  several  val- 
uable provinces.     In  February,  1837,  Damr^mont 
succeeded  Clausel  as  Governor-General,  and  after 
the  former's  death,  at  the  storming  of  Constan- 
tine.  General  Val^e  was  appointed  to  the  difficult 
post.     In  October,   1839,  Abd-el-Kader  violated 
his  last  treaty  on  an  insignificant  pretext,  and 
a  general  attack  was  made  upon  the  French  posi- 
tions.    Bugeaud  supplanted  Val4e  in  1841,  and 
began  an  inexorable  and  unscrupulous  campaign 
against  the  Arabs  with  an  army  augmented  to 
nearly   100,000   men.     Abd-el-Kader   kept  up   a 
determined   fight  against  odds  until   December, 
1847,  when  he  surrendered  to  General  Lamori- 
ciftre.     (See  Abd-el-Kader.)     An  irregular  war- 
fare against  French  authority  was  then  taken  up 
by  the  Kabyles,  thwarting  for  many  years  all 
attempts  to  establish  civil  government. 

From  1858  to  1800  the  military  government  of 
Algeria  was  superseded  by  the  institution  of  a 
special  ministerial  department  for  Algeria  and 
the  colonies,  which  was  first  of  all  intrusted  to 
Prince  Napoleon.  In  December,  1860,  however, 
a  military    government    was    reinstituted,   and 


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342 


ALOIEB8. 


Marshal  P^lissier  made  Governor-General,  with 
a  vice-governor  under  him,  a  Director-General  for 
civil  affairs,  and  a  Council  of  thirty  members. 
In  1863,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  announced  that 
he  was  willing  to  give  the  colony  a  new  con- 
stitution, with  a  chamber  of  representatives  for 
provincial  affairs;  he  also  addressed  a  letter  to 
the  Governor-General,  in  wliich  he  explained  that 
Algeria  was  no  colony  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
word,  but  an  Arab  kingdom,  and  that  the 
natives  had  the  same  right  to  protection  as  the 
colonists.  In  1864,  however,  strife  again  arose 
between  the  colonists  and  the  Arabs ;  and  it  was 
only  after  several  engagements,  during  the 
months  of  April  and  May,  that  peace  was  re- 
stored by  the  submission  of  the  conquered  tribes. 
P^lissier  having  died  in  May,  1864,  Marshal 
MacMahon  was  appointed  to  succeed  him.  In 
the  following  year,  the  Emperor  himself  made  a 
journey  to  Algeria,  and  on  March  5th  issued  a 
proclamation,  in  which,  although  explaining  to 
the  Arabs  that  the  Regency  must  continue  to  be 
united  to  France,  he  promised  to  maintain  their 
nationality,  and  at  the  same  time  gave  them  as- 
surance that  they  should  always  remain  in  un- 
disturbed possession  of  their  territories.  Yet 
these  and  other  measures  for  conciliating  the 
Arabs  were  all  in  vain ;  for,  shortly  after  the  Em- 
peror's return  to  France,  insurrections  broke  out 
in  the  province  of  Oran  and  elsewhere.  In  1867 
and  1868,  a  severe  and  general  famine  checked 
.the  military  enterprises  of  the  Arabs;  and  there 
was  peace  till  1870,  when,  owing  to  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War,  the  Emperor  found  it  necessary  to 
withdraw  to  Europe  the  greater  part  of  the 
forces  in  Africa.  MacMahon's  place  was  then 
taken  by  General  Durieu,  as  interim  Governor- 
General,  and  the  natives  began  to  entertain  hopes 
of  freeing  themselves  from  the  yoke  of  France. 
The  last  serious  rebellion  was  suppressed  in  1871, 
and  a  civil  government  was  then  established. 
In  1881  France  declared  a  protectorate  over 
Tunis,  in  order  to  safeguard  its  interests  in 
Algeria.  Colonization  was  promoted  after  the 
Franco-Prussian  War,  by  the  offer  of  homes  to 
those  French  Alsatians  who  did  not  care  to 
remain  under  German  rule.  Algeria  is  now  be- 
coming a  prosperous  and  valuable  possession, 
and  is  strategically  important  as  the  base  for 
the  extension  of  French  influence  in  Africa,  es- 
pecially across  the  Sahara  to  the  Sudan  and  the 
west  coast. 

There  is  considerable  literature  relating 
to  Algeria,  that  which  is  valuable  being  chiefly 
in  French.  For  history,  geography,  and  gen- 
eral description,  consult:  Gaffarel,  L*Algdrie, 
histoire,  conquete,  colonisation  (Paris,  1883)  ; 
Paul  Lerov-Beaulieu,  UAlg^rie  et  la  Tunisie 
(Paris,  1887);  Battandier  and  Trabut,  UAl- 
gMe  (Paris,  1898)  ;  Levasseur,  La  France  et 
ses  colonies  (Paris,  1893)  ;  Cat,  Petite  histoire 
de  VAlg^rie,  Tunisie,  Maroc  (Algiers,  1888-91)  ; 
Rousset,  Lea  Commencements  d'une  conquSte; 
VAlg6rie  de  1830  A  18JfO  (Paris,  1887),  and  La 
conqu^te  de  VAlgMe,  18JfJ-18o7  (Paris,  1889). 
Several  of  the  French  officers  who  commanded 
in  Algeria  wrote  memoirs  of  the  campaigns. 
English  works  that  may  be  consulted  are 
Wilkin,  Among  the  Berbers  of  Algeria  (New 
York,  1900)  ;  Morell,  Algeria  (London,  1854)  ; 
Nugent,  A  Land  of  Mosques  and  Mara- 
bouts (London,  1894)  ;  Bridgman,  Winters 
in  Algeria  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Playfair,  The 
Scourge  of  Christendom  (London,  1884),  a  record 


of  piratical  Algiers,  based  mainly  on  consular 
archives;  also  a  Bibliography  of  Algeria,  pub- 
lished by  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  Lon- 
don, 1888. 

ALOESIKE  WABy  &rj«-ren^  See  Barbabt 
Powers,  Wabs  with  the. 

ALOHEBO,  &l-gfi^rd,  or  ALQHEBI,  &l-ga'r«. 
An  episcopal  city  on  the  northwest  coast  of 
Sardinia,  21  miles  southwest  of  Sassari  (Map: 
Italy,  C  7).  It  is  situated*  on  a  high,  rocky 
shore,  and  the  harbor  is  fortified.  The  cathe- 
dral dates  from  1510;  many  of  the  houses 
are  medieval  and  the  arsenal  "is  fully  equipped. 
The  country  produces  wine,  oil,  indigo,  and  fruit, 
while  from  the  sea  come  coral  and  shell-fish.  The 
commerce  has  declined  since  the  development  of 
Porto  Torres,  the  port  of  Sassari.  Algfaero  is 
connected  by  fortnightly  coasting  steamers  with 
the  Italian  peninsula  and  Cagliari ;  with  the  lat- 
ter also  by  rail.  West  of  the  harbor  are  the 
beautiful  grottoes  of  Neptune.  In  1541  Charles 
y.  landed  at  Alghero  on  his  way  to  Africa,  and 
spent  several  days  in  the  Casa  Albis,  which  is 
still  pointed  out  to  visitors. 

ALOIEB43y  ftl-jera/  (Ar.  AUjozair,  the  islands, 
referring  to  an  island  in  its  bay;  Fr.  Alger, 
Al'zhA',  formerly  Al'zhftr').  The  capital  and 
chief  seaport  of  Algeria,  situated  on  the  west 
shore  of  the  Bay  of  Algiers,  in  lat.  36 **  47' 
N.,  and  long.  3°  3'  £.  (Map:  Africa,  El). 
It  is  located  on  the  slope  of  the  Sahel  chain, 
the  rich  verdure  of  the  mountains  giving  a 
beautiful  background  to  the  dazzling  white 
of  the  city,  which  has  the  shape  of  a  triangle, 
while  over  all  towers  the  Moorish  citadel  or 
Kasbah,  over  400  feet  above  the  sea.  Algiers  is 
divided  into  two  parts.  The. lower  part  is  occu- 
pied by  the  modern  city,  which  has  been  brought 
into  existence  by  the  French,  and  which  differs 
in  no  respect  from  any  well-appointed  European 
city.  It  nas  wide  and  well  shaded  streets,  spa- 
cious squares  with  statues  and  parks,  and  fire 
municipal  buildings,  mostly  located  in  the  Boule- 
vard de  la  R^publique.  The  city  is  lighted  by 
gas,  and  the  water  is  supplied  by  four  aqueducts, 
built  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
In  strong  contrast  to  the  European  Algiers 
is  the  old  Moorish  part  of  the  city,  which 
rises  above  the  former,  and  which,  in  all  es- 
sentials, continues  to  be  what  it  was  during 
the  reign  of  the  Turkish  Deys,  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  crooked  and  often  Impassable  for 
vehicles.  The  houses  are  very  plain  from  the 
outside,  but  their  interiors  bear  all  the  marks  of 
splendor  and  beauty  so  characteristic  of  Moorish 
architecture.  The  roofs  are  flat,  and  in  the 
evening  become  centres  of  gayety,  and  are  even 
used  occasionally  for  social  functions.  An  addi- 
tional picturcsqueness  is  given  to  the  Moorish 
part  of  the  town  by  the  motley  crowds  on  its 
streets,  including  the  elegantly  dressed  French- 
man, tlie  splendidly  arrayed  Moor,  as  well  as  the 
scantily  clad  native  from  the  interior.  The 
mosques  are  less  numerous  than  they  were  before 
the  French  occupation,  when  'their"  number  was 
estimated  at  about  one  hundred.  At  present 
there  are  only  four  mosques  used  as  regular 
places  of  worship,  but  there  are  numbers  of 
tombs  of  saints  or  "kubas,"  which  are  also  used 
occasionally  for  that  purpose.  The  citadel  or 
Kasbah  was  constructed  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  at- 


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AliOONQUIAN  STOCK. 


tacks.  At  present  it  is  used  as  barracks  for  the 
French  soldiers,  and  many  of  its  historical  fea- 
tures have  been  entirely  obliterated.  The  mod- 
em city  has  several  splendid  cliurches,  including 
a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  Of  educational  in- 
stitutions the  city  has  schools  of  law,  medicine, 
science,  and  letters,  several  lyc^s  for  the  natives, 
as  well  as  for  Frenchmen,  a  number  of  commercial 
colleges  and  higher  Mussulman  schools.  There 
is  also  a  library  and  museum,  two  theatres, 
and  a  number  of  scientific  societies.  The 
harbor  is  very  spacious  and  well  fortified.  The 
commerce  of  Algiers  is  very  extensive,  and  its 
shipping  amounts  to  nearly  7,000,000  tons  an- 
nually. The  commerce  is  chiefly  with  France; 
but  there  is  also  considerable  export  trade  with 
Great  Britain,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy.  Al- 
giers is  also  one  of  the  most  important  coaling 
stations  on  the  Mediterranean.  Owing  to  ito 
mild  climate  and  the  fertile  as  well  as  pictur- 
esque country  in  which  it  is  situated,  Algiers  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  favorite  health  resort,  and 
its  transient  population  is  steadily  increasing. 
Algiers  is  connected  by  rail  with  Oran  and  Con- 
stantine,  and  communicates  with  France  by 
steamer  and  cable.  Since  the  French  occupation, 
the  growth  of  Algiers  has  been  quite  rapid.  In 
1838,  it  had  a  population  of  30,000;  1881,  65,- 
000;  1891,  83,000;  1896,  96,784,  of  which  over  40 
per  cent,  were  French,  about  24  per  cent.  Moors, 
and  a  great  number  Jews.  The  percentage  of 
natives  is  steadily  declining,  while  the  foreign 
population,  especially  the  French,  shows  a 
steady  increase.  Algiers  is  the  seat  of  the  gen- 
eral-governor and  of  the  superior  civil  and  mili- 
tary officials  of  Algeria  and  the  department  and 
arrondissement  of  Algiers.  The  city  is  supposed 
to  have  been  founded  in  the  first  half  of  the  tenth 
century,  and  fell  into  the  hands  of  France  in 
1830. 

AliGOA  BAT,  ftl-gO^ft.  A  large  inlet  at  the 
southeastern  extremity  of  Cape  Colony  (Map: 
Africa,  6  8).  It  has  a  good  harbor,  and  re- 
ceives the  Sunday  and  Baasher  rivers.  The 
bay  is  of  considerable  commercial  importance, 
and  is  known  in  history  as  the  landing  place  of 
the  first  British  immigrants  to  South  Africa. 
Port  Elizabeth  is  situated  on  the  western  side 
of  the  bay. 

AIjOOL,  AVgOl  (Ar.  al-ghul,  the  destroyer, 
demon).  A  remarkable  variable  star  in  the  con- 
stellation Perseus.  Its  period  is  known  with 
very  great  exactness,  and  amounts  to  2  days, 
20  hours,  48  minutes,  and  65.4  seconds.  This 
period  is  maintained  with  great  regularity.  Or- 
dinarily the  star  is  of  the  second  magnitude ;  but 
it  suffers  periods  of  diminution,  lasting  four  and 
one  half  hours,  followed  by  constant  minima  of 
twenty  minutes,  and  a  return  in  three  and  one 
half  hours  to  the  original  brilliancy.  At  mini- 
mum it  is  of  the  fourth  magnitude,  and  gives 
only  one-sixth  as  much  light  as  it  does  in  the 
maximum  phase.  Algol  is  the  type  of  a  class 
of  variable  stars  whose  minimum  phase  is  very 
short.  This  phenomenon  is  ascribed  to  the  tem- 
porary partial  interposition  of  another  star  be- 
tween Algol  and  the  earth.  There  must  be  a 
comparatively  non-luminous  companion-star  be- 
longing to  the  Algol  system ;  and  mutual  orbital 
revolution  must  bring  this  in  line  between  Algol 
and  the  earth  at  regularly  recurring  intervals. 
That  the  visible  Algol  is  actually  subject  to 
orbital  motion,  has  b^ome  certain  from  the  spec- 


troscopic observations  of  Vogel  (1889),  who 
found  that  the  visible  star  is  receding  from  the 
earth  about  twenty-seven  miles  per  second  before 
the  minima,  and  approaching  us  at  about  the 
same  rate  after  the  minima.  His  approximate 
estimate  of  the  dimensions  of  the  system  assigns 
to  the  distance  between  Algol  and  the  dark  com- 
panion a  value  of  3,250,000  miles,  and  makes  the 
diameters  of  the  two  bodies  840,000  and  1,060,000 
miles.  The  orbit  is  supposed  to  be  seen  nearly 
edgewise  from  the  earth.  Chandler's  suggestion 
that  there  exists  still  another  invisible  compo- 
nent rests  upon  less  reliable  evidence,  derived  from 
a  study  of  the  variations  in  Algol's  position  on 
the  sky,  as  observed  with  meridian  instruments 
by  several  successive  generations  of  astronomers. 

ALGOM^TEB.  See  Psychological  Appara- 
tus. 

ALOCVNA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Kos- 
suth Co.,  Iowa,  125  miles  north  by  west  of 
Des  Moines,  on  the  east  fork  of  the  Des  Moines 
River,  and  on  the  Iowa  Central,  the  Chicago  and 
Northwestern,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 
St.  Paul  railroads  (Map:  Iowa,  CI).  It  is  the 
centre  of  an  agricultural,  dairying,  and  live 
stock  region,  and  has  manufactures  of  fiour,  but- 
ter tubs,  foundry  and  machine  shop  products, 
planing  mill  products,  bricks,  tile,  wagons,  etc. 
The  city  contains  a  public  library,  opera  house, 
and  a  handsome  court  house.  Pop.  1890,  2068: 
1900,   2911. 

ALQONnsaAN  SY£rrEM.  In  geology,  that 
system,  consisting  chiefiy  of  highly  metamor- 
phosed clastic  rocks,  that  lies  uncomformably  be- 
tween the  Archsan  beneath  and  the  Cambrian 
above,  and  at  the  very  bottom  of  the  entire 
series  of  sedimentary  rocks  of  the  earth's  crust. 
The  name  Algonkian  was  proposed  by  Walcott 
in  1889,  and  has  been  quite  generally  accepted 
by  the  more  progressive  American  geologists. 
The  rocks  of  this  system  consist  of  crystalline 
marbles,  slates,  schists,  quartzites,  conglomer- . 
ates,  and  gneisses,  all  of  which  have,  through 
more  or  less  profound  regional  metamorphism, 
been  derived  from  original  sedimentary  rocks, 
such  as  limestones,  shales,  and  sandstones.  In 
certain  regions,  particularly  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  great  lakes  of  North  America,  the  Algonkian 
formations  have  undergone  still  further  contact 
metamorphism  through  the  intrusion  of  great 
masses  of  igneous  rocks,  and  in  this  association 
occur  some  of  the  most  important  iron  and  cop- 
per deposits  of  the  world.  The  known  fossils  of 
Algonkian  age  are  very  obscure  and  few  in  num- 
ber. Because  of  the  extensive  metamorphism 
suffered  by  the  rocks  of  both  the  Archaean  and 
Algonkian  systems,  rendering,  in  many  regions, 
their  separation  under  the  two  divisions  almost 
impossible,  it  is  thought  advisable  to  consider 
all  rocks  formed  before  the  Cambrian  period  un- 
der the  more  comprehensive  title  Pbe-Cambbian 

FOBUATIONS. 

ALOON'QTJIAK  STOCK.  The  most  widely 
extended  and  most  important  Indian  linguistic 
stock  of  North  America,  formerly  occupying 
nearly  the  whole  area  (with  the  exception  of 
that  occupied  by  the  Iroquoian  tribes)  stretching 
from  Labrador  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  in  the 
north,  and  extending  southward  to  Pamlico 
Sound  on  the  coast,  and  to  the  Cumberland  River 
in  the  interior.  It  included  several  hundred 
tribes    and    sub-tribes  speaking    probably  forty 


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AliOONQUIAN  STOCK. 


344 


AT.TTAir-R-RA 


distinct  languages,  besides  a  large  number  of  dia- 
lects. Both  linguistic  and  traditional  evidence 
point  to  the  north  Atlantic  coast,  from  the  St. 
John  to  the  Delaware  River,  as  the  region  from 
which  the  various  cognate  tribes  migrated  west- 
ward and  southward.  From  the  fact  that  the 
earliest  settlements  in  Canada,  New  England, 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Virginia  were  all 
made  within  the  Algonquian  area,  the  history  of 
these  tribes  is  better  known,  and  their  languages 
have  been  more  studied,  than  those  of  any  others 
north  of  Mexico.  For  full  two  centuries  they 
opposed  the  advance  of  the  white  man  step  by 
step,  under  such  leaders  as  Opechancano,  Philip, 
Pontiac,  and  Tecumseh,  with  the  final  and  inev- 
itable result  of  defeat,  suppression,  and  swift 
decay.  The  number  of  the  Algonquian  stock 
(1902)  is  about  82,000  souls,  of  whom  about 
43,000  are  in  the  United  States,  the  remainder 
being  in  Canada,  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
hundred  refugees  in  Mexico. 

The  principal  Algonquian  tribes  were  the  Al- 
gonquin, Amalecite,  Micmac,  Nascapi,  Cree,  Ab- 
naki,  Pennacook,  Massachuset,  Wampanoag,  Nar- 
raganset,  Mohegan,  Mohican,  Montauk,  Lenape 
or  Delaware,  Nanticoke,  Powhatan,  Pamlico, 
Shawano,  Ojibwa,  Ottawa,  Menomini,  Pottawa- 
tomi,  Sack,  Fox,  Kickapoo,  Blackfoot,  Cheyenne, 
and  Arapaho.     See  these  titles;  also  Indians. 

ALGON^QUIN.  An  important  Indian  tribe 
formerly  centring  about  Nipissing  Lake  and  the 
middle  Ottawa  River,  Ontario.  The  name  (more 
properly  Algomekin),  signifies  people  "on  the 
other  side"  of  the  river.  French  missionaries 
began  work  among  the  Algonquins  early  in  the 
seventeenth  century,  and  soon  discovered  their 
language  to  be  the  key  to  all  the  numerous  dia- 
lects now  included  by  philologists  under  the  Al- 
gonquian stock.  In  consequence  of  destructive 
wars  waged  against  them  by  the  Iroquois,  the 
tribe  rapidly  declined,  some  fieeing  to  the  Upper 
Lakes,  where,  with  other  refugees,  they  became 
known  later  as  Ottawas  (q.v.)  ;  while  others, 
retaining  the  old  name,  were  gathered  into 
mission  villages  under  French  protection.  There 
are  now  about  960  Algonquins  settled  in  sev- 
eral villages  in  Quebec  and  Ontario,  exclusive  of 
those  confederated  with  Iroquois  at  the  Lake  of 
Two  Mountains,  in  Quebec,  and  at  Gibson,  On- 
tario, to  the  number  of  perhaps  250  more. 

AI/OOBISM.  A  word  variously  used  in 
arithmetic.  Primarily  it  referred  to  the  system 
of  Hindu  numerals,  concerning  which  European 
scholars  received  much  of  their  early  information 
through  the  work  of  Al-Khowarazmi  (q.v.),  or 
Algoritmi,  as  the  name  appeared  in  the  mediaeval 
Latin.  Those  scholars  who  adopted  the  Hindu 
numerals  were  called,  from  his  name,  Algorists, 
as  distinct  from  the  Abacists,  who  used .  the 
abacus  in  their  computations.  The  word  appears 
in  various  forms,  as  algorithmus,  algrim,  augrim 
(Chaucer).  At  present  the  word  is  generally 
used  to  designate  any  particular  arrangement  of 
numerical  work,  as  the  algorism  for  square  root 
or  the  algorism  for  division.     See  Arithmetic. 

ALGUACIL,  &rgw&-theK,  or  AliOUAZIL 
(Sp.  alguacil,  for  Ar.  a^t«I^fr,  the  vizier).  The 
general  name  in  Spain  of  the  officers  intrusted 
with  the  execution  of  justice.  There  are  aU 
guadles  mayoreSy  who  either  inherit  the  office 
of  executing  justice  in  a  town  as  a  hereditary 
right  belonging  to  their  families,  or  are  chosen 
to  the  office  by  the  municipality;  formerly  the 


name  was  also  given  to  the  officers  that  executed 
the  sentences  or  orders  of  tribunals,  such  as  the 
tribunal  of  the  Inquisition,  and  of  the  various 
orders  of  knights.  But  usually,  under  the  name 
of  Alguacil,  is  understood  the  alguaciles  me- 
nores,  or  "ordinarios,"  that  is  to  say,  the  it- 
tendants  or  officers  of  the  courts  of  justice,  gens- 
d'armes,  bailiffs — ^in  short,  all  the  inferior  officers 
of  justice  and  police  who  are  appointed  to  their 
office  by  the  judges,  alguaoiles  mayores,  or  town 
council. 

ATiHAOI,  &l-h&j^.     See  Maitna. 

ALHAlfA,  &l-&^m&(Ar.,  the  bath;  the  Roman 
Astigia  Juliensis) .  A  iovra  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
in  the  province  of  Granada,  25  miles  southwest  of 
Granada  ( Map :  Spain,  C  4 ) .  Its  situation  is  wild 
and  romantic  in  the  extreme.  The  town  is  built, 
terrace  above  terrace,  upon  a  hill  on  either  side 
of  which  rise  naked  limestone  crags,  while  the 
Sierra  Alhama  towers  to  the  height  of  8000  feet 
in  the  background.  Alhama  is  notable  for  its 
baths,  which  are  much  frequented  in  the  spring 
and  fall.  They  are  situated  in  the  valley  of  the 
Marchan,  and  are  of  a  sulphurous  character,  and 
reach  a  temperature  of  from  lOT'*  toll3'  F.  The 
Bafia  de  la  Reina  is  a  Roman  building  of  great 
antiquity;  the  Bafio  Fuerte  is  a  Moorish  struc- 
ture. An  earthquake  in  1884  wrought  much  de- 
struction to  the  upper  town.  Alhama  was  a 
watering-place  and  fortress  in  the  time  of  the 
Romans.  Its  name  in  Arabic  means  "The  Bath." 
and  the  Moors  valued  highly  its  medicinal 
springs.  It  was,  however,  chiefly  as  a  fortress 
and  outpost  to  Granada  that  it  was  important 
to  them,  and  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Chris- 
tians, February  28,  1482,  it  caused  the  wide- 
spread mourning  expressed  in  the  famouB  ballad, 
"Ay  de  mi  Alhama!"  well  known  in  the  English 
translation.    Pop.,  1900,  7683. 

ALHAlfA,  a  town  of  Murcia,  Spain,  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  de  Espafia,  on  the 
southern  slope,  13  miles  southwest  of  Murcia 
( Map :  Spain,  E  4. ) .  It  is  celebrated  for  its  sul- 
phur springs  and  warm  mineral  waters,  102" 
to  108^  F.,  and  is  a  favorite  resort  of  invalids 
and  holiday-seekers  in  spring  and  early  summer. 
It  has  a  ruined  castle.  Alhama  figured  in  tiie 
Moorish  wars.     Pop.,  1900,  8410. 

ALHAM^BA  (Ar.  al,  the-f  ^mrd,  red, 
with  the  glide  h  between  m  and  r,  as  in  number^ 
Lat.  numer%L8,  cf  Engl,  numerous;  see  below). 
The  fortified  palace  citadel  of  the  Moorish  kings 
of  Granada,  built  when  Granada  had  become  the 
capital  of  what  was  left  of  the  Moorish  dominions 
in  Spain,  by  King  Mohammed  Ibn-el-Ahmar  and 
his  successors  (1248,  1279,  1306,  1354).  The  cit- 
adel stands  on  a  hill  north  of  Granada,  on  a  ter- 
race about  2600  by  676  feet,  and  is  surrounded 
by  a  wall  with  13  square  towers,  over  a  mile  in 
circuit,  built  of  the  red  brick  which  gave  it  the 
name  of  KaVai  el  Hamrd,  "The  Red  Castie."  In- 
side the  citadel  were  beautiful  gardens,  a  don- 
jon citadel,  a  gate  of  justice,  a  watch  tower,  and, 
finally,  the  palace  itself,  as  sombre  and  plain  on 
the  outside  as  it  was  smiling  and  decorative 
within.  Charles  V.  destroyed  a  large  part  of  it 
(especially  the  Winter  Palace)  to  make  room 
for  a  tasteless  Renaissance  building,  and  Philip 
V.  still  further  mutilated  it.  Mutilated  as  it  i*. 
it  remains  the  best  proof  of  the  artistic  character 
of  the  Moorish  dominion  in  Spain,  even  though 
in  details  the  work  may  not  be  so  exouisite  as. 
earlier  work  in  Egypt  and  the  East.    What  re- 


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QQ  U. 

2  ° 

<  h 

5  5 

<  8 


X 


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ALHAHBBA. 


345 


AU  BABA. 


mains  is  grouped  around  two  principal  oblong 
courts,  the  Court  of  the  Blessing  (140x74  feet), 
and  the  Court  of  the  Lions  (116x66  feet).  There 
are  porticoes,  pillared  halls,  small  gardens,  and  a 
mosque.  The  Court  of  the  Lions  is  surrounded 
by  arcades  supported  by  124  white  marble  col- 
umns, while  similar  arcades  frame  the  ends  of 
the  other  court.  The  main  reception-hall,  called 
the  Hall  of  the  Ambassadors,  is  a  square  (37 
feet),  surmounted  by  a  beautiful  dome  75  feet 
high,  with  stalactite  pendentives.  Connected  with 
the  Court  of  the  Lions  are  two  smaller,  but  equal- 
ly exquisite,  halls,  the  Hall  of  the  Abencerrages, 
with  a  dome  and  exquisite  columns,  used  as  a 
banquet-hall,  and  the  Hall  of  the  Two  Sisters,  a 
pleasure-room  communicating  with  the  baths. 
There  is  a  network  of  smaller  apartments.  All 
the  surfaces  are  decorated  with  a  bewilderine 
mass  of  color  and  design  in  tiles,  stucco,  and 
painting.  Red,  blue,  black,  and  gold  are  the 
principal  colors;  the  ornamentation  comprises 
not  only  the  plain  geometrical  patterns,  but  also 
a  profusion  of  Cufic  mottoes  and  of  heraldic 
floral  designs  and  arabesques.  The  most  charac- 
teristic parts  were  reproduced  in  the  Alhambra 
Court  of  the  Crystal  Palace,  at  Sydenham,  and 
the  palace  has  served  as  a  model  for  innumer- 
able modern  imitations  of  Moorish  art.  The  Al- 
hambra was  partly  restored  by  Queen  Isabella 
II.,  but  was  damaged  by  fire  in  1890.  See  Mo- 
HAMMEnxN  Art  and  Literature. 

Consult:  Washington  Irving,  The  Alhambra 
(New  York,  1832)  ;  Goury  and  Jones,  Plans, 
Elevations,  Sections  and  Details  of  The  Alham- 
bra (London,  1842)  ;  M.  Junghftndel,  Die  Bau- 
kunst  Spaniens  (Dresden,  1889),  and  Girault  de 
Prangey,  Monuments  arabes  et  moresques  d*Es- 
pagne  (Paris,  1839)  ;  Bisson,  Choix  d'Ornements 
Moresques  de  V Alhambra   (Paris,  1855). 

AIiHAMBBAy  The.  A  famous  collection  of 
tales  and  legends  of  the  Alhambra,  by  Washing- 
ton Irving   (1812). 

AXHAZEN,  Al-ha^zen,  El-Hasan  ben  el- 
Ha8EN  ben  el-Haitam,  Abu  Ali  (c.  965-c.  1039). 
An  Arabian  mathematician  and  physicist.  From 
his  native  city,  Basra,  he  went  to  Egypt,  and 
died  in  Cairo.  A  man  of  remarkable  intelli- 
gence and  productiveness,  he  w^rote  commenta- 
ries on  Aristotle,  Galen,  Ptolemy,  Euclid,  and 
Archimedes,  and  also  made  numerous  original 
contributions  to  science.  His  Optics,  the  most 
important  Arabic  work  on  the  subject,  was 
translated  into  Latin,  probably  by  Vitellius 
(a  monk  living  in  the  latter  part  of  the  thir- 
teenth century ) ,  and  was  published  at  Basel  in 
1572  under  the  title,  Opticw  Thesaurus  Alhazeni 
Arahis  Libri  Septem,  nunc  primum  editi,  eiusdem 
Liber  de  Erepusculis  et  Xubium  Ascensionibus, 
etc,  a  Fed.  Kisnero.  Various  other  of  his  works 
have  been  translated  in  whole  or  in  part  by 
Woepcke,  S^illot,  Suter,  and  Baarmann.  He  is 
now  known  chiefly  from  the  problem  bearing  his 
name:  From  two  given  points  within  a  circle 
to  draw  to  a  point  on  the  circumference  two 
lines  which  shall  make  equal  angles  with  the  tan- 
gent at  that  point.  For  bibliography  of  this 
problem,  consult  the  American  Journal  of  Mathe- 
matics, Volume  IV.,  327. 

AX-HENOTA.    See  Henna. 

AXiHdNDIGA  BE  GBANABITAS,  ftl-dn^- 
d^'gii  dk  gra'nA-ue't&s.  A  fortified  public  store- 
house pear  Guanajuato,  Mexico,  where,  in  1810, 
in  the  b^inning  of  the  revolution  against  Spain, 


the  local  government  officials  took  refuge  and  de- 
fended themselves  vigorously,  being  captured 
only  after  severe  fighting  by  the  insurgents  un- 
der Hidalgo.  Local  tradition  of  the  fight  de- 
clares that  when  the  Spaniards  in  the  granary 
had  exhausted  their  stock  of  cannon  balls,  they 
used  bags  of  silver  coins,  fresh  from  the  mint, 
and  also  quicksilver  fiasks,  which  were  stored 
there  for  use  in  connection  with  the  great  silver 
mines  of  the  place.  Hidalgo  was  subsequently 
defeated  and  executed  at  Chihuahua,  and  his 
head  was  suspended  from  a  spike  on  the  wall  of 
the  Alhondiga,  now  the  local  prison. 

ALI,  BEN  Abu  Talib.  a'l*  ben  aO)©©  t&leb'  (c. 
600-661).  Fourth  caliph,  cousin  of  Mohammed, 
and  one  of  his  first  converts.  Ali  became  a 
staunch  adherent  of  Mohammed,  and  fought 
bravely  and  vigorously  for  him.  On  the  death  of 
Mohammed  it  was  expected  that  Ali,  who  had 
married  Fatima,  the  daughter  of  the  Prophet, 
would  succeed  to  the  caliphate,  but  he  only 
reached  that  office  on  the  murder  of  0th man,  the 
third  caliph,  in  656.  His  caliphate  was  very 
stormy  and  full  of  wars,  due  to  the  opposition 
of  Aisha,  the  young  widow  of  Mohammed,  and 
her  party,  chief  among  whom  stood  Moawiyah, 
the  commander  of  Syria.  At  the  battle  of  the 
Camel,  fought  at  Basra  in  656,  Aisha  was  cap- 
tured, and  later  Moawiyah  was  met  at  the  battle 
at  Sufl'ein.  On  the  22d*  of  January,  661,  Ali  was 
attacked  by  three  members  of  the  Karigite  sect, 
and  murdered  at  Kufa.  Near  this  city  he  was 
buried,  and  when  later  a  monument  was  raised 
to  his  memory,  so  many  pilgrims  came  that  it 
became  the  centre  of  a  city,  Medjed  Ali.  After 
his  death  his  followers  formed  themselves  into 
a  sect  called  the  Shiite,  and  this  sect  is  still 
dominant  in  Egypt,  Morocco,  South  Arabia, 
and  Mecca.  Persia  is  a  decidedly  Shiite  coun- 
try, while  Turkey  is  Sunnite.  The  descendants 
of  Ali  and  Fatima  are  called  the  Fatimides.  Ali 
was  noted  for  his  great  knowledge  and  wisdom; 
and  poems  and  maxims  passing  under  his  name 
are  still  extant.  Fleischer  published  All's  Hun- 
dert  Spruche  ("Hundred  Maxims")  in  the  Arabic 
and  Persian  texts,  with  a  translation  (Leipzig^ 
1837).  The  Divan  was  published  by  Kuypers 
(Leyden,  1745) ,  and  later  at  Bulak  in  1840.  Some 
of  the  maxims  and  poems  attributed  to  Ali,  of 
course,  may  be  genuine,  but  the  majority  of  them 
bear  traces  of  later  composition.  Consult 
Brockelmann,  Gcschichte  der  Arabischen  Lit- 
teratur,  Volume  I.,  pp.  43-44  (Weimar,  1899). 

A^IAS.  A  name  other  than  his  true  and  prop- 
er name  by  w^hich  a  person  passes  or  is  known. 
The  phrase  (Lat.  alias  dictus,  otherwise  called) 
from  which  the  term  is  derived  was  formerly  em- 
ployed in  indictments  and  pleadings  to  render 
absolutely  certain  the  description  of  the  individ- 
ual intended  by  adding  his  fictitious  or  assumed 
name.  In  order  to  constitute  an  alias,  the  name 
so  described  need  not  be  assumed  for  purposes 
of  deception  or  from  any  improper  motive. 
Stage  names,  pseudonyms,  and  even  nicknames, 
are  properly  comprehended  under  the  term.  But 
a  name  which  has,  by  legal  process,  been  assumed 
in  lieu  of  one's  original  name,  is  not  an  alias. 
See  Name. 

ALI  BABA,  a'l$  ba'bA.  The  hero  of  the  story 
of  Ali  Baba  and  the  Forty  Thieves,  in  the  Ara- 
bian Nights'  Entertainments.  He  is  a  poor 
forester,  who  accidentally  learns  the  magic  for- 
mula which  opens  the  door  to  a  robbers'  cave.  In 


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ALIEN. 


their  absence  he  repeats  the  ''open  sesame" 
(which  has  thus  become  proverbial ),  enters  the 
cavern,  and  loads  his  ass  with  their  treasures. 
His  brother,  Cassim,  tries  to  imitate  his  success 
in  carrying  off  their  wealth,  but  after  entering 
the  cave,  forgets  the  word  "sesame,"  and  so  is  en- 
trapped and  slain  by  the  robbers.  These  then 
come  to  Ali  Baba's  house  concealed  in  oil  jars. 
They  are  discovered,  however,  by  the  ingenious 
slave  girl,  Morgiana,  who  kills  them  with  boil- 
ing oil. 

ALIBATTD,  &'l*'bA',  Loxtis  (1810-36).  A 
French  soldier  and  radical  Republican,  who  at- 
tempted to  kill  King  Louis  Philippe  at  the  gate 
of  the  Tuileries,  June  25,  1836.  He  was  guillo- 
tined July  11  of  the  same  year. 

ALIBEBT,  A'lfi'bftr',  Jean  Louis  (1766- 
1837).  Physician  to  Louis  XVIII.,  of  France. 
As  chief  physician  of  the  hospital  of  St.  Louis 
he  devoted  himself  especially  to  a  study  of 
diseases  of  the  skin.  His  chief  work  was  Traitd 
Complet  des  Maladies  de  la  Feau  (1806-27). 

ALI-BE Y,  '  an^-bft'  ( 1 728-73 ) .  Mameluke 
ruler  of  Egypt.  He  was  born  in  Abkhasia  in  the 
Caucasus,  and  when  a  boy  was  sold  as  a  slave 
into  Egypt.  He  gained  the  favor  of  his  master, 
and  rose  to  be  one  of  the  Mameluke  beys.  In 
1766  he  seized  the  Government,  freed  himself 
from  the  power  of  the  Sultan,  coined  money,  and 
assumed  the  rank  of  Sultan  of  Egypt.  Soon 
afterward  he  captured  and  plundered  Mecca,  and 
undertook  to  conquer  all  Syria,  in  alliance  with 
Daher,  Pasha  of  Acre.  At  Damascus,  June  6, 
1771,  he  routed  the  Turks  with  great  slaughter 
and  took  possession  of  the  city  through  his  gen- 
eral, Mohammed;  but  the  latter  turned  against 
him  and,  proceeding  to  Egypt,  put  an  end  to 
Ali-Bey*s  power  at  Cairo.  Returning  with  an 
army  from  Syria,  Ali-Bey  was  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Salahieh,  and  perished  a  few  days  later. 

AL^TBI  (Lat.  elsewhere).  A  defense  resorted 
to  in  criminal  prosecutions,  when  the  party  ac- 
cused, in  order  to  prove  that  he  could  not  have 
committed  the  crime  with  which  he  is  charged, 
tenders  evidence  to  the  effect  that  he  was  in  a 
different  place  at  the  time  the  offense  was  com- 
mitted. When  true,  there  can  be  no  better  proof 
of  innocence;  but,  as  offering  the  readiest  and 
most  obvious  opportunity  for  false  evidence,  it 
is  always  regarded  with  suspicion.  Consult 
Wharton,  Criminal  Law  (Philadelphia,  1896). 

ALICANTE,  a'16-kan'tll.  The  chief  town  of 
a  province  of  the  same  name  in  Spain  (Map: 
Spain,  E  3).  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  a 
steep  hill,  at  the  bottom  of  which  it  extends 
along  a  level  strip  of  land.  This  latter  por- 
tion of  the  city  is  comparatively  modern,  well 
built,  and  convenient,  with  fine  squares  and 
promenades.  The  upper  city  is  a  jumble  of  nar- 
row crowded  streets.  It  possesses  a  collegiate 
church,  two  parish  churches,  two  nunneries,  a 
library,  a  bishop's  palace,  and  a  picture  gallery. 
The  town  is  overlooked  by  the  castle  of  Santa 
Barbara  from  an  eminence  850  feet  above  the 
sea.  The  town,  w^hich  is,  with  the  exception  of 
Cadiz  and  Barcelona,  the  most  important  sea- 
port of  Spain,  is  strongly  fortified.  Alicante  de- 
rives considerable  revenue  as  a  seaside  resort; 
but  its  main  source  of  wealth  is  the  export  trade, 
for  it  is  the  port  of  Valencia,  and  the  oil  and 
wine,  silk  and  grain  of  that  fertile  province  pass 
through   this   seaport  to  foreign   countries.     It 


has  also  a  large  tobacco  factory,  in  which  6000 
girls  are  employed.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  United 
States  consulate.  Population,  1900,  50,495.  AU- 
cante  (Lucentum)  was  an  important  town  under 
the  Romans,  and  its  citizens  had  the  Latin  fran- 
chise. It  was  captured  by  the  Moors  in  713, 
and  recaptured  by  Ferdinand  111. 
ALICATA,  &'l^ka^t&.    See  Licata 

Al/ICE.  ( 1 )  The  name  of  the  Wife  of  Bath. 
in  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales, 

(2)  In  Shakespeare's  Henry  V.,  one  of  the 
Princess  Katherine's  ladies  in  waiting. 

(3)  The  heroine  of  an  Elizabethan  tragedy. 
Arden  of  Fevcrsham  (q.v.). 

(4)  In  Meyerbeer's  opera,  Robert  le  Diahk. 
the  foster  sister  of  Robert,  who  saves  his  soul 
from  ruin. 

ALICE  MAUD  ICAOBIY,  Pbincess,  Gbaxd 
Duchess  of  Hesse-Dabmstadt  (1843-78).  The 
second  daughter  of  Queen  Victoria,  bom  April 
25,  1843.  She  was  much  beloved  by  the  English 
people  for  her  amiability,  gracious  disposition, 
and  domestic  virtues.  On  July  1,  1862,  she  mar- 
ried Prince  Ludwig  of  Hesse-Darmstadt.  She 
died  at  Darmstadt,  December  14,  1878,  of  diph- 
theria, a  few  days  after  the  death  of  her  youngest 
daughter  from  the  same  disease.  Consult:  Sell, 
Letters  with  Memoirs  of  Alices  Grand  Duchess 
of  Hesse  (London,  1884)  ;  Helena  (Princess 
Christian) ,  Letters  with  Memoirs  of  Alice,  Grand 
Duchess  of  Hesse   (London,  1897). 

ALICE,  OB  THE  HTS^EBTES.  A  novel 
by  Bulwer,  published  in  1838. 

ALICE'S  ADVEN^TXTBES  IK  WONa>EE- 
LAND.  A  story  for  children,  by  Lewis  Carroll 
(C.  L.  Dodgson),  published  in  1869.  It  is  the 
narrative  of  a  little  girPs  dream.  A  sequel  to 
it  is  Through  the  Looking-Glass  (1871). 

ALICIA,  &-lTsh^-&  (1)  In  Rowe's  tragedy. 
Jane  Shore  (q.v.),  a  mischief-making  lady  who 
ruins  the  heroine,  through  jealousy,  and  goes 
mad  herself. 

(2)  In  Lillo's  Arden  of  Feversham,  the  same 
character  as  Alice  Arden,  in  the  original  Eliza- 
bethan tragedy  of  the  same  name. 

ALICTTLTTF,  a'lft-k?5<5-lo5f'.  A  tribe  occupy- 
ing the  central  region  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  South 
America,  and  perhaps  representing  a  distinct 
linguistic  stock,  although  future  investigation 
may  establish  a  connection  with  the  Yahgan  or 
the  Tehuelche  (q.v.).  Although  they  go  almost 
naked  in  the  coldest  weather,  and  huddle  in  shel- 
ters hardly  deserving  the  name,  they  show  great 
skill  in  the  making  of  weapons,  fishing  utensils, 
and  canoes,  while  the  women  weave  water-tight 
baskets  of  reeds.  They  have  also  trained  a  na- 
tive dog  to  hunting. 

AI/IDADE  (Ar.  ahidddah,  the  revolving 
arm).  A  radius  bearing  a  vernier  (q.v.),  which 
travels  around  a  graduated  circumference. 
When  an  angle  is  to  be  measured,  the  alidade 
takes  first  the  position  of  one  arm  of  the  angle 
and  then  of  the  other,  and  the  arcs  are  "read" 
by  the  vernier ;  the  difference  of  the  two  readings 
is  the  measure  of  the  angle.     See  Compass. 

AI/IEN  (Lat.  a^enuA,  strange,  foreign).  One 
recognized  by  the  State  in  which  he  sojourns  as 
owing  primary  allegiance  to  a  foreign  sovereign. 
It  is  used  ordinarily  in  contradistinction  to  cit- 
izen (q.v.).  An  alien  may  become  a  citizen  by 
naturalization    (q.v.).     Alien  friend    and  alien 


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ALIEN. 


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ALIENIST. 


enemy  denote,  respectively,  an  alien  whose  coun- 
try is  at  peace,  or  is  at  war,  with  the  country 
where  he  is  sojourning.  In  Great  Britain  the 
status  of  aliens  is  regulated  by  the  Naturalization 
Act  of  1870  (33  and  34  Vict.  c.  14).  In  this  coun- 
try their  status  is  determined  generally  by  State 
laws,  although  these  are  subject  to  some  modi- 
fication by  treaties  between  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment and  that  of  a  foreign  country.  An  alien 
does  not  possess  political  rights,  nor  is  he  subject 
to  the  political  duties  of  a  citizen,  and  yet  he 
may  be  required  to  serve  in  the  militia  or  police 
of  the  country  where  he  is  residing,  and  to  con- 
tribute to  the  support  of  such  establishments. 
At  common  law  an  alien  could  not  become  an 
owner  of  real  property,  although  a  distinction 
was  made  between  a  case  of  title  by  purchase 
(q.v.)  and  by  descent  (q.v.).  If  an  alien 
acquired  title  by  purchase,  as  by  a  grant  (q.v.). 
or  devise  (q.v.),  he  was  allowed  to  hold  it  until 
office  found  (q.v.),  that  is,  until  his  alienage 
was  duly  established,  upon  inquiry  instituted  by 
the  proper  official,  while  apparent  title  by  de- 
scent was  absolutely  invalid.  This  common  law 
disability  has  been  removed  in  England,  as  well 
as  in  many  of  our  States;  and  aliens  may  now 
acquire,  convey,  and  transmit  title  to  real  and 
personal  property  in  the  same  manner  as  citi- 
zens. An  alien  friend  may  contract,  sue,  and 
be  sued  as  though  he  were  a  citizen  while  he 
is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  country;  but  he  may 
be  expelled  or  deported  at  any  time,  subject  to 
treaty  stipulations ;  his  immigration  may  be  pre- 
vented, or  may  be  permitted,  subject  to  imposed 
conditions.  An  alien  enemy  is  not  allowed  to 
maintain  an  action  in  the  courts  of  this  country, 
unless  he  can  show  some  special  authority  or 
license  therefor;  but  he  may  be  sued  here.  Nor 
can  he  enter  into  valid  contracts  with  citizens 
which  are  inconsistent  with  a  state  of  war.  The 
tendency  of  modern  law  is  to  accord  to  alien 
enemies,  who  are  permitted  to  remain  in  a  coun-, 
try,  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  alien  friends. 
Consult:  Nelson,  Select  Cases,  Statutes^  and 
Orders  Illtistrative  of  the  Principles  of  Private 
International  Law  (London,  1889)  ;  Cockbum, 
Nationality  (Jjondon,  1869). 

ALIEN  AND  SEDI^TION  ACTS.  A  series 
of  statutes  enacted  during  the  administration  of 
John  Adams  (q.v.),  occasioned  largely  by  the 
desire  of  the  party  in  power  to  stifle  the  more 
virulent  forms  of  political  opposition  then  preva- 
lent, and  to  check  the  activities  of  those  who 
sympathized  with  France.  There  were  four  stat- 
utes passed  in  execution  of  the  policy  of  the 
Federalists  (q.v.),  of  which  two  became  espe- 
cially notorious.  The  Alien  Act,  passed  June  25, 
1798*,  to  remain  in  force  two  years,  gave  the 
President  power  to  order  the  removal  from  the 
country  of  aliens  judged  to  be  dangerous,  and 
provided  that  if  those  so  notifled  did  not  leave 
the  country  or  secure  from  the  President  a 
license  to  remain,  they  would  be  subject  to  im- 
prisonment for  not  over  three  years,  and  be  dis- 
qualified from  ever  becoming  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  The  President  also  might  order 
the  removal  from  the  country  of  any  alien  thus 
imprisoned,  and  if  such  alien  should  thereafter 
be  found  in  the  country  he  might  be  imprisoned 
for  as  long  a  period  as  the  President  should  deem 
the  public  safety  required.  The  Sedition  Act, 
passed  July  14,  1798,  to  be  in  force  until  March 
3,  1801,  imposed  penalties  not  exceeding  a  fine 
of  $5000  and  five  years'  imprisonment  for  con- 


spiring against  the  government  and  its  measures, 
and  for  interfering  with  the  operations  of  the 
government.  It  imposed  a  penalty  of  imprison- 
ment* for  not  over  two  years  and  a  fine  of  not 
over  $2000  for  printing  scandalous  material 
concerning  the  Federal  Government,  the  President 
or  Congress.  There  were  also  passed  the  Alien 
Enemies  Act,  July  6,  1798,  providing  for  the 
treatment  of  aliens  with  whose  government  the 
United  States  might  be  at  war,  and  the  Natural- 
ization Act,  June  18,  1798,  fixing  fourteen  years' 
residence  as  a  qualification  for  the  acquisition  by 
foreigners  of  citizenship.  The  extreme  charac- 
ter of  th^se  statutes  and  the  partisan  spirit 
which  produced  them  caused  an  immediate  and 
violent  reaction,  which  was  expressed  in  such 
forms  as  in  the  Virginia  and  Kentucky  Resolu- 
tions (q.v.),  and  which  hastened  the  overthrow 
of  the  Federalist  party.  See  historical  section 
under  United  States. 

AL'IEN ACTION  (Lat.  alienatio,  the  trans- 
ferring of  the  possession  of  a  thing  to  another, 
from  alienuSf  another's,  foreign).  A  legal  term 
to  describe  the  transfer  of  title  to  land,  or  of  any 
interest  therein.  The  modes  in  which  alienation 
is  effected  are  numerous,  ranging  in  our  legal 
system  from  the  feoffment  (q.v.),  or  livery  of 
sAsin  (q.v.),  of  old  English  laAV,  to  the  modern 
transfer  by  deed  (q.v.)  or  will  (q.v.).  (See 
Conveyance.)  The  right  of  alienation  is  one  of 
the  two  great  incidents  of  the  ownership  of  prop- 
erty, as  now  understood  (the  other  being  the 
right  of  inheritance)  ;  but  this  is  a  distinctly 
modern  notion,  and  ownership  may  well  exist, 
and  has  often  existed,  without  the  right  to  alien- 
ate the  property  owned.  In  English  law  the 
right  of  a  freehold  tenant  to  alienate  his  lands 
was  long  restricted  by  rules  derived  from  the 
feudal  system  (q.v.).  Most  of  these  restrictions 
were  swept  away  by  the  third  statute  of  Westr 
minster  (18  Edw.  I.,  1290),  known  as  the  Statute 
Quia  Emptores  (q.v.),  which  declared  that  from 
thenceforth  "it  should  be  lawful  to  every  free- 
man to  sell  at  his  own  pleasure^  his  lands  and 
tenements,  or  part  of  them,"  and  the  few  that  re- 
mained, by  the  statute  of  Military  Tenures, 
passed  in  1660  (12  Car.  II.,  c.  24),  which  de- 
prived the  crown  of  the  right  to  exact  of  its  ten- 
ants in  capite  the  obnoxious  fines  on  alienation. 
But  it  was  not  until  the  thirty-second  year  of 
Henry  VIII.  (1527),  that  the  right  to  alienate 
lands  by  will  was  finally  conceded  by  Parliament. 
Now,  however,  the  principle  of  the  alienability  of 
real  property  has  become  so  firmly  established, 
that  we  cannot  conceive  of  absolute  ownership 
without  that  quality,  and  it  has  long  been  a  rule 
of  our  law,  that  a  condition  attached  to  the  grant 
of  a  fee,  forbidding  or  restraining  its  alienation, 
is  void,  as  being  repugnant  to  the  estate  granted. 
It  should  be  said,  however,  that  such  conditions 
annexed  to  life  estates  and  leaseholds  are  per- 
fectly good  and  of  frequent  occurrence. 

Afienation  may  be  either  voluntary  or  invol- 
untary. The  former  comprehends  the  usual 
modes  of  conveyance,  including  transfers  by  will. 
The  latter  refers  to  the  acquisition  of  title  by 
judgment,  execution,  bankruptcy,  and  the  other 
modes  in  which  creditors  have  at  different  times 
and  in  different  jurisdictions  been  permitted  to 
satisfy  their  claims  by  legal  process  out  of  the 
real  property  of  the  debtor.  See  the  authorities 
referred  to  under  the  title  Real  Property. 

AI/IENIST.     See  Psychiatry. 


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aiiUcentaby  system. 


ALI  FEBBOTTGH  BEY,  ri^  fgr^rd  bft  (1865 
— ) .  Minister  Plenipatentiary  and  Envoy  Extra- 
ordinary of  Turkey  to  the  United  States.  He 
was  born  at  Constantinople,  graduated  at  the 
National  University  there,  and  has  been  succes- 
sively secretary  of  embassy  at  Paris,  London, 
and  Bucharest,  and  councillor  of  embassy  at  St. 
Petersburg.  He  has  published  Public  and  Pri" 
rate  International  Law,  and  histories  of  Arabia 
and  Turkey. 

ALIGAB.H,  ri^g&r'.  The  capital  of  the  dis- 
trict of  the  same  name,  in  the  North-West  Prov- 
inces of  India,  the  native  name  of  which,  Koil, 
has  been  replaced  by  that  of  the  adjoining  fort, 
famous  for  its  commanding  situation  and  historic 
associations.  The  fort,  at  an  altitude  of  740 
feet,  stands  in  lat.  27^  56'  N.,  long.  78°  8'  E.,  47 
miles  north  of  Agra  and  74  miles  south  of  Del- 
hi (Map:  India,  0  3).  Its  capture  from  the 
Mahrattas  in  1803  by  General  Lake  assured  Brit- 
ish supremacy  in  the  Upper  Doab,  and  it  was 
the  scene  of  exciting  incidents  during  the  mutiny 
of  1857.  The  town  on  the  railway  route  from 
Calcutta  to  Peshfiwur  is  a  thriving  municipality, 
with  a  population  in  1891  of  61,485;  1901,  70,127. 
Aligarh  is  the  seat  of  the  Mohammedan  Anglo- 
Oriental  College,  which  is  connected  with  the 
University  of  Allahabad. 

ALIGN^KENT.  A  term  used  in  military 
tactics,  equivalent  to  "in  line."  Thus,  the  align- 
ment of  a  battalion  is  effected  when  the  men 
are  drawn  up  in  line;  the  alignment  of  a  camp 
is  a  rectilinear  arrangement  of  the  tents,  accord- 
ing to  some  prearranged  plan. 

ALTMA,  A-le'mA.  A  tributary  of  the  lower 
Congo,  rising  in  French  Congo,  and  after  a  short 
course  westward  emptying  at  Ibaka  (Map: 
Africa,  C  3).  In  its  lower  course  it  is  navigable 
for  light  vessels.  It  was  discovered  by  Brazza 
in  1878,  and  thoroughly  explored  by  Bailey  in 
1883. 

AL'IMEN^ABY  SYS^TEM  (from  Lat.  ali- 
mentum,  food).  In  mammalia,  that  portion  of 
the  digestive  apparatus  through  which  the  food 
passes  from  the  time  of  its  entrance  until  its 
exit  from  the  body.  It  is  lined  by  a  mucous 
membrane,  which  extends  from  the  lips  to  the 
anus,  being  modified  in  each  region.  (See  Mu- 
cous Membrane.)  The  alimentary  canal  begins 
at  the  mouth,  and  is  continued  into  the  space 
called  the  pharynx,  which  communicates  with 
the  nostrils  above,  and  the  gullet  or  oesophagus 
below,  and  with  the  mouth  in  front.  The  phar- 
ynx is  surrounded  by  three  muscles,  the  constric- 
tors, which  grasp  the  food,  and  force  it  into  the 
next  portion  of  the  alimentary  canal,  the  (esoph- 
agus. This  is  a  tube  composed  of  an  outer  layer 
of  longitudinal  muscular  fibres,  and  an  inner  of 
circular,  which  extend  down  to  and  spread  out 
upon  the  stomach.  These  fibres,  by  a  series  of 
peristaltic  contractions,  carry  the  morsel  of  food 
along  into  the  stomach.  In  vomiting,  there  is  a 
reversal  of  these  actions,  which  ruminating 
animals  can  accomplish  at  will.  The  oesophagus 
passes  through  an  opening  in  the  diaphragm, 
and  joins  the  stomach,  which  is  a  pouch  curved 
Avith  the  concavity  upward,  expanded  into  a 
cul  de  sac  on  the  left  side  (the  cardiac  extrem- 
ity), and  gradually  narrowed  to  the  right  or 
pyloric  end.  It  consists  of  muscular  fibres  con- 
tinuous with  those  of  the  oesophagus,  which 
become  thicker  toward  the  pylorus.     Its  external 


surfaces  are  covered  by  peritoneum,  and  it  is 
lined  by  a  thick,  soft  mucous  membrane,  which, 
when  the  stomach  is  empty,  lies  in  folds.  Be- 
tween the  muscular  and  mucous  layers  is  a 
fibrous  layer,  in  which  the  blood-vessels  lie  before 
they  pass  into  the  mucous  layer.  ( See  Stomach.  ) 
At  its  pyloric  or  left  extremity  the  stomach 
communicates  with  the 
small  intestine,  which 
is  about  22  feet  in 
length,  becoming  grad- 
ually narrower  toward 
its  lower  end,  and  ar- 
ranged in  numerous 
convolutions,  which  oc- 
cupy, for  the  most  part, 
the  middle  portion  of 
the  abdominal  cavity, 
and  are  kept  in  posi- 
tion by  the  mesentery, 
which  attaches  them  to 
the  posterior  wall  of 
the  aodomen. 

The  small  intestine  is 
subdivided  into  three 
parts.  The  first  ten 
inches  from  the  stom- 
ach are  known  as  the  . 
duodenum.  Into  it  open 
the  duct  of  the  pan- 
creas and  the  common 
bile  duct.  Of  the  re- 
maining portion,  the 
jejunum  includes  about 
two-fifths  and  ileum 
three-fifths.  The  differ- 
ences between  these  last 
two  are  not  visible  ex- 
ternally, but  consist  in 
modifications  of  their 
inteiTial  structure.  The  tube  consists  of  longi- 
tudinal and  circular  muscular  fibres,  a  fibrous 
layer,  and  a  mucous  membrane,  the  whole  sur- 
rounded by  peritoneum.  See  Intestutes,  Small. 

The  ileum  ends  at  the  right  iliac  region  in 
the  large  intestine,  which  is  from  five  to  six  feet 
in  length.  It  begins  at  the  pouch  called  the  blind 
gut  or  cul  de  sac  (see  CiGCUM),  which  has  a 
small,  worm-like  appendage  {appendix  vermifor- 
mis)  ;  a  double  valve  guards  the  opening  of  the 
small  into  the  large  intestine.  The  colon  passes 
upward  on  the  right  side  to  below  the  liver 
(ascending  colon),  then  crosses  from  the  right 
hypochondrium  across  the  upper  umbilical  to  the 
left  hvpochondrium  (transverse  colon),  then 
descends  to  the  left  iliac  fossa  (descending 
colon),  when  it  bends  like  an  S  (sigmoid  flex- 
ure), and  then  joins  the  rectum  at  the  left 
margin  of  the  true  pelvis.  The  colon  is  distin- 
guished by  its  pouched  or  sacculated  appearance 
and  the  presence  of  an  exterior  of  three  flat  bands 
of  longitudinal  muscular  fibres.  The  peritoneum 
covers  it  only  in  parts.  ( See  Colon.  )  The  rectum 
is  not  sacculatea,  but  its  muscular  coat  become!^ 
much  thicker;  at  its  lower  end  the  longitudinal 
muscular  fibres  stop,  but  the  circular  fibres 
become  greatly  increased,  forming  the  internal 
sphincter  muscle.  (See  Anus.)  The  rectum  is 
not  straight,  but  takes  a  curved  course. 

The  alimentary  canal  thus  consists  of  a  con- 
tinuouB  passage  lined  by  mucous  membrane. 
which  rests  on  a  fibrous  and  muscular  basement. 
Its  length  is  generally  about  five  or  six  time^ 
the  length  of  the  body,  or,  in  other  words,  about 


AUXSNTART   TRACT  DC  MAS. 


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SO  feet.  It  begins  below  the  base  of  the  skull, 
and  passes  through  the  thorax,  abdomen,  and 
pelvis,  and  consists,  in  brief,  of  the  mouth,  phar- 
ynx, oesophagus,  stomach,  small  intestine  and 
large  intestine.  The  above  description  refers  to 
the  alimentary  canal  in  human  anatomy;  its 
parts  are  variously  modified  in  different  animals, 
as  will  be  found  in  the  articles  on  its  several 
subdivisions.  The  process  of  carrying  the  digest- 
ed food  to  the  tissues  of  the  body  is  discussed 
under  Circulation. 

ALIMENTABY  SYSTEM,  Evolution  of 
THE.  An  alimentary  system  as  defined  above  is 
almost  wanting  among  plants,  which,  practically 
without  exception,  use  only  fluid  or  gaseous 
food,  or  else  render  solid  substances  fluid  before 
injestion.  This  difference  between  animals  and 
plants  is  one  of  the  best  distinguishing  charac- 
ters. 

Types  op  Alimentaby  Tracts.  The  simplest 
may  be  designated  the  temporary  type — that 
exhibited  by  Amoeba.  This  jelly-like,  amorphous 
organism,  when  it  comes  upon  a  solid  particle 
in  the  water,  simply  engulfs  it  at  any  point  by 
flowing  around  it.  The  engulfed  particle  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  sphere  of  water.  From  the  plasma 
of  the  Amoeba  an  acid  is  secreted  into  the  sphere 
of  water,  and  this  dilute  acid  gradually  dissolves 
the  solid  particle;  the  solution  is  then  absorbed 
by  the  protoplasm.  In  the  case  of  the  Amoeba 
there  is  no  deflnite,  permanent  alimentary 
tract.  The  same  is  true  of  all  the  rhizopodous 
Protozoa,  and  of  the  parasitic  ones,  which  do 
not  feed  on  solids.  Many  of  the  cilia te  and 
flagellate  Infusoria,  on  the  other  hand,  injest 
solid  particles  through  a  permanent  mouth  and 
gullet  into  the  general  protoplasmic  spaces.  The 
surface  around  the  mouth  opening  may  be  pro- 
vided with  cilia  to  carry  food  into  the  mouth. 

The  second  type  of  alimentary  tract  is  perma- 
nent but  diffuse.  This  is  the  type  exhibited  by 
sponges.  There  is  not  one  digestive  region,  but 
hundreds  of  them,  as  many,  indeed,  as  there  are 
pores  and  canals  passing  through  the  body  wall. 
Tlie  solid  food  passes  into  these  canals;  the 
canals  are  lined  by  curiously  modified  "col- 
lared" cells.  These  pick  up  the  particles  and 
engulf  them,  as  a  flagellate  infusorian  does. 
The  whole  sponge,  indeed,  behaves  like  a  colony 
of  Protozoa,  specialized  in  different  directions 
in  different  regions  of  the  sponge  body. 

The  third  type  of  alimentary  tract  is  perma- 
nent, and  concentrated  in  one  cavity,  and  that 
cavity  is  a  sac,  having  only  one  external  open- 
ing. This  type  is  characteristic  of  all  the 
Cnidaria,  and  is  found  in  certain  flatworms.  It 
is  typically  illustrated  by  Hydra.  Hydra  con- 
sists of  a  body  wall  surrounding  a  central  cavity 
that  has  one  opening  at  the  upper  pole,  sur- 
rounded by  a  circlet  of  tentacles.  The  openinff 
serves  both  as  mouth  and  anus.  The  body  wafl 
is  two-layered;  the  outer  layer  is  the  sensory 
one;  the  inner  layer  is  digestive.  The  origin 
of  this  type  is  uncertain;  it  seems  quite  likely 
that  it  has  not  developed  from  the  sponge  type, 
but  that  it  represents  an  altogether  new  line 
of  evolution,  in  which  the  body  is  not  to  be 
considered  as  a  colony  of  infusoria -like  cells, 
but  as  a  greatly  enlarged  protozoan,  with  many 
nuclei  and  hence  with  many  cells.  On  this  last 
hypothesis  the  digestion  cavity  of  Hydra  would 
be  homologous  with  that  of  an  infusorian.  In 
the  sea  anemones  the  digestive  sac  is  more  com- 
plicated than  in  Hydrozoa,  in  that  it  is  divided 


into  a  number  of  alcoves  opening  into  one  cen- 
tral chamber.  The  alcoves  arise  in  consequence 
of  a  series  of  radial  partitions  (called  mesen- 
teries) arranged  in  a  plan  of  four,  and  its  mul- 
tiples or  six  and  its  multiples,  that  pass  from  the 
outer  body  wall  toward  the  centre.  In  the  sea 
anemones  the  entrance  to  the  digestive  sac  is 
an  elongated  slit  that  serves  both  as  mouth  and 
anus.  According  to  one  theory,  the  separate 
mouth  and  anus  of  higher  forms  arise  from 
opposite  extremities  of  this  slit,  while  in  the 
middle  part  of  the  slit  the  lips  are  fused 
together.  In  the  lower  flatworms,  the  planarians 
and  trematodes,  tho  body  is  elongated,  and  the 
digestive  sac  is  elongated  likewise ;  but  it  is  still 
a  sac  with  a  single  opening.  The  cestodes, 
being  abject  parasites  living  in  the  digestive 
juices  of  the  host,  need  no  digestive  tract  and 
have  none.  In  the  higher  flatworms,  nemathel- 
minths,  Nemertinea,  Bryozoa,  and  Brachiopoda, 
as  well  as  in  mollusks,  mouth  and  anus  have 
become  distinct,  and  the  digestive  sac  has  become 
a  digestive  tube  or  canal,  as  in  higher  groups. 
With  the  formation  of  a  digestive  tube  three 
portions  may  be  distinguished,  namely:  fore 
gut,  mid  gut,  and  hind  gut.  The  first  and 
last  are  usually  of  ectodermal  origin.  The  mid 
gut  is  usually  lined  by  entoderm.  These  three 
parts  of  the  alimentary  tract  undergo  special 
modifications.  The  beginning  of  the  fore  gut, 
or  mouth,  becomes  fitted  with  grasping  and 
sensory  organs;  and  lower  down  in  the  oesopha- 
gus there  is  frequently  found  a  crushing  organ, 
the  gizzard.  The  mid  gut  is  very  glandular.  In 
many  species  the  glands  have  enlarged  to  per- 
form their  work  better,  and  appear  as  appendages 
of  the  mid  gut;  e.g.,  the  pancreas  or  hepatopan- 
creas.  The  hind  gut  is  the  rectum.  These  con- 
ditions are  shown  in  their  simplest  form  in  the 
annelids.  The  sandworm  of  the  sea  coast  has 
great  jaws  in  the  oesophagus,  which  is  protru- 
sible.  Behind,  a  pair  of  digestive  glands  open 
into  the  food  canal.  In  the  earthworm,  the 
oesophagus  leads  into  a  crop,  and  this  in  turn 
into  a  muscular  gizzard.  In  the  intestine  two 
dorsal  grooves  add  to  the  glandular  surface. 
Passing  to  arthropods,  we  find  the  mid  gut 
occasionally  coiled,  and  frequently  bearing  diges- 
tive glands,  that  gain  a  great  size  in  the  Deca- 
poda.  A  gastric  mill  is  present  in  the  Mala- 
costraca.  In  both  annelids  and  arthropods  the 
mouth  is  on  the  same  side  of  the  body  as  the 
great  nerve  cord,  and  the  anus  is  placed  in  the 
last  metamere  of  the  body. 

In  the  Chordata  the  alimentary  tract  has  very 
different  relations  from  those  found  in  the  Anne- 
lida and  Arthropoda.  In  the  latter  groups  the 
alimentary  tract  lies  dorsal  to  the  main  nerve 
and  ventral  to  the  heart;  iif  the  chordates  the 
tract  is  dorsal  to  the  heart  and  ventral  to  the 
spinal  cord.  The  question  how  the  vertebrate 
condition  is  derived  from  the  invertebrate  con- 
dition is  a  difiicult  one  to  answer.  It  has  even 
led  some  to  deny  that  vertebrates  are  related 
to  Annelida  or  Arthropoda,  as  it  is  impossible 
to  think  of  an  animal  adapted  to  traveling  on 
one  surface  turning  over  and  traveling  on  its 
back  and  transmitting  this  tendency  to  its  de- 
scendants. It  is  more  likely  that  the  intermedi- 
ate form  was  one  that,  like  many  of  the  lowest 
Chordata — ^the  tunicates — ^was  sessile  in  a  vent- 
ral position  at  some  time  of  life,  and  conse- 
quently had  neither  dorsal  nor  ventral  surface. 

Embryological  History.    The  history  of  the 


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alimentary  tract  in  vertebrates  is  as  follows: 
Part  of  the  outer  layer  of  the  germ  becomes 
infolded  as  a  pocket  to  form  the  lining  of  the 
archenteron  or  primitive  gut.  ( See  Embryoloot.  ) 
By  the  continued  growth  of  the  mesoderm  and 
body  cavity  the  archenteron  comes  to  lie  as  a 
canal,  closed  at  the  anterior  end  and  communi- 
cating posteriorly  through  the  "neurenteric 
canal"  with  the  neural  tube.  Later,  an  infolding 
of  ectoderm  occurs  on  the  ventral  surface  of  the 
embryo  to  form  the  proctodeum  and  anus.  The 
neurenteric  canal  closes  and  the  post-anal  gut 
degenerates.  Finally  the  ectoderm  is  inpocketed 
at  the  anterior  end  of  the  archenteron,  forming 
the  stomodeum,  and  the  two  cavities  become  con- 
fluent by  the  breaking  away  of  the  opposed  walls. 
Thus,  the  completed  alimentary  tract  is  composed 
of  an  ectodermal  anterior  and  posterior  end 
and  of  an  entodermal  middle  portion.  It  is 
enveloped  by  a  mesodermal  layer. 

Phylogenetically,  two  quite  distinct  parts  in 
the  alimentary  tract  of  vertebrates  can  be  dis- 
tinguished, and  these  do  not  coincide  with  the 
embryological  divisions.  In  Amphioxus  more 
than  the  first  half  of  the  length  of  the  alimentary 
tract  is  devoted  to  the  purpose  of  respiration, 
since  its  walls  are  provided  with  gill-slits.  This 
may  be  called  the  respiratory  part  of  the  ali- 
mentary tract  in  contradistinction  to  the  remain- 
ing hinder  portion — the  digestive  part.  The 
first  is  also  kno\vn  as  the  prosenteron.  The 
hinder  part  is  often  divided  into  two— its  ento- 
dermal part  (mesenteron)  and  its  proctodeal 
portion  (metenteron).  It  will  be  convenient  to 
treat  of  the  alimentary  tract  under  the  three 
heads  of  prosenteron,  mesenteron,  and  meten- 
teron. Before  going  on  to  this  analytical  treat- 
ment of  the  tract  and  its  appendages,  a  few 
words  may  be  said  concerning  the  general  his- 
tology of  the  entire  tract.  As  already  stated, 
two  germ-layers  are  involved:  entoderm  (or 
ectoderm)  and  mesoderm,  and  to  these  must  be 
added  mesenchyme.  The  entoderm  is  always  a 
single  layer  and  forms  the  so-called  mucosa;  it 
gives  rise  to  the  digestive  and  glandular  epi- 
thelium. Next  outside  lies  the  mesenchymatous 
mass,  with  its  blood-vessels  and  nerves — the  suh- 
tnucosa.  Outside  of  this  is  the  muscular  layer 
derived  from  mesoderm  and  containing  within 
circular  muscle  fibres  and  without  longitudinal 
ones.  Lastly,  outside  of  all  and  continuous  with 
the  lining  of  the  body  cavity  in  all  its  parts, 
is  the  layer  of  flat  epithelial  cells,  constituting 
part  of   the   peritoneal   membrane. 

The  Prosenteron, — ^This  region  is  character- 
ized, in  the  lower  forms,  by  gills.  In  Balano- 
gloasus  and  in  Tunicata  such  a  gill-bearing  region 
is  well  developed,  and  in  the  Tunicata  becomes 
extremely  complex, *in  adaptation  to  their  sessile 
habit,  which  requires  large  respiratory  surface, 
since  a  change  of  water  cannot  be  got  by  travel- 
ing. In  Amphioxus  the  gill-slits  are  simple  but 
very  numerous — a  hundred  or  more.  The  varia- 
bility in  number  arises  from  the  fact  that  the 
slits  continue  to  increase  in  number  as  the 
animal  grows  older,  new  ones  being  formed  at 
the  posterior  end  of  the  series.  Thus  the  pros- 
enteron grows  at  the  expense  of  the  mesenteron-. 
In  embryologic  history  a  single  row  of  fourteen 
slits  first  arises  as  ventro-dextral  organs;  next, 
a  second  row  of  nine  slits  is  formed  at  the  right 
of  the  first,  which,  as  it  grows  larger,  pushes  the 
first  row  to  the  left  side,  where  it  lies  perma- 
nently.    The  cause  of  the  development  of  the  left 


series  on  the  right  side  is  that  the  large  mouth 
at  first  occupies  the  left  side,  and  its  movement 
ventrally  is  accompanied  by  profound  changes 
in  the  surrounding  parts.  It  has  been  suggested 
that  the  mouth  of  the  ancestors  of  vertebrates 
was  placed  in  the  mid-dorsal  line  in  front  of  the 
notochord;  but  that,  the  support  of  the  noto- 
chord  being  needed  for  the  snout  in  the  animal's 
journeys  through  the  sand,  it  pushed  forward 
and  thrust  the  mouth  to  one  side.  The  mouth 
is  dorsal,  or,  better,  neural,  in  young  tunicate^ 
and  in  adult  annelids;  and  the  embryonic 
changes  in  the  position  of  the  mouth  in  Amphi- 
oxus apparently  recapitulate  the  phylogenetic 
changes.  The  gill-slits  of  the  young  Amphio3ni3 
open  from  the  gut  cavity  directly  to  the  exterior, 
but  later  they  open  into  a  common  atrium  on  the 
ventral  side,  which  functions  somewhat  as  an 
operculum.  The  details  of  the  gill  system  of 
higher  vertebrates  will  be  discussed  under  Res- 
PIBATOBY  Organs.  It  is  here  merely  necessary 
to  say  that  the  number  of  gill-slits  becomes 
much  reduced,  usually  to  five  or  six  pairs  of  slits. 

The  Mouth. — ^The  beginning  of  the  alimentary 
tract  is  enlarged  to  form  an  oral  or  buccal  cavity, 
provided  with  teeth  and  glands.  The  glands 
are  modified  skin  glands,  as  would  be  expected 
from  their  ectodermal  origin.  The  glands  de- 
velop by  a  depression  of  the  epidermis,  and 
come  to  lie  imbedded  deeply  in  the  cutis  of 
mesenchymatous  origin.  The  function  of  the 
glands  is  to  keep  the  mouth  moist,  consequently 
they  are  found  only  in  land  vertebrates.  The 
poison  glands  of  serpents  are  modified  oral 
glands.  Salivary  glands  find  their  highest  de- 
velopment in  mammals.  They  are  probiEibly  im- 
mensely developed  skin  glands  or  groups  of  such. 
They  secrete  a  thick,  glairy  fiuid,  whose  chief 
function  is  to  moisten  the  food  and  thus  to  assist 
in  its  mastication  and  deglutition.  On  this 
account  these  glands  are  most  highly  developed 
in  the  Herbivora  and  are  absent  in  Cetacea. 
Saliva  also  acts  upon  starchy  food,  converting 
it  into  sugar. 

The  tongue  is  a  mass  of  intertwined  muscles, 
having  various  functions,  as  of  tasting,  grasp- 
ing, touching,  and  speaking.  In  fishes  it  is 
little  developed,  being  represented  by  a  thicken- 
ing of  the  mucosa  covering  the  ventral  part  of 
the  hyoid  bone.  In  Amphibia  and  reptiles  it 
shows  a  great  advance  in  size  and  complexity, 
being  capable  of  extrusion  to  a  great  extent 
(especially  in  lizards),  both  through  the  elon- 
gating action  of  its  intrinsic  muscles  and  the 
forward  movement  of  the  base  of  the  hyoid  bone. 

The  thymus  gland  arises  in  fishes  by  the 
budding  off  of  epithelial  masses  from  the  ante- 
rior four  or  five  gill  pockets ;  it  is  thus  of  multi- 
plex origin.  Usually  these  indepiendently  aris- 
ing masses  fuse  into  a  pair  of  spindle-shaped 
bo<lies,  but  in  the  Gymnophiona  the  components 
persist  as  distinct  bodies.  In  the  land  verte- 
brates, with  fewer  gill-slits,  the  points  of  origin 
are  reduced  in  number.  Into  the  paired  masses 
connective  tissue  and  blood  vessels  grow,  eventu- 
ally constituting  the  greater  part  of  the  organs. 
The  function  of  the  thymus  is  still  unknown. 
It  attains  its  largest  size  in  reptiles  and  birds. 
In  man  it  reaches  its  maximum  development 
in  the  second  year  and  then  gradually  degen- 
erates. 

The  thyroid  gland  arises  directly  from  the  ali- 
mentary tract.  It  has  a  double  origin.  First, 
it  arises  as  an  unpaired  pocket  of  the  ventral 


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wall  of  the  pharynx  behind  the  last  gill-slit: 
the  paired  masses  are  called  "accessory  thyroid 
glands."  The  median  part  is  morphologically 
the  most  important.  It  is  the  only  part  found  in 
,  Amphioxus  and  Cyclostomi.  In  these  groups  it 
*  exists  as  a  groove  in  the  ventral  wall  of  the 
pharynx,  called  the  "hypobranchial  groove."  A 
similar  groove  is  found  in  all  tunicates  (the 
"endostyle"),  and  is  glandular  in  function.  In 
the  lower  true  vertebrates,  where  the  paired 
components  first  arise,  they  remain  distinct;  in 
mammals  all  components  fuse. 

OESOPHAGUS  AND  STOMACH.  These  parts  of  the 
alimentary  tract  constitute  the  fore  gut  in  the 
more  restricted  sense.  They  are  limited  ante- 
riorly by  the  oral  cavity;  the  limitation  is  a 
sharp  one,  however,  only  in  mammals,  which 
possess  a  soft  palate  that  curtains  off  the  mouth 
from  the  respiratory  passage.  This  soft  palate 
makes  ita  first  appearance  in  the  crocodiles,  but 
without  the  uvula.  The  posterior  limit  of  the 
fore  gut  is  not  always  easy  to  fix,  since  not  all 
vertebrates  have  a  specialized  stomach  with  a 
pyloric  valve.  The  opening  of  the  bile  duct  may 
be  taken  as  the  lower  limit.  The  post-pharyn- 
geal  prosenteron  is  extremely  short  in  Amphi- 
oxus and  the  lowest  vertebrates,  and  is  of  rela- 
tively slight  importance ;  it  gains  size  and  impor- 
tance as  we  ascend  in  vertebrate  series.  The 
digestive  function  is,  in  the  higher  groups,  trans- 
ferred to  a  more  anterior  region  of  the  enteron, 
and,  coincidently,  the  entire  alimentary  tract, 
which  is  primitively  straight,  undergoes  a  great 
increase  in  length  and  becomes  strongly  folded. 
A  differentiation  of  the  prosenteron  into  oesoph- 
agus and  stomach  is  first  indicated  in  selachians, 
and  becomes  pronounced  in  Amphibia.  The  two 
organs  differ  not  only  in  their  diameter,  but  also 
in  the  character  of  the  mucous  membrane,  which 
is  smooth  and  forms  a  ciliated  epithelium  on  the 
oesophagus  and  folded  and  nonciliated  in  the 
stomach.  In  birds  the  oesaphagus  is  specialized, 
in  that  it  is  greatly  enlarged  at  one  point,  form- 
ing the  crop.  The  crop  is  best  developed  in  gran- 
ivorous  birds;  in  it  grain  is  acted  upon  chemi- 
cally. Certain  fish-eating  birds  have  a  reservoir 
(false  crop)  for  excess  of  food.  Insectivorous  and 
frugivorous  birds  have  no  sign  of  a  crop.  The 
stomach,  likewise,  is  very  complex  in  birds. 
There  is  first  a  highly  glandular  chemically 
active  proventriculus,  and,  below,  a  mechanic- 
ally acting  muscular  stomach  or  gizzard.  In 
mammals  the  stomach  is  the  most  distended 
and  one  of  the  most  functional  parts  of 
the  alimentary  system.  An  anterior  or  cardiac 
portion  can  be  distinguished  from  a  posterior 
pyloric  part.  The  stomach  is  larger  and  more 
complex  in  herbivores  than  in  carnivores.  In 
the  herbivores  the  cardiac  and  pyloric  parts  are 
each  divided  into  two  parts.  The  first  is  a  large 
aac  called  the  pouch  or  rumen.  It  communicates 
broadly  with  the  second  chamber,  the  reticulum, 
so  called  from  its  network  of  folds.  Next  comes 
the  psalterium,  whose  walls  are  raised  into  high, 
thick-set  folds,  so  that  under  most  circumstances 
nothing  but  semi-fluid  materials  can  pass  between 
the  folds.  The  last  part  is  the  abomasum,  with 
highly  vascular  and  glandular  walls.  This  com- 
plex stomach  seems  to  have  arisen  by  natural 
selection  as  an  adaptation  to  the  peculiar  habits 
possessed  by  the  ruminants.  They  are  all  weak, 
defenseless  mammals,  and  their  herbivorous 
habits  require  that  they  shall  feed  in  open  fields 
where  the  danger  of  detection  by  the  larger  car- 


nivores is  very  great.  The  shorter  the  time  they 
are  exposed  in  the  open  tield  the  less  will  be  the 
chance  of  their  destruction.  It  has  therefore 
been  of  advantage  that  they  have  become  able 
to  crop  a  large  amount  of  grass  rapidly  without 
masticating  it,  the  mastication'  being  first  done 
after  the  ruminant  has  retired  from  the  field  to 
the  secluded  forest.  The  food  thus  taken  into 
the  stomach  fills  the  rumen  and  reticulum,  and 
is  mingled  with  and  partly  macerated  by  the 
saliva.  By  the  action  of  the  abdominal  muscles 
and  diaphragm,  as  in  hiccoughing,  the  food  is 
returned  to  the  mouth  and  is  there  masticated. 
Finally,  divided  and  mixed  with  saliva,  it  passes 
down  tde  oesophagus  and  is  led  by  means  of  a 
special  fold  directly  to  the  psalterium,  through 
the  leaves  of  which  the  finely  triturated  mass  can 
pass.  In  the  fourth  part,  or  abomasum,  true 
gastric  digestion  now  occurs. 

Intestinal.  Region.  The  mesenteron  is,  in 
the  higher  vertebrates,  separated  fromthe  posen- 
teron  by  a  circular  fold  of  the  intestinal  wall,  the 
pyloric  valve.  The  function  of  the  tract  is,  on  the 
one  hand,  to  secure  fluids  that  will  finish  the  work 
of  digesting  the  food  which  was  begun  in  the 
stomach,  and  on  the  other  to  absorb  the  products 
of  digestion.  The  variations  in  form  of  the 
mesenteron  are  all  to  enable  it  to  perform  the 
processes  to  better  advantage.  Some  of  the  vari- 
ations are  readily  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  such 
as  the  foldings  of  the  gut  or  out-pocketings  from 
it ;  others  are  microscopic,  and  due  to  foldings  in 
the  lining  of  the  alimentary  tract. 

Liver  and  Pancreas.  The  largest  of  these 
out-pocketings  is  the  liver.  It  is  phylogenetic- 
ally  an  old  organ,  as  it  occurs  in  all  the  Verte- 
brates, even  in  Amphioxus.  The  form  of  the 
liver  is  always  closely  adapted  to  that  of  the 
cavity  in  which  it  lies.  In  myxinoids  it  consists 
of  two  lobes,  and  this  is  probably  the  "ground- 
form"  of  the  organ  in  all  vertebrates.  In  many 
cases  it  is  further  subdivided  into  (dog,  weasel) 
six  or  seven  lobes  even.  The  right  lobe  is  the 
larger,  and  in  it  the  gall-bladder,  when  present, 
lies  imbedded.  The  liver  arises  as  an  evagination 
of  the  epithelial  lining  of  the  ventral  wall  of 
the  anterior  portion  of  the  intestine.  In  Amphi- 
oxus it  is  located  just  behind  the  gill  region.  The 
hepatic  fundaments  are  soon  transformed  into 
glands  made  up  of  branching  tubules.  The  net- 
work of  tubules  early  differentiates  into  excre- 
tory and  secretory  parts.  In  amphibians  and 
reptiles  the  tubular  nature  of  the  gland  is  easily 
recognizable,  but  in  higher  vertebrates  (birds, 
mammals,  man)  the  tubular  structure  is  incon- 
spicuous. Simultaneously  with  the  development 
of  the  tubules  a  mesh  work  of  blood  vessels  ap- 
pears in  the  liver.  In  birds  and  mammals  at 
the  point  at  which  the  primary  bile  ducts  open 
into  the  duodenum  a  small  evagination  is  formed. 
This  evagination  elongates  to  form  the  bile  duct. 
The  gall-bladder  is  a  reservoir  for  storing  the 
gall.  It  develops  as  an  evagination  of  the  bile 
duct  or  from  the  hepatic  ducts.  The  liver  serves 
as  a  storehouse  in  which  the  sugar  not  needed  by 
the  system  for  immediate  consumption  is  stored 
up  in  the  form  of  glycogen;  it  destroys  the  old 
red  blood  corpuscles  and  oxidizes  nitrogenous 
materials  into  urea.  Its  function  in  digestion  is 
less  clearly  understood.  Fats,  however,  more 
easily  pass  through  a  membrane  moistened  with 
bile,  and  a  greater  proportion  of  fat  passes  unab- 
sorbed  through  the  intestine  of  a  dog  when  the 
bile  duct  is  stopped;  hence  bile  probably  aids  in 


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352 


ALIKENTABY  SYSTEM. 


some  way  in  the  absorption  of  fats.  The  alka- 
linity of  the  bile  also  aids  the  pancreatic  juice 
in  overcoming  the  acidity  of  the  gastric  juice. 
Bile  also  aids  in  stimulating  the  action  of  the 
muscles  of  the  intestine.  Its  absence  leads  to 
biliousness  and  even  jaundice,  and  finally  the 
bile  acta  as  a  preservative  when  deficient  putre- 
faction of  the  contents  of  the  alimentary 
canal  results.  The  pancreas  also  arises  as  an 
e vagina t ion  of  the  alimentary  tract,  but  from 
the  dorsal  side  of  the  duodenum,  and  usually 
opposite  the  origin  of  the  liver.  Except  in 
cyclostomes  and  some  teleosts,  the  pancreas  is 
always  present  in  vertebrates.  Its  size  and 
form  varies,  and  it  is  not  infrequently  lo- 
bate.  In  structure  it  is  a  racemose  gland. 
Its  secretion  is  either  poured  directly  into  the 
intestine  (as  in  birds,  crocodiles,  emydse,  and 
some  mammals),  or  as  development  proceeds  its 
outlets  move  nearer  and  nearer  the  bile  duct, 
and  finally  the  secretions  of  the  liver  and  pan- 
creas are  poured  into  the  intestine  through  a 
common  duct.  The  pancreatic  secretion  is  alka- 
line. Its  rOle  in  digestion  is  very  great.  Its 
action  on  starch  is  like  that  of  the  saliva,  only 
much  more  energetic.  Through  the  agency  of  the 
ferment,  trypsin,  it  effects  proteids,  and  by  an- 
other ferment,  steapsin,  fats  are  split  up  into 
fatty  acids  and  glycerine.  The  soap  and  glycer- 
ine are  both  soluble  in  water  and  hence  are  easily 
absorbed.  Much  of  the  fat,  however,  is  emulsi- 
fied by  the  albumen,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  brdken 
up  into  fine  drops,  which  are  prevented  from 
fusing  by  the  presence  of  a  coating  of  albumen. 
The  fat  in  the  emulsion  is  probably  capable  of 
absorption  as  it  is. 

The  Pyloric  Tract.  The  straight  tube  of  Am- 
phioxus  is  chiefly  an  absorbing  organ,  the  diges- 
tive secretions  being  poured  into  the  cavity  from 
the  liver.  In  the  earth-inhabiting  Gymnophiona 
and  Amphisbsense  and  the  elongated  snakes,  the 
alimentary  tract  is  little  convoluted,  since  here 
either  the  process  of  absorption  is  not  very  rapid, 
or  the  area  of  the  mid  gut  is,  even  when  straight, 
considerable,  relative  to  the  total  volume  of  the 
body  (snakes).  The  mesenteron  is  also  straight 
in  Petromyzon  and  some  of  the  sharks  which  lead 
an  active  carnivorous  life,  but  the  shortness  is 
fully  compensated  for  by  an  extensive  folding  of 
the  inner  absorbing  surface  through  the  forma- 
tion of  the  so-called  spiral  fold,  or  spiral  valve. 
The  method  of  origin  of  the  fold  is  seen  in  Petro- 
myzon, where  it  is  first  represented  by  a  strong, 
spirally  twisted  artery  lying  on  the  internal  wall. 
This  gradually  sinks  deeper  and  deeper  toward 
the  lumen  of  the  gut,  carrying  the  wall  or  the  gut 
before  it.  As  a  result  of  this  process  we  find  a 
long,  spirally  twisted  fold  projecting  far  inward 
from  the  wall  of  the  gut.  The  fold  itself  is 
richly  vascular,  frT>m  the  ramifications  of  the 
small  blood-vessels  from  the  artery.  Such  a 
spiral  valve  is  found  best  developed  in  Sela- 
chians, but  it  exists  also  in  Ganoids.  Teleosts 
lack  such  a  spiral  valve,  but  the  absorbing  sur- 
face is  increased  by  another  means — namely,  by 
out  -  pocketings,  so  -  called  pyloric  appendages. 
That  these  are  primarily  not  glands,  but  have  an 
absorbing  function,  is  indicated  by  two  facts :  ( I ) 
They  are  sometimes  found  stuffed  with  food,  and 
(2)  their  presence  seems  to  be  correlated  with  the 
absence  of  the  spiral  valve  and  vice  versd,  even 
in  closely  allied  species  having  similar  habits; 
and  therefore  it  is  probable  that  they  fulfill  the 
same  office  in  the  economy  of  the  organism.  Thus, 


Polypterus  possesses  a  well-developed  spiral  fold, 
but  only  a  few  pyloric  appendages,  while  Lepi- 
dosteus,  which  is  provided  with  only  a  sli^t 
fold,  is  superabundantly  provided  with  pyloric 
appendages.  All  of  this  evidence  is  not  quite 
satisfactory,  and  it  seems  probable  that  in  some 
cases  the  pyloric  appendages  are  indeed  gland- 
ular— as,  for  instance,  when  several  open  into  the 
mesenteron  by  a  common  duct.  Histological 
studies  are  needed  to  settle  this  question. 

The  Mesenteron. — From  the  Amphibia  on,  with 
exceptions,  the  mesenteron  becomes  more  and 
more  convoluted  externally,  and  at  the  same 
time  the  absorbing  surface  is  increased  br 
folds.  Thus,  in  the  frog,  the  anterior  part  of  the 
mesenteron  is  covered  by  a  fine  network  of  folds. 
Further  posteriorly  these  arrange  themselves  into 
structures  like  the  semi-lunar  valves  of  the  heart, 
opening  backward.  Similar  contrivances  for  in- 
creasing the  internal  absorbing  surface  are  found 
also  in  reptiles  and  birds.  In  birds  and  mam- 
mals, when  the  longitudinal  folds  of  the  mesen- 
teron are  poorly  developed,  we  find  finger-like 
processes — villi — ^produced  into  the  lumen  of  the 
gut.  Into  these  folds  of  the  mucous  epithelium 
are  continued  the  connective  tissue  of  the  sub- 
mucosa,  together  with  blood  vessels,  lymph  ves- 
sels, and  nerves.  Food  in  solution  is'  taken  up 
by  the  epithelial  cells  just  as  an  amoeba  takes 
it  up  by  throwing  out  pseudopodia.  A  large 
share  of  the  absorptive  process  is  probably  to  be 
assigned  to  the  lymph  cells,  which  wander  about 
in  the  submucosa  and  even  make  their  way 
through  the  mucosa  into  the  lumen  of  the  gut. 

Meienteron. — Like  the  other  parts  of  the  ali- 
mentary tract,  this  becomes  differentiated  from 
the  common  enteron  only  in  the  higher  verte- 
brates. In  the  higher  fishes  it  is  indicated  by 
an  enlargement  of  the  intestine.  This  enlarge- 
ment is  directly  continuous  posteriorly  with  the 
cloaca,  into  which  also  the  urogenital  ducts  open. 
In  Amphibia  and  reptiles  the  ventral  wall  of  the 
hinder  part  of  the  metenteron  is  enlarged  to  form 
a  (functional)  urinary  bladder.  In  Amniota  the 
metenteron  is  separated  from  the  mesenteron  by 
an  ileo-celic  valve  (q.v.).  In  nearly  all  verte- 
brates the  metenteron — in  contradistinction  to 
mesenteron — ^has  a  straight  course,  hence  it  is 
often  called  rectum.  In  many  mammals,  as  in 
man,  it  is  greatly  elongated,  forming  a  colon 
ascendens,  transversus,  and  descendens.  A  blind 
pocket  c»cum  is  often  formed  in  connection  with 
the  metenteron.  This  is  a  mere  swelling  in  the 
wall  in  reptiles,  but  attains  an  enormous  devel- 
opment in  many  birds,  in  which  group  it  is 
usually  paired.  In  mammals  it  is  never  so  long 
as  in  birds,  but  is  variable  in  extent.  Thus,  in 
herbivores  it  may  even  be  as  long  as  the  body  of 
the  animal  possessing  it,  and  in  some  rodents 
it  contains  a  spiral  valve.  In  carnivores,  on  the 
contrary,  it  is  poorly  developed.  It  would  seem 
to  be  somewhat  compensatory  with  relation  to 
the  rest  of  the  metenteron,  for  it  is  much  better 
developed  in  the  horse  and  allies  which  have  a 
simple  stomach  than  in  the  ruminants  with  a 
complicated  one.  Among  certain  mammals  (e.g.. 
man)  the  distal  part  of  the  csecum  is  greatly 
reduced,  forming  the  vermiform  process.  In 
man  the  csecum  is  at  first  of  nearly  uniform  char- 
acter— the  vermiform  process  arises  by  a  degen- 
eration of  its  distal  end — a  process  which  occurs 
relatively  late.  This  indicates  that  in  man  the 
csecum  was  quite  recently  of  relatively  greater 
importance,    and   indicates   further   that   man's 


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ALIMENTABY  SYSTEM. 


353 


ALI  PASHA. 


ancestors  were  herbivorous — ^a  fact  which  the 
presence  of  the  now  degenerating  third  (hinder- 
most)  molar  likewise  confirms. 

There  are  certain  other  appendages  of  the  me- 
tenteron  to  which  we  can  only  refer.  Such  are 
the  unpaired  finger-shaped  gland  of  the  dorsal 
roof  of  the  rectum  in  sharks;  the  paired  dorsal 
pockets  of  Chelonia,  and  the  unpaired  bursa 
fabricii  of  birds.  The  function  of  the  last  two 
organs  is  doubtful.  We  will  digress  to  describe 
the  bursa  fabricii.  This  is  a  spherical  or  club- 
shaped  organ  lying  ventral  to  the  vertebral  col- 
umn and  dorso-caudad  to  the  rectum,  to  which 
it  is  attached  posterio-ventrad  to  the  urogenital 
opening.  It  arises  as  a  solid  mass,  in  which  sec- 
ondarily cavities  appear,  lined  by  epithelium 
from  the  mucosa  of  the  metenteron.  They  are, 
therefore,  not  to  be  regarded  as  lymph  spaces, 
nor  the  organ  as  a  lymph  organ.  Its  develop- 
ment is,  therefore,  much  like  that  of  the  thymus 
gland.  The  organ  degenerates  toward  thfe  end 
of  the  first  year,  but  persists  throughout  life  in 
some  species  as  an  organ  covered  with  a  connec- 
tive tissue  coat,  and  possessing  many  elongated 
follicles  lined  by  epitnelium  within.  The  func- 
tion and  phylogenetic  significance  of  this  or^n 
are  both  unclear.  Possibly  it  is  homologous  with 
the  paired  pockets  of  Chelonia;  the  ontogeny  of 
these  latter  organs  is,  however,  yet  qidte  un- 
known. 

AI/nCONY  (Lat.  alimonia,  alimoniufnj  nour- 
ishment, sustenance,  from  alere,  to  feed,  nour- 
ish). In  English  and  American  law,  the  allow- 
ance which  a  married  woman  is  entitled  to  re- 
ceive out  of  her  husband's  estate  by  decree  or  or- 
-der  of  the  court  on  judicial  separation  or  divorce 
a  mensa  et  thoro.  By  Scotch  legal  writers  the 
term  is  sometimes  used  as  synonymous  with 
aliment.  In  the  United  States  jurisdiction 
with  regard  to  alimony  is  conferred,  in  gen- 
eral, by  statute  on  courts  of  equity.  Ali- 
mony is  of  two  sorts;  pendente  lite,  and  per- 
manent. The  object  of  the  first  is  to  en- 
able a  wife  to  carry  on  litigation  with  her  hus- 
band, by  securing  her  support  during  the  pen- 
<lency  of  suit.  Should  she  have  sufiicient  means 
of  her  own,  no  allowance  would  be  made;  the 
amount  is  fixed  at  the  discretion  of  the  court, 
and  may  be  changed  by  the  same  authority.  Per- 
manent alimony  is  a  periodical  allowance  from  a 
husband  decreed  to  a  wife  as  the  result  of  litiga- 
tion in  her  favor.  If  the  result  be  against  her, 
no  allowance  is  made.  The  amount  varies  with 
the  means  of  the  husband  and  the  needs  and 
position  of  the  wife,  but  is  usually  from  a  third 
to  one-half  of  his  income,  and  is  subject  to 
change  from  time  to  time,  as  the  court  finds  cir- 
cumstances to  warrant.  The  court  may  enforce 
its  decree  by  contempt  proceedings,  and  can  pre- 
vent a  husband  from  leaving  the  State  if  he 
means  thereby  to  avoid  payment.  In  some  States 
alimony  becomes  a  lien  on  the  husband's  real 
estate,  or  the  court  may  compel  him  to  give  se- 
curity for  its  prompt  payment;  or,  in  proper 
cases,  the  husband  may  be  restrained  by  injunc- 
tion from  so  disposing  of  his  property  as  to  place 
it  beyond  the  reach  of  the  court.    See  Divorce. 

AT.T  PASHA,  JUn^  pA-sh&^  (1741-1822).  An 
Albanian  ruler,  notorious  for  cruelty,  and  known 
as  "the  Lion  of  Janina."  He  was  born  at  Tepeleni, 
in  the  Albanian  province  of  Janina.  His  father, 
one  of  the  Albanian  beys,  died  in  Ali*s  boyhood, 
and  the  rearing  of  the  child  was  thus  left  to  his 
Vol.  L— 28 


mother,  a  vindictive  and  merciless  woman,  who 
apparently  instilled  into  him  her  own  spirit. 
His  youth  was  passed  in  peril  and  hardship,  seek- 
ing to  recover  the  possessions  of  which  the  neigh- 
boring pashas  had  robbed  his  father.  Young  Ali 
at  last  had  to  betake  himself  to  the  mountains, 
and  even  to  pledge  his  sword  to  save  himself 
from  dying  of  hunger.  At  length  a  change  came 
in  his  fortunes,  and  he  returned  to  Tepeleni  in 
triumph.  On  the  very  day  of  his  return,  he  mur- 
dered his  brother,  and  then  imprisoned  his 
mother  on  the  charge  of  poisoning  him.  He 
helped  the  Porte  to  subdue  the  Pasha  of  Scutari 
and  thereby  obtained  the  lands  taken  from  his 
father  and  several  Greek  cities.  He  also  at- 
tacked and  slew  (with  the  permission  of  the  Sul- 
tan) Selim,  Pasha  of  Delvmo,  and,  as  a  reward, 
was  appointed  lieutenant  to  the  new  Pasha  of 
Dervent.  He  used  this  ofiice  to  enrich  himself 
by  sharing  the  profits  of  brigandage.  For  this 
he  was  deposed,  but  he  bought  his  way  back  into 
favor.  For  his  services  in  the  Turkish  military 
service  in  the  war  of  1787  he  was  named  Pasha  of 
Trikala  in  Thessaly;  at  the  same  time  he  seized 
Janina  and  had  himself  appointed  pasha  of  that 
province.  Having  thus  won  a  position  of  power 
by  the  most  unscrupulous  means,  he  displayed 
marked  administrative  ability.  He  swept  his  old 
friends,  the  robbers,  from  the  mountain  roads, 
incorporated  them  into  military  troops,  quelled 
the  wretched  factions  that  prevailed,  and  every- 
where introduced  order  in  the  place  of  anarchy 
by  the  vigor  and  vieilance  of  his  administration. 
Ali  formed  an  alliance  with  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, who  sent  him  engineers.  On  the  collapse 
of  the  French  expedition  to  £gypt,  he  seized  the 

S laces  which  the  French  held  in  Albania.  For  sub- 
uing  theSuliotes  he  was  in  1804  made  a  governor 
of  Koumelia.  About  this  time,  he  revenged  upon 
the  inhabitants  of  Gardiki  an  injury  done  to  his 
mother  forty  years  before,  by  the  murder  of  739 
male  descendants  of  the  original  offenders,  who 
themselves  were  all  dead.  In  the  interior  of  his 
dominions,  Ali  maintained  order  and  justice. 
Security  and  peace  reigned,  high  roads  were  con- 
structed, and  industry  fiourished,  so  that  the 
European  travelers,  with  whom  he  willingly  held 
intercourse,  considered  him  an  active  and  intelli- 
gent governor.  From  the  year  1807,  when  he  once 
more  entered  into  an  alliance  with  Napoleon,  the 
dependence  of  Ali  on  the  Porte  was  merely  nom- 
inal. Having  failed,  however,  to  obtain  through 
the  infiuence  of  Napoleon,  Parga, 'On  the  coast 
of  Albania,  and  the  Ionian  Islands,  he  now  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  the  English,  to  whom 
he  made  many  concessions.  In  return  for  these, 
they  granted  Parga,  nominally  to  the  Sultan, 
but  really  to  Ali.  As  he  now  considered  his  pow- 
er  to  be  securely  established,  he  caused  the  com- 
manders of  the  Greek  armatole  (or  Greek  mili- 
tia), who  had  hitherto  given  him  assistance,  to 
be  privately  assassinated  one  by  one,  while  at 
the  same  time  he  put  to  death  the  assassins,  to 
save  himself  from  the  suspicion  of  having  been 
their  instigator.  The  Porte  at  length  determined 
to  put  an  end  to  the  power  of  this  daring  rebel ; 
ana  in  1820,  Sultan  Mahmud  sentenced  him  to 
be  deposed.  Ali  resisted  for  a  time  several 
pashas  that  were  sent  against  him;  but  at  last 
surrendered,  on  the  security  of  an  oath  that  his 
life  and  property  would  be  granted  him.  Re- 
gardless of  this,  he  was  put  to  death  February 
6,  1822.  Ali^  like  many  other  half -civilized  mon- 
archs  and  chiefs  who  have  lived  within  the  sphere 


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ALI  PASHA. 


354 


AIiIZABIN. 


of  European  influence,  was  keenly  alive  to 
whatever  occurred  among  the  powers  of  Christen- 
dom. Though  utterly  illiterate  himself,  he  had 
all  the  foreign  journals  translated  and  read  to 
him.  He  watched  every  political  change,  as  if 
conscious  that  the  interests  of  his  little  region 
depended  for  their  future  prosperity  on  the  west, 
and  not  on  the  east,  and  made  friendly  advances 
to  both  the  French  and  English.  Consult :  Ibrahim 
Manzour  Effendi,  Mimoirea  sur  la  Qrkce  et  I'Al- 
banie  pendant  le  gouvemetnent  d'Ali  Pacha 
( Paris,  1827 ) ;  Pencker,  Die  Sulioten  und  ihre 
Kriege  tnit  Alt  Paacha  von  Janina  (Breslau, 
1834)  ;  Davenport,  The  Life  of  AH  Pasha  (Lon- 
don, 1837). 

AI/ICKTOT  FABT  (Lat.  aliquot,  some,  sev- 
eral). One  quantity  or  number  is  said  to  be  an 
aliquot  part  of  another  when  the  quotient  of  the 
latter  divided  by  the  former  is  an  integer;  e.g., 
2,  4,  5,  10,  12%,  are  aliquot  parts  of  100. 

ALISCANS,  &'l«'8kaN^  ALESGHANS,  or 
LES  ALY8CAMPS,  1ft  z&'l^'skftN^  (From  Lat. 
Elysii  Campi,  Elysian  Fields).  A  medieval  cem- 
etery near  Aries,  in  the  south  of  France,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  consecrated  by  an  apparition 
of  Christ  himself.  Hence  the  name  of  a  chanson 
de  gestCf  of  the  twelfth  century,  describing  two 
battles  fought  in  this  place  by  William,  Count  of 
Orange,  against  the  Saracens.  Defeated  in  the 
first  fight,  he  raised  a  new  army  and  renewed  the 
combat  with  success.  The  same  Christian  hero 
appears  in  various  other  chansons  of  the  period. 

ALISON,  Rev.  Archibald  (1757-1839).  An 
English  philosophical  writer.  He  was  born  in 
Edinburgh  and  studied  at  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow, and  afterward  at  Oxford.  He  took  orders 
in  the  Church  of  England,  and  subsequently  held 
several  preferments,  among  others  a  prebendal 
stall  in  Salisbury,  and  the  perpetual  curacy  of 
Kenley,  in  Shropshire.  From  1800  he  officiated 
in  a  chapel  in  his  native  city,  where  he  remained 
till  his  death.  Alison  is  principally  known  by  his 
Essays  on  the  Nature  and  Principles  of  Taste, 
first  published  at  Edinburgh  in  1700.  The  Es- 
says advocate  what  is  called  the  ''association" 
theory  of  the  sublime  and  beautiful.  Two  vol- 
umes of  his  sermons,  first  published  at  Edin- 
burgh in  1814,  were  very  popular  in  their  day, 
and  reached  the  sixth  edition  in  1816.  See  Es- 
thetics. 

ALISON,  Sib  Abchxbau)  (1702-1867).  A 
British  lawyer,  historian,  and  writer.  He  was 
born  at  Kenley,  Shropshire,  December  29,  1792. 
In  1805  he  entered  Edinburgh  University,  where 
he  obtained  highest  honors  in  Greek  and  mathe- 
matics. He  was  called  to  the  bar  in  1814,  and, 
owing  to  friendly  influence,  presently  made  a 
handsome  income,'  which  enabled  him  to  travel  on 
the  Continent,  then  sought  by  many  young  men 
who  desired  to  visit  the  scenes  of  the  wars 
against  Napoleon.  From  1822-30  he  was  advo- 
cate-deputy, and  made  his  appearance  as  a  waiter 
on  law,  politics,  and  literature.  In  1835  he  set- 
tled near  Glasgow,  as  sheriff  of  Lanarkshire,  an 
office  conferred  on  him  the  preceding  year,  and 
began  systematic  and  unremitting  public  and  lit- 
erary work.  His  History  of  Europe,  a  popular 
rather  than  a  profound  book  (10  volumes) ,  begun 
in  1829,  finished  in  1842,  achieved  a  great  suc- 
cess. For  the  sixth  edition,  published  in  1844, 
the  author  received  2000  guineas.  By  1848,  100,- 
000  copies  had  been  sold  in  the  United  States. 
It  was  translated  into  several  languages,  includ- 
ing French,  German,  and  even  Arabic.    A  contin- 


uation  of  the  History  for  the  period  1815-52,  9 
volumes,  was  completed  in  1859.  His  other 
works.  Life  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  (1845), 
The  Principles  of  Population  ( 1840) ,  etc,  though 
less  successful,  attracted  wide  notice.  In  1845 
he  was  elected  Lord  Rector  of  Marischal  College, 
and  in  1851  of  Glassow  University.  He  was 
made  D.C.L.  of  Oxford  University,  and  in  1852 
received  a  baronetcy.  In  politics  he  was  an  arch- 
Tory.  He  continued  his  labors,  in  health  and 
strength,  almost  to  the  day  of  his  death,  Maj 
23,  1867.  Over  one  hundred  thousand  persons 
attended  his  funeral.  Consult  his  Autobiography, 
edited  by  his  daughter-in-law  (Edinburgh,  1883). 

ALISON,  Sib  Abohibald,  Jb.,K.C.B.  ( 1826—) . 
A  British  general.  He  was  born  in  Edinburgh,  the 
son  of  the  historian,  and  educated  at  Edinburgh 
and  Glasgow  Universities.  He  entered  the  army 
in  1846 ;  served  in  the  Crimean  War  at  the  siege 
of  Sebastopol,  and  in  India,  where  he  lost  an  arm 
at  the  relief  of  Lucknow ;  and  in  the  Ashanti  ex- 
pedition of  1873-74  he  commanded  the  European 
brigade.  He  held  an  active  command  in  the 
Egyptian  expedition  of  1882-83,  and  was  promo- 
ted to  be  lieutenant-general  for  gallantry.  On 
his  return  from  Egypt  he  commanded  at  Alder- 
shot,  and  in  1889  was  promoted  to  be  general. 
He  has  published  a  valuable  treatise  on  Army 
Organization   (1869). 

ALISON,  Welliam  Pulteney,  M.D.  (1790- 
1859).  A  Scotch  political  economist,  physician, 
and  professor  of  the  practice  of  medicine  in  the 
Universitv  of  Edinburgh  from  1822  to  1856.  He 
was  an  elder  brother  of  the  historian,  and  was 
extremely  popular  with  all  classes  of  the  com- 
munity, because  of  his  efforts  to  alleviate  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  poor.  A  pamphlet  published  by 
him  in  1840  had  the  effect  of  bringing  about  an 
improved  poor-law  for  Scotland.  He  published 
a  work  entitled,  A  Dissertation  on  the  Reclama- 
tion of  Waste  Lands  (1850),  recommending  the 
colonization  of  such  lands  by  paupers  and  crim- 
inals, and  several  books  upon  medical  subjects, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  his  complete 
treatises  on  general  pathology  entitled.  Outlines 
of  Physiology  (third  edition,  1839),  and 
Outlines  of  Pathology  and  Practice  of  Medicine 
(1848). 

ATiITHE^A.  The  name  of  a  character  in 
Wycherley^s  play.  The  Country  Wife,  and  in  Gar- 
rick's  Country  Oirl,  She  is  a  self-possessed  and 
witty  woman  of  the  world. 

ALIZ^ABIK  (probably  from  Ar.  al,  the 
-|-  ac&rah,  juice  extracted  from  a  plant),  some- 
times called  madder  extract.  An  exceedingly 
valuable  coloring  matter.  With  the  oxides  of 
aluminium,  iron,  and  most  other  metals,  it  gives 
a  series  of  beautifully  colored  insoluble  salts  or 
lakes.  It  was  first  obtained  from  madder  (the 
root  of  rubia  tinctorum)  by  heating  with  strong 
sulphuric  acid.  In  1868  Graebe  and  Liebermann 
discovered  a  process  by  which  it  could  be  manu- 
factured from  anthracene,  thus  for  the  first  time 
artificially  producing  a  natural  coloring  sub- 
stance. Their  method,  since  modified  with  view 
to  economy,  consists  in  the  following  operatioDs : 
(1)  Anthracene,  a  hydro-carbon  contained  in  the 
refuse  coal-tar  of  gas  works,  is  oxidized  with 
potassium  bichromate  to  yield  the  compound 
anthraquinone ;  (2)  when  anthraquinone  is 
heated  with  fuming  sulphuric  acid,  anthra- 
quinone-sulphonic  actds  are  produced;  (3)  if  the 
sodium  salts  of  these  acids  are  kept  for  forty- 


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ALKAIil  SOILS. 


eight  hours,  in  closed  cylinders,  with  caustic 
Bc^  and  potassium  chlorate,  at  a  temperature 
of  ISO"*  C,  the  sodium  salts  of  alizarin  and  sim- 
ilar compounds,  called  purpurina,  are  obtained; 
(4)  the  sodium  salts  of  alizarin  and  purpurin 
are  then  dissolved  in  water,  and,  by  addition  of 
hydrochloric  acid,  alizarin  itself  and  the  pur- 
purins  are  set  free  and  precipitated  in  crystal- 
line form.  The  precipitate  is  collected  in  filter- 
presses,  thoroughly  washed  with  water,  and 
brought  into  the  market  in  the  form  of  a  rather 
thin  paste  usually  containing  either  10  or  20 
per  cent,  of  alizarin.  Pure  alizarin  can  be  read- 
ily obtained  from  this  paste  by  sublimation. 
Alizarin  was  first  made  on  an  industrial  scale 
by  Perkin  in  1869. 

Alizarin  is  to  some  extent  soluble  in  hot 
water.  In  the  dyeing  processes,  fabrics  are  first 
soaked  in  a  solution  of  the  required  mordant, 
and  after  the  latter  has  been  decomposed  by 
steam  or  with  alkali,  leaving  an  insoluble 
metallic  hydroxide  in  the  fibre,  alizarin  solution 
is  applied  to  produce  the  desired  "lake." 

Chemically,  alizarin  is  a  dioxy-anthraqui- 
none,  having  the  structural  formula 

CeH,(gg)CeH.(OH).. 

Nitro-alizarin  (commercial  alizarin  orange), 
which  is  itself  a  coloring  matter,  yields,  when 
heated  with  glycerin  and  sulphuric  acid,  an- 
other color,  alizarin  blue,  usea  in  calico  printing. 
Alizarin  carmin  is  another  important  alizarin 
color;  it  is  much  used  as  a  substitute  for 
cochineal. 

The  artificial  production  of  alizarin  on  a  large 
industrial  scale  has  naturally  brought  about  im- 
portant changes  in  the  agriculture  of  the  coun- 
tries where  madder  used  to  be  extensively  cul- 
tivated. Consult  Gnehm,  Die  Anthracen- 
farhatoffe   (Brunswick,  1897). 

AL'KAHEST,  or  ALCAHEST.  A  word  arbi- 
trarily formed  by  Paracelsus  after  Arabic  fash- 
ion. The  universal  solvent  of  the  alchemists. 
See  Alcuekt. 

AI/KAIilES.    See  Antidotes. 

ALKALIES  (Fr.  alkali,  ultimately  from  Ar. 
al,  the  -h  qaUy,  ashes  of  saltwort).  A  term  ap- 
plied to  the  compounds  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen 
with  the  metals  lithium,  sodium,  potassium, 
rubidium,  cesium,  and  the  radical  ammonium. 
The  alkalies  are  all  soluble  in  water,  and  have  the 
property  of  neutralizing  acids  as  well  as  of  turn- 
ing solutions  of  blue  litmus  red.  The  word  al- 
kal,  which  is  derived  from  the  Arabic,  and 
means  ash,  was  orginally  given  to  the  ashes  of 
sea-plants,  and  was  applied  first  to  potash,  called 
the  vegetable  alkali,  and  then  to  soda,  which 
was  derived  from  rock  salt,  and  called  mineral 
alkali.  These  two  became  known  as  the  fixed 
alkalies,  in  distinction  to  ammonia,  which  was 
called  the  volatile  alkaji.  The  alkalies  are  ex- 
ceedingly caustic,  and  act  as  powerful  corrosive 
poisons.  They  show  great  avidity  for  acids,  and 
combine  with  them,  forming  salts,  in  which  the 
special  properties  of  both  acid  and  alkali  are 
generally  destroyed;  hence,  they  are  said  to  neu- 
tralize one  another.  (See  Acids.)  Tlie  alkalies 
find  extensive  use  in  the  arts,  as  in  the  manu- 
facture of  soap  and  of  baking  powders,  and  in 
dyeing.  The  alkaline  earths,  lime,  magnesia, 
baryta,  and  strontia,  form  a  group  of  substances 
closely  allied  to  the  alkalies,  but  differing  from 


the  latter  in  being  less  soluble  and  by  the  fact 
that  their  carbonates  are  insoluble  in  water. 
Consult:  G.  Lunge,  A  Theoretical  and  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Sulphuric  Acid 
and  Alkali  (London,  1891) ;  and  The  Alkali- 
Maker's  Handbook   (London,  1891). 

ALOCALI  FLAT.     See  Playa. 

ALOC ATiTTff^TEB  {alkali  -f  Gk.  fiirpov, 
metron,  measure).  An  instrument  used  for  the 
determination  of  the  amount  of  alkali  contained 
in  commercial  alkalies.  It  is  usually  a  glass 
tube  graduated  into  parts  of  100,  and  called  a 
burette.  To  make  a  determination,  a  given 
weight  of  alkali  is  dissolved  in  water  and  an 
acid  of  known  strength  is  poured  from  the  al- 
kalimeter  into  the  solution  until  the  latter  is 
just  neutralized.  The  exact  point  of  neutraliza- 
tion is  determined  by  means  of  a  substance 
called  an  indicator,  which  changes  its  color  when 
a  slight  excess  of  the  acid  is  added.  The  amount 
of  acid  used  determines  the  percentage  of  al- 
kali. Consult:  Hart,  A  Handbook  of  Volu- 
metric Analysis  (New  York,  1878)  ;  Sutton,  A 
Systematic  Handbook  of  Volumetric  Analysis 
(London,  1890). 

AI/KALI  SOILS.  A  term  applied  to  soils 
occurring  in  regions  of  deficient  or  irregular 
rainfall,  which  contain  unusually  large  amounts 
of  soluble  salts  concentrated  in  or  near  the  sur- 
face. Under  certain  conditions  of  moisture  these 
salts  appear  on  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  the  form 
of  a  crust  or  powder  known  as  reh  in  India, 
sabach  in  Egypt,  and  alkali  in  America.  The 
main  constituents  of  this  saline  efflorescence  are 
sodium  sulphate,  sodium  carbonate,  and  sodium 
chloride,  mixed  in  varying  proportions.  These 
are  present  besides,  according  to  Hilgard,  salts 
of  calcium  and  magnesium  and  smaller  amounts 
of  potassium  sulphate,  sodium  phosphate,  and 
sodium  nitrate,  these  salts  furnishing  the  most 
important  elements  of  plant  food.  Two  main 
classes  of  alkali  are  distinguished:  "black"  al- 
kali, in  which  sodium  carbonate  predominates, 
and  which  is  on  this  account  highly  corrosive 
and  injurious  to  vegetation;  and  "white"  alkali, 
the  predominant  constituent  of  which  is  sodium 
sulphate,  and  which  is  much  less  harmful  to 
plant  growth  than  is  the  black  form.  A  saline 
form  in  which  sodium  chloride  predominates  is 
also  frequently  met  with.  Black  alkali  derives 
its  name  from  the  dark-colored  spots  and  water- 
puddles  observed  where  it  abounds,  which  owe 
their  color  to  the  organic  matter  dissolved  from 
the  soil  by  the  sodium  carbonate. 

Practically  the  same  soluble  (alkali)  salts  oc- 
cur in  all  soils,  but  in  humid  regions  the  abun- 
dant rainfall  prevents  their  accumulation  on  or 
near  the  surface,  carrying  away  in  the  drainage 
those  salts  for  which  the  soil  has  not  a  strong 
absorptive  power.  In  regions  of  deficient  rain- 
fall, on  the  other  hand,  the  scanty  moisture 
which  reaches  the  soil  merely  serves  to  dissolve 
the  salts  and  carry  them  down  a  short  distance 
into  the  ground,  whence  they  are  rapidly  drawn 
up  by  the  capillary  rise  of  the  water.  The  mois- 
ture, evaporating  at  the  surface,  leaves  the  salts 
accumulated  there.  Such  accumulations  of  alkali 
are  also  found  in  regions  which  have  a  rainy 
and  a  dry  season  (as  in  parts  of  India),  and 
where  the  rains  occur  commonly  in  sudden  and 
violent  downpours,  which  quickly  pass  without 
wetting  the  soil  to  any  considerable  depth. 


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ALKALI  SOILS. 


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ALKALT  SOILa 


In  irrigated  regions  alkali  frequently  appears 
at  the  surface  of  the  soil  as  a  result  of  excessive 
application  of  water  combined  with  defective 
drainage.  Irrigation  water,  carried  by  canals 
running  through  porous,  sandy  soils,  or  applied 
in  excessive  amounts  on  the  higher  lands,  seeps 
through  to  the  lower-lying  lan&,  carrying  with 
it  the  soluble  salts.  Conditions  are  sometimes 
aggravated  by  the  use  of  irrigation  water  rich  in 
soluble  salts. 

Alkali  soils  generally  occur  in  circumscribed 
areas  ("spots'"),  but  sometimes  as  broad 
stretches  of  "alkali  deserts."  Such  soils  are 
common  in  arid  regions,  i.e.,  where  the  average 
annual  rainfall  is  less  than  20  inches  (500 
millimetres).  According  to  Hilgard,  "the  arid 
region  thus  defined,  includes,  in  North  America, 
most  of  the  country  lying  west  of  the  one  hun- 
dredth meridian,  up  to  the  Cascade  Mountains, 
and  northward  beyond  the  line  of  the  United 
States;  southward,  it  reaches  far  into  Mexico, 
including  especially  the  Mexican  plateau.  In 
South  America  it  includes  nearly  all  the  Pacific 
Slope  (Peru  and  Chile)  south  to  Araucania; 
and  eastward  of  the  Andes  the  greater  portion  of 
the  plains  of  western  Brazil  and  Argentina.  In 
Europe  only  a  small  portion  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean border  is  included;  but  the  entire  African 
coast  belt  opposite,  with  the  Saharan  and  Lib- 
yan deserts,  Egypt,  and  Arabia  are  included 
therein,  as  well  as  a  considerable  portion  of 
South  Africa.  In  Asia,  Asia  Minor,  Syria  (with 
Palestine),  Mesopotamia,  Persia,  and  north- 
western India  up  to  the  Ganges,  and  northward, 
the  great  plains  or  steppes  of  Central  Asia  east- 
ward to  Mongolia  and  western  China,  fall  into 
the  same  category,  as  does  also  a  large  portion 
of  the  Australian  continent."  There  are  exten- 
sive regions,  especially  in  European  Russia, 
which  are  not  strictly  arii  according  to  this 
definition,  but  in  which  alkali  soils  are  of  fre- 
quent occurrence. 

Alkali  injures  plants  by  its  corrosive  action 
(in  the  case  of  black  alkali)  on  the  root  crown, 
and  by  interference  with  osmotic  action,  by 
which  seeds  and  plants  take  up  the  moisture  and 
soil  solutions,  and  thus  prevents  or  seriously  re- 
tards germination  and  growth.  The  latter  effect 
results  only  when  the  soluble  salts  are  present  in 
considerable  amount;  on  the  other  hand,  a  small 
amount  of  alkali  appears  to  have  a  beneficial 
effect.  Alkali,  especially  the  black  variety,  also 
renders  soils  pasty  and  difficult  to  till  and  drain, 
and  tends  to  form  a  tough  hardpan  impervious  to 
water.  Alkali  soils  are,  as  a  rule,  more  moist 
than  those  free  from  a  localized  excess  of  soluble 
salts.  This  is  due  to  the  strong  absorptive  power 
of  the  salts  for  water  and  their  retarding  effect 
on  evaporation. 

Alkali  soils  are  generally  so  fertile  when  freed 
from  excess  of  noxious  salts  and  their  area  is 
so  rapidly  increasing  under  careless  methods  of 
irrigation  that  the  reclamation  of  alkali  lands 
is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  agricultural  im- 
portance. Alkali  soils  may  be  improved  by 
(1)  reducing  surface  evaporation,  which  may 
be  effected  by  maintaining  a  loose  tilth  in  the 
surface  soil,  by  mulching,  and  by  the  growth  of 
plants  which  root  deeply  and  shade  the  soil,  or 
which  take  up  large  amounts  of  soluble  salts  in 
their  growth;  (2)  deep  and  thorough  tillage; 
(3)  the  use  of  chemical  correctives,  such  as 
gypsum,  which  in  case  of  black  alkali  converts 
the  corrosive  carbonate  into  the  comparatively 


harmless  sulphate;  and  (4)  leaching  out  the 
excess  of  salts  by  irrigation  in  connection  with 
underdraining.  The  first  two  methods  of  treat- 
ment are  merely  temporary  expedients,  and  are 
of  value  only  when  the  amount  of  alkali  is 
small.  The  third  also  affords  only  temporary 
relief,  and  is  of  value  mainly  when  the  amount 
of  alkali  is  small  and  of  the  black  variety.  It 
is,  however,  very  effective  when  employed  in 
connection  with  the  fourth  method,  for  it  im- 
proves the  drainage,  and  tends  to  fix  in  the  soil 
certain  of  the  valuable  fertilizing  constituents, 
especially  alkaline  phosphates  and  humus, 
which  would  otherwise  be  lost  in  the  subsequent 
leaching;  for  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  al- 
though the  leaching  process  is  effective  in  re- 
moving the  noxious  salts,  it  is  likely  to  carry 
away  with  them  a  large  part  of  those  ingre- 
dients upon  which  the  productiveness  of  the  soil 
depends.  The  California  experiment  station  has 
found  that  from  two  and  a  half  to  three  times 
as  much  gypsum  as  there  is  sodium  carbonate 
present  in  the  soil  is  required  in  order  to  con- 
vert black  alkali  into  white. 

Alkali  lands  are  commonly  either  entirely  de- 
void of  vegetation,  or  else  produce  plants  of  little 
or  no  value  to  man.  Plants  differ  widely  as 
regards  tolerance  of  alkali  in  the  soil,  the  toler- 
ance depending  much  upon  the  kind  and  propor- 
tion of  the  salts  present,  as  well  as  upon  the  na- 
ture of  the  plant  itself.  Hilgard  proposes  to  uti- 
lize the  natural  vegetation  as  an  index  of  the 
kind  of  salts  predominating  in  a  soil.  Thus,  un- 
der California  conditions,  the  Samphires  (fiToli- 
comia  suhterminalia  and  Allenrolfea  oociden- 
talis),  Alkali-heath  {Frankenia  grandifolia  cam- 
peatris),  and  Creasa  oretioa  truxillensis  are 
especially  indicative  of  excessive  amounts  of 
salts  of  any  kind;  Tussock  grass  {Sporoholus 
airaides)  and  Greasewood  {Sarcohatus  vermicu- 
latus)  of  the  presence  of  large  amounts  of  black 
alkali;  and  Samphires  and  Saltworts  (8uada 
iorreyana  and  Buceda  suffruteacens)  of  white  al- 
kali. The  natural  vegetation  also  furnishes,  ac- 
cording to  Hilgard,  a  means  of  determining  the 
reclaimability  of  alkali  soils.  Thus,  when  tus- 
sock grass,  greasewood,  the  Samphires,  Saltworts, 
Alkali-heath,  and  Cressa  occupy  the  ground  as  an 
abundant  and  luxuriant  growth,  such  land  is 
considered  irreclaimable  for  ordinary  crops  un- 
less under-drained  for  the*  purpose  of  washing 
out  surplus  salts,  as  explained  above.  The  more 
important  and  valuable  of  the  plants  which  can 
withstand  large  amounts  of  alkali  are  the  Aus- 
tralian salt-bushes  (Atriplew.spp,),  Modiola  de- 
cumhcns.  Tussock  grass  {Sporobolus  airoides), 
Wild  Millet  {Beckmannia  curcceformis) ,  and 
Barnyard  grass  {Panicum  crua-galli).  Of  ordi- 
nary farm  crops  which  show  a  marked  tolerance 
of  alkali  may  be  mentioned  rice,  the  millets, 
beets,  English  rape,  sunfiowers,  asparagus,  cel- 
ery, spinach,  onion,  alfalfa,  Bokhara,  clover, 
grapes.  The  Australian  salt-bushes,  especially 
Atriplex  semihaccata,  have  recently  come  into 
considerable  prominence  as  a  useful  crop  for 
alkali  soils.  They  are  highly  tolerant  oi  alkali, 
taking  up  large  amounts  of  the  soluble  salts  in 
their  growth  (nearly  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  dry 
matter  of  salt-bushes  is  ash) ,  and  they  produce  a 
forage  of  considerable  value. 

BiBLTOORAPHY.  E.  W.  Hilgard,  "Alkali  Lands, 
Irrigation  and  Drainage,"  Appendix  to  Report  of 
California  Experiment  Station,  1890  (Sacra- 
mento,  1892)  ;    "The  Relations  of   Soil  to  Cli- 


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ALKALT  SOILS. 


357 


ALKALOIDS. 


mate,"  United  States  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture, Weather  Bureau  Bulletin  S  (Washington, 
1892) ;  "Origin,  Value  and  Reclamation  of  Al- 
kali Lands,"  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture Year-book,  1895  (Washington,  1896)  ; 
"Nature,  Value,  and  Utilization  of  Alkali  Lands," 
California  Experiment  Station,  Bulletin  128 
(Sacramento,  1900)  ;  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Bureau  of  Soils,  Bulletins  14, 
17, 18,  and  Reports  of  Field  Operations  for  1899, 
1900  (Washington,  1900-01);  Reports  of  Wy- 
oming Experiment  Station  (Laramie,  1896-1900) ; 
T.  H.  Means,  "The  Soluble  Mineral  Matter  of 
Soils,"  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
Yearbook,  1898  (Washington,  1899);  J.  G. 
Smith,  "Forage  Plants  for  Cultivation  on  Alkali 
Soils,"  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
Year-book,  1898  (Washington,  1899)  ;  G.  P. 
Merrill,  A  Treatise  on  Rocks,  Rock  Weathering 
and  Soils  (New  York,  1897). 

AI/XALOIBS  (Literally,  resembling  alkali). 
A  term  applied  to  all  nitrogenous  basic  com- 
pounds found  in  plants.  The  alkaloids  are  as  a 
rule  the  most  important  medicinal  principles  of 
the  plants  from  which  they  are  derived,  and  in 
moderate  doses  constitute  therapeutic  agents  of 
the  highest  value.  In  larger  quantities,  how- 
ever, they  are  extremely  poisonous.  Most  alkaloids 
are  chemically  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen.  A  very  few,  including  the 
well-known  nicotine  of  tobacco,  and  coniine,  con- 
tain carbon,  hydrogen,  and  nitrogen,  but  no 
oxygen.  The  alkaloids  that  contain  oxygen  are 
non- volatile  solids,  and  can  mostly  be  obtained 
in  the  form  of  colorless  crystals.  Those  that 
contain  no  oxygen  are  volatile  liquids.  The  sep- 
aration of  the  two  groups  of  alkaloids  can  there- 
fore be  readily  effected  by  simply  subjecting  the 
given  mixture  to  a  process  of  distillation. 

Many  alkaloids  are  chemically  related  to  the 
organic  bases  called  pyridine  and  quinoline 
(qq.v.).  Thus  coniine,  nicotine,  piperine,  atro- 
pine, cocaine,  and  others  have  been  shown  to  be 
derivatives  of  pyridine;  quinine,  cinchonine, 
strychnine,  brucine,  etc.,  have  been  shown  to  be 
derivatives  of  quinoline.  Other  alkaloids,  in- 
eluding  caffeine,  or  theine,  and  theobromine,  are 
related  to  uric  acid.  In  contradistinction  to 
these  true,  or  natural  alkaloids,  a  certain 
number  of  substances  not  found  ready-formed 
in  nature,  but  prepared  artificially  in  the  chemi- 
cal laboratory,  have  been  termed  artificial  alka- 
loids. Antipyrine,  kairine,  thalline,  and  the 
ordinary  acet-anilide,  or  antifebrine,  are  ex- 
amples of  artificial  alkaloids,  which  resemble 
the  natural  alkaloids  both  in  their  chemical  con- 
stitution and  physiological  action.  Of  the  natu- 
ral alkaloids  but  very  few  have  as  yet  been 
reproduced  artificially.  Another  few,  including 
atropine  and  cocaine  have  been  reconstructed 
from  their  decomposition  products. 

The  separation  and  detection  of  the  several 
alkaloids  is  often  a  matter  of  great  importance 
in  medico-leeal  examinations.  The  analytical 
method  usually  employed  (the  so-called  Stas- 
Otto  method)  consists  in  partially  separating 
the  given  mixture  by  the  use  of  water,  alcohol, 
ether,  chloroform,  benzine,  and  amyl  alcohol, 
then  applying  tests  depending  upon  the  char- 
acteristic reactions  of  the  various  constituents. 
Tannic,  picric,  and  phospho-molybdic  acids,  potas- 
sium-mercuric iodide,  and  a  few  other  reagents 
form  insoluble  precipitates  with  the  alkaloids. 
The  following  are  the  more  important  natural 


alkaloids,    their    characteristic    properties,    and 
the  sources  from  which  they  are  obtained: 

Aconitine,  C„H«NOia;  melting  point,  184*  C; 
insoluble  in  water;  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform;  a  violet  coloration  is  produced 
when  its  solution  in  phosphoric  acid  is  cautiously 
evaporated.  It  is  found  in  aconite,  the  tuber  of 
Aoonitum  napellus  Linn6. 

Atropine,  or  Daturine,  CirHaNO,;  melting 
point,  115*  C;  soluble  in  alcohol  and  chloro- 
form; sparingly  soluble  in  hot  water  and  in 
ether.  It  does  not  exist  ready-formed  in  nature, 
but  is  produced  by  the  transformation  of  the 
alkaloid  hyoscyamine. 

Berberine,  CaDH,TN04-f4.6HaO;  melting  point, 
120*  C;  soluble  in  hot  water  or  alcohol;  its 
aqueous  solution  is  colored  red  by  chlorine.  It 
is  found  in  yellow  puccoon,  the  rhizome  and 
roots  of  Hydrastis  canadensis  Linn6;  also,  in 
Canadian  moonseed,  the  rhizome  and  roots  of 
Menispermum  oanadense  Linn6,  and  in  other 
plants. 

Brucine,  C«H«NA+4H^;  melting  point, 
100*  C;  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  chlorofrom. 
It  imparts  to  strong  nitric  acid  a  red  coloration 
that  gradually  changes  to  yellow;  the  coloration 
becomes  violet  on  addition  of  stannous  chloride. 
It  is  found,  along  with  strychnine,  in  nux  vomica. 
Caffeine,  or  Theine,  CgHxoNiO,;  melting  point, 
230.5*  C;  soluble  in  hot  water  and  in  chloro- 
form; sparingly  soluble  in  hot  alcohol.  If  its 
solution  in  chlorine  water  is  evaporated  and  am- 
monia added  to  the  residue,  the  latter  turns  pur- 
ple. It  is  found  in  many  plants  and  is  con- 
tained in  considerable  quantities  in  tea  and 
coffee. 

Cinchonidine,  Ci,H«N,0;  melting  point,  200.5* 
C;  soluble  in  chloroform  and  in  alcohol.  It  is 
laevo- rotatory  (i.e.,  its  solutions  turn  the  plane 
of  polarized  light  to  the  left) .  It  is  found  along 
with  quinine  in  cinchona  bark. 

Cinchonine,  CiJIaN^O  (hence,  isomeric  with 
cinchonidine);  melting  point,  about  240*  C; 
sparingly  soluble  in  chloroform  and  in  hot  alco- 
hol. It  is  dextro-rotatory  and  is  found  in  cin- 
chona bark. 

Cocaine,  CxtHrNOo*  melting  point,  98*  C; 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  in  ether ;  sparingly  soluble 
in  water.  It  produces  local  ansesthesia  when  in- 
jected aubcutaneously  or  applied  to  mucous 
membranes.  It  is  found  in  coca,  or  cuca,  the 
leaves  of  Erythroxylon  coca  Lamarck. 

Codeine,  CuH„NO,;  melting  point,  155*  C; 
soluble  in  alcohol,  chloroform  and  ether.  With 
strong  sulphuric  acid  and  chloride  of  iron  it 
ffives  a  blue  coloration.  It  is  one  of  the  alka- 
loids contained  in  opium. 

Colchicine,  CitHaNO.;  melting  point,  145*  C; 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol  and  chloroform.  It  im- 
parts to  strong  nitric  acid  a  violet  color  which 
gradually  turns  brown.  It  is  the  active  prin- 
ciple of  colchicum  root,  the  corm  of  Colohicum 
autumnale  Linn6. 

Coniine,  CgHj^N;  boiling  point,  168.5*  C;  solu- 
ble in  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform;  sparingly 
soluble  in  water.  Its  aqueous  solution  gives  a 
brown  precipitate  with  a  solution  of  iodine. 
Coniine  has  dextro-rotatory  power.  It  is  the 
active  principle  of  hemlock,  the  fruit  of  Conium 
maculatum  Linntf. 

Curarine.  C^K^  (or  CioHjaN  T)  ;  a  yellow 
powder,  soluble  in  water  and  in  alcohol;  turns 
purple  if  treated  with  strong  hydrochloric  acid. 
It  is  the  active  principle  of  the  South  American 


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358 


ALKALOIDS. 


arrow  poison  curare,  which  is  made  from  cer- 
tain plants,  including  species  of  Strychnos. 

Daturine,  see  Atropine,  above. 

Emetine,  CoH^N'O.  (or  C„H»NA  H  ;  melting 
point,  62* — 65*  C;  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform;  gives  with  a  solution  of  sodium 
molybdate  in  strong  sulphuric  acid  a  brown 
coloration  which  turns  blue  on  addition  of  hy- 
drochloric acid.  It  is  the  active  principle  of 
ipecac,  the  root  of  Cephailia  ipecacuanha. 

E serine,  or  Phjsostigmine,  CigHaNjO,;  melt- 
in  point,  40*— 46*  C;  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether, 
and  chloroform;  bleaching  powder  colors  its 
solution  red,  but  the  color  disappears  again  on 
addition  of  an  excess  of  bleaching  powder.  It  is 
the  active  principle  of  Calabar  bean,  the  seed  of 
phyaoatigma  venenoaum  Balfour. 

Hyoscyamine,  CitHbNO.;  melting  point,  108.5* 
C;  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloro- 
form; gives  a  purple  color  with  strong  nitric 
acid.  67  the  action  of  caustic  alkalies  it  is 
readily  transformed  into  the  alkaloid  atropine 
(see   above).     Hyoscyamine  is   found  in  many 

giants  of  the  natural  order  Solanacea;  e.g.,  in 
enbane,  the  leaves  and  flowering  tops  of  Hyo»- 
eyamua  niger  Linn6,  and  in  the  leaves  of  Atropa 
belladonna  Linn6. 

Morphine,  C,tH„NO,;  melting  point,  230*  C; 
It  may  be  extracted  from  alkaline  solutions  by 
means  of  chloroform.  With  strong  nitric  acid 
it  gives  a  blood-red  coloration  that  gradually 
turns  yellow.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents  of 
opium. 

Muscarine,  CtHisNO,;  a  liauid  soluble  in 
water  and  in  alcohol;  insoluble  in  ether  and 
chloroform.  It  is  found  in  the  fly  fungus,  Am- 
anita muscaria. 

Narceine,  CaH»N(X;  melting  point,  146.2*  C; 
sparingly  soluble  in  the  ordinary  solvents.  A 
solution  of  sodium  molybdate  in  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  gives  a  green  coloration  that  turns 
dark-red.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents  of  opium, 
and  resembles  morphine  in  its  physiological  ac- 
tion. 

Narcotine,  CbH„NOt;  melting  point,  176*; 
soluble  in  chloroform,  less  soluble  in  hot  alco- 
hol and  ether.  Its  solutions  are  laevo-rotatory, 
but  when  acidified  turn  the  plane  of  polarized 
light  to  the  right.  It  is  one  of  the  constituents 
of  opium. 

Nicotine,  CioHmN,;  boiling  point,  241*  C; 
soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether;  smell  and 
taste  to  be  that  of  of  tobacco.  With  hydro- 
chloric acid  it  gives  a  violet  coloration  that 
turns  orange  on  addition  of  nitric  acid;  with 
iodine  solutions  it  gives  a  yellow  precipitate.  It 
is  the  active  principle  of  tobacco,  the  dried 
leaves  of  Nicotiana  iahaoum;  tobacco  smoke, 
however,  contains  no  nicotine. 

Papaverine,  CaoHnNO*;  melting  point,  147* 
C;  soluble  in  hot  alcohol  and  in  chloroform; 
gives  a  violet  coloration  with  strong  sulphuric 
acid.    It  is  found  in  opium. 

Physostigmine,  see  Eserine,  above. 

Pilocarpine,  C„Hi«NjOa;  a  semi-fluid  alcaloid 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform;  gives 
a  green  coloration  with  strong  sulphuric  acid 
and  potassium  bi-chromate.  It  is  one  of  the 
active  principles  of  pilocarpus,  or  jaborandi,  the 
leaflets  of  Pilocarpus  selloanus  Engler,  or  of 
Pilocarpus  fahorandi  Holmes. 

Piperidine,  CsHnN ;  a  liquid  alkaloid  produced 
by  the  decomposition  of  piperin,  a  substance 
found  in  pepper. 


Piperine,  CirHitNO.;  melting  point,  128*  C; 
soluble  in  hot  water  and  in  chloroform;  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid  it  gives  a 'yellow  color 
that  changes  to  brown,  then  to  a  greenish  brown. 
It  is  found  in  plants  of  the  natural  order  Piper- 
acetEy  and  is  one  of  the  chief  constituents  of 
ordinary  black  pepper. 

Quinidine,  C,JI«NA;  melting  point,  168*  C; 
soluble  in  chloroform,  less  so  in  alcohol  and 
ether;  sparingly  soluble  in  water;  its  solution 
turns  the  plane  of  polarization  light  to  the 
ri^t.    It  is  found  in  cinchona  bark. 

Quinine,  C»HnN,Oa  -f  3H,0;  melts  in  its  water 
of  crystallization  at  57*  G.,  loses  its  water  at 
100*,  then  melts  again  at  177*  C;  soluble  in 
alcohol,  ether  and  chloroform,  sparin^y  soluble 
in  water ;  its  solutions  turn  the  plane  of  polar* 
iased  light  to  the  left.  It  is  found  in  cinchona 
bark. 

Solanine,  C4aH„N0u;  melting  point,  235*  C; 
it  may  be  extracted  from  its  alkaline  solutions 
by  means  of  chloroform;  with  strong  sulphuric 
acid  it  gives  an  orange  coloration  that  turns  a 
brownish  red.  It  is  found  in  bittersweet  (woody 
nightshade),  the  young  branches  of  Bolanum 
dulcamara  Linn6. 

Strychnine,  CnHeNaO,;  melting  point,  about 
264*  C;  soluble  in  chloroform  and  in  hot  alco- 
hol; sparingly  soluble  in  water  and  in  ether.  It 
gives  a  pretty  display  of  colors  with  strong  sul- 
phuric acid  and  a  grain  of  potassium  bi-chro- 
mate. It  is  found  in  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Loginiaoecp,  and  is  usually  obtained  from  nox 
vomica. 

Thehaine,  or  Paramorphine,  C»HaNO,;  melt- 
ing point,  193*  C;  soluble  in  alcohol  and  chlo- 
roform; gives,  with  strong  sulphuric  acid,  a 
dark-red  coloration  which  turns  yellow.  It  is 
found  in  opium. 

Theine,  see  Caffeine,  above. 

Theobromine,  CrHaNfO,;  sublimes  without 
melting  at  290*  C;  sparingly  soluble  in  tiie  or- 
dinary solvents;  may  be  extracted  from  an  alka- 
line solution  by  means  of  chloroform.  On  eva- 
poration with  chlorine-water  a  brown  residue  is 
obtained  that  turns  purple  if  a  little  ammonia 
is  added.    It  is  found  in  cocoa  beans. 

Veratrine,  CaH^NeO,;  a  mixture  of  two  iso- 
meric alkaloids;  melting  point,  156*  C;  soluble 
in  alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform;  gives  a  red 
coloration  if  heated  with  strong  sulphuric  or 
with  fuming  hydrochloric  acid.  It  is  found  in 
the  seed  of  Asagraca  officinalis  Lindley. 

The  extraction  of  an  alkaloid  from  the  plant 
in  which  it  occurs  is  often  a  matter  of  consid- 
erable difficulty.  The  volatile  alkaloids  may  be 
obtained  by  distilling  the  plant  or  vegetable 
product  with  water  and  lime  (or  caustic  soda) ; 
the  liquid  distilling  over  is  neutralized  with  sul- 
phuric acid  and  evaporated  to  dryness;  the  sul- 
phate of  the  alkaloid  may  then  be  dissolved  out 
of  the  residue  by  means  of  a  mixture  of  alcohol 
and  ether.  To  extract  a'  non-volatile  alkaloid, 
the  plant  is  macerated  and  treated  with  a  dilute 
solution  of  some  acid  in  ordinary  alcohol;  the 
solution  thus  obtained  is  rendered  alkaline  by 
the  addition  of  soda,  and  the  alkaloid  set  free  is 
either  directly  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  pre- 
cipitate, or  else  may  be  extracted  from  the  alka- 
line solution  by  means  of  ether,  chloroform,  or 
some  other  solvent  that  does  not  mix  with 
water.  Such  processes,  however,  usually  yield 
not  one  single,  but  mixtures  of  two  or  more  al- 
kaloids,   and    those    contaminated    with    large 


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quantities  of  other  organic  substances,  which 
often  render  the  isolation  of  a  single  alkaloid  in 
the  pure  state  very  difficult. 

As  to  the  chemical  constitution  of  alkaloids, 
very  little  is  as  yet  known.  It  has  been  found, 
however,  that  most  of  these  substances  are  ter- 
tiary aromatic  bases,  and  that  by  far  the  greater 
number  of  them  contain  one  or  more  methoxy- 
groups,  OCH|,  linked  to  a  benzene  nucleus.  The 
chemical  relationship  of  the  alkaloids  to  pyri- 
dine, quinoline,  and  uric  acid,  has  been  mentioned 
above.  Most  alkaloids  have  a  powerful  physio- 
logical action  even  if  employed  in  very  small 
quantities.  The  action  of  certain  alkaloids  is, 
however,  at  least  partly  antagonistic  to  the  ac- 
tion of  certain  others.  For  this  reason  one  alka- 
loid may  sometimes  be  employed  to  relieve  the 
poisonous  effect  of  another  alkaloid,  though  it 
may  itself  be  a  violent  poison.  The  antagonism 
of  morphine  and  atropine  is  of  considerable 
value  in  cases  in  which  a  subcutaneous  injection 
of  morphine  is  indicated:  the  cardiac  depression, 
indigestion,  and  constipation,  usually  caused  by 
morphine,  may  be  prevented  by  injecting  sim- 
ultaneously a  trace  of  atropine. 

The  alkaloids  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
vegetable  bases,  natural  organic  bases,  or  veg- 
etable alkaloids.  The  latter  name  is  applied  to 
them  in  contradistinction  to  the  animal  alka- 
loids, or  ptomaines,  that  are  formed  during  the 
putrefaction  of  animal  products.  Like  the 
vegetable  alkaloids,  the  ptomaines  are  highly 
poisonous  nitrogenous  bases,  and  they  resemble 
the  vegetable  alkaloids  both  in  their  chemical 
properties  and  in  their  physiological  action.  See 
Ptomaines. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  Pictet,  La  constitution  cWw- 
ique  des  alcaloides  v^g4taux  (second  edition, 
Paris,  1807;  German  translation,  Berlin,  1891)  ; 
Dupuy,  Alcaloides  (Brussels,  1887-89)  ;  Schmidt, 
IJeher  die  Erforschung  der  Konstitution  und  die 
Versuche  zur  Sijnthese  toichtiger  PflanzenaU 
kalGide  (Stuttgart,  1900)  ;  Brtthl,  Die  Pflansen- 
alkaloide  (Brunswick,  1900).  The  most  impor- 
tant alkaloids  are  described  in  some  detail  under 
their  special  names. 

AL^KANET  {Anchusa)  (Dim.  of  Sp.  alcana, 
clhena,  from  Ar.  al,  the  4"  henna ) .  A  genus  of 
plants  belonging  to  the  natural  order  Boragi- 
naceae.  The  species  are  herbaceous  plants,  rough 
with  stiff  hairs,  and  having  lanceolate  or  ovate 
leaves,  and  spike-like,  bracteated,  lateral,  and  ter- 
minal racemes  of  flowers,  which  very  much  resem- 
ble  those  of  the  species  of  Myosotis,  or  forget-me- 
not.  The  common  alkanet  {Anchusa  officinalis) 
grows  in  dry  and  sandy  places,  and  by  waysides, 
in  the  middle  and  north  of  Europe.  It  is  rare 
and  a  very  doubtful  native  in  Great  Britain. 
The  flowers  are  of  a  deep  purple  color.  The 
roots,  leaves,  and  flowers  were  formerly  used  in 
medicine  as  an  emollient,  cooling,  and  soothing 
application.  The  Evergreen  Alkanet  {AnchtLsa 
sempervirens)  is  also  a  native  of  Europe,  and  a 
doubtful  native  of  Great  Britain,  although  not 
uncommon  in  situations  to  which  it  may  have 
escaped  from  gardens,  being  often  cultivated  for 
the  sake  of  its  beautiful  blue  flowers,  which  ap- 
pear early  in  the  season,  and  for  its  leaves, 
which  retain  a  pleasing  verdure  all  winter.  It 
is  a  plant  of  humble  growth,  rising  only  a  few 
inches  above  the  ground.  A  number  of  other 
species  are  occasionally  seen  in  our  flower  bor- 
ders. Anchusa  tinctoria,  to  which  the  name 
Alkanet    or    Alkanna    (Ar.    al-chenneh)    more 


strictly  belongs,  is  a  native  of  the  Levant  and 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  extending  as  far  north 
as  Hungary.  The  root  is  sold  under  the  name 
of  alkanet  or  alkannaroot;  it  is  sometimes  cul- 
tivated in  England;  but  the  greater  part  is  im- 
ported from  the  Levant  or  the  south  of  France. 
It  appears  in  commerce  in  pieces  of  the  thick- 
ness of  a  quill  or  of  the  finger,  the  rind  blackish 
externally,  but  internally  of  a  beautiful  dark- 
red  color,  and  adhering  rather  loosely  to  the 
whitish  heart.  It  contains  chiefly  a  resinous  red 
coloring  matter,  to  which  the  name  alkanet  is 
often  applied.  (See  Alkanet  below.)  Vir- 
ginian alkanet  is  probably  a  species  of  the  genus 
Lithospernum. 

ALKANET.  A  beautiful  red  coloring  mat- 
ter obtained  from  the  roots  of  the  alkanet,  or 
orchanet  herb  (Anchusa  tinctoria,  Tausch.)  and 
largely  used  for  imparting  a  red  color  to  var- 
nishes, cosmetics,  etc.  It  is  extracted  from  the 
roots  by  means  of  benzine,  and,  on  evaporating 
the  latter,  is  obtained  in  the  form  of  a  thick 
paste  that  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  readily 
soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  benzine,  various  oils, 
and  other  organic  liquids.  Alkanet  should  not 
be  confounded  with  the  red  coloring  matter  con- 
tained in  the  roots  of  the  henna,  or  alcanna, 
plant  {Latosonia  inermis  L.).  The  chemical 
composition  of  purified  alkanet  seems  to  corre- 
spond to  the  formula  C»H„04. 

AL'KEKEN^OL     See  Phtsaus. 

AL  -  EHOWABAZMI,  &l-Ko'wft-raz^m6  (  ?- 
c.  831).  An  Arabian  algebraist,  the  most  cele- 
brated of  his  time.  His  full  name  was  Muham- 
med  ben  Musa  al-Khowarazmi,  Abu  Abdallah, 
that  is,  Mohammed  the  son  of  Moses,  from  Khwa- 
razm  (a  province  in  which  Khiva  is  now  located) . 
He  was  one  of  the  savants  who  went  to  Bagdad  in 
Al-Mamun's  reisn.  He  worked  in  the  observatory 
there,  computed  a  set  of  astronomical  tables 
and  wrote  several  works  on  mathematics.  Among 
these  works  were  treatises  on  the  Hindu  arith- 
metic, the  sun-dial,  the  astrolabe  (an  instrument 
used  to  take  the  altitude  of  the  sim),  on  chro- 
nology, geometry,  and  algebra.  His  Al-jdbr  wa'l 
muqahalah,  i.e.,  the  redintegration  and  the  com- 
parison, gave  the  name  to  algebra  (q.v.).  His 
discussion  of  the  quadratic  equation,  in  which  he 
called  to  his  assistance  geometric  diagrams,  is 
quite  complete.  His  name  appeared  in  Latin  in 
the  form  Algoritmi,  from  which  we  have  our 
word  algorism  (q.v.).  His  algebra  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  Gerard  of  Cremona,  and  into 
English  by  F.  Rosen  (London,  1831).  His  work 
on  Hindu  arithmetic  was  translated  into  Latin 
by  Gerard  of  Cremona  or  Adelard  of  Bath,  and 
published  by  Boncompagni  (Rome,  1857). 

AL-KIin)I,  &l-ken'd6,  or  ALCHINDIT7S, 
ai-k!nMl-fls,  Abu  Yusuf  Yakub  ibn-Ishak  al- 
KiNDi.  An  Arabian  philosopher,  who  flourished 
in  the  ninth  century.  He  wrote  more  than  two 
hundred  treatises  on  almost  everything  within 
the  range  of  the  philosophy  and  science  of  his 
time.  By  the  Arabs  themselves  he  is  viewed  as 
the  founder  of  their  philosophy,  and  hence  is  sig- 
nificantly syled  **The  Philosopher."  Of  his  many 
works,  but  a  few  on  medicine  and  astrology 
remain.     Consult  the  study  by  FlUgel  (Leipzig, 

ALinffA  AK,  Alk-mftr'.  An  old  town  in  the 
province  of  North  Holland,  in  the  Netherlands, 
situated  on  the  North  Holland  Canal,  20  miles 
northwest   of   Amsterdam    (Map:    Netherlands, 


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ArT.ATTATlATI 


C  2) .  It  is  well  built,  has  verv  clean  streets,  and 
is  intersected  by  broad  canals.  It  possesses  a 
town-house,  ornamented  with  curious  Gothic 
carving,  with  a  tower,  a  museum  of  antiquities, 
and  a  library,  and  the  church  of  St.  Laurence, 
which  dates  from  the  fifteenth  century.  The 
•  inhabitants  support  themselves  by  important 
manufactures  of  sail-cloth,  sea- salt,  etc.,  as  well 
as  by  trade  in  grain,  butter,  and  cheese.  Alk- 
maar  exports  great  quantities  of  the  last  men- 
tioned commodity,  more  than  5000  tons  being 
brought  into  the  town  yearly,  or  over  one-half 
the  output  of  the  province  It  is  the  oirthplace 
of  Henry  of  Alkmaar.  (See  Alkmaab,  Hein- 
BICK  VON.)  Alkmaar,  first  of  all  the  Nether- 
land  cities,  successfully  resisted  the  Spanish  in 
1573,  and  the  anniversary  of  that  siege  was  com- 
memorated  in  1873  by  the  erection  of  a  Statue 
of  Victory,  by  Strack6.  Here,  on  October  18, 
1709,  the  Duke  of  York  signed  a  not  very  hon- 
orable capitulation,  after  his  Russo-British  army 
had  been  twice  defeated  by  the  French  general 
Brune.     Pop.,  1890,  15,803;   1900,  18,275. 

AT.TT-M-A  ATi.^  Heinbick  VON.  A  Low  Qerman 
translator  or  adapter  of  an  animal  epic,  Reynard 
the  Foa7(q.v.), printed  in  1498.  Alkmaar  is  said  to 
have  been  a  tutor  of  the  Duke  of  Lorraine  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

Ali'KOBEM^MI.  In  William  Beckford's 
romance  of  Vathck  (q.v.),  the  name  of  Vathek's 
palace,  to  which  he  had  added  five  parts,  corre- 
sponding to  his  five  senses. 

AI/LA,  or  EI/LA.  In  Chaucer's  Man  of 
Law*8  Tale,  the  name  of  the  king  who  marries 
Constance. 

AT.T.A  BBEVEy  al^&  br&^vft  (It.  according 
to  the  breve).  In  music,  a  species  of  common 
time  with  a  quick  movement.  In  early  ecclesi- 
astical music,  we  find  no  terms  indicating  the 
tempo  or  rate  of  movement,  until,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  the  expressions  augmentation  and  dim- 
inution were  introduced  to  indicate  that  note- 
values  were  to  be  changed  by  lengthening  or 
shortening.  The  sign  of  diminution  was  a  verti- 
cal line  drawn  through  the  time  signature;  ^ 
for  triple  and  4  for  duple  time.  With  this 
diminution,  breves  (q.v.)  were  to  be  taken  in  the 
time  of  semi-breves,  thus  quickening  the  move- 
ment. At  that  time  the  unit  of  count  was  a 
semi-breve.  When  the  breve  was  "diminished," 
it  meant  that  one  must  count  "by  the  breve," 
hence  the  name  Alia  Breve. 

In  modern  music  Alia  Breve  measure  (some- 

2 
times  called  Alia  Cappella)  is  marked  ^  or  ;rand 

calls  for  two  counts  to  the  bar,  with  half  notes 
taken  in  the  time  usually  given  to  quarter  notes. 

AI/LAH.  The  Mohammedan  name  for  God, 
contracted  from  the  Arabic  al  ilah,  the  God. 

AliLAHABAD,  &n&-h&-bad^  A  district  and 
a  division  of  the  North- West  Provinces  (q.v.), 
British  India. 

ATT. ATT  A-R ATI  ( Ar.  Allah,  God  +  Hind,  ahad, 
city,  dwelling).  The  seat  of  the  government  of 
the  North-West  Provinces  of  British  India  ( Map : 
India,  D  3).  It  occupies  the  fork  of  the  Ganges 
and  Jiunna  which  forms  the  lowest  extremity 
of  the  extensive  region  distinguished  as  the 
Doab,  or  the  country  of  Two  Rivers,  lying  be- 
tween those  natural  boundaries.  Its  position  at 
the  confluence  of  the  holy  rivers,  which  has  long 
made  it  a  centre  of  superstitious  reverence  and 


worship,  and  a  much  frequented  place  of  pilgrim- 
age for  the  purposes  of  ablution,  also  rendered 
it   a    natural    centre   of   commerce   and  civili- 
zation, an  advantage  which  has  been  fully  appre- 
dated  by  the  British  Govei-nment.    It  commands 
the  navigation  both  of  the  Ganges  and  of  the 
Jumna.     It  is  on  the  direct  water  route  between 
Calcutta  and  the  Upper  Provinces,  and  is  a  main 
station  on  the  Grand  Trunk  Road,  and  also  on 
the  East  Indian  Railway.    Allahabad  stands  72 
miles  west  of  Benares;  is  distant  from  Calcutta, 
by  land,  496  miles;  by  water,  808  miles  in  the 
rainy  season,  985  miles  in  the  dry  season.    From 
Delhi  it  is  distant  386  miles,  and  from  Bombay, 
by   the   Jabalpur    branch   of    the    East   Indian 
Railway,  840  miles.  The  cotton,  sugar,  and  indigo- 
produce  of  the  fertile  district  of  Allahabad  is 
brought  in  large  quantities  into  the  city,  to  be- 
transported  thence  to   Calcutta  and   elsewhere. 
Steamers  sail  to  Calcutta  and  barges  to  Delhi. 
In  point  of  appearance,  Allahabad  is  scarcely 
worthy  of  its  character  and  renown.     With  the 
exception  of  a  few  ancient  monuments  of  costly, 
elaborate,  and  tasteful  workmanship,  the  native 
part  of  the  city  consists  of  mean  houses  and 
narrow  streets.     The  most  noteworthy  buildings, 
are  the  Jumma  Musjid,  or  the  great  mosque,  and 
the  Sultan  Khossor's  caravansary — a  fiae  clois- 
tered quadrangle.     The  fort  is  of  red  stone,  and 
is  approached  by  a  very  handsome  gate;  it  con- 
tains the  palace  or  residency,  and  the  famous 
Asoka  or  Gada  Pillar,  the  club  of  Bhin  Sen,  240 
B.C.     Below  the  fort,  built  over   "the   undying 
banyan  tree,"  is  the  subterranean  Chali  Saturn 
temple,  which  is  said  to  communicate  with  Ben- 
ares by  an  underground  passage,  through  which 
flows  a  third  holy  river,  the  Sereswati,  visible 
only  to  the  eye  of  faith,  tiie  dropping  moisture 
on   the   rocky   walls   pointed   out   as    the   river 
scarcely  justifying  the  presumption.     Allahabad 
possesses  a  hospital,  theatres,  bazaars,  etc.,  and 
the  Muir  Central  College,  the  chief  educational 
institution  in  the  North-West  Provinces.     (See 
the  article  India.)     As  generally  in  the  towns 
of  India,  the  European  quarter  is  vastly  superior. 
Its  nucleus  appears  to  have  been  the  native  fort,, 
which  on  the  east  and  south  rises  directly  from 
the  banks  of  both  rivers,  while  toward  the  land 
its  artiflcial  defenses,  of  great  strength  in  them- 
selves, are  not  commanded  from  the  neighborhood 
by  any  higher  ground.   This  citadel,  described  by 
Heber  as  having  been  at  one  time  *'a  very  noble 
castle,"  has  lost  much  of  its  romance  by  having 
had  its  lofty  towers  pruned  down  to  bastions  and 
cavaliers.     The  Europeans  of  the  garrison  occupy 
well-constructed  barracks.     Beyond  the  fort  are 
the  cantonments  for  the  native  troops.    In  con- 
nection with  these  are  numerous  villas  and  bun- 
galows,  few  other  spots  in  India  boasting  such 
handsome  buildings  of  this  kind,  which  are  ren- 
dered   still    more   attractive   and    agreeable   by 
avenues  of  trees  winding  between  them  and  con- 
necting them  with  the  fort,  the  city,  and  several 
of  the  adjacent  localities.  Two  boat  bridges  cross- 
the  Ganges,  and  the  East  Indian  railway-bridge 
spans  the  Jumna  at  Allahabad.     So  many  poor 
pilgrims  throng  the  city,  especially  at  the  time 
of  the  great  annual  religious  fair,  that  instead 
of  Allahabad,  the  natives  call  it  "Fakirabad,"  or 
the  city  of  beggars.  From  the  octroi,  professional 
and  carriage  taxes,  rents  and  proceeds  of  the 
Hindu   fair,   a   considerable  municipal   revenue 
accrues,  which  is  expended  on  police,  lighting, 
street    sprinkling,    water    works,    maintenance 


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ot  parks,  medical  assistance,  and  charities. 
Allahabad  was  founded  by  Akbar  in  1575, 
on  the  site  of  an  ancient  fort.  From  1765 
to  1801  it  underwent  three  changes  of  rulers, 
finally  coming  under  British  domination.  The 
mutiny  of  1857  brought  disaster  to  Allahabad. 
On  the  6th  of  June  of  that  year,  the  insurrection, 
which  had  begun  at  Meerut  on  the  10th  of  May, 
extended  itself  to  Allahabad.  Though  the  Euro- 
peaus  held  the  fort,  the  mutineers  were  for  some 
days  undisputed  masters  of  all  beyond;  and 
between  the  ravages  of  the  marauders  and  the 
fire  of  the  garrison,  the  city  became  little  better 
than  a  heap  of  blackened  ruins.  New  buildings 
began  to  spring  up  as  soon  as  order  had  been 
restored,  and  most  of  the  city  has  been  rebuilt 
since  that  date,  with  the  exception  of  the  few 
monuments  of  ancient  native  architecture  de- 
scribed above.  Pop.,  1891,  175,250;  1901,  175,- 
750. 

ATiTiATN  TABG^,  A'lftN'  tftr'zhft',  Francois 
Henbi  Ren6  ( 1832—) .  A  French  politician,  born 
at  Augers.  He  studied  law  at  Poitiers,  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1853,  and  from  1861  to 
1864  was  substitute  imperial  procurator  at 
Angers.  From  1864  to  1866  he  was  an  editor  of 
the  Courrier  du  Dimanche.  He  joined  the  staff 
of  the  Avenir  National  in  1868,  and  in  the  same 
year  founded  the  Revue  Politique,  Upon  the 
fall  of  the  Empire,  he  was  appointed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment for  national  defense  prefect  of  the 
department  of  Maine-et-Loire.  He  was  subse- 
quently an  army  commissary,  and  resigned  with 
Gambetta  upon  the  conclusion  of  peace.  He  was 
a  municipal  councillor  of  Paris  in  1871  and 
1874,  deputy  in  1876,  1877,  and  1881,  and  Minis- 
ter  of  Finance  in  Gambetta's  cabinet.  In  1885- 
86  he  was  Minister  of  the  Interior  in  the  cabinet 
of  Brisson. 

AIiTiATffANa)A  (Named  after  the  Swiss 
scientist,  Allamand,  who  died  in  1787) .  A  genus 
of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Apocynacese.  It  is 
distinguished  by  a  quinque-partite  calyx  without 
glands,  by  a  funnel-shaped  corolla,  and  by  the 
prickly  capsular  fruit  pod.  Allamanda  cathar- 
tica,  a  native  of  the  West  Indies,  is  a  climber 
with  whorled  or  opposite  oblong  leaves,  and 
golden-yellow  flowers,  white  marked  in  the 
throat.  It  has  violently  emetic  and  purgative 
properties ;  but  in  small  doses  an  infusion  of  the 
leaves  is  esteemed  a  valuable  cathartic  medicine, 
especially  in  the  cure  of  painters'  colic.  All 
the  species,  of  which  there  are  about  twelve, 
are  natives  of  the  tropical  parts  of  America. 
Specimens  of  Allamanda  are  often  seen  in  green- 
houses, where  it  is  a  showy  plant  both  in  leaf 
and  in  flower.  Among  the  shrubby  species  are 
Allamanda  neriifolia  and  Allamanda  grandiflora, 
while  Allamanda  schottii,  Allamanda  nobilis,  and 
Allamanda  cathartica  are  the  best  known  climb- 
ers. 

ATXATT,  ftHan,  David  (1744-96).  A  distin- 
guished Scottish  painter  of  domestic  subjects, 
in  which  he  was  the  forerunner  of  Wilkie.  He 
was  bom  at  Alloa,  February  13,  1744.  In  1755, 
he  entered  the  academy  for  drawing,  painting, 
and  engraving  established  in  Glasgow  by  the 
celebrated  printer  Foulis,  where  he  studied  for 
seven  years.  The  liberality  of  friends  enabled 
him,  in  1764,  to  go  to  Rome,  where  he  resided 
for  sixteen  years.  In  1773,  he  gained  the  gold 
medal  given  by  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke  for  the 
best  historical  composition.    The  subject  was  the 


"Origin  of  Painting,"  the  old  legend  of  the  Corin- 
thian maid  who  drew  her  lover's  profile  from 
the  shadow.  This  picture,  the  highest  effort 
of  Allan's  powers,  was  engraved  by  Cunego.  Of 
his  other  pictures  executed  at  Rome,  the  best 
known  are  four  humorous  pieces  illustrating  the 
carnival,  which  were  engraved  by  Paul  Sandby. 
In  1777,  Allan  came  to  lx>ndon,  where  he  painted 
portraits;  after  a  year  or  two,  he  removed  to 
Edinburgh;  and  in  1786,  succeeded  Runciman 
at  the  head  of  the  art  academy  established  there 
by  the  Board  of  Manufacturers.  His  works  sub- 
sequent to  this  date  were  chiefly  of  a  humorous 
description,  and  illustrative  of  Scottish  domestic 
life.  His  illustrations  of  Allan  Ramsay's  Oentle 
Shepherd  became  very  popular,  but  are  of  no 
great  merit.  Allan  died  at  Edinburgh,  August^ 
6,  1796.  "His  merits,"  says  Allan  Cunningham^ 
"are  of  a  limited  nature;  he  neither  excelled  in 
fine  drawing,  nor  in  harmonious  coloring;  and 
grace  and  grandeur  were  beyond  his  reach.  His 
genius  lay  in  expression,  especially  in  grave 
humor  and  open  drollery." 

ALLAN,  Sib  Hugh  (1810-82).  A  Canadian 
ship-owner.  He  went  from  Scotland  to  Canada 
as  a  clerk  in  1826,  and  in  1835  became  a  ship* 
builder  and  commission  merchant.  During  the 
Canadian  rebellion  of  1837-38,  he  served  in  the 
army  as  a  volunteer,  and  reached  the  rank  of 
captain.  He  helped  establish,  after  many  dis- 
asters, the  Allan  Line  of  screw  steamships,  and 
was  one  of  the  projectors  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  and  obtained  prominence  in  the  scandal 
connected  with  that  road.  Many  transportation^ 
manufacturing,  and  mining  companies  owed  their 
success  largely  to  his  enterprise.  He  was  knighted 
in  1871,  for  his  service  to  commerce.  He  was 
one  of  the  wealthiest  men  in  Canada. 

ALLAN,  Sib  William  (1782-1850).  A  dis- 
tinguished Scotch  historical  painter.  He  was 
born  in  Edinburgh,  and  studied  at  the  school  of 
design  connected  with  the  Royal  Institution,  and 
afterward  at  the  Royal  Academy,  London.  In 
his  youth  he  spent  several  years  at  St.  Peters- 
burg, and  occasionally  made  tours  in  the  south 
of  Russia,  the  Crimea,  and  Turkey,  where  he 
produced  sketches  which  supplied  the  material 
for  his  fiirst  successful  works.  He  began  to  paint 
historical  subjects  after  his  return  to  Scotland, 
and  it  is  mainly  upon  them  that  his  reputation 
rests.  Among  his  works,  which  are  well  known 
through  engravings,  are  "John  Knox  Admonish- 
ing Queen  Mary**  (1823),  "Queen  Mary  Signing 
her  Abdication"  (1824),  "A  Slave  Market  at 
Constantinople"  ( 1837 ) ,  "The  Battle  of  Preston- 
pans"  (1842),  "Peter  the  Great,  Teaching  Ship- 
building to  his  Subjects"  (exhibited  in  London, 
1845),  and  two  •  pictures  of  "Waterloo,"  one 
from  an  English,  the  other  from  a  French  posi- 
tion. The  latter  was  bought  by  the  Duke  of  Wel- 
lington. Allan  was  chosen  president  of  the 
Scottish  Royal  Academy  in  1838,  in  1841  was 
appointed  limner  to  Her  Majesty  in  Scotland 
and  was  knighted.  His  reputation  rests  on 
his  conscientious  fidelity,  his  skill  in  composi- 
tion, and  the  dramatic  force  of  his  representa- 
tions. 

ALLAN^OIN  (Ultimately  derived  from 
allantois)  ^0^3,1^ Sy»-  An  organic  substance  found 
in  the  allantoic  and  amniotic  fiuids,  in  fcetal 
urine,  and  in  the  urine  of  many  animals  during  a 
short  time  after  birth.  It  is  a  crystalline,  solid 
substance,  sparingly  soluble  in  cold  water,  but 


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dissolving  readily  in  hot  water  or  alcohol,  and  in 
solutions  of  alkaline  carbonates.  It  may  be 
obtained  from  the  urine  of  calves  by  evaporating 
and  letting  stand,  at  ordinary  temperatures, 
until  the  substance  crystallizes  out.  Chemically, 
allantoln  is  the  di-ureide  of  glyoxylic  acid.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  the 
oxidation  of  uric  acid  (allantoln  is  found  in 
urine  after  uric  acid  has  been  taken  internally), 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  readily  made 
from  urea  by  prolonf^ed  heating  with  glyoxylic 
acid.  When  uric  acid  is  oxidized  with  potas- 
sium permanganate,  allantoln  is  formed,  accord- 
ing to  the  following  chemical  equation: 

NH— C— NH\ 

•CO     C— NH/      +  O  +  HdO=  . 

NH— CO 

^ , '  NH— CH— NH 

Uric  acid  I  I         I 

00  CO  +  CO, 

NH— CO    NH, 

*-  ^  ^ 

Allantoln 

Allantoln  was  first  discovered  in  1790  by 
Yauquelin.     See  Uric  Acid. 

AIiIiAN^O'lS  (Gk.  aX?Mg,  alias,  a  sausage, 
and  eWof,  eidony  shape).  A  delicate  membra- 
nous bag,  which  makes  its  appearance  in  the 
^g^  of  birds  during  incubation,  and  is  a  provision 
chiefly  for  the  aeration  of  the  blood  of  the 
embryo  or  chick.  It  sprouts  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  intestine  of  the  chick,  and  rapidly 
enlarges,  so  as  almost  completely  to  inclose  it, 
lining  nearly  the  whole  extent  of  the  membrana 
putaminis — the  double  membrane  which  is  imme- 
diately within  the  egg-shell.  It  is  covered  with 
a  network  of  arteries  and  veins,  corresponding 
to  the  umbilical  artery  and  vein  of  mammalia; 
and  the  aeration  of  the  blood  is  accomplished 
by  the  air  which  enters  through  the  pores  of  the 
shell;  but  as  the  \un^  become  capable  of  their 
function,  the  circulation  in  the  allantoTs  dimin- 
ishes, and  its  footstalk  contracts,  and  at  last 
divides,  leaving  only  a  ligamentous  remnant. 
The  allantols  is  never  developed  in  the  eggs  of 
fishes  and  amphibians,  hence  these  are  called 
anallantoid  vertebrates;  while  reptiles,  birds, 
and  mammalia,  in  which  it  is  present,  are  called 
allantoid.  In  the  mammalia,  it  is  superseded 
at  an  early  period  of  foetal  life  by  other  contri- 
vances, but  continues  to  exist  in  the  lower  ani- 
mals for  receiving  the  urinary  secretion  through 
the  urachus,  a  purpose  which  it  serves  in  birds 
and  reptiles  likewise.  In  the  human  species,  it 
disappears  very  early,  only  a  minute  vesicle 
remaining.     See  Embbyology. 

ALLAB,  Alar',  Andr^  Joseph  (1845—).  A 
French  sculptor,  bom  at  Toulon.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Dantan,  Guillaume,  and  Cavelier  at 
Paris,  where  he  obtained  the  Grand  Prix  de  Rome 
in  1889.  He  is  a  frequent  exhibitor  at  the  Salon, 
among  his  most  celebrated  productions  being: 
"H6cube  et  Polydore"  (1873),  "Sainte  C^ilc" 
(1874),  "La  Tentation"  (1876),  "L'filoquence" 
(1878,  executed  for  the  church  of  Sor bonne), 
and  "Jeanne  d'Arc  k  DomrSmy"  (1884).  The 
statues  of  Jean  Bullant  and  Jean  Croujon,  for  the 
facade  of  the  Hdtel  de  Ville  at  Paris  were  also 
executed  by  him. 


ATiTiABT),  &aftr^,  Jean  Fraj7Qois(  1783-1839). 
Generalissimo  of  the  army  of  Lahore,  and  previ- 
ously adjutant  to  Marshal  Brune  under  Napo- 
leon. After  the  murder  of  Marshal  Brune  (q.v.), 
Allard  left  France  (1815) ,  intending  to  emigrate 
to  America,  but  changed  his  plan,  entered  into 
the  service  of  Abbas-Mirza  of  Persia,  and  after- 
ward went  to  Lahore  (1820),  where  he  engaged 
in  the  service  of  Runjeet  Singh  (q.v.),  by  whom 
he  was  made  generalissimo,  and  whose  forces  he 
organized  and  trained  in  the  European  modes  of 
warfare.  He  married  a  native  of  Lahore,  and 
identified  himself  with  the  interests  of  his  adopt- 
ed country,  but  could  not  entirely  forget  France. 
The  changed  political  situation  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  1830  brought  him  back  to  Paris  (1836), 
where  he  was  received  with  distinction,  and  was 
made  French  charg4  d'affaires  in  Lahore.  He 
presented  to  the  royal  library  of  Paris  a  valuable 
collection  of  coins,  and  returned  to  Lahore,  leav- 
ing his  wife  and  children  in  Paris.  He  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  Sikh  campaigns  against 
the  Afghans,  and  died  at  Peshawar,  January  23, 
1830.  His  remains  were,  according  to  his  own 
wish,  buried  with  military  honors  at  Lahore. 

ALLA^rCJS,  Leo  (1586-1669).  A  Greek 
ecclesiastic  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  He 
was  born  on  the  Island  of  Chios,  removed  in 
1600  to  Rome,  and  studied  at  the  Greek  College 
there.  He  was  appointed  grand-vicar  to  the 
Bishop  of  Anglona,  and  was  sent  in  1622  by 
Gregory  XV.  to  bring  to  Rome  the  Palatinate, 
or  Heidelberg,  library.  In  1661  he  was  ap- 
pointed by  Alexander  Vll.  librarian  of  the  Vat- 
ican. He  tried  to  reconcile  the  Western  and 
Eastern  Churches,  writing  such  treatises  as  De 
EoclesioB  Ocoidentalis  atque  Orientalis  Perpetua 
Consensione  (1648),  and  De  Utriusgue  Ecclcsug 
in  Dogmate  de  Purgatorio  Consensione  (1655). 
His  further  works  include  De  Libris  Ecclestasti- 
cis  Orcecorum  (1645),  and  €hrwci<JB  Orthodoxa 
Scriptores   (1652). 

ALIiIAb  VEBTE,  &'lA'vftrt'(Pr.,green  walk). 
A  famous  promenade  at  Brussels  (q.v.),  formed 
by  an  avenue  of  lime  trees. 

ALTLEOAN.  A  village  and  county  seat  of 
Allegan  Co.,  Mich.,  33  miles  south  of  Grand 
Rapids,  on  the  Kalamazoo  River,  and  on  the  Lake 
Shore  and  Michigan  Southern,  the  Pere  Mar- 
quette, and  the  Cincinnati  Northern  railroads 
(Map:  Michigan,  H  6).  It  contains  a  public 
library,  Pingree  Park,  and  fine  court  house,  city 
hall,  and  public  school  buildings.  The  village  is 
in  a  fertile  agricultural  and  fruit-growing  re- 
gion, and  has  valuable  natural  advantages  in 
good  water  power,  derived  by  means  of  a  huge 
dam  on  the  river,  three  miles  above  the  village. 
Its  industries  include  paper,  planing,  and  fiour 
mills,  furniture  factories,  carnage  works,  casket 
factories,  foundry  and  machine  shop,  etc.  An 
interesting  commercial  feature  is  a  codperative 
grange  store,  which  is  in  successful  operation. 
Allegan  was  settled  in  1835,  and  was  first  incor- 
porated in  1838  and  reincorporated  in  1858.  The 
water  works  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  vil- 
lage.   Pop.,  1890,  2669;  1900,  2667. 

AI/LEGA'NY.  A  town  in  Cattaraugus  Co., 
N.  Y.,  70  miles  southeast  of  Buffalo,  on  the 
Allegheny  River  and  the  Erie  Railroad  (Map: 
New  York,  B  3).  The  town  is  engaged  in  the 
oil  industry,  and  has  a  tannery,  a  canning  fac- 
tory, and  saw  mills,  and  is  the  site  of  St.  Bona- 
venture's  College,  a  Roman  Catholic  institution. 


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organized  in  1859.  The  government  is  adminis- 
tered by  town  meetings,  which  are  convened 
biennially  to  elect  officers  and  make  appropria- 
tions.    Pop.,  1890,  3611;  1900,  3692. 

ALLEOHANIES.  A  name  applied  to  a 
mountain  range  of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  West 
Virginia,  and  Virginia,  lyii^g  "^^t  of  the  Blue 
and  Blue  Ridge  ranges,  and  having  the  same  gen- 
eral direction,  northeast  to  southwest  (Map: 
United  States,  Eastern  Part,  K  3).  Rich  mines 
of  coal  and  iron  of  varied  character  have  been  so 
highly  developed  as  to  make  the  adjoining  regions 
the  greatest  in  the  world  in  coal  mining  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  products.  The 
term  Alleghanies  is  sometimes  incorrectly  ex- 
tended to  include  the  whole  Appalachian  system, 
of  which  it  is  a  part.    See  Appalachians. 

ALLEGHANY  SPBIHGS.  A  popular  health 
resort  in  Montgomery  Co.,  Va.,  three  miles  south 
of  Shawsville,  on  the  Norfolk  and  Western  Rail- 
road; noted  for  its  medicinal  springs  (Map: 
Virginia,  D  4).  There  are  also  in  this  locality 
several  mineral  springs  other  than  those  men- 
tioned, of  which  the  principal  are  the  Montgom- 
ery White  Sulphur  and  the  Yellow  Sulphur 
Springs. 

ALLEGHEinr.  An  important  manufactur- 
ing city,  in  Allegheny  Co.,  Pa.,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Allegheny  and  Ohio  rivers,  opposite  Pitts- 
burg (Map:  Pennsylvania,  A3).  The  Allegheny 
River  is  crossed  by  several  large  bridges,  afford- 
ing ample  facilities  for  communication  between 
the  two  cities,  which  form  one  industrial  and 
social  community.  The  most  important  indus- 
trial establishments  are  the  extensive  iron  and 
steel  rolling  mills,  and  car  and  locomotive  works ; 
but  there  are  also  manufactures  of  textile  goods, 
'flour,  salt,  sanitary  plumbing  supplies,  white 
lead,  leather,  stoves,  ranges,  and  pickles  and 
preser\'e8.  The  river  traffic,  which  is  very  im- 
portant, is  controlled  by  Pittsburg.  (See  Pitts- 
BUBG.)  Allegheny  is  the  terminus  of  the  West- 
ern Pennsylvania,  the  Pittsburg  and  Western, 
and  the  Buffalo,  Rochester,  and  Pittsburg;  and 
is  on  the  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne,  and  Chicago, 
the  Cleveland  and  Pittsburg,  the  Pittsburg  and 
Erie,  and  the  Pittsburg  and  New  Castle,  all  of 
which  belong  to  the  western  division  of  the  Penn- 
bylvania  system.  Electric  street  railways  give 
additional*  transit  facilities  to  Pittsburg  and 
neighboring  towns. 

The  city  is  located  on  hilly  ground,  and  covers 
an  area  of  about  twelve  square  miles.  The  two 
most  prominent  buildings  are  the  city  hall  and 
the  public  library,  facing  each  other  at  the  cross- 
ing of  Ohio  and  Federal  streets,  while  the  public 
market  is  at  a  third  corner.  The  Western  (State) 
Penitentiary  is  located  here.  The  Liberty  Monu- 
ment, situated  on  an  eminence  in  West  Park, 
and  others  of  local  interest  are  prominent  fea- 
tures. In  the  centre  of  the  city  is  a  public  park 
cf  100  acres,  with  fountains,  lakes,  and  a  monu- 
ment to  Humboldt;  and  in  the  northern  outskirts 
i?  Riverview  or  Watson  Park.  Allegheny  Parks, 
and  the  Washington  Monument  are  additional 
points  of  interef»t.  The  Allegheny  General,  Pres- 
bv'terian,  and  St.  John  General  hospitals,  the 
colored  Orphan  Home,  Ridge  Avenue  Orphans' 
Home,  the  Home  of  the  Friendless,  and  the  Alle- 
gheny Industrial  School  are  among  the  benevo- 
lent institutions  of  the  city.  Of  important  edu- 
cational institutions  there  are  three  theological 
seminaries,  connected  with  different  branches  of 


the  Presbyterian  Church,  and  the  Western  Uni- 
versity of  Pennsylvania.  The  latter  was  estab- 
lished in  1819,  and  now  has  about  700  students, 
over  500  of  whom  are  in  the  professional  depart- 
ments. The  uni\ersity  and  Allegheny  Observa- 
tory occupy  a  high  hill  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  city.  In  connection  with  the  public  schools 
there  is  a  library  of  17,000  volumes,  but  the 
Carnegie  Free  Library  of  42,000  volumes  is  much 
more  important.  The  university  and  seminary 
libraries  are  not  accessible  to  the  public. 

Like  Pittsburg,  Allegheny  is  a  city  of  the 
second  class.  The  administration  is  vested 
in  a  recorder,  elected  every  three  years,  and  a 
bicameral  city  council  which  appoints  the 
auditor,  comptroller,  treasurer,  assessors,  depart- 
ment of  law,  and  directors  of  the  departments 
of  public  safety,  public  works,  public  charities, 
etc.  The  executive  nominates  only  the  mayor's 
clerk  and  five  pblice  magistrates.  The  annual 
income  and  expenditures  of  the  city  amount  to 
about  $2,830,000  and  $2,570,000,  respectively, 
the  principal  items  of  expense  being  $130,000  for 
the  police  department,  $130,000  for  the  fire  de- 
partment, $350,000  for  schools,  $180,000  for  the 
operation  of  the  water  works,  and  $80,000  for 
street  lighting. 

Allegheny  was  laid  out  in  1788,  and  was  incor- 
porated as  a  borough  in  1828,  and  in  1840  as  a 
city.  On  July  4,  1874,  occurred  a  disastrous  fire, 
in  which  199  buildings  were  consumed  or  badly 
damaged,  and  three  weeks  later  a  local  fiood, 
resulting  from  an  abnormal  rainfall,  destroyed 
a  great  amount  of  property  and  caused  124 
deaths.  The  city's  growth  since  1870  has  been 
remarkable.  Pop.,  1870,  53,180;  1880,  78,682; 
1800,  105,287;  1900,  129,890,  including  30,200 
persons  of  foreign  birth  and  3300  of  negro 
descent.  Consult:  T.  Cushing,  History  of  Alle- 
gheny County  (Chicago,  1880) ;  and  Lambing 
and  White,  AllegKeny  County:  lis  Early  His- 
tory and  Subsequent  Development  (Pittsburg, 
1888). 

AIjLEOHENY  COI/LEGR  An  American 
college,  situated  at  Meadville,  Pa.  Tt  was  found- 
ed in  1815  as  a  Presbyterian  institution,  but 
passed  in  1833  to  the  control  of  the  Methodist 
Church.  The  value  of  the  buildings,  grounds, 
and  apparatus  is  estimated  at  $325,000,  and  the 
productive  endowment  is  $445,000.  There  is  a 
civil  engineering,  a  scientific,  a  classical,  and 
a  Latin  and  modern  languages  course.  In  1900 
the  number  of  professors  and  tutors  was  17,  and 
there  were  191  students  in  the  college  and  132  in 
the  preparatory  school.  The  library  contains 
16,000  volumes. 

ALLEOHEKY  BIVEE.  A  river  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  New  York,  rising  in  Potter  Co., 
Pa.,  nearly  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  uniting 
with  the  Monongahela  at  Pittsburg  to  form  the 
Ohio  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  B  2).  Although 
flowing  through  a  hilly  region,  it  is  navigable 
for  nearly  200  miles  above  Pittsburg,  whence, 
via  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  the  navigation  ex- 
tends to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  river  is  325 
miles  long,  and  drains  an  area  of  11,000  square 
miles. 

AliliE^GIAKGE  (Lat.  ad,  to -f  O.  F.  and 
Engl,  liege,  but  the  formation  was  influenced 
by  Lat.  alUgare,  to  bind  to,  and  also  by  lew, 
law).  "Allegiance,"  says  Blackstone,  "is  the 
tie,  or  ligamen,  which  binds  the  subject  to 
the    sovereign,    in    return    for    that    protection 


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which  the  sovereign  affords  the  subject."  Alle- 
l^iance  is  the  highest  le^l  duty  of  the  sub- 
ject, and  consequently  its  violation,  treason 
(q.v.),  is  the  highest  legal  offense.  Allegiance 
is  of  three  kinds:  (1)  Natural  or  implied 
allegiance  is  that  which  every  native  or  natu- 
ralized citizen  owes  to  the  State  to  which 
he  belongs  and  whose  protection  he  enjoys. 
Independently  of  any  express  promise,  every 
man,  by  availing  himself  of  the  benefits  which 
an  organized  political  society  affords,  comes 
under  an  implied  obligation  to  defend  it,  and 
this  equally  whether  the  attack  be  from  without 
or  from  within.  This  conception  of  allegiance 
as  a  political  obligation,  involved  in  the  notion 
of  citizenship,  is  comparatively  modern,  and  has 
gradually  supplanted  the  feudal  conception  of 
allegiance  as  a  duty  voluntarily  assumed  as  an 
incident  of  the  feudal  tenure  of  land.  (2)  Ex- 
press allegiance  is  that  obligation  which  arises 
from  an  express  promise  or  oath  of  allegiance. 
The  old  English  oath  of  allegiance  corresponded 
in  the  case  of  the  sovereign,  as  lord  paramount 
of  all  the  lands  in  England,  to  the  oath  of 
fealty,  which,  by  the  feudal  law,  all  freehold 
tenants  were  required  to  take  to  their  landlords. 
As  administered  for  upward  of  600  years,  it  con- 
tained a  promise  "to  be  true  and  faithful  to 
the  king  and  his  heirs,  and  truth  and  faith  to 
bear  of  life  and  limb  and  terrene  honor,  and  not 
to  know  or  hear  of  any  ill  or  damage  intended 
him,  without  defending  him  therefrom." 

With  the  substitution  of  the  political  for  the 
feudal  motive  for  allegiance  ana  its  consequent 
general  obligation,  the  importance  of  the  oath 
of  allegiance  has  greatly  diminished.  It  is  com- 
monly exacted  of  aliens  acauiring  naturalization, 
of  persons  lately  in  rebellion  on  resuming  the 
status  of  citizens,  and  of  public  officers  of  all 
grades,  and  members  of  the  bar.  The  form  com- 
monly employed  in  this  country  is  a  simple  oath 
to  support  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
(See- Oath.)  (3)  Local  or  temporary  allegiance 
is  that  obedience  and  temporary  aid  due  from 
an  alien  (q.v.)  to  the  State  or  community  in 
which  he  resides,  by  virtue  of  which  he  becomes 
subject  to  its  laws,  and  liable  for  duty  in  the 
maintenance  of  social  order. 

It  is  but  recently  that  the  principal  govern- 
ments of  Europe  have  come  to  recognize  the  right 
of  persons  voluntarily  to  change  their  allegiance 
as  well  as  their  residence,  and  such  recognition 
is  still  grudging  and  imperfect.  The  United 
States  has  always  held  it  to  be  a  natural  right, 
and  our  legislation  so  recognizes  it.  This  dif- 
ference of  view  has  sometimes  brought  our  gov- 
ernment into  sharp  diplomatic  conflict  with  the 
States  of  Europe,  especially  in  the  effort  to  pro- 
tect from  military  conscription  former  subjects 
of  those  States  who  had  renounced  their  alle- 
giance and  become  naturalized  citizens  of  the 
United  States.  These  efforts  have  generally 
proved  successful,  but  the  principle  contended  for 
by  our  government,  though  accepted  (so  far,  at 
least,  as  the  naturalization  of  their  subjects  in 
the  United  States  is  concerned)  by  England, 
France, Germany, and  Austria-Hungary, is  repudi- 
ated by  Russia,  Turkey,  and  some  other  States. 
This  principle  is  plainly  declared  in  the  act  of 
Congress  relating  to  naturalization  (q.v.),  passed 
in  July,  1868.  The  preamble  states  that  the 
right  of  expatriation  is  natural  and  inherent 
in  all  people,  and  indispensable  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  rights  to  life,  liberty,  and  the  pur- 


suit of  happiness;  that,  recognizing  this  right, 
our  government  has  received  emigrants  from  all 
nations  and  given  them  citizenship  and -protec- 
tion; that  it  is  necessary  for  the  maintenance 
of  public  peace  that  the  claim  of  foreign  alle- 
giance as  to  such  adopted  citizens  should  be 
promptly  and  finally  disavowed;  and  therefore 
it  was  enacted  that  any  declaration,  opinion, 
order,  or  decision  of  any  officer  of  this  govern- 
ment which  denies,  impairs,  restricts,  or  qnea- 
tions  the  right  of  expatriation,  is  inconsistent 
with  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  govern- 
ment; that  all  naturalized  citizens  of  the  United 
States,  while  in  foreign  States,  are  entitled  to, 
and  shall  receive  from  this  government,  the  same 
protection  of  person  and  property  that  is  accorded 
to  native-bom  citizens  in  like  circumstances.  This 
broad  declaration  of  rights  and  duties  was  fol- 
lowed in  May,  1870,  by  the  British  Parliament 
in  an  act  revising  all  British  laws  on  alienage, 
expatriation,  and  naturalization  —  the  govern- 
ment for  the  first  time  recognizing  the  right  of 
subjects  to  renounce  allegiance  to  the  crown. 

Allegiance  of  the  population  of  a  State  or 
district  is  often  transferred  en  masse,  as  an  inci- 
dent of  territorial  conquest  or  as  the  result  of 
the  cession  of  territoiy,  as  in  the  successive 
purchases  of  Louisiana  from  Prance,  of  Florida 
and  the  Philippine  Islands  from  Spain,  and  of 
Alaska  from  Russia,  as  well  as  in  the  enforced 
cession  to  the  United  States  of  Texas  and  Porto 
Rico,  and  to  Germany  of  Alsace-Lorraine  as 
the  result  of  successful  war.  The  right  of  a 
State  to  claim  the  allegiance  of  the  inhabitants 
of  territory  so  acquired  is  undoubted,  and  it  is 
only  as  a  humane  concession  to  the  sentiment  of 
loyalty  of  such  a  population  that  the  right  to 
choose  between  the  old  and  the  new  allegiance  is 
sometimes  reserved  by  the  treaty  of  cession.' 
This  permission  has,  in  modern  times,  usually 
been  granted,  the  inhabitants  of  the  ceded  terri- 
tory being  permitted  to  retain  their  nationality 
by  withdrawing  within  a  specified  period  from 
the  ceded  district. 

In  military  usage,  allegiance  is  the  oath  de- 
manded of  officers  and  men  to  the  sovereign  or 
president,  as  supreme  commander-in-chief  of  the 
army.  In  the  German  Empire,  the  troops  of 
Bavaria  do  not  recognize  the  absolute  control  of 
the  King  of  Prussia,  except  in  time  of  war, 
when  the  full  oath  of  allegiance  and  implicit 
obedience  to  the  orders  of  the  German  Emperor 
is  taken.  Consult:  Blackstone,  Commentaries 
on  the  Laws  of  England,  Book  I.,  ch.  x. ;  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law  (second 
edition,  Boston,  1899),  Volume  I.,  pages  296-307, 
458-467,  Volume  IL,  pages  502-611;  Salmond, 
"Citizenship  and  Allegiance,"  in  Law  Quarterlj^ 
Review,  Volume  XVIII.,  numbers  67,  69 (London, 
July,  1901,  and  January,  1902)  ;  Kent,  Commen- 
taries on  American  Law,  Volume  11.,  section  xxv. 
See  also  Citizen;  Subject. 

ALOiEGOBT  {Gk.  aXhryopta,  aUSgoria,  speak- 
ing otherwise,  allegory,  from  &X^oc,  alios,  other  -f 
ayop&ueiv,  agoreuein,  to  speak).  The  allegory  as 
a  literary  manner  is  a  narrative  in  which  the 
incidents  and  the  characters  really  refer  to  a 
complete  and  logical  scheme  of  underlying 
thought.  To  be  successful,  the  narrative  must 
be  not  only  interesting  for  itself,  but  also  in 
perfect  harmony  with  the  veiled  course  of 
abstract  reasoning.  Such  is  Bunyan's  Pilgrim's 
Progress,  where,  under  the  guise  of  a  journey 


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AliLEGOBT. 


365 


ALLBINE. 


from  the  City  of  Destruction  to  the  Celestial 
City,  is  portrayed  the  spiritual  conflicts  and 
the  ultimate  victory  of  the  faithful  Christian. 
Allegory,  like  other  kindred  figurative  ways  of 
speech,  such  as  metaphor  and  personification, 
appears  in-  all  literatures.  The  Eastern  people 
from  the  earliest  times  have  been  fond  of  it. 
Witness  the  beast  fables  which  pass  under  the 
name  of  Pilpay,  where  moral  observations  are 
enforced  by  tales  about  animals;  also  the  com- 
parison of  Israel  to  a  vine  in  the  eightieth 
Psalm.  Though  the  Greeks  had  the  allegorical 
habit  earlier,  the  first  definite  mention  of  an 
iillegory  among  them  occurs  in  Plato's  Phcedrus. 
In  this  dialogue,  Socrates  remarks  on  the  ten- 
dency toward  the  rationalistic  explanation  of 
myths.  This  and  other  dialogues  of  Plato  con- 
tain very  beautiful  allegories,  among  which  may 
be  cited  the  comparison  of  the  soul  to  a  char- 
ioteer drawn  by  two  horses,  one  white  and  the 
other  black.  For  Latin  literature  may  be  men- 
tioned the  story  of  Cupid  and  Psyche,  which, 
though  Greek  in  origin,  survives  only  in  the 
Oolden  A88  of  Apuleius,  Vergirs  well-known 
description  of  Fame  in  the  fourth  book  of  the 
JEneidy  and  Ovid's  splendid  picture  of  the  abode 
of  that  goddess  in  the  twelfth  book  of  the  Meta- 
morphoses. To  a  later  time  belongs  Bo^thius's 
De  Consolatione  PhiloaophicB  (sixth  century 
A.D.).  w^hich  was  one  of  the  widest  read  books  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  most  flourishing  period  for 
the  allegory  in  Western  Europe  was  from  1300 
to  1600.  In  the  long  list  of  works  are  Dante's 
Divine  Comedy,  The  Romance  of  the  Rose,  Lang- 
land's  Piers  Plowman,  Chaucer's  House  of  Fame, 
the  writings  of  a  whole  school  of  Scotch  poets, 
Hawes's  Pastime  of  Pleasure,  Barclay's  Ship  of 
Fools,  and  Spenser's  Faerie  Queen.  Set  allegory 
has  now  gone  out  of  fashion,  but  we  have  in  it's 
place  a  vaguer  symbolism,  as  in  Tennyson's 
Idylls  of  the  King. 

The  form  of  allegory  thus  defined  and  illus- 
trated is  often  called  moral  or  spiritual,  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  historical  allegory;  i.e., 
the  representation  of  historical  characters  under 
fictitious  names.  Thus  Lucifera  in  the  Faerie 
Queen  stands  not  only  for  pride,  but  also  for 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  The  historical  allegory 
became  in  the  seventeenth  century  a  favorite 
device  of  romancers,  who  described  contemporaiy 
events  in  the  terms  of  recent  history.  Of  this 
style,  an  admirable  example  is  Madame  de  Lafa- 
yette's PHncesse  de  CUves.  Moreover,  allegory 
is  not  confined  to  literature;  it  appears  equally 
in  painting,  and  sometimes  in  sculpture. 

A1.LE6ORICAL  Interpretation.  That  kind  of 
interpretation  whereby  the  literal  meaning  of  a 
passage  or  work  is  set  aside  for  a  more  spiritual 
and  profound  import.  St.  Paul  allegorizes 
when  he  interprets  the  history  of  the  free-born 
liuac  and  the  slave-born  Ishmael  (Galatians 
iv  :24).  At  Alexandria,  where  met  the  Greek 
and  the  Jew,  allegorical  intrepretation  of  the 
Old  Testament  was  practiced  as  a  critical  method. 
Philo  Judieus  (B.C.,  20),  for  example,  applied 
the  principles  of  Plato's  philosophy  to  Hebrew 
theology.  He  was  followed  by  many  Christian 
theologians,  the  most  famous  of  whom  were 
Clement  of  Alexandria  and  Origen.  The  latter 
went  so  far  as  to  say  that  "the  Scriptures  are  of 
little  use  to  those  who  understand  them  as  they 
are  written."  As  a  specimen  of  his  procedure 
may  be  taken  his  interpretation  of  the  Mosaic 
account  of  the  Garden  of  Eden.     According  to 


him.  Paradise  symbolized  a  high  primeval  spir- 
ituality; the  Fall  consisted  in  the  loss  of  this 
state  through  spiritual  and  not  material  tempta- 
tion; and  the  expulsion  from  the  Garden  lay  in 
the  soul's  being  driven  out  of  its  region  of  orig- 
inal purity.  This  allegorical  method  also  gained 
foothold  among  the  critics  of  Greek  literature. 
Porphyry  (d.  c.  305),  for  example,  explained  the 
erotto  of  the  nymphs  in  Homer's  Odyssey  ( Book 
All  I. )  as  an  allegory  of  the  world.  For  a  succinct 
account  of  the  progress  of  allegory  with  special 
reference  to  English  literature,  consult  w.  J. 
Courthope,  A  History  of  English  Poetry  (Lon- 
don, 1895). 

ALLEGBI,  kl-Wgr^,  Antonio.  See  Cobbeo- 
010. 

ALLEGBI,  Greoobio  (c.  1584-1652).  An  Ita- 
lian composer.  He  was  born  in  Rome,  probably 
of  the  Correggio  family.  He  studied  under  Nan- 
ini,  and  was  a  friend  of  Palestrina.  Appointed 
to  the  choir  of  the  Sistine  Chapel,  Rome,  by  Ur- 
ban VIII.,  he  retained  the  position  until  his 
death.  He  was  one  of  the  earliest  composers  for 
stringed  instruments.  His  most  celebrated  work, 
however,  is  the  Miserere,  for  two  choirs  (of 
four  and  five  parts),  still  annually  rendered  in 
the  Sistine  Chapel  on  Good  Friday.  Mozart,  at 
the  age  of  fourteen,  performed  the  wonderful 
feat  of  writing  the  entire  work  from  memory 
after  having  heard  it  but  once.  Allegri  is  re- 
garded as  a  link  between  the  Roman  and  Nea- 
politan periods  of  Italian  music. 

ALLEGBO,  kl'Wfrrd  (It.  from  Lat.  alacer, 
alacrious,  lively).  One  of  the  five  principal 
tempos  (q.v.)  in  music,  implying  that  the  piece 
is  to  be  performed  in  a  quick  or  lively  style. 
Allegk-o,  like  all  the  other  degrees  of  movement, 
is  often  modified  by  other  terms,  such  as  Allegro 
non  tanto,  Allegro  ma  non  troppo,  Allegro  mod- 
erato,  maestoso,  giusto,  commodo,  vivace,  assai, 
di  molto,  con  brio,  etc.  As  a  substantive,  Alle- 
gro is  used  as  the  name  of  a  whole  piece  of 
music,  or  a  movement  of  a  symphony,  sonata,  or 
quartet.  Allegretto,  a  diminutive  of  Allegro, 
somewhat  slower  than  the  latter  and  faster  than 
Andante. 

ALLEUSTEf  ftHen,  Joseph  (1634-68).  An 
English  nonconformist  divine,  author  of  An 
Alarm  to  the  Unconverted.  He  was  born  at 
Devizes,  86  miles  west  of  London,  was  educated 
in  Corpus  Christi  College,  Oxford,  and  became  a 
tutor  there  (1653).  He  was  offered  a  political 
place,  which  he  declined,  but  gladly  took  the 
office  of  assistant  to  George  Newton,  rector  of 
the  church  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene,  Taunton 
(1654).  About  this  time  he  married  Theodosia, 
daughter  of  Richard  Alleine.  He  was  not  only 
constant  in  religious  work,  but  deeply  learned  in 
various  sciences,  and  on  intimate  terms  with  the 
patriarchs  of  the  Royal  Society.  When  the  perse- 
cution of  nonconformists  came,  he  and  his  senior 
pastor  were  ejected,  and  Alleine  became  an 
itinerant  preacher  of  the  Gospel  wherever  he 
could  find  opportunity.  For  this  he  was  im- 
prisoned, but  released  in  May,  1664;  yet  in  spite 
of  the  CJonventicle  Act  or  Five-mile  Act,  he  pur- 
sued his  work,  and  was  again  imprisoned.  His 
later  years  were  full  of  persecution  and  suffer- 
ing. No  Puritan  nonconformist  name  is  more 
affectionately  cherished  than  his.  He  died  at 
Taunton,  November  17,  1668.  For  his  life,  con- 
sult Stanford  (London,  1861). 


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AIiLEIHS. 


366 


ALUSir. 


AI/LEIHE,  or  ALLEXK,  Kichard  (1611- 
81).  An  English  writer  and  theologian,  author 
of  Vindicio!  Fietatis,  or  A  Vindication  of  Godli- 
n€88  (London,  1663).  He  was  bom  at  Ditcheat, 
Somersetshire,  educated  at  Oxford;  became  as- 
sistant in  the  ministry  to  his  father,  Richard 
Alleine,  and  was  noted  for  his  eloquence.  He 
declared  for  the  Puritans,  but  continued  for 
twenty  years  (1641-62),  rector  of  Batcombe  in 
Somerset.  On  the  passage  of  the  act  of  uni- 
formity he  went  with  the  ejected,  and,  after  the 
five-mile  act,  preached  where  he  could  find 
occasion.  His  Vindication  of  Godliness  was  re- 
fused license,  and  Roger  Norton,  the  King's  print- 
er, caused  a  large  part  of  the  first  edition  to 
be  seized  and  sent  to  the  royal  kitchen  for  kin- 
dling; but,  on  reading  it,  he  brought  back  the 
sheets  and  sold  the  work  from  his  own  shop,  for 
which  he  had  to  beg  pardon  on  his  knees  at  the 
council  table.  AUeine  died  at  Frome  Selwood, 
December   22,.  1681. 

AliliEHAIKE,  ftl-mfln^  An  old  name  for 
Germany   (cf.  Fr.  Alletnagne).     See  Almain. 

ATiTiEirAyPE,  &n^m&nd^  (Fr.  feminine  of 
allemand,  Oerman).  A  French  dance,  said  to 
have  been  invented  in  the  time  of  Louis  XIV., 
which  again  became  popular  at  the  Parisian 
theatres  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  I. 
It  has  a  slow  waltz  kind  of  tempo,  and  consists 
of  three  steps  (pas  marchis)  made  in  a  sliding 
manner,  backward  and  forward,  but  seldom 
waltzing  or  turning  round.  The  whole  charm 
of  the  dance  lies  in  the  graceful  manner  of  en- 
twining and  detaching  the  arms  in  the  different 
steps.  In  England  it  was  called  Almain,  and  is 
mentioned  in  Ben  Jonson's  play.  The  Devil  is  an 
Ass,  acted  in  1610,  which  proves  it  of  earlier 
origin.  The  name  has  also  reference  to  a  Ger- 
man dance  of  Suabia,  of  which  Beethoven's 
twelve  Deutsche  Tiinze  for  orchestra  are  speci- 
mens. The  Allemande  is  also  the  name  of  a 
movement  in  the  Suite  (q.v.),  having  no  rela- 
tion to  the  dance  of  the  same  name.  It  usually 
consists  of  a  figurative  melody  which  has  a 
simple   accompaniment. 

AliXEMAK^I.     See  Alemanni. 

Ali^BK.  Alexander  Viets  Gbiswold,  D.D. 
(1841 — ).  A  Protestant  Episcopal  theologian, 
born  at  Otis,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Kenyon 
College  in  1862,  and  at  Andover  Theological  Sem- 
inary in  1865.  In  1867  he  became  professor  of 
church  history  in  the  Episcopal  Theological 
School  at  Cambridge,  Mass.  His  publications 
include  Continuity  of  Christian  Thought  (Bos- 
ton, 1884,  eleventh  edition,  1895),  Life  of  Jona- 
than Edwards  (1889),  Religious  Progress 
(1894),  Christian  Institutions  (New  York, 
(1897),  Life  and  Letters  of  Phillips  Brooks 
(1901,  two  volumes). 

ALLEN,  Arabella.  A  character  in  Dick- 
ens's Pickwick  Papers,  She  becomes  Mrs.  Nathan- 
iel Winkle. 

ALLEN,  Charles  Grant  Blairfindie  (1848- 
99).  An  English  author,  better  known  as 
Grant  Allen.  He  was  born  in  Kingston,  Canada, 
of  Irish  descent,  and  was  educated  at  Merton 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated  in  1871. 
He  then  spent  a  few  years  as  principal  of  a 
colonial  college  in  Jamaica.  He  is  best  known 
by  his  popular  scientific  works,  his  expositions 
of  the  theory  of  evolution  being  particularly 
clear  and  readable.    He  spent  most  of  his  life 


in  London,  where  he  died.  Among  his  scientific 
books  the  following  may  be  mentioned:  Phyno- 
logioal  Esthetics  (1877),  probably  his  best 
work;  The  Color  Sense  (1879),  The  Evolutimist 
at  Large  (1881),  Vignettes  from  Nature 
(1881),  Colin  Clout's  Calendar  (1883),  Flowers 
and  their  Pedigrees  (1884),  The  Story  of  the 
Plants  (1896),  and  Evolution  of  the  Idea  of  God 
(1897).  He  also  wrote  a  life  of  Charles  Dar- 
win (1885),  and  a  number  of  novels,  among 
them:  Philistia  (1884),  The  Devils  Die 
(1888),  The  Woman  Who  Did  (1895),  A 
Bride  from  the  Desert  (1896).  Historical 
studies  also  attracted  him,  and  he  pub- 
lished Anglo-Saxon  Britain  (1881),  and  a  series 
of  historical  guide  books  to  Paris,  Florence,  and 
Belgium. 

ALLEN,  Charles  Herbert  (1848 — ).  An 
American  politician.  He  was  bom  at  Lowell, 
Mass.,  graduated  in  1869  at  Amherst  College, 
and  for  a  time  was  in  the  lumber  industry  at 
Xx)well.  In  1881-82  he  served  in  the  Lower  House 
of  the  Massachusetts  State  Legislature,  and  in 
1883  in  the  State  Senate.  He  was  subsequentW 
elected  to  the  Forty-ninth  and  Fiftieth  (1885-89) 
Congresses.  In  1898  he  succeeded  President 
Theodore  Roosevelt  as  Assistant-Secretary  of  the 
Navy,  and  in  1900-01  was  the  first  civil  governor 
of  the  Island  of  Puerto  Rico.  His  administra- 
tion of  the  affairs  of  the  island  did  much  to  pro- 
mote trade  and  internal  prosperity. 

ALLEN,  David  Ouver  ( 1800-63) .  An  Amer- 
ican missionary,  bom  at  Barre,  Mass.  He  grad- 
uated in  1823  at  Amherst  College,  studied  at  An- 
dover Theological  Seminary,  and  in  1827  went 
to  Bombay  as  a  missionary.  He  traveled  widely 
in  western  India,  established  schools,  directed 
a  new  translation  of  the  Bible  into  Mahratta, 
and  in  1853  returned,  much  broken  in  health,  to 
America.  His  History  of  India  waa  publi^ed 
at  Boston  in  1856. 

ALLEK,  Ebenezeb  (1743-1806).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier.  He  was  bom  in  Northampton, 
Mass.,  and  removed  to  Vermont  in  1771.  He 
became  a  lieutenant  in  a  company  of  Green 
Mountain  Boys,  and  during  Uie  Revolution 
served  first  as  captain  in  and  then  as  major  of 
a  battalion  of  New  Hampshire  rangers.  He  was 
conspicuous  for  gallantly  at  the  little  of  Ben- 
nin^n,  and  in  September,  1777,  forced  the  evac- 
uation of  Ticonderoga  by  his  capture  of  Mount  De- 
fiance. 

ALLEN,  Edward  Patrick  (1853 — ).  A 
Roman  Catholic  bishop  of  Mobile,  Ala.,  appointed 
in  1897.  He  was  born  at  Lowell,  Mass.,  and 
after  completing  a  theological  course  at  Mount 
St.  Mary's  College,  Emmettsburg,  Md.,  was  or- 
dained a  priest  in  1881.  Afterward  he  held 
a  professorship  at  Mount  St.  Mary's,  and  was 
its  president  from  1884  until  he  was  consecrated 
bishop  by  Cardinal  Gibbons.  During  his  admin- 
istration he  relieved  the  college  of  its  heavy 
indebtedness,  increased  its  equipment,  and  en- 
larged its  faculty. 

ALLEN,  Elisha  Hunt  (1804-83) .  An  Amer- 
ican politician  and  Hawaiian  justice,  bom  at 
New  Salem,  Mass.  He  CTaduated  at  Williams 
College,  was  called  to  the  Massachusetts  bar,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  State  Legislature  of  Maine 
from  1836  to  1841,  and  in  1846.  In  1849  he 
was  elected  to  the  Massachusetts  Legislature, 
and  from  1852  to  1856  was  United  States  consul 


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at  Honolulu,  Hawaii.  In  1857-76  he  was  Chan- 
cellor and  Chief  Justice  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
and  from  that  time  was  Minister  of  the  Hawai- 
ian Islands  to  the  United  States. 

ALLEN,  Elizabeth  Akebs  (1832 — ).  An 
American  author,  born  at  Strong,  Me.  Her 
verses,  entitled  "Rock  Me  to  Sleep,  Mother," 
became  widely  known,  and  were  frequently  set 
to  music.  This  poem  had  previously  appeared 
in  the  Philadelphia  Saturday  Evening  Post,  the 
manuscript  having  been  sent  to  that  paper  by  the 
authoress  in  1860  while  on  a  visit  to  Italy.  Mrs. 
Allen  began  to  write  under  the  pen-name  Flor- 
ence Percy.  She  has  produced  several  volumes 
of  poetry  and  some  prose. 

ALLEN,  Ethan  (1737-89).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  at  Litchfield,  Conn.,  and 
about  1769  removed  to  Vermont,  settling  first 
at  Bennington,  where  he  became  conspicuous  in 
the  contest  between  New  Hampshire  and  New 
York  for  jurisdiction  over  the  "New  Hampshire 
Grants,"  now  Vermont.  He  represented  his  fel- 
low settlers  in  a  suit  at  Albany  in  177 1»  but  their 
claims  being  disregarded,  he  organized  a  force  of 
Green  Mountain  Boys  for  the  eviction  of  New 
York  settlers.  Governor  Tryon,  of  New  York, 
thereupon  declared  him  an  outlaw,  and  offered 
$150  for  his  arrest.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Rev- 
olution, Allen  and  his  associates  offered  their 
services  to  the  patriot  party,  and  organized  an 
expedition  against  Ticonderoga  (q.v.).  On  the 
morning  of  May  10,  1776,  he  surprised  the  gar- 
rison and  forced  its  commander  to  surrender  "in 
the  name  of  the  great  Jehovah  and  the  Contin- 
ental Congress."  Allen  soon  afterward  joined 
General  Schuyler's  army,  was  employed  in  secret 
missions  to  Canada,  and  rendered  valuable  aid 
in  Montgomery's  expedition.  He  was  taken 
prisoner,  September  25,  1775,  near  Montreal, 
and  was  sent  to  England.  Some  months  later  he 
was  sent  back  to  this  country  and  was  kept  as  a 
prisoner  in  Halifax  and  New  York  until  May 
3,  1778,  when  he  was  exchanged.  After  his  re- 
lease, he  returned  to  Vermont,  was  put  in  com- 
mand of  the  militia,  and  soon  afterward 
became  a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  Contin- 
ental army;  though  he  devoted  his  attention 
chiefly  to  the  old  territorial  dispute,  and,  inci- 
dentally, carried,  on  a  correspondence  with  the 
enemy,  upon  which  a  charge  of  treason  was  sub- 
sequently based.  No  satisfactory  explanation 
has  ever  been  given  of  his  conduct,  but  the  charge 
of  treason  is  at  least  not  fully  substantiated. 
He  moved  to  Burlington  in  1787,  and  died  there 
two  years  later.  Though  a  blusterer,  he  was  as 
full  of  action  as  he  was  of  talk,  and  had  very 
great  ability  as  a  leader  both  in  politics  and  in 
war.  He  wrote  a  Narrative  of  Colonel  Ethan 
Allen's  Captivity  (1779),  which  went  into 
numerous  editions;  a  Vindication  of  the  Opposi- 
tion of  Vermont  to  the  Government  of  New  York 
(1779),  and  Reason  the  Only  Oracle  of  Man,  or 
A  Compendious  System  of  Natural  Religion, 
Consult  Henry  Hall,  Ethan  Allen  (New  York, 
1892). 

ALLEN,  Frederic  de  Forest  (1854-97). 
An  American  classical  scholar.  He  w^as  born 
at  Oberlin,  Ohio,  and  graduated  at  Oberlin 
College  in  1863.  He  was  at  Leipzig  in  1868-70, 
and  took  his  Ph.D.  with  his  thesis  Dc  Dialecto 
Locrensium,  which  is  still  an  important  mono- 
graph. In  1885-86  he  was  director  of  the  Ameri- 
can School  of  Classical  Studies  at  Athens.    In  ad- 


dition to  numerous  articles  in  clas&ical  journals 
he  published  an  edition  of  the  Medea  of  Euripides 
(1876)  ;  Remnants  of  Early  Latin  (1880)  ;  a  re- 
vision of  Hadley's  Greek  Grammar  (1884),  and 
(h-eek  Versification  in  Inscriptions   (1888). 

ALLEN,  Fred  Hovey  (1845—).  An  Ameri- 
can Congregational  clergyman  and  author.  Bom 
at  Lynn,  N.  H.  He  graduated  at  the  Hartford 
Theological  Seminary,  studied  at  Boston  Univer- 
sity and  the  Universities  of  Berlin,  Vienna,  and 
Paris,  and  has  held  pastorates  in  Boston,  Abing- 
ton,  Mass.,  and  Rockland,  Mass.  He  founded  and 
for  some  time  edited  the  Lawrence  (Mass.) 
Eagle,  and  is  editor  of  the  Suffolk  County  Jour- 
nal, of  Boston.  The  text  for  such  art  works  as 
Masterpieces  of  Modem  German  Art  (1884),  Re- 
cent German  Art  (1885),  and  Grand  Modem 
Paintings  (1888),  was  written  by  him. 

ALLEN,  Grant.  See  Allen,  Charles  Grant 
Blairfindie. 

ALLEN,  Harrison  (1841-97).  An  American 
physician  and  anatomist.  He  was  born  in  Phil- 
delphia,  and  graduated  in  medicine  at  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  in  1861.  In  1862  he 
became  a  surgeon  in  the  United  States  army, 
and  served  until  the  conclusion  of  the  Civil  War. 
In  1865  he  was  made  professor  of  comparative 
anatomy  and  medical  zoOlogy  at  the  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  was  transferred  in  1878 
to  the  chair  of  physiology,  which  he  occupied 
until  1895.  Dr.  Allen  was  professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  at  the  Philadelphia  Dental  College, 
and  surgeon  to  the  Philadelphia  Hospital.  He 
was  president  of  the  American  Laryngological 
Society  in  1886  and  of  the  American  Anatomical 
Society  from  1891  to  1893.  In  addition  to  many 
papers  contributed  to  medical  journals,  he  was 
the  author  of  Outlines  of  Comparative  Anatomy 
and  Medical  Zoology  (1867),  Studies  in  the 
Facial  Region  (1874),  An  Analysis  of  the  Life 
Form  in  Art  ( 1875) ,  and  System  of  Human  Anat- 
omy (1880). 

ALLEN,  Henry  (1748-84).  An  American 
religious  enthusiast.  He  was  born  at  Newport, 
R.  I.,  but  afterward  settled  in  Nova  Scotia,  where 
he  taught  that  the  souls  of  all  men  are  emana- 
tions from  the  same  Spirit;  that  they  were 
present  with  our  first  parents  in  Eden;  that 
Adam  and  Eve  in  innocency  were  pure  spirits 
without  material  bodies;  that  there  will  be  no 
resurrection  of  the  body ;  that  men  are  not  bound 
to  obey  the  ordinances  of  the  Gospel,  and  that 
the  Scriptures  are  not  to  be  interpreted  literally, 
but  in  a  spiritual  sense.  He  published  a  volume 
of  hymns  and  several  treatises  and  sermons. 
Though  he  made  many  converts  to  his  religious 
ideas,  the  Allenites  dwindled  after  his  death. 

ALLEN,  Henry  Watkins  (1820-66).  An 
American  soldier  and  politician.  He  was  born 
in  Prince  Edward  Co.,  Va.;  taught  school  and 
practiced  law.  In  1842  he  raised  a  company, 
and  served  in  the  Texan  war  against  Mexico. 
He  removed  to  Louisiana  in  1850,  and  was  subse- 
quently a  member  of  the  State  Legislature.  After 
studying  law  at  Harvard  and  traveling  in 
Europe,  he  entered  the  Confederate  service  in 
1861  as  lieutenant-colonel.  He  was  wounded  at 
Baton  Rouge  and  at  Shiloh,  became  a  brigadier- 
general  in  1864,  and  in  the  same  year  was  elected 
Governor  of  Louisiana,  in  which  capacity  he 
rendered  valuable  services  to  the  Confederate  gov- 
ernment. After  the  war  he  removed  to  the 
City  of  Mexico,  and  edited  the  Mexican  Times. 


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He  wrote  a  readable  book  entitled  Travels  of  a 
Sugar  Planter. 

ALLEN,  Horace  N.  (1858—).  United  States 
minister  in  Korea.  He  was  born  April  23,  1858, 
in  Delaware,  O.,  graduated  in  the  Ohio  Wesleyan 
University,  studied  medicine,  and  went  as  med- 
ical missionary  (Presbyterian)  to  China.  In 
1884,  at  the  time  of  the  coup  d'Stat  of  Kim  Ok 
Kiun,  he  was  at  Seoul,  Korea,  and  saved  the  life 
of  a  relative  of  Queen  Ming.  He  was  made  court 
physician,  and  established  a  hospital  under  gov- 
ernment control.  When  the  first  Korean  lega- 
tion went  to  Washington  in  1887,  he  acted  as 
interpreter  and  secretary.  Returning  to  Korea 
in  1890,  he  soon  became  noted  for  his  knowledge 
of  Korean  affairs,  and  in  1897  was  made  United 
States  minister  plenipotentiary  to  the  Korean 
Empire.  Publications:  Korean  Tales;  A  Chron- 
ological Index  of  the  Chief  Events  in  the  Foreign 
Intercourse  of  Kore^,  and  many  learned  articles 
in  The  Korean  Repository  and  the  Transactions 
of  the  Asiatic  Society  of  Korea. 

ALLEN,  Horatio,  LL.D.  ( 1802-89) .  An  Amer- 
ican civil  engineer.  He  was  born  at  Schenectady, 
N.  Y.,  graduated  in  1823  at  Columbia,  and  in 
1826  was  appointed  resident  engineer  of  the 
aummit  level  of  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal. 
He  was  sent  to  England  in  1828  to  buy  locomo- 
tives for  the  canal  company's  projected  railway, 
and  in  1829,  at  Honesdale,  Pa.,  the  initial  point 
of  the  railway,  operated  the  "Stourbridge  Lion" 
in  the  first  trip  made  by  a  locomotive  on  this 
continent.  From  1829  to  1834  he  was  the  chief 
engineer  of  the  South  Carolina  Railway,  at  that 
time  the  longest  railway  in  the  world,  and  from 
1838  to  1842  was  principal  assistant  engineer 
of  the  Croton  aqueduct  for  supplying  water  to 
New  York  City.  He  was  at  various  times  chief 
engineer  and  president  of  the  Erie  Railway,  and 
consulting  engineer  for  the  Panama  Railway  and 
the  Brooklyn  Bridge.  In  1872  and  1873  he  was 
president  of  the  American  Society  of  Civil  Engi- 
neers. He  was  the  inventor  of  the  so-called 
**6wiveling  truck"  for  railway  cars. 

ALLEN,  Ira  ( 1751-1814) .  One  of  the  found- 
ers of  Vermont.  He  was  born  in  Cornwall, 
Conn.,  and  in  1772  removed  to  Vermont,  where 
he  served  as  a  lieutenant  under  his  brother, 
Ethan,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the  boundary 
dispute  between  New  York  and  New  Hampshire. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Vermont  Legislature 
(1776-77),  and  of  the  State  Constitutional  Con- 
vention (1778),  and  in  1780-81  was  a  commis- 
sioner to  Congress.  He  went  to  France  in  1795 
and  bought  20,000  muskets  and  24  cannon,  in- 
tending to  sell  them  to  Vermont;  but  he  was 
captured  at  sea,  and  taken  to  England  on  a 
charge  of  furnishing  arms  to  Irish  rebels.  He 
was  acquitted  after  a  lawsuit  that  lasted  eight 
years.  He  published  The  Natural  and  Political 
History  of  Vermont  (London,  1798),  and  State- 
ments Appended  to  the  Olive  Branch   (1807). 

ALLEN,  James  Lane  (1849 — ).  An  Amer- 
ican novelist.  He  was  born  in  Kentucky,  and 
graduated  at  Transylvania  University.  He 
taught  first  in  Kentucky  University,  and  after- 
ward at  Bethany  College,  West  Virginia,  but 
after  1886  devoted  himself  entirely  to  literature, 
publishing  successively  Flute  and  Violin  (1891), 
The  Blue  Grass  Region^  and  Other  Sketches 
(1892),  John  Cray:  a  Novel  (1893),  The  Ken- 
tucky Cardinal  (1894),  Aftermath  (1895),  A 
Summer  in  Arcady  (1896),  The  Choir  Invisible 


(a  rewriting  of  John  Cray,  1897),  and  The 
Reign  of  Law  (1900).  His  stories  deal  mainly 
with  life  and  nature  in  Kentucky,  and  are  elab- 
orate in  stylistic  art.  His  short  stories,  such 
as  The  White  Cowl  and  Sister  Dolorosa,  were  the 
first,  and  are  among  the  best  fruits  of  his  genius. 
His  later  works,  however,  show  more  conscious 
artistic  elaboration. 

ALLEN,  Jebome  (1830-94).  An  American 
educator.  He  was  bom  at  Westminster  West, 
Vt.,  and  graduated  at  Amherst  College  in  1851. 
He  was  at  the  head  of  several  educational  in- 
stitutions in  the  West  from  1851  to  1885,  and 
professor  of  pedagogy  at  the  University  of 
New  York  from  1887  to  1893.  To  his  ef 
forts  more  than  to  any  other  agency  was 
due  the  founding  of  the  New  York  school  of 
pedagogy,  of  which  he  became  dean  in  18S9. 
Professor  Allen's  publications  include  a  Rani- 
hook  of  Experimental  Chemistry,  Methods  for 
Teachers  in  Cframmar,  Mind  Studies  for  Young 
Teachers^  and  Temperament  in  Education. 

ALLEN,  Joel  Asaph  (1838 — ).  An  Ameri- 
can naturalist.  He  was  born  at  Springfield, 
Mass.,  July  19,  1838.  Between  1865  and  1869, 
and  again  in  1873,  he  took  part  in  various  scien- 
tific expeditions  to  Brazil  and  Florida,  and  to  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  gathering  material  and  con- 
tributing studies  of  it  to  scientific  periodicals, 
especially  the  proceedings  of  the  Boston  Society 
of  Natural  History.  In  1870  he  became  an  as- 
sistant in  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology 
at  Harvard  University,  and  later  its  curator  of 
birds  and  mammals.  In  1886  he  was  appointed 
to  a  similar  office  in  the  American  Museum  of 
Natural  History  in  New  York.  He  was  one  of 
the  founders  and  early  presidents  of  the  Ameri- 
can Ornithologists*  Union  and  the  editor  of  its 
quarterly  publication,  The  Auk,  and  one  of  the 
early  members  of  the  National  Academy.  Dr. 
Allen  has  won  rank  as  one  of  the  foremost  sys- 
temists  of  American  mammals  and  birds,  in 
which  work  he  has  made  minute  subdivisions; 
and  has  made  fruitful  researches  into  the  prin- 
ciples of  geographical  distribution,  and  those 
governing  climatic  and  seasonal  variation  in 
color,  size,  and  other  details.  In  addition  to  a 
great  number  of  scientific  papers,  he  is  author 
of  The  American  Bisons  (Cambridge,  1876)  ; 
Monographs  of  North  American  Rodentia  (with 
E.  Coues)  (Washington,  1877)  ;  and  History  of 
North  American  Pinnipedia  (Washington,  1880). 

ALLEN,  Joseph  Henry  (1820-98).  A  Uni- 
tarian scholar.  He  was  born  at  Northborough, 
Mass.,  August  21,  1820;  graduated  at  Harvard 
College,  1840,  and  at  the  Divinity  School  ir. 
1843.  He  was  pastor  at  different  places;  editor 
of  The  Christian  Examiner,  1857-69;  lecturer 
upon  ecclesiastical  history  in  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, 1878-82;  joint  editor  (with  J.  B.  Greenough) 
of  a  series  of  classical  text-books;  author  of 
Hebrew  Men  and  Times  [to  the  Christian  era] 
(Boston,  1861)  ;  Christian  History  in  its  Three 
Great  Periods.  (1)  Early  Christianity,  (2) 
The  Middle  Age,  (3)  Modern  Phases  (1882- 
83,  3  volumes)  ;  Our  Liberal  Movement  in 
Theology,  Chiefly  as  Shovm  in  Recollections  of 
the  History  of  Unitarianism  in  New  England 
(1882),  Historical  Sketch  of  the  Unitarian 
Movement  since  the  Reformation  (New  York. 
1894).  His  works  show  independent  study  and 
acquaintance  with  the  sources,  and  his  denom- 
inational histories  rest  upon  personal  acquain- 


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tance  with  the  leaders.  He  died  in  Cambridge, 
MsLss.,  March. 29,  1898. 

ALLEN,  Kabl  Ferdikand  (1811-71).  A 
Danish  historian,  bom  at  Copenhagen.  He 
studied  at  the  university  there,  and.  in  1845  to 
1848  made  examinations  of  various  European 
archives.  He  was  appointed  an  instructor  and 
titular  professor  at  Copenhagen  in  1851,  and 
professor  of  history  and  northern  archaeology  in 
1862.  His  principal  work  is  his  De  Tre  Nordiske 
Rigers  Historie,  U97-1536  (The  History  of  the 
Three  Northern  Kingdoms,  1497-1636,  6  vol- 
umes, 1864-72),  one  of  the  most  important 
contributions  to  the  history  of  northern  Europe. 

ALLEN,  Ralph  (1694-1764).  An  English 
philanthropist.  He  was  known  for  his  numer- 
ous benefactions,  and  as  a  friend  of  Fielding 
(who  represents  him  as  Squire  Allworthy  in  Tom 
Jones),  of  Pitt,  and  of  Pope,  who  in  the  epilogue 
to  the  Satires  of  Horace,  says  of  him: 

*'Let  humble  Allen,  with  an  awkward  shame, 
Do  good  bj  stealth,  and  blush  to  And  it  fame.'* 

ALLEN,  Richard  (1760-1831).  A  colored 
Methodist  preacher.  He  was  born  in  slavery, 
but  bought  his  freedom,  and  afterward  acquired 
considerable  wealth.  He  became  a  local  Metho- 
dist preacher  in  1782,  and  organized  the  first 
church  for  colored  people  in  the  United  States, 
in  Philadelphia,  in  1793.  He  was  the  first  col- 
ored minister  ordained  by  Bishop  Asbury,  a 
deacon  (1799),  and  was  elected  a  bishop  of  the 
African  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  on  its  for- 
mation in   1816.     He  died  in  Philadelphia. 

ALLEK,  Robert  (1815-86).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  in  Ohio,  graduated  at 
West  Point  in  1836,  served  with  distinction  in 
the  second  Seminole  War  and  in  the  Mexican 
War,  and  was  subsequently  chief  quartermaster 
of  the  Pacific  division  until  1861,  when  he  be- 
came quartermaster  of  the  Department '  of  Mis- 
souri. In  this  capacity,  and  afterward  (1863- 
66),  as  chief  quartermaster  of  the  Missouri  Val- 
ley, he  rendered  valuable  services  to  the  Federal 
armies  in  the  West,  and  by  successive  promotions 
became  brevet  major-general  in  1865.  After  the 
war  he  was  again  chief  quartermaster  of  the 
Pacific  division,  until  retired  in  1878. 

ALLEN,  Thomas  (1849 — ).  An  American 
landscape  and  animal  painter.  He  was  born  at 
St.  Louis,  Mo.,  studied  at  the  Dfisseldorf  Acad- 
emy, and  has  his  studio  in  Boston.  He  became 
a  member  of  the  Society  of  American  Artists 
(1880),  and  an  associate  member  of  the  National 
Academy  of  Design  (1884),  and  was  one  of  the 
international  board  of  judges  at  Chicago  in 
1893,  His  most  successful  works  are  chiefly 
landscape  and  animal  subjects,  and  include  "O'er 
All  the  Hilltops  is  Rest."  "Maplehurst  at  Noon," 
and  "Toilers  of  the  Plain." 

ALLEN,  Viola  (1867 — ).  An  American  ac- 
tress who  in  1898  made  a  wide  reputation  as 
Glory  Quayle  in  Hall  Caine's  dramatized 
novel.  The  Christian,  in  which  she  starred  with 
great  popular  success.  She  is  the  daughter  of  an 
actor,  C.  Leslie  Allen,  and  appeared  on  the  stage 
when  fifteen  years  old,  in  Esmeralda,  at  the  Mad- 
ison Square  Theatre,  New  York  (1882).  Later 
she  played  in  the  company  of  John  McCullough 
and  with  Tommaso  Salvini,  Lawrence  Barrett, 
Joseph  Jefferson,  and  W.  J.  Florence.  In  1893, 
she  was  at  the  Empire  Theatre,  New  York,  where 
she  remained  four  years.  Among  the  pieces  in 
Vol.  L-«4 


which  she  there  appeared  were  The  Masquerad- 
ers  and  Under  the  Red  Robe,  After  her  seasons 
in  The  Christian,  she  starred  with  In  the 
Palace  of  the  King  (1900),  by  F.  Marion  Craw- 
ford and  Lorimer  Stoddard.  Consult:  L.  C. 
Strang,  Famous  Actresses  of  the  Day  in  Amer- 
ica (Boston,  1899)  ;  J.  B.  Clapp  and  E.  F.  Ed- 
gett.  Players  of  the  Present  (New  York,  1899). 

ALLEN,  William  (1532-94).  An  English 
cardinal.  Born  at  Rossall,  he  studied  in  Oriel 
College,  Oxford,  and  became  principal  of  St. 
Mary's  Hall  in  1556.  He  opposed  the  Reforma- 
tion, and  after  Elizabeth's  accession  he  went  to 
Louvain  (1561).  He  returned  to  England 
(1562),  but  his  proselytizing  zeal  made  another 
flight  necessary,  and  he  went  to  Holland  (1565), 
and  never  revisited  England.  He  was  ordained 
priest  at  Mechlin,  was  more  prominent  in  or- 
ganizing in  the  University  of  Douay  (1568) 
a  college  for  English  Roman  Catholics,  whence 
he  sent  Jesuit  priests  to  his  native  land,  the  aim 
of  his  life  being  to  restore  Papal  supremacy  in 
England.  In  1570  he  became  regius  professor 
of  divinity,  in  1587  a  cardinal,  in  1589  he  was 
offered  the  archbishopric  of  Malines,  but  de- 
clined the  honor.  He  died  at  Rome,  October  16, 
1594.  Consult  his  Letters  and  Memorials,  with 
introduction  by  T.  F.  Knox  (London,  1882). 
He  hated  Elizabeth,  who  expelled  some  of  his 
emissaries,  and  put  some  to  death.  In  one  of  his 
pamphlets  he  made  charges  against  the  Queen 
too  foul  for  decent  pages.  He  was  in  the  Arma- 
da plot,  the  Pope  having  promised  him  the  See  of 
Canterbury  in  case  of  his  success.  He  published 
ten  volumes,  among  them:  Certain  Brief  Rea- 
sons Concerning  Catholic  Faith  (1564),  and 
aided  in  revising  the  English  translation  of  the 
Bible,  by  Gregory  Martin,  known  as  the  Douay 
Bible,  for  which  see  Bible. 

ALLEN,  William  (1770-1843).  An  English 
philanthropist.  He  was  lecturer  on  chemistry  in 
Guy's  Hospital,  fellow  of  the  Royal  Society,  and 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  Pharmaceutical  So- 
ciety. Jointly  with  Samuel  Pepys,  he  established 
the  chemical  composition  of  carbonic  acid.  He 
belonged  to  Sir  Humphry  Davy's  circle  of 
friends,  and  at  his  request  he  lectured  on  physics 
at  the  Royal  Institution.  He  was  a  prominent 
member  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  and  bore  an 
active  part  in  the  philanthropic  movements  of 
his  time.  Wilberforce  and  Clarkson  were  his  in- 
timate friends,  and  he  shared  in  the  anti-slavery 
agitation.  He  was  an  active  supporter  of  Lan- 
caster and  Bell  in  their  educational  movement, 
championing  their  side  of  the  controversy  in  his 
journal,  The  Philanthropist:  and  he  was  associ- 
ated with  Robert  Owen  in  his  schemes  for  social 
improvement.  He  also  founded  industrial  schools, 
and  advocated  the  abolition  of  capital  punish- 
ment. He  contributed  papers  to  the  Philosophi- 
cal Transactions.  Consult  Life  of  William  Al- 
len, with  Selections  from  His  Correspondence  (2 
volumes,  1847). 

ALLEN,  William  (1784-1868).  An  Amer- 
ican educator  and  author.  He  was  born  at 
Pittsfield,  Mass.;  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1802, 
and  after  a  few  years  spent  in  pastoral  work  be- 
came assistant  librarian  at  Harvard.  There  he 
prepared  his  American  Biographical  and  Histor- 
ical Dictionary  (1809),  the  first  work  of  general 
biography  published  in  the  United  States.  The 
third  edition  (1857)  has  notices  of  nearly  7000 
Americans,  while  the  first  has  only  700.    In  1810, 


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ALLEFPL 


he  became  his  father's  successor  in  the  pulpit  in 
Pittsfield.  In  1817  he  was  elected  president  of 
Dartmouth  Ck>llege,  and  from  1820  to  1830  he 
was  president  of  Bowdoin  College.  Allen's  me- 
moir  was  published  in  1847. 

ALLEH,  William  (1806-79).  An  American 
statesman.  He  was  born  in  North  Carolina,  but 
at  an  early  age  went  to  Ohio,  where  he  practiced 
law.  He  was  elected  to  Congress  in  1832  by  the 
Democrats,  but  was  defeated  on  a  second  trial.  He 
was  twice  elected  to  the  United  States  Senate, 
and  served  from  1837  to  1849.  In  1848  he  was 
offered  the  nomination  for  President,  but  de- 
clined it  on  the  ground  that  he  was  pledged  to 
General  Lewis  Cass.  In  1873  he  was  elected  Gov- 
ernor of  Ohio.  Two  years  afterward  he  was  a 
candidate  for  reflection,  but  as  he  made  his  can- 
vas on  the  greenback  issue,  of  which  cause  he 
had  become  the  foremost  advocate,  he  was  de- 
feated by  R.  B.  Hayes.  He  is  said  to  be  the  au- 
thor of  the  famous  alliterative  slogan  of  the 
campaign  of  1844,  "Fifty-four  forty,  or  fight." 

ALLEN,  W1LLL4.M  FBANCI8  (1830-89).  An 
American  educator  and  historian,  joint  editor  of 
Allen  and  Greenough's  series  of  school  books.  He 
was  born  at  Northborough,  Mass.,  and  graduated 
at  Harvard  in  1861.  He  studied  history  and  an- 
tiquities in  Germany  and  Italy  for  two  years, 
and  afterward  became  professor  of  Latin  and  Ro- 
man history  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  a 
position  which  he  filled  from  1867  until  his  death. 
In  addition  to  his  text  books,  he  published  many 
works  of  standard  merit,  including  Outline  Stud- 
ies in  the  History  of  Ireland  ( 1887 ) . 

ALLEN,  William  Henry  (1784-1813).  An 
American  naval  officer.  He  was  born  in  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  and  entered  the  ^avy  in  1800.  He 
was  a  lieutenant  on  the  frigate  United  States  in 
the  action  with  the  Macedoniany  October  25,  1812, 
in  which  the  latter  was  captured.  Afterward  he 
commanded  the  brig  Argus^  cruising  off  England 
in  1813.  After  having  captured  $2,000,000  worth 
of  property,  he  encountered  the  British  brig  Pel- 
ican, August  14,  and  lost  his  own  vessel,  and 
died  the  next  day  of  wounds  received  in  the  fight. 

ALLEN,  William  Henry,  LL.D.  (1808-82). 
An  American  educator.  He  was  born  at  Man- 
chester, Me.,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College 
in  1833.  He  was  profesor  of  Latin  and  Greek  at 
Cazenovia  (N.  Y.)  Seminary  from  1833  to  1836; 
of  natural  philosophy  and  chemistry  in  Dickin- 
son College,  1836-46;  of  philosophy  and  English 
literature  there  from  1846  to  1849;  president  of 
Girard  College,  Philadelphia,  1849-62  and  1867- 
82.  In  1872  he  was  chosen  president  of  the  Amer- 
ican Bible  Society. 

ALLEN,  ZACHARiAn  (1795-1882).  An  Amer- 
ican scientist  and  inventor.  He  was  born  in 
Providence,  R.  I.,  graduated  at  Brown  University 
in  1813,  studied  law  in  the  office  of  James  Burrill, 
and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1815.  Subse- 
quently he  became  a  manufacturer,  and  in  1825 
visited  Europe  for  the  study  of  mechanical  meth- 
ods in  England,  Holland,  and  France.  He  con- 
structed (1821)  the  first  hot-air  furnace  for  the 
heating  of  dwelling-houses,  was  the  first  to  cal- 
culate the  motive  power  of  Niagara  Falls  ( Silli- 
man*s  Journal,  April,  1844),  devised  the  system 
of  mutual  insurance  of  mill  property,  and  framed 
new  laws  for  regulating  the  sale  of  explosive  oils. 
In  1833  he  patented  his  best-known  invention, 
the  automatic  cut-off  valve  for  steam  engines, 
still  in  use  with  improvements.    He  was  from 


1822  a  member,  and  from  1880  president,  of  the 
Rhode  Island  Historical  Society.  His  publica- 
tions include  The  Science  of  Mechanics  (1829), 
Philosophy  of  the  Mechanics  of  Nature  (1851), 
The  Rhode  Island  System  of  Treatment  of  the 
Indians,  and  of  Establishing  Civil  and  Religious 
Liberty  ( 1 876 ;  address  at  the  bi-centennial  anni- 
versary of  the  burning  of  Providence),  and 
Solar  Light  and  Heat,  tlie  Source  and  Supply 
(1879).  Consult  Perry,  Memorial  of  ZachariaK 
Allen,  1795-1882  (Cambridge,  1883). 

ALLENDE,  ft-yftn'dA,  or  SAN  MIGXTEL  DE 
ALLENDE.  An  historic  city  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  state  of  Guanajuato,  Mexico,  situated 
on  the  Lara  River,  40  miles  north  of  Celaya 
( Map :  Mexico,  H  3 ) .  It  figured  prominently  in 
the  first  period  of  the  revolution  against  Spain,, 
taking  its  modern  name  from  one  of  the  great 
patriot  leaders,  I^acio  de  Allende.  The  town'» 
principal  industries  are  blanket-making  and  the 
manufacture  of  horse  equipments.    Pop.,  15,000. 

AL^ENITES.    See  Allen,  Henbt. 

ALLEN8TEIN,  &n6n-8t!n.  A  town  of  East 
Prussia,  capital  of  the  circle  of  Allenstein,  situ- 
ated about  32  miles  from  the  Russian  frontier,, 
on  the  river  AUe  (Map:  Prussia,  J  2).  It  is  a 
well-built  and  neat-looking  town,  with  several 
churches,  a  gymnasium,  and  an  agricultural 
school,  a  hospital,  gas  works,  and  a  number  of 
markets;  of  industrial  establishments  it  has 
saw  mills,  machine  shops,  breweries,  and  a  match 
factory.    Pop.  1895,  21,579;  1900,  24,207. 

ALOiENTOWN.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Lehigh  County,  Pa.,  60  miles  northwest  of 
Philadelphia,  on  the  Lehigh  River,  and  on  the 
Lehigh  Valley,  Central  of  New  Jersey,  and  Phil- 
adelphia and  Reading  railroads  (Map:  Pennsyl- 
vania, F  3).  It  is  one  of  the  largest  producers 
of  furniture  in  the  United  States,  is  second  to 
Paterson  in  the  production  of  American  silks, 
and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  iron  and  steel, 
cement,  cigars,  and  thread.*  The  city  owns  and 
operates  its  water  works,  and  has  a  fine  hospital; 
it  is  the  seat  of  Muhlenberg  College  (Lutheran), 
established  1867,  and  of  the  Allentown  College 
for  Women.  Allentown  was  laid  out  about  1752 
by  William  Allen,  then  Chief  Justice  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  was  known  by  its  present  name  until, 
in  1811,  it  became  the  seat  of  justice  of  Lehigh 
County^  and  was  incorporated  as  the  borough  of 
Northampton.  In  1838  its  first  name  was  re- 
stored, and  in  1867  Allentown  was  incorporated 
by  special  charter.  Under  the  charter  of  1889, 
now  in  operation,  the  mayor  is  elected  for  three 
years,  and  the  city  council  is  composed  of  two 
bodies,  an  upper  house  of  1 1  members  and  a  low- 
er house  of  22.  The  annual  income  of  the  city 
amounts  to  about  $450,000;  expenditures  to 
$360,000,  of  which  $105,000  is  spent  in  construc- 
tion and  other  capital  outlay,  and  $255,000  in 
maintenance  and  operation.  The  principal  items 
of  expense  include  $10,000  for  the  police  depart- 
ment, $15,000  for  the  fire  department,  and  $95,- 
000  for  schools.  Pop.  1890,  25,228;  1900,  35,- 
416.  See  Matthews  and  Hungerford,  History  of 
the  Counties  of  Lehigh  and  Carbon  (Philadel- 
phia, 1884). 

ALLEP^I,  or  ALLAPPALI.  A  seaport  on 
the  western  coast  of  the  native  State  of  Tra- 
vancore,  in  the  southern  part  of  Madras,  British 
India  (Map:  India,  C  7).  It  has  a  sheltered 
roadstead,  and  carries  on  a  considerable  trade 
in  coffee,  pepper,  and  cardamoms.    By  means  of 


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ALLXASCIE. 


canals  and  lagoons  along  the  coast,  Alleppi  com- 
municates with  Cochin  on  the  north  and  Trivan- 
drum  on  the  south.  Population  estimated  at 
from  24,000  to  30,000. 

ALLEB,  HKSr.  A  river  of  Germany,  rising 
about  20  miles  west  of  Magdeburg.  It  flows 
northwestward,  joining  the  Weser  near  Verden. 
Of  its  course  of  155  miles,  the  greater  part  across 
Hanover,  the  portion  which  lies  below  Calle  is 
navigable. 

ALOiEBTON,  Isaac  (c.  1583-1659).  One  of 
the  Pilgrim  Fathers  who  came  to  America  in 
the  first  voyage  of  the  Mayflower,  He  was  one 
of  the  energetic  and  wealthy  members  of  Ply- 
mouth colony,  and  was  sent  to  Europe  several 
times  as  its  agent.  A  disagreement  with  the 
colony  in  1631  resulted  in  his  removal  to  New 
Amsterdam,  where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
council  in  1643.  He  spent  the  latter  years  of 
his  life  in  New  Haven.  His  daughter,  Mary,  was 
the  last  survivor  of  the  Mayflower  company. 

ALLEVABD  -  LES  -  B AIKS,  AlT-var'lA-bftN'. 
A  town  of  the  department  of  Isftre,  France,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Breda,  15  miles  southeast 
of  Chamb^ry.  It  has  iron  and  steel  manufac- 
tures, and  is  greatly  resorted  to  for  its  valuable 
medicinal  springs  and  the  picturesque  scenery 
of  its  valley.     Pop.,  1896,  2726. 

ALLE7N,  alien,  Edward  (1566-1626).  An 
English  actor,  theatre  manager,  and  the  founder 
of  Dulwich  College  (q.v.).  Born  in  the  parish 
of  St.  Botolph,  just  out  of  London,  he  went  upon 
the  stage  shortly  before  Shakespeare  came  from 
Stratford.  Alleyn  won  rapid  success,  especially 
in  tragedy,  playing  among  other  rOles  the  Jew 
in  Marlowe's  Jew  of  Malta,  and  also  Tambur- 
laine  and  Faustus.  He  owned  several  play- 
houses, and  in  1592  married  the  step-daughter  of 
Philip  Henslowe  (q.v.),  with  whom  he  was  asso- 
ciated in  building  the  Fortune  Theatre  and  in 
various  other  enterprises,  including  the  profit- 
able business  of  bear-baiting.  As  his  wealth  in- 
creased, he  ceased  acting  and  became  a  manager. 
But  though  he  seems  to  have  been  so  much  the 
favorite  actor  of  his  time  that,  as  was  said,  ^The 
name  of  Ned  Allen  on  the  common  stage  was  able 
to  make  an  ill  matter  good,"  his  chief  claim  to 
remembrance  is  as  the  munificent  founder  of  the 
College  of  God's  Gift,  at  Dulwich.  His  motive 
in  this  benefaction  has  been  ascribed  by  tradi- 
tion to  an  apparition  of  the  devil,  who  ap- 
peared to  him  as  he  was  playing  that  character 
in  a  theatre,  but  his  well-known  liberality  and 
the  fact  that  he  was  childless  are  more  to  the- 
point.  The  college  was  begun  in  1613,  and  in 
1619,  after  some  obstruction  on  the  part  of  Lord 
Chancellor  Bacon,  who  wished  the  King  to  prefer 
the  foundation  of  two  lectureships  at  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  it  obtained  the  royal  charter.  Here 
for  several  years  Alleyn  resided,  and  managed 
the  affairs  of  the  institution.  Alleyn  was  a 
friend  of  Shakespeare  and  Ben  Jonson,  and  a 
patron  of  Dekker  (q.v.)  and  other  writers. 
He  was  buried  in  the  chapel  of  the  college  he 
had  founded,  and  among  its  possessions  are  his 
portrait  and  a  collection,  in  part,  however,  spuri- 
ous, of  his  business  papers.  Consult:  J.  P. 
Collier,  Memoirs  of  Edward  Alleyn  (London, 
1841)  ;  J.  P.  Collier,  Annals  of  the  Stage  (Lon- 
don, 1819)  ;  Warner,  Catalogue  of  the  Manu- 
scripts and  Muniments  at  Dulu)ick  College  (Lon- 
don, 1881)  ;  and  Thomas  Fuller,  Worthies  of 
England  (London,  1662). 


ALLEYNE,  Ellen.  A  >  pseudonym  under 
which  Christina  Georgina  Rossetti  wrote  for 
The  Cferm.  -^ 

ALL  FOB  LOVE,  OB  THE  WOBLD  WEIX 
LOST.  One  of  Dryden's  best-known  tragedies, 
produced  in  1678.  It  is  unrhymed,  and  in  some 
respects  is  an  imitation  of  Shakespeare*s  Antony 
and  Cleopatra. 

ALLGAXT,  ftl'goi.  A  subdivision  of  the  Euro- 
pean Alps  (q.v.)  in  its  widest  sense,  surround- 
ing the  basin  of  the  Iller  River  in  southwestern 
Bavaria,  Germany.  The  name  is  also  applied  to 
the  Bavarian  districts  of  Sonthofen  and  Immen- 
stadt. 

ALLGEMEINE  ZEITUKG,  ftKge-ml'ne  tsl^- 
t;ing  (Ger.  "general  newspaper").  The  first  Ger- 
man newspaper  of  a  high  class,  it  succeeded  in 
1798  the  Neuesto  Weltkunde,  and  was  published 
by  Cotta  (q.v.),  who  had  sought  Schiller  as  edi- 
tor. The  journal  became  the  organ  of  states- 
men and  publicists,  and  has  always  commanded 
the  services  of  distinguished  literary  men  as 
critics  and  correspondents.  For  more  than  a  cen- 
tury it  has  maintained  its  founder's  ideal  of  a 
newspaper,  as  a  record  of  Grerman  thought,  and 
a  trustworthy  storehouse  of  materials  for  the 
future  historian.  First  published  at  Stuttgart, 
it  was  successively  transferred  to  Ulm  and  Augs- 
burg, and  is  now  published  at  Munich. 

ALL  HALLOWS.     See  All  Saints'  Day. 

ALH'iTA.  In  ancient  geography,  a  small 
stream  which  flowed  into  the  Tiber  about  eleven 
miles  north  of  Rome.  It  is  celebrated  as  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  of  the  Roman  army  by  the 
Gauls,  under  Brennus,  about  390  b.c.  Immedi- 
ately afterward,  Rome  was  taken,  plundered,  and 
burned.  It  is  difiicult  to  identify  the  Allia  with 
any  of  the  modern  streams;  but  the  evidence 
seems  in  favor  of  the  Fosso  del  la  Bettina. 

ALXLA-'CEOUS  PLANTS.  Plants  of  the 
genus  Allium  (q.v.),  or  others  nearly  allied  to 
it.  The  term  is  generally  employed  to  denote 
not  only  the  possession  of  certain  botanical  char- 
acters, but  also  of  a  certain  smell  and  taste,  well 
known  by  the  term  alliaceous,  of  which  ex- 
amples are  readily  found  in  the  onion,  leek,  gar- 
lic, and  other  familiar  species  of  Allium,  much 
employed  for  culinary  purposes.  These  plants 
contain  free  phosphoric  acid,  and  a  sulphuretted 
oil,  which  is  partly  dissipated  in  boiling  or  roast- 
ing. The  alliaceous  flavor  is,  however,  found 
also,  although  in  comparatively  rare  instances, 
in  plants  of  entirely  different  botanical  affinities 
— for  example,  in  Sisymbrium  alliaria,  of  the 
natural  order  Cruciferie  (see  Alliaria),  in  the 
young  shoots  of  Cedrela  angustifolia,  a  tropical 
American  tree  allied  to  mahogany;  and  in  cer- 
tain species  of  Dysoxylum,  of  the  kindred  order 
Meliacese,  the  fruit  of  which  is  used  instead  of 
garlic  by  the  mountaineers  of  Java. 

ALLFANCE.  See  Holt  Alliance;  Treaty; 
Triple  Alliance. 

ALLIANCE,  E'vanoel'ical.  See  Evangeli- 
cal ALI.IANCE. 

ALLTANCE.  Farmers'.  See  Farmers'  Al- 
liance. 

ALLIANCE.  A  city  and  railroad  junction 
in  Stark  Co.,  Ohio,  fifty-seven  miles  south-south- 
east of  Cleveland,  on  the  Mahoning  River,  and 
on  the  Lake  Erie,  Pittsburg,  Fort  Wayne,  and 
Chicago,  and   several    other    railroads      (Map: 


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AIXIBOHE. 


Ohio,  H  4).  It  has  a  large  steel  plant,  and  ex- 
tensive manufactures  of  heavy  machinery,  includ- 
ing gun  carriages,  traveling  cranes,  structural 
iron  work,  boilers,  etc.  Alliance  o^tis  and  oper- 
ates its  water  works.  Mount  Union  College 
(Methodist  Episcopal),  organized  1846,  is 
located  here.  Alliance  was  settled  in  1838, 
and  was  called  Freedom,  until  in  1850 
its  present  name  was  adopted.  In  1854  it  was 
incorporated  under  its  present  charter,  which 
provides  for  a  mayor  elected  biennially,  and  a 
city  council  of  twelve  members.  Pop.,  1890, 
7607 ;  1900,  8974. 

ALLIANCE  ISBAELITE  TTNIVEBSELLE, 
ftl'yRns'  *s'rA'ft'l6t'  v'n6'var's6l'.  An  association 
founded  at  Paris  in  1860  for  the  amelioration  of 
the  condition  of  the  Jews  throughout  the  world. 
The  original  members  of  the  society  were  Jews, 
and  by  far  the  largest  number  of  its  members 
at  present  belong  to  that  faith ;  but  the  associa- 
tion has  enjoyed  at  all  times  the  sympathy  and 
codperation  of  many  prominent  Christians.  As 
outlined  in  its  prospectus,  the  programme  of  the 
society  included  the  emancipation  of  the  Jews 
from  oppressive  and  discriminating  laws,  po- 
litical disabilities,  and  defense  of  them  in 
those  countries  where  they  were  subjected  to 
persecution.  For  the  attainment  of  this  object 
the  society  purposed  to  carry  on  a  campaign  of 
education  through  the  press  and  by  the  publica- 
tion of  works  on  the  history  and  life  of  the  Jews. 
In  the  b^inniug,  however,  the  course  of  action 
adopted  by  the  society  for  bringing  relief  to 
their  oppressed  brethren  in  other  countries  was 
to  secure  the  intercession  of  friendly  govern- 
ments in  their  behalf.  Thus,  as  early  as  1867 
the  governments  of  France,  Italy,  Belgium,  and 
Holland  made  the  renewal  of  existing  treaties 
with  Switzerland  conditional  upon  that  country*s 
granting  full  civil  and  political  rights  to  the 
Jews.  In  1878,  representatives  of  the  Alliance 
laid  the  condition  of  the  Jews  in  the  Balkan  Pen- 
insula before  the  Congress  of  Berlin,  as  a  result 
of  which  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  stipulated  that 
in  Roumania.  Servia,  and  Bulgaria  no  discrimi- 
nation should  be  made  against  any  religion  in 
the  distribution  of  civil  rights.  Of  late  years 
the  activity  of  the  Alliance  has  tended  to  become 
more  educational  than  political,  and  the  chief 
problem  with  which  it  was  occupied  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  twentieth  century  was  the  im- 
provement of  the  condition  of  the  Jews  in  the 
Orient.  Schools  have  been  established  in  Bulg:a- 
ria,  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  Persia,  Tunis, 
and  Morocco.  In  1899  the  number  of  such 
schools  was  95,  with  a  teaching  staff  of  400  and 
an  attendance  of  24,000.  Instruction  is  carried 
on  in  the  language  of  the  country  or  in  the  dia- 
lect employed  by  the  majority  of  pupils.  In 
addition  to  the'  cultural  schools,  32  manual 
training  workshops  have  been  established  for 
boys,  and  18  schools  of  domestic  science  for  girls, 
the  encouragement  of  handicrafts  among  the 
Jews  being  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  Alliance. 
Two  farm-schools  have  been  established,  one 
near  Jaffa  in  Palestine,  the  other  at  Djedeida, 
near  Tunis ;  the  former  of  these  has  supplied  the 
Jewish  colonies  in  Palestine  with  skilled  agricul- 
turists and  supervisors.  At  Paris  there  is  a 
normal  school  for  the  education  of  teachers  who 
are  exclusively  dra\vn  from  the  schools  of  the 
Alliance,  and  are  sent  back  after  a  thorough 
training  to  carry  on  in  their  turn  the  work  of 
instruction  in  their  native  countries.     In  1899 


the  Alliance  numbered  32,400  members.  The 
central  body  of  the  Alliance  is  a  committee  of 
sixty-two  members,  with  its  seat  at  Paris.  Only 
twenty-nine,  however,  are  resident,  the  rest  be- 
ing scattered  all  over  the  world,  six  of  them 
residing  in  the  United  States.  The  central  com- 
mittee stands  in  constant  communication  with 
the  regional  and  local  conunittees,  of  which  there 
are  a  number  in  the  United  States,  the  principal 
ones  being  at  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  The 
Alliance  publishes  monthly  bulletins  and  a  semi- 
annual report  in  French  and  German,  and  at  in- 
tervals issues  reports  in  English,  Hebrew,  Hun- 
garian, and  Judeo-Spanish.  These  bulletins  are 
the  chief  authorities  for  the  history  of  the  Alli- 
ance. See  CBfiMiEux,  Adolphe. 
AIjLLANCE    of   the   Reformed    Churches 

HOLDING  THE  PRESBYTERIAN  SYSTEM.  An  alli- 
ance formed  in  London  in  1875.  It  holds  coun- 
cils, which  have  no  legislative  authority  but 
great  moral  weight.  In  them  the  various 
Augustinian  non-prelatical  and  in  general 
presbyterial  bodies  find  representation.  They 
are  upward  of  ninety  in  number,  scattered  all 
over  the  world,  with  25,000,000  adherenU.  The 
published  reports  of  the  proceedings  of  these 
councils  contain  much  valuable  matter  of  all 
kinds,  as  papers  are  read,  statistics  presented, 
and  many  speeches  made.  The  councils  have 
been  held  at  London,  1876;  Edinburgh,  1877; 
Philadelphia,  1880;  Belfast,  1884;  London,  1888; 
Toronto,  1892;  Glasgow,  1896;  Waahington, 
1899. 

AI/UAfBlA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Cruciferse,  closely  allied  to 
Sisymbrium  and  Erysimum,  and  ranked  by  some 
botanists  in  the  genus  Sisymbrium.  It  is  known 
by  the  popular  names  of  Sauce-alone  and  Jack- 
by-the-hedge.  The  best  known  species,  Alliaria 
officinalis,  or,  as  often  commonly  called.  Sisym- 
brium alliaria,  is  a  native  of  Great  Britain,  not 
unfrequently  found  on  hedge-banks  and  in  waste 
places  in  dry,  rich  soils,  and  is  common  in  most 
parts  of  Europe.  It  has  also  become  introduced 
in  a  number  of  places  in  the  United  States.  It 
is  a  biennial,  with  a  stem  two  to  three  feet  high ; 
large,  stalked,  heart-shaped  leaves,  white  flow- 
ers, and  pods  much  longer  than  their  stalks, 
which  are  somewhat  spreading.  It  seems  more 
deserving  of  cultivation  than  many  other  plants 
which  have  long  received  the  constant  care  of  the 
gaVdener,  being  wholesome,  nutritious,  and  to 
most  persons  pleasant.  The  powdered  seeds 
were  formerly  employed  as  a  sternutatory. 

AI/LIBONE,  Samuel  Austin  (1816-89). 
An  American  author.  He  was  born  at  Philadel- 
phia, and  although  engaged  in  commercial  pur- 
suits, devoted  considerable  time  to  literature. 
It  was  therefore  as  an  amateur  that  he  b^an  the 
literary  work,  to  which  the  best  part  of  his  life 
was  devoted.  This  work,  the  Critical  Dictionary 
of  English  Literature  and  British  and  American 
Authors,  contains  notices  of  46,599  wTiters.  The 
first  volume  appeared  in  1854.  Allibone  was 
book  editor  and  corresponding  secretary  of  the 
American  Sunday-school  Union,  from  1867  to 
1873.  In  1877  he  was  appointed  librarian  of  the 
Lenox  Library  in  New  York,  and  held  this  posi- 
tion until  1879.  He  died  at  Geneva,  Switaserland. 
Besides  the  Critical  Dictionary,  he  compiled  the 
following  works:  Poetical  Quotations  from 
Chaucer  to  Tennyson,  containing  13,600  passages, 
taken  from  550  authors;  Prose  QuotationSf  from 


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AliLIGATOB. 


Socrates  to  Macaulay,  with  indexes  to  the  8810 
quotations,  containing  the  names  of  544  authors 
and  571  subjects  (1876)  ;  Explanatory  Questions 
on  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  (1869),  An  Alpha- 
hctical  Index  to  the  New  Testament  (1868),  /n- 
dexes  to  Edward  Everett's  Orations  and  Speeches 
(1850-59). 

AI/UCE,  or  AI/LIS  (Fr.  alose  from  Lat. 
alausa).  A  European  shad  {Alosa  vulgaris) 
about  twenty  inches  long,  caught  for  food  when 
ascending  the  rivers  to  spawn.  It  is  the  larger, 
and  considered  the  better  of  the  two  species  of 
European  shad,  of  which  the  other  is  called  the 
twaite  (q.v.).  These  are  the  maifisch  of  the 
Rhine  Valley. 

ALLIEB,  &'lyA'.  A  department  in  the  cen- 
tre of  France  ( Map :  France,  K  5 ) .  It  is  formed 
mainly  out  of  the  old  province  of  Bourbonnais. 
The  capital  is  Moulins. 

ALLIEB.  A  tributary  of  the  Loire,  which 
has  its  source  in  the  water-shed  in  the  east  of  the 
department  of  Lozdre,  France  (Map:  France, 
K  6).  It  flows  in  a  northerly  direction,  through 
Haute-Loire,  Puy-de-Ddme,  and  Allier,  and  after 
a  course  of  more  than  200  miles  falls  into  the 
Loire  below  the  town  of  Nevers.  It  is  navigable 
for  140  miles. 

ALXIO ACTION  (Lat.  alligare,  to  bind  to,  tie 
up).  A  form  of  proportion  of  eastern  origin, 
which  appears  in  the  early  works  of  Arabian  and 
Hindu  writers,  notably  in  the  Lilavati  of  Bhas- 
kara  Acharya  (c.  1150).  The  process  was  for 
several  centuries  confined  to  problems  concern- 
ing the  combination  of  metals.  Two  forms  of  al- 
ligation were  recognized:  viz.,  alligation  medial 
and  alligation  alternate.  Alligation  medial 
teaches  the  method  of  finding  the  price  or  quality 
of  a  mixture  of  several  simple  ingredients  whose 
prices  or  qualities  are  known;  e.g.,  What  is  the 
fineness  of  gold  produced  by  mixing  6  ounces 
of  gold  22  carats  fine  with  4  ounces  of  gold 
17  carats  fine?  Alligation  alternate  teaches 
what  amount  of  each  of  several  simple  ingredi- 
ents, whose  prices  or  qualities  are  known,  must 
be  taken  to  form  a  mixture  of  any  required  price 
or  quality;  e.g..  How  much  gold  700  fine  and 
900  fine  must  be  melted  together  to  produce  gold 
800  fine?  Problems  of  this  kind  are  indetermi- 
nate; that  is,  they  have  more  than  one  solution, 
and  are  best  treated  by  algebraic  equations.  Al- 
ligation in  its  arithmetic  form  has  practically 
disappeared  from  recent  text-books,  and  may  be 
regarded  as  obsolete. 

AI/UGATOB  (Sp.  el  lagarto,  the  lizard, 
Lat.  lacertus,  lizard) .  A  genus  of  reptiles  of  the 
family  Crocodilids.  The  true  alligators  differ 
from  the  crocodiles  in  the  following  respects: 
The  feet  are  less  webbed,  the  head  is  shorter  and 
flatter,  the  long  fourth  teeth  of  the  under  jaw  fit 
into  pits  in  the  upper  jaw,  and  not  into  notches 
between  the  teeth,  and  this  causes  the  whole 
head  to  be  broader  and  the  snout  more  obtuse 
than  in  crocodiles.  There  are  only  three  species 
of  alligators,  according  to  Professor  E.  D.  Cope, 
— the  jacare  and  cayman  (q.v.)  of  Central  and 
South  America  being  classified  in  a  distinct 
genus.  These  species  are:  Alligator  helo'is 
(habitat  unknown) ,  Alligator  Sinensis,  of  China, 
and  Alligator  Mississippiensis,  of  the  southern 
United  States.  Among  the  Neocene  fossils  of  the 
Bouth  of  England  are  remains  of  an  alligator, 
or  of  a  form  that  approaches  very  near  to  it; 


but  this  single  species  comprises  all  extinct 
species  known,  showing  that  the  genus  is  of  very 
modern  origin.  Their  characteristics  are  large- 
ly those  of  the  other  crocodilians  (see  Croco- 
dile) :  activity  at  night,  offensive  and  defensive 
swinging  of  the  tail,  bellowing,  egg-laying,  etc.; 
but  they  are  less  aquatic  than  the  typical  croco- 
diles, and  spend  much  of  their  time  basking  in 
the  sun  on  land.  The  alligator  of  the  United 
States  originally  ranged  from  North  Carolina  to 
the  Rio  Grande  along  the  coast,  and  up  the  larger 
rivers,  ascending  the  Mississippi  as  far  as  Jef- 
ferson County,  Miss.,  about  latitude  32*^;  and  in 
favorable  places  it  used  to  be  enormously  abun- 
dant. It  is  now  rarely  seen  north  of  Florida  or 
the  coast  swamps  of  Louisiana ;  and  the  constant 
persecution  of  it  for  sport,  its  hide,  ivory,  or 
eggs  is  fast  leading  toward  its  extermination. 
It  is  estimated  by  the  United  States  Fish  Com- 
mission that  3,000,000  alligators  were  killed  in 
Florida  alone  between  1880  and  1900.  This  alli- 
gator reaches  about  sixteen  feet  in  length  when 
fully  grown,  and  then  is  greenish  black  above, 
having  lost  the  yellowish  color-bands  that  belong 
to  its  earlier  years.  It  spends  most  of  the  day 
asleep  in  the  sun  on  a  mud  bank  or  log,  slipping 
into  the  refuge  of  the  water  when  disturbed.  It 
is  timid  and  quick  to  retreat,  rarely  showing  any 
disposition  to  attack  a  man,  though  boats  are 
sometimes  followed.  When  cornered,  or  caught 
upon  the  hook  and  hauled  ashore,  or,  as  is  some- 
times done,  captured  and  bound  with  a  rope 
when  asleep,  the  animal  proves  an  ugly  customer, 
rushing  with  formidable  open  jaws  at  ite  ene- 
mies, and  striking  from  side  to  side  with  its 
powerful  tail.  They  are  strong  and  active  swim- 
mers, and  always  on  the  lookout  for  swimming 
animals  like  muskrats  or  dogs,  and  sportsmen 
have  often  lost  in  this  manner  dogs  that  have 
ventured  or  been  sent  into  the  water  after  game. 
Alligators  lie  in  wait  in  shallows,  or  close  to  the 
shore,  for  such  prey  also,  yet  their  main  fare  is 
fish,  salamanders,  and  the  like.  Like  other 
crocodilians,  it  carries  its  prey  to  the  bottom  to 
be  devoured,  and  then  its  windpipe  and  ears  are 
closed  against  admission  of  water.  The  body  of 
the  alligator  emits  a  fetid  odor,  and .  ite  flesh, 
which  is  white  and  tender,  has  a  musky  taste, 
yet  is  eaten  by  the  Indians  and  some  others. 
During  the  colder  months  it  burrows  into  the 
swamp  mud  and  hibernates,  the  depth  and  length 
of  this  torpidity  being  greater,  of  course,  in  the 
more  northerly  parts  of  its  habitat.  Consult  Belt, 
Naturalist  in  Nicaragua   (London,  1888). 

The  breeding  of  the  alligator  is  thus  de- 
scribed by  Dr.  Hugh  M.  Smith  {Bulletin 
United  States  Fish  Commission^  XL,  1891 )  : 
"The  maternal  alligator  in  April  or  May 
seeks  a  sheltered  spot  on  a  bank,  and 
there  builds  a  small  mound.  The  foundation 
of  the  mound  is  of  mud  and  grass,  and  on  this 
she  lays  some  eggs.  She  covers  the  eggs  with 
another  stratum  of  grass  and  mud,  upon  which 
she  deposite  some  more  eggs.  Thus  she  proceeds 
until  she  has  laid  from  100  to  200  eggs.  The 
eggs  in  the  course  of  time  are  hatehed  by  the 
sun,  assisted  by  the  heat  which  the  decomposition 
of  the  vegetable  material  generates.  As  soon  as 
they  have  'chipped  the  shell'  the  baby  alligators 
are  led  to  the  water  by  the  mother,  who  provides 
them  with  food  which  she  disgorges,  showing 
much  anxiety  for  their  safety.  At  this  early 
period  of  their  existence  they  are  exposed  to 
many  dangers,  being  a  favorite  prey  of  fishes  and 


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AIXIOATOB. 


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ALLITERATION. 


turtles.  Alligators  grow  very  slowly.  At  fif- 
teen years  of  age  they  are  only  two  feet  long. 
A  twelve-footer  may  reasonably  be  supposed  to 
be  seventy-five  years  old."  Alligators  are  exten- 
sively utilized.  Their  hides  can  be  tanned  into 
an  excellent  leather,  which  has  become  expensive. 
The  teeth,  obtained  by  rotting  the  skulls  in  the 
ground,  are  of  fine  ivory,  and  valued  for  carving 
into  ornaments.  They  are  worth  about  $2  a 
pound  (of  50  to  75  teeth).  Both  fiesh  and  eggs 
are  eaten  by  some  persons,  and  the  eggs  are  val- 
ued because  they  can  be  hatched  in  boxes  of  warm 
sand,  yielding  young  alligators  to  be  sold  as  pets, 
or  killed  and  made  into  curious  ornaments. 
Bee  Cayman. 

ALLIGATOB  AP^LE.   See  Custard  Apple. 

ALLIGATOB  FISH.  A  fish  of  the  family 
Agonidee  whose  members  have  an  elongated  an- 
gular body  covered  with  large  bony  plates  that 
form  a  coat  of  mail.  The  best  known  one  is 
Podothecus  acipenserinus,  a  species  twelve  inches 
lon^,  found  on  the  northern  Pacific  coast. 

ALLIGATOR  GAB.  The  great  gar,  Litho- 
lepis  tristccchu^,  of  the  "rivers  of  the  Southern 
Sta^s,  Cuba,  Mexico,  and  Central  America, 
which  is  greenish  in  color  and  sometimes  reaches 
a  length  of  ten  feet.     See  Gab. 

ALLIGATOR  LIZ^ABD.  Any  lizard  of  the 
iguanid  genus  Sceloporus,  which  contains  a  great 
number  of  small  species  whose  heads  are  not 
spiny  and  which. have  fiat  scales  and  no  gular 
fold.  They  vary  in  color,  but  are  generally  dull 
above,  with  one  or  two  light  lines  along  each 
side  and  black  cross  lines  or  blotches  on  the  back. 
The  inferior  surfaces,  however,  are  likely  to  be 
brilliantly  colored.  "The  throat  and  sides  of  the 
belly  are  usually  of  some  shade  of  blue  (some- 
times purple).  When  the  animal  raises  the  head, 
as  it  habitually  does,  the  brilliant  colors  of  the 
throat  are  visible,  but  those  of  the  sides  are 
much  less  apparent.  All  these  colors  are  most 
conspicuous  in  the  males."  (Cope.)  Tliese  lizards 
are  conspicuous  objects  everywhere  in  the  south- 
western United  States  and  Mexico,  running  up 
trees  and  dodging  about  the  branches,  scamper- 
ing over  rocks,  hiding  in  their  fissures,  or  scaling 
the  sides  of  stone  walls  and  adobe  houses.  One 
small  species,  very  variable  in  color,  Sceloporus 
undulatus,  is  the  common  "fence  lizard"  of  the 
eastern  and  central  States.  They  are  exceedingly 
swift  and  spry,  but  perfectly  harmless,  and  in- 
crease by  means  of  eggs  laid  in  the  sand  and  left 
to  hatch  by  the  warmth  of  the  sun. 

ALLIGATOB  FEAB.    See  Avocado  Pear. 

ALLIGATOB  TEB^AFIN,  Tortoise,  or 
Turtle.  A  snapping  turtle,  especially  the  long- 
necked,  long-tailed,  very  large  species  (Maoroch- 
elys  lacertina)  of  the  southern  Mississippi  Val- 
ley, which  may  weigh  50  or  60  pounds,  and  is 
valued  as  food.'    See  Turtle. 

AI/LINGHAM,  William  (1824-89).  An 
Anglo-Irish  poet,  born  at  Ballyshannon,  Done- 
gal. He  won  attention  by  Poems  (1850),  some 
of  which  had  previously  appeared  in  English 
periodicals.  In  the  same  year  he  came  to  Lon- 
don and  was  appointed  to  a  subordinate  post  in 
the  customs.  He  received  a  civil  pension  of  £60 
in  consideration  of  his  services  to  literature  in 
1864;  married  Helen  Patterson,  a  well-known 
water-color  painter,  in  1874.  and  in  the  same 
year  became  editor  of  Fraser's  Magazine.  He 
died  at  Hampstead.    His  first  collection  of  poems 


was  followed  by  Day  and  Night  Songs  (1854),  a 
new  edition  of  which  (1855)  was  illustrated  with 
woodcuts  from  designs  by  Arthur  Hughes,  Ros- 
setti,  and  Millais.  Among  subsequent  volumes 
were  Laurence  Bloomfield  in  Ireland^  an  am- 
bitious but  unsuccessfiil  narrative  poem  ( 1864)  -, 
In  Fairy  Land,  illustrated  by  Richard  Doyle 
(1870),  Songs,  Ballads  and  Stories  (1877),  The 
Fairies  (1883),  Flower  Pieces,  and  Other  Poems, 
with  designs  by  Rossetti  (1888).  Mary  DonneUy 
is  perhaps  the  best  known  of  Allingham's  many 
natural  and  graceful  lyrics. 

ALLIOLI,  ftn«-5'16,  JbsKPH  Franz  (1793- 
1873).  A  Roman  Catholic  biblical  scholar.  In 
1830-36  he  issued  at  Nuremberg,  in  six  volumes, 
Braun's  annotated  Grerman  translation  of  the 
Bible  from  the  Vulgate,  but  so  revised  as  to  be 
practically  a  new  work.  It  was  the  fi-rst  of  its 
kind  to  receive  Papal  approbation. 

ALOiISON,  William  Boyd  (1829—).  An 
American  legislator.  He  was  born  at  Perry,  0., 
attended  Allegheny  and  Western  Reserve  col- 
leges; studied  law  and  practiced  in  Ohio  until 
1857,  when  he  removed  to  Iowa.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  was  a  member  of  the  Governor's  staff. 
Elected  as  a  Republican,  he  served  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  from  1863  to  1871;  was 
elected  to  the  United  States  Senate,  in  1872. 
and  has  been  reelected  five  times.  He  has 
been  an  active  member  of  the  Senate,  serving 
on  many  commissions.  The  essential  feature  of 
the  coinage  act  of  1878,  known  as  the  Bland- 
Allison  Act,  or,  more  properly  the  Allison 
Act,  was  due  to  him.  He  was  one  of  the 
representatives  of  the  United  States  at  the  Brus- 
sels Monetary  Conference,  in  1892.  He  has  sev- 
eral times  been  a  prominent  candidate  in  Repub- 
lican national  conventions  for  the  Presidential 
nomination.  Both  President  Garfield  and  Presi- 
dent Harrison  offered  him  the  Treasury  portfolio. 

ALXITBBA^ION  (Lat.  ad,  to  +  Uttera, 
letter).  The  frequent  occurrence  of  the  same 
or  similar  letters  or  sounds.  In  old  German, 
Anglo-Saxon,  and  Scandinavian  poetry,  allitera- 
tion took  the  place  of  rhyme.  This  kind  of  verse, 
in  its  strict  form,  required  that  two  stressed  syl- 
lables in  the  first  hemistich  and  one  in  the  sec- 
ond hemistich  should  have  the  same  sound,  if 
consonantal,  as  in  the  following  Anglo-Saxon 
line: 

JS'*Iota  /Bmlg  heals  /ngle  cpJIcoet 
(IJ'he  ftoat  with  Sow  of  iosm  likest  a  Mrd.) 

Alliterative  poems  continued  to  be  writt^  in 
English  after  it  had  assumed  its  modem  form. 
The  most  remarkable  is  Piers  Plowman,  a  poem 
of  the  fourteenth  century,' of  which  the  follow- 
ing is  a  specimen: 

In  a  «omer  teeon  whan  «oft  was  the  «oirae. 
Even  after  the  introduction  of  rhyme,  allitera- 
tion continued  to  be  largely  used  as  an  embellish- 
ment of  poetry,  and  is  so,  though  to  a  leas  ex- 
tent, to  this  day : 

The  fair  &reese  61ew,  the  white  /oam  /lew. 
The  /urrow  /ollowed  /Tte,—Oolendg€. 

Alliteration  is  not  confined  to  verse ;  the  charm 
that  lies  in  it  exercises  great  infiuence  on  hu- 
man speech  generally,  as  may  be  seen  in  many 
current  phrases  and  proverbs  in  all  languages : 
example,  "life  and  limb,"  "house  and  home." 
"wide  wears,"  "tight  tears,"  etc.  It  often  con- 
stitutes part  of  the  point  and  piquancy  of  witty 
writing.    Among  modern  writers  this  use  of  al- 


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ALLITEBATION. 


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ALLOA. 


literation  is  well  illustrated  by  Sidney  Smith; 
for  example,  when  contrasting  the  conditions  of 
a  dignitary  of  the  English  Church  and  of  a  poor 
«urate,  he  speaks  of  them  as  "the  right  reverend 
Dives  in  the  palace,  and  Lazarus-in-orders  at  the 
^te,  doctored  by  dogs  and  comforted  with 
crumbs." 

In  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century 
the  fashion  of  hunting  after  alliterations  was 
<carried  to  an  extreme;  even  from  the  pulpit,  the 
chosen  people  of  God  were  addressed  as  "the 
chickens  of  the  Church,  the  sparrows  of  the  spir- 
it, and  the  sweet  swallows  of  salvation."  Ane 
New-Year  Gift,  or  address,^  presented  to  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  by  the  poet,  Alexander  Scott, 
concludes  with  a  stanza  running  thus: 


Fresh,  fulgent,  floorlst.  flragrant  flower  formoee. 

Lantern  to  love,  of  ladles  lamn  and  lot. 

Cherry  malat  chaste,  chief  caroancle  and  chose,  etc. 


In  the  following  piece  of  elaborate  trifling,  given 
(but  without  naming  the  author)  in  H.  South- 
gate's  Many  Thoughts  on  Many  Things,  allitera* 
tion  is  combined  with  acrosticism: 

A  n  Austrian  army,  awfully  arrayed, 

B  oldly  by  battery  besieged  Belgrade ; 

G  ossack  commanders  cannonadine  come, 

D  ealing  destruction's  devastating  doom ; 

S  very  endeavor  engineers  essay 

F  or  fame,  for  fortune,  forming  furious  fray 

0  annt  gunners  grapple,  giving  gashes 
H  eaves  nigh  his  head  heroic  harriiho€ 

1  braham.  Islam,  Ismael,  impjs  in  ill, 
J  ostle  John  Jarovlitz,  Jem,  Joe,  Jaclc,  Jill : 
K  ick  kindling  Kntnsoff,  kings'  kinsmen  kill 
L  abor  low  levels  loftiest,  longest  lines ; 

K  en  march  'mid  moles,  'mid  mounds, 'mid  murd'roas  mines. 

If  ow  nightfall's  near,  now  needful  nature  nods, 

O  ppoeed,  opposing,  overcoming  odds. 

P  oor  peasants,  partly  purchasc»a,  partly  pressed, 

^  nlte  quaking,  ^'Quarter  I  quarter  I"  quickly  quest. 

_,  eason  returns,  recalls  redundant  rage, 

8  aves  sinking  soldiers,  softens  signlors  sage. 

T  mce,  Turkey,  truce!  trucej^each'rous  Tartar  train! 

17  nwlae,  unjust,  unmerciful  Ukraine, 


S 


V  anish,  vile  vengeance  I  vanish,  victory  vain! 
W  isdom  wails  war— walls  warrins  words.    What 
X  erxea,  Xantippe,  Xlmenes,  Xavler? 


Y  et  Tassy's  youth,  ye  vield  your  youthful  yest 
Z  ealously,  zanies,  zealously,  zeal  s  zest. 

While  recent  poets,  as  Tennyson  and  Swin- 
burne, employ  alliteration  combined  with  vowel 
distribution,  for  beautiful  sound  effects,  yet  prose 
writers  seem  to  avoid  it,  or  at  least  to  keep  it 
from  becoming  obvious.  Observe  from  the  Pa>ss- 
ing  of  Arthur:  "And  on  a  sudden,  lo!  the  level 
lake,  and  the  long  glories  of  the  winter  moon." 
Consult:  Guest,  English  Rhythms  (London, 
1882)  ;  and  J.  Schipper,  Orundriss  der  Eng- 
lischen  Metrik    (Leipzig,   1805).    See  English 

CrRAMMAB,  and  ENGLISH  LlTEBATlTBE. 

AI/LITTM  (Lat.  garlic).  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Liliaceee  containing  about 
250  species  of  perennial — more  rarely  biennial — 
herbaceous  plants,  with  more  or  less  decidedly 
bulbous  roots,  natives  chiefly  of  the  temperate 
and  colder  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere. 
The  flowers  are  umbellate,  with  the  umbel  often 
bearing  also  small  bulbs  along  with  its  flowers. 
The  leaves  are  generally  narrow,  although  in 
some  species,  as  Allium  ursinum,  they  are  rather 
broad,  and  in  many  species  they  are  rounded  and 
fistulose.  Garlic,  Allium  sativum  (q.v.).  Onion, 
Allium  eepa  (q.v.).  Leek,  Allium  porrum  (q.v.). 
Shallot,  Allium  ascolonicum  (q.v.),  Chive,  Alii- 
umr  sch(Bnoprasum  (q.v.),  and  Koccambole  (q.v.), 
are  species  of  this  genus  in  common  cultiva- 
tion. The  first  four  are  cultivated  in  the  gar- 
dens of  India  as  well  as  Europe,  along  with 
Allium  tuberosum;  and  the  hill-people  of  India 


eat  the  bulbs  of  Allium  leptophyllum,  and  dry 
the  leaves,  and  preserve  them  as  a  condiment.  A 
number  of  other  species  are  occasionally  used  in 
different  countries.  Eight  or  nine  species  are 
natives  of  Britain,  of  which  the  most  common 
is  Ramsons  {Allium  ursinum),  a  species  with 
much  broader  leaves  than  most  of  its  congeners. 
It  is  most  frequently  found  in  moist  woods  and 
hedge-banks,  but  occasionally  in  pastures,  in 
which  it  proves  a  troublesome  weed,  communi- 
cating its  powerful  odor  of  garlic  to  the  whole 
dairy  produce.  Crow  garlic,  or  Wild  Onion 
{Allium  vineale),  another  British  species,  is 
sometimes  very  troublesome  in  the  same  way 
in  drier  pastures.  Both  are  perennial,  and  to 
get  rid  of  them  their  bulbs  must  be  perseveringly 
rooted  out  when  the  leaves  begin  to  appear  in 
spring.  This  species  has  been  introduced  into 
tne  eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  where  it 
is  troublesome  in  lawns,  parks,  and  pastures. 
A  small  quantity  of  carbolic  acid  injected  into 
the  cluster  is  said  to  destroy  them.  A  large 
number  of  species  are  indigenous  to  the  United 
States,  the  more  common  being  Allium  Cana- 
dense,  Allium  cernuum.  Allium  tricoccum ;  which 
latter  has  flat  leaves  one  to  two  inches  broad,  and 
five  to  nine  inches  long;  Allium  reticulatum, 
which  has  its  bulbs  covered  with  a  dense  fibrous 
coat,  etc.  A  number  of  species  are  grown  in- 
doors or  as  ornamental  plants  in  gardens. 
Among  these  Allium  Neapolitanum  is  one  of  the 
best.  If  grown  out-doors  it  needs  protection  in 
most  localities  in  the  United  States. 

AIiLMAN,  aKman,  Geoboe  James  (1812-98). 
A  Scotch  zoologist.  He  was  born  in  Ireland, 
graduated  in  1844  at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and 
was  in  the  same  year  appointed  regius  professor 
of  botany  in  Dublin  University.  In  1855  he  was 
appointed  regius  professor  of  natural  history  in 
Edinburgh  University,  and  having  resigned  in 
1870,  was  chosen  president  of  the  Linnean  Soci- 
ety in  1874,  and  president  of  the  British  Asso- 
ciation in  1879.  He  received  numerous  medals 
from  the  scientific  societies,  and  published  Mono- 
graph of  the  Fresh  Water  Polyzoa  (1856),  and 
Monograph  of  the  Cfymnohlastic  Hydroids 
(1871-72). 

AliLMEBS,  HVmSn,  Hermann  Ludwig 
(1821 — ).  A  German  author,  born  at  Rechten- 
fleth.  He  studied  at  Berlin,  Munich,  and  Nurem- 
berg, and  made  his  first  appearance  in  literature 
in  his  Marschenhuch  ( 1858 ) .  This  was  followed  by 
Dichtungen  (1860),  and  Romische  Schlendertage 
(1869),  containing  observations  on  Italian  life. 
His  drama,  Elektra  (1872),  with  music  by 
A.  Dietrichs,  was  very  successful.  His  further 
works  include  Fromm  und  Frei  (1889),  a  volume 
of  verse.  His  complete  works  appeared  in  1891- 
95.  Consult  L.  BrUutigam,  Der  Marschendich- 
ter  Hermann  Allmers  (Oldenburg,  1891). 

ALI/HOTJTH.  The  angler  or  goosefish.  See 
Angler. 

AliLOAy  ftKl6-&.  A  seaport  and  the  county 
town  of  Clackmannanshire,  Scotland,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Forth,  about  6  miles  east  of  Stirling 
(Map:  Scotland,  E  3).  It  is  a  town  of  consid- 
erable antiquity,  and  is  an  active  centre  of  trade 
and  manufactures.  The  principal  articles  man- 
ufactured are  whisky,  ale,  cotton,  woolen 
goods,  glass  and  iron.  Considerable  coal  is  ob* 
tained  from  the  neighboring  collieries.  Alloa 
has  an  excellent  harbor,  with  floating  and  dry 
docks.     There  is  regular  steamer  communication 


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ALLOA. 


376 


ALLOBL 


by  river  with  Edinburgh  and  Stirling.  In  the 
neighborhood  is  Alloa  House,  suppos^  to  have 
been  built  in  the  thirteenth  century,  the  home 
of  the  Earls  of  Mar  and  the  Erskines,  and  many 
Scotish  princes.  Population  of  police  burgh, 
1901,  11,417. 

ALLOB'BOOES  (Lat.  pi.).  A  people  of 
Gaul  whose  territory  is  now  Savoy  and  Dau- 
phin^. Vienna  (the  modern  Vienne)  was  their 
chief  town.  They  were  subjected  to  Rome  121 
B.C.,  by  Fabius  Maximus,  and  remained  loyal. 

AL'LOCTJ^nON  (Lat.  allocutio,  a  speaking 
to,  from  adf  to  +  loqui,  to  speak).  A  term  ap- 
plied, in  the  language  of  the  Vatican,  to  denote 
specially  the  address  delivered  by  the  Pope  at  the 
College  of  Cardinals  on  any  ecclesiastical  or  poli- 
tical circumstance.  It  may  be  considered  as 
corresponding  in  some  measure  to  the  official 
explanations  which  constitutional  ministers  give 
when  questions  are  asked  in  the  British  Parlia- 
ment. They  are  published  by  being  put  up  on 
the  doors  of  St.  Peter's,  Rome. 

ALLODIUM,  or  Allodial  Tenube  (Med.  Lat. 
probably  from  O.  H.  G.  al,  all  +  6t,  6d,  prop- 
erty, estate),  llie  free  and  absolute  right  of 
property  in  land,  properly  opposed  to  feudal  ten- 
ure (q.v.),  or  the  holding  of  land  in  subordina- 
tion to  a  superior  owner.  Blackstone  is  responsi- 
ble for  the  view,  which  has  been  generally  taken 
by  legal  writers  of  the  last  century,  that  a  con- 
dition of  allodial  land  holding  prevailed  in  Eng- 
land prior  to  the  Norman  Conquest,  and  that 
this  was  rapidly  superseded  by  the  introduction 
of  the  feudal  system  (q.v.)  of  land  tenure  by  the 
Conqueror  and  his  immediate  successors,  whence 
Ijord  Coke's  statement  that  there  "is  no  land  in 
England  in  the  hands  of  any  subject  but  it  is 
held  of  some  lord  by  some  kind  of  service." 
There  can  be  no  question  as  to  the  universality 
of  feudal  tenure,  as  described  by  Coke;  but  it 
may  be  doubted  whether,  in  our  legal  system,  the 
free  and  unqualified  ownership  oiP  land — corre- 
sponding to  the  title  by  which  goods  and  chattels 
are  held — has  ever  been  generally  recognissed.  It 
is  more  than  probable  that  from  the  first  the 
idea  of  ownership  underwent  a  change  when  it 
was  transferred  from  cattle  and  other  personal 
property  to  land,  and  that  the  owner  of  land 
was  generally  conceived  of  as  having  a  more  or 
less  temporary  interest,  as  holding  in  subordina- 
tion to  the  superior  rights  of  the  community, 
which  was  somehow  regarded  as  the  ultimate  and 
permanent  owner.  However  this  may  be,  we  do 
not  find  in  the  books  any  general  recognition  of 
allodial  ownership,  in  the  strict  sense  of  the 
term,  anywhere  in  Europe ;  and  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  feudal  system  spread  over  England 
after  the  Conquest  would  seem  to  indicate  that 
among  the  Anglo-Saxons  such  absolute  ownership 
of  land  was  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule. 
The  terms  alod  and  allodium  do,  indeed,  occur 
with  soTne  frequency,  but  usually  in  a  derivative 
sense,  to  describe  lands  which,  though  held 
in  some  form  of  dependent  tenure,  are  in- 
heritable and  thus  similar  to  the  modern 
estate  in  fee  simple.  Since  the  decay  of  the 
feudal  system  in  England  and  its  general 
abolition  in  the  United  States,  the  term  "allo- 
dial" has  come  to  be  applied  to  the  common 
form  of  land  tenure  in  subordination  to  the  para- 
mount title  of  the  State,  which  now  commonly 
prevails,  and  which,  though  not  entirely  free  and 
absolute,  has  been  divested  of  all  the  burdensome 
incidents   which    were   characteristic   of    feudal 


tenure.  Some  of  our  State  constitutions  and 
many  of  our  statutes  have  expressly  declared  all 
tenures  to  be  allodial,  in  this  sense  of  the  term, 
and  in  most  of  the  States  they  are,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  legislation  on  the  subject,  deemed  to  be 
so.  In  several  of  the  States,  however,  tenures, 
partaking  more  or  less  of  the  feudal  character, 
still  survive.  Consult  the  authorities  referred  to 
under  Real  Property. 

ALLOGKAMY  (Gk.  d^^,  alios,  other -f  yafio^, 
gamos,  a  wedding)  or  Cboss-Pollination.  A 
transfer  of  the  pollen  of  one  flower  to  the  pistil 
of  another.  Allogamy  is  subdivided  into  geitonog- 
amy,  in  which  the  pollinated  flower  is  on  the 
same  plant,  and  xenogamy,  in  which  it  is  on  a 
di£ferent  plant.  The  opposite  of  allogamy  is 
autogamy,  or  self-pollination.   See  Pollination. 

ALLON,  fiHon,  Henry,  D.D.  (1818-92).  An 
English  Congregational  leader,  born  at  Welton, 
near  Hull.  He  graduated  at  Chestnut  College, 
1843,  and  was  pastor  of  Union  Chapel,  Islington, 
London,  from  1844  until  his  death.  He  edited 
the  British  Quarterly  Review  from  1865  to  1887. 
Published,  besides  sermons,  the  life  of  Rev.  Jame» 
Sherman  (London,  1863),  and  that  of  Thomas 
Binney,  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  Binney's  ser- 
mons (1875);  Land  and  the  Puritans  (1882). 
See  his  memorial  (1892). 

ALLONGE,  A'lftN'zhA^  Auguste  (1883—). 
A  French  landscape  artist.  He  was  bom  in 
Paris  and  studied  with  M.  L.  Coginet.  He  is 
chiefly  noted  for  his  charming  use  of  charcoal  in 
landscape  work,  but  his  oil  paintings,  as  well, 
have  won  approval.  His  method  of  using  char- 
coal has  almost  created  a  "school"  for  workers 
in  that  material,  and  ^  his  drawings  are  much 
sought  and  highly  prized  by  connoisseurs.  His 
subjects  are  landscapes  of  a  placid  and  sylvan 
kind,  and  these  he  reproduces  vividly  by  a  deli- 
cate and  skillful  use  of  the  flne  grays  produced 
by  charcoal.  Among  his  works  in  oil  are  views 
on  the  Sonne;  among  those  in  charcoal  are  such 
landscapes  as  his  "Moulin  de  Givry."  See  Ham- 
erton.  The  Graphic  Arts  (Boston,  1833) ;  Clem- 
ent and  Hutton,  Artists  of  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury (Boston,  1884). 

ALLOP'ATHY.     See  Homceopathy. 

AL'LOPHANaC  ACID.  See  Ureas  (the 
Compound ) . 

ALLOm,  kl-Wr^,  Alssbandro  (1535-1607). 
A  celebrated  Italian  painter  of  the  Florentine 
school.  He  was  a  nephew  of  Angelo  Bronzino, 
whose  name  he  sometimes  adopted  in  signing 
his  pictures.  In  his  style  he  waa  an  imitator  of 
Michelangelo.  He  was  excelled  by  his  son, 
Cristofano  Allori  (q.v.). 

ALLOBI,  Christofai^o  (1577-1621).  A  fa- 
mous painter,  born  at  Florence.  Haying  no 
taste  for  the  cold  anatomical  work  in  which  he 
was  instructed  by  his  father,  Alessandro,  whom, 
it  is  said,  he  called  "a  heretic  in  painting,"  he 
became  a  pupil  of  Pagano.  In  technique  and 
coloring  he  was  easily  first  among  the  Florentine 
artists.  Allori  excelled  in  delicacy  of  execution, 
but  he  was  withheld  by  a  certain  fastidiousness 
from  completing  many  of  his  pictures.  His 
greatest  painting  is  "Judith  and  Holofemes."  in 
the  Pitti  Palace,  the  head  of  Holofemes,  it  is 
said,  being  his  own  portrait,  and  Judith,  Uiat 
of  his  mistress,  Mazzafirra.  Consult  Clement, 
Painters,  Sculptors,  Architects,  and  Engravers 
(Boston,  1899). 


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AIXOTBOPY. 


377 


ALLOT. 


ALLOiyBOPY  (Eccl.  Gk.  a?iAOTpoma,  alio- 
tropia,  variety,  from  a?^^,  alios,  other  +  rpdnog, 
tropoa,  turn,  way,  guise) ,  of  Allotbopism.  A 
term  used  in  chemistry  to  denote  the  exist- 
ence of  an  element  in  several  forms  di£fer- 
ing  from  each  other  in  their  physical  proper- 
ties. By  the  silent  discharge  of  electricity 
in  an  atmosphere  containing  ordinary  oxygen, 
the  latter  is  transformed  mto  ozone.  Ozone 
can  readily  be  shown  to  be  made  up  of 
nothing  but  the  elment  oxygen;  yet  oxygen 
gas  and  ozone  exhibit  important  differences 
in  their  properties;  thus  ozone  (Gk.  6Cwv, 
smelling) ,  has  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  odor, 
while  oxygen  gas  is  odorless;  ozone  reacts  much 
more  readily  with  various  substances;  it  has 
bleaching  and  disinfectant  properties  not  pos- 
sessed by  oxygen  gas,  and  it  is  much  denser  than 
oxygen.  Phosphorus  affords  another  example 
of  allotropism.  In  ordinary  circumstances,  and 
when  freshly  prepared,  phosphorus  is  a  pale 
yellow  solid  of  the  consistence  and  aspect  of 
wax,  and  to  some  extent  flexible  and  translucent. 
It  requires  to  be  placed  in  a  vessel  with  water 
to  keep  it  from  taking  fire  spontaneously,  and  it 
is  very  poisonous.  The  same  element,  when 
dried  and  kept  for  some  time  at  a  moderately 
high  temperature,  passes,  weight  for  weight- 
without  addition  or  subtraction  of  matter — ^into 
a  substance  known  to  chemists  as  amorphous 
phosphorus.  The  color  of  this  new  variety  is 
brownish  red;  and  it  exists  as  a  powder,  which 
has  no  odor,  does  not  take  fire,  and  is  not  known 
to  be  poisonous  at  all.  Three  allotropic  modifica- 
tions of  the  element  carbon  are  known:  diamond, 
graphite,  and  amorphous  carbon  (pure  lamp- 
black). The  different  varieties  of  sulphur, 
boron,  silicon,  etc.,  furnish  other  examples  of 
allotropism.  Though  comparatively  few  ele- 
ments have  been  obtained  in  more  than  one  form, 
there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why,  in  general,  any 
other  chemical  element  should  be  incapable  of 
existing  in  two  or  more  allotropic  modifications. 
The  existence  of  allotropic  varieties  brings  to  the 
mind  the  polymorphism  of  crystalline  substances 
and  the  isomerism  of  organic  compounds.  From 
the  point  of  view  of  the  atomic  theory,  the  differ- 
ent allotropic  modifications  of  an  element  are, 
probably,  made  up  of  molecules  containing  differ- 
ent numbers  of  atoms,  or  else  of  atoms  differently 
combined:  thus  a  molecule  of  ordinary  oxygen 
contains  two  oxygen  atoms,  and  its  chemical 
symbol  is  Oj;  a  molecule  of  ozone  contains  three 
oxygen  atoms,  and  its  chemical  symbol  is  O,.  A 
similar  explanation  of  the  nature  of  allotropy  in 
solid  elements  is,  however,  purely  hypothetical; 
for  nothing  at  all  is  known  of  the  ultimate 
structure  of  solids.  Consult:  D.  Berthelot, 
Df  Vallotropie  de^  corjis  simples  (Paris,  1894)  ; 
and  Ouvrard,  Etats  allotropiques  des  corps 
simples  (Paris,  1894). 

ALLOTTAVA,  allftt-tft'vA  (It.  at  the  oc- 
tave). A  mark  alL  Sua.,  or  8va.,  placed  over  the 
notes  in  pianoforte  music,  signifies  that  they 
are  to  be  played  an  octave  higher  than  written, 
or,  if  placed  below  the  notes,  an  octave  lower. 
Its  duration  is  indicated  by  a  dotted  line.  In 
orchestral  scores,  all.  Sva.  signifies  that  one  in- 
strument plays  in  octaves  with  another;  in 
figured  bass,  that  no  harmonies  are  to  be  em- 
ployed, the  upper  parts  simply  doubling  the  bass 
in  octaves. 

ALLOTJEZ,  k'lJSSrt^,  Claude  Jean  (1620-90). 


One  of  the  early  French  Jesuits  who  visited  the 
Great  Lakes.  He  founded  the  Mission  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  on  Lake  Superior  in  1665,  explored 
Green  Bay,  and  established  missions  among  the 
Illinois  Indians,  settling  at  Kaskaskia  (q.v.), 
and  continuing  there  the  mission  begun  by  Mar- 
quette. He  retired  in  1679  on  the  approach  of 
La  Salle,  an  enemy  of  the  Jesuits,  and  died 
among  the  Miainis  on  St.  Joseph's  River.  An 
autobiographic  account  of  his  work  can  be  found 
in  the  Jesuit  Relations,  published  at  Cleveland, 
O.,  in  1900. 

ALLOW^ANCE.  In  military  usage,  money 
allowed  in  lieu  of  forage,  food,  horses,  clothing, 
or  quarters;  or  for  any  extra  work  or  duties  that 
may  have  been  performed.  Such  allowance  con- 
stitutes extra  pay.  See  Pat  and  Allowances, 
Military. 

ALLOWANCE  OF  QTTAB'TEBS.     See  Pat 

AND  Allowances,  Militart. 

AL^OWAY  EUBK.  An  old  ruined  church 
in  the  parish  of  Ayr,  Scotland,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Doon,  celebrated  in  Bums's  Tarn  o*  8hanter. 
At  very  short  distances  from  it  are  the  cottage  in 
which  the  poet  was  born,  the  monument  erected 
to  his  memory  in  1823,  and  the  Auld  Brig  o' 
Doon,  over  which  Tam  o'  Shanter  made  his- 
escape. 

ALLOT^  (Fr.  aloi,  from  Lat.  alligare,  to  bind 
to,  from  od,  to  -f-  ligare,  to  tie).  A  mixture  of 
two  or  more  metals,  usually  produced  artificially 
by  fusion,  although  sometimes  found  native.  Al- 
loys are  characterized  by  certain  definite  prop- 
erties, which,  according  to  Sir  William  C.  Rob- 
erts-Austen, include:  Liquation,  which  is  shown 
by  the  separation  of  that  constituent  w^hich  has 
the  lowest  melting  point  when  the  alloy  is 
heated;  density,  which  seldom  corresponds  to  the 
mean  of  those  of  the  constituents  of  the  alloy, 
being  usually  either  more  or  less  than  that 
shown  by  the  percentage  composition;  tenac- 
ity, which  is  usually  greater  than  that  of  the 
constituents  of  the  alloy,  although  it  is  some- 
times diminished;  hardness,  which  is  almost  al- 
ways increased;  extensibility,  which  is  almost 
always  diminished;  and  fusibility,  the  melting 
point  being  generally  lower  than  the  mean  of  the 
melting  points  of  the  constituent  metals.  Mat- 
th lessen,  who  studied  the  subject  of  alloys  very 
thoroughly,  divided  the  constituents  of  alloys  in- 
to two  classes:  Those  metals  which  impart  U> 
their  alloys  their  physical  properties  in  the  pro- 
portion in  which  they  themselves  exist  in  the 
alloy,  and  those  which  do  not  impart  to  their 
alloys  their  physical  properties  in  the  proportion, 
in  which  they  themselves  exist  in  the  alloy.  In 
the  first  class  he  places  lead,  tin,  zinc,  and  cad- 
mium, and  in  the  second  class,  in  all  probability, 
the  rest  of  the  metals.  He  divided  the  physical 
properties  of  alloys  into  three  classes :  ( 1 )  Those 
which  in  all  cases  are  imparted  to  the  alloy  ap- 
proximately in  the  ratio  in  which  they  are  pos- 
sessed by  the  component  metals;  (2)  those 
which  in  all  cases  are  not  imparted  to  the  alloy 
in  the  ratio  in  which  they  are  possessed  by  the 
component  metals;  (3)  those 'which  in  some 
cases  are,  and  in  others  are  not,  imparted  to  the 
alloy  in  the  ratio  in  which  they  are  possessed  by 
the  component  metals.  As  types  of  the  first 
class,  specific  gravity,  specific  heat,  and  expan- 
sion due  to  heat,  may  be  taken;  as  types  of  the 
second  class,  the  fusing  points  and  crystalline 
form;  and  as  types  of  the  third  class,  the  con- 


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ALLOT. 


ductiii|;  power  for  heat  and  electricity,  sound, 
elasticity,  and  tenacity.  Very  few  of  tne  metal- 
lic elements  are  found  pure  in  nature,  but  for  the 
most  part  they  are  found  alloyed  with  some 
other  metallic  element:  thus  gold  usually  con- 
tains traces  of  silver ;  copper  is  alloyed  with  sil- 
ver or  bismuth ;  lead  almost  always  contains  sil- 
ver and  frequently  antimony;  platinum  occurs 
as  an  alloy  with  iron,  iridium,  osmium,  and 
other  metals.  The  great  value  of  alloys  in  com- 
merce is  due  to  the  fact  that  certain  properties 
which  are  desirable  for  practical  purposes  ma^ 
be  imparted  to  manv  metals  by  a  suitable  addi- 
tion of  other  metals.  For  instance,  gold  and 
silver  are  too  soft  for  use  as  coins  when  pure, 
but  may  be  rendered  sufficiently  hard  by  the  ad- 
mixture of  small  proportions  of  copper.  Simi- 
larly the  hardness  of  copper  is  greatly  increased 
by  the  addition  of  zinc,  yielding  brass.  In  mak- 
ing alloys,  the  least  fusible  metal  is  melted 
first,  after  which  the  others  are  added.  When 
three  metals  are  used  to  form  the  alloy,  they  are 
melted  in  pairs  and  afterward  together.  The 
fused  mass  must  be  kept  well  stirred  until  the 
mixture  is  complete,  otherwise  the  tendency 
would  be  for  the  heavier  metal  to  sink  to  the 
bottom  and  the  alloy  would  not  be  of  uniform 
composition.  The  more  important  alloys,  which 
are  included  among  the  materials  of  constructive 
engineering,  are  the  bronzes,  the  brasses,  the  coin 
alloys,  and  a  few  alloys  of  tin,  lead,  zinc,  anti- 
mony, and  bismuth.  All  the  other  alloys  are  of 
use  for  a  few  special  purposes  only.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  principal  alloys,  their  composi- 
tion and  uses: 

Bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  tin.  The 
knowledge  of  bronze  is  very  old,  it  being* 
used  by  the  ancients  for  making  coins,  weapons, 
tools,  and  ornaments.  Many  of  these  ancient 
peoples  were  very  skillful  bronze  founders.  The 
principal  bronzes  are  those  used  in  coinage,  in 
ordnance,  in  statuary,  in  bells  and  musical  in- 
struments, and  in  mirrors  and  the  specula  of  tel- 
escopes. Coin  bronze  as  made  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  consisted  of  from  06%  copper  and  4% 
tin,  to  98%  copper  and  2%  tin.  Modem  inves- 
tigations have  shown  the  range  of  good  alloys 
for  this  purpose  to  be  quite  large,  varying  from 
06%  copper  and  4%  tin  to  80%  copper  and  14% 
tin,  the  best  falling  near  the  middle  of  this 
range.  Gun  bronze  has  different  compositions  in 
did'erent  countries,  but  the  most  common  pro- 
portion would  seem  to  be  00%  copper  and  10% 
tin,  or  89%  copper  and  11%  tin.  When  well 
made  it  is  solid,  yellowish  in  color,  denser  than 
the  mean  of  its  constituents,  and  much  harder, 
stronger,  and  more  fusible  than  commercial  cop- 
per; it  is  somewhat  malleable  when  hot  and 
much  less  so  when  cold.  Statuary  bronze  is 
nearly  the  same  composition  as  gun  bronze.  It 
should  be  rapidly  melted,  poured  at  a  high 
temperature,  and  quickly  cooled  to  get  the  best 
results.  Bell  metal  is  richer  in  tin  than  the  pre- 
ceding, and  varies  in  composition  somewhat  with 
the  size  of  the  bell,  the  proportion  of  tin  being 
the  larger  in  the  case  of  small  bells.  The  range 
of  good  practice  in  bell  metal  is  from  18%  to 
30%  tin  and  from  82%  to  70%  copper.  Chinese 
gongs  are  made  from  78%  to  80%  copper  and  22% 
to  20%  tin,  and  are  beaten  into  shape  with  the 
hammer,  being  tempered  at  intervals  during  the 
process.  (See  Annealhto.)  Bell  metal  is  dense 
and  homogeneous,  fine  ground,  malleable  if 
quickly  cooled  in  the  mold,  rather  more  fusible 


than  gun  bronze,  but  otherwise  similar,  ezcejling, 
however,  in  hardness,  elasticity,  and  sonority. 
Speculum  metal  contains  often  as  much  as  33% 
tin;  it  is  almost  silvery  white,  extremely  hard 
and  brittle,  and  capable  of  taking  a  very  perfect 
polish.  Bronze  for  bearings  and  other  friction 
surfaces  in  machinery  is  made  of  many  propor- 
tions, varying  from  88%  to  96%  copper,  as  more 
or  less  hardness  is  required.  Phosphor  bronze 
is  a  triple  alloy  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  which 
has  been  given  exceptional  purity  by  fluxing  with 
phosphorus.  It  is  very  tough  and  hard,  and  is 
used  for  piston  rings  and  valve  covers,  pinions, 
cog  wheels,  screw  propellers,  etc.  Tobin  bronx 
is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc  in  the  proportion 
of  about  59  to  38,  with  small  percentages  of  tin, 
iron,  and  lead.  It  has  great  tensile  strength,  and 
corrodes  with  great  difficulty.  Aluminum  bronze 
consists  of  90%  copper  and  10%  aluminium,  and 
is  an  exceedingly  tenacious  material.  Mangan- 
ese bronze  is  an  alloy  consisting  of  about  88  % 
copper,  ly^%  tin,  8.7%  zinc,  and  smaller  per- 
centages of  iron,  lead,  and  phosphorus ;  it  is  much 
used  for  making  screw  propellers.  Both  Tobin 
bronze  and  manganese  bronze  are  in  reality  more 
nearly  brasses,  since  the  zinc  percentage  is 
greater  than  the  tin  percentage. 

Brass  is  an  alloy  of  copper  and  zinc  in  about 
the  proportions  of  copper  66%%  and  zinc 
33  ^^%.  Brass  is  extensively  employed  in  the 
arts  in  the  manufacture  of  scientific  apparatus 
and  mathematical  instruments,  the  small  parts 
of  machinery,  and  many  sorts  of  hardware.  It 
is  also  drawn  into  wire,  and  rolled  into  sheets 
and  rods,  which  are  used  for  a  multitude  of  pur- 
poses. Brass  is  harder  than  copper,  very  malle- 
able and  ductile,  and  can  be  "struck"  in  dies, 
formed  in  molds,  or  "spun"  in  lathes  into  vessels 
of  a  wide  variety  of  forms.  It  is  a  much  poorer 
conductor  of  electricity  and  heat  than  copper, 
and  is  more  fusible.  Aluminum  brass  is  made  of 
equal  weight  of  aluminum  bronze,  copper,  and 
zinc.  It  has  a  very  high  tensile  strength,  and 
has  been  used  for  screw  propellers. 

Other  alloys  than  bronzes  and  brasses  exist  in 
an  immense  variety,  and  have  numerous  applica- 
tions in  the  arts  an4  sciences,  although  they  are 
much  less  used  than  the  bronzes  and  brasses. 
Only  a  few  of  these  alloys  can  be  mentioned 
here.  German  silver  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  zinc, 
and  nickel  in  the  respective  proportions  of  about 
60%,  20%  and  20%.  It  is  used  for  table  utensils, 
ornaments,  and  in  the  form  of  sheets,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  alloys  to  handle  in  the  foun- 
dry and  rolling  mill.  Pewter  is  an  alloy  of  tin  and 
copper  often  mixed  with  lead.  Britannia  metal 
is  an  alloy  of  tin,  antimony,  copper,  and  brass. 
It  and  pewter  are  much  used  in  making  table 
utensils.  Stereotype  metal  is  an  alloy  of  16% 
antimony,  17%  tin  and  67%  lead.  (See  Pbi>t- 
INQ.)  ^Babbitt  metal  is  an  alloy  of  4  parts 
copper,  12  parts  tin,  8  parts  regulus  of  antimony 
melted  together,  and  12  parts  tin  added  after 
fusion.  It  is  used  for  lining  bearings  for  jour- 
nals. Solders  are  alloys  used  for  joining  metal- 
lic surfaces  and  parts,  and  have  a  wide  range  of 
composition.  The  soft  solders  are  made  of  tin 
and  lead;>  the  hard  solders  are  usually  made  of 
brass,  and  special  solders  are  composed  of  vari- 
ous alloys  of  copper,  zinc,  lead,  tin,  bismuth, 
gold,  and  silver.  In  making  solders,  great  care 
has  to  be  taken  to  secure  uniformity  or  composi- 
tion. For  this  reason,  they  are  often  granulated 
by  pouring  from  a  height  into  water,  or  by  re- 


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ALLSTON. 


ducing  the  cast  ingots  into  powder  and  then  re- 
melting  the  granulated  or  powdered  material. 
The  soft  solders  are  usually  sold  in  sticks,  and 
silver  and  gold  solder  in  sheets.  Platinum  is  sol- 
dered with  gold,  and  German  silver  with  a  solder 
of  equal  parts  of  silver,  brass,  and  zinc.  The  es- 
sentials of  a  good  solder  are  that  it  shall  have 
an  affinity  for  the  metals  to  be  united,  shall 
melt  at  a  considerably  lower  temperature,  shall 
be  strong,  tough,  uniform  in  composition,  and 
not  readily  oxidized.  Type  metal  is  an  alloy 
of  lead  and  antimony  in  the  proportions  of  4  to 
1.  It  is  a  hard  alloy  capable  of  being  cast  in 
molds,  and  taking  form  very  perfectly.  Oold 
coin  consists  of  an  alloy  of  900  parts  gold,  75 
parts  copper,  and  25  parts  silver.  Iron  forms 
compounds  with  many  elements  that  are  used 
in  metallurgical  processes,  as  ferro-manganese, 
ferro-titanium,  and  ferro-tungsten,  which  will  be 
considered  under  Ibon  and  Steel.  Mercury  com- 
bines with  many  metals  to  form  amalgams  ( q.v. ) . 
During  the  years  1875-78,  a  board  for  testing 
iron,  steel,  and  other  metals  met  at  the  Water- 
town  Arsenal,  Mass.,  and  very  thoroughly  consid- 
ered the  properties  of  various  alloys,  including  a 
series  of  experiments  on  the  characteristics  of 
metallic  alloys,  and  investigation  of  the  laws  of 
combination.*  Their  report,  published  in  1881, 
contains  much  information  on  the  subject,  to- 
gether with  a  bibliography.  Consult:  Guet- 
tier,  .4  Practical  Guide  for  the  Manufacture  of 
Metallic  Alloys,  translated  by  Fesquet  (Phila- 
delphia, 1872)  :  Larkin,  The  Brass  and  Iron 
Founders'  Guide  (Philadelphia,  1878)  ;  Graham, 
The  Brassfounders*  Manual  (London,  1879) ; 
Brannt,  Metallio  Alloys  (London,  1889)  ; 
Hioms,  Mixed  MetalSy  or  Metallic  Alloys  (New 
York,  1890) ;  and  Thurston,  A  Treatise  on 
Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  Their 
Constituent  Metals  (New  York,  1897). 

ALL-SAINTS'  BAY.  A  bay  in  the  province 
of  Bahia,  Brazil,  in  12**  to  13**  S.  lat.,  and  38^* 
to  39°  W.  long.  (Map:  Brazil,  South  America, 
F  4).  It  forms  a  superb  natural  harbor,  37 
miles  long  and  27  miles  broad,  with  an  easy 
entrance.  It  contains  several  islands,  the  largest 
of  which,  Itapasica,  is  18  lAiles  long  and  3  miles 
broad.  The  town  of  Bahia  (q.v.)  lies  just 
within  it,  on  the  right. 

ALL-SAINTS'  DAT.  In  old  English,  All- 
Hallows,  All-Hallowmas,  or  simply  Hallowmas, 
a  festival  of  the  ancient  Christian  Church,  intro- 
duced because  of  the  impossibility  of  keeping 
a  separate  day  fo^  every  saint.  As  early  as  the 
fourth  century,  on  the  cessation  of  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians,  the  Sunday  after  Easter 
was  appointed  by  the  Greek  Church  for  com- 
memorating the  martyrs  generally;  and  in  the 
Church  of  Rome  a  similar  festival  was  introduced 
about  610  A.D.,  when  the  old  heathen  Pantheon 
(the  present  Rotunda,  or  Santa  Maria  de'  Mar- 
tiri)  was  consecrated,  on  March  13,  to  Mary  and 
all  the  martyrs.  But  the  real  festival  of  All 
Saints  was  first  regularly  instituted  by  Gregory 
IV.,  in  835,  and  appointed  to  be  celebrated  on 
November  1st.  It  was  admitted  into  England 
about  870,  and  is  now  a  well-recognized  day 
there  and  wherever  the  Church  calendar  is  closely 
followed.  The  choice  of  the  day  was  doubtless 
determined  by  the  fact  that  November  Ist,  or 
rather  the  eve  or  night  preceding  it,  was  one  of 
the  four  great  festivals  (February  1st,  May  Ist, 
August  Ist,  and  November  1st)  of  the  heathen 


nations  of  the  north ;  for  it  was  the  policy  of  the 
Church  to  supplant  heathen  by  Christian  observ- 
ances.   See  Beltein,  and  Hallow-eve. 

ALL  SOTTLS  COLLEGE.  A  college  of  the 
University  of  Oxford,  founded  in  1437-38  by 
Archbishop  Chichele,  partly  as  a  chantry  where 
prayers  should  be  made  for  the  souls  of  all  Chris- 
tians (especially  such  as  fell  in  the  war  for  the 
crown  of  France,  of  which  Chichele  had  been 
the  adviser),  and  partly  as  a  society  of  fellows 
free  from  the  charge  of  undergraduate  students. 
The  college  has  been  noted  for  the  devotion  of 
its  members  to  history  and  law,  subjects  in 
which  the  founder  was  distinguished.  In  late 
years,  the  number  of  fellowships  has  been  in- 
creased from  forty  to  fifty,  and  two  Chichele 
Professorships  have  been  instituted,  one  in  inter- 
national law  and  diplomacy,  with  one  in  modern 
history.  The  fellows  are  selected  because  of 
their  distinction  in  the  study  of  law  and  history. 
Among  the  ecclesiastics  who  have  here  been  en- 
rolled are  Sheldon,  Jeremy  Taylor,  and  Reginald 
Heber;  among  lawyers  and  statesmen,  Black- 
stone,  Gladstone,  Salisbury,  and  Curzon.  The 
Codrington  Library  contains  over  seventy  thou- 
sand volumes,  and  is  noted  as  one  of  the  finest 
law  libraries  in  England. 

ALL-SOTTLS'  DAY.  A  holy  day  of  the  Ro- 
man Catholic  Church,  which  falls  on  November 
2d.  The  object  of  it  is  by  prayers  and  almsgiving 
to  alleviate  the  sufferings  of  souls  in  purgatory. 
It  was  first  instituted  in  the  monastery  of 
Clugny,  998,  and  the  following  is  the  account 
given  of  the  circumstance  in  which  it  originated : 
A  pilgrim  returning  from  the  Holy  Land  was 
compelled  by  a  storm  to  land  on  a  rocky  island 
somewhere  between  Sicily  and  Thessalonica. 
Here  he  found  a  hermit,  who  told  him  that 
among  the  clifiTs  of  the  island  was  situated  the 
opening  into  the  under  world,  through  which 
huge  fiames  ascended,  and  the  groans  and  cries 
of  souls  tormented  by  evil  angels  were  audible. 
The  hermit  had  also  frequently  heard  the  com- 
plaints and  imprecations  of  the  devils  at  the 
number  of  souls  that  were  torn  from  them  by  the 
prayers  and  alms  of  the  pious;  they  were 
especially  enraged,  he  said,  against  the  abbot 
and  monks  of  Clugny.  The  pilgrim  on  his 
arrival  acquainted  Odilo,  Abbot  of  Clugny,  with 
what  had  come  to  his  knowledge,  and  the  abbot 
thereupon  appointed  the  day  after  All-Saints' 
to  be  kept  in  his  monastery  as  an  annual  festival 
for  "all  souls."  The  observance  was  quickly 
adopted  by  the  whole  Catholic  world. 

ALI/SPICE  (all  +  spice).  A  name  given  to 
the  dry  berry  of  the  pimento  {Pimento  offici- 
nalis ) ,  a  small  evergreen  tree.  The  berry  is 
supposed  to  combine  the  fiavor  of  several  spices, 
especially  cinnamon,  nutmeg,  and  cloves;  hence 
the  name.  The  tree  is  cultivated  in  the  West 
Indies,  especially  in  Jamaica,  for  its  aromatic 
leaves  and  berries.  The  berries  grow  in  clusters. 
They  are  about  the  size  of  peas,  and  are  used 
as  a  spice  for  seasoning  food.  The  word  allspice 
is  also  applied  to  the  aromatic  bark  of  various 
other  plants,  particularly  Calycanthus  floridus 
(q.v.).     For  illustration  see  Abutilon. 

ALL'STON,  Theodosia  Burr.  See  Burr, 
Theodosia. 

ALLSTON,  Washington  (1779-1843).  An 
American  painter,  poet,  and  novelist.  He  was 
born  at  Waccamaw,  S.  C,  on  his  father's  planta- 


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AU.WOBTHY. 


tion,  November  5,  1770,  but  passed  his  childhood 
and  received  his  education  and  early  instruction 
in  art  at  Newport,  Boston,  and  Cambridge.  Mal- 
bone,  the  miniature  painter,  was  an  early  friend 
and  adviser,  and  the  portrait  painter  Pine  a 
valuable  influence.  After  ^aduating  from  Har- 
vard in  1800,  Allston  went  to  Charleston,  S.  C, 
where  he  began  his  art  career.  In  1801  he  went 
with  Malbone  to  London,  and  became  a  student 
of  the  Royal  Academy,  which  was  at  that  time 
under  the  presidency  of  his  fellow  countr^an, 
Benjamin  West.  In  1804  he  visited  Paris  in 
companv  with  the  afterward  celebrated  painter 
Vanderfyn.  Here,  before  going  to  Italy,  he 
studied  in  the  Louvre  the  masterpieces  of  the 
various  schools,  and  showed  a  decided  preference 
for  the  rich,  glowing  color  of  the  Venetians. 
Tliis  influence  held  more  or  less  through  life, 
and  his  natural  affinity  with  those  masters  of 
color  gave  him  later  the  sobriquet  of  "The 
American  Titian."  He  Fussed  four  years  in 
Rome,  the  companion  of  Thorwaldsen  and  Cole- 
ridge, studying  the  great  masters  and  acquiring 
their  dignified  and  lofty  style,  for  which  he  was 
peculiarly  fitted  by  temperament.  He  returned 
to  America  in  1800,  married  a  sister  of  Dr.  Wil- 
liam Ellery  Channing,  and  went  again  to  London, 
where  he  painted  and  exhibited  with  marked 
success  for  nine  years.  Failing  in  health,  he 
came  home  in  1818,  and  settled  first  in  Boston, 
afterward  in  Cambridge,  where  he  passed  the 
remainder  of  his  life  in  comparative  seclusion 
on  account  of  enfeebled  health.  He  attracted 
to  him  always  a  refined  and  cultivated  circle  of 
friends  and  admirers;  for  Allston  was  a  man 
of  scholarly  tastes,  a  rare  talker,  and  a  writer 
of  much  charm.  His  temperament  was  nervous 
and  high-strung.  His  cast  of  mind  was  emi- 
nently artistic,  imaginative,  and  of  a  noble  tenor. 
One  of  the  earliest  of  his  important  canvases, 
"The  Dead  Man  Revived,"  he  painted  and  ex- 
hibited in  London  about  1810.  This  obtained 
a  prize  of  200  guineas,  and  was  soon  after  pur- 
chased by  the  Pennsylvania  Academy  of  the  Fine 
Arts.  Then  followed  a  number  of  historical  and 
imaginative  works:  "St.  Peter  Liberated  by  the 
Angels,"  "Uriel  in  the  Sun,"  for  which  the 
British  Institution  awarded  him  a  gratuity  of 
150  guineas.  In  America,  after  his  final  return, 
he  painted  "The  Prophet  Jeremiah,"  now  at 
Yale  College,  his  large  unfinished  "Belshazzar's 
Feast,"  now  in  Boston,  and  several  smaller  works, 
including  "Dante's  Beatrice"  and  "Spalatro's 
Vision  of  the  Bloody  Hand,"  a  powerfully  dra- 
matic work.  His  poem.  The  Sylphs  of  the  Sea- 
sons, was  deliverea  before  the  Phi  Beta  Kappa 
Society  at  Cambridge,  and  subsequently  pub- 
lished in  London  ( 1813) .  He  wrote  also  a  novel, 
Monaldi  (Boston,  1841).  His  Lectures  on  Art 
appeared  after  his  death.  He  died  at  Cambridge, 
July  9,  1843,  and  his  burial  took  place  by  torch- 
light. Consult:  Richard  Muther,  The  History  of 
Modem  Painting  (London,  1896)  ;  M.  F.  Sweet- 
ser,  Artist  Biographies  (Boston,  1879).  His  Life 
and  Letters  were  published  by  his  relative,  J.  B. 
Flagg  (New  York,  1802). 

ALL'S  WELL  THAT  ENDS  WELL.  A 
comedy  by  Shakespeare,  produced  in  1601,  but 
probably  largely  written  as  early  as  1595.  It 
was  included  in  the  folio  of  1623.  The  plot  is 
based  upon  a  story  in  Boccaccio's  Decameron, 
which  had  been  already  borrowed  in  Painter's 
Palace  of  Pleasure.  Shakespeare,  however,  add- 
ed the  comic  characters  of  Lafeu,  Parolles,  and 


the  clown,  though  without  tranaforming  the 
pathos  of  the  original  tale. 

ALL  -  THE  -  TALENTS  -  MIKOSTBT.    A 

complimentary  designation  bestowed  by  its 
friends  on  the  English  ministry  formed  by  Lord 
Grenville  in  1806.  Used  in  derision  by  its  oppo- 
nents, it  has  passed  into  history  as  an  ironical 
appellation. 

ALLTJ^VTOK  (Lat.  alluvio,  a  washing  upon, 
from  od,  to+  Uiere,  to  wash).  The  legal  term 
for  land  gained  from  the  sea  or  other  waters, 
public  or  private,  by  the  imperceptible  relic- 
tion of  the  water  boundary  or  the  gradual  wash- 
ing up  of  silt  and  earth,  the  scientific  and  pop- 
ular term  for  which  is  alluvium.  Alluvion  is  an 
accretion  (q.v.)  to  the  upland,  and  becomes  part 
and  parcel  of  the  land  to  which  it  is  annexed, 
and  the  property  of  the  owner  of  the  latter. 
When  the  change  efiTected  by  the  water  is  sudden, 
or  so  rapid  as  to  be  perceptible  from  day  to  day, 
as  where  the  line  of  the  seashore  is  altered  by 
a  storm,  or  a  river  suddenly  changes  its  course, 
or  where  the  deposit,  however  gradual,  is  the 
intentional  result  of  artificial  causes,  it  is  not 
an  alluvion  or  accretion,  and  the  title  to  the 
land  so  covered  or  uncovered  is  not  affected. 
Thus,  if  the  sea  suddenly  engulfs  a  tract  of 
upland,  the  land  continues  to  be  the  property 
of  its  former  owner,  even  though  it  remain  per- 
manently submerged.  The  division  of  alluvion 
between  adjoining  riparian  proprietors,  whose 
division  line,  if  projected,  would  cut  it,  is  a 
matter  of  some  difficulty.  Among  several  rules 
which  have  been  adopted,  the  simplest  is  that 
which  on  private  streams,  prolongs  the  division 
line  at  right  angles  with  the  middle  line  or 
thread  of  the  stream.  As  such  middle  line  is  the 
boundary  between  opposite  riparian  proprietors, 
an  island  formed  in  the  stream  belongs  to  the 
proprietor  on  whose  side  of  the  line  it  lies.  If 
this  line  cuts  the  island,  the  latter  is  divided  by 
the  line.  Consult:  Angell,  Treatise  on  the  Law 
of  Watercourses  (Boston,  1877)  ;  Gould,  Treatise 
on  the  Law  of  Waters  (Chicago,  1900).  See 
Avulsion;  Ripabian  Rights;  Seashobe;  Wa- 
ters. 

ALLTJ^VIUM  (From  Lat.  ad,  to -{-luere,  to 
wash).  A  term  applied  to  the  sediment  trans- 
ported by  rivers  and  spread  over  submerged  low- 
lands during  periods  of  flood.  This  alluvium 
sometimes  forms  "flood  plains"  bordering  rivers, 
or  builds  up  conical  heaps,  "alluvial  cones,"  at 
points  where  rivers  debouch  from  narrow  valleys 
on  to  lower  areas,  or  constitutes  deltas  at  river 
mouths.  Alluvial  soils  are  among  the  most  pro- 
ductive known,  because  of  the  additional  fresh 
material  applied  to  their  surfaces  during  periods 
of  high  water.  The  flood  plains  of  the  Nile, 
Ganges,  and  Mississippi  are  illustrations.  See 
Delta;  Floodplain;   Riveb;   Soil. 

ALL^XTOBTH,  Ladt.  In  Massinger's  play, 
A  New  Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts  (q.v.),  a  wealthy 
widow. 

ALLWOBTH,  Tom.  In  Massinger's  A  Neio 
Way  to  Pay  Old  Debts,  the  stepson  of  Lady 
All  worth,  and  lover  of  Margaret  (jverreach. 

ALL^XTOBTHYy  Thomas.  The  generous 
squire  in  Fielding's  Tom  Jones;  foster-father  of 
the  hero.  He  is  a  philanthropic  gentleman,  an 
admirable  character,  understood  to  be  patterned 
after  Fielding's  own  benefactor  and  friend,  Ralph 
Allen  (q.v.). 


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381 


ALMAOBO. 


ALMA,  &l'm&.  A  river  in  the  Crimea,  rising 
on  the  northern  woody  slope  of  the  Yile,  south  of 
the  Tchatir-Dagh.  It  flows  at  first  in  a  north- 
erly direction,  then  turns  to  the  west,  and  emp- 
ties into  a  small  hay  on  the  Black  Sea,  about 
20  miles  north  of  Sebastopol.  It  is  about  46 
mile$^  long.  The  vale  of  the  Alma  is  renowned 
for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery  and  its  many  mag- 
nificent fruit  gardens.  On  the  steep  banks  of 
this  stream,  through  the  channel  of  which  the 
British  troops  waded  amidst  a  shower  of  bullets, 
a  brilliant  victory  was  won  on  September  20, 
1854,  by  the  armies  of  Britain,  France,  and 
Turkey,  under  Lord  Raglan  and  Marshal  St.  Ar- 
naud,  over  the  Russian  army,  commanded  by 
Prince  Mentchikoff.  After  five  hours  of  stubborn 
fighting,  the  Russians  were  forced  to  retreat  in 
disorder  upon  Sebastopol,  17  per  cent,  of  the 
Russians  (numbering  33,000,  against  62,000  of 
the  allies)  having  been  killed  and  wounded.  The 
Turks  took  no  active  part  in  the  battle. 

AL^MA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Wa- 
baunsee Co.,  Kan.,  35  miles  west  of  Topeka,  on 
Mill  Creek,  and  on  the  Atchison,  Topeka  and 
Santa  F^  and  the  Chicago,  Rock  Island  and 
Pacific  railroads  (Map:  Kansas,  F  2).  It  is 
the  centre  of  an  agricultural  and  stock-raising 
district,  and  has  good  water  power  and  a  large 
fiouring  mill.     Pop.,  1890,  1126;  1900,  966. 

ALMA.  A  village  in  Gratiot  Co.,  Mich.,  36 
miles  west  of  Saginaw,  on  Pine  River,  and  on  the 
Ann  Arbor  and  Pere  Marquette  railroads  (Map: 
Michigan,  J  5).  The  most  important  manufac- 
tures are  beet  sugar,  flour,  and  products  of  lum- 
ber. Alma  owns  and  operates  its  water  works 
and  is  lighted  by  electricity.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Alma  College  (Presbyterian),  founded  1887,  and 
of  the  Alma  Sanitarium,  an  institution  which 
has  more  than  local  reputation.  Alma  was 
settled  in  1853,  incorporated  in  1872,  and  is 
governed  under  a  State  law  of  1885.  The  mayor 
18  elected  annually,  and  the  council  is  com- 
posed of  six  members.  Pop.,  1880,  456;  1890, 
1655;    1900,  2047. 

ALMA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Buffalo 
Co.,  Wis.,  25  miles  northwest  of  Winona,  Minn., 
on  the  Mississippi  River  and  on  the  Chicago, 
Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad  (Map:  Wiscon- 
sin, B  4).  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  is 
connected  by  steamboat  with  ports  on  the  river, 
and  has  some  manufactures.  Pop.,  1890,  1428; 
1900,    1201. 

AT.lffA  In  Spenser's  Faerie  Queen,  the  per- 
sonification of  the  human  soul,  the  queen  of 
"Body  Castle." 

ALMA.  A  pseudonym  of  Charlotte  Yonge, 
the  novelist. 

ALMACK'S,  ftKmftks.  A  suite  of  assembly 
rooms  in  King  Street,  I^ondon,  built  in  1765. 
They  took  their  name  from  that  of  their  builder, 
or,  rather,  that  assumed  bv  him.  It  is  said  he 
was  originally  a  poor  Scottish  Highlander  named 
McCall,  and  that  as  a  preparatory  step  to  rising 
into  importance  in  London,  he  inverted  the 
syllables  of  his  patronymic.  The  name  of 
Almack's  is  chiefly  associated  with  the  balls 
which  were  held  there  for  many  years  under  the 
management  of  a  committee  of  ladies  of  high 
rank.  The  glory  of  Almack's  belongs  to  a  period 
earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
but  the  name  has  become  synonymous  with  aris- 
tocratic  exclusiveness.    The   London    club   now 


known  as  Brooks's,  formerly  Almack's,  was 
started  by  Almack  in  Pall  Mall  some  time  before 
1763.  Consult:  Timbs,  Clubs  and  Club  Life  in 
London  (London,  1873)  ;  Walford,  Oreater  Lon- 
don (London,  1883-84). 

ALMADA,  &l-mft'd&.  A  seaport  town  of  Por- 
tugal, in  the  province  of  Estremadura,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Tagus,  opposite  Lisbon,  and 
distant  from  it  less  than  two  miles  (Map:  Por- 
tugal, A3).  It  is  picturesquely  built  at  the  foot 
of  a  height,  on  the  summit  of  which  is  a  strong 
castle.  It  is  a  great  wine  depot,  and  has  long 
been  celebrated  for  its  figs.  Near  it  is  the  gold 
mine  of  Adissa.     Pop.,  about  7000. 

ALMADEN,  or  ALMADEN  DEL  AZO0TTE, 

ftrm&-DAn^  del  A-th(/gft  (Ar.  mine  of  quicksil- 
ver). A  town  in  Spain,  50  miles  southwest  of 
Ciudad  Real,  situated  between  two  mountains  in 
the  chain  of  the  Sierra  Morena  (Map:  Spain, 
C  3 ) .  It  is  famous  for  its  exceedingly  rich  quick- 
silver mines.  It  is  a  pretty,  bustling  town,  with  a 
ruined  Moorish  castle  and  a  school  of  mines.  It 
owes  all  its  importance  to  the  quicksilver  depos- 
its, which  belong  to  the  Spanish  government. 
In  the  sixteenth  century  they  were  leased  to  the 
Fuggers  of  Augsburg.  In  1645  they  reverted 
to  the  crown.  During  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  thev  were  worked  by  the  Rothschilds  of 
London.  They  consist  of  five  stages  or  galleries, 
the  lowest  being  1150  feet  beneath  the  surface. 
The  mercury  is  found  in  many  combinations,  but 
about  10,000  tons  of  ore  are  annually  raised,  10 
per  cent,  of  which  is  pure  metal.  Employment 
IS  given  to  4000  miners.    Pop.,  1900,    7459. 


^ENy  urm&-den'.  A  township  in  Santa 
Clara  Co.,  Cal.  Population,  1890,  1932;  1900, 
1599  (Map:  California,  C  3).  It  is  noted  for 
rich  deposits  of  quicksilver,  which  were  discov- 
ered at  an  early  date  by  the  Indians,  who  used 
the  crude  cinnabar  for  paint.  The  mines  began 
to  be  worked  before  1850,  and  for  several  years 
ranked  first  amon^  American  mines  in  the 
amount  of  production.  The  greatest  amount, 
47,194  fiasks,  was  obtained  in  1865;  since  that 
date  there  has  been  a  decline. 

ALMAGEST,  fiKm&-j6st.  The  greatest  work 
of  Claudius  Ptolemseus  (see  Ptoij:my),  bore  the 
title  yieya^tj  Svvra^^Cf  MegaU  Syntawis  (great 
system).  The  admirers  of  Ptolemy  changed 
fitydXfj,  megalC,  great,  to  fie-yioTTj,  megistCf  great- 
est, and  the  Arabian  translators  added  the 
Arabic  article  al,  producing  almajisti,  whence 
was  derived  the  common  mediscval  title  almagest. 
The  work  contains  Ptolemy's  important  contribu- 
tions to  trigonometry  and  mathematical  astron- 
omy. 

ALMAOBO,  &l-maV^-  A  town  of  New  Cas- 
tile, Spain,  in  the  province  of  Ciudad  Real,  12 
miles  east-southeast  of  Ciudad  Real  (Map: 
Spain,  D  3) .  It  is  situated  in  a  high,  arid  plain, 
but  is  very  well  built,  with  wide  paved  streets 
and  a  fine  square.  Brandy,  soap,  and  earthen- 
ware are  manufactured,  and  lace-making  gives 
employment  to  a  large  number  of  women  in  Al- 
magro  and  the  neighboring  villages.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  celebrated  for  its  beautiful 
vineyards  and  olives.  The  vine  of  this  region 
yields  the  well-known  red  wine  Valdepeflas. 
Pop.,  1900,  8015. 

ALMAOBO,  Diego  de  (1475-1538).  A  Span- 
ish adventurer,  said  to  have  been  a  foundling  in 
the  Spanish  town  whose  name  he  bore.    He  came 


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ALMAOBO. 


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AIiHAKAC. 


to  America  with  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila  in  1514 
and  settled  at  Darien,  whence  he  removed  to 
Panama  in  1519,  when  that  town  was  founded. 
In  1524  he  formed  a  partnership  with  Pizarro 
for  the  conquest  of  a  region  on  the  Pacific  coast 
to  the  south,  which  was  reported  to  contain  gold. 
The  first  voyage  was  a  failure.  The  second  voy- 
age, undertaken  in  1526,  began  with  a  succession 
of  reverses  and  Pizarro  wished  to  abandon  the 
enterprise,  but  Almagro  persuaded  him  to  con- 
tinue, and  eventually  they  were  rewarded  with 
the  wealth  of  the  Incas'  Empire.  Pizarro  secured 
to  himself  and  his  brothers  most  of  the  fruits  of 
victory,  and  deprived  Almagro  of  his  fair  share  of 
plunder  and  power.  In  1535  Almagro  obtained 
from  Charles  V.  the  title  of  Adelantado,  or  Gover- 
nor, of  "New  Toledo,"  a  territory  extending  200 
leagues  along  the  coast,  beginning  at  the  southern 
limit  of  Pizarro's  grant.  A  dispute  immediately 
arose  as  to  the  boundary  between  the  two  grants, 
Almagro  claiming  that  Cuzco  lay  within  his  ter- 
ritory. He  returned  from  an  expedition  which 
he  had  undertaken,  without  much  success,  into 
the  snowy  plateau  region  of  the  southern  Andes, 
to  enforce  this  claim,  and  entered  Cuzco,  assert- 
ing that  he  was  its  legitiinate  governor.  The 
Marquis  Pizzaro  at  once  dispatched  Espinosa  to 
effect,  if  possible,  an  amicable  settlement;  but 
Almagro  was  elated  by  his  recent  successes  and 
refused  to  entertain  any  compromises.  Further 
negotiations  led  to  a  personal  conference  between 
Pizarro  and  Almagro,  November  13,  1537,  which 
ended  in  an  altercation,  and  the  two  old 
friends  parted,  for  the  last  time,  in  very  angry 
mood.  Pizarro's  forces  gradually  forced  Al- 
magro back  toward  Cuzco,  near  which  place  he 
made  a  stand.  A  furious  battle  was  fought, 
April  26,  1538.  Almagro  was  captured,  and  gar- 
roted  in  the  following  July. 

Almagro's  son,  Dteoo  (1520-42),  whose 
mother  ^'as  an  Indian  girl  of  Panama,  was  at 
first  treated  kindly  by  Pizarro ;  but  he  soon  came 
under  the  influence  of  some  of  his  father's 
friends,  who  had  formed  a  conspiracy  to  over- 
throw Pizarro.  The  marquis  was  murdered  on 
June  26,  1541;  the  conspirators  proclaimed  the 
lad  Almagro,  who  was  about  twenty-one  years 
old.  Governor  of  Peru,  and  then  promptly  quar- 
reled among  themselves.  WTien  all  but  one  of 
the  leaders  had  been  murdered  or  had  died  from 
fever  and  exposure,  Almagro  took  matters  into 
his  own  hands  and  ordered  the  execution  of  the 
only  remaining  man  of  consequence  among  them. 
Meanwhile,  Vaca  de  Castro,  who  had  been  sent 
from  Spain  by  the  Government  to  end  the  civil 
war  in  Peru,  arrived  and  assumed  the  govern- 
ment. Almagro  refused  to  submit  and  was  at- 
tacked by  the  royal  forces,  who  defeated  him  in  a 
desperate  battle  on  September  16,  1542.  Al- 
maero  fled  to  Cuzco,  but  was  arrested,  immedi- 
ately condemned  to  death,  and  executed  in  the 
great  square  of  the  city. 

ALMAIN.  An  old  name  for  Grermany,  derived 
from  that  of  the  Alemanni  (q.v.). 

ALTWATiEE,  kl-mn.^^.    See  Elmalu. 

AI/HA  MA^EB  (Lat.  nourishing  mother). 
A  name  applied  to  a  university  or  college,  and 
expressing  the  relation  between  the  institution 
and  the  students  who  have  been  educated  in  it. 
The  term  is  one  of  affection,  and  suggests  a 
mutual  dependence  of  university  and  alumnus 
one   upon   the   other.     The   term   matriculation 


(q.v.),   applied   to  entrance   into   a  university, 
carries  the  same  meaning. 

AL-MAJTCTNy  ttl'mA-moSn',  Abul  Abbas  Ab- 
DALLAH  (783-833).  A  caliph  of  the  line  of 
the  Abbassides  (q.v.),  distinguished  for  his 
intellectual  qualities.  He  was  the  son  of 
Harun  -  al  -  Rashid.  When  Harun  died,  his 
brother  Amin  succeeded  to  the  Caliphate;  but 
his  treatment  of  Al-Mamun  led  to  war,  and  after 
five  years  of  fighting  Amin  was  slain  and  Al-Ma- 
mun took  his  place  (813) .  The  early  part  of  his 
reign  was  disturbed  bv  revolts  and  heresies;  but 
when  affairs  settled  down  he  fostered  the  culti- 
vation of  literature  and  science  throughout  his 
Empire,  and  Bagdad  became  the  seat  of  academ- 
ical instruction  and  the  centre  of  intelligence. 
He  had  books  translated  from  old  and  living 
languages,  founded  astronomical  observatories, 
determined  the  inclination  of  the  ecliptic,  had 
a  degree  of  the  meridian  measured  on  the  plain 
of  Shinar,  and  constructed  astronomical  tables 
of  remarkable  accuracy.  He  paid  more  respect 
to  science  than  to  orthodoxy,  and  drew  his  serv- 
ants from  all  coimtries  and  all  creeds.  In  827 
he  adopted  the  heretical  doctrines  of  the  Mota- 
sali,  who  asserted  the  free  will  of  man  and 
denied  the  finality  of  the  Koran.  In  the  latter 
years  of  his  reign  he  was  involved  in  war  with 
the  Greek  Emperor  Theophilus,  and  revolts  broke 
out  in  various  parts  of  his  Empire.  In  833,  af- 
ter quelling  a  disturbance  in  Egypt,  he  marched 
into  Cilicia  against  the  Greeks,  but  died  sud- 
denly near  Tarsus,  leaving  his  crown  to  Motas- 
sem,  a  younger  brother.  Al-Mamun  was  the 
author  of  Inquiries  into  the  Koran,  a  tract  on 
Fligns  of  Prophecy,  and  one  on  The  Rhetoric  of 
the  Priests  and  Panegyrists  of  the  Caliphs.  Con- 
sult Muir,  The  Caliphate  (London,  1891). 

AI/MANAC  (Of  disputed  origin).  A  book 
or  table  containing  a  calendar  of  the  civil  divi- 
sions of  the  year,  the  times  of  the  various  astro- 
nomical phenomena,  and  other  useful  or  enter- 
taining information.  Till  a  comparatively  mod- 
ern date,  this  additional  matter  consisted  of 
astrological  predictions  and  other  analogous  ab- 
surdities ;  it  now  embraces,  in  the  best  almanacs, 
a  wide  variety  of  useful  notes  and  information, 
chronological,  statistical,  political,  agricultural, 
etc. 

The  history  of  almanacs,  like  all  early  history 
of  astronomy,  goes  back  to  very  ancient  times. 
The  Alexandrian  Greeks  certainly  had  almanacs, 
though  the  time  when  they  first  appeared  in 
Europe  is  not  precisely  known.  The  oldest  of  the 
copies  (manuscript)  existing  are  of  the  thir- 
teenth and  fourteenth  centuries ;  there  are  speci- 
mens in  the  libraries  of  the  British  Museum 
and  of  Corpus  Christi  College,  Cambridge.  The 
earliest  known  printed  European  almanac  was 
compiled  by  the  celebrated  astronomer  Purbach, 
and  appeared  between  the  years  1450  and  1461; 
but  the  first  almanac  of  importance  was  that 
compiled  by  his  pupil,  Regiomontanus,  for  the 
fifty-seven  years  from  1475  to  1631,  for  which 
he  received  a  munificent  donation  from  Matthias 
Corvinus,  King  of  Hungary.  Bernardo  de  Grano- 
lachs  of  Barcelona  commenced  the  publication  of 
an  almanac  in  1487 ;  the  printer  Engel  of  Vienna, 
in  1491;  and  StdfiOer  of  Tubingen,  in  1524. 
Copies  of  these  are  now  very  rare.  In  1533 
Rabelais  published  at  Lyons  his  almanac  for  that 
year,  and  renewed  the  publication  in  1535,  1548, 
and  1550.    The  fame  and  popularity  of  the  as- 


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trologer  Nostradamus,  who  prophesied  the  death 
of  Henry  II.  of  France,  gave  such  an  impulse 
to  the  publication  of  predictions,  that  in  1579 
Henry  III.  of  France  prohibited  the  insertion 
of  any  political  prophecies  in  almanacs — a  pro- 
hibition renewed  by  Louis  XIII.  in  1628.  Before 
this,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.,  a  royal  ordon* 
nance  required  every  almanac  to  be  stamped  with 
the  approval  of  the  diocesan  bishop. 

Prophetic  almanacs  have  circulated  very  large- 
ly in  France  in  the  rural  districts  and  among 
the  uneducated.  The  most  interesting  of  these 
is  perhaps  the  old  A  Imanach  Li^geois,  a  venerable 
remnant  of  superstition.  It  was  first  published 
at  Li^ge — according  to  the  invariable  title-page 
which  takes  no  note  of  time — in  1636,  by  one 
Matthieu  Laensbergh,  whose  existence,  however, 
at  any  time  seems  very  problematical.  The 
Almanack  Liigeoia  is  a  most  convenient  one  for 
those  who  are  unable  to  read,  for  by  certain 
symbols  attached  to  certain  dates  the  most  unlet- 
tered persons  can  follow  its  instructions;  thus, 
the  rude  representation  of  a  vial  announces  the 
proper  phase  of  the  moon  under  which  a  draught 
of  medicine  should  be  taken;  a  pill-box  desig- 
nates the  planet  most  propitious  for  pills;  a 
pair  of  scissors  points  out  tne  proper  period  for 
cutting  hair,  a  lancet  for  letting  blood.  Of 
course,  amid  innumerable  predictions,  some  may 
naturally  be  expected  to  come  to  pass.  So  in 
1774  this  almanac  predicted  that  in  April  of 
that  year  a  royal  favorite  would  play  her  last 
part.  Madame  du  Barry  took  the  prediction  to 
herself,  and  repeatedly  exclaimed:  '^I  wish  this 
villainous  month  of  April  were  over."  In  May 
Louis  XV.  died,  and  Madame  du  Barry's  last  part 
was  really  played.  The  credit  of  old  Matthieu 
was  established  more  firmlv  than  ever.  In  1852, 
a  commission  having  examined  between  7000  and 
8000  of  the  national  chapbooks,  which  included  a 
great  number  of  almanacs,  pronounced  them  so 
deleterious,  that  it  became  necessary  forcibly  to 
check  their  circulation.  Although  still  in  vogue 
amongst  the  ignorant,  their  popularity  is  greatly 
on  the  wane. 

In  England,  so  far  was  any  restraint  from 
being  put  upon  the  publication  of  prophetic 
almanacs,  or  "prognostications,"  as  they  were 
usually  called,  that  royal  letters  patent  gave  a 
monopoly  of  the  trade  to  the  two  universities 
and  the  Stationers'  Company,  under  whose  pat- 
ronage, and  with  the  imprimatur  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  such  productions  as 
Moore's  Almanac  and  Poor  Rohin^s  Almanac 
flourished  vigorously;  although  "it  would  be 
difficult  to  find,  in  so  small  a  compass,  an  equal 
quantity  of  ignorance,  profligacy,  and  imposture 
as  was  condensed  in  these  publications."  The 
memory  of  Partridge,  long  employed  as  the 
prophet  of  the  Stationers'  Company,  is  preserved 
in  the  lively  diatribe  of  Swift,  writing  under  the 
name  of  Bickerstaff.  There  is  a  legal  decision 
on  record  in  the  year  1775,  in  favor  of  a  book- 
seller named  Carnan,  abolishing  the  monopoly  of 
the  Stationers'  Company.  In  1779  Lord  North 
brought  in  a  bill  renewing  their  privileges. 
After  a  powerful  speech  against  the  measure  by 
Erskine,  who  exposed  the  pernicious  influence 
of  the  productions  published  under  the  monopoly, 
it  was  rejected.  TTie  Stationers'  Company,  how- 
ever, still  maintained  their  ground  by  buying  up 
all  rival  almanacs ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  pub- 
lication, in  1828,  of  the  British  Almanac^  by  the 
Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge, 


that  the  eyes  of  the  English  public  became 
opened  to  the  irrational  and  deleterious  nature 
of  the  commodity  which  their  own  indifference 
or  folly,  as  much  as  the  selfishness  of  their  pur- 
veyors,  had   hitherto   maintained   in   existence. 

In  Scotland  the  earliest  almanacs  seem  to 
have  been  produced  about  the  beginning  of  the 
sixteenth  century.  Shortly  after  the  beginning  of 
the  seventeenth  century  the  almanacs,  or  **prog- 
nostications,"  published  at  Aberdeen  had  begun 
to  acquire  a  great  reputation.  About  the  year 
1677  they  were  sold  for  a  plack  each;  and  the 
annual  circulation  amounted,  on  an  average,  to 
50,000  copies.  In  1683  appeared  a  rival  publica-. 
tion,  under  the  title  of  Edinburgh's  True  Alma- 
na^ky  or  a  True  Prognostication.  For  a  long  time 
Scottish  almanacs  continued,  like  all  others  of 
that  age,  to  contain  little  besides  a  calendar,  with 
a  list  of  fairs,  and — what  constituted  the  great 
attraction — predictions  of  the  weather.  But 
something  more  instructive  and  comprehensive 
became  requisite,  and  the  Edinburgh  Almanac 
seems  to  have  been  among  the  first  to  respond  to 
this  requirement  of  advancing  civilization;  for, 
by  various  additions,  such  as  a  list  of  Scottish 
members  of  parliament,  it  had,  in  1745,  been 
extended  from  the  original  16  pages  to  36.  In 
twelve  years  from  that  date  it  had  swelled  to 
72  pages;  in  1779  it  had  reached  252  pages. 
After  1837  it  was  published  under  the  title  of 
Oliver  and  Boyd's  New  Edinburgh  Almxinac,  and 
extended  to  above  1000  pages. 

Almanacs  containing  astrological  and  other 
predictions  are  still  published  in  Great  Britain; 
but  their  influence  is  extremely  limited,  even 
among  the  most  ignorant  portion  of  the  com- 
munity, and  their  contents  are  fitted  to  excite 
amusement  rather  than  any  stronger  emotion. 
In  America,  the  publication  of  almanacs  for 
popular  use  is  confined  very  largely  to  the 
vendors  of  proprietary  or  patent  nostrums  and 
medicines.  These  persons  distribute  the  alma- 
nacs gratuitously,  judging  rightly  that  they  con> 
stitute  a  most  excellent  advertisement  of  their 
wares.  This  is  due  principally  to  the  fact  that 
people  keep  their  almanacs  at  hand  throughout 
the  year,  and  thus  the  advertisements  printed  in 
them  are  ever  present  to  the  public  eye. .  Among 
the  almanacs  in  America  that  are  sold  for  a 
small  price,  the  most  important  are  probably 
the  Old  Farmers',  issued  in  New  England,  and 
those  coming  from  several  great  newspaper 
offices.  It  is  believed  that  the  first  common 
almanac  in  this  country  was  for  1687,  from 
Bradford's  press  in  Philadelphia.  Franklin's 
Poor  Richard's  Almanac,  begun  in  1732,  waa 
kept  up  by  him  about  twenty-five  years,  and  was 
widely  known  in  this  country  and  abroad  for 
its  wise  and  witty  sayings.  The  American  Al- 
manac and  Repository  of  Useful  Knowledge  was 
issued  in  Boston  from  1828  to  1861 ;  a  continua- 
tion. The  National  Almanac,  came  out  for  two 
years  only,  1863  and  1864.  Nearly  every  relig- 
ious denomination  has  its  special  annual,  either 
almanac  or  year-book;  and  many  trades,  profes- 
sions, and  enterprises  have  similar  publications. 

There  are  also  important  astronomical  alma- 
nacs, and  the  Nautical  Almanac,  published  in 
England,  was  projected  by  Nevil  Maskelyne,  As- 
tronomer Royal  from  1765  to  1811,  who  urged  its 
value  in  connection  with  the  use  of  lunar  dis- 
tances for  the  determination  of  longitude.  The 
first  edition  of  this  work  was  published  with 
the   authority   of   government   in    1767.    After 


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Dr.  Maskelyne's  death  it  gradually  lost  its  char- 
acter, and  in  1830,  in  consequence  of  the  numer- 
ous complaints  made  against  it,  the  Government 
requested  the  Astronomical  Society  to  pronounce 
upon  the  subject.  The  suggestions  of  the  soci- 
ety were  adopted,  and  in  1834  the  first  number 
of  the  new  series  appeared,  with  such  additions 
and  improvements  as  the  advanced  state  of 
astronomical  science  rendered  necessary.  Still 
older  than  this  almanac  is  the  French  Connais- 
aance  des  Temps,  commenced  in  1679  by  Picard, 
and  now  published  under  the  authority  of  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes.  Its  plan  is  similar  to 
•  that  of  the  Nautical  Almanac,  but  ib  has  con- 
tained a  larger  amount  of  original  memoirs, 
many  of  them  of  great  value.  Equally  cele- 
brated is  the  Berlin  Astronomischcs  Jahrhuch, 
issued  from  the  Berlin  Observatory.  In  the 
United  States  the  American  Nautical  Almanac 
was  begun  in  1849  by  Charles  Henry  Davis, 
United  States  Navy,  and  the  first  volume  (for 
1855)  was  published  in  1853.  The  publication 
is  issued  from  the  office  of  the  Nautical  Almanac 
and  American  Ephemeris,  United  States  Navy 
Department,  in  Washington,  and  contains  tables 
of  the  predicted  positions  of  the  sun,  moon,  and 
planets,  and  of  all  the  fixed  stars  used  in  naviga- 
tion. It  is  published  three  years  in  advance, 
for  the  convenience  of  navigators  bound  on  long 
voyages.  The  Nautical  Almanac  or  Astronomical 
Ephemeris  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
astronomers,  as  it  contains  collections  of  numer- 
ical data  required  in  the  computation  of  their 
celestial  observations,  and  which  are  equally 
necessary  to  enable  navigators  to  find  their  way 
across  the  sea  by  the  aid  of  the  sextant. 

The  preparation  and  publication  of  these  alma- 
nacs, though  most  important,  are  so  costly,  that 
they  are  possible  only  to  the  great  financial  re- 
sources of  governments,  and  it  is  largely  for 
this  purpose  that  governmental  astronomical  ob- 
servatories are  maintained. 

Congress  in  1849  provided  for  the  publication 
of  such  a  work,  in  which  "the  meriaian  of  the 
observatory  at  Washington  shall  be  adopted  and 
used  as  the  American  meridian  for  astronomical 
purposes,  and  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  shall 
be  adopted  for  all  nautical  purposes."  This  law 
caused  the  division  of  the  work  into  the  Ameri- 
can Ephemeris  and  Nautical  Almarutc.  The  • 
first-named  part  is  chiefly  for  the  use  of  astron- 
omers; the  second  is  adapted  to  the  use  of  navi- 
*    gators. 

ALMANACH  DE  OOTHA,  hYrnk'nii'  de  g6'- 
tA'.    See  GoTiiA,  Almanack  de. 

AI/MANDINE  (Fr.  almandine,  from  Lat. 
alahandina ) .  The  re4,  transparent,  precious 
variety  of  Garnet  ( q.v. ) ,  so  called  from  Alabanda, 
a  town  in  Caria,  where  it  was  found.  This  name 
is  also  given  to  a  violet  colored  variety  of  Spinel 
ruby. 

ALU  ANSA,  &l-man'sA.  A  town  of  Murcia, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Albacete,  43  miles  east 
by  south  of  Albacete,  on  the  Madrid  and  Alicante 
Railway  (Map:  Spain,  E  3).  It  is  two  thousand 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  stands  on  a  fertile  pla- 
teau. Almansa  carries  on  manufactures  of  linen, 
hempen,  and  cotton  fabrics,  the  materials  of 
which  are  supplied  from  the  neighborhood;  also 
of  brandy,  leather,  and  soap.  Population,  1900, 
11,117.  Near  Almanaa  the  French,  under  the 
Duke  of  Berwick,  natural  son  of  James  II.  of 
England,  gained  a   victory  on  April  25,   1707, 


ALMETT, 

over  an  army  of  Spanish  and  English  troops 
commanded  by  Henry  de  Ruvigny,  Earl  of  Gal- 
way.  The  battle  of  Almansa  was,  in  its  results, 
one  of  the  most  important  in  the  war  ol  the 
Spanish  succession. 

Ali-MANSXTB,  Sl'mftn-sSor'  (Ar.  The  Vic- 
torious), Abu  Jafab-Abdaixah  ben  Mohamhed 
(712-775).  The  second  caliph  of  the  house  of 
the  Abbassides  (754-775).  He  was  a  cruel  ruler, 
persecuted  the  Christians,  and  crushed  his  sub- 
jects with  taxation,  but  patronized  learning.  He 
founded  Bagdad.  He  died  during  a  pOgrimage 
to  Mecca,  at  the  age  of  sixty-three.  See  Abbas- 
sides. 

AUCA-TADEMA,  fil'mA  Wdi-mk,  IiAusencb 
(1836 — ).  A  Dutch  painter,  who  was  born  in 
West  Friesland,  Holland,  January  8,  1836.  He 
studied  at  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  Antwerp, 
in  1852,  under  Leys.  He  went  to  live  in  Lon- 
don in  1870.  At  the  Paris  Salon  of  1864,  he 
received  a  medal,  and  also  one  at  the  Universal 
Exposition  of  1867.  He  exhibited  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  London,  in  1870,  "Un  Amateur  Ro- 
main"  and  "Un  Jonglier;*'  and  his  manner, 
being  new  to  the  English  public,  attracted  much 
attention.  Tadema  devotes  himself  mainly  to 
depicting  the  life,  customs,  and  manners  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  His  work  is  remarkable  for 
its  indication  of  careful  arch^ological  research, 
and  for  the  correctness  of  the  costumes  and 
architectural  details  of  the  period  which  he  de- 
picts. He  seeks  types  with  intelligent  thought, 
portraying  the  familar  type  of  the  ancient  peo- 
ple; he  pictures  courtship  and  love-making, 
friendly  calls,  or  the  ceremonious  "first  views*' 
of  some  notable  art  creation.  It  is  the  historical 
and  contemporary  life  of  Athens  or  of  Rome 
that  he  reveals  with  all  the  accessories  of  the 
time.  He  is  peculiarly  successful  in  defining  the 
textures  of  marble  and  bronze,  which  he  does 
with  great  realism  and  judgment.  In  composi- 
tion he  is  scholarly;  the  various  parts  or  quan- 
tities of  his  scenes  are  balanced  with  trus  artis- 
tic instinct.  His  drawing  is  good,  his  coloring 
faithful,  but  he  is  at  times  charged,  and  not  with- 
out reason,  with  a  lack  of  sentiment.  It  is  a 
visual  pleasure  of  coloring,  intelligent  grouping, 
fine  differentiation  of  textures  and  of  stuffs  that 
his  pictures  afford.  They  are  solid  and  compe- 
tent in  their  execution,  nothing  is  carelessly 
done,  and  they  have,  in  addition,  the  value  of 
trustworthy  records  of  the  past ;  but  they  rarely 
move  more  than  the  intellect  and  the  sight.  Con- 
sult Zimmern,  L.  Alma-Tadema,  His  Life  and 
Work  (London,  1880). 

ALMAVTVA,  al'mA-vg'vft,  Count.  A  char- 
acter in  Beaumarchais's  comedies  Le  harhier  de 
Seville,  Le  mariage  de  Figaro,  and  La  m^rr 
coupahle,  appearing  successively  as  a  fascinat- 
ing young  nobleman,  a  disillusioned  husband,  and 
an  old  gallant. 

ALMEH,  hVm^,  or  ATiMAT  ( Ar.  fern,  'almah, 
learned,  from  'alama,  to  know) .  A  class  of  sing- 
ing girls  in  Egypt.  To  enter  the  almeh  one  must 
have  a  good  voice,  know  the  rules  of  verse,  and 
be  able  to  improvise  couplets  adapted  to  circum- 
stances. They  are  in  demand  at  all  entertain- 
ments and  festivals,  and  at  funerals  as  hired 
mourners.  They  are  distinct  from  the  ghattazee, 
or  dancing  girls,  who  a*o  of  a  lower  order  and 
perform  in  the  streets. 


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ALMEIDA,  &l-in&^«-dA.  One  of  the  strong- 
est fortified  places  in  Portugal,  situated  on  the 
River  Coa,  on  the  Spanish  frontier,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Beira  (Map:  Portiigal,  6  2).  In  1762 
it  was  captured  hy  the  Spaniards,  who  soon  after- 
ward surrendered  it.  In  their  retreat  from 
Portugal,  1811,  the  French,  under  General 
Brenier,  destroyed  a  great  portion  of  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Almeida,  which,  however,  were  speed- 
ily repaired  by  the  English.    Pop.,  about  3000. 

ALMEIDA.  A  town  situated  on  the  east 
coast  of  Brazil,  in  the  State  of  Espirito  Santo, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Reis  Magos  River,  20  miles 
north  of  Victoria.  It  was  founded  in  1580.  Pop., 
4000. 

-  ALMEIDA,  Francisco  de  (1450M510).  A 
Portuguese  warrior  and  empire  builder.  He  was 
bom  in  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century.  For 
his  services  against  the  Moors  he  was  made,  in 
1505,  viceroy  of  the  Portuguese  possessions  in  the 
East  Indies.  At  Cannanore,  Cochin,  and  Quilon, 
and  in  Ceylon  and  Sumatra  he  either  built 
fortresses  to  protect  the  Portuguese  factories 
or  founded  new  trading  posts.  His  attempt  to 
establish  the  supremacy  of  Portugal  in  the 
Indian  seas  brought  him  into  conflict  with  the 
Venetians  and  the  Egyptians.  In  a  great  battle 
fought  between  Lorenzo  de  Almeida,  son  of  Fran- 
cisco, and  a  combined  Venetian  and  Eg3rptian 
fleet,  in  the  harbor  of  Chaul,  in  1507,  young 
Lorenzo  fell.  To  avenge  his  death,  Francisco 
sacked  the  ports  of  Groa  and  Dabul,  and  refusing 
to  acknowledge  Albuquerque,  who  had  been  sent 
out  to  supersede  him,  destroyed  the  Egyptian 
fleet  at  Diu  in  1508.  Then  he  resigned  his  com- 
mand and  sailed  for  home,  but  perished  in  a 
skirmish  with  African  savages  near  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope. 

ALMEIDA -0ABBETT,  &l-mil'6•dA-gftr-r«t^ 
JoAo  Baptista  de  Silva  LeitXo,  Viscount  d' 
( 1709-1854) .  A  distinguished  Portuguese  states- 
man and  author,  leader  of  the  romantic  move- 
ment in  his  country,  and  its  most  important  poet 
of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  was  bom  at 
Oporto  and  died  at  Lisbon.  After  a  boyhood 
spent  in  the  Azores,  under  the  tutelage  of  a 
highly  gifted  uncle.  Bishop  of  Angra,  he  attended 
the  University  of  Coimbra,  and  there  imbibed 
the  revolutionary  ideas  which  led  him  to  partici- 
pate in  the  revolt  of  1820,  and  three  years  later 
resulted  in  his  expatriation.  Hitherto,  his  writ- 
ings, such  as  the  dramas  Merope  and  CatcLo,  and 
the  didactic  poem  on  painting,  O  Retrato  de 
Venus,  reflected  the  spirit  of  French  classicism 
and  the  native  "Arcadian"  school.  In  England 
and  France,  however,  he  came  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Scott  and  the  French  romanticists,  and 
this  influence  is  reflected  in  his  epic,  Camoes 
(1825),  the  burden  of  which  is  the  poet's  longing 
for  hi3  home;  and  in  his  equally  well  known 
Dona  Branca  (1826),  a  long  poem,  half  epic, 
half  lyric,  and  aimed  especially  against  monastic 
life.  He  returned  to  Portugal  in  1826,  and  suf- 
fered a  brief  imprisonment  owing  to  some  politi- 
cal articles.  Two  years  later  he  was  again  forced 
to  seek  safety  in  exile;  but  when,  in  1832,  Dom 
Pedro  returned  from  Brazil  for  the  purpose  of 
contesting  the  throne  with  his  brother,  Dom  Mi- 
guel, Almeida-Garrett  joined  his  forces,  and  after 
the  victory  of  1833  was  rewarded  with  a  place  in 
the  cabinet  as  minister  of  the  interior.  His  life 
henceforth  was  one  of  remarkable  activity.  As 
a  member  of  the  national  Cortes,  he  showed  him- 
VoL.  I.-S6 


self  an  uncompromising  supporter  of  democratic 
principles,  and  instituted  many  reforms.  He  in- 
terested himself  especially  in  the  founding  of  a 
national  theatre  and  a  conservatory  of  dramatic 
art,  and  wrote  a  long  series  of  prose  dramas,  the 
central  flgure  in  each  case  being  some  typical 
national  character,  such  as  Auto  de  Gil  Vicente 
(1838),  /).  Filippa  de  Vilhena  (1840),  and  Fret 
iiuiz  de  Sousa  (1844).  One  of  his  most  impor- 
tant contributions  to  literature  is  his  Roman- 
ceiro  (1851-53),  a  collection  of  thirty- two  early 
Portuguese  ballads  and  romances,  the  text  of 
which  he  freely  restored  and  emended.  His  last 
work  is  a  poem,  Polhas  cahidas  ("Fallen 
Leaves"),  a  dramatic  record  of  a  love  that  came 
in  the  autumn  of  life,  which  for  pathos  and  emo- 
tional power  is  hardly  equaled  in  Portuguese 
literature.  An  edition  of  his  collected  works 
appeared  after  his  death  (Lisbon,  1854-77). 
The  best  biography  is  that  of  Gomes  de  Amorim, 
Garrett,  Memoriaa  hiographioas,  3  volumes  (Lis- 
bon,  1881-88). 

ALMELO,  ftl'mA-lc^.  A  town  in  the  Nether- 
lands, situated  3  miles  south  of  Zwolle  (Map: 
Netherlands,  E  2 ) .  The  town  possesses  a  church, 
with  the  family  vault  of  the  Von  Kechteren, 
whose  fine  castle  is  also  here,  and  manufactures 
linen  and  cotton  goods.  Pop.,  1889,  8354;  1000, 
10,018. 

ALMEBIA,  firm&-re^&  (Ar.  The  Conspicu- 
ous). The  capital  of  the  province  of  Almeria 
in  Spain,  60  miles  southeast  of  Granada.  Alme- 
ria is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  (Map:  Spain,  D  4). 
It  stands  at  the  head  of  Almeria  Bay,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  of  the  same  name;  behind 
it  rises  a  lofty  mountain  ridge,  on  which  is  an 
ancient  Moorish  castle.  The  flat-roofed  houses 
are  Oriental  in  character,  and  the  appearance  of 
the  place  evidences  its  antiquity.  The  Gothic 
cathedral,  begun  in  1524,  is  essentially  Spanish 
in  its  fortress-like  outline  and  battlemented 
walls.  The  church  of  San  Pedro  occupies  the 
site  of  a  mosque.  There  are  a  normal  school, 
several  monasteries,  and  some  ruined  castles 
in  the  town,  but  no  signs  of  much  intellectual 
interest  or  activity.  There  are  manufactures  of 
sugar,  white  lead,  macaroni,  etc.,  but  the  most 
important  commercial  interest  in  Almeria  is  its 
exportation  of  fruit,  grapes,  oranges,  almonds, 
pomegranates,  etc.,  and  of  iron  ore.  It  is  a  win- 
ter resort  for  invalids,  as  its  climate  rivals  that 
of  Nice.  Population,  1900,  47,202.  Almeria  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Spain,  and  was 
founded  by  the  Phoenicians.  The  Romans  called 
it  Unci,  and  Magnus  Pontus,  the  great  harbor. 
It  flourished  under  the  Moors,  when,  as  the  prov- 
erb says,  "Granada  was  no  more  than  its  farm." 
When  it  passed  into  Christian  hands  (1489)  its 
prosperity  languished,  and  only  within  recent 
years  have  railway  facilities  brought  back  some- 
thing of  its  former  activity. 

ALMEBIA.  In  Congreve's  Mourning  Brid^ 
(q.v.),  the  heroine,  bride  of  Prince  Alphonso, 
whom  she  mourns  until  his  unexpected  return. 
Her  rOle  is  famous  for  the  lines,  "Music  hath 
charms,"  etc. 

ALIiCEBFCIANS.  The  followers  of  Amalric 
of  Bena  (q.v.), 

ALMIQTTI,  &I-m6^6  (Native  name).  A  Cu- 
ban   insectivore.     See    Aoouta;    and    plate    of 

C  A  VIES. 


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ALMOND. 


AliMISSA,  &1-nie'sA.  A  port  of  the  Austrian 
crownland  of  Dalmatia,  14  miles  southeast  .of 
Spalato,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cetina.  Almissa 
is  famous  as  the  rendezvous  of  the  pirates  once 
infesting  the  Adriatic.  Pop.,  1890,  13,200; 
1900,  15,100. 

ALMODdVAB  DEL  CAHPO,  ftl'md-Dd'yar 
del  kam'pd.  A  town  of  New  Castile,  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Ciudad  Real,  22  miles  southwest 
of  Cuidad  Real  (Map:  Spain,  C  3).  It  stands 
on  the  summit  of  a  ridge,  near  the  Vega,  a 
branch  of  the  Guadiana.  The  streets  are  toler- 
ably clean  but  ill  paved.  There  are  ruins  of  an 
ancient  castle.  The  inhabitants  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed in  apiculture,  and  the  only  manufactures 
are  domestic-     Pop.,   1900,   11,615. 

ALMOHADES,  ftKmd-hadz  (Ar.  Almoahedun, 
worshiper  of  one  god  unitarian).  The  name  of 
a  dynasty  that  ruled  in  northwestern  Africa  and 
Spain  during  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centu- 
ries. In  the  reign  of  AH,  second  of  the  Almo- 
ravides  (q.v.),  a  religious  teacher,  Mohammed 
ben  Abdallah,  calling  himself  El  Mahdi  (the 
leader)  founded  the  sect  of  the  Almohades  in 
Africa.  They  held  that  they  alone  worshiped 
God  in  the  right  way.  Their  leader  exercised 
great  influence  over  the  Arabs  and  Berbers 
throughout  northern  Africa.  Mohammed  im- 
posed on  his  disciples  new  ceremonies,  and  com- 
posed for  their  benefit  a  special  treatise  entitled 
On  the  Unity  of  God.  Mohammed  found  a  suc- 
cessor in  Abd-al-Mumin,  under  whom  the  Almo- 
hades rose  to  great  power.  They  extended  their 
conquests  into  Spain  in  1146,  subjugating  Anda- 
lusia, Valencia,  and  a  part  of  Aragon,  and  Por- 
tugal as  far  as  the  Tagus.  Under  Yusuf  and 
Yakub-al-Mansur  (see  Abu  Yusuf  Yakub),  the 
dynasty  of  Almohades  continued  to  flourish  in 
great  splendor.  But  in  1212  they  were  complete- 
ly defeated  by  the  Christians  in  the  battle  of 
Navas  de  Tolosa,  the  result  of  which  was  a  gen- 
eral collapse  of  their  power  in  Spain.  The  power 
of  the  Almohades  in  Spain  terminated  in  1257 
and  in  Africa  in  1269.  Consult:  Freeman,  His- 
tory and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens  (Oxford, 
1856)  ;  Copp6e,  Conquest  of  Spain  by  the  Arab- 
Moors  (Boston,  1881);  Fagnan,  "Histoire  des 
Almohades,"  in  La  Revue  Africaine  (Algiers, 
1892).    See  Abd-al-Mumin. 

AL-MOKANNA,  iirmd-k2in^n&,  or  MOEEN- 
NA.    See  Mohammedan  Sect. 

ALMOK,  aKmon,  John  (1737-1805).  An 
English  journalist  and  bookseller,  born  in  Liver- 
pool. He  attended  school  for  a  short  time  at 
Warrington,  was  apprenticed  to  a  printer  and 
bookseller,  and  in  1759  settled  in  London  as  a 
journeyman  printer.  He  soon  took  to  pamphlet- 
eering, became  a  member  of  the  staff  of  The  Lon- 
don Gazetteer,  and  by  a  pamphlet  entitled  A 
Review  of  Mr.  PitVs  Admiyiistration  won  the 
favor  of  Burke  and  others  of  the  opposition  party 
at  the  time  of  Pitt's  resignation  (1761).  He 
then  became  a  publisher  and  bookseller  on  his 
own  account,  and  was  patronized  largely  by  the 
members  of  the  opposition.  He  was  a  close 
friend  and  ardent  supporter  of  John  Wilkes 
(q.v.),  and  in  1870  was  fined  for  selling  a  paper 
containing  one  of  the  letters  of  Junius.  In  1784 
he  became  proprietor  and  editor  of  the  General 
Advertiser,  but  two  years  later  was  driven  by  a 
libel  trial  to  relinquish  this  undertaking.  He 
rendered  an  important  service  to  students  of 
American    history   by   publishing    The   Remem- 


brancer, a  monthly  collection  of  contemporary 
documents  bearing  on  the  Revolutionary  War, 
especially  of  such  documents  **as  serve  to  display 
the  injustice  of  the  design  and  the  folly  of  the 
councils  of  Great  Britain."  He  also  published  a 
valuable  Collection  of  all  the  Treaties  of  Peace, 
Alliance,  and  Commerce  betioeen  Great  Britain 
and  Other  Powers  from  1688  to  1771;  Biograph- 
ical, Literary,  and  Political  Anecdotes  (1797); 
and  Correspondence  of  John  Wilkes,  tcith  a 
Memoir  of  his  Life  (1805). 

ALMOKACIB  DE  TOLEDO^  arm6-n&-thei/ 
dA  t^la^DA.  A  little  town  of  Spain  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Toledo,  connected  with  Toledo  by  rail. 
It  contaiins  an  old  Moorish  castle,  and  is  famous 
chiefly  as  the  place  of  a  battle  between  Spanish 
and  French  forces  on  August  11,  1809,  in  which 
the  Spanish  forces,  numbering  about  30,000,  were 
defeated.    Pop.,  1900,    1574. 

ALHOKDy  a'mtind  (Lat.  amygdala,  Gk.  dfivy- 
<J4Xv,  amygdaU),  AMYGa)ALXrS.  A  genus  of 
the  natural  order  Rosacese,  consisting  of  trees 
and  shrubs.  The  almoftd  tree  {Amygdalus  com- 
munis) grows  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  high, 
closely  resembles  the  peach  in  general  appear- 
ance and  bloom,  and  furnishes  the  almond  nuts 
of  commerce.  It  is  native  to  the  Mediterranean 
basin  and  southwestern  Asia,  and  has  been  in 
cultivation  from  remote  times.  The  fruit  is  a 
drupe  with  a  thin,  hard  covering,  which  splits 
open  when  ripe.  Almonds  are  of  two  kinds- 
bitter  and  sweet.  The  bitter  almond  is  culti- 
vated to  a  limited  extent  in  Mediterranean 
countries,  and  the  nuts  are  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  flavoring  extracts  and  of  pnissic  acid. 
The  sweet,  or  edible,  almond  is  grown  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  Cali- 
fornia, and  in  some  other  countries  of  similar 
climate.  The  nuts  contain  a  large -quantity  of 
a  bland,  fixed  oil ;  they  have  an  agreeable  flavor, 
and  are  used  for  desserts,  in  confectionery,  and 
medicinally  in  an  emulsion  which  forms  a  pleas* 
ant,  cooling,  diluent  drink.  There  are  two  classes 
of  sweet  almonds — the  hard  shell  and  the  soft 
shell  almond.  The  latter  only  is  important  com- 
mercially. Of  foreign  varieties,  the  long  almond 
of  Malaga,  known  as  the  Jordan  almond,  and  the 
broad  almond  of  Valencia,  are  most  valued  in 
the  trade.  In  California,  success  in  almond- 
growing  came  only  with  the  improvement  of 
selected  seedlings  of  local  origin.  Ne  Plus  Ultra, 
Nonpareil,  IXL,  and  Languedoc  are  the  best- 
known  of  these.  In  1897,  California  produced 
218  carloads  of  nuts.  In  addition  to  the  home 
production,  the  United  States  imports,  annually, 
about  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  nuts.  In  Syria 
and  northern  Africa,  almonds  are  grown  on  dry 
and  stony  soils.  They  are  believed  to  withstand 
drought  better  than  any  other  fruit.  In  Califor- 
nia, good-paying  crops  are  secured  only  on  fertile, 
well-drained  soils,  preferably  warm  loams;  and 
in  the  arid  regions  water  for  irrigation  must  be 
abundant. 

The  almond  is  propagated  mainly  by  budding 
on  seedling  bitter  almond  stocks.  TVees  come 
into  bearing  in  from  two  to  four  years  from 
budding,  and  reach  mature  fruitage  in  from 
seven  to  ten  years.  On  strong  land  Uie  trees  are 
set  at  least  twenty-four  feet  apart  each  way. 
The  tree  is  shaped  during  the  first  three  years' 
growth,  after  which  little  pruning  is  required. 
Varieties  should  be  mixed  m  orchard  planting, 
to  insure  cross-pollination. 


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ALMONTE. 


The  almond  is  also  widely  grown  as  an  orna- 
mental in  localities  where  it  f^eldom  if  ever  pro- 
duces fruit.  It  is  a  favorite  flowering  shrub  in 
England,  northern  Europe,  and  parts  of  the 
eastern  and  southern  United  States.  It  is  one 
of  the  earliest  fruits  to  bloom.  The  peach-like 
blossoms  appear  before  the  leaves,  and  are  very 
ornamental. 

The  dwarf  almond  {Amygdalua  nana)  is  a  low 
shrub,  seldom  more  than  two  or  three  feet  in 
height.  It  is  common  in  the  south  of  Russia, 
and  is  frequently  planted  as  an  ornamental 
shrub.  Another  species  {Amygdaltta  andersonii) 
— as  yet  of  no  agricultural  importance,  is  found 
among  the  rocky  hills  of  southern  California, 
about  the  Colorado  desert.  It  is  a  bushy  shrub, 
barely  six  feet  high.  The  fruit  is  a  small,  vel- 
vety drupe,  little  more  than  half  an  inch  long. 
Other  species  not  very  well  known  but  similar  to 
these  are  found  in  the  east. 

Fossil  forms  of  the  almond  are  known  in  the 
Miocene  Tertiary  beds  of  Oeningen,  Germany. 

ALMOND  DISEASE.  The  principal  disease 
to  which  the  almond  is  subject  is  that  known  as 
the  leaf-blight.  It  is  caused  by  the  fungus,  Cer- 
cospora  circumcissa,  which  attacks  the  leaves 
and  twigs,  often  to  such  an  extent  as  to  defoliate 
the  trees  by  midsummer.  Upon  the  leaves  small 
distinct  yellow  spots  are  formed,  from  which  the 
leaf  tissue  falls,  leaving  the  leaf  appearing  as 
though  pierced  by  numerous  shot.  The  disease 
may  be  prevented  by  spraying  the  trees  before 
blooming,  and  about  twice  after  blooming,  with 
the  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate  solution.  ( See 
I'ttnoicide.  )  The  second  spraying  should  be  ap- 
plied when  the  trees  are  in  full  leaf,  and  the 
third  two  to  four  weeks  later. 

ALMONDE,  &l-m5n^dft,  Philippus  VAN  (1646- 
1711).  A  Dutch  vice-admiral,  who  served  under 
De  Ruyter  in  the  fights  of  1676,  and  after  the 
admiral's  death  commanded  the  Dutch  Mediter- 
ranean fleet.  He  was  with  Tromp  in  sub- 
duing the  naval  power  of  Sweden  in  1677.  He 
commanded  in  1688  the  fleet  which  conducted 
William  III.  to  England,  and  four  years  after- 
ward gained  fame  by  his  defeat  of  the  French  at 
La  Hogue.  In  1702,  with  the  English  admiral. 
Sir  George  Rooke,  he  commanded  the  allies  which 
destroyed  the  Spanish  fleet  in  the  Bay  of  Vigo. 

ALMONDS,  A^mtindz,  Expressed  Oil  of.  A 
fixed  oil  expressed  from  bitter  or  sweet  almonds, 
and  sometimes  used  in  medicine.  It  has  a  pale 
yellow  color,  and  a  mild,  rather  agreeable  taste. 
It  consists  largely  of  olein. 

ALMONDS,  Volatile  Oil  of,  better  known 
as  Benzaldeutoe  or  Oil  of  Bitter  Almonds, 
C.HjCHO.  The  cake  which  is  left  after  the 
expression  of  the  fixed  oil  from  bitter  almonds 
contains,  among  other  matters,  two  substances 
called,  respectively,  amygdalin,  and  emulsin  or 
synaptase.  When  the  cake  is  bruised  and  made 
into  a  paste  with  w^ater,  the  synaptase  acts  as  a 
ferment  upon  the  amygdalin,  splitting  it  up  into 
the  volatile  oil  of  almonds,  hydrocyanic  ( prussic ) 
acid,  and  grape-sugar.  The  oil  is  not  originally 
present  in  the  bitter  almonds;  in  fact,  the  latter 
do  not  contain  a  trace  of  the  oil  ready  formed, 
so  that  the  oil  is  purely  the  product  of  the  fer- 
mentation of  amygdalin.  This  action  takes 
place  very  rapidly,  and  is  complete  in  twenty-four 
nours.  The  paste  having  been  placed  in  a  retort, 
beat  is  very  cautiously  applied,  to  prevent  the 
lumping  and  frothing  to  which  the  almond  infu- 


sion is  liable.  In  the  distillation,  the  hydrocy- 
anic acid  and  the  volatile  oil  unite  in  an  unstable 
compound  which  passes  over  into  the  receiver, 
alon^  with  much  water.  The  crude  oil  thus 
obtained  decomposes  gradually,  the  prussic  acid 
being  set  free,  and  on  this  account  it  is  very 
poisonous,  many  fatal  cases  having  occurred 
from  its  willful,  accidental,  or  careless  use.  The 
crude  oil  may  be  purified  and  freed  from  prussic 
acid  by  means  of  ferrous  chloride  and  lime.  The 
volatile  oil  (CHsCHO)  is  the  aldehyde  of  ben- 
zoic acid  (CaHsCOOH),  into  which  substance  it 
gradually  changes  when  exposed  to  the  air  in  a 
moist  state.  It  is  colorless,  has  an  agreeable 
odor,  and  an  acrid,  bitter  taste.  It  is  soluble 
in  water  to  the  extent  of  1  part  in  300  parts  of 
water,  but  mixes  in  all  proportions  with  alcohol 
and  ether.  It  is  a  hignly  refractive  liquid,  of 
specific  gravity  1.05  at  15**  C;  it  boils  at  179°  C. 
At  present  it  is  usually  prepared  by  boiling  ben- 
zyl chloride  with  an  aqueous  solution  of  lead 
nitrate.  The  crude  product  thus  obtained  is 
shaken  with  a  solution  of  acid  sodium  sulphite, 
which  forms  a  crystalline  compound  with  ben- 
zaldehyde,  while  the  impurities  remain  in  solu- 
tion. Pure  benzaldehyde  is  obtained  from  the 
crystalline  compound  by  the  action  of  dilute 
acids.  The  oil  is  used  by  the  confectioner  and 
the  perfumer,  and  is  employed  on  a  large  scale  in 
the  manufacture  of  benzoic  and  cinnamac  acids 
and  of  various  dyes. 

ALMONEB,  ftl'mttn-er  (O.  F.  almoane,  alms, 
from  Lat.  eleemosynay  Gk.  eXetffioaijvtf,  eleSmoaynS, 
mercy,  alms).  The  name  given  originally  to 
that  member  of  a  religious  order  who  had  the 
distribution  of  the  money  and  other  things  set 
apart  for  alms,  which  by  canonical  law  was 
to  amount  to  at  least  a  tenth  of  the  revenues  of 
the  establishment.  Afterward  those  ecclesias- 
tics also  received  this  name  who  were  appointed 
by  princes  to  the  same  ofiice  in  their  households. 
The  Grand  Almoner  of  France  was  one  of  the 
principal  officers  of  the  court  and  of  the  kingdom, 
usually  a  cardinal,  and,  in  right  of  his  office, 
commander  of  all  the  orders,  and  also  chief 
director  of  the  great  hospital  for  the  blind. 
Queens,  princes,  and  princesses  had  also  their 
almoners,  and  bishops  were  usually  appointed  to 
this  office.  In  England,  the  office  of  Hereditary 
Grand  Almoner  is  now  a  sinecure,  his  only  duty 
being  to  distribute  the  coronation  medals  among 
the  assembled  spectators.  The  Lord  High  Almon- 
er, who  is  usually  a  bishop,  distributes  twice  a 
year  the  sovereign's  bounty,  which  consists  in 
giving  a  silver  penny  each  to  as  many  poor  per- 
sons as  the  sovereign  is  years  of  age. 

ALMONTE,  il-mon'tA,  Don  Juan  Nepomu- 
CENO  (1803-69).  A  Mexican  general  and  diplo- 
mat. He  was  the  reputed  son  of  Morelos  (q.v.), 
the  patriot  priest.  As  a  mere  child  he  took  part 
in  the  war  of  liberation,  and  in  1815  was  sent 
to  the  United  States  to  be  educated.  His  diplo- 
matic career  began  at  an  early  age,  and  he  had 
filled  responsible  positions  in  London  and  South 
America  before  he  joined  the  staff  of  Santa  Anna 
in  1836,  in  which  year  he  was  made  prisoner  at 
San  Jacinto.  Under  Bustamante  he  was  minis- 
ter of  war,  and  from  1841  to  1846  was  minister 
to  the  United  States,  retiring  when  the  annex- 
ation of  Texas  had  become  a  certainty.  In  1853 
he  was  again  minister  to  the  United  States:  in 
1857  he  was  minister  to  France;  he  had  been 
twice  an  unsuccessful   candidate   for   the   presi- 


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dency,  and  party  spirit  led  him  to  participate 
in  the  French  invasion  of  Mexico  and  the 
election  of  Maximilian.  Almonte  was  proclaimed 
dictator  of  Mesdco  in  1862,  but  was  distrusted  by 
all  parties,  and  was  removed  the  same  year. 
The  next  year  he  was  president  of  a  junta  styled 
the  "Regency  of  the  Mexican  Empire."  In  1864 
Maximilian  made  him  regent  of  the  realm  and 
Grand  Marshal,  and  in  1806  he  was  sent  as  min- 
ister to  Paris,  where  he  died. 

ALMOBA,  &l-m6'rft.  The  capital  of  the  Ku- 
maun  division,  North-Western  Provinces,  British 
India.  It  is  situated  on  the  crest  of  a  mountain 
ridge,  6337  feet  above  the  sea,  and  on  the  head 
waters  of  the  Kosila,  a  branch  of  the  Ramgunga, 
87  miles  north  of  Bareilly.  It  gives  its  name  to 
a  district,  has  a  cantonment  for  two  battalions 
of  Ghurkas,  and  is  a  health  resort  for  invalids 
and  consumptives.     Pop.,  7500. 

ALMOBAVIDES,  fil-mo^r&-vIdz  (Ar.  alMu- 
rabitun,  from  rdbita,  cell,  hermitage,  where  the 
first  believers  assembled) .  The  name  adopted  by 
a  tribe  in  northwestern  Africa  in  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, whom  one  Abdallah,  a  Moslem  missionary, 
had  formed  into  a  religious  sect.  Religious 
movements  in  the  Mohammedan  world  at  that 
time  naturally  led  to  political  activity.  Abu- 
Bekr,  a  chief  of  the  tribe  and  follower  of  Abdal- 
lah, founded  the  cit^  of  Morocco  about  1070.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  cousin,  Yussuf  ibn  Tashfin, 
who  led  his  tribe  across  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
into  Spain,  and  conquered  most  of  the  Moham- 
medan states  of  the  peninsula.  In  the  reign  of 
his  son  Ali,  a  new  sect,  the  Almohades  (q.v.), 
expelled  the  Almoravides  from  Africa,  ana  be- 
tween 1146  and  1157  overthrew  their  power  in 
Spain.  It  was  the  Almoravide  princes  who  in- 
troduced the  Maravedi  into  Spam,  and  in  that 
word,  as  in  the  name  Marabouts,  the  original 
appellation  is  still  preserved.  Consult:  Freeman, 
History  and  Conquests  of  the  Saracens  (Oxford, 
1856)  ;  Copp^e,  History  of  the  Conquest  of  Spain 
by  the  Arab-Moors   (Boston,  1881). 

ALMQVIST,  Rlm^wlst,  Kabl  Jonas  Ludwig 
( 1793-1866 ) .  A  Swedish  writer  of  unusual  versa- 
tility but  very  unstable  genius.  He  was  born  at 
Stockholm.  At  twenty,  he  left  a  good  post  in 
the  civil  service  and  founded  a  sort  of  Brook 
Farm  in  the  forests  of  Wermland,  where  the 
"come-outers"  lived  under  turf,  wore  homespun, 
and  ate  porridge.  The  experiment  failed,  and 
Almqvist  resorted  to  school-teaching  and  the 
composition  of  text-books,  at  Stockholm,  until 
the  publication  of  a  group  of  romances  under 
the  title.  The  Book  of  the  Thorn  Rose  (begun 
in  1832),  brought  him  sudden  fame.  This  work 
shows  great  power  of  language  and  richness  of 
color;  and  the  dramas  which  followed,  though 
erratic  in  plan,  are  masterly  in  dialogue  and  of 
great  tragic  force.  Almqvist  now  gave  himself 
wholly  to  literature  and  published  a  great  num- 
ber of  books  and  pamphlets  on  history,  religion, 
ethics,  fiBsthetics,  and  pedagogy;  as  well  as  lyrics, 
dramas,  and  novels,  chiefly  socialistic  in  tone, 
and  often  contradictory  in  teaching.  His  moral 
instability  apparently  led  him  to  crime,  for  in 
1851  he  was  charged  with  forgery  and  murder, 
and  fled  from  Sweden  to  America,  where  he 
earned  a  precarious  living  under  an  assumed 
name  until  1866,  when  he  returned  to  Bremen, 
where  he  lived  under  the  name  of  C.  Weat- 
ermann,  and  where  he  died,  September  26, 
1866.    The  novels  and  tales  on  which  his  literary 


fame  will  rest  are  of  the  romantic  type.  The 
best  of  the  tales  are  The  Mill  at  Skallnora,  Ara- 
minta  May,  and  Orimstahama's  Settlement.  Of 
the  novels.  The  Palace  is  typically  romantic  in  its 
poetic  humor.  A  later  work,  It*s  All  Right,  is 
in  another  key,  more  like  the  problem  novel  of 
our  day,  and  is  a  grim  picture  of  the  evils  of 
conventional  marriage,  indicating  the  d^eneracy 
of  his  misused  genius. 

ALMSHOUSE.  The  place  where  the  pub- 
licly supported  poor  are  cared  for,  sometimes 
called  the  poorhouse,  the  infirmary,  etc.,  and  in 
England,  the  workhouse.  Wherever  indoor  relief 
is  provided,  the  almshouse  is  the  central  local 
institution  throughout  the  United  States  for  the 
care  of  the  aged  and  infirm  poor,  and  also  for 
able-bodied  poor  who  are  not  committed  as  va- 
grants to  a  correctional  institution.  It  is  fre- 
?[uently  located  on  a  farm,  known  as  the  poor- 
arm,  where  light  work  is  given  the  inmates,  the 
results  being  utilized  to  contribute  toward  their 
support.  The  census  of  1890  cave  73,045  inmates 
of  almshouses  in  the  United  States.  Consult: 
A.  G.  Warner,  American  Charities,  chapter  vi. 
(Boston,  1894);  Mary  V.  Clark,  "The  Alms- 
house*'  a  good  descriptive  paper  in  the  Ttceniy- 
Seventh  Annual  Report  (1900)  of  the  National 
Conference  of  Charities  and  Correction  (Boston, 
1901).    See  Pauperism;  Poob  Laws. 

ALMT7CANTAB,  ftrmA-k&n'tSr  (Ar.  al-mu- 
qantarAt,  plur.  from  qantara,  to  bend,  arch).  In 
astronomy,  a  small  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere 
parallel  to  the  horizon.  The  word  had  fallen 
rather  into  disuse  among  astronomers,  but  has 
been  used  of  late  years  as  a  name  for  an  instru- 
ment invented  by  Chandler.  The  instrument 
consists  of  a  telescope  supported  on  a  metal  float 
placed  in  a  basin  of  mercury.  This  arrangement 
assures  the  perfect  horizontality  of  the  float, 
and  the  telescope  can  be  used  to  observe  heavenly 
bodies  situated  at  exactly  equa^  latitudes  in  the 
celestial  hemisphere.  Astronomical  investiga- 
tions of  considerable  importance  have  been  car- 
ried out  by  the  use  of  the  almucantar. 

AI/MTy  John  Jat  (1814-95).  An  American 
naval  oflScer.  He  was  born  in  Rhode  Island,  and 
entered  the  navy  as  a  midshipman  in  1829.  He 
engaged  in  the  suppression  of  the  African  slave 
trade  in  1843-45,  and  took  part  in  the  capture 
of  Vera  Cruz  and  Tuspan  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  was  in  the  blockade  service  during  the  Civil 
War,  and  ended  his  career  as  commander  of  the 
Paciflc  squadron.  He  became  a  rear-admiral  in 
1873,  and  was  retired  in  1877. 

ALKASCH^AB.  In  the  Arabian  Nights,  the 
barker's  fifth  brother,  proverbial  as  a  dreamer. 
Having  put  his  money  into  a  stock  of  glassware 
with  which  to  engage  in  trade,  he  falls  to  imag- 
ining what  he  will  do  with  the  wealth  he  is  to 
gain  from  it,  and  inadvertently  kicking  over  the 
basket,  smashes  all  his  wares.  The  name  was 
humorously  applied  to  S.  T.  Coleridge  from  his 
having  dreamed  the  fragment  of  Kubla  Kahn, 
which  he  wrote  after  waking. 

ALNTTS,  SiVniXs,    See  Alder. 

ALKWICK,  ftnlk.  The  capital  of  the  county 
of  Northumberland,  England,  on  the  Alne,  about 
32  miles  north  of  Newcastle  (Map:  England.  E 
1 ) .  The  streets  are  broad,  well  paved,  and  well 
lighted;  the  houses  modern,  built  of  stone,  and 
in  some  instances  handsome.  A  large  market- 
place occupies  the  centre  of  the  town.    Alnwick 


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A.  L.  O.  E. 


was  at  an  early  period  a  fortified  town,  and  some 
fragments  of  the  ancient  walls  even  yet  remain. 
Alnwick  Castle,  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of 
Northumberland,  stands  at  the  north  entrance 
of  the  town,  and  is  considered  one  of  the  most 
magriificent  baronial  structures  in  England. 
During  the  Middle  Ages  it  was  a  bulwark  against 
the  invasions  of  the  Scots,  who  thrice  besieged 
it.  Population,  including  Canongate,  in  1891, 
about  6700;  1901,  6700.  Consult:  F.  G.  Hal- 
leck,  Alfiwick  Custle,  and  Other  Poems  (New 
York,  1836)  ;  C.  H.  Hartshorne,  Alntoick,  etc. 
(London,  1860). 

ALO^AD^,  or  ALOID JE  (Gk.  'AXUScu, 
Aldadax,  or  *AXuei6at,  Aldeidai),  Orus  and  Eph- 
lALTES.  The  sons  of  Aloeus,  or  of  Poseidon,  and 
Iphimedea,  wife  of  Aloeus.  They  were  celebrated 
for  their  great  size  and  extraordinary  strength. 
Every  year  they  grew  an  ell  in  breadth  and  a 
fathom  in  height,  and  at  the  end  of  nine  years 
were   thirty-six  feet  broad  and  fifty-four  feet 


30  feet.  They  have  permanent  succulent  leaves. 
The  negroes  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa  make 
cords  and  nets  of  the  fibres  of  their  leaves,  and 
stockings  are  woven  from  the  fibres  of  a  species 
found  in  Jamaica.  Aloes  are  chiefly  valuable  for 
their  medicinal  properties,  which  are  laxative, 
drastic,  emmenagogue,  and  vermifuge.  The  well- 
known  drug  called  Aloes  (q.v.)  is  the  in- 
spissated juice  of  the  leaves  of  several  almost 
tree-like  species,  and  particularly  of  Aloe  soco- 
trina,  a  native  of  the  island  of  Socotra;  Aloe 
purpurascens,  Aloe  spicata,  and  Aloe  arbores- 
cens,  which  principally  yield  the  Cape  aloes; 
Aloe  arabica,  Aloe  linguiformis.  Aloe  mitrifor- 
mis,  and  Aloe  vera;  which  latter,  found  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies,  in  Italy,  and  in  some  of 
the  islands  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  the  only 
species  which  can  be  reckoned  European,  al- 
though it  also  is  probably  an  introduced  plant. 
The  extract  prepared  from  its  leaves  is  known 
as   Hepatic  aloes,  or  as  Barbados  aloes.    The 


COMMON  ALOB8. 


high.  They  are  fabled  to  have  chained  the  god 
Ares,  and  to  have  kept  him  in  a  bronze  cask  for 
thirteen  months.  They  also  threatened  the 
Olympian  gods  with  war,  and  would  have  piled 
Pel  ion  and  Ossa  on  Olympus  had  they  not  been 
destroyed  by  Apollo  before  their  beards  were 
grown.  It  is  further  said  that  they  fell  in  love, 
the  one  with  Hera  and  the  other  with  Artemis; 
but  Artemis  appearing  to  them  in  the  form  of  a 
hind  and  running  between  them,  they  shot  at 
the  suppK)sed  animal  and  killed  each  other.  They 
were  worshiped  as  heroes  in  some  places. 

AI/OE,  Lat.  pron.  ril'6-6;  Engl.  pron.  flK6  (Gk. 
aX6fj,  alo€).  A  genus  of  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  of  Liliacece.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, natives  of  warm  countries,  especially  of  the 
southern  parts  of  Africa.  About  50  miles  from 
Cape  Town  is  a  mountainous  tract  completely 
covered  with  aloes,  and  the  hills  on  the  west  side 
of  Socotra  exhibit  them  in  similar  profusion. 
The  species  vary  in  height  from  a  few  inches  to 


Socotrine  or  Zanzibar  aloes  is  the  product  of 
Aloe  perryi.  The  bitter  principle  of  aloes  has 
been  called  aloin.  With  oxygen  aloin  forms 
several  compounds  that  possess  acid  properties. 
The  juice  of  aloes  was  anciently  used  in  embalm- 
ing, to  preserve  dead  bodies  from  putrefaction. 
In  the  East  Indies  it  is  employed  as  a  varnish 
to  prevent  the  attacks  of  insects;  and  has  even 
been  applied  to  bottoms  of  ships  to  protect  them 
from  marine  worms.  A  beautiful  violet  color 
which  does  not  require  a  mordant  to  fix  it,  is 
obtained  from  the  leaves  of  the  Socotrine  aloe. 
It  also  affords  a  fine  transparent  color  for  minia- 
ture painting.  Mohammedan  pilgrims  suspend 
an  aloe  over  their  doors  on  their  return  from 
Jilecca,  to  signify  that  they  have  performed  the 
pilgrimage.  The  American  aloe  is  a  totally 
different  plant.     See  Agave. 

A.  L.  O.  E.  Initials  of  "A  Lady  of  Old 
England,"  the  pseudonym  of  Charlotte  Maria 
Tucker. 


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ALOES. 


390 


AL08T. 


ALOES,  ftKdz.  A  dnig  of  great  antiquity,  for 
we  find  Dioecorides,  a  writer  on  materia  medica 
of  the  first  or  second  century,  making  mention  of 
aloe  as  a  substance  obtained  from  a  plant  and 
possessing  cathartic  properties.  It  is  obtained 
from  numerous  sources,  including  Bombay,  Ara- 
bia, Socotra,  Madagascar,  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  the  West  Indies.  The  drug  is  the  in- 
spissated juice  of  various  species  of  Aloe  (q.v.). 
All  these  are  characterized  more  or  leas  by  pro- 
ducing large,  thick,  fleshy  leaves,  stiff  and  brittle, 
pointed,  and  generally  terminating  in  a  strong 
spine,  filled  with  a  mucilaginous  pulp  internally, 
and  containing  in  the  proper  vessels  of  their  ex- 
terior portion  an  intensely  bitter  juice,  which 
yields  the  medicinal  substance  of  aloe.  It  is  ob- 
tained, sometimes  in  the  form  of  tears,  by  in- 
cision, spontaneous  exudation,  and  inspissation 
upon  the  plant;  sometimes  by  spontaneous  evap- 
oration of  the  juice,  which  drops  or  exudes  by 
pressure  from  the  leaves  when  cut  away  near  the 
base;  sometimes  by  evaporating  the  same  juice 
with  the  aid  of  heat;  and  lastly,  by  evaporating 
the  juice  and  the  decoction  of  the  leaves.  Owing 
to  the  great  difficulty  of  determining  the  true 
botanical  source  of  any  given  sample,  the  follow- 
ing names  are  made  use  of  in  commerce  to  denote 
the  various  kinds  of  aloes  found  in  the  market: 
Socotrine.  Clear,  Cape,  East  Indian,  Barbados, 
and  Caballine  aloes.  The  only  varieties  officially 
recognized  by  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  the  United 
States  are:  (1)  Socotrine  aloes  {Aloe  aoco- 
irina)t  so  called  from  its  supposed  source, 
the  island  of  Socotra,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Arabian  Gulf.  This  is  the  most  esteemed  of  all 
the  varieties  used  in  medical  practice.  It  is  a 
product  of  Aloes  Perryi,  a  plant  from  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  the  island  of  Socotra,  and  Ara- 
bia: (2)  Barbados  aloes  {Aloe  harhadensia)  is 
prepared  in  the  West  Indies  from  Aloes  vera  and 
other  varieties  of  aloes.  Browne's  Natural  His- 
tory of  Jamaica  states  that  the  largest  and  most 
succulent  leaves  are  placed  upright  in  tubs,  that 
the  juice  may  dribble  out.  This,  evaporated,  is 
sold  as  Socotrine  aloes ;  but  the  common  aloes  is 
obtained  by  expressing  the  juice  of  the  leaves, 
boiling  it  with  water,  evaporating,  and  pouring  it 
into  gourds;  whence  this  kind  is  often  called 
gourd  aloes.  All  kinds  of  aloes  have  a  bitter 
taste.  Aloes  is  in  a  great  measure  soluble  in 
water,  and  more  so  in  hot  than  cold  water. 
Aloes  contains  an  active  principle,  aloln,  and 
a  resin.  The  varieties  of  aloln,  named  barbaloln, 
socaloln,  and  nataloTn,  are  obtained  respectively 
from  Barbados,  Socotrine,  and  Natal  aloes. 
When  employed  in  small  doses,  aloes  exerts  a 
tonic,  and  in' larger  doses,  a  cathartic  action.  It 
is  considered  by  some  authorities  to  stimulate 
the  liver,  increasing  the  flow  of  bile.  Others 
hold  that  it  acts  chiefly  upon  the  large  intestine, 
whose  contractions  it  stimulates.  It  also  causes 
congestion  of  the  pelvic  organs.  Its  action  upon 
the  bowels  is  slow,  requiring  ten  to  twelve  hours. 
Both  taken  singly,  and  also  in  combination  with 
other  cathartics,  aloes  is  perhaps  the  most  impor- 
taT>t  and  the  most  extensively  used  of  vegetable 
remedies  of  its  class.  Aloes  is  an  ingredient  of  a 
number  of  laxative  pills  mentioned  in  the  United 
States  Pharmacopoeia,  and  is  the  important  con- 
stituent in  most  of  the  much  advertised  patent 
medicines.  When  given  to  a  nursing  woman  it 
is  usually  believea  to  purge  the  child  at  the 
breast.     For  illustration  see  Acacia. 

AL^OES    WOOD,    also    Aqila    wood.  Eagle 


WOOD,  or  Agallochum.  The  inner  part  of  the 
trunk  of  Aguilaria  ovata  and  Aquilaria  agallo- 
cha,  trees  native  of  the  tropical  parts  of  Asia, and 
supposed  to  be  the  aloes  or  lign  aloes  of  the  Bible. 
They  are  large  spreading  trees,  with  simple  alter- 
nate leaves.  Aloes  wood  contains  a  dark-colored, 
fragrant,  resinous  substance,  and  is  much  prized 
in  the  East  as  a  medicine,  and  for  the  pleasant 
odor  which  it  diffuses  in  burning.  The  resinous 
substance  is  found  only  in  the  inner  part  of  the 
trunk  and  branches,  the  younger  wood  being 
white,  and  almost  scentless.  The  trees  abound 
in  the  eastern  part  of  Asia,  especially  in  Cochin 
China,  the  Moluccas,  and  neighboring  islands. 
Aloes  wood  is  not  only  much  prized  in  the  East 
as  a  perfume,  but  many  medicinal  virtues  are 
ascribed  to  it.  The  ancients  ascribed  to  it  simi- 
lar virtues,  and  so  valued  it  for  these  and  its 
fragrance,  that  Herodotus  says  it  once  sold  for 
more  than  its  weight  in  gold.  It  w^is  regarded 
almost  as  a  universal  medicine.  Its  very  fra- 
grance was  supposed  to  have  a  b«:neficial  influ- 
ence, and  it  was  therefore  worn  about  the  per- 
son. As  it  admits  of  a  high  polish  and  exhibits 
a  beautiful  graining,  precious  gems  were  set  in 
it ;  and  it  was  cut  into  fantastic  forms  and  worn 
in  head-dresses,  etc.  There  seems  to  be  allusion 
to  a  similar  use  of  it  in  Psalm  xlv.  8,  "All  thy 
garments  smell  of  myrrh  and  aloes  and  cassia." 
Or  perhaps  this  merely  refers  to  its  being  em- 
ployed to  perfume  clothing.  It  was  also,  from  a 
very  early  period,  much  used  to  perfume  the 
apartments  of  the  great.  The  fragrance  con- 
tinues undiminished  for  years.  Lign  aloes  is  a 
corruption  of  lignum  aloes  (aloes  wood). 

ALXyOlANSy  or  AL^OGI  (Med.  Lat.  aloffiani 
alogi,  from  Gk.  4,  a,  priv.  +  ^yoCt  logos,  word, 
reason) .  A  small  and  obscure  sect  of  heretics  in 
the  second  century  who  opposed  the  Montanists 
(q.v.),  denying  that  Christ  was  the  Logos  and 
ascribing  the  Gospel  of  St.  John  and  the  Apoca- 
lypse to  the  Gnostic  Cerinthus. 

ALON^O  THE  BRAVE  AlH)  THE  FAIB 
IM^OGENE.  A  ballad  by  M.  G.  Lewis  (q.v.). 
knovTi  as  "Monk"  Lewis. 

AL'OPE^CLA.  (Gk.  &X6vn^,  al6p€x,  a  fox, 
because  bald  patches  are  supposed  to  be  common 
among  foxes).  A  disease  which  causes  a  falling 
off  of  the  hair  from  any  part  of  the  body.  See 
Baij)N£ss. 

AL'OPECn^TJS.    See  Meadow  Grass. 

jIlOBA,  ftadr&.  A  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
in  Malaga  province,  18  miles  northwest  of 
Malaga.  It  stands  on  an  elevated  site  near  the 
right  bank  of  the  Guadalhorce,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Sierra  Hocha,  and  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  coun- 
try rich  in  wine,  oil,  and  various  fruits  (Map: 
Spain,  C  4).  Some  of  the  streets  are  well  built 
and  well  paved ;  some  are  very  steep  and  irregu- 
lar. There  are  some  strikingly  picturesque  ruins 
of  an  ancient  castle.  The  inhabitants  are  mostly 
employed  in  agriculture.  The  medicinal  and 
mineral  springs  of  Alora  are  highly  valued  by 
citizens  of  Malaga,  who  resort  in  large  numbers 
to  this  place.    Pop.,  1900,  10,206, 

ALOST,  ftldst  (Literally,  to  the  east,  from 
Ger.  Ost,  east,  it  being  near  the  eastern  fron- 
tier), or  AALST,  Jllst.  A  town  in  Belgium,  the 
old  capital  of  the  province  of  East  Flanders, 
situated  on  a  tributary  of  the  Scheldt,  called  the 
Dender,  which  is  here  converted  into  a  canal 
(Map:  Belgium,  C  4).    It  is  a  walled  city  with 


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ALOST. 


391 


ALPENA. 


five  gates,  whose  finest  building  is  the  church  of 
St.  Martin,  an  unfinished  edifice,  in  late  Gothic 
style,  one  of  the  grandest  in  Belgium,  and  con- 
taining a  famous  painting  by  Rubens,  ^^St.  Roch 
Beseeching  Our  Saviour  to  Stay  the  Plague  of 
Alost,"  and  also  the  mausoleum  of  Thierry  Mar- 
tens, who  was  born  here,  and  who  introduced  the 
art  of  printing  into  Belgium  in  1475.  Alost 
has  a  town  hall  (built  about  1200),  a  col- 
lege, a  hospital,  the  royal  school  for  450  sons  of 
military  men,  and  an  academy  of  design,  etc.  Its 
industries  are  weaving  in  silk,  wool,  and  cotton, 
fiax-spinning,  lace-making,  and  it  has  a  thriving 
trade  in  hops  and  grain.    Pop.,  1900,  30,100. 

ALOY'^SIA.     See  Lippia. 

ALP,  iilp;  ALBy  &lb  (Suabian)  (Lat.  alpes, 
perhaps  of  Celtic  origin;  Gael,  alp,  rock,  cliflf), 
also  called  the  Rauhe  Alb  or  Suabian  Jura.  A 
chain  of  mountains  about  70  miles  in  length, 
and  from  12  to  15  miles  in  breadth,  extending 
northeast  and  southwest,  and  forming  a  water- 
shed between  the  Neckar  and  the  Danube.  It 
lies  almost  entirely  within  the  kingdom  of  Wtlr- 
temburg,but  crosses  Hohenzollern,  and  is  situated 
from  60  to  100  miles  east  of  the  Black  Forest; 
but  presents  a  totally  different  appearance  from 
the  latter  region,  on  account  of  its  being  clothed 
with  forests  of  hard  wood  instead  of  pine.  It 
forms  a  table-land  intersected  by  a  few  narrow, 
deep  valleys.  The  average  height  of  the  system 
is  rather  more  than  2000  feet.  On  the  north  it 
descends  to  the  Neckar  in  ridges  of  rocky  cliffs 
and  abrupt  pointed  headlands,  but  on  the  south 
it  gradually  slopes  away  to  the  level  of  the  valley 
of  the  Danube.  The  scenery  is  often  very  pic- 
turesque, for  the  sharp,  precipitous  crags  are 
frequently  crowned  with  the  ruins  of  the  strong- 
holds of  some  of  the  famous  old  German  fami- 
lies, such  as  the  UohenzoUerns,  Hohenstaufens, 
etc.  The  geological  formations  of  the  Suabian 
alps  are  limestones  of  Mesozoic  age,  which, 
though  regularly  stratified,  have  been  folded  to  a 
considerable  extent.  Caverns  of  a  very  remark- 
able character  abound.  The  valleys  at  the  base 
of  the  hills  are  fertile,  and  produce  abundance  of 
wine  and  fruit,  but  the  high  table-land  has  an  ex- 
tremely poor  and  barren  soil.  The  word  Alp  is 
sometimes  applied  to  the  green  pasture  lands 
on  the  slopes  of  the  mountains  in  Switzerland. 

AliPAC'A,  or  PA'CO  (Ar.  al,  the+Peniv. 
paca).  One  of  the  four  cameloid  mammals  of 
the  Andean  region,  known  zoologically  as  Lama 
paces.  It  is  smaller  than  the  llama,  and  more 
nearly  resembles  the  vicuna,  although  now  con- 
sidered to  have  been,  like  the  llama,  derived  from 
theguanaco.  (See Llama.)  Its  form  is  very  sheep- 
like, except  for  the  long,  erectly  carried  head; 
and,  although  wild  ones  exist,  it  is  mainly  known 
in  great,  semi-domesticated  fiocks  kept  by  the 
Peruvian  mountain  Indians  for  the  sake  of  the 
wool.  These  flocks  graze  on  the  pastures  of  the 
loftiest  valleys,  almost  at  the  snow-line,  which 
seem  to  be  the  natural  home  of  the  animal,  and 
where  they  have  formed  interesting  instincts  and 
habits  of  vigilance  and  protection  against  sudden 
storms  and  snowfalls.  These  flocks  are  said  to 
be  so  careful  to  keep  together  that  it  is  impos- 
sible to  separate  a  full-grown  individual,  so  that 
none  can  he  truly  tamed  which  is  not  taken  when 
very  young.  Once  a  year  the  Indians  drive  their 
flocks  to  stone  inclosures  or  huts,  and  shear  the 
wool,  after  which  the  flocks  are  again  turned 
loose.      This  custom  is  prehistoric,  and  Squier 


says  that  nuiny  of  the  shearing  huts  about  Lake 
Titicaca  have  stood  there  since  long  before  the 
Spanish  conquest.  The  alpaca  is  known  from  the 
equator  to  Tierra  del  Fuego,  but  is  most  com- 
mon in  Peru  and  Chile;  its  flesh  is  well  liked  as 
food,  and  the  animal  is  occasionally  used  as  a 
beast  of  burden.  The  alpaca's  coat  consists  of  a 
thick  growth  of  woolly  hair,  varying  from  black 
to  gray  or  yellowish,  and  reaching,  when  unshorn, 
a  length  of  some  two  feet.  The  annually  shorn 
fleece  is  about  eight  inches  in  length.  The  fibre 
is  small  but  strong,  elastic,  very  lustrous  and 
silky,  and  highly  valued  for  weaving  warm  and 
fine  cloth.  The  natives  of  the  Andes  have  made 
use  of  it  from  time  immemorial  for  their  pon- 
chos or  blankets,  remains  of  which  have  bc^n 
found  in  the  oldest  graves  of  the  period  of  the 
Incas;  but  it  was  not  until  1836  that  the  wool 
began  to  be  exported  to  Europe  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  alpaca  shawls,  cloth,  etc.,  regularly  be- 
gan. This  was  due  to  the  sagacity  and  energy  of 
Sir  Titus  Salt,  whose  mills  at  Saltaire,  England, 
are  regarded  as  the  foremost  in  Great  Britain. 
Now  the  imports  of  alpaca  wool  into  Europe  and 
America  number  many  millions  of  pounds  an- 
nually; but  not  all  of  the  so-called  alpaca  cloth 
is  really  manufactured  from  that  wool  alone,  or 
even  in  part.  See  Guanaco;  Llama;  and  Vi- 
cuna, and  plate  of  Camels  and  Llamas. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  the 
alpaca  into  Europe,  but  not  with  satisfactory 
results.  The  considerable  flock  formerly  exist- 
ing in  the  Pyrenees  seems  to  have  disappeared. 
Similarly,  the  costly  trial  of  acclimatizing  them 
in  Australia  has  failed.  An  attempt  was  made 
in  1821  to  introduce  the  alpaca  into  the  United 
States;  a  fund  was  raised,  and  in  1857  a  cargo 
of  them  was  shipped  to  Baltimore ;  but  the  result 
showed  that  they  could  not  be  acclimatized. 

AliP-ABSLAN,  alp^r-sl&n^  (Strong  Lion) 
(1028-72).  A  Seljuk  sultan.  He  was  born  in 
Turkestan  about  1028,  and  succeeded  Togrul  Beg 
as  ruler  of  the  Seljuk  realm  in  1063.  His  first 
act  was  to  unite  the  whole  of  his  dominions  in 
one  kingdom.  He  embraced  Mohammedanism, 
and  took  the  surname  of  Alp-Arslan  (Strong 
Lion),  his  real  name  being  Muhammad  Ghiyath- 
ud-Din  abu  Khvajah.  The  Caliph  of  Bagdad 
gave  him  the  title  of  Adhad-ud-Din  (Defender  of 
the  Faith),  and  decreed  that  prayer  might  be 
made  in  his  name.  He  had  an  excellent  vizier, 
Nizam-ul-Mulk,  who  was  the  founder  of  all  the 
colleges  and  academies  in  the  kingdom.  From 
1064  to  1071  Alp-Arslan  pursued  the  course  of 
his  conquests,  and  ruled  from  the  Tigris  to  the 
Oxus.  In  1005  and  1068  he  invaded  Armenia  and 
Georgia,  at  that  time  Christian  kingdoms.  He 
next  proceeded  against  the  Greeks,  who,  under 
their  brave  Emperor,  Komanus  IV.,  had  thrice 
driven  the  Turks  beyond  the  Euphrates.  In 
August,  1071,  a  bloody  battle  was  fought  near  the 
fortress  of  Malaskerd,  between  the  towns  of  Van 
and  Erzerum.  Alp-Arslan  gained  the  victory. 
The  Greek  Emperor  was  taken  prisoner,  and  ob- 
tained his  liberty  only  by  the  payment  of  an 
enormous  ransom.  In  the  following  year,  Alp- 
Arslan  invaded  Turkestan,  but  he  perished  at 
Berzem,  in  Turkestan,  by  the  poniard  of  Yussuf 
Kothual,  whom  he  had  condemned  to  death.  He 
was  buried  at  Merv. 

ALPENA.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Alpena  Co.,  Mich.,  110  miles  north  of  Bay  City, 
on  Thunder  Bay,  and  the  Detroit  and  Mackinaw 


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ALPENA. 


392 


ALPHABET. 


Bailroad  (Map:  Michigan,  K  3).  It  exports 
large  quantities  of  lumber  in  various  products, 
and  has  fisheries,  quarries,  tanneries,  and  manu- 
factures of  cement,  excelsior,  machinery,  etc.* 
Alpena  has  a  public  library,  parks,  and  a  well- 
equipped  high  school.  It  was  settled  in  1835, 
and  incorporated  in  1871;  its  charter,  as  revised 
in  1897,  limits  the  mayor's  term  to  two  years, 
and  provides  for  a  city  council  of  twelve  mem- 
bers, who  elect  the  police  commissioners  and  the 
board  of  health,  the  mayor  having  no  power  of 
appointment.    Pop.,  1890,  11,283;  1900,  11,802. 

AL^ENHOBN,  or  ALP^OBK.  A  simple 
conical,  somewhat  curved  wind-instrument,  about 
three  feet  long,  and  made  of  wooden  strips. 
It  has  a  hard  wood,  cupped  mouthpiece  and  a 
bell.  The  notes  are  the  open  harmonics  of  the 
tube,  the  quality  of  tone  being  modified  by  the 
material,  and  by  the  smallness  of  the  bore  in  re- 
lation to  the  length  of  the  tube.  It  is  used  by 
the  Swiss  to  convey  signals.  The  melody  usually 
played  on  this  instrument  is  called  the  Ranz  des 
Y aches  (q.v.).  The  alpenhorn  is  usually  repre- 
sented in  the  orchestra  by  the  oboe,  English  horn, 
or  bassoon.  For  illustration,  see  Musical 
Inbtbuments. 

ALPES,  Basses.    See  Bassbs-Alpes. 

ALPES  MABITIMES,  &lp  m&'r6't^m^  A 
department  of  France  (q.v.),  in  the  extreme 
southeast,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  confines  of  Italy.  It  is  formed  mainly  of  the 
territory  of  Nice,  ceded  by  Italy  to  France  in 
18G0.    The  capital  is  Nice. 

ALTETBA^GinS.    See  Ntm  ed-Din  kl-Be- 

TRUJI. 

AL^HA  AND  OME^GA  (a  W^^]  and  o 
\6tikya]  the  first  and  last  letters  of  the  Greek  al- 
phabet). A  term  employed  to  convey  the  idea 
of  completeness.  The  phrase  occurs  in  the  New 
Testament  (Revelation  i  :  8,  xxi  :  6,  xxii  :  13) 
to  denote  the  immeasurable  fullness  of  God  and 
of  Jesus  Christ;  in  Revelation  i  :  8  it  is  applied 
to  God ;  in  the  other  passages,  to  Christ.  The  He- 
brews similarly  employed  the  phrase  Aleph  and 
Tau,  the  first  and  the  last  letter  of  their  alpha- 
bet, to  denote  a  thing  in  its  entirety.  See  e.g., 
Jalkut  Rubeni  xvii  :  4,  xlviii  :  4,  cxxviii  :  3.  A 
somewhat  similar  phrase  is  found  in  Isaiah 
xliv  :  6,  "I  am  the  first  and  I  am  the  last," 
which,  applied  to  God,  is  intended  to  express 
both  eternity  and  universal  sway. 

AJ/PHABET  (Late  Gk.  aJl^d/S^rof,  alphdhHo8, 
from  A^,  alpha  +  hvr<^,  bHa,  the  names  of  the 
first  two  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet;  compare 
the  Late  Lat.  abecedarium,  the  English  ABO, 
and  Russ.  azhuka,  from  azU  +  buki,  the  names 
of  the  first  two  letters).  An  alphabet  may  be 
defined  as  the  series  of  characters,  usually  having 
a  fixed  order,  employed  to  represent  the  single 
sounds  of  a  language.  The  word  is  sometimes 
loosely  but  improperly  employed  to  denote  a  se- 
ries of  characters  denoting  syllables  or  combina- 
tions of  elementary  sounds.  For  the  various 
modes  employed  to  represent  language,  see  Writ- 
ing; Hieroglyphics;  Cuneiform  Characters. 
For  the  variations  in  the  style  of  writing  at 
different  periods,  see  PALiEooRAPHY. 

The  alphabets  of  modern  Europe  are  derived 
from  the  Greek,  either  directly,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  Russian,  or  through  the  medium  of  the 
Latin.  The  Greek  alphabet,  in  turn,  is  derived 
from  the  Ph<Bnician.    This  was  the  view  of  the 


Greeks  themselves,  as  appears  from  the  state- 
ments of  Herodotus  and  other  ancient  writers, 
and  from  the  word,  ^tvuc^ta,  phoinik^ia,  which 
denotes  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  and  occurs 
in  an  inscription  of  Teos  in  Asia  Minor  belonging 
to  the  first  half  of  the  fifth  century  b.c.  It  is 
true  that  other  traditions  were  also  current, 
which  attributed  the  invention  of  the  alphabet 
to  such  mythical  characters  as  Prometheus, 
Mussus  and  Palamedes,  while  the  addition  of 
certain  letters  was  assigned  to  Epicharmus 
and  Simonides.  We  are  not,  however,  depend- 
ent on  the  very  doubtful  authority  of  tradition 
for  the  Phoenician  origin  of  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet. As  may  easily  l^  seen  from  the  accom- 
panying table,  the  forms  of  the  earliest  Greek 
letters  bear  a  close  resemblance  to  those  of 
Phcenicia,  and  the  Greek  names  are  for  the  most 
part  obviously  derived  from  the  Semitic.  More- 
over, the  order  of  the  letters  in  the  North  Sem- 
itic alphabets,  as  shown  by  their  numerical  val- 
ues and  their  use  in  acrostic  compositions,  is  the 
same  as  that  proved  for  the  Greek  by  similar 
evidence,  and  by  the  so-called  aheo&daria,  or 
alphabets  found  on  early  vases. 

The  North  Semitic  alphabets,  Phoenician,  He- 
brew, Aramaic,  and  their  branches,  while  differ- 
ing somewhat  in  the  forms  of  the  letters,  are 
obviously  of  a  common  origin,  and  even  in  the 
earliest  inscriptions  show  a  complete  adaptation 
to  the  needs  of  the  language.  The  Himyaritic 
inscriptions  of  southern  Arabia,  and,  therefore, 
the  later  alphabets  of  the  southern  Semites,  show 
a  clearly  cognate  system;  but  until  the  age  of 
these  early  inscriptions  is  determined,  the  exact 
relation  of  the  North  and  South  Semitic  alpha- 
bets caimot  be  definitely  settled.  If  Glaser's 
view,  that  the  Himyaritic  monuments  belong  in 
part  to  the  second  pre-Christian  millennium, 
should  prove  correct,  it  mieht  be  necessary  to 
regard  this  as  the  earliest  form  of  the  Semitic 
alphabet.  Even  in  the  present  state  of  our 
knowledge,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  southern 
Semites  derived  their  alphabet  from  their  north- 
em  brethren,  as  there  is  much  that  seems  to 
indicate  that  both  branches  are  indebted  to  a 
common  source.  Whatever  be  the  relation  of  the 
Semitic  alphabets  to  one  another,  the  present 
evidence  points  to  the  conclusion  that  tne  con- 
sistent employment  of  a  small  number  of  signs 
to  denote,  not  words  nor  syllables,  but  the  ele- 
mentary sounds  of  a  language,  originated  among 
the  Semites,  and  that  throu^  the  trading  branch 
of  this  family,  the  Phoenicians,  this  system  of 
writing  was  carried  to  the  Greeks  and  the  west. 
Though  the  attempts  to  assign  meanings  to  all 
the  Semitic  names  of  the  letters  has  not 
proved  successful,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  at 
least  twelve  are  significant;  e.g., Aleph  means  ox; 
Beth,  house;  Daleth,  door;  Koph,  hollow  of  the 
hand;  Mem,  water;  Ayin,  eye;  Resh,  head. 
This  leads  naturally  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
characters  were  originally  representations  of 
these  objects,  or  at  least  showed  some  resem- 
blance to  them.  Inquiry  in  this  direction  leads, 
however,  to  no  satisfactory  result  as  to  the  origin 
of  the  letters,  though  it  may  throw  light  on 
that  part  of  the  Semitic  world  where  the  name<4 
arose.  As  both  Phoenicians  and  Hebrews  had 
intimate  connections  with  Egypt,  and  as  the 
hieroglyphic  and  hieratic  systems  had  been  in 
use  there  for  centuries  before  the  earliest  known 
Phoenician  inscriptions,  it  was  natural  to  look 
to  the  valley  of  the  Nile  for  the  symbols  from 


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ALPHABETS 


HEBREW 
NAMES 

GREEK 
NAMES 

HEBREW 

1 

PHSNICIAN 

EARLIEST 
GREEK 

A  ! 

EAST  GREEK 

(militas)' 

WEST 
GREEK 

LATER 
GREEK 

A 

EARLY 

LATIN 

LATER 
LATIN 

ALEPH 

ALPHA 

1 

< 

AA 

A 

A^ 

A 

BETH 

BETA 

n 

9 

B 

6    ' 

B 

B 

[?] 

B 

QIMEL 

OAMMA 

:i 

-7 

Ar 

1 

AC 

r 

1 

c 

C 

OALETH 

DELTA 

1 

^ 

A   \ 

A    1 

A>D 

A 

>     ! 

D 

HE 

EPBILON 

n 

^ 

^E 

>^E| 

^E 

E  ' 

f 

E 

VAU 

(diqamma)         1 

V 

rF 

(F) 

CF 

[F] 

F 

ZAIN 

ZETA 

T 

^ 

I 

I 

I 

Z 

(G) 

CHETH 

ETA 

n 

N 

B 

BH  I 

BH 

H 

a 

H 

TETH 

THETA 

10 

^ 

e  . 

©0| 

©O 

G 

lOO 

IOTA 

•) 

^ 

^1  i 

1     1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

CAPH 

KAPPA 

D 

■)^ 

hK   ! 

K 

1 

K 

K 

K 

« 

LAMED 

LAMBDA 

b 

i 

r 

AV 

/\U 

A 

1. 

L- 

MEM 

MU 

• 

^ 

r'M 

M    i 

TM 

M 

r' 

M 

NUN 

NU 

: 

^ 

1 

N     1 

|v/v 

N 

K 

N 

8AME0H 

(xi) 

D    * 

, 

^    i 

^^ 

AIN 

OMICRON 

y 

o 

o 

o 

O 

O 

O 

O 

PE 

PI 

dI^ 

rp 

r 

rr 

n 

r 

P 

T2A0E 

S  ,  N 

/v\ 

H 

KOPH 

(koppa) 

PIT 

^ 

9 

Q 

9 

Q 

RE8H 

RHO 

1 

^ 

/>p 

^PP 

f^p 

p 

p 

R 

SHIN 

SIGMA 

^ 

W 

C 

5^ 

St 

z 

s 

5 

TAU 

TAU 

n 

X 

T 

T 

T 

T 

T 

T 

U-PSILON 

YV 

YV 

YV 

Y 

VY 

V 

PHI 

CD0 

R-x=i] 

ct> 

-f 

X 

CHI 

X 

[0Cj)-f] 

X 

PSI 

syy 

[YV=;J 

H^ 

OMEGA 

n 

n 

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r??^ 


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ALPHABET. 


393 


ALPHABET. 


which  the  letters  had  been  derived.  Early 
attempts  to  identify  the  Phcenician  letters  with 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics  led  to  no  satisfactory 
result;  but  in  1859  Emmanuel  de  Roug6  read 
before  the  French  Acad^mie  des  Inscriptions  et 
Belles  Lettres  a  paper  in  which  he  sought  to 
prove  that  the  source  of  the  alphabet  was  to  be 
found  in  the  hieratic  characters,  as  shown  in 
the  Papyrus  Prisse,  an  Egyptian  document  which 
cannot  be  later  than  the  eleventh  dynasty,  or 
about  2000  B.C.,  and  may  well  be  much  earlier. 
De  Rough's  arguments  were  first  published  in 
detail  after  his  death  by  his  son,  in  M4moire  8ur 
Vorigine  ^gyptienne  de  Valphahet  phinicien 
(Paris,  1874),  and  were  for  a  time  generally 
accepted.  They  were  adopted  by  Canon  Isaac 
Taylor  in  his  book,  The  Alphabet  {ItonAon,  1883), 
and  have  been  retained  in  the  second  edition 
(1899). 

An  altogether  new  turn  to  the  discussion  was 
given  by  the  discovery  of  the  Tel-el-Amarna  tab- 
lets containing  a  sei-ies  of  letters  written  in 
Syria  about  1379-66  B.C.,  which  showed  that  at 
that  time  the  cuneiform  characters  were  used 
by  the  Phoenicians  and  other  Semites  even  for 
correspondence  with  the  Egyptian  court,  and 
that  the  Babylonian  was  evidently  the  lan- 
guage of  international  relations.  Even  before 
this  time,  Deecke,  Peters,  and  Hommel  had  at- 
tempted to  show  a  connection  between  the  Phoeni- 
cian alphabet  and  the  cuneiform  of  Assyria  or 
Babylonia,  and  recently  Delitzsch,  Die  Entsteh- 
ung  d€8  altesten  Schriftsyatems  (Leipzig,  1897), 
and  Peiser,  Studien  zur  orientalischen  Altertuma- 
kunde  (1900),  have  developed  the  Babylonian 
theory,  though  with  differences  in  detail.  This 
theory,  however,  labors  under  one  serious  difl5- 
culty.  The  early  Babylonian  characters  which 
are  supposed  to  throw  light  upon  the  Phoenician 
prototypes  are  at  least  1000  and  probably  2000 
years  or  more  earlier  than  the  earliest  Phoeni- 
cian inscriptions,  and  differ  decidedly  from  the 
cuneiform  characters  in  use  in  Syria  within  250 
or  300  years  of  the  time  when  the  alphabet  must 
have  been  developed.  A  similar  objection  may 
be  brought  against  De  Rough's  derivation  from 
the  earlier  hieratic.  Neither  the  Egyptian  nor  the 
Babylonian  origin  can,  therefore,  be  regarded  as 
proved,  though  neither  has  been  shown  to  be 
impossible. 

But  Babylon  and  Egypt  were  not  the  only 
great  powers  of  the  early  civilization  of  the  East. 
The  Hittites  (<j.v.)  had  a  hieroglyphic  system  of 
their  own,  which  might  easily  have  influenced 
the  Phoenicians,  though  no  systematic  attempt 
at  direct  derivation  of  the  alphabet  from  this 
source  has  yet  appeared.  The  Cypriote  Greeks 
down  to  the  fourth  century  B.C.  made  use  of  a 
syllabic  system  which  in  some  of  its  signs  shows 
a  strong  resemblance  to  the  Hittite.  Even  more 
important  is  the  discovery  of  at  least  two  early 
systems  of  writing  on  the  island  of  Crete.  One 
of  these  is  distinctly  pictorial  or  hieroglyphic, 
the  other,  and  later,  is  linear,  and  contains  a 
nurTiuer  of  forms  closely  analogous  to  the  Phoeni- 
cian and  early  Greek  characters.  Moreover,  sim- 
ilar linear  or  geometric  signs  have  been  found 
on  pottery  in  tombs  of  the  first  dynasty  at 
Abydos  in  Egypt,  and  likewise  at  Kahun 
(twelfth  dynasty)  and  Gurob;  they  have  also 
appeared  in  Palestine  at  Tel-el-Hesy,  and  many 
of  them  are  found  in  the  Carian  and  Celtiberian 
alphabets  of  later  times.  From  these  facts  Pro- 
fessor W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie  has  suggested  that 


a  signary,  or  series  of  signs  (whether  hiero- 
glyphic, syllabic,  or  alphabetic  is  unknown),  waa 
in  use  around  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
from  a  very  early  date  (perhaps  5000  B.C.). 
These  signs  increased  in  number  and  variety, 
and  from  them  has  been  selected  the  later  alpha- 
bet. The  selection  and  grouping  are  due  to  the 
Phoenicians,  who  assigned  commercial  values  to 
certain  characters,  and  thus  transmitted  them  to 
the  Greeks.  The  value  of  this  JEgesm  element 
in  the  discussion  cannot  be  fairly  estimated  until 
the  Cretan  linear  and  hieroglyphic  systems  are 
at  least  partially  understood,  for  as  yet  none  of 
the  values  of  the  signs  is  known;  and  although 
the  resemblance  in  form  between  the  early  signs 
and  the  late  letters  is  undeniable,  the  same  thing 
is  true  of  many  early  Babylonian  and  Egyptian 
characters.  It  is  indeed  obvious  that  mere  ex- 
ternal likeness  is  insufficient  to  prove  a  common 
origin;  there  must  be  sufficient  resemblance  in 
sound  or  meaning  to  account  in  some  degree  for 
the  choice  of  that  particular  sign  by  the  l^rrower 
to  serve  as  a  letter  in  the  new  alphabet. 

When  the  Greeks  adopted  the  Phoenician  alpha- 
bet is  uncertain.  It  can  scarcely  have  been 
earlier  than  1000  B.C.,  nor  later  than  the  eighth 
century,  as  it  evidently  succeeded  the  Dorian 
invasion,  but  preceded  the  great  colonizing  move- 
ment, since  the  colonies  regularly  use  the  same 
alphabet  as  the  mother  city.  While  adopting  the 
characters,  with  their  names  and  order,  from  the 
Phoenicians,  the  Greeks  found  some  changes  in 
values  necessary.  The  Semites  did  not  write  the 
vowels,  and  the  Greeks  appropriated  for  this  pur- 
pose four  of  the  breathings,  which  were  not  need- 
ed in  the  Semitic  system  of  phonetics.  For  the  fifth 
vowel  (u),  they  very  early  adopted  a  differenti- 
ation of  the  spirant  (vau),  ana  placed  it  at  the 
end  of  the  Phoenician  series.  Among  the  wealth 
of  sibilants  offered,  Zain  was  universally  appro- 
priated for  the  double  consonant  Zeta  (prob- 
ably dz)  ;  as  between  Samech,  Tsade,  and  Shin 
there  is  great  diversity  of  usage  among  the  early 
local  alphabets,  and  no  general  agreement  among- 
epigraphists  as  to  the  exact  course  of  the  devel- 
opment. In  the  Ionian  alphabet,  which  ulti» 
mately  came  into  general  use,  the  place  of  Sam- 
ech was  filled  by  Xi  (x) ,  Tsade  was  dropped,  and 
Shin  used  for  the  simple  (s)  sound.  A  history  of 
the  numerous  local  variations  in  the  Greek  alpha- 
bet lies  outside  the  scope  of  this  article.  It  is 
enough  to  mention  the  chief  varieties,  which 
were  influential  in  the  development  of  borrowed 
alphabets.  The  primitive  alpnabet,  omitting  Xi 
and  ending  with  Upsilon,  is  found  in  early  in- 
scriptions of  Thera,  Melos,  and  Crete.  To  this 
alphabet  were  added  three  supplementary  signs, 
and  in  the  method  of  this  change  the  Greek 
alphabets  after  the  seventh  century  fall  into  two 
great  groups,  the  Eastern  and  Western.  The 
former  includes  Asia  Minor,  the  islands  of  the 
-^gean,  and  some  points  on  the  Greek  mainland; 
the  latter  includes  Euboea,  most  of  the  States 
of  Greece  proper,  Sicily,  and  Italy.  It  is  to  be 
noted  that  the  lines  of  demarkation  are  not  those 
of  the  dialects  nor  of  the  races,  though  the  East- 
ern group  is  largely  Ionian,  and  the  Western 
Dorian.  Attica  "occupies  a  middle  position* 
The  Eastern  alphabet  adopted  I  =  f  =  x,  and 
added  *  =^  =  ph,  X^;f=ch,  and  ^  =f=:ps. 
The  Western  alphabet  shows  X  =  ^  =x,  *  = 
ph,  i"=;^=ch,  ps  was  expressed  by  ira  or  i^<t.,  or 
in  some  cases  by  a  new  sign  3|c.  The  origin  of 
these  signs,  and  especially  the  curious  diversity 


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ALPHABET. 


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ALPHOKSIKE  TABI.ES. 


in  their  use,  still  lacks  a  satisfactory  explana- 
tion. Among  the  Ea«t  Greeks  also  arose  the  dif- 
ferentiation of  the  e  and  o  sounds,  which,  after 
some  variations,  settled  into  denoting  the  short 
€  by  E,  while  for  the  long  e  was  chosen  the 
original  aspirate  (H)  ;  O  was  appropriated  for 
short  o,  and  for  long  o  a  new  symbol  (Q)  was 
invented.  Vau  or  Digamma  (F)  was  disused, 
as  the  sound  had  been  early  lost  among  the 
lonians.  In  adopting  the  alphabet,  the  Greeks 
seem  at  first  to  have  adopted  also  the  direction 
of  the  Phoenician  writing,  from  right  to  left, 
but  very  early  to  have  become  more  independent 
and  adopted  the  form  where  the  lines  run  alter- 
nately from  right  to  left  and  left  to  right,  like 
the  course  of  the  oxen  in  ploughing,  whence  the 
name  fiovarpo^Sdv,  houatrophMon,  But  the  di- 
rection was  unimportant,  and  the  early  inscrip- 
tions show  many  strange  variations.  It  was  not 
until  the  fifth  century  that  the  habit  of  writing 
from  left  to  right  supplanted  the  earlier  forms. 

Through  the  Greeks  the  alphabet  was  brought 
to  Italy,  and  naturally  in  the  Western  form, 
since  Chalcidians  of  Cum©  seem  to  have  been  the 
intermediaries.  Here  also  developed  many  local 
variations;  but  most  of  the  Italian  alphabets 
preserved  throughout  their  history  the  original 
direction  of  the  writing.  The  Latins,  however, 
probably  because  of  growing  intimacy  with  the 
Greeks,  adopted  the  later  Greek  method.  The 
Greek  alphabet  was  not  adopted  in  its  entirety. 
The  aspirates  {th,  ph,  ch)  were  not  needed,  and 
Z,  though  perhaps  existing  in  early  times,  was 
soon  dropped,  and  its  place  later  taken  by  G,  a 
diflferentiation  of  C,  which  seems  for  a  time  to 
have  done  duty  for  both  the  Ic  and  g  sounds, 
as  K  early  fell  into  disuse,  if  it  did  not  actually 
disappear.  About  the  time  of  Cicero,  for  the 
transcription  of  Greek  names,  the  characters  Y 
(U)  and  Z  were  introduced  at  the  end  of  the  al- 
phabet. This  Latin  alphabet,  as  spread  by  the 
Roman  conquests,  became  the  alphabet  of  the 
modern  European  languages,  with  the  exception 
of  Russian,  which  is  derived  from  the  Byzantine 
Greek  of  the  ninth  century  A.D.,  and  in  its  early 
ecclesiastical  form  was  the  invention  of  the  mis- 
sionary Cyril,  who  found  it  necessary  to  add 
twelve  signs  to  express  the  Slavonic  sounds.  The 
number  was  afterward  increased  to  forty- 
eight,  and  in  the  reign  of  Peter  the  Great  again 
reduced  and  the  alphabet  modified  into  the  pres- 
ent Russian  alphabet  of  thirty- five  letters.  See 
Runes  and  Oghams  for  primitive  Germanic  and 
Irish  writing,  and  Glaoolitsa  and  Kibrilitsa 
for  the  Slavic  alphabets. 

Bibliography.  Isaac  Taylor,  The  Alphabet 
(London,  1899).  This  is  the  most  complete 
treatment  in  English,  but  must  be  used  with 
caution.  A  convenient  but  rather  popular  sum- 
mary, w^ith  numerous  illustrations,  may  be  found 
in  E.  Clodd,  The  Story  of  the  Alphabet  (London, 
1900).  Consult  also:  Berger,  Hist  aire  de  Vccri- 
lure  dans  Vantiquit^  (Paris,  1891)  ;  Peters, 
"Recent  Theories  of  the  Alphabet,"  Journal  of 
the  American  Oriental  Society,  XXII.  (New 
Haven,  1901)  ;  Evans,  Cretan  Pietographs  and 
Pre- Phoenician  Script  (Ix)ndon,  1895)  ;  Evans, 
Further  Discoveries  of  Cretan  and  .TJgean  Script 
(London,  1898).  On  the  origin  of  the  Phojnician 
alphabet,  see  the  books  cited  above,  and  compare 
Lidzbarski.  Handbuch  der  nordsewitischen  Epi- 
graphik  (Weimar,  1898),  which  contains  a  full 
bibliography.  For  the  Greek  alphabet,  see 
Kirchoff,  Studien  zur  Oeschichte  des  griechisch- 


en  Alphabets  (Glltersloh,  1887)  ;  Roberts,  Intro- 
duction to  Greek  Epigraphy  (Cambridge,  Eng., 
1887 )  ;  Reinach,  Traits  d'epigraphie  grecque 
(Paris,  1885);  Larfeld,  in  Mailer's  Handbuch 
der  klassischen  Altertutnsicissenschaft,  Volume 
I.  (Munich,  1892) .  For  the  Latin  alphabet,  con- 
sult: Ritschl,  Priscoe  Latinitatis  Monumenta 
Epigraphica  (Berlin,  1862);  Hflbner,  Exempla 
Scriptures  Latino:  Epigraphica  a  Ccesaris  Mortc, 
etc.  (Berlin,  1885)  ;  also  Hlibner  in  Mailer's 
Handbuch,  Voliune  I. 

ALPHAND,  AlTdN^  Jean  Charles  Adolphe 
(1817-91).  A  French  civil  engineer.  He  was 
born  at  Grenoble,  studied  at  the  ^ole  Polytech- 
nique,  and  was  appointed  an  engineer  at  Bor- 
deaux. He  w^as  appointed  chief  engineer  of  the 
improvements  of  Paris  in  1854,  director  of  works 
in  1871,  and  in  1878  director  of  water  supply 
and  drainage.  In  1857  he  was  chief  engineer  of 
roads  and  bridges,  and  in  the  Franco-Prussian 
War  was  colonel  of  an  engineer  corps  charged 
with  the  task  of  strengthening  the  fortifications 
of  the  capital.  He  divides  with  Baron  Hauss- 
mann  the  honor  of  having  reoonstructed  Paris. 

ALPHEOJS  (Gk.  'A?.^e/oc.  Alpheios).  The 
chief  river  of  the  Peloponnesus  ( Morea ) ,  rising 
in  the  southeast  of  Arcadia,  and  flowing  west 
through  Elis  and  past  the  famous  Olympia,  into 
the  Ionian  Sea.  This  river  is  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  in  ancient  song,  and  is  connected  with 
a  beautiful  and  characteristic  Greek  legend. 
The  upper  course  of  the  Alpheus  was  of  a  charac- 
ter likely  to  affect  strongly  the  imagination  of 
the  Greeks.  In  its  passage  through  Arcadia,  a 
country  consisting  of  cavernous  limestone,  and 
abounding  in  shut-in  basins  and  valleys,  it  twice 
disappears  under  ground  and  rises  again.  After 
these  feats  it  was  deemed  capable  of  anything — 
even  of  flowing  under  the  sea — ^and  the  Greek 
colonists  of  Sicily  thought  they  recognized  it  in 
their  new  country.  Close  on  the  margin  of  the 
sea  in  the  island  of  Ortygia  (the  site  of  Syra- 
cuse), was  the  beautiful  and  copious  fountain  of 
Arethusa,  and  its  fresh  water  was  believed  to  be 
that  of  the  Alpheus.  As  evidence  it  was  asserted 
that  when  the  river  overflow^ed  its  banks,  the 
refuse  of  Olympia  polluted  the  fountain,  and 
that  a  golden  cup,  thro^ni  into  the  Alpheus  at 
Olympia,  reappeared  in  Arethusa.  This  popu- 
lar belief  was  reflected  in  a  favorite  story  of 
the  later  classical  times.  The  river-god  Alpheus 
became  enamored  of  the  nymph  Arethusa  while 
she  was  bathing  in  his  stream.  To  escape  him, 
she  prayed  to  Diana,  who  changed  her  into  a 
fountain,  and  opened  up  an  underground  passage 
for  her  to  Ortygia.  The  river  still  pursued,  and 
passing  from  Greece  to  Sicily  below  the  sea.  with- 
out mingling  his  waters  with  it,  united  with  his 
love  in  the  fountain. 

ALPHONSE,  Al'fONs'  (1220-71).  Count  of 
Poitiers  and  Toulouse,  son  of  Louis  VIII.  of 
France.  He  took  part  in  the  Sixth  Crusade 
(1249-50),  led  by  his  brother,  Louis  IX.  (St. 
Louis),  with  whom  he  was  taken  prisoner  at 
Mansurah.  He  also  accompanied  King  Louis  in 
the  Seventh  Crusade  (1270),  against  Tunis, 
where  he  fell  fatally  ill.  His  administration  of 
the  affairs  of  his  domains  was  prudent  and  just, 
and  made  in  general  toward  increased  autonomy 
and  centralization. 

ALPHOK^SIKE     TABLES.       See    Alfon- 

SINE. 


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ALPHOKSO. 
ALPHOK^SO.    See  Alfonso. 


395 


ALPINE  PLANT. 


ALPHON^SXISy  Mabia  de  Liguobi.     See  Li- 

GUORI. 

ALPINE  CLUBS.  Societies  for  the  promo- 
tion of  mountain  exploration  and  adventure. 
The  most  noted  mountain  club  is  the  Alpine 
Club,  of  England,  organized  in  1858.  In  1863 
it  began  to  publish  the  Alpine  Journal.  This 
organization  was  followed  by  others  in  Europe. 
The  clubs  have  encouraged  geographical  explora- 
tion, not  only  of  European  mountains,  but  of  the 
Himalayas  and  other  Asiatic  ranges,  the  Andes, 
the  New  Zealand  Alps,  etc.  There  is  an  exten- 
sive Alpine  literature,  which  began  in  1859  with 
the  Alpine  Club's  Peaks,  Passes,  and  Glaciers, 
In  the  United  States  there  exist  the  Sierra  Club 
and  the  Mazamas,  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  the 
Appalachian  Mountain  Club  (q.v.). 

ALPINE  PLANT.  A  plant  whose  natural 
habitat  is  in  high  altitudes.  They  form  one 
of  the  three  great  climatic  groups  of  Xerophytes 
(q.v.) ,  and  have  in  general  the  ordinary  xerophy- 
tic  adaptations.    Among  the  leading  peculiarities 


of  Alpine  vegetation  there  may  be  noted  (1) 
The  gnarled  and  twisted  aspect  of  the  shrubs 
and  trees;  so  characteristic  is  this  habit  in  the 
mountain  pine  of  Europe  that  the  tree  has  been 
called  by  the  Germans  Krummholz,  i.e.,  "crooked 
wood."  (2)  The  vegetation  is  notably  dwarfed. 
(3)  The  plant  axes  are  commonly  horizontal 
rather  than  vertical,  and  as  a  result  there  is  a 
great  number  of  creeping  plants.  (4)  The 
"cushion  (Ger.  Polster)  habit,"  so  common  else- 
where in  mosses,  is  found  in  many  seed  plants, 
which  sometimes  resemble  a  brain  coral  in  gen- 
eral effect.  (5)  The  rosette  habit  is  frequent. 
(6)  The  flowers  and  roots  of  Alpine  plants,  in 
striking  contrast  to  the  stems  and  leaves,  are  not 
reduced;  they  may  even  be  increased.  This  com- 
bination makes  the  roots  and  flowers  appear 
gigantic,  and  travelers,  as  a  consequence,  are 
always  struck  with  the  relatively  large  floral 
development.  (7)  Alpine  leaves  show  decidedly 
xerophytic  structures,  many  plants  having  thick- 


Sprfne  beauties  (cktytonia)  from  the  eastern  lowlands  (a) 
and  Alpine  districts  of  the  Rockj  Moantains  (b).  Note  that 
the  Alpine  form  shows  great  stem  reduction,  moderate  leaf 
redaction,  flowers  relatively  unchanged,  and  increased  root 
system. 


Cross-section  of  leaf  of  Germander  (Teucrium)  from  the 
Alpine  regions  (a)  and  the  lowlanda  (b).  Note  the  greatlv 
Increased  leaf  thickness  and  palisade  development  in  the  Al- 
pine leaf.    After  Bonnier. 

skinned,  leathery  evergreen  leaves,  as  the  pines 
and  rhododendrons,  while  others  have  hairy 
leaves,  as  the  edelweiss.  Kerner,  Die  Ahhan- 
gigkeit  der  Pflanzengestalt  von  Klima  und  Boden 
(1869),  and  Bonnier,  Cultures  expMmentales 
dansles  haul  es  altitudes  (1888  to  date),  have  car- 
ried on  some  remarkably  interesting  experiments 
to  determine  the  influence  that  Alpine  climates 
exert  upon  plants.  Lowland  plants  were  taken 
into  Alpine  regions  and  were  found  to  assume 
structural  adaptations  similar  to  those  normally 
found  in  Alpine  plants  but  not  normally  found 
under  lowland  conditions.  In  particular,  sub- 
terranean organs  were  found  to  increase  in  size, 
while  atrial  stems  became  reduced  and  tended 
toward  horizontality.  The  leaves  became  small- 
er and  thicker  and  often  more  hairy;  sometimes 
the  leaves  showed  more  red  coloration.  The 
flowers  became  relatively,  and  in  some  cases 
absolutely,  larger  and  more  highly  colored,  and 
blossoming  often  took  place  earlier  than  in  the 
lowlands.  Structurally  the  leaves  showed  a 
thicker  cuticle  and  increased  development  of 
palisade  cells.  Bonnier  found  that  these  plants 
increased  in  Alpine  characters  year  by  year,  and 


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that,  when  taken  again  to  the  lowlands,  the  al- 
pine features  were  not  lost  for  a  long  time.  In 
general,  the  adaptations  of  Alpine  plants  are  sim- 
ilar to  those  of  Arctic  plants  (q.v.),'but  it  has 
been  noticed  that  the  leaves  are  thinner  and 
show  more  differentiation,  intercellular  spaces 
are  fewer,  and  palisade  cells  better  developed. 
Hairy  plants  are  perhaps  mor6  characteristic 
of  Alpine  than  of  Arctic  regions.  The  Alpine 
conditions  are  peculiar  and  are  chiefly  due 
in  the  last  analysis  to  the  rarefied  air.  The 
consequent  decrease  in  pressure  has  probably  a 
direct  effect  on  vegetation,  but  experiments 
have  not  yet  made  this  clear.  In  any  event, 
the  thin  air  causes  a  greatly  increased  in- 
tensity of  heat  and  light  by  day,  and  a  great- 
ly increased  radiation  of  heat  by  night.  Thus 
great  extremes  of  temperature  are  the  rule. 
The  rarity  of  the  air  also  prevents  great  rain- 
fall. These  conditions,  together  with  exposure 
to  wind,  work  in  harmony  toward  the  develop- 
ment of  a  highly  xerophytic  flora,  as  has  been 
previously  mentioned,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  how 
none  but  xerophytes  can  survive  in  such  a  loca- 
tion. The  differences  between  Arctic  and  Alpine 
conditions  may  be  summed  up  thus:  Arctic 
light  is  more  constant,  but  less  intense,  and  this 
perhaps  accounts  for  the  differences  in  leaf 
structure  and  color  intensity  in  Arctic  and  Alpine 
regions,  as  stated  above.  The  changes  of  temper- 
ature are  more  rapid  in  Alpine  districts.  The 
xerophytic  structures  of  Alpine  plants  are  per- 
haps due  to  causes  set  in  operation  by  thin  air, 
while  in  Arctic  plants  the  causes  may  be  set  in 
operation  rather  by  the  cold  or  even  frozen  soil. 
See  also  Mountain  Plant,  and  the  colored  plate 
Mountain  Plants. 

ALPINI,  &l-p§^n6,  Frosfero  (1553-1617).  A 
Venetian  botanist  and  physician.  He  antici- 
pated Linnaeus  in  determining  the  sexual  differ- 
ences of  plants,  and  one  of  his  papers  gave 
Europe  the  first  notice  of  the  coffee  shrub.  He 
filled  the  chair  of  botany  in  the  University  of 
Padua  for  many  years.  His  best  known  work  is 
De  Plantis  JEgypti  (Venice,  1592;  Padua,  1640). 
The  genus  Alpinia  is  named  after  him. 

ALPIN^L/L    See  Galanoal. 

ALPS.  The  word  Alp  is  of  Celtic  origin, 
and  signifies,  according  to  some  authorities, 
"white,"  and  according  to  others,  "high."  Thus 
the  Alps  may  be  simply  the  White  Mountains,  or 
the  High  Mountains.  The  name  is  applied  to  a 
mountain  system  of  Southern  Europe,  which  in- 
cludes most  of  Switzerland,  and  extends  into 
France  on  the  west,  Austria  on  the  east,  Italy  on 
the*  south,  and  Germany  on  the  north,  and  covers 
altogether  an  area  of  some  80,000  to  90,000 
square  miles  (Map:  Europe.  D  4). 

The  system  rises  from  the  shore  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean west  of  the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  at  first 
trends  northward  to  the  west  of  the  plain  of 
Lombardy ;  then  swinging  to  the  east,  it  stretches 
with  an  east  and  west  trend  through  S\vitzer- 
land  and  across  the  north  of  Italy  into  Austria. 
The  total  length  of  the  system  is  upward  of 
600  miles,  and  its  breadth  ranges  from  about 
75  to  about  150  miles.  It  contains  hundreds  of 
peaks  exceeding  10,000  feet,  and  its  crowning 
summit,  Mont  Blanc,  has  an  altitude  of  15,781 
feet.  In  the  extreme  northeast,  where  the  Al- 
pine system  reaches  the  Danube,  it  is  met  by  a 
range  belonging  to  the  great  system  of  the  Car- 
pathian and  Sudetic  Mountains.    On  the  west 


the  Alps  are  connected  with  the  Jura  Mountains. 
In  the  south  the  Apennines  form  a  great  con- 
tinuation, extending  as  far  south  as  Sicily.  The 
C^vennes  in  southeastern  France  constitute  in  a 
measure  a  connecting  link  with  the  Pyrenees. 
The  range  of  mountains  known  as  the  Dinaric 
Alps,  on  the  borders  of  Dalmatia  and  Bos- 
nia, are  a  connecting  link  between  the  Alpine 
system  and  the  Balkan  Mountains.  The  slopes 
upon  the  south,  to  the  plains  of  Lombardy, 
are  much  more  abrupt  than  those  on  the  north 
to  the  lower  lands  of  Switzerland  and  Aus*- 
tria.  This  broad,  complex  mountain  region  is 
the  source  of  many  of  the  great  rivers  of  Europe. 
The  western  slope  of  that  part  of  the  range 
which  trends  north  from  the  Mediterranean 
shore  is  drained  into  that  sea  by  the  Rhone, 
while  the  east  slope  of  this  part,  together  with 
the  southern  slope  throughout  Italy,  is  drained 
into  the  Adriatic  mainly  by  the  River  Po.  The 
north  slope  is  drained  into  the  North  Sea  by  the 
Rhine,  and  into  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Danube, 
which  flows  around  the  eastern  end  of  the  moun- 
tain system.  The  head  branches  of  these  rivers, 
aided  by  the  glaciers  at  their  sources,  have  erod- 
ed this  mountain  mass  into  a  complex  of  short 
ranges  and  ridges,  many  of  which  have  received 
distinctive  names. 

Subdivisions.  The  Alps  are  commonly,  but 
rather  arbitrarily,  divided  into  three  portions. 
The  Western  Alps  comprise  that  portion  having 
a  north  and  south  trend,  and  extending  north- 
ward to  the  Great  St.  Bernard  Pass ;  the  Central 
Alps  extend  thence  eastward  to  the  Brenner 
Pass,  while  the  Eastern  Alps  include  the  remain- 
der. In  the  Western  Alps  the  ranges  and  ridges 
are  broken  and  irregular,  while  in  the  other 
parts  of  the  system  the  secondary  ranges  trend 
more  commonly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  sys- 
tem. The  system  is  still  further  subdivided  into 
groups  or  ranges  separated  from  one  another 
more  or  less  completely  by  stream  gorges.  The 
following  groups  are  comprised  in  the  Western 
Alps:  The  Maritime  Alps,  near  the  Mediterra- 
nean coast;  the  Cottian  Alps,  stretching  from 
Mont  Chamebyron,  11,166  feet,  to  the  Col  de 
Fr<^jus.  It  contains  several  peaks  exceeding  12,- 
000  feet  in  height.  West  of  it  is  the  small  group 
known  as  Oisans,  with  Mont  Pelvoux,  12,970 
feet,  and  Les  Ecrins,  13,462  feet,  the  highest 
peak  of  Dauphin^.  The  Graian  Alps  are  the 
northernmost  group  of  the  Western  Alps;  here 
are  Grand  Paradis,  13,324  feet;  Mont  Pourri, 
12,428  feet;  La  Grivola,  13,028  feet;  the  Grands 
Coulvirs,  12,567  feet;  the  Grande  Sassiftre,  12,- 
430  feet ;  and,  at  the  turning  point  of  the  range, 
Mont  Blanc,  15,781  feet. 

The  Central  Alps  are  subdivided  into  many 
groups,  of  which  only  the  principal  ones  can  be 
mentioned.  The  Bernese  Alps  separate  the  up- 
per valley  of  the  Rhone  from  the  Aar,  and  com- 
prise many  well  known  peaks,  among  them  the 
Jungfrau,  13,672  feet;  Finsteraarhorn,  14,026 
feet;  Aletschhorn,  13,720  feet;  MSnch,  13,465 
feet;  Enger,  13,040  feet;  Schreckorn,  13.385 
feet,  and  Wetterhorn,  12,150  feet.  This  is  one  of 
the  most  rugged  groups  of  the  system,  contain- 
ing many  peaks  exceeding  12,000  feet  in  height. 
and  having  manv  glaciers,  one  of  which,  the 
Aletsch,  is  the  longest  in  the  Alps.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  Rhone  valley  is  another 
splendid  range,  the  Pennine  Alps,  in  which, 
grouped  about  Zermatt,  are  the  Matterhom  or 
Mont  Cerion,  14,780   (14,705)   feet;    Weiashorn, 


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14,803  feet;  Grand  Combin,  14,164  feet;  Lys- 
kamm,  14,889  feet;  MiBchabel,  14,941  feet;  and 
Monte  Rosa,  15,217  feet.  The  St.  Gothard 
range  stands  at  the  sources  of  the  Reuss,  Rhine, 
and  Ticino,  separated  on  all  sides  by  compara- 
tively low  passes.  To  the  south  and  east  of  it, 
and  to  the  northeast  of  the  Pennine  Alps,  are  the 
Lepontine  Alps,  through  which  from  northwest 
to  southeast  extends  the  valley  of  the  Ticino. 
Between  the  Aar  and  Reuss  are  the  Emmenthal 
Alps,  separated  from  the  Alps  of  Uri  on  the  east 
by  the  Brttnig  Pass.  The  TOdi  chain  continues 
tlie  line  of  Bernese  Alps  northeastward,  with 
Todi,  11,887  feet.  The  Rhcetian  Alps  stand 
about  the  head-waters  of  the  Inn  River,  and 
contain  many  fine  peaks,  exceeding  11,000  feet 
in  height,  while  south  of  them  is  the  splendid 
Bernina  group,  with  Mont  Bernina,  13,294  feet. 
Still  further  south,  on  the  south  flank  of  the 
system  and  east  of  Lake  Como,  are  the  Alps  of 
Bergamo.  East  of  the  Rhsetian  Alps  are  the 
Otzthal  and  Ortler  Alps,  with  peaks  rising  above 
12,000  feet,  the  Ortlerspitze  being  12,800  feet. 

The  Eastern  Alps  are  of  less  height  than  the 
other  two  groups,  and  are  broken  into  a  great 
number  of  semi-detached  groups  and  ranges; 
the  North  and  South  Tyrolese,  Sarnthal,  Dolo- 
mite, Venetian,  Camic,  and  Julian  Alps,  Hohe 
Tauern,  Niedere  Tauern,  and  the  Salzburg,  Sty- 
rian,  and  Austrian  Limestone  Alps.  The  East- 
ern Alps  culminate  in  the  Gross-Glockner,  in  the 
Hohe  Tauern,  on  the  borders  of  Tyrol,  Carin- 
thia,  and  Salzburg,  which  rises  to  a  height  of 
12,457  feet,  and  from  which  descend  glaciers  al- 
most rivaling  those  of  the  Swiss  Alps. 

The  highest  part  of  the  Alpine  system,  as  ex- 
pressed by  the  altitude  of  its  summits,  is  in  the 
western  part  of  the  Central  Alps,  in  the  Bernese 
and  Pennine  groups,  and  about  Mont  Blanc. 
P>om  this  region  the  altitudes  diminish  east- 
ward and  southward.  Owing  to  the  broken  char- 
acter of  the  system,  passes  are  numerous;  many 
of  them  are  comparatively  low,  and  are  utilized 
as  routes  for  roads  and  railroads.  Some  of  them 
have  been  used  as  routes  of  travel  for  many  cen- 
turies. 

Passes  and  Routes.  The  passage  of  the 
Western  Alps  is  made  by  five  principal  roads: 
( 1 )  The  military  road,  La  Corniche,  a  coast  road 
at  the  foot  of  the  Alps  from  Nice  to  Genoa, 
parallel  to  which  a  railway  now  runs.  (2) 
The  road  over  the  Col-di-Tenda,  between  Nice 
and  Cuneo,  made  in  1778;  highest  point,  6150 
feet.  (3)  The  high  road  over  Mont  Genfeyre, 
connecting  Provence  and  Dauphin^  with  Turin; 
highest  point,  6100  feet.  (4)  The  carriage 
road  made  by  Napoleon  in  1805,  over  Mont 
Cenis,  connecting  Savoy  with  Piedmont;  high- 
est point,  6850  feet.  Near  this  the  chain  is 
pierced  by  the  railway  tunnel  of  Mont  Cenis. 
(5)  The  pass  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  con- 
necting Savoy  and  Piedmont;  highest  point 
7180  &et.  The  passage  of  the  Central  Alps  is 
made  by  eight  principal  roads :  ( 1 )  That  of  the 
Great  St.  Bernard,  connecting  the  valley  of  the 
Rhone  with  Piedmont;  highest  point,  8120  feet. 
It  was  crossed  by  Napoleon  in  1800.  (2)  The 
magnificent  road  over  the  Simplon,  which  moun- 
tain is  pierced  by  the  Simplon  railway  tunnel  at 
a  level  below  that  of  the  St.  Gothard  tunnel,  was 
constructed  by  Napoleon,  1801-06,  and  connects 
Valais  with  the  confines  of  Piedmont  and  Lom- 
bardy;  highest  point,  6690  feet.  (3)  The  pass 
of  St.  Gothard,  connecting  Lucerne  with  Lago 


Maggiore;  highest  point,  6936  feet.  One  of  the 
great  Alpine  railway  tunnels  is  the  St.  Gothard. 
(See  St.  Gothard.)  (4)  The  San  Bernardino 
Pass;  highest  point,  6770  feet.  (5)  The  SplU- 
gen  Pass,  connecting  the  sources  of  the  Rhine 
with  the  Adda,  highest  point,  6945  feet.  This 
pass  was  the  one  used  by  the  Romans  in 
their  intercourse  with  the  countries  bordering 
on  the  Danube  and  the  Rhine,  and  also  by  the 
German  armies  on  their  marches  into  Italy  in 
the  Middle  Ages.  (6)  The  Furka  Pass,  separat- 
ing the  heads  of  the  Rhine  and  Rhone,  and 
crossed  by  a  wagon  road  at  an  altitude  of  7992 
feet.  (7)  The  Stelvio  Pass  {Stilfser  Joch),  on 
the  frontiers  of  Tyrol  and  Lombardy,  traversed 
by  the  most  elevated  carrii%e  road  in  Europe; 
its  highest  point,  9855  feet.  (8)  The  Brenner 
Pass  known  to  the  Romans,  on  the  road  from 
Innsbruck  to  Trent  and  Verona,  highest  point 
4409  feet.  It  is  now  crossed  by  a  railway.  Be- 
sides these  great  roads,  leading  south  into  Italy, 
there  are  two  which  lead  north  from  the  valley  of 
the  Rhone,  and  cross  the  Bernese  Alps,  over  the 
Grimsel  Pass,  7103  feet  high,  and  the  Gemmi 
Pass,  7640  feet  high.  The  roads  over  the  Eastern 
Alps  are  much  lower  and  also  much  more  numer- 
ous than  those  in  the  Middle  or  Western  Alps. 
The  principal  are:  (1)  The  road  from  Venice 
to  Salzburg,  crossing  the  Noric  Alps  at  an  ele- 
vation of  rather  more  than  5000  feet.  (2)  The 
road  over  the  Carnic  Alps,  which  divides  into 
three  branches — ^the  first  leading  to  Laibach, 
the  second  to  the  valley  of  the  Isonzo,  and  the 
third  to  the  valley  of  the  Tagliamento.  (3)  The 
roads  from  the  Danube  at  Linz  to  Laibach. 

There  are  four  railways  crossing  the  Western 
and  Central  Alps:  The  Mont  Cenis,  connecting 
France  with  Italy;  the  St.  Gothard,  connecting 
Lake  Lucerne  with  Lago  Maggiore;  the  Sim- 
plon, from  the  upper  Rhone  Valley  to  Lago 
Maggiore,  and  the  Brenner,  from  Munich  and 
Innsbruck  to  Verona  and  Venice.  The  Arlberg 
railway,  which  pierces  the  Alps  in  the  Arlberg 
Tunnel,  is  the  great  highway  between  Switzer- 
land and  Austria.  Besides  these  through  lines, 
there  are  many  extending  into  the  heart  of  the 
mountains.  From  the  upper  valley  of  the  Aar 
many  lines  extend  southward  into  the  Bernese, 
Umer,  and  Glarner  Alps  to  Interlaken,  Lauter- 
brunnen,  and  Grindelwald,  and  to  Brienz,  Meir- 
ingen.  Lucerne,  and  Linthal.  A  railway  passes 
up  the  Rhone  Valley,  with  a  branch  to  Zermatt, 
in  the  Pennine  Alps.  On  the  Italian  side  several 
railways  penetrate  the  mountains  to  considerable 
distances.  The  Eastern  Alps  are  crossed  by 
several  railway  lines,  which  subdivide  and  join, 
sending  off  many  branches  within  the  mountain 
area.  Many  of  the  points  affording  the  grand- 
est views  in  the  Alps  are  now  reached  by  moun- 
tain railways;  the  Gornegrat  Railway,  the 
highest  railway  in  Euro]^e,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Matter  horn,  climbing  up^to  an  elevation  of  9908 
feet.  The  most  extensive  panorama  to  be  had 
from  any  easily  accessible  point  is  that  obtained 
from  the  summit  of  the  Rigi,  a  peak  near  Lu- 
cerne, less  than  6000  feet  high.  As  a  pleas- 
ure ground  for  the  lovers  of  grand  scenery  and 
adventurous  mountain  climbers,  the  Alps  are 
the  most  attractive  region  on  the  earth.  It  is  a 
truism  that  the  most  valuable  of  Switzerland's 
assets  is  the  scenery  of  the  Alps.  Not  that  these 
are  the  finest  mountains  on  the  face  of  the  globe, 
but  there  are  no  others  comparable  with  them 
which  are  so  accessible,  and  in  which  living  and 


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travel  are  so  pleasant  and  easy.  Railways  and 
carriajg;e  roads  traverse  these  mountains' in  all 
directions.  At  the  best  scenic  points  are  excel- 
lent hotels,  and  guides  are  provided  for  conduct- 
ing visitors  to  all  points.  Hence  every  year  tens 
of  thousands  of  travelers  visit  the  Alps  from  all 
parts  of  the  civilized  world. 

Glaciers.  As  the  Alps  rise  to  heights  of  12,- 
000  to  nearly  16,000  feet  above  the  sea,  in  a  re- 
gion of  ample  rainfall,  the  precipitation  on  these 
mountains  is  great,  and  gives  rise  to  extensive 
glaciers,  which  originate  near  the  summits  and 
descend  to  different  levels,  the  longest  reaching 
within  four  or  five  thousand  feet  of  sea  level,  and 
one  of  them,  the  Lower  Grindelwald,  having  its 
termination  at  an  Elevation  of  only  3550  feet. 
The  principal  glaciers  are  found  in  the  Bernese 
and  Pennine  Alps,  and  the  group  about  Mont 
Blanc,  although  numerous  smaller  ones  exist 
in  many  other  parts  of  the  system.  The  total 
number  is  estimated  at  1200,  of  which  471  are  in 
Switzerland  and  462  in  Austria,  those  in  the 
former  country  being  by  far  the  largest,  covering 
an  area  of  710  square  miles;  the  total  area  of 
snow  and  ice  in  the  Alps  is  about  1600  square 
miles.  The  largest  and  longest  of  the  Swiss 
glaciers  is  the  Aletsch,  in  the  Bernese  Alps,  with 
a  length  of  16  miles  (area,  50  square  miles), 
and  a  breadth  of  ice  of  more  than  a  mile. 
In  length  the  Unteraar  is  next,  with  a  length  of 
10.4  miles,  followed  by  the  Gorner  in  the  Pennine 
Alps  and  the  Viesch  in  the  Bernese  Alps,  each 
of  which  is  9.4  miles  in  length.  Other  well- 
known  glaciers  are  the  Mer  de  Glace,  above  the 
Valley  of  Chamouni,  Miage  Glacier,  which  has 
its  source  on  Mont  Blanc,  the  Oberaar  and  the 
Unteraar,  in  the  Bernese  Alps,  and  the  Rhone 
Glacier  in  the  same  group,  near  the  Furka  Pass. 

Our  present  knowledge  of  glaciers,  their  origin, 
structure,  flow,  advance,  recession,  and  the  phe- 
nomena of  erosion,  has  been  mainly  derived  from 
a  study  of  these  Alpine  glaciers.'  The  present 
glacial  system  is  but  the  last  dying  remnant  of 
great  ice  sheets  which  once  covered  both  flanks 
of  the  mountain  system,  descending  to  the  plains 
and  valleys  on  either  side.  As  it  shrunk,  it 
developed  great  rivers  of  ice,  which  carved 
mountain  gorges  and  lake  basins.  The  lake 
scenery  of  the  Alps  is  unrivaled  for  beauty, 
grandeur,  and  diversity.  The  largest  lakes  in- 
clude Geneva,  draining  into  the  River  Rhone, 
Neuchatel,  Bienne,  Thun,  Brienz,  Lucerne,  Zug, 
Zurich,  Constance,  Como,  Lugano,  Garda,  and 
Maggiore.  In  the  high  mountains  are  cirques  at 
the  heads  of  all  gorges  not  now  occupied  by  ice, 
with  little  lakelets  surrounded  by  frowning  semi- 
circular sweeps  of  cliffs,  hanging  valleys,  and 
smooth-sided,  U-shaped  gorges,  planed  and  pol- 
ished, all  bearing  mute  evidence  of  their  glacial 
origin.  Since  the  recession  of  the  glaciers,  the 
rivers  in  their  turn  have  done  a  vast  deal  of 
erosion,  but  have  not  yet  by  any  means  effaced 
from  the  land  the  hand-writing  of  the  ice.  The 
main  Alpine  region  is  drained  on  the  north 
by  the  upper  system  of  the  Rhine,  includ- 
ing the  Reuss.  Aar,  and  Thur,  and  by  south 
branches  of  the  Danube,  including  the  Iller, 
Lech,  Isar,  Inn,  and  Enns;  on  the  east  by  west 
branches  of  the  middle  Danube,  including 
Drave,  and  Save;  on  the  south  by  the  upper 
Adriatic  coast  streams,  including  the  Taglia- 
mento,  Piave,  Brenta,  and  Adige,  and  by  the 
northern  branches  of  the  Po,  including  the 
Mincio,   Oglio,    Adda,   Ticino,    Sesia,   and    Dora 


Baltia ;  and  on  the  west  by  the  eastern  tributar- 
ies of  the  lower  Rhone,  the  Durance,  Is^re,  and 
the  upper  Rhone  itself. 

Geology.  The  Alps  are  the  result  of  intense 
folding  and  faulting  of  the  strata,  carried  on  for 
a  long  time,  the  folds  and  faults  mainly  trending 
northeast  and  southwest,  accompanied  and  fol- 
lowed by  long  continued  and  intense  erosion  by 
ice  and  water.  The  net  result  of  the  earth  move- 
ments was  greatly  to  elevate  the  surface  in  a 
broad  anticline,  composed  of  many  sharp  anti- 
clines, synclines,  and  monoclines.  Erosion  has 
planed  these  off  to  a  comparatively  smooth  curve, 
has  removed  the  stratified  beds  in  great  part 
from  the  higher  portions  of  the  system,  leaving 
only  fragments  of  the  older  beds  in  limited  lo- 
calities, and  has  laid  bare  vast  areas  of  the  un- 
derlying gneissic  rocks.  Hence  the  higher  parts 
of  the  system  are  composed  almost  entirely  of 
gneissic  and  allied  rocks,  while  upon  the  flanks 
are  found  stratified  beds,  lying  in  various  posi- 
tions with  regard  to  the  system,  here  lying  up 
against  it,  there  dipping  away  from  it.  The 
folding  and  faulting  occurred  in  various  geologic 
epochs,  from  Paleozoic  times  down,  but  was  ap- 
parently most  intense  in  relatively  recent  times, 
in  the  Mesozoic.  They  occurred  at  different 
times  in  different  parts  of  the  system,  and  not 
always  or  everywhere  in  the  same  direction,  so 
that  the  result^  in  detail,  is  exceedingly  compli- 
cated. The  principal  field  of  these  movements, 
where  the  folding  and  faulting  is  most  complica- 
ted and  greatest,  is  north  of  the  higher  parts  of 
the  range,  in  other  words,  on  the  northern  slope; 
here  are  found  stratified  beds  succeeding  each 
other  in  bewildering  fashion.  The  southern  or 
Italian  slope  is  much  simpler  in  structure. 

Climate.  The  Alpine  region  is  at  the  meeting 
place  of  the  high  middle-latitude  marine  climate 
of  Western  Europe,  the  continental  climate  of 
Central  Europe,  and  the  low-latitude  marine 
climate  of  the  Mediterranean  regions.  While  it 
does  not  lie  directly  in  the  main  path  of  the 
cyclonic  disturbances  which  sweep  across  North- 
ern Europe  from  west  to  east,  yet  it  does  lie 
within  the  sphere  of  influence  of  these  storm 
centres.  Moreover,  during  the  spring,  numerous 
extended  cyclones  pass  over  the  Alpine  region; 
but  they  are  less  frequent  in  the  winter  and  fall, 
and  are  almost  totally  lacking  in  the  summer. 
This  is  the  chief  reason  for  the  steady  cold  of 
the  Alpine  winter,  with  but  few  intensely  cold 
waves,  the  serenity  of  its  summer  climate,  and 
the  harshness  of  its  spring  weather.  The  aver- 
age annual  temperatujre  on  the  northern  Alpine 
boundary  at  altitudes  of  1500  feet  is  about 
48*"  F.,  while  the  seasonal  averages  range  from 
about  30**  F.  in  winter  to  65**  F.  in  summer.  In 
winter  temperatures  usually  descend  as  low  as 
zero  F.,  and  in  summer  rise  as  high  as  90*  F. 
On  the  southern  Alpine  boundary,  at  altitudes 
of  about  800  feet,  the  average  temperature  for 
the  year  is  about  64**  F.,  the  variations  ranging 
from  36**  F.  in  winter  to  72**  F.  in  summer;  but 
in  winter  the  temperature  usually  does  not  de- 
scend below  15**  F.,  and  in  summer  may  reach 
even  95**  F.  With  increase  of  altitude  above  these 
regions  there  is  on  the  average  for  the  year  a 
decrease  in  temperature  of  about  1*  P.  for  each 
330  feet  of  altitude;  but  the  rate  of  decrease  is 
much  more  rapid  in  summer  than  in  winter. 
The  average  daily  temperature  is  remarkably 
uniform  in  the  Alps;  but  the  temperature 
changes   from   day   to   night   are   excessive,  on 


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account  of  the  intense  action  of  the  sun  by 
day  and  the  rapid  cooling  by  radiation  by  night, 
as  in  all  elevated  regions.  The  absolute  humid- 
ity decreases  with  the  altitude,  and  is  greater 
in  summer  than  in  winter.  The  relative  humid- 
ity, and,  consequently,  the  degree  of  cloudiness, 
is  least  in  winter  in  the  Alps,  while  in  the  sur- 
rounding region  the  relative  humidity  and  cloud, 
iness  are  usually  greatest  in  winter. 

On  the  north  side  the  annual  rainfall  is  from 
25  to  40  inches ;  but  this  increases-  irregularly 
to  about  90  inches  on  the  southern  side, 
where  the  steep  slopes  deflect  upward  the  mois- 
ture-laden warm  winds  from  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  The  average  annual  rainfall  for  the  whole 
region  cannot  be  far  from  60  inches,  while  that 
of  the  surrounding  lowlands  is  less  than  35 
inches.  Where  the  high  mountains  have  a 
copious  rainfall  on  the  windward  side,  the  val- 
leys on  the  leeward  side  experience  a  deficiency; 
so  that  on  one  side  of  a  mountain  range  the  rain- 
fall may  be  many  times  that  on  the  other  side. 
Of  the  total  annual  rainfall  throughout  the 
Alps  about  18  per  cent,  occurs  in  the  spring  and 
about  25  per  cent,  in  winter.  In  summer  the  pro- 
portion decreases  from  37  per  cent,  in  the  north- 
ern part  to  25  per  cent,  in  the  south ;  but  in  the 
fall,  on  the  contrary,  the  proportion  increases 
from  20  per  cent,  in  the  north  to  33  per  cent,  in 
the  south.  In  the  higher  .\lps  much  of  the  pre- 
cipitation is  of  course  in  the  form  of  snow,  which 
is  carried  down  to  lower  levels  by  glaciers  and  is 
there  melted.  The  snow  line  in  the  Alpine  moun- 
tains undergoes  an  annual  variation,  reaching 
its  lowest  altitude,  about  2000  feet,  toward  the 
end  of  January,  and  its  highest  altitude,  in  the 
neighborhood  of  9500  feet,  about  the  middle  of 
August.  The  limit  differs  for  the  northern  and 
.southern  exposures,  the  snow  line  on  the  south- 
ern slopes  lying  over  150  feet  higher  in  mid- 
winter, and  about  1300  feet  higher  in  the  early 
fall.  At  low  altitudes  of  2000  to  3000  feet,  the 
snowy  days  much  exceed  the  number  of  days  on 
which  the  ground  remains  snow-covered,  but  at 
altitudes  of  8000  feet,  the  first  snow  commonly 
remains  throughout  the  season  of  snow.  The 
lower  limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  at  an  altitude 
ranpring  from  8500  feet  to  9500  feet. 

The  general  winds  of  the  Alps  follow  the 
cyclonic  and  anti-cyclonic  laws,  which  give  a 
veering  through  the  south  when  the  cyclones  pass 
to  the  north,  as  they  usually  do,  and  through 
the  north  when  the  cyclones  pass  to  the  south. 
Local  winds  are  very  prevalent;  among  these  the 
mountain  and  valley  winds,  blowing  upward 
from  the  valleys  by  day  and  downward  from 
the  mountains  by  night,  are  the  most  charac- 
teristic. In  the  Central  and  Northern  Alps  occur 
these  hot,  dry  winds  called  the  fShn.  These 
are  the  result  of  descending  air  on  the  leeward 
side  of  the  mountains  after  much  of  the  mois- 
ture has  been  condensed  by  the  cold  high  up  on 
the  windward  side.  These  fShn  winds,  while 
a  source  of  discomfort  to  the  inhabitants,  are 
welcomed  in  the  spring,  for  they  clear  the  ground 
of  snow^  much  more  rapidly  than  the  sun  can  ac- 
complish it.  Such  is  the  evaporating  power  of 
the  fohn  winds  that  it  may  cause  two  feet  of 
snow  to  disappear  in  half  a  day. 

Fauna.  The  large  native  animals  of  the  Alps 
are  becoming  scarcer  and  scarcer,  by  reason 
of  the  increasing  number  of  sportsmen  and  the 
fact  that  the  exploration  habit,  which  is  here 
practiced  by  tourists  as  in  no  other  part  of  the 


world,  has  left  scarcely  a  valley  in  untrodden 
seclusion.  The  wild  cat,  the  brown  bear,  and 
the  wolf  have  been  driven  into  the  more  remote 
recesses,  and  are  gradually  becoming  rare.  The 
chamois  and  the  ibex  are  found  among  the 
higher  mountains,  the  haunts  of  the  latter  being 
among  the  inaccessible  rocky  solitudes  bordering 
on  the  snow  line.  The  pursuit  of  these  animals 
is  the  most  exciting  and  dangerous  of  European 
hunting  sports.  Foxes,  weasels,  and  Alpine 
hares  are  plentiful,  while  otters  and  ermines  are 
less  numerous.  The  badger  is  common  in  the 
lower  Alps,  but  the  marmot  is  more  distinctively 
an  Alpine  habitant,  and  it  seems  to  maintain 
its  numbers,  and  flourishes  along  with  some 
smaller  rodents  in  the  higher  altitudes  even  up 
to  the  snow  line,  the  Alpine  snow  mouse  having 
been  found  up  to  an  altitude  of  12,000  feet. 
The  birds  of  the  lower  Alps  are  very  numerous, 
consisting  of  the  adjoining  European  species,  and 
among  the  higher  mountains  are  to  be  found 
eagles,  hawks,  and  owls,  and  the  smaller  birds, 
choughs,  snow  finches,  and  larks.  The  great  1am- 
mergeyer,  once  quite  common  in  the  higher  Alps, 
has  now  become  almost  extinct.  Game  birds, 
such  as  woodcock,  grouse,  and  partridges,  are 
fairly  abundant!  Reptiles  are  not  numerous. 
The  lakes  of  the>  Alpine  region  contain  a  large 
variety  of  fishes;  trout,  salmon,  and  in  some 
localities  species  of  whitefish  being  the  most 
important.  Insects  of  all  kinds  flourish  in  the 
Alps.  Butterflies  and  beetles  are  numerous, 
and  extend  up  to  snow  altitudes.  With  increase 
of  elevation,  however,  their  colors  become  more 
and  more  subdued,  and  they  become  more  and 
more  deficient  in  wing  power,  thus  necessitating 
a  closer  contact  with  the  ground  than  prevails 
in  like  species  below. 

Flora.  The  forms  of  plant  life  of  the  Alps 
differ  with  the  altitude,  ranging  from  those  com- 
mon in  Europe,  at  lat.  46°,  to  those  typical  of 
the  arctic  regions.  The  main  subdivision  of  the 
Alpine  plant  growth  is  therefore  into  altitudinal 
zones ;  with  increase  of  altitude  there  is  a  corres- 
ponding poleward  change  in  the  flora.  The  Alpine 
slopes  are  noted  for  their  verdure  up  to  the  limits 
of  vegetation ;  at  low  altitudes  are  the  forests  and 
meadows,  while  above  these  are  the  shrub  and 
flower-decked  pastures,  which  are  such  an  im- 
portant feature  both  in  the  landscape  and  in 
local  life.  At  the  base  of  the  Alps  on  the  south 
side,  the  lemon  and  olive  flourish;  but  on  the 
whole  the  prosperous  growth  of  the  vine  may 
be  taken  as  the  most  significant  indication  of 
plant  life.  'With  the  grape  occur  the  hardy 
plants  of  Central  Europe,  grains,  and  the  princi- 
pal deciduous  trees,  oak,  beech,  ash,  sycamore, 
maple,  chestnut,  and  walnut.  These  latter  are  to 
be  found  up  to  an  altitude  of  4000  or  5000  feet, 
when  they  give  way  to  the  coniferous  trees, 
which,  while  plentiful  only  up  to  an  altitude  of 
6000  to  7000  feet,  are  in  places  found  at  still 
greater  elevations,  where  the  fir,  the  larch,  and 
the  creeping  pine  are  the  chief  species  seen, 
together  with  shrubs  of  Central  and  Northern 
Europe.  The  Alpine  roses  and  violets  are  cele- 
brated for  their  beauty.  The  typical  Alpine 
plants,  those  which  grow  above  the  tree  line,  in 
some  instances  up  to  the  region  of  eternal  snow, 
are  characterized  by  a  low,  clumpy  growth  which 
sends  forth  at  the  proper  season  flower  stalks 
which  bear  beautifully  colored  flowers.  The 
blossoms  of  many  species  have  peculiar  hairy  or 
woolly  coatings.     Gentians,  violets,  Alpine  bells. 


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ALSACE-LOBBAINE* 


edelrue,  and  the  world-famed  edelweiss  are 
among  the  beautiful  flowerine  plants  of  the  re- 
gion. Shrubs,  such  as  the  juniper,  dwarf  willow, 
and  dM'arf  rhododendron,  also  occur  in  some 
places  in  profusion.  Above  the  highest  altitude 
of  flowering  plants  and  stunted  shrub  growth, 
from  10,000  to  12,000  feet,  alg«,  mosses,  and  lich- 
ens are  the  only  vegetable  life.  There  is  not,  how- 
ever, a  uniform  flora  at  the  same  altitude  in  all 
parts  of  the  Alpine  region.  Some  species  are  in- 
deed common  in  the  appropriate  climatic  zone 
throughout  the  whole  region ;  but,  on  the-  other 
hand,  some  species  are  limited  to  the  west  Alps, 
while  others  are  peculiar  to  the  north,  south,  or 
east  Alps.  Some  of  the  arctic  plants  are  so  nar- 
rowly limited  in  distribution  as  to  be  found 
only  on  certain  mountain  groups. 

Bibliography.  The  list  of  writings  relating 
to  the  Alps  is  a  very  long  one,  and  embraces  im- 
portant works  in  all  of  the  principal  languages 
of  Western  Europe,  French,  German,  Italian,  and 
English.  In  fact,  no  other  single  region  has  been 
BO  much  written  about  from  a  geographical  point 
of  view.  For  a  detailed  knowledge  of  the  Alps, 
the  publications  of  the  various  Alpine  Clubs  offer 
the  richest  sources  of  information.  The  chief  of 
these  clubs  are:  The  English  Alpine  Club  (or- 
ganized in  1857),  publishes  The  Alpine  Journal 
(London),  Deutacher  (1869),  u.  dBterreich- 
iacher  (1862),  Alpen-Verein  (fused,  1874), 
1800  members;  Zeitschrift  dee  Deutschen  u, 
oeterreichiachen  Alpen-Vereins  and  MittheHun- 
gen  (Vienna);  Club  Alpin  Suisse  (1863),  An- 
nuaire  and  U4cho  des  Alpea  (Geneva) ;  Club 
Alpino  Italiano  (1863),  Riviata  menaile  and  Bol- 
lettino;  I)er  fSsterreichische  Touristen  -  Club 
(1869),  Oaterreicheische  Touriaten  -  Zeitung 
(Vienna)  ;  Le  Club  Alpin  Frangais  (1874),  But- 
Uiin  menauel  and  Annuaire  (Paris)  ;  Der  Verein 
der  Naturfreunde  (1877);  Der  Ssterreichesche 
Alpen-Club  (1878),  daterreichiache  Alpen-Zei- 
tung  (Vienna) ;  Le  Club  Alpin  International  & 
Nice  (1879)  ;  Der  Alpin  Club  Salzburg  (1880); 
Sannthaler  Alpin  Club  (1880);  Der  Touristen- 
Verein  Hermagor  (1882);  La  Society  degli 
Alpinisti  Triestini  (Roveredo).  For  the  best 
general  description  of  the  combined  features 
of  the  Alps,  consult  :  F.  Umlauft,  The  Alpa, 
translated  by  Louisa  Brough  (London,  1889)  ; 
T.  G.  Bonney,  The  Alpine  Regiona  of  Swit- 
zerland and  Neighboring  Countriea  (London, 
1868);  J.  Tyndail,  The  Glaciera  of  the  Alpa, 
(London,  1896)  ;  J.  Tyndail,  Houra  of  Exerciae 
in  the  Alpa  (London,  1873)  ;  Rambert,  Lea  Alpea 
Suiaaea,  6  volumes  (Geneva,  1866-74)  ;  Desor,  De 
Vorographie  dea  Alpea  (Neuchfttel,  1862)  ;  C. 
Lentheric,  U'homme  devant  lea  Alpea  (Paris, 
1896)  ;  E.  Suess,  Die  Entatehung  der  Alpen 
(Vienna,  1875);  Schaubach,  Die  deutachenAl- 
pen,  5  volumes  (Jena,  1865-71;  Studer,  Uher 
Eia  und  Schnee  (Berne,  1896);  Berlepsch,  Die 
Alpen  in  Natur-und  Lebenahildern  (Jena,  1885) ; 
No6,  Dcut aches  Alpenhuch,  6  volumes  (Glogau, 
1875-88)  ;  Scblagintweit,  Unterattchungen  fiber 
die  phyaikalische  Geographic  und  Geologic  der 
Alpen  (Leipzig,  1850-54)  ;  Tschudi,  Daa  Tierlc- 
ben  der  Alpenwelt  (Leipzig,  1892)  ;  Grube,  Al- 
penwanderungen  (Leipzig,  1886)  ;  GUssfeldt,  In 
den  Hochalpen  (Berlin,  1892)  ;  Conway,  The 
Alpa  from  End  to  End  (London,  1895)  ;  Conway 
and  (joolidge,  Climbera*  Guide  to  the  Alpa  (Lon- 
don, 1890-93),  which  contains  a  bibliography; 
Whymper,  Scramblea  Among  the  Alpa  (London, 
1893) ;  Neumayr,  Erdgeachichte  (Leipzig,  1885- 


87) ;  Suess,  Daa  Antlitz  der  Erde  (Prague,  1883- 
88). 

ALPUJABBAS,  &l'p5?y-Ha'r&s  (Ar.  al,  the -f- 
buaherat,  place  of  grass).  A  mountainous  re- 
gion in  Andalusia,  Spain,  running  parallel  to 
the  Sierra  Nevada  on  its  southern  side  (Map: 
Spain,  D  4).  It  is  remarkable  for  its  narrow, 
deep-cut,  and  romantic  valleys.  The  inhabitants 
are  in  part  of  Moorish  descent,  large  numbers  of 
Moors  having  taken  refuge  here  after  the  fall  of 
the  kingdom  of  Granada. 

AL  BAKIM,  ai  rA-kSm^  A  name  in  the 
Koran,  connected  with  the  tale  there  recounted 
of  the  "Seven  Sleepers."  It  is  commonly  under- 
stood to  apply  to  the  dog  that  guarded  the 
**Sleepers"  in  their  cave.  But  it  has  also  been 
variously  understood  to  mean  the  cave  itself,  or 
the  valley  wherein  the  cave  was  situated,  or, 
again,  the  table  set  up  over  the  entrance  of  the 
cave,  enumerating  the  names  of  the  slumbering 
occupants.    See  Seven  Sleepers. 

AI/BEDUS,  or  AI/FBED.  See  Alfbed  of 
Beverly. 

ALSACE-LOBRAINE,  Ars&snOr'r&n^  (Ger. 
Elaaaa '  Lothringen ;  Elaaaa,  ancient  Alsatia, 
from  the  river  111  -k-  Ger.  Baaae,  settler,  ten- 
ant ;  Lothringen,  the  realm  of  Lothaire,  grand- 
son of  Charlemagne).  An  imperial  territory 
{Reichaland)  occupying  the  southwestern  end 
of  the  German  Empire,  and  bounded  by  the 
Grand  Duchy  of  Luxemburg,  the  Rhine  prov- 
ince of  Prussia,  and  the  Rhine  Palatinate  on 
the  north,  Baden  on  the  east,  Switzerland  on  the 
south,  and  France  on  the  west.  Its  area  is 
6603  square  miles.  It  is  divided  into  the  dis- 
tricts of  Upper  Alsace,  Lower  Alsace,  and  Lor- 
raine, the  last  being  but  a  fragment  of  the  old 
Lorraine.  Alsace  is  bounded  by  the  Rhine  on  the 
east  and  the  Vosges  on  the  west.  By  far  the 
larger  part  of  the  country  is  flat  or  only  slightly 
elevated.  The  eastern  part  of  it  is  an  extensive 
plain,  slightly  inclined  toward  the  Rhine,  where 
it  occasionally  passes  into  swamps  and  marshes. 
The  western  part  is  traversed  by  the  Vosges, 
which  attain  their  greatest  elevation  in  Alsace, 
the  Sulzer  Belchen  (Ballon  de  Guebwiller)  ris- 
ing to  a  height  of  nearly  4700  feet  above  the  sea. 
German  Lorraine  is  a  plateau  region.  The  off- 
shoots of  the  Jura  where  they  enter  Alsace  are 
about  2500  feet  high.  Alsace-Lorraine  belongs 
entirely  to  the  basin  of  the  Rhine.  The  111,  a 
tributary  of  the  latter,  rises  at  the  southern  end 
of  Alsace  and  runs  in  a  northerly  direction 
almost  through  its  entire  length.  In  the  north, 
Alsace  is  watered  by  the  Zorn,  Moder,  and  a  few 
other  tributaries  of  the  Rhine ;  while  the  western 
part  of  Lorraine  is  crossed  by  the  Moselle.  The 
lakes  are  generally  small,  and  some  are  used  for 
irrigation  and  to  furnish  water  power.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild,  with  a  slight  difference  between 
the  plains  and  the  mountainous  regions;  the 
respective  average  summer  temperatures  of  the 
two  regions  being  61*  F.  and  58**,  and  those 
for  the  winter  being  39*  and  37*.  Strass- 
burg  has  an  average  yearly  temperature  of  50* 
while  in  Metz  it  is  about  48.5*.  The  rainfall 
is  abundant. 

Aorictjlture.  The  soil  of  the  country  is  well 
adapted  for  agriculture,  and  is  in  some  parts  ex- 
tremely fertile.  The  mountainous  re^on  is  de- 
voted almost  exclusively  to  the  cultivation  of  fruit 
and  the  vine,  which  grows  as  high  as  1300  feet 
above  the  sea.   The  southern  end  of  Upper  Alsace 


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ALPINE    VEGETATION 


SCENE   IN  THE   ROCKY   MOUNTAINS    OF    MONTANA.      Alpine  lake  and  meadow  In  foreground  ; 
spruces  and  firs  and  perpetual  snow  In  background. 


MT.  HOOD,  OREGON,  SHOWING  OSCILLATIONS  OF  THE  TIMBER  LINE.     The  trees,  nnostly  moun- 
tain pines  and  hemlocks,  advance  farther  up  on  the  ridges  than  in  the  valleys. 


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is  considered  the  most  fertile  part  of  the  country, 
in  contrast  to  the  northern  part  of  Lorraine, 
where  the  stony  nature  of  the  ground  renders  it 
unfit  for  agricultural  purposes.  About  48  per 
cent,  of  the  land  is  under  tillage,  over  30  per 
cent,  under  forests,  nearly  13  per  cent,  in  mead- 
ows, and  about  2.3  per  cent,  in  vineyards.  The 
land  is  divided  into  very  small  holdings,  only 
about  2  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  being  in  estat^ 
of  over  fifty  acres  each.  Wheat,  rye,  barley,  and 
oats  are  the  chief  grains.  Potatoes  and  sugar 
beets,  as  well  as  hay  and  hops,  are  produced  in 
large  quantities.  The  cultivation  of  tobacco  is 
still  very  important,  although  it  has  been  declin- 
ing of  late.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  is  car- 
ried on  more  extensively  than  in  any  other  sec- 
tion of  the  German  Empire.  .41sace  produces 
chiefly  white  wines,  while  Lorraine  yields  exclu- 
sively red  wines.  The  value  of  the  annual  out- 
put is  about  18,000,000  marks  ($4,284,000) .  The 
forests  of  Alsace-Lorraine  consist  largely  of  foli- 
aceous  trees,  and  are  owned  to  a  considerable 
extent  by  the  communities. 

Mining.  Alsace-Lorraine  occupies  at  present 
the  first  rank  among  the  iron  producing  coun- 
tries of  the  German  Empire.  The  growth  of  iron 
mining  has  been  very  rapid  for  the  last  decade, 
and,  while  in  1892  the  production  of  iron  ore  in 
Prussia  exceeded  the  output  of  Alsace-Lorraine 
by  about  500,000  tons,  in  1899  the  latter  pro- 
duced over  1,600,000  tons  more  than  Prussia. 
The  centre  ojf  iron  mining  is  at  the  western 
end  of  Lorraine,  near  the  frontier  of  Luxem- 
burg, where  the  highlands  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Moselle  contain  vast  deposits  of  iron  and 
some  phosphate.  Coal  is  mined  principally  in 
the  Vosges,  and  the  annual  product  exceeds  one 
million  tons.  The  output  of  salt  is  considerable, 
amounting  to  about  one-tenth  of  the  total  pro- 
duction of  the  German  Empire. 

^L\NrFACTURE8.  Among  the  manufacturing 
industries  of  Alsace-Lorraine  the  production  of 
textiles  occupies  the  chief  place,  employing  about 
one-third  of  the  total  population  engaged  in  in- 
dustrial pursuits.  Cotton  weaving  has  been  car- 
ried on  extensively  in  Alsace-Lorraine  since  the 
middle  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  is  at  pres- 
ent considered  the  most  important  among  the 
manufacturing  industries.  The  production  of 
textiles  is  carried  on  chiefly  at  Mttlhausen,  Kol- 
mar,  and  along  the  numerous  streams,  which  are 
utilized  largely  for  industrial  purposes.  The  pro- 
duction of  woolens  and  yarns  is  very  extensively 
developed  in  Lower  Alsace.  Linen  and  silk  weav- 
ing establishments  are  also  numerous.  To  a 
certain  extent  the  production  of  textiles  is  still 
carried  on  as  a  house  industry,  especially  in 
Lower  Alsace.  The  iron  and  steel  industry  is 
next  to  the  textile  in  importance.  There  are  ex- 
tensive foundries,  machine  shops,  tool  factories, 
and  numerous  other  plants  for  the  production  of 
various  iron  products.  The  value  of  the  annual 
output  of  the  mills  and  foundries  amounts  to 
nearly  $40,000,000.  Breweries  and  distilleries 
are  numerous,  but  supply  chiefly  local  demand. 

Tbansportation  and  Trade.  The  transporta- 
tion facilities  of  the  Reichsland  are  not  behind 
its  industries.  There  are  over  5000  miles  of 
highways,  nearly  one  mile  of  road  to  one  square 
mile  of  territory.  Of  railway  lines  it  has  about 
1100  miles,  or  nearly  20  miles  for  every  100 
square  miles  of  territory,  about  the  same  as 
in  the  State  of  Illinois.  The  canal  system  of  Al- 
sace-Lorraine is  one  of  the  best  in  the  Empire, 
Vol.  L-ae 


and  the  Government  expends  large  sums  on  its 
maintenance  and  constant  extension. 

Government.  The  supreme  executive  author- 
ity in  Alsace-Lorraine  is  the  Grerman  Emperor, 
who,  prior  to  the  introduction  of  the  German  con- 
stitution in  1874,  had  also  the  right  of  enacting 
laws  for  the  Reichsland,  with  the  consent  of  the 
Bundesrath.  At  the  head  of  the  administration 
is  the  Statthalter,  appointed  by  the  Emperor,  and 
assisted  by  a  ministry  divided  into  four  depart- 
ments, and  a  Council  of  State.  The  latter  is  pre- 
sided  over  by  the  Statthalter,  and  consists  of  the 
Secretary  of  State  and  a  few  other  officials,  be- 
sides a  number  of  members  appointed  by  the  Em- 
peror. The  three  districts  of  Lower  and  Upper 
Alsace  and  Lorraine  are  administered  by  presi- 
dents and  councils,  in  which  all  the  constituent 
cantons  of  the  districts  are  represented.  The 
Provincial  Committee,  or  Landesausschuas,  con- 
sists of  58  members,  elected  indirectly  for  a 
period  of  three  years,  34  by  the  three  district 
councils,  4  by  the  municipal  councils  of  Strass- 
burg,  Metz,  Kolmar,  and  MUlhausen,  and  20  by 
the  communal  councils.  In  the  Bundesrath  Al- 
sace-Lorraine is  represented  by  two  commission- 
ers, whose  functions,  however,  'are  only  advisory. 
The  revenue  is  obtained  chiefly  from  direct  and 
indirect  taxes,  customs,  and  state  forests.  The 
budget  balanced  in  1900  at  over  60,000,000  marks 
($14,280,000).  The  public  schools  are  under  the 
supervision  of  the  school  board,  presided  over  by 
the  Secretary  of  State.  Since  the  Grerman  occu- 
pation the  proportion  of  illiterates  has  dimin- 
ished considerably.  Education  is  still  controlled 
to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  Church,  as  evi- 
denced by  the  fact  that  over  27  per  cent,  oi  the 
teaching  staff  consists  of  clergymen  and  persons 
belonging  to  religious  orders.  Alsace-Lorraine 
contains  one  university,  that  of  Strassburg. 
The  population  of  Alsace-Lorraine  in  1900  was 
1,717,451,  showing  an  increase  of  over  7  per 
cent,  since  1890,  and  making  Alsace-Lorraine  one 
of  the  most  densely  populated  sections  in  Ger- 
many. Over  76  per  cent,  of  the  people  are  Bx>man 
Catholics,  nearly  23  per  cent.  Protestants,  and 
less  than  one  per  cent.  Jews.  Strassburg,  the 
capital,  has  a  population  of  over  150,000. 

History.  Originally  a  part  of  Roman  Gaul 
and  inhabited  by  Celtic  tribes,  the  region 
now  known  as  Alsace  was  overrun  by  the  Ger- 
manic nations  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, and  was  ultimately  brought  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Franks.  The  Teutonic  invaders 
supplanted,  to  a  great  extent,  the  old  Celtic  in- 
habitants, and  by  the  tenth  century  the  country 
had  become  thoroughly  Germanized.  After  the 
partition  of  the  Prankish  Empire,  Alsace  was 
held  by  the  dukes  of  Suabia  and  later  by  the 
Hapsburgs,  under  whose  rule  it  enjoyed  pros- 
perity. Rich  and  powerful  towns,  chief  among 
them'  Strassburg  and  Kolmar,  sprang  up,  and 
attained,  in  the  course  of  time,  a  very  large 
degree  of  self-government,  entering  frequently 
into  treaty  relations  with  other  cities  of  the 
empire,  and  partaking  fully  in  the  intellectual 
and  spiritual  life  of  the  German  people.  French 
ambition  was  directed  toward  Lorraine  as  early 
as  the  fourteenth  century,  though  no  serious  at- 
tempt at  conquest  was  made  till  1552,  when 
Henry  II.  took  possession  of  !Metz,  Toul,  and 
Verdun.  In  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648, 
the  Hapsburgs  (as  rulers  of  Austria)  ceded 
their  territories  in  Alsace  to  France.  Louis 
XIV.  subsequently  seized  the  numerous  free  cities 


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402 


ALSTBCEMEBIA. 


of  Alsace.  Kolmar  was  incorporated  with 
France  in  1680  and  Strassburg  m  1681.  The 
Treaty  of  Ryswick  (1697)  confirmed  France  in 
pos«^ession  of  Alsace. 

Systematic  attempts  to  assimilate  the  inhabi- 
tants, who  were  mainly  of  Germanic  stock,  with 
the  French  were  made  by  the  Government,  but 
met  with  no  success  until  the  Revolution,  when, 
in  the  general  overthrow  of  feudalism,  Germans 
and  French  were  drawn  together  by  the  common 
ideal  of  democracy.  The  French  spirit  pene- 
trated deeply  into  the  upper  and  middle  classes, 
and  even  the  mass  of  the  population  was  recon- 
ciled to  French  rule.  When  war,  therefore,  be- 
tween France  and  Prussia  broke  out  in  1870,  those 
natives  of  Alsace  who  did  not  side  zealously  with 
France  remained  neutral.  In  I^rraine  occurred 
some  of  the  most  decisive  battles  of  the  war, 
Gravelotte,  and  Vionville,  and  the  siege  of  Metz. 
The  surrender  of  Alsace  and  a  part  of  Lorraine 
was  made  the  principal  condition  of  peace  by 
Prince  Bismarck,  who  acted  in  this  as  the  expo- 
nent of  a  widespread  spirit  in  Germany,  which 
demanded  the  recovery  of  the  ancient  Germanic 
borderland.  Alsace  (\vith  the  exception  of  the 
district  of  Belfort),  and  the  part  of  Lorraine 
where  the  French  language  had  not  supplanted 
the  German,  became  a  part  of  the  newly  founded 
empire,  and  were  put  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  Emperor.  The  attempt  to  win  back  the  peo- 
ple to  German  infiuences  was  greatly  hampered 
by  the  vehement  opposition  of  the  Gallicized  up- 
per classes  and  the  clergy,  and  the  civil  adminis- 
tration was  brought  almost  to  a  standstill  for  a 
number  of  years  by  the  refusal  of  the  men 
elected  to  the  district  and  provincial  councils 
to  take  the  oath  of  loyalty  and  perform  their 
functions;  the  representatives  to  the  Reichsrath 
were,  for  the  most  part,  French  irreconcilables. 
In  1872  the  German  government  called  upon  the 
inhabitants  to  declare  themselves  either  German 
citizens  or  French.  IMore  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  thousand  expressed  their  adherence  to 
France,  and  of  these  nearly  fifty  thousand  re- 
moved across  the  border.  On  the  part  of  the 
German  authorities  a  policy  of  severity  approach- 
ing military  rule  was  tried  in  alternation  with 
one  of  mildness  and  concession,  and  for  a  long 
time  both  proved  equally  ineffective.  The  Grer- 
nianization  of  the  provinces  has  steadily  been 
aimed  at,  however,  in  acts  making  the  study  of 
the  German  language  compulsory  in  the  public 
schools,  and  the  use  of  it  obligatory  in  the 
courts  and  legislative  bodies;  in  the  suppression 
of  French  radical  newspapers,  and  in  the  est-ab- 
lishnient  of  higher  schools  of  learning  under  Ger- 
man control.  After  1890  the  prospect  of  an  ul- 
timate reconciliation  became  brighter;  a  loyalist 
party  appeared  which  wielded  some  influence  in 
the  elections.  In  proportion  as  the  spirit  of 
rcimnche  grew  weaker  in  France,  and  the  per- 
manent retention  of  the  provinces  by  Germany 
became  more  assured,  the  opposition  of  French 
sympathizers  in  Alsace-Lorraine  subsided. 

'  Consult:  H.  Witte,  Zur  Ocschichte  des 
Deutschthums  im  Elsnsa  und  im  Vogesengebiet 

(Strassburg,  1897);  Handhuch  filr  Elsass-Loth- 
ringen  (Strassburg,  1898)  ;  H.  Derichsweiler, 
Oeschichte  Lofhringens   (Wiesbaden,  1901). 

ALSA^IA..  The  popular  name  of  Whitefri- 
ars,  Ijondon,  which  served  early  in  the  seven- 
teenth century  as  a  refuge  for  criminals ;  but  this 
immunity  was  abolished  by  Parliament  in  1697. 
See  the  account  in  Scott^s  Fortunes  of  Nigel. 


ALSENy  'AVaen  (Dan.  Ala),  An  island  in  the 
Baltic  belonging  to  the  Prussian  province  of 
Schleswig-Holstcin,  and  separated  from  the  main- 
land by  the  Sound  of  Alsen  (Map;  Prussia,  CI). 
Its  greatest  length  is  nearly  20  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  about  12  miles.  The  island  is  very  pic- 
turesque in  appearance,  with  a  fertile  soil.  Its 
lakes  have  fish,  and  it  is  famous  for  its  apples, 
which  constitute  an  important  article  of  com- 
merce. The  chief  towns  are  Sonderburg  and 
Nordburg,  the  former  well  fortified  and  with  an 
excellent  harbor.  Close  to  the  harbor  are  the 
ruins  of  an  old  and  famous  castle,  in  which 
Christian  II.,  of  Denmark  and  Norway,  was  con- 
fined from  1532  to  1549.  In  the  war  of  1864 
Alsen  was  taken  by  the  Prussians  from  the 
Danes. 

AL  SIRAT.  The  bridge  from  this  world  to 
the  Mohammedan  paradise,  as  narrow  as  a  ra- 
zor's edge,  on  which  the  virtuous  pass  rapidly  to 
paradise,  while  the  wicked,  burdened  with  their 
sins,  fall  into  the  abyss  of  hell  beneath. 

ALSOP,  ftl^sdp,  RiCHABD  (176I-I815).  An 
American  author,  born  in  Middletown,  Conn.  Be- 
fore he  finished  his  course  at  Yale  College,  he 
went  into  business.  His  literary  tastes  caused 
him  to  join  the  "Hartford  Wits,"  and  later  he 
became  the  principal  contributor  to  the  EchOj  a 
satirical  publication  (1791-95).  His  works  in- 
clude a  Monody  on  the  Death  of  Washingtofif 
in  heroic  verse  (1800)  ;  The  Enchanted  Lake  of 
the  Fairy  Morgana  (1808)  ;  a  translation  of  a 
portion  of  Orlando  Innamorato,  and  the  Captivi- 
ty and  Adventures  of  J,  R,  Jewett  among  the 
Savages  of  Noatka  Sound  (1815).  Alsop  was 
an  accomplished  linguist. 

ALSTED,  aKstet,  JoHANN  Heinbich  (1588- 
1638).  A  German  Protestant  divine  and  volu- 
minous writer,  professor  of  philosophy  and  divin- 
ity at  Herborn.  He  was  born  in  Ballersbach, 
near  Herborn,  and  died  at  Weissenburg,  Tran- 
sylvania. Of  his  voluminous  compilations  may 
be  mentioned  his  Cursus  Philosophixn  Encyclo- 
paedia, which  includes  a  treatise  on  the  use  and 
abuse  of  tobacco,  particularly  noteworthy  from 
its  date,  Thesaurus  Chronologice,  and  De  Mille 
Annis,  The  latter  was  a  prophecy  that  the  thou- 
sand years,  or  millenium,  during  which  the 
saints  were  to  reign  on  the  earth,  would  com- 
mence in  1694. 

ALSTBCEMEB,  'AVstr^-mer,  Elas  vox  ( 1736- 
94).  A  Swedish  naturalist.  He  had  for  his 
master  and  friend  Linnaeus,  who  named  in  his 
honor  the  genus  Alstroemeria.  He  visited  Spain 
and  wrote  a  work  on  the  breeding  of  fine-wooled 
sheep. 

AL'STBCEME'Br^  or  ALSTBCEMEB'S 
LILY  (Named  after  the  Swedish  botanist, 
Klas  Alstrcemer).  A  genus  of  South  American 
plants  of  the  natural  order  Amaryllidacee,  which 
is  distinguished  by  tuberous  roots  and  by  often 
having  the  outer  segments  of  the  perianth  dif- 
ferent in  form  from  the  inner.  The  leaves  are 
twisted,  so  that  what  should  be  the  upper  sur- 
face becomes  the  lower.  The  species  number 
about  60,  and  are  natives  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  America.  Some  are  sufficiently  hardy  to 
endure  the  open  air  in  England,  and  as  far  north 
as  Virginia  in  the  United  States,  and  are  ad- 
mired ornaments  of  flower-gardens.  Some  have 
climbing  or  twining  stems.  Among  these  is  the 
Salsilla  {Alstrormeiia  salsilla) ,  a  plant  of  great 
beauty,  with  lanceolate  leaves,  a  native  of  Peru, 


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ALTAB. 


cultivated  in  the  West  Indies,  the  tubers  of 
which  are  eaten  like  those  of  the  potato.  In 
Great  Britain  it  requires  the  hothouse.  Alstroe- 
meria  ovata,  also  a  beautiful  plant,  with  a  slen- 
der, tiivining  stem  and  ovate  leaves,  is  cultivated 
in  Chile  for  its  tubers,  which  are  used  as  food. 
It  has  been  introduced  into  Great  Britain,  but 
its  cultivation  has  made  little  progress.  The 
tubers  weigh  from  three  to  six  ounces.  A  kind 
of  arrowroot  is  also  prepared  in  Chile  from 
the  succulent  roots  of  Alstroemeria  pallida  and 
other  species.  One  of  the  finest  species  for 
greenhouse  growing  is  Alstroemeria  alba. 

ALT,  alt,  or  ALTEN,  fiVten  (Ger.  old).  A 
prefix  to  many  names  in  Europe,  as  Altdorf  (alt- 
dorf),  old  village. 

ALTABAN,  fil'tA-ban^  or  ALTASAN,  hVtk- 
slln'.  A  head-hunting  tribe  in  Nueva  Vizcaya 
province,  Luzon.     See  Philippines. 

ALTAI  (al-ti')  MOUNTAINS  (Tatar,  gold- 
en  mountains,  from  altun,  altaUy  golden;  Chin. 
keen'Shatij  same  meaning).    A  mountain  range 
of  Central  Asia  forming  part  of  the  elevated  re- 
gion on  the  borders  of  Siberia  and  the  Chinese 
Empire.     The  name  formerly  had  a  much  wider 
significance,  and  included  the  entire  line  of  high- 
lands from  the  Irtysh  River  to  the  Okhotsk  Sea, 
which  is  composed  of  several  structurally  inde- 
pendent units ;  but  it  is  now  limited  to  the  much 
smaller  group  lying  on  the  borders  of  Mongolia, 
Sungaria,  and  Siberia,  and  between  about  45* 
and  54°  N.  latitude.     The  range  has  a  general 
northwest  and  southeast  trend,  nearly  at  right 
angles  to  that  of  the  larger  system.     The  Altai 
Mountains  begin  on  the  southeast  with  the  Ektag 
range  (Greater  Altai),  in  the  region  of  the  Gobi 
Desert,   and   for   some  distance   they  form   the 
boundary  between  Mongolia  and  Sungaria.    To- 
ward   the    northwest,    the    range    increases    in 
breadth  by  the  converging  of  outlying  mountains, 
and  also  in  height,  but  after  passing  the  Siberian 
frontier  it  gradually  loses  its  massive  character 
and  fades  out  into  the  steppes.     On  the  slopes 
of  the  Ektag  are  the  sources  of  the  Black  Irtysh, 
Kobdo,  and  Urungu  rivers.     North  of  this  range 
and  across  the  valley  of  the  Bukharma  River  are 
several  mountainous  groups  which  constitute  the 
Northern  Altai.    The  latter  are  arranged  along 
an  axis  parallel  to  that  of  the  Ektag  range,  and 
attain  an  extreme  elevation  of  over  10,000  feet 
in    Mount   Byelukha    (White   Mountain).    The 
Tarbagatai  group,  further  west,  may  also  be  in- 
cluded  with   the  Altai  range.    This  group  be- 
gins in  Sungaria  and  reaches  across  the  SilneriaiL 
frontier,  where  it  is  continued  by  the  Tschun- 
gistan  Mountains  into  the  region  of  the  Khirgis 
steppes.      Geologically,   the   Altai   consist  of   a 
central    core    of    schists    and    granite    broken 
through   by  intrusions   of  igneous   rocks,   with 
Paleozoic  strata  ranging  from  the  Silurian  into 
Carboniferous  on  the  outer  edges.    As  the  moun- 
tains were  formed  by  upheaval  at  an  early  geo- 
logical period,  they  have  been  subjected  to  long- 
continued  denudation  and  erosion.    Their  crests, 
of  which  only  the  highest  rise  above  the  snow 
line,  are  generally  well  rounded,  and  their  slopes 
are  covered  with  a  rich  growth  of  grass,  or  with 
heavy  forests  of  pine,  cedar,  and  birch.    Deer, 
hares,  and  wolves  abound  in  the  lower  and  bears 
in  the  higher  portions  of  the  range.     The  moun- 
tains are  but  thinly  populated,  except  within  the 
limits  of  the  Russian  Altai,  where  there  is  a  well- 
developed  mihing  industry. 


ALTAIC,  and  U'BAL  ALTAIC.  Terms 
used  of  a  family  of  languages  in  parts  of  north- 
ern, eastern,  and  central  Europe  and  the  greater 
part  of  northern  and  eastern  Asia,  besides  still 
other  sections.  See  Ubal-Altaic,  and  Tura- 
nian. 

ALTAHAHA,  ftl'tA-mA-hft'.  A  river  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  the  Oconee  and  Ocmulgee 
rivers,  at  the  boundary  line  of  Montgomery  and 
Appling  counties,  Georgia,  and  flowing  southeast, 
emptying  into  the  sound  of  the  same  name,  near 
Darien  (Map:  Georgia,  E  4).  It  is  155  miles 
long,  drains  an  area  of  14,400  square  miles,  and 
is  navigable  for  its  entire  length  for  boats  draw- 
ing five  feet  of  water. 

AL^TAMONT.  1.  A  character  in  Rowe*s  play. 
The  Fair  Penitent  (q.v.)  ;  the  husband  of  Calista 
the  heroine  and  slayer  of  Lothario,  who  has 
seduced  her. 

2.  In  Thackeray's  Pendennis,  a  name  assumed 
by  the  convict  Amory  on  his  return;  the  father 
of  Blanche  Amory  (q.v.). 

ALTATVrONT,  Frederick.  In  Scott's  novel 
The  Pirate,  the  assumed  name  of  the  pirate  John 
Bunce. 

ALTAMXJ&A,  HVtk'mJSS^rh,  An  episcopal 
city  of  Italy,  60  miles  northwest  of  Tarentum 
(Map:  Italy,  L  7).  It  is  beautifully  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  and  has  a  magni- 
ficent cathedral,  founded  by  Frederick  II.,  and 
decorated  with  beautiful  paintings.  The  country 
produces  oil,  wine,  grain,  and  cattle,  and  the 
fairs  at  Altamura  are  attended  from  far  and 
near.     Pop.,  1881,  20,000;  1901,  22,729. 

AL^AB  (Lat.  altare  or  altar,  probably  origi- 
nally a  high  place,  from  altiLs,  high).  The  place 
on  which  sacrifices  were  made  or  offerings  laid 
or  libations  poured  or  some  other  act  of  worship 
performed.  Altars  were  in  use  from  the  earliest 
times  among  the  Babylonians,  the  Egyptians,  and 
later  peoples.  Some  of  those  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament  are  among  the  earliest  of  which 
descriptions  are  recorded.  The  British  Museum 
has  several  Assyrian  marble  altars  highly  deco- 
rated ;  one  triangular,  another  oblong,  with  scrolls 
that  call  to  mind  the  expression  "horns  of  the 
altar,"  which  is  literally  carried  out  in  many 
Graeco-Roman  altars  with  ox-horns  or  ram-horns 
at  the  corners.  The  altar  was  primitively  of 
two  classes:  Either  (1)  placed  on  some  height 
and  often  nothing  but  a  mound  of  earth  or  a  heap 
of  stones  or  of  ashes;  or  else  (2)  the  family 
altar  connected  irith  each  dwelling,  in  front  of 
the  entrance.  This  was  smaller,  permanent,  and 
more  artistic.  Then  came  the  altars  connected 
with  temples,  either  in  the  outer  air,  in  front  of 
the  temple  steps,  or  within.  The  great  public 
altars  of  Grseco-Roman  worship  in  historic  times, 
at  which  whole  hecatombs  were  sacrificed,  and 
great  festivals  held,  developed  into  immense  ar- 
tistic monuments,  as  for  example  that  of  Hiero 
at  Syracuse,  that  of  Hera  at  Samos,  of  Apollo 
at  Delphi,  and  of  Zeus  at  Olympia;  the  last- 
named  was  12.5  feet  in  circumference.  The 
famous  altar  at  Pergamus,  with  sculptures 
representing  the  combat  of  the  gods  and  the 
giants,  was  40  feet  high.  Probably  such  altars 
and  their  platforms  are  derived  from  the  early 
Pelasgic  altars  that  stood  on  an  immense  three- 
stepped  platform,  and  were  the  one  centre  of 
worship;  for  the  Pelasgians  had  few  temples. 
The  Romans  also  used  such  colossal  and  artistic 


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ALTDOBFEB. 


altars,  especially  to  consecrate  imperial  wor- 
ship:  there  was  one  for  Spain  and  one  for  Gaul 
(at  Lyons),  with  an  abundance  of  statuary  and 
decoration,  where  the  Spanish  and  Gallic  councils 
met  annually  and  proclaimed  their  political  alle- 
giance. The  Altar  of  Peace,  with  its  sculptured 
friezes,  erected  in  honor  of  Augustus,  at  Rome, 
to  celebrate  the  pacification  of  the  w^orld,  was 
one  of  the  artistic  masterpieces  of  the  Augustan 
reign.  Of  the  smaller  altars  and  tables  of  offer- 
ings, hundreds  were  erected  in  every  city,  not 
only  in  connection  with  the  temples,  but  also  in 
shrines  and  chapels  and  throughout  the  streets: 
they  are  among  the  finest  pieces  of  Grtpco-Roman 
decoration,  and  are  of  all  shapes — circular,  poly- 
gonal, square  or  oblong.  Usually  each  was  con- 
secrated to  a  single  g(S  or  hero.  Of  course,  the 
use  to  which  the  altar  was  put  influenced  its 
form:  according  as  it  was  for  incense  or  sacred 
fire,  for  libations,  for  fruits,  flowers,  or  the  like, 
or  for  bloody  sacrifices. 

In  the  Christian  Church  the  altar  was  quite 
different  in  its  suggestions.  All  reminiscence 
of  heathen  altars  was  abhorrent.  The  marble 
sarcophagi  in  which  were  buried  the  bodies  of 
martyrs  m  the  catacombs  were  among  the  earli- 
est altars,  except,  indeed,  plain  wooden  tables 
which  developed  into  marble  slabs  with  one  or 
more  legs.  Only  a  single  altar  was  allowed  in 
each  church — none  outside — ^and  it  was  always 
erected  over  the  relics  of  a  martyr.  As  early 
as  the  fifth  century,  precious  metals  came  into 
use  for  altars.  The  great  variety  of  shape  in 
pagan  times  was  reduced  to  one — ^moderately  ob- 
long. The  altar  was  placed  in  the  axis  of  the 
church,  just  outside  the  radius  of  the  apse,  or 
in  the  middle  of  the  transept,  if  there  was  one. 
Beneath  it  was  the  confession  (see  Confession) 
for  the  relics  of  the  saint,  which  afterward  de- 
veloped into  the  crypt.  (See  Crypt.)  Above  it 
rose  a  tabernacle,  canopy,  or  ciborium.  (See 
Cibobium.)  The  structure  of  the  altar  itself  was 
rarely  ornamented,  though  in  Italy  the  faces  were 
often  inlaid  with  marbles  and  mosaics.  Neverthe- 
less the  altar  usually  had  a  number  of  ar- 
tistic accessories  that  must  be  mentioned  to  give 
an  idea  of  its  appearance.  Altar-front  was  a  deco- 
ration for  the  front  and  sometimes  for  the  other 
sides  of  the  altar,  not  merely  when  the  structure 
was  a  slab  supported  on  legs,  but  even  if  it  were 
solid.  It  was  sometimes  in  the  shape  of  a  rich 
hanging;  sometimes  it  was  a  relief  of  gold,  silver 
gilt,  enamel,  or  silver.  Famous  mediseval  altar 
fronts  are  at  the  Clugny  Museum  (from  Basel), 
Paris;  at  St.  Mark's,  Venice;  at  Sant'  Ambrogio, 
Milan;  at  San  Jacopo,  Pistoia.  Altar-piece  is 
used  as  a  decoration  placed  on  top  of  the  altar, 
a  custom  that  did  not  come  into  use  until  the 
Middle  Ages,  when  the  altar  was  made  to  face 
the  people  and  not  the  apse,  and  when  altars 
against  the  wall  were  multiplied.  Some  altar- 
pieces,  complements  to  the  altar-fronts,  were  of 
precious  metals,  as  at  Venice  (St.  Mark's),  and 
at  Pistoia  (San  Jacopo),  but  usually  they  were 
devotional  pictures,  preferably  in  the  form  of 
triptych s,  or  even  groups  of  sculpture,  or  a  sculp- 
tured tabernacle.  Altar-screen  is  often  connected 
with  the  confession  and  its  staircase.  In  early 
churches  it  was  surmounted  by  sculpture,  and 
hardly  distiniruishable  from  an  altar-rail.  Con- 
sult Rohault  de  Fleury,  La  Mesae  (Paris,  1883). 

ALTABOCHE,  ftl't&'rdsh',  Marie  Michel 
(1811-84).  A  French  playwright  and  journalist, 
born  at  Issoire.     From  1834  to  1848  he  was  edi- 


tor-in-chief of  Charivari,  the  influence  of  which 
was  increased  by  his  political  satires  and  his 
general  wit  and  acumen.  He  was  elected  to  the 
Assembly  in  1848  but  retired  the  following  year, 
and  from  that  time  was  successively  manager 
of  the  Odfion,  Folies  Nouvelles,  and  other  theat- 
rical enterprises.  He  wrote  Chansotta  et  vers 
politiques  (1835),  Contes  democratiques  (1837), 
Aventurea  de  Victor  Augerol  ( 1838) ,  and  the  fol- 
lowing plays:  Lestocq  ou  le  retour  dc  Sihcric 
( 1836 ) ,  and  Le  Corr6gidor  de  Pampelune  ( 1843 ) . 

ALTAZ^IMUTU    {altitude   +   azimuth;  see 
Azimuth).     An  astronomical  instrument,  vised 
for  determining  the  position  on  the  sky  of  stars 
or  other  heavenly  bodies  by  measuring  their  alti- 
tude and  azimuth.     (The  altitude  of  a  star  is 
its  angular  distance  above  the  horizon,  meas- 
ured on  a  great  vertical  circle  of  the  sky,  perpen- 
dicular  to  the    horizon    and   passing    through 
the  star  and  the  zenith,  or  point  directly  over- 
head.   The  azimuth  of  a  star  is  the  angular  dis- 
tance, measured  on  the  horizon,  from  the  south 
point  of  the  latter  to  the  foot  of  the  vertical 
circle  upon  which  the    altitude  is    measured). 
The  altazimuth  instrument  has  two  brass  circles, 
one  with  its  plane  horizontal,  the  other  with  it^j 
plane  vertical,  and  a  telescope  is  attached  to  the 
circles.     When  this  is  directed  so   that  a  star 
appears  at  the  intersection  of  a  pair  of  crossed 
threads  fixed  in  the  field  of  view,  it  is  possible  to 
read  the  star's  altitude  and  azimuth  from  the 
graduations  engraved  on  the  two  circles.     Being 
of  considerable  complexity,  the  instrument  does 
not  give  results  of  a  precision  quite    equal  to 
those  obtained  with  the  meridian  circle;  and  for 
this  reason  it  is  employed  chiefly  in  its  portable 
form  when  observations  must  be  made  at  tem- 
porary observatories,  such  as  eclipse  expeditive 
stations.     It  is  in  use,  however,  at  Greenwich, 
for  observing  the  moon  on  nights  when  it  is  not 
possible  to  observe  that  body  in  the  meridian. 

ALTDOBF,  alt'dOrf,  or  ALTOBF.  The  cap 
ital  of  the  Swiss  canton  of  Uri,  situated  in  a 
sheltered  spot  at  the  base  of  the  Grunberg,  about 
2  miles  east  of  the  lake  of  Lucerne  (Map:  Swit- 
zerland, C  2).  It  lies  1475  feet  above  sea  level, 
and  is  a  well  built  town,  having  several  open 
places,  a  church,  a  nunnery,  and  the  oldest  Ca- 
puchin monastery  in  Switzerland,  built  in  1581. 
The  town  is  connected  with  the  Tell  legend — for 
Tell  is  said  to  have  lived  near  by — and  Tell 
dramas  are  still  played  here.  The  spot  where 
his  son  stood  to  be  shot  at  is  marked  by  a  bronze 
statue  of  father  and  child,  by  Kissling,  erected 
in  1895.  Southeast  about  1^  miles  is  the  en- 
trance to  the  Schachenthal.    Pop.,  3000. 

ALTDOBFEB,  ait'd(>r-f§r,  Albrecht  (1480- 
1538 ) .  A  Bavarian  painter  and  engraver  on  cop- 
per and  wood.  He  was  born  at  Altdorf.  His 
compositions  represent  the  fantastic  and  roman- 
tic spirit  of  German  life  at  his  period.  He  took 
infinite  pains  in  placing  his  numerous  figures  on 
canvas.  In  his  celebrated  picture,  the  "Victory 
of  Alexander  at  Arbela,"  the  design  is  purely 
(rothic,  but  the  figures  are  arrayed  in  the  cos- 
tumes of  1529,  the  year  in  which  the  picture 
was  painted.  The  execution  of  this  masterpiece 
impressed  Napoleon  so  strongly  that  he  caused 
the  work  to  be  brought  to  Paris  and  placed  in 
St.  Cloud.  It  was  returned  to  Bavaria  in  1815. 
and  is  now  in  the  Pinakothek,  Munich,  which  also 
contains  Altdorfer's  "History  of  Susannah." 
His  "Adoration  of  the  Shepherds" '  is  in  the  col- 


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ALTERATION. 


lection  of  the  Historical  Society  at  Ratisbon. 
An  important  picture  by  Altdorfer  in  England  is 
"Christ  Parting  From  the  Virgin."  He  died  at 
Ratisbon.  Consult:  H.  J.  W.  Buxton  and  E.  J. 
Poynter,  Oerman,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  Painting 
(London,  1881);  A.  O.  Radcliffe,  Schools  and 
Masters  of  Painting  (New  York,  1898);  C.  E. 
Clement,  Painters,  Sculptors,  Architects,  and  En- 
gravers (Boston,  1899). 

ALTEAy  kl'Wk.  A  seaport  toAvn  of  Valencia, 
Spain,  in  the  province  of  Alicante,  25  miles 
northeast  of  Alicante  (Map:  Spain,  F  3).  It 
stands  on  a  rising  gi'ound  at  the  head  of  a  bay. 
It  is  known  for  its  exports  of  raisins,  and  has  a 
lighthouse  on  the  bay.     Pop.,  1900,  6179. 

ALTEN,  IkVien,  A  portion  of  the  province  of 
Finmarken,  in  northern  Norway,  surrounding  the 
Altenfjord.  It  consists  of  fertile  tracts,  where, 
in  spite  of  the  high  latitude,  much  grain  is 
grown. 

ALTEKy  al'ten,  Kabl  August,  Count  of 
(1764-1840).  A  celebrated  Hanoverian  general 
in  the  Napoleonic  wars.  He  entered  the 
army  in  1781,  and  gained  distinction  at  Valen- 
ciennes and  Hondschooten.  He  was  first  lieu- 
tenant in  1800,  but  after  the  capitulation  at 
Lauenburg  went  to  England,  where  he  was  made 
commander  of  a  battalion  in  the  German  Legion 
(1803).  In  1808  he  assisted  as  general  of  bri- 
gade in  covering  the  retreat  of  General  Moore  to 
Corunna.  In  1811  he  took  part  under  General 
Beresford  in  the  siege  of  Badajoz  and  the  battle 
of  Albuera,  and  in  the  following  year  was  pro- 
moted by  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  In  almost 
all  the  engagements  of  the  Spanish  war  of  libera- 
tion— at  Salamanca,  Vitoria,  in  the  Pyrenees, 
Nivelle,  Nive,  Orthez,  Toulouse — Alten  took  a 
prominent  part.  At  Waterloo  he  held  La  Haye- 
Sainte  for  hours  against  the  French.  He  com- 
manded the  Hanoverian  contingent  of  the  army 
of  occupation  in  France  (1818),  and  after  his 
return  to  Hanover  was  made  Minister  of  War. 

AXTEKA,  aKtA-nft.  A  town  of  Westphalia, 
Prussia,  in  the  district  of  Arnsberg,  on  the 
Lenne,  40  miles  northeast  of  Cologne  (Map: 
Prussia,  B  3).  The  town  possesses  several 
churches  and  the  ancestral  castle  of  the  counts 
of  the  mark.  Its  principal  manufactures  consist 
of  iron,  copper,  brass,  and  nickel  goods,  one  of  its 
specialties  being  metal  ecclesiastical  vessels. 
Pop.,  1890,  about  11,000;  1900,  12,800. 

AliTENBUBG,  aKten-b\irK.  The  capital  of 
the  German  Duchy  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  situated  in 
a  fertile  country  in  lat.  60°  59'  N.,  and  long.  12° 
25'  E.,  about  24  miles  south  of  Leipzig,  near  the 
River  Pleisse  (Map:  Germany,  E  3).  Preemi- 
nent among  the  noteworthy  buildings  is  the  ducal 
castle,  built  upon  an  almost  perpendicular  por- 
phyry rock,  and  celebrated  as  the  scene  of  the 
abduction,  in  1455,  of  the  two  Saxon  princes, 
Albert  and  Ernest.  A  curious  building  is  the  so- 
called  Rothen-Spitzen,  composed  of  two  con- 
nected towers,  containing  the  State  archives.  Al- 
tenburg  possesses  several  excellent  educational 
institutions,  a  museum,  a  picture  gallery,  and  a 
theatre.  Its  benevolent  institutions  include  an 
infirmary  and  a  hospital  for  poor  citizens. 
Brushes,  gloves,  hats,  and  cigars  are  among  the 
chief  manufactures  carried  on  in  Altenburg,  and 
it  has  a  considerable  trade  in  woolen  yarn  and 
produce,  largely  grain.  Pop.,  1890,  about  31,- 
000;   1900,  37,100. 


ALTENDOBF,  UKtcn-dOrf.  A  commune  con- 
sisting of  a  number  of  manufacturing  villages  in 
Rhenish  Prussia,  in  the  outskirts  of  Essen  ( Map : 
Prussia,  B  3).  Altendorf  is  liberally  supplied 
with  schools,  one  of  the  largest  being  that  of  the 
famous  Krupp  iron  works,  which  are  located 
here.  In  addition  to  the  iron  industry,  Alten- 
dorf has  extensive  coke,  brick,  and  cement  works. 
Pop.,  1890,  31,900;  1900,  63,300. 

ALTENESSEK,  HVten&s'sen.  A  city  in  the 
Prussian  Rhine  province,  about  2  miles  north 
of  Essen  (Map:  Prussia,  B  3).  It  has  important 
coal  mines  and  machine  works.  Pop.,  1890, 
about  18,000;  1900,  33,400. 

ALTENSTEIK,  SKtrn-stin.  A  castle  in  the 
Duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  near  the  watering- 
place  of  Liebenstein,  and  about  13  miles  southeast 
of  Eisenach,  on  the  south  slope  of  the  Thiiringer- 
wald,  the  summer  residence  of  the  reigning 
dukes.  It  has  a  fine  park,  in  which  is  a  cavern 
500  feet  long,  through  which  flows  a  large  stream. 
St.  Boniface,  "the  apostle  of  Germany,"  lived  and 
preached  here  from  724  to  727;  and  near  by  is 
the  place,  marked  by  a  monument,  where,  in 
1521,  Luther,  while  returning  from  Worms,  was 
seized  and  carried  off  to  the  Wartburg. 

AliTEKSTEIN,  Kabl,  Babon  von  Stein  zuic 
(1770-1840).  A  Prussian  statesman.  He  was 
born  at  Ansbach,  and  studied  at  Erlangen  and 
GSttingen.  After  the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  he  became 
the  head  of  the  finance  department.  In  1815  he 
went  to  Paris  with  Wilhelm  von  Humboldt  to 
claim  the  restoration  of  works  of  art  taken  from 
Prussia  by  the  French  armies.  He  was  Minister 
of  Public  Worship  and  Education  during  1817- 
88,  and  did  great  service  for  the  universities  and 
schools.  Under  his  direction  the  University  of 
Bonn  was  founded,  and  a  great  number  of  gym- 
nasiums were  opened. 

AL'TERA^ION  (From  Lat.  alter,  other,  dif- 
ferent). In  its  most  general  sense,  with  refer- 
ence to  a  written  instrument  or  a  property  inter- 
est, alteration  is  such  a  change  as,  if  eflfective, 
would  result  in  substituting  a  different  instru- 
ment or  interest  for  the  original.  An  alteration 
of  an  easement,  as  a  right  of  way,  consists  in 
changing  its  course  or  boundaries.  An  altera- 
tion of  a  written  instrument  consists  in  making 
any  material  change  in  its  language  or  character, 
such  as  erasing,  interlining,  or  adding  terms,  or 
removing  a  seal  from  a  deed.  An  immaterial 
change  does  not  come  under  the  description  of  an 
alteration.  At  common  law,  the  alteration  of  a 
written  instrument  avoided  it  as  against  a  party 
not  assenting  thereto.  In  England  it  does  not 
matter  whether  the  alteration  is  made  by  a  party 
or  by  a  stranger.  In  this  country,  a  distinction 
is  made  between  the  two  cases,  and  alteration  by 
a  stranger,  or  spoliation  (q.v.),  as  well  as  alter- 
ation by  a  party  through  pure  accident  or  inno- 
cent mistake,  does  not  invalidate  the  instrument, 
if  its  original  language  or  tenor  remains  discov- 
erable. The  common-law  rule  rests  upon  consid- 
erations of  public  policy,  its  object  being  to  deter 
the  holder  of  a  written  instrument  from  tam- 
pering with  it,  and  to  force  him  to  carefully 
guard  its  integrity.  By  the  Bills  of  Exchange 
Act  in  England  and  the  negotiable  instruments 
law  in  several  of  our  States,  a  holder  in  due 
course  of  an  altered  negotiable  instrument  may 
enforce  it  according  to  its  original  tenor.  See 
the  authorities  referred  to  under  Contract; 
Deed;  Negotiable  Instrument. 


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406 


AliTEBNATIOK. 


AI/TEBATIVE  (Lat.  alter,  other,  another, 
different).  In  medicine,  a  term  applied  to  rem- 
edies that  have  been  found  to  act  slowly  and  in 
an  unknown  way,  improving  the  nutrition  of  the 
body.  It  is  generally  applied  to  medicines  which 
are  irritant  in  full  doses,  but  which  almost  im- 
perceptibly alter  disordered  actions  or  secre- 
tions ;  acting  specially  on  certain  glands,  or  upon 
absorption  in  general,  when  they  are  given  in  com- 
paratively small  doses,  the  treatment  being  con- 
tinued for  a  considerable  length  of  time.  For  ex- 
ample, mercury  is  an  irritant  in  some  of  its  prep- 
arations; but  w^hen  small  doses  of  some  of  its 
preparations  are  given  at  intervals  for  some 
length  of  time,  they  "produce  alteration  in  disor- 
dered actions,  so  as  to  cause  an  improvement  in 
the  nutrient  and  digestive  functions,  the  disap- 
pearance of  eruptions,  and  the  removal  of  thick- 
ening of  the  skin  or  of  other  tissues"  (Royle)  ; 
and  they  will  effect  these  changes  without  other- 
wise affecting  the  constitution  or  inducing  sali- 
vation. So  iodine,  also  an  irritant  in  concen- 
trated doses,  and  poisonous  in  some  forms,  is 
most  useful  when  given  in  small  doses  in  certain 
enlargements  of  glands,  and  need  not  cause 
iodism,  if  carefully  given.  The  most  marked 
example  of  the  alterative  action  of  mercury  and 
the  iodides  is  seen  in  cases  of  syphilis. 

Some  preparations  of  arsenic  are  powerful 
alteratives  in  cases  of  skin  disease.  Cod  liver 
oil  (q.v.)  is  an  alterative  which  is  used  with 
great  benefit  in  tuberculous  conditions,  rickets, 
and  other  diseases  which  are  associated  with 
poor  nutrition.  Preparations  of  phosphorus 
have  a  powerful  alterative  action.  Colchicum 
(q.v.)  is  said  to  act  in  this  way  in  gout  and 
subacute  rheumatism.  Ichthyol  (q.v.)  is  an  im- 
portant alterative  in  skin  affections  when  ap- 
plied locally.  Sarsaparilla  (q.v.)  was  formerly 
believed  to  possess  strong  alterative  qualities, 
but  it  has  been  shown  to  be  practically  inert. 

AliTEB  (finer)  FBITZ  (Ger.  Old  Fritz). 
A  popular  designation  of  Frederick  the  Great. 

ALTEBNATIKG  (fil'ter-na'ting)  CUB'- 
BEKTS.  See  Electricity,  and  Dynamo-Elec- 
tric Machinery. 

AL'TEBNA^IOK     OF     GEK'EBA^TIONS 

(Lat.  oltematio,  an  interchange,  from  alter, 
other,  and  generation  from  genus,  birth,  descent, 
offspring).  The  successive  occurrence  in  one 
life-cycle  of  two  or  more  dissimilar  forms;  the 
process  by  which  in  its  life  history  a  plant  or 
animal  may  pass  through  alternating  phases 
that  do  not  resemble  one  another,  especially 
differing  in  being  successively  sexual  and  asex- 
ual. This  phenomenon  is  very  widespread 
among  organisms,  and  assumes  different  charac- 
ters in  different  groups  of  plants  or  animals. 
Among  Plants.  Alternation  of  generations  is 
found  in  all  forms  of  plants  excepting  the  low- 
est, though  it  is  not  very  evident  in  the  highest 
plants.  One  may  get  some  conception  of  alter- 
nation of  generations  in  plants  by  comparing  it 
with  the  very  different  alternation  of  forms 
which  occurs  in  the  life  history  of  a  moth  or 
butterfly.  In  the  plant,  however,  instead  of 
having  a  series  of  forms  which  pass  into  one 
another,  our  plant  larva  forms  an  egf^  which 
produces  the  mature  form.  If  in  the  life  his- 
tory of  a  butterfly  the  larva  should  lay  eggs  and 
thus  produce  the  mature  forms,  we  should  have 
something  resembling  the  alternation  of  genera- 
tions  in  plants.     One  of  these  generations  has 


sex  organs,  and  hence  is  called  the  gametophyte; 
while  the  other  generation  has  no  sex  orpans, 
and  is  known  as  the  sporophyte.     Both  genera- 


Life  history  of  a  Moes:  1,  tlie  gametophyte,  with  the  pro- 
tonema  ip)  developed  from  an  asexual  spore  (y>,  and  gi^iof; 
rise  to  buds  (6)  that  develop  the  leafy  shoot  (g);  2,  the  pnng 
sporophyte  (c)  rising  above  the  leafy  shoot  {s). 

tions  produce  spores,  but  in  a  very  different  way. 
By  means  of  its  sex  organs  the  gametophyte 
produces  spores  in  a  sexual  w^ay,  that  is,  by 
the  fusion  of  two  sex  cells,  and  such  spores  are 
called  in  general  oi)spores,  or  fertilized  eggs; 
while  the  sporophyte  by  ordinary  cell  division 
produces  spores  which  are  called  asexual  spores, 
meaning  spores  which  have  not  been  formed  by 
sex  organs.  In  the  life  history  of  the  plant,  the 
sexual  spore  of  the  gametophyte  gives  rise  to 
the  sporophyte,  while  the  asexual  spore  of  the 
sporophyte  gives  rise,  in  turn,  to  the  gameto- 
phyte, and  so  the  alternation  continues. 

Alternation  of  generations  is  first  manifested 
among   the   lowest   plants    (the   Thallophytes), 


Sporophyte  (sporogonlnm)  of  a  moss:  i,  the  young  sijom- 
phyte  (<•)  rupturing  the  calyptra,  carrying  ap  the  f*?:'*** 
upper  portion  (e);  ?,  a  mature  sporophyte,  showing  imbedaea 
foot  (f),  seta  (y)i  capsule  (c),  and  operculum  (o). 

but  it  is  not  completely  and  clearly  established 
until  the  liverworts  and  mosses  (Bryophytes) 
are    reached.     The    phenomenon    is    still    more 


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ALTEBNATIOK. 


apparent  among  the  ferns  and  their  allies  ( Pteri- 
dophj'tes )  ;  but  among  the  seed  plants  ( Sperma- 
tophytes),  while  evident  to  the  laboratory 
student,  it  is  well-nigh  invisible  to  the  ordinary 
observer.  It  is  to  mosses  and  ferns,  therefore, 
that  one  must  go  for  the  clearest  examples  of 
alternation  of  generations. 

In  an  ordinary  moss  the  gametophyte  consists 
of  the  well-known  leafy  moss  plant,  which  bears 
sex  organs  at  the  tips  of  its  main  stem  or 
branches.  By  means  of  these  sex  organs  a  fer- 
tilized egg  (oospore)  is  formed.  When  the 
fertilized  egg  germinates,  it  produces  the  sporo- 
phyte,  which  in  this  case  consists  of  a  more  or 
less  elongated  stalk  (seta)  bearing  at  its  summit 
a  capsule  or  spore  case.  The  leafless  sporophyte 
is  anchored  in  the  leafy  gametophyte  by  means  of 
an  organ  called  the  foot.  This  peculiar  sporo- 
phyte of  the  moss  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  the 
fruit,  and  when  it  appears  upon  the  leafy  plants 
these  are  said  to  be  "in  fruit."  The  spores 
formed  in  the  spore  cases  are  asexual,  and  upon 
germination  produce  new  leafy  plants  (gameto- 
phytes). 

In  the  case  of  the  ordinary  ferns,  which  belong 
to  the  great  group  Pteridophytes,  the  same  phe- 
nomenon may  be  observed,  but  with  a  striking 
difference.  In  the  mosses  the  prominent  leafy 
plant  is  the  gametophyte,  while  in  the  fern  the 
conspicuous  leafy  plant  is  the  sporophyte.  The 
gametophyte  of  the  fern  is  a  simple  flat  body 
(prothallium)  resembling  a  minute  liverwort. 
Upon  this  prothallium  the  sex  organs  are  devel- 
oped and  the  fertilized  eggs  are  formed.  From 
these  fertilized  eggs  the  comparatively  large 
leafy  fern  body  arises.  This  leafy  body  (the 
sporophyte)  produces,  usually  upon  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves,  numerous  asexual  spores, 
which  upon  germination  give  rise  again  to  sim- 
ple gametophytes. 

Among  certain  Club  mosses  and  other  Pterido- 
phytes the  sporophyte  produces  two  kinds  of 
asexual  spores.  The  most  apparent  differences 
between  these  spores  is  that  of  size,  and  hence 
they  are  called  "microspores"  (small  spores) 
and  "megaspores"  (large  spores).  The  micro- 
spore upon  germination  produces  a  male  gameto- 
phj't*,  i.e.,  a  gametophyte  which  bears  only  male 
organs.  The  megaspore  upon  germination  pro- 
duces a  female  gametophyte,  i.e.,  a  gametophyte 
which  bears  only  female  organs.  This  differen- 
tiation of  spores  is  spoken  of  as  "heterospory," 
and  all  the  higher  plants  are  heterosporous.  With 
the  appearance  of  heterospory  the  alternation  of 
generations  passes  out  of  the  reach  of  ordinary 
observation,  since  the  gametophytes  are  so  much 
reduced  as  seldom  to  leave  the  spores  which 
produce  them.  In  a  seed  plant,  for  example,  the 
whole  visible  body  of  the  tree,  shrub,  or  herb  is 
a  sporophyte;  the  pollen  grains  are  the  small 
asexual  spores  or  microspores,  while  the  so-called 
embryo  sac  in  the  ovule  is  the  large  asexual 
spore  or  megaspore.  The  male  gametophyte  con- 
sists of  but  two  or  three  cells,  which  form  within 
the  pollen  grain.  The  female  gametophyte  con- 
sists of  more  numerous  cells,  but  they  are 
entirely  confined  within  the  megaspore  walls  and 
hence  never  leave  the  ovule. 

Taking  the  plant  kingdom  as  a  whole,  it  may 
be  said  that  in  the  lowest  plants  only  a  gameto- 
phyte existed.  Presently  a  sporophyte  began  to 
appear,  at  first  dependent  upon  the  gametophyte, 
as  in  the  mosses,  but  presently  attaining  inde- 
pendence and  prominence,  as  in  the  ferns  and 


seed  plants.  With  the  independence  of  the  sporo- 
phyte, the  gametophyte  became  gradually  re- 
duced in  size,  until  in  the  highest  plants  it  is 
visible  only  under  the  special  manipulation  of 
the  laboratory.  The  significance  of  alternation 
of  generations  in  the  plant  kingdom  is  by  no 
means  clear.  One  of  its  results,  however,  is  to 
multiply  the  product  of  a  single  fertilized  egg. 
If  there  were  no  alternation  of  generations,  one 
fertilized  egg  would  result  in  a  single  new  plant. 
By  the  interposition  of  a  sporophyte  bearing 
numerous  spores,  each  one  of  which  may  form 
a  new  gametophyte,  a  single  fertilized  egg  may 
result  in  many  new  plants.  However,  this  may 
be  but  one  of  the  incidental  results  of  a  differ- 
entiation that  is  probably  of  far  deeper  biologi- 
cal significance.  Consult:  Goebel,  Outlines  of 
Classification  and  Special  Morphology  of  Plants^ 
English  translation  by  Gamsey  and  Balfour  ( Ox- 
ford, 1887);  Vines,  A  Students'  Text-book  of 
Botany  (New  York,  I8fl5)  ;  Coulter,  Plant  Struc- 
tures (New  York,  1900). 

Amono  Animals.  In  the  simplest  case  of 
alternation  of  generations  among  animals,  the 
successive  generations  differ  only  slightly.  Thus, 
in  many  butterflies  having  two  broods  during  the 
year,  the  spring  brood  is  unlike  the  fall  brood; 
for  example,  in  our  "spring  azure"  the  spring 
brood  is  of  a  violet  color,  and  the  fall  brood  is 
dark;  both  are  sexual,  but  the  spring  and  fall 
forms  alternate  in  the  series  of  generations.  This 
form  of  alternation  of  generations  is  called  sea- 
sonal. 

The  next  example  shows  a  greater  difference 
between  alternating  generations.  In  a  certain 
nematode  {Leptodera  nigrovenosum) ,  both  males 
and  females  are  found  living  in  pools  of  water 
or  in  damp  earth.  These  pair,  and  the  fertilized 
eggs  develop  into  larvae  that  enter  into  the  bodies 
of  aquatic  animals  and  develop  there  as  para- 
sites, not  as  male  and  female  individuals,  but  as 
hermaphrodites.  These  lay  self-fertilized  eggs, 
which  develop  free  as  either  males  or  females. 
Here  a  dioecious  generation  (A)  alternates  with 
an  hermaphroditic  generation  (B).  This  kind 
of  alternation  of  generations  is  called  heterogony. 

In  a  third  form  of  alternation  of  generations 
eggs  are  produced,  but  the  fertilization  of  the 
egg  is  omitted  from  alternate  or  even  several 
successive  generations;  these  are  then  followed 
by  dioecious,  sexual  individuals.  To  this  class 
belong  many,  cases  of  parthenogenetically  repro- 
ducing species;  among  flat- worms,  trematodes; 
among  Crustacea,  the  Cladocera;  and  among  in- 
sects, aphids,  such  as  Phylloxera,  Chermes,  etc. 
In  most  of  these  cases  there  is  a  marked  differ- 
ence in  form  between  the  individuals  of  the 
dioecious  and  the  parthenogenetically  reproducing 
generation.  This  class  of  cases  is  called  hctero- 
genesis.    See  Hop-aphis. 

In  the  fourth  form  of  alternation,  the  ferti- 
lized egg  develops  into  a  generation  (A)  having 
a  characteristic  form,  and  capable  of  setting 
free  neither  eggs  nor  spermatozoa,  but  capable  of 
forming  buds.  These  buds  develop  into  a  new 
and  different  form  of  individual  (generation 
B),  which  is  dioecious  and  sets  free  zygotes, 
from  which  generation  A  is  produced.  There 
are  numerous  examples  of  this  class  among 
animals,  e.g.,  among  coelenterates,  the  Hydrozoa 
and  some  Scyphozoa  and  Strobila;  among  flat- 
worms,  certain  cestodes  (Echinococcus)  ;  among 
Annelids,  certain  Syllida?  and  aquatic  Oligo- 
chfleta;   among  tunicates,  the  Salpae  and  Dolio- 


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ALTERNATION. 


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ALTIN. 


lids.  This  class  of  alternation  of  generations^ 
has  been  called  metagenesis.  As  an  example  of 
it,  one  of  the  Hydrozoa  may  be  taken.  The  free- 
swimming  jelly  fishes  are  dioecious,  and  produce 
the  male  and  female  gametes,  which  unite  in 
the  water.  The  larvae  which  result  from  the 
development  of  the  eggs  settle  down,  become 
attached  and  develop  into  a  hydroid,  which  pro- 
duces a  colony  by  budding.     Certain  buds  are 


Altbbm ATE  Generations  in  Htdroiss. 

A  Campanularian  Hydroid :  a,  root-etock  (hydrorhiza);  b^  5, 
hydranths ;  r,  c^  gonangitL,  containing  medusa  buds  ;  cf,  a  f ree- 
BwimmlnK,  gameter-producing  medusa;  0,  ciliated  larva  before 
settling  down. 

set  free  as  jellyfishes,  and  these  in  turn  set  free 
the  gametes.  Thus  the  hydroid  form  (A)  and 
the  jelly  form  (B)  alternate  with  each  other. 

In  certain  respects  the  gamete- producing  gen- 
eration of  spermatophytes  among  plants  (see 
above)  resembles  the  maturation  period  preceding 
the  formation  of  gametes  in  the  higher  animals ; 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that  even  in  verte- 
brates, including  man,  we  have  an  alternation 
of  generations:  (1)  the  non-sexual  generation 
beginning  with  fertilization  and  ending  with  the 
primary  oOcyte  or  primary  spermatocyte;  (2) 
the  sexual  generation  beginning  with  the  pri- 
mary germ-cell  and  ending  with  the  ripe  germ- 
cell  (two-cell  division). 

Bibliography.  J.J.S.Steenstrup,  On  the  Alter- 
nation of  Generations^  translated  by  Busk  (Lon- 
don, 1845)  ;  J.  V.  Carus,  Zur  ndhern  kenntniss 
des  Oenerationsicechsels  (Leipzig,  1849)  ;  R. 
I^uckart,  iiber  den  Polymorphismus  der  Indi- 
viduenj  etc.;  ein  Betrag  zur  Lehre  von  Oenera- 
tionswechsel  (Geissen,  1851). 

AI/TEBNA'TOB.  See  Dynamo  -  Electric 
Machinery. 

ALTGELD,  alt'gfld,  John  Peter  (1847- 
1902).  An  American  politician.  He  was  born 
in   Germany,   and  was   brought   to  the   United 


States  when  an  infant.  His  parents  settled 
near  Mansfield,  O.  He  entered  the  Union  army 
at  the  age  of  sixteen,  and  fought  until  the  close 
of  the  war.  After  teaching  school  for  some  time 
in  Missouri,  he  began  the  study  of  law.  and  was 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1869,  his  election  as 
State  Attorney  of  Andrew  County,  Mo.,  fol- 
lowing in  1874.  He  was  judge  of  the  superior 
court  of  Chicago  from  1880  to  1891,  and  Governor 
of  Illinois  from  1893  to  1897,  in  which  capacity 
his  pardon  of  the  anarchists  Fielden,  Neebe,  and 
Schwab  excited  wide  comment.  As  a  prominent 
advocate  of  free  silver,  he  was  an  active  sup- 
porter of  William  J.  Bryan  during  the  Presiden- 
tial campaigns  of  1896  and  1900.  He  did 
much  to  advance  the  cause  of  prison  reform,  and 
was  a  vigorous  and  effective  public  speaker. 

ALTHffi^A  (Gk.  aWaia,  althaia,  wild  or 
marsh-mallow).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  order 
Malvace.T,  differing  from  the  true  mallow,  MalvQr 
chiefly  in  its  six  to  nine-cleft  calyx.  The  species,, 
natives  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  naturalized  in 
North  America,  are  annual  and  perennial  shrub- 
by plants  that  are  much  grown  for  their  showy 
flowers.  The  more  common  species  are  the 
marsh-mallow.  Althaea  officinalis,  and  the  holly- 
hock. Althaea  rosea.  The  name  Althaea  is  applied 
also  by  gardeners  to  the  Rose  of  Sharon,  Hibiscus 
syriacus.  See  Hollyhock;  ALotsH-^LkLLOw ; 
Hibiscus. 

ALTHJEA,  or  ALTHEA  (OV..' AX^aia.  AUha- 
ia).  In  Greek  story,  the  mother  of  Meleager 
(q.v.),  whose  life  the  Fates  had  told  her  should 
last  as  long  as  a  log  of  wood  burning  upon  the 
hearth  at  his  birth  should  be  unconsumed.  She 
quenched  and  long  preserved  it,  but  finally  in 
anger  at  him  set  it  on  fire  and  so  ended  his  life. 
She  was  the  daughter  of  Thestius,  wife  of  CEneus, 
King  of  Calydon,  and  mother  also  of  Tydeus 
and  Delanira. 

ALTHE'A.  In  Richard  Lovelace's  To  Althea 
from  Prison,  and  Other  Lyrics,  a  poetical  name 
applied  to  his  love  Lucasta,  who  is  understood 
to  have  been  Lucy  Sacheverell. 

ALT^OBN.     See  Saxhorn. 

AL^THOBP,  Lord.    See  Spencer. 

ALTHU'SIXJS,  Johannes  (1557-1638).  Pro- 
fessor of  law  and  ethics  at  Her  bom.  He  pub- 
lished the  first  treatise  on  politics  written  in 
Germany.  He  made  the  basis  of  social  life  an 
express  or  implied  contract  between  associated 
men,  thus  anticipating  Rousseau's  famous  social 
contract  theory.  He  defended  resistance  to 
usurpation  of  the  rights  of  the  j>eople,  from 
whom  all  rights  proceed.  He  put  combinations 
of  workmen  in  the  category  of  monopolies  to  be 
regulated.  His  chief  works  are:  Politica  Metko- 
dice  Digesta  (Herborn,  1603)  ;  Jurisprudentia 
Romana  (Herborn,  1688)  ;  Dicfrologic(F  Libri 
Tres  Totum  et  Universnm  Jus,  quo  Utimur,  MetK- 
odieC'Complectantes  (Herborn,  1617). 

ALTIM'ETBY  (Lat.  alius,  high  -f  Gk.  fihpw, 
metron,  measure).  The  art  of  ascertaining  alti- 
tudes geometrically  or  measuring  vertical  angles 
by  means  of  a  quadrant,  sextant  (q.v.),  or  the- 
odolite (q.v.).  When  used  for  this  purpose,  the 
instrument  is  known  as  an  altimeter. 

ALTIN,  61-tIn',  Altyn-Nor  (Tartar  altun, 
golden  -f  nor,  lake),  or  Teij:t8  Lake.  A  fresh- 
water lake  in  the  government  of  Tomsk,  Siberia 
(Map:  Siberia,  H  3).  It  is  in  the  AlUi  Moun- 
tains, 1600  feet  above  the  sea  level,  and  has  an 


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ALTOKA. 


area  of  about  184  square  miles.  -  This  lake  is 
remarkable  because  in  winter  the  northern  part 
is  frozen  so  as  to  bear  sledges,  while  the  southern 
part  has  never  been  known  to  freeze. 

AI/TITTJDE     (Lat.    altitudo,    height,    from 
altuSy  high,  lofty) .  In  astronomy,  the  elevation  of 
a  heavenly  body  above  the  horizon.     It  is  meas- 
ured not  as  a  linear  distance,  but  by  the  angle 
which  a  line  drawn  from  the  eye  to  the  heavenly 
body  makes  with  the  horizontal  line,  or  by  the 
arc  of  a  vertical  circle  intercepted  betw^een  the 
body  and  the  horizon.    Altitudes  are  measured  by 
means  of  a  telescope  attached  to  a  graduated  cir- 
cle.   (See  Circle.)     The  telescope  being  directed 
toward  the  body  to  be  observed,  the  angle  which 
it  makes  with  the  horizon  is  measured  on  the 
graduated    circle.      The   altitude    thus    observed 
must  receive  various  corrections — the  chief  being 
the   parallax    (q.v.)    and    refraction    (q.v.) — in 
order  to  get  the  true  altitude.    At  sea,  the  alti- 
tude is  taken  by  means  of  a  sextant  (q.v.),  and 
then  it  has  further  to  be  corrected  for  tne  dip  of 
the  visible  horizon  below  the  true  horizon.     ( See 
Horizon.)     The  correct  determination   of  alti- 
tudes is  of  vital  importance  in  the  problem  of 
navigation,  for  the  sextant  is  the  only  astro- 
nomical instrument  of  precision  that  can  be  used 
without  a  fixed  support  on  the  deck  of  a  rolling 
ship,  and  the  sextant  is  essentially  an  instru- 
ment  for   measuring  altitudes.    See   Sextant; 

A  LTAZIM  UTII ;    LaTITU DE. 

ALTMtJHL,  mt^mul  (Ger.  old  mill).  A 
tributary  of  the  Danube,  rising  at  the  western 
border  of  Bavaria,  flowing  northeast  through  the 
Suabian  Jura,  and  joining  the  Danube  at  Kel- 
heim  (Map:  Bavaria,  D  4).  It  is  100  miles  long, 
and  connected  with  an  affluent,  the  Main,  by  the 
Lud wig's  Canal. 

AI/TO  (Ital.  high).  The  deepest  or  lowest 
species  of  voice  met  with  in  boys  or  castrates, 
the  voice  of  women  being  more  properly  called 
contralto.  In  England  the  alto  voice  is  often 
found  in  adults,  especially  among  the  ballad 
singers;  the  head  notes  are  carefully  developed 
to  abnormal  volume  and  power  at  the  expense  of 
the  lower  notes,  which  gradually  become  atro- 
phied and  assume  the  same  timbre  as  the  upper 
register.  It  is  curious  that  the  original  name 
alt  us  meant  the  highest  voice  in  ecclesiastical 
music.  It  represented  the  changing,  undulating 
melody  sung  over  the  cantus  firmus  (q.v.),  but 
owing  to  its  difficulty,  it  could  not  be  learned  by 
boys,  and  thus  to  men  with  the  highest  voices 
was  assigned  the  part,  as  women  were  excluded 
from  church  choirs — mulier  taceat  in  ecclesia — 
i.e.,  let  women  be  silent  in  the  church. 

AliTOK,  (iKton.  A  city  and  railroad  centre  of 
Madison  Co.,  111.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on 
limestone  hluITs,  200  feet  above  the  Mississippi 
River,  which  is  spanned  here  by  the  great  bridge 
of  the  Chicago,  Burlington  and  Quincy  Railroad, 
25  miles  above  St.  Louis  (Map:  Illinois,  B  5). 
It  is  on  the  Chicago  and  Alton  and  other  rail- 
roads, is  the  centre  of  a  large  commerce,  and  has 
glass  factories,  flouring  mills,  machine  shops, 
agricultural  and  mining  tool  factories,  box  fac- 
tories, etc.  Alton  has  a  public  library  and  a  park, 
called  Rock  Spring  Park.  At  Upper  Alton  is 
Shurtleff  College  (Baptist),  organized  1827,  and, 
at  Godfrey,  the  Monticello  Seminary.  Alton  was 
settled  in  178.3,  incorporated  in  1835,  and  is  gov- 
erned by  a  charter  granted  under  a  general  law 
of  1876.     The  mayor  is  electeii  for  two  years; 


the  city  council  is  made  up  of  fourteen  members, 
and  town  meetings  are  held  yearly  to  levy  the 
town  tax  and  approve  the  supervisor's  report. 
The  mayor  appoints  the  school  board  and  the 
heads  of  the  police  and  fire  departments,  with 
the  approval  of  the  council.  On  November  7, 
1837,  occurred  here  the  famous  anti-abolitionist 
riot,  in  which  Elijah  P.  Lovejoy  was  killed  and 
his  printing-office  demolished.  Pop.,  1890,  10,- 
294;  1900,  14,210. 

AliTOK  (ftKton)  LOCKE,  TAILOB  AND 
POET.  A  novel  by  Charles  Kingsley,  published 
1850. 

ALTOKy  JoHAKN  Samuel  Eduard  d'  (1803- 
54).  A  German  anatomist,  son  of  the  anatomist 
and  archaeologist  Joseph  Wilhelm  Eduard  d'Al- 
ton.  He  studied  medicine  at  Bonn,  and  became 
professor  of  anatomy  at  the  Academy  of  Arts  in 
Berlin  in  1827.  In  1834  he  was  made  professor 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  at  Halle.  His  writ- 
ings include:  Handbuch  der  menschlichen  Anat- 
omie  (Leipzig,  1848-50),  De  Monstris  (Halle, 
1853),  and  De  Monstrorum  Duplicium  Origine 
(Halle,  1849). 

ALTOKA,  aKtd-n&.  The  largest  and  richest 
city  in  the  Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  its 
eastern  boundary  adjoining  the  Hamburg  suburb 
of  St.  Pauli  (Map:  Prussia,  D  2).  From  a 
commercial  point  of  view,  Altona  forms  one  city 
with  Hamburg.  In  1888  it  entered  the  German 
Customs  Union.  On  account  of  its  advantageous- 
situation  on  the  Elbe  and  railway  connection 
with  other  German  cities,  its  trade  is  of  con- 
siderable importance,  and  extends  to  England, 
France,  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  the  West 
Indies.  There  are  many  important  industrial 
works  in  Altona,  among  others,  cotton  and  wool- 
en mills,  iron  foundries,  glass  works,  breweries- 
and  distilleries,  and  establishments  for  the  manu- 
facture of  chocolate,  cigars,  cotton,  soap,  leather 
ware,  etc.  Local  transportation  is  afforded  by 
numerous  street-car  lines,  which  also  connect 
Altona  with  Hamburg.  These  are  all  in  the 
hands  of  private  corporations.  The  rise  of  Al- 
tona to  its  present  importance  has  been  recent, 
and  rapid  for  a  Continental  town.  In  1880  its. 
population  was  91,000,  from  which  it  had  grown 
to  143,000  in  1890  and  to  155,000  in  1900. 

The  streets  of  Altona  are  broad  and  for  the 
most  part  regular,  and  well-lighted  by  electricity. 
The  city  has  only  about  fifty  acres  laid  out  in 
parks.  This,  however,  does  not  include  the  sub- 
urbs. Among  the  notable  buildings  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Rathhaus,  the  palace  of  justice,  the 
custom  house,  and  the  city  theatre.  Among  the 
objects  of  greatest  interest  in  the  city  is  the  old 
cemetery  of  the  Portuguese  Jews. 

The  city's  affairs  are  administered  by  a  munic- 
ipal council  composed  of  35  members,  and  an 
executive  board  composed  of  nine  members.  ( See 
Germany,  Local  Government.)  The  street-clean- 
ing of  Altona  is  a  model  of  thoroughness. 

The  city  owns  its  water  works,  containing  a 
filtering  plant  by  means  of  which  the  water  of 
the  Elbe  is  purified  for  drinking  purposes.  The 
plant  yields  an  annual  profit  of  about  $90,000. 
Its  system  of  sewers  is  practically  similar  to 
that  of  Hamburg.  It  has  not  as  yet  adopted  the 
system  of  sewage  farms,  which  has  proved  so 
successful  in  some  of  the  German  cities.  The 
annual  expense  of  drainage  and  sewerage  is  about 
$12,000. 


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ALTOKA. 


410 


ALTBANSTADT. 


Altona  has  an  organized  fire  department, 
which  forma  one  of  the  chief  items  of  expense  in 
the  city's  budget,  amounting  annually  to  about 
$44,000.  Altona  o^vns  and  operates  its  own  eas 
works  at  a  net  profit  of  about  $75,000  annually. 
Its  electric  light  plant  is  owned  and  operated 
by  a  private  company,  which  pays  the  city  10% 
of  its  receipts. 

Among  the  charitable  and  benevolent  institu- 
tions are  a  public  poorhouse,  an  infirmary,  insane 
asylum,  a  house  of  refuge  for  boys,  one  general 
hospital,  two  hospitals  for  children,  and  a  lying- 
in  hospital.  Its  educational  institutions  include 
a  gymnasium,  three  high  schools,  several  techni- 
cal schools,  twenty-seven  grammar  schools,  and 
a  museum. 

Altona  was  settled  in  1536,  and  rapidly  devel- 
oped into  a  prosperous  commercial  town.  In 
1640  it  came  under  the  rule  of  Denmark.  Its 
trade  suffered  during  the  Napoleonic  wars,  but 
revived  with  peace.  In  1866  it  was  annexed  to 
Prussia.  Consult  H.  Meyer,  Hamburg  und 
Altona    (Hamburg,   1836). 

ALTOOKA,  al-t5?5'n&.  A  city  in  Blair  Co., 
Pa.,  117  miles  east  of  Pittsburg,  on  the  Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  C  3).  It  is 
at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains, 
between  Alleghany  Mountain  and  the  Brush 
Mountain,  situated  amid  the  most  picturesque 
mountain  scenery,  the  city  itself  having  an  eleva- 
tion of  1180  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Altoona  is 
a  typical  American  railroad  town,  its  indus- 
tries centring  principally  in  the  immense  shops 
of  the  Pennsylvania-Railroad,  which  employ  some 
7000  operatives  and  have  an  extensive  produc- 
tion of  locomotives,  passenger  coaches,  and 
freight  cars.  The  city  contains  a  public  library 
and  hospital,  and  Lakemont  Park.  Of  particular 
interest  is  the  famous  Horseshoe  Bend,  near  the 
city.  The  government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  elected 
every  three  years,  a  bicameral  city  council, 
and  subordinate  administrative  officials.  There 
are  municipal  water  works,  built  in  1860  and  ac- 
quired by  the  city  in  1872,  which  cost  about 
$680,000.  Altoona  spends  annually  in  mainte- 
nance and  operation  about  $255,000;  the  prin- 
cipal items  of  expense  being  $85,000  for  schools, 
$20,000  for  the  fire  department,  $20,000  for  the 
water  works,  $15,000  for  the  police  department, 
and  $15,000  for  municipal  lighting.  Altoona  was 
founded  in  1850  by  the  Pensylvania  Railroad 
Company,  and  was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in 
1854,  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1868.  The  great 
railroad  strike  of  1877  caused  considerable  ex- 
citement here,  and  troops  were  ordered  out  to 
protect  the  company's  property.  Pop.,  1880, 
19,710;  1890,  30,337;  1900,  38,973. 

ALTOONA,  or  AL'LATOO'NA,  PASS.     A 

pass  near  Allatoona,  Ga.,  the  scene,  on  October 
5,  1864,  of  one  of  the  most  hotly  contested  of 
the  minor  battles  of  the  Civil  War.  In  his  op- 
erations about  Atlanta.  General  Sherman  made 
Allatoona  his  secondary  base,  and  stored  there 
one  million  rations  of  bread,  which  General 
Hood  determined  to  capture,  detailing  General 
S.  G.  French  for  the  enterprise.  As  soon  as 
Sherman  was  aware  of  Hood's  designs  he  ordered 
General  Corse  (q.v.),  stationed  at  Rome,  to 
move  with  the  utmost  speed  to  the  assist- 
ance of  the  small  garrison,  to  hold  the  place 
against  all  odds,  until  the  arrival  of  reenforce- 
ments.  Accordingly,  with  a  force  of  less  than 
2000,  he  maintained  the  defense  against  some 
4000  Confederates  from  nine  in  the  morning  un- 


til three  in  the  afternoon,  when  General  French, 
alarmed  by  the  approach  of  Federal  reSnforce- 
ments,  withdrew.  The  loss  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing  was  about  700  on  each  side.  An  in- 
teresting account  of  the  engagement  is  given 
in  General  Sherman's  Memoirs  (New  York, 
1888). 
AliTOBF,  alt'drf.     See  Axtdorf. 

ALTO-BILIEVO,  aPt6-r6-lyft'v6  (Ital.  high- 
relief)  .  The  term  used  in  sculpture  to  designate 
that  mode  of  representing  objects  by  which  they 
are  made  to  project  strongly  and  boldly  from  the 
background  without  being  entirely  detached.  In 
alto-rilievo  some  portions  of  the  figures  usually 
stand  quite  free,  and  in  this  respect  it  differs 
not  only  from  hasso-rilievo,  or  low-relief,  but 
from  the  intermediate  kind  of  relief  known  as 
mezzo-rilievo,  or  semi-relief,  in  which  the  figures 
are  fully  rounded,  but  where  there  are  no  de- 
tached portions.  A  fourth  term  in  the  series  is 
cavo-rilievo  (q.v.),  where  the  relief  is  sunk  be- 
low the  ground  surface.  A  fifth  Italian  term  is 
atiacciato,  to  describe  what  is  really  drawing 
or  putlining  on  marble  or  stone  with  little 
or  no  relief.  It  was  used  mainly  in  the 
background  of  Renaissance  reliefs  as  the  fur- 
thest plane  and  as  merely  suggestive,  beyond  the 
work  in  basso-rilievo.  These  five  t^rms  cover 
every  possible  variety  of  relief.  Their  historic 
use  is  given  under  Relief  Scltlpture  and  Scvlp- 
TURE,  History  of.  In  order  to  be  in  high-re- 
lief, objects  ought  actually  to  project  somewhat 
more  than  half  their  thickness,  no  conventional 
means  being  employed  in  this  style  to  give  them 
apparent  prominence.  In  low,  or  bas-relief,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  figures  are  usually  flattened: 
but  means  are  adopted  to  prevent  the  projection 
from  appearing  to  the  eye  to  be  less  than  half; 
because  if  an  object  projects  less  than  half,  or,  to 
state  it  otherwise,  is  more  than  half  buried  in  the 
background,  it  is  obvious  that  its  true  outline  or 
profile  cannot  be  represented.  This  rule,  that  in 
all  reliefs  there  shall  be  either  a  real  or  an  appar- 
ent projection  of  at  least  half  the  thickness  of 
round  objects,  was  strictly  observed  in  the  best 
period  of  Greek  art;  but  it  has  been  often  neg- 
lected in  the  execution  of  reliefs  in  later  time;*, 
and  hence  attempts  have  been  made  at  foreshort- 
ening and  perspective,  which  have  necessarily  re- 
sulted in  partial  failure.  For  illustration  of  re- 
lief, see  article  Ghiberti. 

ALTbTTIKGy  ait-gtlng.  A  place  of  pilgrim- 
age not  far  from  the  Inn,  situated  in  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  fertile  plains  of  Upper  Ba- 
varia (Map:  Bavaria,  D  4).  Multitudes  of 
Catholics  from  Germany  and  Austria  visit  the 
ancient  chapel  containing  a  black  wooden  image 
of  the  Virgin  ( the  Black  Virgin ) ,  dating  back  to 
the  eighth  century,  and  great  treasures  of  jewels, 
the  hearts  of  Maximilian  I.  and  of  many  princes 
of  the  Bavarian  family  are  interred  there.  I" 
the  Peter  and  Paul's  Chapel  lies  the  body  of 
Count  Tilly.  Altotting  was  originally  a  rUh 
regia,  where  several  German  emperors  held  their 
court.  From  1838  to  1873  it  was  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Redemptorist  Fathers,  and  at  present 
is  t!)e  site  of  a  Capuchin  monastery. 

ALTBANSTADT,  filt'rAn-st^t.  A  village  in 
Saxony,  15  miles  west  of  Leipzig  (Map:  Prussia, 
E  3 ) .  It  is  famous  as  the  place  where  Augustu-j 
II.,  Elector  of  Saxony  and  King  of  Poland,  con- 
cluded a  treaty  with  King  Charles  II.  of  Sweden 
in  1706.    Pop.,  1900,  823. 


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ALTBICES. 


411 


ALUMINA. 


ALTBI^CES  (Lat.  noni.  pi.  of  altrix,  a  female 
nourisher).  A  term  used  in  ornithology  (op- 
posed to  Precoces  to  designate  birds  whose  young 
are  hatched  in  a  helpless  condition  and  require 
the  care  of  the  parent  birds.  Such  birds  usually 
build  some  sort  of  nest,  where  the  young  remain 
for  some  time  after  hatching.  The  young  are 
usually  naked  when  hatched.  Nearly  all  land 
birds  (except  most  game  birds),  and  some  water 
birds,  as  herons,  pelicans,  etc.,  are  altricial.  See 
Bird,  and  Niditication. 

ALTBINCHAMy  &l^tnng-am.  A  market  town 
of  Cheshire,  England,  on  Bowden  Downs,  6  miles 
southwest  of  Manchester  (Map:  England,  D  3). 
It  is  situated  on  two  railway  lines  and  near  the 
Bridgewater  Canal,  which  has  contributed  greatly 
to  its  prosperity.  It  is  a  very  neat  and  clean 
town,  and  on  account  of  the  salubrity  of  the  air 
is  a  favorite  residence  of  many  of  the  merchants 
of  Manchester.  It  has  manufactures  of  artificial 
manures,  cotton  goods,  and  an  iron  foundry;  but 
the  chief  employment  of  its  inhabitants  is  the 
raising  of  fruits  and  vegetables  for  the  market  of 
Manchester.  Altrincham  was  a  prosperous  town 
in  the  time  of  Edward  I.,  from  whom  it  received 
many  privileges.  Pop.,  1891,  12,400;  1901,  16,- 
800. 

ALTBXnSM,  AVtrT56-iz'm  (Ital.  altrui,  of,  to, 
or  for  others,  from  Lat.  alter,  another) .  A  word 
first  coined  in  French  by  Comte  {altruiame), 
and  introduced  by  his  Positivist  followers  into 
English  as  the  antonym  of  egoism  or  selfishness. 
It  signifies  consideration  for  others  and  a  due  re- 
gard for  their  feelings  and  interests.  Altruism 
is  regarded  by  Positivists  as  the  crowning  virtue, 
in  the  exercise  of  which  the  perfected  individual 
will  find  not  only  his  duty  but  his  chief  pleasure. 
The  word  is  now  used  far  beyond  the  circle  of 
Positivists,  sometimes  quite  loosely  in  the  sense 
of  action  resulting  in  the  welfare  of  others,  what- 
ever might  be  the  motive ;  sometimes  more  strictly 
in  the  sense  of  conduct  motived  by  the  desire  for 
this  welfare.  It  is  only  in  this  stricter  applica- 
tion that  the  word  has  any  significance  for  ethics. 
One  of  the  most  important  problems  of  ethics  is 
that  concerning  the  relations  between  one's  own. 
interests  and  those  of  others,  in  so  far  as  these 
interests  enter  as  motives  into  conduct.  There 
are  two  rival  issues  to  the  question.  One  school 
maintains  that  self-sacrifice  is  the  supreme  moral 
principle,  the  other  champions  self-assertion. 
This  diflference  gives  occasion  to  another  use  of 
the  terms  altruism  and  egoism.  The  view  that 
altruism  is  the  highest  moral  motive  is  itself 
called  altruism,  just  as  the  view  that  acknowl- 
edges the  primacy  of  egoism  among  moral  mo- 
tives is  itself  called  egoism.  For  the  criticism 
of  these  two  views  and  for  bibliography,  see 
Ethics;  Hedokism,  and  Utelitabianisic. 

AXTHTTISTS,  Society  of.  See  (^mmuwistio 
Societies. 

AIiTSCHITL,  W8h?5^  Elias  (1812-65).  An 
Austrian  physician  of  Jewish  extraction.  He 
was  born  at  Prague,  and  studied  medicine,  gradu- 
ating at  the  University  of  Vienna  in  1832.  He 
became  professor  of  medicine  at  the  University 
of  Prague  in  1848,  and  in  1853  founded  the  first 
homeopathic  magazine  in  Austria,  under  the  title 
of  Manataschrift  fur  Theoretiache  und  Prak- 
tiscTie  Homoopathie,  He  introduced  homeopathy 
at  the  University.  His  principal  works  are: 
Dictionnaire  de  nUdecine  oculaire  (Vienna,  1856, 
2  volumes) ;  Lehrhuch  der  Phyaiologischen  Phar^ 


macodynamik  (Prague,  1850-52)  ;  Das  Therapeu- 
tische  Polaritdtsgesetz  (Prague,  1852). 

ALTWASSEB,  Rlt^vUs-er.  A  town  of  Silesia, 
Prussia,  40  miles  southwest  of  Breslau.  It  has 
coal  mining  industries  and  manufactures  of  ma- 
chinery, porcelain,  and  mirrors.  Pop.,  1900, 
12,700, 

ALT-ZABRZE,  &lt-z£lbzhe.     See  Zabrze. 

AI/TJM  (Lat.  alumeuy  of  unknown  origin). 
A  double  salt  consisting  of  a  sulphate  or  selenate 
of  the  monovalent  element  or  radicle,  and  a  sul- 
phate or  selenate  of  a  sesquioxide,  that  crystal- 
lizes in  the  isometric  system  with  twenty-four 
molecules  of  water.  The  principal  alums  of  com- 
merce contain  potassium,  ammonium,  or  sodium, 
and  the  sesquioxide  of  aluminum. 

Potaanum  alum  is  a  white,  astringent,  saline 
compound,  found  native  as  Kalinite.  It  is  made 
by  calcining  carbonaceous  shales,  the  residue 
from  which  is  digested  with  sulphuric  acid,  yield- 
ing aluminum  sulphate;  to  this  potassium  sul- 
phate is  then  added,  the  resulting  crystals  con- 
stituting the  alum.  Another  method  consists  in 
dissolving  the  alumina  derived  from  the  minerals 
cryolite  or  bauxite,  in  sulphuric  acid  and  treat- 
ing the  solution  with  potash  or  ammonia. 

Ammonium  alum  is  found  native  as  Tacher- 
migite,  and  is  artificially  made  by  combining  am- 
monium sulphate  with  aluminum  sulphate  as 
previously  described.  The  low  cost  of  ammonium 
sulphate,  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  the  manu- 
facture of  illuminating  gas,  has  led  to  the  sub- 
stitution of  this  alum  in  commerce  for  potassium 
alum.  The  properties  of  the  ammonium  and 
potassium  alums  are  similar,  though  the  am- 
monium compound  is  less  soluble  in  water. 

Sodium  alum  is  found  native  as  Mendozite, 
and  is  made  by  the  combination  of  sodium  sul- 
phate with  aluminum  sulphate. 

Alum  is  used  as  mordant  in  dyeing,  to  clarify 
liquors  of  various  kinds  and  especially  water, 
to  harden  tallow,  fats,  and  gypsum  in  the  tan- 
ning of  leather;  the  ammonium  alum  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  baking  powders.  A  potas- 
sium chromium  sulphate,  called  chroma  alum, 
and  an  iron  aluminum  sulphate  called  iron  alum, 
are  also  used  in  the  arts.  Consult  J.  Gardner, 
Acetic  Acid,  Vinegar,  Alum,  Ammonia,  etc,  (Phil- 
adelphia, 1885). 

AXU'MIKA  {from  alum).  Aluminum  oxide, 
the  most  abundant  of  the  earths.  It  is  found 
native,  nearly  pure  as  corundum;  with  minute 
quantities  of  metallic  oxides,  as  ruby,  sapphire. 
Oriental  amethyst.  Oriental  emerald,  and  Ori- 
ental topaz;  and  less  pure  as  emery.  It  is 
also  found  in  combination  with  silica,  as  in  many 
of  the  minerals  of  the  feldspar  group,  as  well  as 
in  certain  igneous  rocks. 

Alumina  is  known  in  two  forms:  A  white, 
soft,  pulverulent  variety,  and  a  colorless  crystal- 
line variety.  It  may  be  prepared  in  a  pure  state 
by  heating  potash  alum  with  a  solution  of  am- 
monium carbonate;  the  resulting  aluminum  hy- 
drate is  well  washed,  dried,  and  ignited,  the 
residue  being  pure  alumina.  A  comparatively 
pure  alumina  may  also  be  obtained  by  heating 
ammonium  alum  until  its  volatile  constituents 
are  driven  off.  When  alumina  is  precipitated 
from  a  solution  containing  some  coloring  matter, 
such  as  logwood,  it  carries  down  the  color  with 
the  flocculent  precipitate,  forming  colored  in- 
soluble salts  called  lakes.  It  is  this  property 
that  has  led  to  its  extensive  use  as  a  mordant 


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ALUM   BOOT. 


in  dyeing.  Its  silicate  forming  a  plastic  mate- 
rial with  water,  it  is  extensively  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  pottery.  Corundum,  sapphire, 
and  ruby  have  been  artificially  made  in  Paris 
from  alumina. 

AL'TTMIN^TTM  or  ALTT^KINITM  ( From  Lat. 
alumen,  alum) .  A  metallic  element,  next  to  oxy- 
gen and  silicon  the  most  widely  distributed.  It  is 
not  found  native,  but  in  combination,  chiefly  as 
an  oxide  in  the  mineral  corundum ;  as  a  hydrated 
oxide  in  diaspore;  and  in  combination  with  oxy- 
gen and  -  metals  as  aluminates,  as  in  spinel, 
chrysoberyl,  and  garni te.  It  also  occurs  as 
a  silicate  in  various  clays.  Its  chief  ores  are 
bauxite  (a  hydrated  aluminium  oxide) ,  and  cryo- 
lite (an  aluminium  and  sodium  fluoride).  The 
elementary  nature  of  aluminium  was  recognized 
by  Davy  and  others,  but  the  metal  was  not  iso- 
lated until  1828,  when  WOhler  succeeded  in  de- 
composing aluminium  chloride  by  the  action  of 
potassium.  Deville,  in  1854,  obtained  the  metal 
by  electrolysis.  A  year  later  he  simplified  the 
process  of  manufacture  by  using  sodium  instead 
of  potassium  as  a  reducing  agent.  Deville's  ex- 
periments attracted  the  attention  of  Napoleon 
III.,  under  whose  patronage  a  metallurgical 
plant  was  established  at  Javelle,  France.  Ingots 
of  the  metal  were  exhibited  at  the  World's  Fair 
held  in  Paris,  1855.  In  1886  Hamilton  Y.  Cast- 
ner,  of  New  York  City,  invented  an  important 
process  for  the  reduction  of  aluminium.  His 
patent,  which  was  the  first  to  be  taken  out  since 
1808,  was  for  an  improved  method  of  obtaining 
sodium.  He  succeeded  in  lowering  the  price  of 
that  reducing  agent  from  one  dollar  a  pound  to 
one-fourth  that  amount.  He  established  a  plant 
in  Oldbury,  England,  and  began  the  commercial 
production  of  aluminium.  Meanwhile,  Charles  M. 
Hall,  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  perfected  an  electrolytic 
method  for  the  reduction  of  aluminium.  In  his 
process  the  alumina  is  held  in  solution  by  a 
molten  fiuoride  bath,  which  is  itself  not  decom- 
posed by  the  electric  current.  The  latter  is  con- 
veyed to  the  melted  solution  by  means  of  carbon 
cylinders  placed  in  the  bath  for  positive  elec- 
trodes, a  carbon  lined  pot  forming  the  negative 
electrode.  The  oxygen  of  the  aluminium  goes  off 
at  the  positive  electrode  as  carbon  dioxide,  wear- 
ing away  the  carbon  at  the  rate  of  nearly  a  pound 
of  carbon  to  the  pound  of  aluminium  produced. 
The  reduced  metal  settles  at  the  bottom  of  the 
pot,  which  is  easily  tapped,  yielding  a  metal  of 
99  per  cent,  purity.  Works  for  the  reduction  of 
aluminium  by  the  Hall  process  were  established 
in  1889  near  Pittsburg.  Since  then  Pittsburg 
has  been  the  centre  of  the  aluminium  industry  in 
the  United  States;  although  in  1895,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  power  obtained  from  the  Falls, 
a  large  electrolytic  plant  w^as  erected  at  Niagara. 
The  total  production  of  aluminium  in  1809  was 
5,570.38  metric  tons,  about  12,254,838  pounds, 
of  which  the  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company 
of  Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y.,  produced  about  2948 
metric  tons,  about  6,500,000  pounds.  The 
production  of  aluminium  in  1900  in  the 
United  States  was  7,150,000  pounds,  valued  at 
$2,288,000,  as  against  61,281  pounds  valued  at 
$61,281,  in  1890.  In  1855,  the  first  year  of  its 
commercial  existence,  aluminium  sold  at  $90  per 
pound;  in  1870  it  was  $12  per  pound;  in  1889 
the  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company  sold  it  at  $2 
per  pound,  and  in  1899  aluminium  in  rods  and 
bars  for  electrical  conduction  was  sold  at  29 
cents  per  pound. 


Aluminium    (sym.   Al.,   at.   wgt.  27.11)   is  a 
white  metal  with  a  bluish  tinge,  is  extremely 
malleable,  and   has   a   specific   gravity  of  2.56, 
which  may  be  increased  to  2.68  by  rolling.    In 
its  tensile  strength    it  ranks  with    cast    iron, 
breaking  at  15,000  pounds  to  20,000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  but  in  malleability  and  ductility 
it  ranks  with  |[old.    Like  gold  and  silver,  it  hard- 
ens   in    working,  and  rods    and  wire    vary   in 
strength  from  26,000  pounds  to  62,000  pounds  per 
square  inch.     The  electrical  conductivity  of  alu- 
minium is  about  50,  with  copper  at  90,  and  silver 
at  100;  and  its  thermal  conductivity  is  38,  with 
copper  at  73.6,  and  silver  at  100.     It  is  also 
sonorous.    Aluminium    is    a   little    softer   than 
silver,  but  its  ductility  allows  it  to  be  drawn, 
punched,  or  spun  into  almost  any  form.    It  is 
practically  non-tarnishable,  but  strictly  speak- 
ing, after  long  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  its 
polish  becomes  dulled  by  a  very  thin  film  of  white 
oxide.     Aluminium  is  not  acted  upon  by  hydro- 
gen disulphide,  carbon  monoxide,  carbon  dioxide, 
or  sulphurous  acid.     It  is  practically  unaffected 
by  common  salt,  either  wet  or  dry,  and  hence  by 
sea  water.     On  the  other  hand,  solutions  of  the 
caustic   alkalies   readily   attack   it,   and  hydro- 
chloric acid  is  in  its  natural  solvent.  Aluminium 
forms  alloys  with  most  of  the  metals.    Those 
with  copper,  silver,  and  tin  are  much  used  on 
account  of  their  color,  hardness,  and  stability, 
and  the  ease  with  which  they  are  worked.     (See 
Alloys.)     Those  with  copper  are  called  alumin- 
ium bronzes,  and  those  with  silver  are  known  as 
tiers  argent.    The  lightness  of  metallic  alumin- 
ium, subsequent  to  the  improved  processes  for  its 
manufacture,  suggestion  its  application  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  iron,  tin,  or  copper ;  but  as  yet  it  has 
failed  to  supersede  any  of  these  metals,  on  ac- 
count of  its  high  price.     Its  most  important  use 
is  still  in  the  form  of  alloy,  especially  with  cop- 
per;  but  it  has  received  growing  favor  in  the 
manufacture  of  cooking  and  table  utensils,  and 
as  a  substitute  for  heavier  metals  in  opera  glass 
mountings  and  other  optical   instruments.    An 
application  of  aluminium  that  promises  favor- 
ably is  in  the  manufacture  of  accoutrements  for 
military  purposes.     Aluminium   is  enjoying  an 
increased  use  for  electrical  conductors  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  copper.     Owing  to  its  lightness,  the 
necessary  cross  section  to  insure  equal  conduc- 
tivitv  with  copper  rqn  be  secured  without  undue 
weight,  and  the  question  seems  to  be  largely  one 
of  expense,  with  the  advantage  at    present    in 
favor  of  aluminium. 

Bibliography.  C.  and  A.  Tissier,  L' Alumin- 
ium et  les  M^taux  alcalins.  (Paris,  1858)  :  .1.  W. 
Richards,  Aluminiumy  Its  Properties,  Metallurgy, 
and  Alloys  (Philadelphia,  1890)  ;  A.  E.  Hunt, 
J.  W.  Langley,  and  C.  M.  Hall,  "The  Properties 
of  Aluminum,  with  some  Information  Relating  to 
the  Metal,"  Transactions  of  the  American  Insti- 
tute of  Mining  Engineers  (New  York,  1890). 
See  Bauxite:  Cryolite. 

AI/XTM  BOOT.  A  name  given  in  the  United 
States  to  two  plants,  very  different  from  one 
another,  but  agreeing  in  the  remarkable  astrin- 
gency  of  their  roots.  One  of  these.  Geranium 
maculatum  (see  Geranium),  very  much  resem- 
bles some  of  the  species  of  Geranium  which  are 
common  weeds  in  Great  Britain.  The  root  con- 
tains 12.27  per  cent,  tannin,  gallic  acid,  pectin, 
and  red  coloring  matter.  The  tincture  of  the 
root  is  of  use  in  sore  throat  and  ulcerations 
of  the  mouth,  and  is  also  administered  in  vari- 


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413 


ALVA. 


ous  diseases.  The  property  of  astringency  be- 
longs, in  an  inferior  degree,  to  some  other  species 
of  Geranium,  and  of  the  kindred  genera,  Erodium 
and  Pelargonium.  The  other  American  plant  to 
which  the  name  alum  root  is  given  is  Heuchera 
americana,  of  the  natural  order  Saxifragace 
(see  Saxifrage),  an  order  in  which  also  astrin- 
gency is  a  prevalent  property.  The  genus  Heu- 
chera has  the  calyx  5-clett,  undivided  petals,  five 
stamens,  with  remarkably  long  styles.  Heuchera 
americana  is  everywhere  covered  with  a  clammy 
down;  the  leaves  are  roundish, lobed, and  toothed; 
the  peduncles,  dichotomous  and  straggling.  The 
root  is  a  powerful  styptic,  and  is  used  to  make  a 
wash  for  wounds  and  obstinate  ulcers. 

ALTTM  SHALE.  A  variety  of  shale  or  shaly 
sandstone  containing  iron  pyrites,  which  on 
weathering  yields  alum.  In  the  process  of 
weathering,  the  pyrite  decomposes  and  the  pro- 
ducts of  decomposition,  reacting  on  the  alumina 
of  the  shale,  yield  limonite  and  alum.  The  same 
process  can  be  hastened  by  roasting  the  rock. 
Alum  shales  are  found  in  many  formations.  For 
commercial  purposes  the  shale  is  crushed  and 
spread  out  for  exposure  to  the  weather,  or  is 
roasted;  but  the  industry  is  rapidly  dying  out, 
and  is  not  carried  on  in  the  United  States.  An 
alum  shale  from  England  has  the  composition: 
silica,  51.16;  iron  sulphide,  8.50;  iron  protoxide, 
6.11;  alumina,  18.30;  lime,  2.15;  magnesia,  .90; 
sulphuric  acid,  2.5;  carbon,  8.29;  water,  2.00; 
total,  99.91. 

AL^NITE.  A  hydrated  aluminum  and 
potassium  sulphate  that  crystallizes  in  the  hex- 
agonal system.  In  color  it  is  usually  white,  al- 
though gray  and  reddish  varieties  are  sometimes 
found.  It  occurs  in  seams  in  trachytic  and  allied 
rocks,  where  it  has  been  formed  as  the  result  of 
the  action  of  sulphurous  vapors  on  the  rock. 
This  mineral,  which  is  used  as  a  source  of  alum, 
is  found  at  Tolfa  and  Montioni  in  Italy,  in  Hun- 
gary, and  elsewhere  in  Europe;  also  at  various 
localities  in  the  United  SU,tes,  especially  in  Cus- 
ter County,  Colo. 

ALTTNNO,  &.l5on'nd,  NiccoLd  (1430-1500). 
An  Umbrian  painter,  born  at  Foligno.  He  is  in- 
correctly called  Alunno  by  Vasari ;  his  name  was 
Niccold  di  Liberatore.  No  trace  of  this  master 
has  been  found  later  than  1499.  He  painted  in 
distemper,  but  his  colors  still  endure.  His  prin- 
cipal works  are  a  "Crucifixion,"  in  the  Art  Hall 
at  Karlsruhe  (1468),  an  enthroned  "Madonna," 
in  the  Brera,  at  Milan,  and  portions  of  an  altar- 
piece  in  the  church  of  San  Niccold  at  Foligno 
(1492).  In  the  Louvre  may  be  seen  an  "Annun- 
ciation** by  this  master,  and  there  is  a  bust  of 
Christ  by  him  in  the  London  National  Gallery. 
Fragments  of  an  altar-piece  iii  the  cathedral  of 
Assisi  still  exist.  The  picture  represented  a 
pietd,  with  two  angels  bearing  torches.  Alunno 
was  the  founder  of  a  new  style  in  the  Umbrian 
school.  The  religious  retirement  of  the  people 
had  rendered  them  unfamiliar  with  classic 
studies,  and  their  previous  work  had  simply  ex- 
pressed their  spiritual  longings.  It  was  Alunno 
who  led  to  a  more  realistic  mode  of  expressing 
beauty,  which,  combined  w^ith  religious  feeling, 
later  made  the  paintings  of  Raphael  so  rich  in 
coloring  as  well  as  dignity.  He  established  a 
school  in  which  others  of  greater  genius  came  to 
excel  him.  Tliere  is  a  marble  statue  of  him  at 
Folio^io,  erected  in  1872.  See  Wilhelm  Lflbke, 
Outlines  of  the  History  of  Art  (New  York,  1881)  ; 


A.  G.  Radcliffe,  Schools  and  Masters  of  Painting 
(New  York,   1898). 

Al/UBED.     See  Alfred  of  Beverley. 

ALTTTA,  ft-loo'tA,  or  Alt  or  Olt.  An  afflu- 
ent of  the  Danube  rising  in  the  Carpathians,  in 
Transylvania.  After  entering  Roumania  through 
the  so-called  Red  Tower  Pass  of  the  Transylva- 
^nian  Alps,  it  joins  the  Danube  near  Nicopolis 
*  (Map:  Turkey  in  Europe,  E  2) .  It  is  about  340 
miles  long,  and  unfit  for  navigation  on  account 
of  its  rapidity. 

ALVA,  AVvk,  or  ALBA,  Fernando  Alvarez 
DE  Toledo,  Duke  of  (1508-82  or  -83).  A  Span- 
ish general  and  statesman.  His  family  was  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  in  Spain.  He  was 
trained  by  his  grandfather  for  war  and  politics, 
entered  upon  a  life  of  brilliant  and  intense  ac- 
tivity, and  became  Prime  Minister,  and  general 
of  the  armies  of  Spain  under  Charles  V.  and 
Philip  II.  As  a  young  man  he  founght  in  the 
campaigns  of  Charles  V.  against  Francis  I.,  but 
his  military  talent  was  not  thought  highly  of, 
and  this  hurt  his  pride.  His  appointment  to 
high  command  was  attributed  to  favor  and  in- 
fluence rather  than  his  ability.  He  was  in  the 
campaign  against  the  Elector  John  Frederick  of 
Saxony,  over  whom  he  gained  a  brilliant  vic- 
tory at  MUhlberg  in  1547,  and  fought  against 
Henry  II.  of  France,  and  in  the  Italian  cam- 
paign of  1555  against  the  combined  French 
and  Papal  forces,  when  he  overran  the  States 
of  the  Church,  but  was  instructed  by  Philip  II., 
after  the  abdication  of  Charles  V.,  to  give  up 
his  conquests.  He  acted  as  proxy  for  Philip 
at  the  French  court  when  the  Spanish  king 
espoused  Elizabeth,  daughter  of  Henry  II.  of 
France,  after  the  peace  of  Cateau-Cambr^sis  in 
1559.  Alva  is  best  kno\iii  for  his  work  in  the 
Netherlands,  where  he  was  sent  in  1567,  with 
unlimited  authority  to  repress  the  Dutch  revolt 
against  Spanish  tyranny  and  the  Inquisition. 
He  promptly  established  the  tribunal  which  has 
been  known  as  the  "Bloody  Council."  This  body, 
without  legal  status  or  procedure,  entered  upon 
a  general  proscription  of  the  living  and  the  dead 
and  the  confiscation  of  property.  Excessive  taxa- 
tion brought  commerce  almost  to  a  standstill,* 
and  more  than  120,000  Protestants  emigrated. 
Counts  Egmont  and  Hoorne  were  executed. 
Prince  Louis  of  Orange  was  defeated,  and  Prince 
William  was  driven  into  Germany,  after  which 
Alva  made  a  triumphal  entry  into  Brussels, 
December  22,  1568.  He  was  especially  honored' 
by  the  Pope,  and  set  up  in  Antwerp  a  statue  of 
himself  trampling  on  two  figures,  representing  the 
nobles  and  people  of  the  Netherlands.  His  blood- 
thirsty tyranny  intensified  the  resistance  of  the 
Dutch,  and  after  the  destruction  of  his  fleet  the 
King  recalled  him  at  his  own  request  (1573). 
He  claimed  to  have  caused  the  execution  of 
18,000  men.  He  was  received  in  Madrid  with 
the  highest  honors,  but  for  an  act  of  disobedience 
was  banished  from  the  court  until  called  upon  to 
conduct  a  campaign  (1580)  against  Dom  An- 
tonio, of  Portugal.  The  country  was  conquered 
and  treated  with  that  cruelty  and  license  which 
always  followed  Alva's  course.  Alva  was  tall, 
spare,  bronzed,  with  a  long  beard,  a  tjrpical 
Spanish  grandee.  Motley's  estimate,  severe  as 
it  is,  represents  the  world's  verdict  upon  him: 
"Such  an  amount  of  stealth  and  ferocity,  of 
patient  vindictiveness,  and  universal  bloodthirs- 
tiness  has  never  been  found  in  a  savage  beast  of 


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ALVA. 


414 


ALVABY. 


the  forest,  and  but  rarely  in  a  human  being." 
The  German  historian,  Ludwig  H&usser,  calls 
Alva  "the  hangman  of  the  Netherlands."  Con- 
sult: J.  L.  Motley,  Rise  of  the  Dutch  Republic 
(New  York,  1836)  ;  Rustant,  Hiatoria  de  Don 
Fernando  Alvarez  de  Toledo,  duque  de  Alva 
(Madrid,  1751). 

ALVABADO,  filVA-rft^od.  A  seaport  in  the 
State  of  Vera  CruE,  Mexico,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Alvarado  River,  40  miles  southeast  of  Vera 
Cruz  (Map:  Mexico,  L  8).  The  harbor  is  well 
sheltered,  but  is  too  shallow  for  vessels  of  more 
than  13  feet  draft,  and  the  climate  is  very  un- 
healthful  because  of  the  surrounding  swamps. 
Its  exports  are  rice  and  cacao.    Pop.,  about  4000. 

ALVA&ADO,  Aloxzo  or  Alfonso  de  (? — 
1554).  A  Spanish  soldier  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury. He  was  born  at  Burgos,  served  under 
Cortes  in  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  and  under 
Pizarro  in  that  of  Peru.  In  1537  he  was  sent 
to  Chile  against  the  rebel  Almagro,  but  at  the 
Abancay  River  was  defeated  by  Orgofiez.  In 
1548,  under  Gasca,  he  assisted  in  suppressing  the 
revolt  of  Gonzalo  Pizarro.  He  was  appointed 
Captain-General  of  T^a  Plata  and  Potoef,  but  was 
vanquished  by  the  malcontent  Giron  in  1664,  and 
died  not  long  after. 

ALVA&ADO,  Pedbo  de  ( t  —  1641).  A 
Spanish  adventurer,  a  companion  of  Cortes,  and 
afterward  conqueror  of  Guatemala.  He  was  bom 
at  Badajoz,  in  Spanish  Estremadura.  In  1517  or 
1518,  he  sailed  for  the  New  World,  and  in  the 
latter  year  was  dispatched  from  Cuba,  by  Velas- 
quez, the  governor  of  that  island*  to  explore, 
under  the  command  of  Grijalva,  the  shores  of 
the  American  continent,  when  for  the  first  time 
the  Spaniards  heard  of  the  riches  of  Montezuma, 
and  of  his  vast  empire.  In  February,  1519, 
Alvarado  sailed  with  Cortes  from  Havana  for 
the  conquest  of  Mexico,  in  which  Alvarado  played 
a  part  second  only  to  Cortes.  His  blue  eyes  and 
blond  beard  strengthened  the  impression  among 
the  dusky  Aztecs  that  the  invaders  were  "chil- 
dren of  the  sun,"  descendants  of  Quetzlcoatl,  who 
were  looked  for  to  resume  the  dominion  of  the 
ancient  royal  house  in  Mexico.  While  he  held 
the  city  of  Mexico,  during  the  absence  of  his 
chief,  he  massacred  in  the  midst  of  a  f§te  a  great 
number  of  Aztec  nobles.  In  the  night  retreat 
of  July  1,  1520,  the  noche  triste,  Alvarado  com- 
manded the  rear-guard,  and  saved  his  life  bv 
a  famous  leap,  the  "sal to  de  Alvarado,"  which 
he  accomplished  with  the  aid  of  his  long  spear 
across  a  wide  breach  in  the  causeway  along  which 
the  retreating  Spaniards  were  being  driven. 
After  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  he  was  sent,  in 
1523,  to  subdue  the  tribes  on  the  coast  of  the 
Pacific  in  the  direction  of  Guatemala.  He  was 
completely  successful,  and  returned  to  Spain, 
where  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  appointed  him 
Governor  of  Guatemala.  Pizarro  and  Almagro 
were  then  prosecuting  a  brilliant  career  of  con- 
quest in  South  America.  Alvarado  did  not  intend 
to  intrude  on  their  territories,  but  as  he  consid- 
ered the  province  of  Quito  to  be  without  the 
limits  of  these,  he  landed  with  a  force  of  five 
hundred  soldiers  at  Bahfa  de  los  Caraques, 
whence  he  penetrated  into  the  heart  of  the  coun- 
try, crossing  the  Andes  by  a  bold  and  hazardous 
march.  In  the  plain  of  Rio  Bamba,  he  wsw  met 
by  some  of  the  troops  of  Pizarro,  headed  by 
Almagro,  and  agreed  to  retire  on  receiving  an 
indemnity.     Subsequently  he  received  the  gov- 


ernment of  Honduras  in  addition  to  Guatemala. 
He  perished  in  an  affray  with  the  Indians  near 
Guadalajara  in  western  Mexico  in  1541,  crushed 
under  his  fallen  horse. 

AXVABEZ,  kVYk'Tk^  Albert  Ratvond  (1860- 
— ).  A  French  vocalist.  He  was  bom  at  Bor- 
deaux. He  was  first  in  the  army  as  a  musical 
conductor ;  afterward  he  studied  at  the  Conserva- 
toire, Paris,  and  appeared  as  an  operatic  tenor. 
He  first  sang  at  the  Paris  Op^ra  in  1892,  and 
soon  became  the  leading  tenor  of  the  Op^ra.  In 
1893  he  appeared  in  Covent  Garden,  London. 
He  visited  the  United  States  in  1898-99  and  1900. 
The  unanimous  approval  with  which  he  met  in 
Europe  was  not  wholly  confirmed  in  this  country. 
His  r^portoire  includes  no  less  than  forty-five 
operas,  in  eleven  of  which  he  created  the  prin- 
cipal parts. 

AXVABEZ,  &l-va'reth,  Jost  (1768-1827). 
A  Spanish  sculptor.  He  was  bom  April  23,  1768, 
at  Priego,  in  the  province  of  Cordova.  Dur- 
ing his  youth  he  labored  with  his  father,  a  stone 
mason,  and  when  twenty  years  old  began  to  study 
drawing  and  sculpture  in  the  Academy  of  Gra- 
nada. His  early  essays  in  sculpture  obtained  for 
him  the  patronage  of  the  Bishop  of  Cordova,  and 
in  1794  he  was  received  into  the  Academy  of  San 
Fernando,  where,  in  1799,  he  gained  the  first 
prize  in  the  first  class.  Subsequently  he  gained 
the  second  prize  for  sculpture  in  the  Institute  of 
Paris,  and  in  1804  increased  his  celebrity  by  a 
plaster-model  of  Ganymede,  which  proved  that 
he  could  rival  Canova  in  gracefulness  of  style. 
Having  removed  to  Rome,  he  was  employed  by 
Napoleon  to  design  bas-reliefs  for  the  Quirinal 
Palace  on  Monte  Cavallo;  but  on  account  of 
political  changes,  his  works  were  not  allowed  to 
occupy  the  places  for  which  they  had  been  des- 
tined. In  Rome,  where  he  lived  on  terms  of 
friendship  with  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen,  he  exe- 
cuted, among  other  works,  his  colossal  group  of 
"Saragossa,"  now  in  the  Royal  Museum  of  Mad- 
rid, representing  a  scene  in  the  defense  of  Sara- 
gossa. This  work  alone  is  sufficient  to  establish 
Alvarez's  fame.  Clearness  of  design,  .dignified 
simplicity  in  execution,  trueness  to  nature,  and 
deep  sentiment  mark  the  sculptures  of  Alvarez, 
who,  next  to  nature  and  classical  antiquity, 
studied  most  the  works  of  Michaelangelo.  He 
died  in  Madrid,  November  26,  1827.  Consult 
Shedd,  Famous  Sculptors  and  Sculpture  (Boston, 
1896). 

AXVABEZ,  Juan  (1780-1867).  A  Mexican 
general  of  Indian  descent.  He  instigated  the  re- 
volt which  deposed  Santa  Anna  (q.v.)  in  July, 
1855,  and  succeeded  Carrera  as  President  in  Sep- 
tember, but  resigned  before  the  end  of  the  year. 
He  was  afterward  one  of  the  most  determined  op- 
ponents of  Maximilian  (q.v.). 

ALVABY,  Al-va'rft,  Max  (1858-98).  The 
stage  name  of  a  famous  Grerman  dramatic  tenor. 
He  was  born  at  Dtisseldorf;  his  father  was  an 
eminent  landscape  painter,  Andreas  Achenbacb. 
He  studied  singing  with  Lamperti  and  Julius 
Stockhausen  of  Frankfort,  but  owing  to  his 
father's  opposition  to  his  going  on  the  stage,  did 
not  make  his  d^but  until  1882,  at  Weimar,  in 
StradcUa,  He  came  to  this  country  in  1884, 
and  made  his  first  appearance  as  Jo86  in  Car' 
men  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  New 
York.  During  his  five  years*  engagement  here 
he  developed,  partly  under  Seidl's  guidance,  into 
a  Wagner  singer,  his  finest  rOles  &ing  Loge,  in 


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AXVABY. 


415 


ALZOa. 


Das  Rheingold,  and  Siegfried,  in  the  music  drama 
of  that  title.  Alvary  returned  to  America  for 
the  season  of  1894-95,  and  again  in  1896.  March 
21,  1895,  at  the  Metropolitan  Opera  House,  he 
sang  Siegfried  for  the  one  hundredth  time.  In 
November,  1896,  he  was  afflicted  with  cancer  of 
the  stomach,  resulting*  it  is  supposed,  from 
bruises  received  by  a  fall  through  an  open  trap 
on  the  Mannheim  stage.  He  went  to  his  beau- 
tiful country  seat,  Datenberg,  the  building  of 
which,  and  his  enforced  absence  from  the  stage, 
had  impoverished  him.  Here  he  died,  November 
8,  1898. 

AIiVENSLEBEN,  aKv$ns-la'ben,  Konstan- 
Tm  VON  (1809-92).  A  Prussian  general.  He 
was  born  in  Prussian  Saxony,  was  trained  in  the 
cadet  corps,  served  through  the  Danish  War  and 
tlie  war  with  Austria,  and  commanded  the  third 
army  corps  in  the  Franco-German  War.  He  re- 
tired in  1873.  One  of  the  forts  at  Metz  was 
named  in  his  honor. 

AliVIN,  ftrvftN^  Louis  Joseph  (1806-87).  A 
Belgian  poet  and  art  critic.  He  was  bom  at 
Cambria;  in  1830  was  appointed  secretary,  and 
subsequently  chief  of  division  in  the  ministry  of 
education.  In  1850  he  was  appointed  librarian 
of  the  Royal  Library,  Brussels.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Belgian  Academy  (elected  1845),  and,  be- 
sides numerous  contributions  to  periodicals, 
MTote  a  variety  of  works,  including  a  tragedy, 
Sardanapale  (1834)  ;  the  comedy  Le  folliculaire 
anonyme  (1835)  ;  the  satire  Les  recontempla- 
tions  (1856),  and  the  two  studies,  Les  acadd- 
mica  €t  les  autres  cooler  de  dessin  de  la  Belgique 
en  1864  (1866),  and  Andr4  von  Hasselt  (1877). 

AJjYTHCZY,  6lMn-ts^,  Joseph,  Baron  von 
(1735-1810).  An  Austrian  field-marshal.  He 
fought  in  the  Seven  Years*  War  at  Torgau  and 
Teplitz,  and  in  1789  he  led  the  force  which  unsuc- 
cessfully attempted  to  capture  Belgrade  by  storm. 
Between  1792  and  1793  he  fought  bravely  in  the 
Netherlands.  Though  oftener  losing  than  win- 
ning, he  was  selected  to  lead  the  Austrian  army 
against  Bonaparte;  but  having  lost  the  impor- 
tant battles  of  Arcole  and  Rivoli,  he  was  recalled. 
In  1798  he  received  the  chief  command  in  Hun- 
gary, and  reorganized  the  army.  He  became 
field-marshal  in  1808. 

AIiTTIS  (All- wise).  In  Norse  mythology,  the 
dwarf,  a  suitor  for  the  hand  of  Thor's  daughter, 
who  answers  Thor's  questions  in  the  lay  (song) 
of  Alvis. 

AI/VOBD,  Benjamin  (1813-84).  An  Ameri- 
can soldier  and  writer.  He  was  born  at  Rutland, 
Vt.,  and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1833.  Af- 
ter serving  in  the  second  Seminole  War  (1835- 
37 ) ,  he  participated  in  the  War  with  Mexico, 
and  attained  the  brevet  rank  of  major.  During 
the  march  from  Vera  Cruz  to  Mexico  he  was 
chief  of  staff  to  Major  Lally's  column.  He  was 
paymaster  of  the  Department  of  Oregon  from 
18.54  to  1862,  and  brigadier-general  of  volunteers 
from  1862  until  his  resignation  of  this  grade  in 
1865.  He  then  became  paymaster  at  New  York 
City,  a  position  which  he  held  until  1867,  and 
from  1867  to  1872  he  held  the  same  post  in  the 
district  of  Omaha  and  Nebraska.  From  1876 
until  his  retirement  (1881)  he  was  Paymaster- 
General  of  the  United  States  Army,  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general.  Among  his  publications 
are:  Tangencies  of  Circles  and  of  Spheres 
(1855),   and    The  Interpretation   of  Imaginary 


Hoots    in    Questions    of    Maxima    and    Minima 
(1860). 

AXVOBD,  COBTDON  A.  ( 1812-74) .  An  Ameri- 
can printer.  He  was  born  at  Winchester,  Conn., 
and  in  1845  removed  to  New  York,  where  he  be- 
came widely  known  as  a  printer  of  illust]:ated 
books.  His  establishment  on  Vandewater  Street 
was  one  of  the  largest  in  the  country.  It  con- 
tained fonts  of  old-style  type  and  of  ancient  and 
Oriental  letters  which  enabled  him  to  make  re- 
markable facsimiles  of  old  books  and  papers. 
After  retiring  from  business  in  1871  he  removed 
to  Hartford,  where  he  devoted  most  of  his  time 
to  the  preparation  of  a  history  of  Hartford  and 
Winchester. 

AJLWAR,  ftlVftr.  One  of  the  feudatory  SUtes 
of  Rajputana  (q.v.),  British  India  (Map:  India» 
C  3). 

ALWAB.  Capital  of  the  native  Rajputana^ 
and  State  of  the  same  name,  India,  on  the  North- 
western Railway,  60  miles  northeast  of  Jaipur. 
It  is  the  residence  of  the  Maharaja  and  of  a  Brit- 
ish political  agent.  The  town,  dominated  by  an 
imposing  front,  built  on  a  rock  1200  feet  high, 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  undulating  ground. 
Its  chief  building  is  the  Royal  Palace,  with  its 
marble  darbar  room,  jewel  house,  valuable  libra- 
ry, armory,  and  extensive  stablest  Other  note- 
worthy features  are  temples  and  tombs,  and 
churches  of  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Presbyte- 
rian missions.  The  town  has  a  fine  water  sup- 
ply from  the  artificial  Siliser  Lake,  nine  miles 
southwest  of  the  city.  Pop.,  1891,  52,398;  190U 
56,740. 

AL'WATO.    See  Andrews,  Stephen  Pearl. 

ALYATTES,  al'i-ftt'tez  (Gk. 'AXwlrrjy?).  A 
king  of  Lydia,  who  ascended  the  throne  about 
618  B.C.  He  took  Smyrna,  drove  the  Cimmerians 
from  Asia,  and  attacked  Clazomense,  but  was  re- 
pulsed. A  six  years'  war  was  waged  between  him 
and  Cyaxares,  King  of  Media.  He  died  about 
562  B.C.,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  the  his- 
toric Crccsus.  His  tomb,  situated  north  of  Sar- 
dis,  and  not  far  from  I^ake  Gygiea^  was  one  of 
the  wonders  of  antiquity. 

AliYS'SUM  (Gk.  aXvaaov,  alysson,  a  plant 
used  to  check  hiccough,  from  a,  a,  neg.  -f-A6Cc<v, 
lyzein,  to  hiccough).  A  genus  of  low-growing 
mostly  perennial  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Cruciferse.  There  are  a  number  of  species  and 
many  cultivated  varieties,  mostly  of  European 
origin.  The  plant  is  used  largely  for  rock- work. 
The  flowers  are  small,  white  or  yellow,  and  borne 
in  racemes.  The  sweet  alyssum  {Alyssum  m^ri- 
timum),  grown  in  low  borders,  window  gardens,, 
and  baskets,  and  fenced  in  greenhouses,  is  aa 
annual. 

ALZEYy  iiKtst.  An  old  city  in  Rhenish  Hesse, 
on  the  Selz,  18  miles  southwest  of  Mainz  (Map: 
Prussia,  C  4).  Its  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  shoes,  leather  ware,  and  furni- 
ture. Population  in  1890,  about  6000;  in  1900, 
6900.  The  town  was  known  as  early  as  the 
fourth  century,  and  was  built  on  the  site  of  an 
earlier  Roman  settlement.  Volker  the  Fiddler » 
one  of  the  heroes  of  the  Nihelungenlied,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  come  from  Alzey. 

ALZOO,  nl'tsdo,  JoHANN  Baptist  (1808-78). 
A  Roman  Catholic  theologian.  He  was  born  at 
Ohlau,  Silesia,  June  29,  1808,  and  was  professor 
of  church  history  in  the  University  of  Freiburg 
from  1853  till  his  death  there,  March   1,   1878. 


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416 


AHADIS   OF   OBEECE. 


He  wrote  a  Manual  of  Universal  Church  History, 
which  is  known  in  many  languages  (original, 
Mainz,  1840;  tenth  edition  by  F.  X.  Kraus,  1882, 
2  volumes ;  English  translation,  Cincinnati,  Ohio. 
1874-76,  3  volumes)  ;  also  Grundriss  der  Patrolo- 
gie  Oder  der  dltem  christlichen  Litterargeschichte 
(Freiburg,  1866;  fourth  edition,  1888).  He  was, 
in  1869,  a  member  of  the  commission  on  dogma 
which  prepared  the  work  for  the  Vatican  Coun- 
cil, and  was  the  only  member  of  the  commission 
who  opposed  the  promulgation  of  the  dogma  of 
Papal  infallibility.  He  concurred  in  it,  however, 
after  its  adoption. 

AM^ADAS,  or  AldDAS,  Philip  (1550- 
1618).  An  English  navigator.  He  was  born  in 
Hull,  England.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  selected  him 
as  captain  of  one  of  the  two  ships  sent  out  in 
1584  to  find  a  suitable  place  on  the  coast  of 
Xorth  America  for  planting  a  colony.  He  and 
Barlow,  captain  of  the  other  vessel,  coasted 
northeasterly  from  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Fear 
and  reached  Ocracoke  Inlet  (July  13).  They 
landed  on  the  narrow  island  separating  Pamlico 
Sound  from  the  Atlantic,  and  afterward  visited 
the  Indians  on  Roanoke  Island.  They  returned 
to  England  and  gave  a  glowing  account  of  the 
country,  Barlow  writing  the  report.  Several 
years  afterward  Amadas  conducted  an  expedition 
to  Newfoundland.  Consult  Hakluyt,  Principall 
Voiages,  new  edition.  Volume  III.  (London, 
1809-12). 

AMADEO,  }k'mk'dfi%  GiovANia  Antonio 
(c.  1447-1552).  An  Italian  sculptor  and  archi- 
tect. He  was  born  at  Pavia,  where  he  executed 
a  portion  of  the  facade  decorations  of  the  Car- 
thusian monastery.  His  most  important  work  is 
generally  considered  to  be  the  Colleoni  Chapel, 
Bergamo,  with  its  bas-reliefs  and  statuary.  From 
1490  to  1510  he  conducted  the  work  upon  the 
Milan  Cathedral.  He  sought  to  combine  the  re- 
spective styles  of  the  Middle  Ages  and  the  early 
Renaissance,  and  ranks  as  the  most  important  of 
Lombard  sculptors.  * 

AM'ADEITSL  A  name  borne  by  several  mem- 
bers of  the  House  of  Savoy  (q.v.),  including  one 
king  of  Spain.    See  Amadeus  I. 

AMADEXTS  I.,  Ferdinand  Mabia  (1845-90). 
Duke  of  Aosta  and  King  of  Spain.  He  was 
the  second  son  of  Victor  Emmanuel  of  Italy,  and 
was  rear-admiral  in  the  Italian  navy  and  lieu- 
tenant-general in  the  army.  He  married  Princess 
Maria  del  Pozzo  della  Cisterna,  daughter  of  the 
Countess  de  Merode.  May  30,  1867.  On  Novem- 
ber 16,  1870,  the  Cortes  of  Spain  elected  him 
king,  and  on  December  4  Amadeus  accepted  the 
crown,  with  the  sanction  of  his  father  and  the 
approval  of  the  great  Powers.  He  reached  Mad- 
rid January  2,  1871,  four  days  after  the  assassi- 
nation of  General  Prim.  He  himself  was  at- 
tacked by  assassins  in  July,  1872.  In  the  same 
year  a  great  Carlist  rising  took  place.  On  Feb- 
ruary il,  1873,  he  abdicated  for  himself  and 
his  heirs,  and  returned  to  Italy,  the  Spanish 
Cortes  proclaiming  the  Republic,  and  making 
Figueras  provisional  President.  Consult  White- 
bouse,  The  Sacrifice  of  a  Throne  (New  York, 
1897). 

AMADEUS  VIII.    See  Felix  V. 

AM^ADIB  OF  OATJX.  A  legendary  hero  of 
the  most  famous  of  mediaeval  romances,  which 
even  the  barber  of  Don  Quixote  had  not  the 
heart  to  consign  to  the  flames.     It  was  the  cen- 


tre and  parent  of  a  cycle  of  similar  tales  of 
chivalry   which    have   their    representatives  in 
every  literary  language  of  medieval  Europe,  and 
even  in  Hebrew.     In  what  language  it  was  first 
Avritten  is  uncertain.     Portugal,  Spain,  France, 
and  England  claimed  its  nativity,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  Portugal,  all  vnth  some  show  of 
justice.     Amadis    owes    its   inspiration  to  the 
Arthurian  cycle,  and  so  to  Britain.    It  appears . 
to  have  been  developed  in  northern  France,  the 
home  of  the  mediaeval  epic,  to  have  migrated 
thence  to  Provence,  and  to  have  been  carried 
by  the  troubadours,  either  as  a  complete  story 
or  as  a  tradition,  to  Spain,  where  we  find  the 
epic  mentioned  by  poets  in  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century  in  a  way  to  indicate  that 
it   was   already   widely   popular   there,   though 
no  contemporaneous  trace  of  it  has  been  found 
in  Italy.     (Consult  Braunfels,   Kritischer  Yer- 
such  iiher  den  Roman  Amadis  von  Oaula,  Leipzig, 
1876.)     The   earliest   surviving   Amadis   legend 
is  by  the  Spaniard  Garcia  Ordofiez  de  Montalvo, 
and  appears  to  have  been  finished  about  1470. 
He  allowed  himself  considerable  liberties  with 
the  tradition,  especially  toward  the  close,  and 
his  anonymous  successors  extended  the  romance 
to  twelve  books  and  more  than  three  times  the 
length  he  had  given  it.     It  was  first  printed  in 
1519,   and  so  fully  embodies  the  taste  of  the 
generation  that  had  given  it  birth  that  it  almost 
immediately  became  part  and  parcel  of  the  lit- 
erary consciousness  of  Europe,  each  nation  recog- 
nizing and  reclaiming  its  share  in  it,  althouj^ 
they  claimed  no  part  of  the  continuation  by  Mon- 
talvo,  in  which  he  described,  out  of  his  own 
invention,    the    deeds    of   the    son    of    Amadis. 
Esplandian.     Amadis  was  rendered  into  Italian 
in  1546,  and  into  German  before  the  end  of  the 
century.     It  attracted  the  attention  of  Francis 
I.  during  his  captivity  at  Madrid,  and  at  his 
command  was  translated  by  Nicolas  de  Herberay, 
who   rendered   two-thirds   of   the   Spanish   epic 
into  polished  French,  finishing  his  work  in  1548. 
Ten    translations    followed    this,    with    supple- 
mentary   adventures    and    imitations,    till    the 
whole  swelled  at  last  to  twenty-five  books,  de- 
tailing the  adventures  of  an  entire  family.    In 
its  simpler  form  it  tells  how  its  hero,  Amadis, 
the  illegitimate  son  of  Perion,  King  of  Gaul, 
and  Elisena,  a  princess  of  Brittany,  was  placed 
by  his  mother  in  a  river  in  a  box,  was  rescued 
at  sea  by  a  Scottish  knight,  and  educated  at 
the    Scottish   court,   was   enamored   of   Oriana, 
daughter  of  King  IJsuarte  of  England,  married 
her,  returned  to  Gaul,  and  spent  the  rest  of  his 
life,  there  and  elsewhere,  in  manifold  adventures. 
Both  the  French  and  the  Spanish  Amadis  were 
criticised  in  their  own  day  for  defective  struc- 
ture, hyperbolic  phantasy,  immorality,  and  irre- 
ligion.     Their  popularity  lasted  until  they  them- 
selves had  raised  up  worthier  imitators  of  their 
example.     The  first  of  these  was  d'Urfe's  Astree. 

An  English  version  of  Amadis,  much  shortened 
to  its  advantage,  was  made  by  Southey  (London, 
1803).  For  the  origin  of  the  story,  consult: 
Grilsse,  Litteraturgeschichte  (Dresden,  1844-50)  ; 
and  K^rting,  Geschichte  des  franzosischen  Ro- 
mans im  XV TT.  Jahrhundert  (Leipzig,  1885)  : 
for  further  bibliography,  Braga,  Orundriss  der 
romanischen  Philologie  (Strassburg,  1893). 

AMADIS  OF  QBEECE.  A  supplement  to 
Amadis  of  Oaul,  a  Spanish  work  by  Feliciano  da 
Silva.  It  is  noteworthy  as  being  perhaps  the 
source  of  Florizel   in   Shakespeare's   "Winter's 


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AHADIS   OF    QBEECE.  '  417 

Tale/'  and  of  the  "Masque  of  Cupid/'  in  Spen- 
ser's Faerie  Queefie. 

AMADOB  DE  LOS  BIOS,  rm&Ddr'  d&  Ids 
re'6s,  Josfi  (1818-78).  A  Spanish  critic  and 
historian,  born  at  Baena.  He  first  became 
-  known  as  editor  (with  Madrazzo)  of  the  col- 
lection entitled  Monumentoa  arquitectdnicos  de 
Espana.  His  most  noted  work  is  the  Hiatoria 
'de  la  literatura  Espanola  (1861-65),  of  which 
he  completed  but  seven  volumes.  Despite  many 
<iefects  resulting  from  its  scope  and  complexity, 
this  work  remains  standard  in  the  subject  of 
which  it  treats.  His  other  publications  include 
works  on  the  art  monuments  of  Toledo  and  Se- 
ville, a  history  of  Latin-Byzantine  art  in  Spain, 
and  the  exhaustive  Hiatoria  aocial,  politica  y 
religioaa  de  loa  Jvdioa  de  Eapana  y  Portugal 
(Madrid,  1875-76). 

AMAT>OTT,  tlm'A-doo'  (Fr.  tinder,  from  ama- 
doner,  to  bait,  allure,  coax,  alluding  to  its  use 
as  tinder  during  the  Middle  Ages).  A  name 
given  to  some  fungi  of  the  genus  Polyporus. 
They  grow  upon  old  trees,  especially  oak  and 
ash,  in  Great  Britain  and  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  The  pileus  is  completely  blended  with 
the  hymenium,  which  is  pierced  with  thin-sided, 
rather  angular,  tubular,  vertical  passages^-the 
whole  fungus  thus  appearing  as  a  leathery  or 
fleshy  mass,  the  under  side  of  which  is  pierced 
by  deep  pores.  Polyporus  igniarius  is  called 
Hard  amadou,  or  Touchwood.  Polyporus  fomen- 
tarius  is  called  Soft  Amadou,  or  G«rman  Tinder. 
They  are  used  as  styptics  for  staunching  slight 
wounds ;  and  when  steel  and  flint  were  in  general 
use  for  striking  flre,  were  much  employed  as 
tinder,  being  prepared  for  this  purpose  by  boiling 
in  solution  of  nitre.  The  soft  amadou  is  used 
for  making  small  surgical  pads,  for  which  its 
-elasticity  peculiarly  fits  it.  Polyporus  fomen- 
tarius,  or  a  very  similar  species,  is  found  in  In- 
dia,  and  is  there  used  in  the  same  manner  as 
in  Europe.  The  remarkably  light  wood  of  Her- 
nandia  Guianensis,  a  shrub  of  the  natural 
order  Thymelaeacese,  is  readily  kindled  by  flint 
and  steel,  and  is  used  as  amadou  in  Guiana. 

AMAQEB,  H^mA-gSr.  An  island  in  the  district 
of  Copenhagen,  Denmark;  it  is  in  the  sound, 
and  separated  from  Zealand  by  the  Kalvebod 
Strand  (Map:  Denmark,  F  3).  Amager  has 
an  area  of  25  square  miles,  is  twice  as  long  as  it 
is  wide,  with  a  very  low  and  level  surface  that 
is  very  well  cultivated.  Christianshavn,  at  the 
northern  end  of  the  island,  forms  part  of  the 
city  of  Copenhagen.  The  chief  trade  is  market 
gardening  for  Cop3nhagen.  The  shipping  of 
the  island  is  of  some  importance.  The  inhabi- 
tants are  chiefly  descendants  of  Dutch  emigrants 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  who  still  preserve  their 
old  dress  and  customs.     Pop.,  1890,  19,700. 

AMAI^ON,  or  AMOY^MON  ( Probably  Gk. 
a,  a  priv. -f- Heb,  maimin,  believer).  A  demon 
named  in  the  theory  of  the  Middle  Ages  as  king 
of  the  eastern  part  of  hell.  Asmodeus  (q.v.), 
the  demon  of  desire,  was  his  lieutenant.  See 
allusions  in  Shakespeare's  Merry  Wivea  of  Wind- 
sor, 31.,  2,  and  Henry  IV. ,  first  part,  II.,  4. 

AJCAI/ABIC  (502-531).  The  last  Visigoth- 
ic  King  of  Spain  (526-531).  He  married  Clo- 
tilda, daughter  of  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks, 
in  527,  and  treated  her  so  badly  because  she 
would  not  embrace  Arianism  that  her  brother 
Childebert  marched  against  him  and  defeated 
Vou  1.-87 


AMALFI. 

him.  According  to  Gregory  of  Tours,  Almaric 
was  killed  in  the  battle;  according  to  others,  he 
was  killed  at  Barcelona. 

AM'ALASUN'THA  (T-535).  Queen  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  daughter  of  Theodoric  the  Great. 
On  the  death  of  Theodoric,  her  son  Athalaric 
succeeded  under  the  regency  of  Amalasuntha. 
She  was  well  educated,  and  preferred  the  Roman 
civilization.  The  Goths,  who  were  opposed  to 
this,  incited  her  son  to  rebellion  in  533.  Amala- 
suntha subdued  the  rebellion,  and  Athalaric  died 
the  following  year,  at  the  age  of  eighteen.  She 
then  associated  Theodahad  with  her  in  the  king- 
dom, but  did  not  marry  him.  In  535  Theodahad 
murdered  Amalasuntha,  under  the  pretext  that 
she  was  planning  to  betray  the  Goths  to  Justin- 
ian. Her  actions  had  made  it  probable  that 
she  was  thinking  of  retiring  to  Constantinople. 
Belisarius  avenged  her  death  by  killing  Theodo- 
had  in  536.  c3onsult  Hodgkin,  Italy  and  Her 
Invadera,  Volumes  III.  and  IV.,  second  edition 
(Oxford,  1896).    See  Goths. 

AKIAI/ECITE.  An  Algonkian  tribe,  closely 
related  to  the  Abnaki,  and  scattered  over  west- 
ern New  Brunswick,  chiefly  along  the  St.  John 
River,  to  the  number  of  about  850.  The  name,  fre- 
quently written  Malisit,  has  been  variously  ren- 
dered "disfigured  foot"  and  "broken  tafkers." 
Together  with  the  more  eastern  bands  of  the 
Abnaki,  they  were  sometimes  known  as  Echemin. 
In  the  colonial  wars  they  took  the  French  side. 

AM'AXEKITES.  One  of  the  fiercest  and 
most  warlike  of  the  old  nomadic  Arabian  tribes. 
They  dwelt  in  the  land  south  of  Judea  (Num- 
bers xiii:29),  between  Idumea  and  Egypt, 
though  it  would  also  appear  that  a  branch  ex- 
tendSl  at  one  time  into  central  Palestine.  Their 
country  is  first  mentioned  in  Genesis  xiv  as  the 
scene  of  the  wars  of  Chedorlaomer  of  Elam.  From 
the  very  first  they  manifested  great  hostility  to 
the  Israelites,  attacking  them  at  Rephidim  during 
the  journey  toward  Sinai.  They  were  defeated  in 
this  encounter  (Exodus  xvii  ;  8-16),  and  their 
complete  extermination  was  prophesied  (tb., 
Numbers  xxiv  :  20;  Deuteronomy  xxv  :  17-19). 
When  Israel  was  attempting  to  enter  Palestine, 
the  Amalekites  led  the  opposing  Canaan  itish 
forces  (Numbers  xiv:  43-45).  In  the  days  of 
Saul  they  were  almost  annihilated  (I.  Samuel 
XV  :  2)  ;  and  later  David  overcame  a  band  of 
marauding  Amalekites  with  great  slaughter,  pur- 
suing them  until  "there  escaped  not  a  man  of 
them  save  400  young  men  who  had  camels  and 
fled"  (I.  Samuel  xxx  :  1-20).  The  last  Amale- 
kites were  flnally  extirpated  in  the  days  of 
Hezekiah  by  the  Simeonites  (I.  Chronicles  iv  : 
43).  The  inveterate  hostility  between  Amalek 
and  Israel  is  reflected  in  so  late  a  production  as 
the  Book  of  Esther,  where  the  designation  of 
Haman,  the  arch-enemy  of  the  Jews,  as  "the 
Agagite"  (Esther  iii  :  1),  is  introduced  in  order 
to  emphasize  his  descent  from  Agag,  the  King 
of  Amalek  (Numbers  xxiv  :  7). 

AMALFI,  ft-mUKf^.  A  seaport  town  of  south- 
ern Italy,  situated  on  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  about 
22  miles  southeast  of  Naples  (Map:  Italy,  J  7). 
It  is  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  mountain  rising 
from  the  coast  and  covered  with  splendid  trees 
and  gardens.  The  houses  tower  one  above  an- 
other, and  are  connected  by  stairways  and 
bridges.  The  most  interesting  building  of  the 
place  is  the  old  cathedral,  with  its  bronze  doors 
cast  in  Constantinople  in  the  eleventh  century. 


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AMALFI. 


418 


AXAUUC  OF  BiHB. 


and  its  columns  from  Pestum.  •  An  old  Capu- 
chin monastery,  dating  from  the  beginning  of 
the  thirteenth  century,  was  formery  situated 
west  of  Amalfi  in  the  hollow  of  a  rock  rising 
about  230  feet  from  the  sea.  Of  late  it  was  used 
as  a  hotel,  but  in  December,  1899,  it  slid  into  the 
sea,  carrying  along  the  houses  in  its  path.  The 
town  produces  paper,  soap,  and  macaroni.  It  is 
connected  by  steamer  with  Naples  and  Messina. 
Pop.,  1881,  7500.  According  to  local  tradition, 
Amalfi  was  founded  by  Constant ine  the  Great. 
From  the  ninth  to  the  eleventh  century  it  was 
an  independent  State,  and  was  ruled  by  doges. 
It  had  a  large  population,  and  enjoyed  a  con- 
siderable trade  with  the  Orient.  Amalfi  carried 
on  a  long  struggle  with  the  Pisans  and  the  neigh- 
boring princes  of  Salerno.  Since  the  twelfth 
century  the  place  has  been  on  the  decline.  The 
oldest  known  maritime  code,  thd  Tabula  Amal- 
phitana,  was  compiled  in  Amalfi,  and  the  town  is 
otherwise  famous  as  being  the  birthplace  of  Fla- 
vio  Gioja — who  was  wrongly  accredited  with  the 
invention  of  the  mariner's  compass— and  of 
Masaniello. 

AM  A  I/QAM  (Lat.  Gk.  fidXayita,  malagma, 
an  emollient,  plaster,  from  .iiaAox^,  malakoSf 
soft).  An  alloy  of  mercury  with  one  or  more 
other  •  metals.  An  amalgam  of  silver  crystal- 
lizing in  the  isometric  system  has  been  found 
native;  a  gold  amalgam,  too,  has  been  reported 
from  several  localities,  including  California. 
Artificially,  amalgams  are  made  ( 1 )  by  bringing 
metallic  mercury  into  contact  with  another 
metal,  as  antimony,  arsenic,  bismuth,  etc.;  (2) 
by  bringing  mercury  into  contact  with  a  satu- 
rated solution  of  a  salt  of  the  other  metal,  when 
part  of  the  mercury  goes  into  solution  and  the 
remainder  combines  with  the  liberated  metal, 
which  is  the  case  with  calcium,  iron,  and  certain 
other  metals;  (3)  by  placing  the  metal  to  be 
amalgamated  in  a  solution  of  a  salt  of  mercury, 
which  is  the  usual  method  for  amalgamating 
copper  and  aluminum;  finally  (4)  by  placing 
the  metal  to  be  amali^amated  in  contact  with 
mercury  and  dilute  acids. 

Amalgams  may  be  either  solid  or  liquid. 
Those  wnich  are  liquid  are  regarded  as  solutions 
in  which  there  is  an  excess  of  mercury.  The 
more  important  amalgams  are  as  follows:  Cop- 
per amalgam,  which  is  made  by  triturating 
finely  divided  metallic  copper  with  mercurous 
sulphate  under  hot  water.  This  amalgam  has 
the  property  of  softening  when  kneaded,  and  be- 
coming quite  hard  after  standing  some  hours, 
which  has  led  to  its  use  for  filling  teeth.  Gold 
amalgam  is  formed  by  heating  mercury  with 
powdered  gold  or  gold  foil.  The  readiness  with 
which  mercury  combines  with  gold  has  been 
made  the  basis  of  an  important  process  for  the 
extraction  of  the  latter  from  ores.  After 
the  ore  or  the  gold  quartz  has  been  stamped 
to  fine  powder,  the  powder  is  brought  in  con- 
tact with  mercury.  The  gold  readily  unites 
with  the  mercury,  forming  an  amalgam,  which 
is  then  placed  in  a  retort,  from  which  the 
mercury  is  expelled  by  heating,  and  may 
be  collected  for  further  use,  while  the  gold 
remains  in  the  retort.  Silver  amalgam  is 
formed  by  the  union  of  mercury  with  finely 
divided  silver,  and  this  fact  is  taken  advantage 
of  for  the  extraction  of  silver  from  its  ores  by 
a  process  analogous  to  that  described  in  connec- 
tion with  gold  amalgam.  An  amalgam  consist- 
ing of  8  parts  of  mercury  to  1  part  of  silver 


is  used  for  silvering  metals.    Mercury  readily 
combines  with  sodium  when  the  two  elements 
are  brought  in  contact  with  each  otiier,  yield- 
ing an  amalgam  which  is  largely  used  by  chem- 
ists   as    a    reducing    agent.    Tm    amalgam  is 
formed   when    mercury   is   brought    in  contact 
with  tin  in  the  proportions  of  3  parts  of  the 
former  to  1  part  of  the  latter.    This  amalgam 
is  the  one  commonly  used  for  silvering  mirrors.. 
Zinc    amalgam    results    when    zinc    filings  are 
mixed  with  mercury  at  a  heat  somewhat  below 
the  boiling  point  of  the  latter.     It  is  used  for 
coating  the  rubbers  of  electric  machines.    Amal- 
gams of  bismuth,  cadmium,  magnesium,  potas- 
sium, and  other  metals  are  known,  but  have  no 
important  commercial  uses.  Consult  Dudley,  "An 
Index  to  the  Literature  of  Amalgams,"  in  Pro- 
ceedings  of   the  American  Association  for  the 
Advancement  of  Science    (Salem,   1889). 

AMAL'GAICA'TION.     See  Galvanic  Bat- 
tery. 


L,  A-mal6-A,  Anna  (1739-1807).  The 
wife  of  Duke  Ernest  Augustus  of  Saxe- Weimar- 
Eisenach.  She  was  born  at  Wolfenbtitel.  On  the 
death  of  her  husband,  in  1758,  she  was  appointed 
Regent  for  her  infant  son,  Karl  August,  whom, 
aided  by  his  tutor,  Wieland,  she  trained  in  the 
love  of  literature  and  art,  also  doing  much  to 
foster  education  and  material  prosperity  through- 
out his  domains.  Soon  after  assuming  the  gov- 
ernment, the  Duke,  with  his  mother's  active  co- 
operation, gathered  at  Weimar  a  galaxy  of  lit- 
erary talent  probably  never  equaled.  Goethe, 
Herder,  and  Schiller  were  its  brightest  stars, 
but  they  shone  in  goodly  company.  Weimar  con- 
tinued during  and  beyond  her  life  what  she,  more 
than  any  other,  had  made  it,  the  literary  centre 
of  Germany.  She  died  at  Weimar,  April  10, 
1807.  Consult  Gerard,  A  Grand  Duchess,  The 
Life  of  Anna  Am^liay  and  the  Classical  Circle 
of  Weimar  (New  York,  1902). 

AMALIE,  &'m&'l^,  Mabie,  or  Maris  Am^lie 
(1782-1866).  The  wife  of  Louis  Philippe.  King 
of  the  French.  She  was  the  daughter  of  King 
Ferdinand  I.  (IV).  of  the  Two  Sicilies.  When 
she  married  Louis  Philippe  (then  Duke  of 
Orleans),  he  was  a  political  exile,  without  hope 
of  ever  rising  to  the  throne  of  France.  Amalie 
never  interfered  in  politics,  and  possessing  all 
the  domestic  virtues,  was  happy  with  her  hus- 
band. She  shared  his  fortunes  in  exile,  and  was 
received  in  England  with  the  respect  due  her. 

AMALIE, A-m&^6-e,  Mabie  Fbiederike  (18l8- 
75).  Queen  of  Greece,  daughter  of  Grand  Duke 
Augustus  of  Oldenburg.  She  married  KingOtho 
of  Greece,  November  22,  1836,  and  was  much  be- 
loved for  firmness,  benevolence,  and  many  other 
virtues.  After  her  husband's  deposition  in  1862 
she  accompanied  him  to  Bavaria,  residing  after 
his  death  at  Bamberg. 

AMALIE,  ]NL^RiE  Friederike  Auocstb  (1794- 
1870).  A  German  duchess  and  dramatist,  eldest 
sister  of  King  John  of  Saxony.  In  part  under 
the  pseudonym  of  Amalie  Heiter,  she  published 
a  large  number  of  dramas,  some  of  which  have 
been  adapted  to  the  French  and  English  stage. 
She  also  wrote  operas  and  sacred  music.  There 
is  a  complete  edition  of  her  dramatic  works  by 
Waldmtlller  (6  volumes,  1873-74). 

AMAL^RIC  OF  SiOTE,  bftn  (  ri209).  Also 
called  Amaury  of  Chartkes.  The  founder  of  a 
school  of  Pantheists  known  by  his  name.    He 


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AMALBIC   OF    BUXTR. 


419 


AKA&ANTH. 


was  bom  at  B^ne,  near  Chartres.  He  lectured 
in  Paris  upon  philosophy  and  theology  about 
1200.  His  doctrines  were  condemned  by  the  Uni- 
versity. Pope  Innocent  III.  confirmed  the  con- 
demnation (1204)  and  ordered  Amalric  to  re- 
turn to  Paris  and  recant,  which  he  did,  and  so 
when  he  died,  which  was  in  the  same  year,  he 
was  buried  in  the  consecrated  ground  of  the 
monastery  of  St.  Martin  des  Champs,  Paris. 
But  when  it  was  discovered  that  the  sect  which 
be  had  founded  had  spread  throughout  France,  a 
synod  was  called  in  Paris  in  1209,  his  teaching 
formally  condemned,  several  of  his  followers 
burned  at  the  stake  as  heretics,  and  his  own 
body  was  also  dug  up,  burned,  and  the  ashes 
thrown  to  the  winds.  His  doctrines  were  for- 
mally condemned  by  the  fourth  Lateran  Council 
in  1215. 

AM'AXS,  or  AM^AIil.  The  roval  family  of 
the  Ostrogoths,  which  furnished  the  sovereigns 
for  about  two  centuries.  The  most  noted  were 
Theodoric  the  Great  (q.v.),  Amalasuntha,  and 
VVitigis.  The  race  came  to  an  end  in  605,  when 
Germanus  Postumus  and  his  daughter  were  put 
to  death  by  Phocas.  Hodgkin,  in  Italy  and  Her 
Invaders,  Volume  III.  (Oxford,  1896),  gives  a 
genealogical  table  of  the  Amals. 

AM'ALTHITA  (Gk.  'AfidXSeia,  Amaliheia). 
A  nymph,  the  nurse  of  the  infant  Zeus.  The 
name  was  transferred  to  the  goat  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  Cretan  legend,  suckled  the  god,  and 
was  rewarded  with  a  place  among  the  stars. 
The  "cornucopia,**  or  horn  of  plenty,  was  said  to 
be  the  horn  of  the  goat  Amalthea,  which  had 
been  broken  upon  a  tree.  This  horn  is  really  an 
attribute  of  all  the  deities  who  were  believed  to 
control  the  fruits  of  the  earth.     See  iEois. 

AMA^MA,  SiXTiNUS  (1593-1629).  A  Dutch 
Orientalist.  He  was  born  at  Franeker,  Friesland, 
studied  Oriental  languages  at  the  University 
there,  and  subsequently  at  Exeter  College,  Ox- 
ford. He  succeeded  Drusius  as  professor  of 
Hebrew  at  Franeker.  In  1625  he  was  called  to 
Leyden,  but  the  Estates  of  Friesland  refused  to 
permit  him  to  go.  He  was  among  the  first  to 
advocate  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  original 
languages  of  the  Bible  as  indispensable  to  theolo- 
gians. His  works  include  Diasertatio  qua  Osten- 
ditur  Prcecipuos  Papismi  Errores  ex  Ignorantia 
Uehraismi  Ortum  Sumpsisse  (1618),  Censura 
TulgatcB  Versionis  V.  Lihrorum  Mosis  (1620), 
and  a  Hebreeuwach  Woordenhoek  (1628). 

AMANA,  am'&-nA.  A  (Jerman  religious  com- 
munity established  at  Amana,  la.,  comprising  sev- 
eral villages  of  settlers  situated  a  few  miles  apart 
under  the  government  of  a  president  and  thirteen 
directors,  elected  annually  by  the  community. 
Family  life  is  preserved,  but  meals  are  provided 
for  a  number  of  families  tosjether.  Woolen  mills, 
flour  mills,  saw  mills,  dye-shops,  and  agriculture 
are  the  chief  industries  operated  in  common  for 
the  benefit  of  all.  Life  is  simple,  and  all  nec- 
essaries are  furnished  freely  to  members  of  the 
community.  New  members  are  elected  after  a 
probationary  period.  Daily  prayer-meetings  are 
held.  The  sect  was  founded  by  Eberhard  Gruber 
,in  Wtlrteraberg,  Germany,  1714,  and  came  to 
America,  1843,  settling  first  in  western  New  York 
and  moving  to  Amana,  1855-64.  The  community 
in  1901  numbered  1767  persons,  and  owned  26,- 
000  acres  of  land,  their  total  property  being  val- 
ued at  $1,500,000.   See  Communism  and  Commu- 

KISTIC  SOCIETICS. 


AMANDA.  In  Gibber's  comedy,  Love's  Last 
Shift,  and  Vanbrugh's  The  Relapse  (from  which 
Sheridan  made  A  Trip  to  Scarborough),  the 
faithful  and  charming  wife  of  Loveless,  who  has 
basely  deserted  her,  but  is  finally  won  back  by  the 
sense  of  her  fidelity. 

AMANDE  DE  TEBBE,  &'m&Nd^  de  tftr^.  See 
Caperus.  ' 

AM'ANI^A  (Gk.  nom.  pi.  huavtrai,  amani- 
tai,  a  sort  of  fungi).  A  poisonous  fungus  (Am- 
anita muscaria),  allied  to  the  genus  Agarieus, 
which  is  pretty  common  in  woods,  especially  of 
fir  and  beech,  in  Great  Britain,  and  also  in  the 
United  States,  is  one  of  the  most  poisonous  fungi. 
It  is  sometimes  called  Fly  agaric,  being  used  in 
Sweden  and  other  countries  to  kill  files  and  bugs, 
for  which  purpose  it  is  steeped  in  milk.  The 
pileus  or  cap  is-  of  an  orange-red  color,  with  white 
warts,  the  gills  white,  and  the  stem  bulbous.  It 
grows  to  a  considerable  size.  Notwithstanding 
its  very  poisonous  nature,  it  is  used  by  the  na- 
tives of  Kamtchatka  to  produce  intoxication. 
Amanita  phalloides,  commonly  called  Death  Cup, 
is  quite  similar  to  the  fly  agaric.  It  is  perfectly 
white,  with  white  spores,  and  a  ring  on  the 
stem.    For  illustration,  see  Funqi,  Poisonous. 

AMAKTS  MAGNIFIQUES,  ft'm&N'  m&'ny^'- 
f^k'  ^(Fr.  magnificent  lovers).  A  prose  comedy 
in  five  acts  by  Moli^re,  ^Titten  by  order  of  Louis 
XIV.  in  1670.  The  two  lovers  are  princely  rivals, 
who  give  various  entertainments  and  ballets  for 
which  the  slender  plot  is  made  the  occasion. 

AMAPAT^A,  &-m&'p&-l&.  A  free  port  of  Hon- 
duras, situated  on  the  north  shore  of  the  island 
of  Tigre,  in  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca  (Map:  Central 
America,  D  4).  The  harbor  is  very  good,  capa- 
ble of  containing  vessels  of  the  deepest  draught, 
and  the  town  has  a  healthful  climate,  so  that 
it  gets  a  good  part  of  the  trade  of  Honduras, 
San  Salvador,  and  Nicaragua.  The  chief  articles 
of  export  are  hides  and  coffee.  Gold,  silver,  and 
mineral  ores  were  formerly  exported  in  great 
quantities.  The  to^m  was  founded  in  1838,  and 
the  opening  of  the  port  took  place  in  1868.  Pop., 
1100. 

AMABA-KOaA,  kit/k-rk  ko'shk.    See  Ama- 

BASINHA. 


t^ABANT.  A  giant  slain  by  the  legendary 
Guy  of  Warwick  (q.v.)  in  the  Holy  Land. 

AM'ABANTA'CEiE,  Amaranth  Family 
( For  derivation,  see  Amaranth  ) .  A  natural  or- 
der of  dicotyledonous  plants,  embracing  about 
600  species.  They  are  widely  distributed,  but  are 
most  abundant  in  the  tropics.  In  fioral  charac- 
ters they  greatly  resemble  the  Chenopodiacese, 
differing  in  some  minor  particulars  and  in  habit 
of  growth.  The  general  inflorescence  is  race- 
mose, the  auxiliary  cymes  going  to  make  up  a 
compound  inflorescence.  In  general  habit  most 
of  the  species  are  rather  coarse  weeds,  although 
some  are  grown  as  ornamentals,  such  as  Cocks- 
comb, Prince's  feather.  Love-lies-bleeding,  etc. 
The  chief  genera  are  Amarantus,  Celosia,  Gora- 
phrena,  and  Iresine. 

AM^ABANTH  (Gk.  afidpavToc,  amarantos, 
from  a,  a,  neg.  +  fiapaiveiv,  maranein,  to  die 
away,  wither)  {Amarantus) .  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Amarantacete.  This  order 
contains  nearly  300  kno\vn  species,  natives  of 
tropical  and  temperate  countries,  but  chiefly 
abounding  within  the  tropics.  They  are  herbs 
or   shrubs,  with   simple  leaves,   and   flowers   in 


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AMABL 


heads  or  spikes.  The  genus  Amarantus  has 
mostly  moncrcious  flowers.  Some  of  the  species 
are  naturally  of  singular  form,  and  others  as- 
sume singular  but  monstrous  forms  through 
cultivation.  Love-lies-bleeding  (Amarantus  cau- 
datus).  Prince's  feather  {Amarantua  kypo- 
chondriacus) ,  and  other  species  are  common 
annuals  in  our  flower  gardens.  The  spikes  of 
Amarantus  caudatus  are  sometimes  several  feet 
in  length.  The  dry  red  bracts  which  surround 
the  flower  retain  their  freshness  for  a  long  time 
after  being  gathered,  for  which  reason  the  plant 
has  been  employed  by  poets  as  an  emblem  of  im- 
mortality. Tlie  Globe  amaranth  {Gomphrena 
glohosa)  and  the  Cockscomb,  well  known  tender 
annuals,  belong  to  tlie  same  natural  order.  The 
Globe  amaranth  is  much  cultivated  in  Portugal 
and  other  Roman  Catholic  countries  for  adorn- 
ing churches  in  winter.  Its  flowers,  which  are  of 
a  shining' purple,  retain  their  beauty  and  fresh- 
ness for  several  years.  About  a  dozen  species  are 
native  and  introduced  in  the  United  States, 
where  they  are  mostly  coarse  annual  weeds. 
Amarantus  blitum,  Amarantus  oleraceus  (Chu- 
san  han-tsi),  and  other  s]>ecies  are  used  as  pot- 
herbs. Wholesome  mucilaginous  qualities  are 
generally  found  in  the  leaves  throughout  the  or- 
der. The  seeds  of  Amarantus  f  rumentaceus  ( called 
Kiery)  and  of  Amarantus  anardana,  or  Ama- 
rantus paniculatus,  are  gathered  for  food  in  In- 
dia. Medicinal  properties  are  ascribed  to  some 
species  of  the  order,  particularly  to  Gomphrena 
ofBcinalis  and  Gomphrena  macrocephala,  which 
have  a  high  and  probably  exaggerated  reputation 
in  Brazil  as  cures  for  many  diseases.  Consult: 
L.  H.  Bailey,  Cydopasdia  of  Anwrican  Horticul- 
ture (New  York,  3900-02)  ;  and  G.  Nicholson, 
The  Illustrated  History  of  Gardening  (London, 
1888). 

AMABAPUBA,  um'A-ra-poo'r&,  or  Ummera- 
POORA,  "City  of  the  Gods."  The  former  capital 
of  Burma,  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Irrawaddi,  and  on  the  Rangoon  and  Mandalay 
Railway,  nine  miles  northeast  of  Ava,  in  lat. 
2r  67'  N.,  long.  90*»  7'  E.  It  was  founded  in 
1783;  in  1810  it  was  almost  totally  destroyed 
by  fire,  and  in  1839  an  earthquake  laid  it*  in 
ruins.  In  1852-53  it  was  finally  deserted  and 
the  capital  of  the  country  removed  to  Mandalay. 
Nothing  remains  of  the  old  city  save  some  rows 
of  beautiful  trees  and  interesting  ruins  of  a 
palace  and  of  several  pagodas.  A  celebrated 
temple  in  the  suburbs  contains  a  famous  colossal 
bronze  image  of  Gautama  (Buddha).  The  pop- 
ulation in  1810  was  estimated  at  170,000;  it  has 
declined  to  less  than  5000. 

AM'ABASIN'HA,    or    AM^ABA-SU^'HA. 

A  celebrated  Sanskrit  lexicographer  of  antiquity, 
whose  vocabulary,  Amara-kos'a^  or  "Amara's 
Treasury,"  formed  a  storehouse  of  w^ords  in  early 
times,  and  a  mine  of  information  for  later  work- 
ers in  the  field.  This  glossator  is  commonly 
called  simply  Amara  in  the  native  commentaries; 
but  his  title  Simha  shows  that  he  belonged  to  the 
princely  class.  Little  is  known  of  his  life,  except 
that  he  was  a  Buddhist  in  religion,  and  it  is  as- 
sumed that  all  his  writings,  except  the  diction- 
ary, perished  through  the  persecutions  which  the 
Buddhists  at  one  time  suff'ered  at  the  hands 
of  the  orthodox  Brahmans.  There  is,  however, 
great  uncertainty  as  to  the  time  when  Amara 
lived.  His  date  has  been  generally  put  at 
about   500   A.D.     His    name   is   associated   with 


the  poet  Kalidasa  (q.v.),  and  the  others  of  the 
"nine  gems"  at  the  court  of  Vikramaditya  in  an 
Augustan  Age  of  Sanskrit  literature.  The  sixth 
century  a.d.  is  the  date  most  commonly  assigned 
for  the  reign  of  this  monarch;  but  the  Hindu** 
place  him  some  centuries  earlier,  a  view  which 
there  is  rather  a  tendency  to  follow  than  to  re- 
ject. ( See  Ka^dasa.  )  The  real  title  of  Amara'b 
Sanskrit  vocabulary  it  not  Amara-kos^a,  but 
NamalingdnuSilsana,  "a  book  of  words  and  gen- 
ders." It  is  also  called  Tri-k&nda  or  Tri-kHndi, 
i.e.  tripartite,  from  its  three  books  of  words  and 
homonyms  relating  to  the  world  and  man  and 
fniscellaneous  matters.  The  second  of  these  is 
the  longest,  and  each  book  is  subdivided  into 
chapters,  called  vargas.  The  whole  work  com- 
prises about  1500  verses,  generally  consisting  of 
lines  of  sixteen  syllables,  and  the  words  are  ar- 
ranged, not  alphabetically,  but,  in  general,  as 
synonyms  according  to  subject  and  gender. 
There  are  numerous  editions  of  the  Amara-kom, 
accompanied  also  by  the  old  native  commentaries. 
Mention  may  be  made  of  the  edition  with  intro- 
duction, English  notes,  and  index  by  Colebrooke 
(Serampore,  1808).  This  was  reprinted  in 
1829.  A  French  edition,  with  translation,  was 
published  by  Loiseleur-Deslongschamps  (2  vol- 
umes, Paris,  1839-45).  Valuable  are  the  editions 
by  Chintamani  S'astri  Thatte,  under  the  superin- 
tendence of  F.  Kielhom  (2d  edition,  Bombay. 
1882),  and  in  the  collection  of  Sanskrit  ancient 
lexicons,  or  AbhidhSnasamgraha  (Bombay,  1889). 
Consult  Zacharioe,  "Die  indischen  WSrterbUcher" 
(Kos'a),  in  Btthler's  Grundriss  der  indo-arischcn 
Philologie  und  Altesthumskunde  (Strassburg. 
1897). 

AMABI,  &-mrr«,  Michele  (1806-89).  An 
Italian  historian  and  Orientalist.  He  wa<% 
born  at  Palermo.  At  the  age  of  sixteen  he 
entered  a  government  office,  and  soon  after- 
ward— ^his  father  being  condemned  to  thirty 
years'  imprisonment  for  a  political  crime — 
the  duty  of  supporting  his  mother  and  the 
other  members  of  the  family  devolved  upon 
him.  He  succeeded,  nevertheless,  in  acquiring  an 
education,  learned  French  and  English,  and  pub- 
lished a  translation  of  Marmion  in  1832,  In 
1837  he  removed  to  Naples.  In  1841  appeared 
his  masterpiece,  La  Guerra  del  Vespro  Siciliano 
{The  War  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers),  in  which  the 
author  overthrows  the  prevalent  notion,  estab- 
lished by  Villani,  of  the  cause  of  the  famous  mas- 
sacre of  1282.  The  book  was  quickly  prohibited, 
and,  as  a  consequence,  widely  read.  It  wa^^ 
translated  into  German  by  Dr.  Schroder,  of 
Ilildesheim,  and  into  English  by  Lord  Ellesmere. 
Dreading  punishment  at  Naples,  Amari  fled  to 
France,  where  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  study 
of  Arabic  and  modern  Greek,  and  to  the  prepara- 
tion of  his  Storia  dei  Musulmanni  di  Sicilia 
(1854-68).  Upon  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution 
of  1848,  he  returned  to  Italy,  and  shortly  after 
his  arrival  was  elected  vice-president  of  the 
committee  of  war  in  Sicily.  He  was  next  sent 
on  a  diplomatic  mission  by  the  provisional 
government  to  France  and  England.  In  1849, 
he  published  at  Paris  La  Sidle  ei  les  Bour- 
bons, to  show  up  the  pretensions  of  the  Neapoli- 
tan sovereign.  After  the  Sicilian  insurrection 
had  been  quelled,  Amari  took  up  his  residence  in 
Paris,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  literary  pur- 
suits till  1859,  when  he  returned  to  Italy,  fight- 
ing the  following  year  under  Garibaldi.  He  was 
made  senator  in  1861,  and  In  1862-64  was  minis- 


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AMARYLLIDACE/E 


•  BICN  a  CO    LITH    NY 


1  LILY  OF  THE    PALACE   -    HIPPEASTRUM   AULICUM  4  ATAMASCA   LI  LY  -   ZEPHYR  AN  TH  ES    ATA  MASCO 

2  NARCISSUS   -   NARCISSUS     H0R3FIELDI  5  HYMENOCALLIS    -  HYMENOCALLIS   OCCIDCNTALIS 

3  FOTHERGILLI    -   NERINE    NERVlFOLIA  6  STAR   GRASS-  HYPOXIS    HIRSUTA 

7     COOPERIA  -    COOPERIA  ORUMMONDU 


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AlCASI. 


421 


ter  of  instruction.  He  resigned  his  professorship 
at  Florence  in  1878  and  removed  to  Rome,  where 
he  continued  his  historical  studies.  He  died 
July  16,  1889.  Other  writings  of  Amari  are 
upon  the  language  and  history  of  the  Arabs,  in 
the  Revtte  ArchMogique,  the  Journal  Asiatique, 
etc. 

AMA3/1XA  LET^EBS.     A  collection  of  more 
than  three  hundred  letters  and  dispatches,  in- 
scribed upon  clay  tablets,  which  were  found,  in 
the  winter  of   1887-88,  in  the  village    of    Tel- 
el- Amarna  (q.v.)  in  Middle  Egypt.    They  repre- 
sent the  Asiatic  correspondence  of  the  Egyptian 
court  about  1400  B.O.,  and  it  is    a    remarkable 
fact  that  they  are  in  the  cuneiform  character, 
and,  with  three  exceptions,  in  the  Babylonian 
language,  which  would  thus  appear  to  have  been 
the     medium     of     diplomatic     communication 
throughout  Western  Asia.     One  of  the  letters  is 
in  the  language  of  Mitani,  in  northern  Mesopo- 
tamia, and  two  are  in  that  of  Ar^pi  or  Arzaya 
(probably  Cyprus).   .Among  the  writers  are  the 
Egyptian    kings    Amenophis    III.     (q.v.),    and 
Amenophis  IV.   (q.v.),  and  the  kings  of  Mitani, 
of  Babylonia,  of  the  Hittites,  and  of  Alashia 
(Cyprus).     It  appears  from  these  letters  that 
the  Eg^'ptian  kings  of  the  eighteenth  dynasty 
intermarried  with  the    royal    houses    of    both 
Mitani  and  Babylonia.     Amenophis  III.  married 
a  sister  of  Kadashman-Bel,  King  of  Babylonia, 
and  also  a  sister  of  Dushratta,  King  of  Mitani; 
while  Amenophis  IV.  married  a  niece    of    his 
father*s   Mitanian   wife.     Frequent   reference   is 
made  to  commercial  affairs,  implying  a  consider- 
able intercourse  between  Egypt  and  the  Asiatic 
states.     By    far    the    greater    number    of    the 
Amarna  letters  proceed  from  Egyptian  officials 
and  subject  allies  in  S3rria,  at  that  time  a  de- 
pendency of  Egypt,  and  afford  a  valuable  insight 
into  the  state  of  Palestine  before  the  Hebrew  in- 
vasion.    The  growing  weakness  of  Egypt  and  the 
extension  of  the  Hittite  dominion  in  the  north 
can  be  clearly  seen,  and  the  withdrawal  of  the 
Egyptian  troops  gave  opportunity  for  conflicts 
between  the  princes  of  the  small  city-states  into 
which  the  land  was  broken  up.    To  add  to  the 
general  confusion,  the  country  was  threatened 
on   the   east  by  the  Khabiri — ^marauding  nom- 
ads   from    the   Arabian    Desert,    whose    sphere 
of  activity  extended  from  southern  Palestine  as 
far   north  as  Sidon,  Beirut,  and  Gebal.    Some 
scholars    are  inclined  to    identify    the    Khabiri 
with  the  Hebrews;  but  this  theory  has  not  met 
with  general  approval.    The  letters  of  the  Pales- 
tinian princes,  which  are  full  of  mutual  recrim- 
inations,  reveal   the   fact  that  there  were  two 
chief  parties;  one  loyal  to  Egypt,  the  other  pro- 
fessing loyalty,  but  in  reality  allied  with  the 
enemies  of  Egypt.    The  latter  party  seems  to  be 
everywhere  successful.    Among  the  most  zealous 
supporters  of  Egypt  was  the  Prince  of  Jerusalem, 
which  appears,  at  this  time,  as  a  city  of  some 
importance.     For  a  translation  into  German  of 
the  Amarna  tablets,  consult  Winckler,  in  Schra- 
der's  Keilinachrif tliche Bibliothek {BerVm.lSdQ)  : 
English    translation    by    Metcalfe,    under    the 
title.   The  Tell  El  Amarna  Letters   (New  York, 
1896). 


'fARYl/TJDA^CEM.  (The  Amabtlus 
Famh^y).  An  order  of  monocotyledonous  plants 
with  about  75  genera  and  nearly  1000  species. 
The  plants  resemble  those  of  the  Liliacese  in 
many  respects,  except  that  they  all    have    in- 


ferior ovaries.  The  species  are  mostly  tropi- 
cal and  subtropical,  and  are  generally  found 
in  dry  regions.  Many  are  bulbous,  leafing  and 
flowering  only  in  the  wet  season,  while  others 
have  thick  fleshy  leaves  covered  with  wax  or 
otherwise  protected  for  their  xerophytic  habit. 
The  inflorescence  is  usually  a  scape;  the  flow^ers 
have  an  inferior  three-celled  ovary,  six  stamens, 
and  six  petal- like  segments  to  the  perianth.  In 
some  species,  as  in  Narcissus,  a  sort  of  corona  is 
present  between  the  normal  perianth  and  the 
stamens.  The  fruit  is  a  capsule  or  berry.  The 
recent  classiflcation  by  Pax  is  into  Amaryllid- 
oideft,  of  which  the  chief  genera  are  Hamianthus, 
Galanthus,  Amaryllis,  Crinum,  and  Narcissus; 
AgavoidesB,  with  Agave  and  Fourcroya,  the  lead- 
ing genera,  Hypoxidoidece  with  Alstroemeria, 
Bomaria  and  Anigozanthus ;  and  Campynemat- 
oideffi,  represented  by  Campynema.  Some  of 
these  are  of  great  economic  value  (see  Agave ; 
and  Sisal),  while  many  others  are  extensively 
cultivated  as  ornamentals.  See  Narcissus; 
Amabyllis;  Blood  Flomteb;  Alstrcemebia  ; 
GALAXTnrs,  etc. 

AM'ABYI/LIS  (from  the  famous  nymph 
Amaryllis).  A  genus  of  bulbous-rooted  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Amaryllidacero,  having  a 
simple  six-partite  perianth,  and  containing  a 
large  number  of  species,  natives  of  the  warmer 
regions  of  the  globe.  Many  of  them  have  flowers 
of  very  great  beauty.  Many  of  the  species  for- 
merly grouped  under  Amaryllis  have  been  sepa; 
rated  into  different  genera,  of  which  Amaryllis, 
Nerine,  Hippeastrum  and  Brunisvigia  are  the 
best  known.  A  species  of  this  genus,  Amaryllis 
formosissima,  was  brought  to  Europe  from  South 
America  in  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  has  since  been  in  common  cultivation  as  a 
garden  flower.  Its  scentless  flowers  are  of  a 
beautiful  red  color,  exhibiting  a  play  of  golden 
gleams  in  the  sunshine.  Amaryllis  belladonna, 
known  also  as  a  Belladonna  Lily,  has  a  scape 
1-3  feet  high,  bearing  an  umbel  of  rose-colored 
fragrant  flowers.  Amaryllis  amabilis,  Amaryllis 
josephinjB,  and  Amaryllis  vittata  are  among  the 
most  admired  bulbous-rooted  plants.  Amaryllis 
samiensis  is  one  of  the  most  hardy  species,  flow- 
ering freely  in  Guernsey,  with  a  little  protection 
during  winter,  and  although  commonly  called 
Guernsey  Lily,  it  is  supposed  to  be  a  native  of 
Japan.  By  artificial  impregnation,  a  great  num- 
ber of  hybrid  forms  have  been  produced  in  this 
genus.  Consult  J.  G.  Baker,  Kandbook  of  the 
Amaryllidce  (London,  1888). 

AMAKYLLia  A  shepherdess  in  the  Idyls 
of  Theocritus  and  in  YergiYs  Eclogues.  The  name 
is  sometimes  used  as  the  type  of  a  bucolic  sweet- 
heart, as  in  the  pastoral  of  The  Faithful  Shep- 
herdess, by  Fletcher,  and  Milton's  Lycidas, 

AM'ASA.     See  David. 

AMASIA,  &-mil's«-&  (ancient  Gk.  ^Aftdaeta, 
Amaseia).  A  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  sanjak  of  the  same  name,  in  the  vil- 
ayet of  Sivas,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yeshil- 
Irmak,  200  miles  southwest  of  Trebizond  (Map: 
Turkey  in  Asia,  G  2).  It  stands  in  a  deep  and 
narrow  valley,  and  the  river  flows  through  a 
narrow  channel,  between  precipitous  rocky  banks. 
The  environs  are  very  fruitful  and  of  much 
natural  beauty.  Amasia  is  the  centre  of  the  silk 
industry  in  Asia  Minor,  and  exports  silk  to 
Aleppo,  Damascus,  and  even  Constantinople.  It 
contains  a  fine  bazaar  and  a  large  number  of 


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AlCATEXm. 


Mohammedan  schools  for  higher  education.  There 
are  to  be  found  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  built 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  acropolis,  and  a  number 
of  archaic  remains.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  30,000.  Amasia  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
geographer  Strabo,  and  was  once  the  capital  of 
the  kings  of  Pontus. 

AMA^SIS  (Gk.  *A/idaig,  Egyptian  'Ah-mose, 
probably  "child  of  the  moon").  The  name  of 
two  Egyptian  kings. 

Amasis  I.  The  first  Pharaoh  of  the  eighteenth 
dynasty.  He  reigned  for  at  least  twenty-two 
years,  from  about  1600  B.C.,  or  perhaps  a  little 
later.  He  finished  the  long  war  against  the 
Hyksos  or  Shepherd  Kings,  rulers  of  a  foreign 
race,  who  had  subjugated  part  of  Lower  Egypt. 
He  captured  their  stronghold,  Avaris,  in  the 
Delta,  expelled  them  from  Egypt,  and  began  the 
Egyptian  conquests  in  Asia  by  making  Palestine 
and  Phoenicia  tributary. 

Amasis  II.  The  fifth  Pharaoh  of  the  twenty- 
sixth  dynasty,  well-known  through  the  anecdotes 
of  Herodotus.  Egyptian  sources  tend  to  confirm 
the  statements  of  the  Greeks  that  he  was  of 
humble  origin,  and  not  particularly  refined  as 
to  habits.  He  came  to  the  throne  through  an 
insurrection  of  the  native  troops  against  King 
Apries,  whom  he  dethroned  and  slew.  The  usurp- 
er reigned  from  about  570  to  526  B.C.,  and  was  a 
wise  and  prudent  ruler.  He  fought  against 
Nebuchadnezzar,  and  later  cleverly  avoided  the 
confiict  with  the  rising  Persian  power.  (See 
History  of  Egypt,  under  title  Egypt.)  The  con- 
quest of  Cyprus  is  ascribed  to  him,  though  per- 
haps erroneously.  He  employed  Greek  mercenary 
troops,  and  assigned  to  the  Greeks  the  city  of 
Naucratis,  in  the  Delta,  which  soon  rose  to  great 
commercial  importance.  Greek  writers  speak  of 
Amasis  in  a  very  kindly  spirit,  and  endeavor  to 
prove  that  he  was  the  friend  of  various  Greek 
sages  and  statesmen.  ( See  Polycbates.  )  He  is 
said  to  have  married  a  Greek  woman  of  Gyrene; 
but  it  is  quite  impossible  that  she  could  have 
been  his  legitimate  wife. 

AMATEXTB'  (Ft.  from  Lat.  amator,  lover, 
from  amare,  to  love).  It  would  seem  at  first 
easy  to  define  the  word  "amateur"  in  sports ;  yet 
it  is  a  subject  that  has  for  half  a  century  taxed 
the  most  active  and  subtle  brains  of  two  con- 
tinents. One  would  say  offhand  that  the  ama- 
teur in  sport  is  one  who  engages  in  a  personal 
physical  contest  of  pluck,  nerve,  muscle,  and 
skill  for  the  love  of  it,  as  distinguished  from 
the  professional,  who  enters  for  profit;  but  that 
by  no  means  disposes  of  this  intricate  subject. 
There  were  early  found  to  be  men  in  plenty  who 
entered  a  particular  contest  because  they  loved 
the  sport,  and  who  derived  no  pecuniary  interest 
from  that  contest,  yet  who  it  was  unfair  to 
allow  to  enter  it.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  not  long 
after  the  renaissance  of  athletic  contests  in 
1850,  it  became  obvious  that  the  lines  would 
have  to  be  drawn  more  strictly,  or  those  would 
have  an  unfair  advantage  whose  daily  occupa- 
tions gave  them  a  continuous  training  in  the 
skill  needful  for  perfection.  Take,  for  example, 
a  boat-builder  of  the  old  school,  one  who  had 
been  apprenticed  to  it  in  his  youth,  and  had 
spent  all  his  early  manhood  in  the  handling  of 
boatn  and  oars,  and  in  rowing  and  gradually 
acquiring  the  knowledge,  power,  and  endurance 
of  a  waterman.  To  such  a  man,  trained  and 
hardened    by   years,    rowing   became   a   second 


nature,  and  hia  skill  in  it  automatic    It  was 
plainly  unfair  to  allow  such   a  man,  however 
much  he  rowed  for  love  of  the  sport  and  ¥rithout 
taking  money  for  his  prize,  to  enter  contests 
where  the  rest  of  the  participants  had  acquired 
their  knowledge  and  skill  only  for  the  pleasure 
of  the  game,  and  as  part  of  the  ordinary  routine 
of  school  and  college,  or  for  health  and  pleasure*s 
sake.     So  it  came  to  pass  that  the  boat-builder 
and   waterman   were   early   excluded   from  the 
amateur   ranks.     The  same  principle  has  been 
working  itself  out  ever  since.     Step  by  step  the 
fences  against  professionalism  have  had  to  be 
raised,  until  now  the  rules  bar  them  out  of  all 
contests  under  the  control  of  the  Amateur  Row- 
ing  Association   of    England.    No    person   can 
enter  as  an  amateur  "who  has  rowed  or  steered 
in  any  race  for  a  stake,  money,  or  entrance  fee; 
who  has  ever  knowingly  rowed  or  steered  with 
or  against  a  professional  for  any  prize;  who  has 
ever  taught,  pursued,  or  assisted  in  the  practice 
of  athletic  exercises  if  or  any  kind  of  profit;  who 
has  ever  been  employed  in  or  about  boats,  or  in 
any  manual  labor  for  money  or  wages ;  who  is  or 
has  been  by  trade  or  employment  for  wages  a 
mechanic,  artisan,  laborer,  or  engaged  in  any 
menial  duty;  or  who  is  disqualifi^  as  an  ama- 
teur in  any  other  branch  of  sport."    The  most 
jealous  stickler  for  the  purity  of  amateur  oars- 
manship could  hardly  desire  the  line  to  be  more 
firmly  or  decisively  drawn ;  yet  the  rules  govern- 
ing amateur  athletics  in  America  do  go  farther, 
for  inter  aliat  they  make  a  man  a  professional 
who  engages  in  an  athletic  contest  where  pro- 
fessionals participate,  even  though  no  prize  is  at 
stake.    The  following  are  the  rules  of  the  Ama- 
teur Athletic  Union,  iniiich  claims  jurisdiction 
over  the   following  games:    1,   Basket  ball;   2, 
billiards;  3,  boxing;  4,  fencing;  5,  gymnastics; 
6,  hand  ball;  7,  hurdle  racing;  8,  jumping;  9, 
lacrosse;  10,  pole  vaulting;  11,  putting  the  shot 
and  throwing  the  discus,  hammer,  and  weights; 
12,  running;  13,  swimming;  14,  tugs  of  war;  15, 
walking;   16,  wrestling. 

Conditions  of  Competition.  "1.  No  person 
shall  be  eligible  to  compete  in  any  athletic  meet- 
ing, game  or  entertainment  given  or  sanctioned 
by  this  Union  who  ha^s  (a)  received  or  com- 
peted for  compensation  or  reward,  in  any  form, 
for  the  display,  exercise,  or  example  of  his  skill 
in  or  knowledge  of  any  athletic  exercise,  or  for 
rendering  personal  service  of  any  kind  to  any 
athletic  organization,  or  for  becoming  or  con- 
tinuing a  member  of  any  athletic  organization: 
or  (b)  has  entered  any  competition  under  a 
name  other  than  his  own,  or  from  a  club  of 
which  he  was  not  at  that  time  a  member  in 
good  standing;  or  (c)  has  knowingly  entered 
any  competition  open  to  any  professional  or 
professionals,  or  has  knowingly  competed  with 
any  professional  for  any  prize  or  token;  or  (d) 
has  issued  or  allowed  to  be  issued  in  his  Whalf 
any  challenge  to  compete  against  any  profession- 
al, or  for  money,  or  (e)  has  pawned,  bartered, 
or  sold  any  prize  won  in  athletic  competition, 
or  (f)  is  not  a  registered  athletia  Nor  shall 
any  person  residing  within  the  territory  of  any 
active  member  of  this  Union  be  eligible'  to  com- 
pete for  or  to  enter  any  competition  as  a  member 
of  any  club  in  the  territory  of  any  other  active 
member  of  this  Union,  unless  he  shall  have  been 
elected  to  membership  in  such  club  prior  to 
April  1,  1891;  provided,  however,  that  this  re- 
striction  as    to   residence   shall   not  apply  to 


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undergraduates  connected  with  anj  allied  coll^[e 
athletic  organization. 

''2.  No  one  shall  be  eligible  to  compete  in  any 
athletic  meeting,  games,  or  entertainment  given 
or  sanctioned  by  this  Union,  unless  he  shall  be  a 
duly  registered  athlete,  a  member  of  the  organi- 
zation from  which  he  enters,  and  shall  not  have 
competed  from  any  club  in  this  Union  during  a 
period  of  three  months  next  preceding  such 
entry;  nor  shall  any  member  of  an^  club  in  this 
Union,  or  any  club  in  any  district  in  this  Union, 
be  allowed  to  compete  in  case  he  has  within 
one  year  competed  as  a  member  of  any  other  club 
then  in  this  Union,  except  with  the  consent  of 
such  other  club,  which  consent  shall  be  filed  with 
the  Registration  Committee  of  his  district  prior 
to  such  competition,  unless  such  other  club  shall 
have  disbanded  or  practically  ceased  to  exist; 
provided,  that  the  requirements  of  this  section 
shall  not  apply  to  any  athletic  meeting,  games, 
or  entertainment,  the  entries  for  which  are  con- 
fined to  the  club  or  organization  giving  such 
meeting  or  entertainment. 

"No  athlete  who  has  been  released  from  a 
club  which  is  a  member  of  this  Union,  and  who 
competes  for  another  club  directly  thereafter, 
shall  be  allowed  to  compete  again  for  the  club  he 
was  released  from  for  one  year  from  the  date 
of  his  release,  except  that  the  club  has  disbanded 
or  ceased  to  exist. 

'*No  person  shall  be  eligible  to  compete  for 
or  enter  any  competition  as  a  member  of  any 
club  in  the  territory  of  any  active  member  of 
this  Union,  unless  he  shall  have  resided  within 
the  territory  of  said  active  member  at  least  four 
months  previous  to  entering  for  competition; 
nor  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  enter  or  com- 
pete in  any  district  championship  meeting  unless 
he  shall  have  been  a  bona  fide  resident  of  such 
district  for  at  least  six  months  prior  to  the  hold- 
ing of  such  championship  meeting;  and  no  person 
shall  be  eligible  to  compete  in  a  championship 
meeting  of  more  than  one  district  in  one  year. 
The  restrictions  contained  in  this  section  shall 
not  afifect  the  eligibility  of  an  undergraduate 
connected  with  any  allied  college  athletic  organi- 
zation who  shall  have  been  elected  to  membership 
in  any  club  of  this  Union  prior  to  November  20, 
1899,  to  represent  such  club  as  long  as  he 
remains  an  undergraduate;  nor  shall  these  re- 
strictions apply  to  an  undergraduate  competing 
for  any  college  belonging  to  an  allied  body. 

"3.  No  prizes  shall  be  given  by  any  individual, 
club,  committee,  or  association,  or  competed  for 
or  accepted  by  any  athlete,  except  suitably  in- 
scribed \(Teaths,  diplomas,  banners,  badges, 
medals,  time-pieces  and  mantel  ornaments,  or 
articles  of  jewelry,  silverware,  table  or  toilet 
service,  unless  authorized  by  the  Registration 
Committee." 

It  will  be  noticed  that  this  organization  does 
not  control  golf,  in  which  game  amateurs  may 
play  in  contests  against  professionals  even  for  a 
prize;  with  this  limitation,  however,  that  if,  in 
the  open  contest,  an  amateur  win  he  must  take 
the  prize  in  plate,  and  not  in  money.  The  golf 
rules  are  formulated  and  enforced  by  the  United 
States  Golf  Association. 

In  cricket  there  is  no  bar  whatever  to  playing 
against  or  with  professionals  openly  paid  for 
their  services  or  even  hired  season  after  season 
by  their  clubs;  but  cricket  has  been  in 
existence  so  long,  and  its  ethics  are  so  well 
understood,   that  no  harm  results;   the  profes- 


sional needs  no  laws  to  define  his  social  position 
or  the  part  he  takes  in  a  game  which  has 
escaped  the  eagerness  so  characteristic  of  the 
more  modem  games.  In  fact,  in  nearly  every 
sport  there  are  shades  and  differences  in  defini- 
tion and  practice.  Notably  is  this  so  in  bicycling, 
wherein  the  classification  has  been  altered  sev- 
eral times,  and  in  football,  where  the  rules  of 
college  games  extend  so  far  as  to  limit  the  con- 
testants to  those  who  have  been  resident  pupils 
for  such  and  such  a  time  and  are  in  such  and 
such  an  educational  grade.  Other  minute  dis- 
tinctions entitle  a  man  to  or  debar  him  from  the 
right  to  play,  and  readers  desiring  to  be  per- 
fectly sure  of  their  position  on  any  given  sport, 
in  any  given  year,  will  do  well  to  consult  the 
actual  rules  in  force  formulated  by  the  govern- 
ing body  of  the  sport. 

Professionalism  sometimes  tends  to  elevate  the 
standard  of  sports  so  far  as  records  are  con- 
cerned, and  it  is  not  in  itself  necessarily  bad. 
But,  although  some  of  the  truest  sportsmen  have 
been  professionals,  the  nature  of  sport  is  such 
that  its  best  uses,  recreation  and  emulation,  are 
in  danger  of  being  lost  sight  of  by  the  profes- 
sional whose  aim  is  to  make  money.  The  record 
of  baseball  in  this  country  is  an  instance  of  the 
harmful  effects  of  professionalism  on  the  spirit 
of  a  game.  Bicycle  racing,  too,  has  degenerated 
into  a  mere  gate-money  exhibition.  In  England 
football  is  in  danger  from  the  same  cause,  while 
in  America  football  is  played  almost  exclusively 
by  the  colleges,  and  professionalism  is  practi- 
cally unknown.  Into  some  other  sports  the 
spirit  of  professionalism  has  never  entered;  not- 
ably is  this  so  in  lawn  tennis,  curling,  quoits, 
canoeing,  archery,  polo,  croquet,  and  its  successor 
roque.  These  and  a  few  other  eames  have 
always  been  played  solely  by  enthusiastic  lovers 
of  them.  The  amateur  spirit  is  essentially  a 
moral  quality,  and  the  games  will  retrograde, 
or  otherwise,  just  in  proportion  as  the  moral 
code  of  the  contestants  is  interpreted.  Laws 
are  next  to  useless  where  men  are  determined  to 
evade  them.  Happily,  the  tendency  of  the  times 
is  distinctly  toward  a  higher  plane  of  interpre- 
tion,  and  a  stricter  separation  of  the  amateur 
from  the  professional. 

AMATI,  ft-mfi't^.  A  family  of  celebrated 
Italian  violin  makers,  who  lived  in  Cremona. 
Andrea,  the  eldest,  born  about  1620,  was  de- 
scended from  an  ancient  family  dating  back  to 
the  eleventh  century.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Cremona  school  of  violin  makers.  His  early  in- 
struments are  so  Brescian  in  character  that  he 
is  supposed  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Gasparo  da 
Said.  Few  of  his  violins  are  extant.  His  model 
was  small,  with  high  back  and  belly,  amber  var- 
nish, and  clear  though  weak  tone.  Nicola,  his 
younger  brother,  made  basses  in  preference  to 
violins,  and  was  his  inferior.  Andrea's  sons, 
Antonio  and  Geronimo,  worked  together  much 
after  their  father's  style.  Geronimo  also  made 
instruments  alone,  of  larger  pattern,  and  changed 
the  shape  of  the  pointed  sound-hole.  Geronimo's 
son,  Nicola  (1596-1684),  was  the  most  eminent 
of  the  family.  His  model  is  of  extreme  elegance. 
The  corners  are  sharply  pointed,  the  backs  and 
bellies  of  beautiful  grained  wood,  the  sound-holes 
graceful  and  bold,  the  scroll  of  exquisite  cut, 
and  the  varnish  transparent  and  of  a  deep,  rich 
hue.  As  a  rule,  he  worked  after  a  small  pattern, 
but  he  produced  some  large  violins,  which  are 
now    called    "grand    Amatis,"    and    are    highly 


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valued.  He  also  made  a  number  of  beautiful 
tenors  and  violoncellos.  His  label  reads:  Nico- 
laus  Amati  Cremoncna.  Hieroftimi  filius  Antonii 
nepos  fecit  anno  16 — .  Antonio  Stradivari  and 
Guarneri  were  his  pupils,  and  the  Jacobs  of  Am- 
sterdam and  Grancino  of  Milan  were  among  his 
most  successful  imitators.  With  Geronimo,  his 
son,  the  family  of  Amati  ends.  He  followed  their 
trade,  but  made  indifferent  instruments.  See 
Violin.     For  illustration,  see  MusiCiiL  Iwstbu- 

MENTS. 

AKATITlAn.  a  department,  town,  and 
lake  of  Guatemala,  Central  America.  The  town, 
the  capital  of  the  department,  situated  on  the 
Hhores  of  the  lake  12  miles  southwest  of  Guate- 
mala city,  is  also  known  as  St.  Juan  de  Amatit- 
lan.  It  was  founded  by  Jesuits,  who  formerly 
engaged  here  in  extensive  sugar-cane  cultivation. 
The  gathering  of  cochineal  now  constitutes  the 
chief  industry,  and  there  is  a  trade  in  salt,  raw 
silk,  and  fruit.  Salt  and  alum  wells  and  hot 
springs  exist  in  the  neighborhood.  The  lake  has 
a  length  of  nine  miles  and  an  extreme  breadth  of 
three.  The  population  of  the  town  in  1893  was 
8408 ;  of  the  department,  35,387. 

AM'ATON'aAIiAND.    See  Tongaland. 

AM'AXJBO^SIS  (Gk.  auavpoxnCf  a  darkening, 
from  afiavp6i,  arnauros,  hardly  seen,  dim,  ob- 
scure). A  term  applied  to  absolute  blindness, 
with  no  discoverable  changes  in  the  eye.  It  is 
also  used  to  include  all  other  cases  of  total  blind- 
ness.   See  Amblyopia. 

AlCAUBY,  A'm6'rft'.  The  title  of  two  kings 
of  Jerusalem.  Amaury  I.  was  born  in  1135,  and 
reigned  from  1162  to  1173.  He  was  the  brother 
of  Baldwin  III.  In  1168  he  invaded  Egypt,  but 
was  driven  out  by  Saladin,  who  carried  the  war 
into  Amaury's  country  in  1170.  Amaury  II., 
born  1144,  was  King  of  Cyprus  (1194-1205) ,  and 
titular  King  of  Jerusalem  in  1198,  but  never 
made  good  his  claim  to  the  latter  kingdom.  He 
died  at  Acre  in  1205. 

AMAUBY  OF  CHABTBES.     See  Amalbig 

OF   BfcNE. 

AMAXICHI,  ft'mdks-§^«,  or  Levkas.  The 
capital  of  the  Ionian  island  of  Santa  Maura,  or 
Iicucadia  (Map:  Greece,  B  3).  It  is  the  resi- 
dence of  a  Greek  metropolitan,  and  is  built  on 
the  edge  of  the  shallow  lagoons  that  separate 
the  northeast  part  of  the  island  from  the  main- 
land, which  narrows  down  less  than  a  mile  north 
to  3500  feet.  It  has  two  harbors.  Amaxichi 
derives  its  name  from  Gk.  afia^ai,  hamaxai,  cars, 
which  the  Ventian  garrison  employed  in  bringing 
down  the  oil  and  wine  from  the  inland  district! 
to  the  point  nearest  the  fort  of  Santa  Maura, 
where,  subsequently,  houses  began  to  be  erected. 
Pop.,  6000. 

AM'AZrAH  (Heb.  "whom  Yahweh  strength- 
ens"). Eighth  king  of  Judah.  He  succeeded 
Joash  ( or  Jehoash ) ,  and  his  reign  has  by  some 
been  fixed  approximately  at  797-779  B.C.  He  un- 
dertook two  wars,  against  Edom  and  against 
Israel,  respectively.  In  the  first  he  was  suc- 
cessful, despite  the  fact  that  Amaziah  had 
dismissed  his  mercenaries  and  thus  weakened 
his  army  (II.  Chronicles  xxv  :  10).  Edom  was 
defeated  in  the  Valley  of  Salt,  and  Selah 
(the  modern  Petra)  was  captured  (II.  Kings 
xiv  :  7 ) .  Elated  by  his  success,  he  chal- 
lenged Joash,  King  of  Israel,  who  accepted  the 
challenge  only  when  compelled  to.    Amaziah  was 


defeated  (II.  Kings  xiv  :  12)  and  taken  prisoner 
to  his  own  capital.  Amaziah  survived  his  de 
feat  by  fifteen  years  ( II.  Kings  xiv  :  7 ) ,  when  he 
was  killed  by  conspirators  at  Lachish  (II.  King» 
xiv  :  10).  The  biblical  narrator  has  a  word  of 
praise  for  Amaziah,  because  in  punishing  tiiie 
murderers  of  his  father,  Joash,  he  did  not  harm 
the  children  of  the  conspirators  (II.  Kings 
xiv  :  6). 

AM'AZON.  A  river  of  South  America,  for- 
merly called  the  Orellana,  after  a  Spanish  sol- 
dier of  that  name,  who  first  explored  it  (Map: 
South  America,  D  3) .  The  name  Amazon  is  said 
to  be  derived  from  an  Indian  word  meaning 
"boat-destroyer,"  from  the  dangerous  action  of 
the  tidal  waves  at  the  river's  mouth.  The  native 
name  of  the  river  from  the  mouth  of  the  Negro 
to  the  junction  of  the  Marafion  and  the  Ucayali, 
is  Solimoens. 

The  head  waters  of  the  Amazon,  the  Marafion 
and  the  Ucayali  rivers,  rise  in  the  central  and 
northern  Peruvian  Andes,  and  after  a  northerly 
course  parallel  with  these  mountains  unite  in 
about  long.  74**  W.,  and  the  united  waters 
pursue  an  almost  easterly  course  between  lat. 
5°  S.  and  the  equator  to  the  Atlantic,  which  is 
reached  in  long.  50**  W.,  where  this  meridian 
intersects  the  equator.  The  Marafion,  which 
rises  in  long.  76*  30'  W.  and  lat.  10*»  30'  S.,  is 
properly  the  head  stream  of  the  Amazon,  as  it  is 
furthest  west;  but  the  Ucayali  is  slightly  the 
larger,  and  has  its  source  farther  south  in  the 
Andes  in  long.  72°  W.  and  lat.  16°  S.  From 
long.  70°  W.,  where  the  Amazon  leaves  Peru, 
its  course  is  confined  to  Brazil. 

The  total  length  of  the  Amazon  from  the  head 
waters  of  the  Ucayali  is  about  3300  miles.  It 
is  between  one  and  two  miles  wide  where  it  enters 
Brazil,  and  gradually  increases  in  breadth,  en- 
larging to  a  width  of  fifty  miles  at  its  main 
mouth;  and  where  it  enters  the  sea  the  distance 
across  it,  from  headland  to  headland,  is  fully 
one  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 

The  total  area  drained  by  the  Amazon  is 
about  two  and  one-half  millions  of  square  miles, 
a  territory  equal  in  extent  to  about  85  per  cent, 
of  that  of  the  United  States  (exclusive  of  Alas- 
ka), and  embraces  most  of  the  South  American 
continent  west  of  long.  60°  W.  and  between  lat. 
3°  N.  and  lat.  17"  §.,  except  a  comparatively 
narrow  strip  along  the  Pacific  coast,  and  a  some- 
what broader  one  on  the  Atlantic.  The  latitu- 
dinal zone  drained  by  the  rivers  from  the  north 
averages  only  6°  or  7°  in  width,  while  that  on 
the  south  has  a  breadth  of  13°  or  14°. 

The  chief  rivers  flowing  into  the  Amazon  from 
the  north  are  the  Napo,  Putumayo,  Yapura,  and 
Rio  Negro.  These  rivers  flow  in  a  direction  more 
or  less  parallel  with  that  of  the  Amazon,  and 
thus  they  drain  but  a  narrow  longitudinal  belt- 

The  chief  affluents  from  the  south  (in  addition 
to  the  Huallaga,  an  affluent  of  the  Marafion,  and 
the  Ucayali)  are  the  Javari,  Juruft,  Purus.  Ma- 
deira, Tapajos.  and  Xingu.  The  Tocantins  River 
practically  belongs  to  this  system  of  southern 
branches,  being  connected  with  the  Amazon  by 
an  arm  of  that  river,  which  cuts  off  the  large 
island  of  Maraj6. 

The  basin  of  the  Amazon  lies  almost  wholly 
within  the  belt  of  remarkably  uniform  equatorial 
heat,  so  that  there  is  an  uninterrupted  plant 
growth  throughout  the  year.  There  is  a  mod- 
erately heavy  rainfall  over  the  whole  of  the 
basin,  except  in  the  western  part,  where,  east  of 


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the  Andes,  the  rainfall  is  excessive;  and  higher 
up  among  the  Andes,  where  it  is  deficient.  The 
very  heavy  rains  in  the  upper  waters  of  the 
basin  are  responsible  for  the  enormous  amount 
of  water  supplied  to  the  river,  which  makes  it 
(and  its  western  tributaries)  navigable  to  such 
a  great  distance  from  its  mouth.  In  most  sec- 
tions there  is  a  rainy  season  from  January  to 
May,  and  a  six  months'  dry  season  from  June 
to  December.  In  the  Uppe/ Amazon  Valley  the 
rainy  season  begins  in  November  and  continues 
until  July,  during  which  time  the  prevailing 
wind  is  northwest;  but  in  the  dry  season  the 
wind  is  chiefly  from  the  southeast.  The  rainfall 
amounts  to  over  100  inches  a  year  in  this  sec- 
tion. 

The  alternation  of  the  rainy  and  dry  seasons 
produces  corresponding  periods  of  high  and  low 
water  in  the  rivers.  Even  in  the  Marailon  a  rise 
of  30  feet  occurs  in  the  wet  season,  and  through- 
out the  whole  length  of  the  Amazon  during  about 
half  the  year  its  waters  are  swollen  and  the 
adjoining  low  country  inundated.  These  floods 
are  not  by  any  means  of  uniform  magnitude, 
and  at  intervals  of  every  few  years  abnormally 
high  water  occurs.  The  current  of  the  Amazon 
averages  about  2^4  miles  per  hour,  but  its  veloci- 
ty is  much  increased  during  the  floods. 

The  drainage  basin  of  the  Amazon  is  remark- 
ably level,  and  the  slope  from  the  outlying 
bounding  highlands  is  very  gradual.  The  height 
of  land  almost  to  the  very  sources  of  the  branch 
rivers  does  not  exceed  1000  feet,  and  as  falls  or 
rapids  east  of  the  Andes  are  almost  unknown, 
these  rivers  are  navigable  for  the  greater  part  of 
their  lengths.  The  Amazon  and  its  tributaries 
form  the  most  remarkable  and  extensive  system 
of  inland  water  highways  in  the  world.  The 
possibilities  of  future  development  in  the  chain 
of  South  American  inland  navigation  are  shown 
by  the  fact  that  on  the  north,  the  Amazon  has 
water  communication  with  the  Orinoco  through 
the  Rio  Negro  and  the  Casiquiare,  while  on  the 
south  the  navigable  waters  of  the  Tapajos  lack 
little  of  connecting  it  vnth  the  head  waters  of  a 
tributary  of  the  Plata  River. 

Within  the  basin  of  the  Amazon  there  occur 
horizontal  layers  of  argillaceous  rocks  and  sand- 
stone, which  vary  in  height  from  100  feet  to  ten 
times  that  amount.  These  and  other  deposits 
seem  to  indicate  that  at  one  time  a  local  med- 
iterranean sea  covered  the  present  Amazonian 
lowlands,  and  the  Marafiion  had  for  its  outlet 
into  the  western  end  of  this  sea  a  delta,  which 
has  gradually  moved  eastward  as  the  shallow  sea 
became  filled  up. 

Not  only  the  source  streams,  but  nearly  all  the 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  experience  a  succes- 
sion of  falls  where  their  waters  enter  upon  the 
floor  of  the  main  stream,  and  some  branches  have 
falls  higher  up.  Above  these  falls,  which  vary 
from  a  succession  of  rapids  to  falls  of  50  feet, 
or  more,  navigation  is  again  resumed.  On  the 
Lower  Amazon  these  rapids  occur  at  a  distance 
of  only  from  ,200  to  300  miles  from  the  main 
stream;  but  the  distance  increases  toward  the 
west,  so  that  on  the  Madeira  and  Rio  Negro 
rivers  the  falls  are  far  removed  from  the  mouths, 
while  most  of  the  southern  branch  rivers  west  of 
the  Madeira  lie  almost  entirely  within  the  unob- 
structed low  belt. 

Where  the  Amazon  enters  Brazil  its  elevation 
is  less  than  300  feet  above  sea-level.  Even  at  its 
low  stage  its  usual  depth  in  its  lower  course 


is  about  150  feet,  and  in  places  it  is  said  to  be 
much  deeper  still.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
the  Amazon  discharges  between  four  and  five  mil- 
lion cubic  feet  of  water  per  second;  and  with 
this  enormous  outflowing  water  there  is  carried 
every  twenty-four  hours  a  quantity  of  sediment 
sufficient  to  form  a  solid  cube  measuring  500 
feet  on  each  edge. 

The  Amazon  is  navigable  by  steamers  for  a 
distance  of  about  2200  miles,  and  for  smaller 
boats  to  points  considerably  beyond;  but  at  the 
entrance  to  the  gorges  of  the  eastern  Andes, 
navigation  is  practically  suspended,  on  account 
of  the  rapids  occurring  there.  Steamboat  navi- 
gation of  the  Amazon  began  in  1853,  but  it  was 
not  until  1867  that  the  navigation  of  the  river 
was  thrown  open  to  the  world.  Now  regular 
lines  of  steamers  ply  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Amazon  to  Yurimaguas  on  the  Huallaga  River 
in  north  central  Peru.  Vessels  enter  the  Amazon 
through  the  estuary  of  the  Para  River,  since  the 
main  mouth  of  the  Amazon  north  of  Mara  jo 
Island  is  shoal  water  filled  with  rocky  islands. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  there  is  a  con- 
tinual battling  of  the  river  current,  the  tides, 
and  the  winds.  The  tidal  influence  is  felt  up 
the  river  to  a  distance  of  about  400  miles.  The 
tidal  bore  is  at  times  so  pronounced  as  to  form 
successive  walls  of  water  ten  to  flfteen  feet  in 
height,  which  noisily  sweep  everything  before 
them  in  their  mad  rush  against  the  river  current. 
The  latter  is  perceptible  at. a  distance  of  fully 
200  miles  seaward  from  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

The  importance  of  the  Amazon  as  a  highway 
of  foreign  commerce  will  become  greater  and 
greater  as  the  economic  development  of  Brazil 
proceeds,  when  in  exchange  for  the  ever-increas- 
ing quantities  of  tropical  products  exported  from 
the  Amazon  basin,  there  will  be  returned  the 
manufactures  and  products  of  the  temperate 
zones. 

Fauna.  The  Amazon  Valley  is  covered  with 
thick  forests  of  lofty  growth,  which  are  thinly 
inhabited  by  numerous  independent  savage  tribes. 
The  animal  life  is  exceedingly  rich  in  numbers, 
but  the  flood  conditions  which  so  generally  com- 
pel arboreal  habits  in  unaquatic  animals  greatly 
limit  at  least  the  species  of  mammals.  The 
principal  animals  are  the  tapir,  jaguar,  panther, 
cavy,  armadillo,  sloth,  peccary,  ant-eater,  and 
monkey.  Birds  are  exceedingly  numerous; 
many  of  them  are  songless,  but  bedecked  with 
gorgeously  colored  feathers;  such  are  the  hum- 
ming birds  and  parrots.  Among  the  snakes,  the 
giant  anaconda  is  the  best  known,  and  of  the 
lizards  the  iguana  attains  formidable  size. 
Numerous  alligators  and  turtles,  and  the  great 
water  mammal,  the  manatee,  frequent  the  river 
and  its  branches.  Of  flshes  there  is  a  greater 
variety  than  in  any  other  stream,  and  in  fact 
a  large  proportion  of  the  present  known  species 
are  found  in  the  Amazon.  Insects  exist  in  the 
forests  in  countless  numbers.  Neither  the  fauna 
nor  the  flora  of  the  Amazon  has  been  more  than 
partly  studied,  and  that  mostly  by  visiting  nat- 
uralists. 

Flora.  The  flora  of  the  immediate  vicinity 
of  the  river  is  that  which  flourishes  in  a  watery 
soil,  and  which  will  survive  the  long-continued 
annual  inundation  which  occurs  in  midsummer. 
There  is  no  suspension  of  plant  activity,  and  the 
leaves  remain  green  throughout  the  year,  and  no 
month  is  without  its  bloom  or  fruit.  Aquatic 
plants  grow  in  great  profusion  and  attain  enor- 


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mous  size,  a  prominent  example  being  the  giant 
lily,  VictoHa  regia.  In  the  undergrowth  occur 
rubias,  myrtles,  leguminosaj,  epiphytic  orchids, 
bromelia,  and  ferns. 

The  Amazonian  forest  presents  to  the  river  a 
walMike  frontage  of  trees,  interwoven  with  vines 
and  roots  clothed  and  fringed  with  moss  in  the 
most  fantastic  manner.  A  continuous  mass  of 
verdure  overhead  has  a  secondary  flora  of  its 
own.  Some  of  the  trees  grow  to  a  height  of 
even  200  feet;  such  are  the  moviatinga,  the 
samauma,  and  the  massaranduba.  Palms,  bam- 
boos, and  ferns  grow  in  profusion;  but  few  tree 
ferns  and  almost  no  cacti  grow  immediately  on 
the  river. 

Among  the  ports  on  the  Amazon  (from  its 
mouth  upward)  are  Macapft,  Santarem,  Obidos, 
Man&os,  Teffe,  and  Tabatinga.  The  commercial 
outlet  of  the  Amazon  basin  is  Parft,  on  the  Rio 
Par  ft,  the  estuary  of  the  Tocantins. 

Bibliography.  Bates,  The  Naturalist  on  the 
River  Amazon  (London,  1892) ;  Wallace,  Travels 
on  the  Amazon  and  Rio  Negro  (London,  1870, 
second  edition,  1889) ;  Agassiz,  Voyage  au  BrMl 
(Paris,  1869)  ;  Brown  and  Lidstone,  Fifteen 
Thousand  Miles  on  the  Amazon  (London,  1878)  ; 
Shichtel,  Der  Amasonenstrom  (Strassburg, 
1893)  ;  Mara j 6,  As  Regides  Afnazonicas  (Lisbon, 
1895) ;  Herndon  and  Gibbon,  Eopploration  of  the 
Valley  of  the  Afnazon  (Washington,  1853)  ;  Ex- 
pedition into  the  Valley  of  the  Amaaon,  15S9, 
loJ^Oy  1639,  translated  and  edited  by  Markham, 
published  by  the  Hakluyt  Society  (London, 
1859)  ;  Keller-Leuzinger,  The  Amazon  and  Ma- 
deira Rivers  (New  York,  1874)  ;  Smith,  Brazil, 
the  Amazon  and  the  Coast  (New  York,  1879)  ; 
Carvajal,  Descuhrimiento  del  rio  de  las  AnuLzo- 
naSf  with  an  introduction  by  Medina  (Seville, 
1894) ;  Schtitz-Holzhausen,  Der  Amazonaa  (Frei- 
burg, 1895). 

AMAZONAS,  a'mft-thO^nfts.  A  northern  de- 
partment of  Peru,  bounded  by  Ecuador  on  the 
north,  the  Peruvian  department  of  Loreto  on 
the  east,  Libertad  on  the  south,  and  Cajamarca 
on  the  west.  Area,  13,943  square  miles.  It  is 
slightly  mountainous  and  has  a  fertile  soil.  The 
population  was  officially  estimated  in  1895  at 
70,676.    Capital,  Chachapoyas. 

AMAZONAS,  or  ALTO  AMAZONAS.     The 

northernmost  and  largest  of  the  Brazilian  States, 
bounded  by  British  Guiana,  Venezuela,  and  Co- 
lombia on  the  north,  State  of  Parft  on  the  east, 
Bolivia  and  the  State  of  Matto  Grosso  on  the 
south,  and  Colombia  and  Peru  on  the  west  (Map: 
Brazil,  E  4).  Its  total  area  is  732,250  square 
miles.  The  surface,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  mountain  chains  on  the  Venezuelan  bor- 
der, is  one  alluvial  plain,  covered  with  impene- 
trable forests,  and  intersected  by  the  River 
Amazon,  with  its  numerous  tributaries,  includ- 
ing the  Rio  Negro  and  Madeira.  The  climate,  al- 
though hot,  is  not  unhealthful,  and  the  soil  is 
very  fertile.  Industrially,  the  state  is  very  little 
developed,  and  its  principal  articles  of  trade  are 
food  products.  With  an  area  three  and  a  half 
times  as  large  as  that  of  France,  an  abundance 
of  fertile  land,  and  excellent  waterways,  Ama- 
Eonas  had  (1900)  a  population  of  207,600,  or 
less  than  one  inhabitant  for  three  square  miles. 
Capital,  ManSos,  which  is  also  the  chief  port. 
Amazonas  formed  a  part  of  the  State  of  Parft, 
and  was  constituted  a  separate  State  in  1850. 
Consult:  J.  Verissimo,  Pard  e  Amazonaa  (Rio  de 


Janeiro,  1899)  ;  C.  L.  Temple,  The  State  of  Ama- 
zonas   (London,  1900). 

AK^AZONITE,    or    Amazon     Stoxe.      See 
Feldspab. 

AM^AZONS^  AiCAZ^ONES  (Gk.  pi.  of  'AfnUfiiv, 
Amazdn ) .  In  early  Greek  legends,  a  race  of  war- 
like women,  who  either  suffered  no  man  to  live 
among  them,  or  held  men  in  servitude  for  the  con- 
tinuance of  the  race.  The  earliest  accounts  place 
them  in  northeast  Asia  Minor,  on  the  River  Ther- 
modon,  later  writers,  farther  to  the  north  and 
west,  in  Scythia  and  the  Caucasus;  and  finally 
we  hear  of  Amazons  in  Libya,  at  the  south  of  the 
known  world.  Their  expeditions,  undertaken  for 
war  and  plunder,  led  them  into  Scythia  and  Syria, 
but  especially  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  where 
we  find  them  in  conflict  with  Priam,  Bellerophon, 
and  other  heroes.  In  this  region  they  were  said 
to  have  founded  many  cities,  notably  Ephesus, 
where  they  established  the  temple  of  Artemis, 
which  furnished  them  a  refuge  when  defeated 
by  Heracles.  They  were  daughters  of  Ares,  and 
worshiped  him  and  Artemis  as  their  chief  gods. 
Thejr  appear  chiefly  in  three  stories:  (1)  The 
killing  by  Achilles  of  their  queen  Penthesilea, 
who  led  her  army  to  the  relief  of  Troy;  (2)  the 
conflict  with  Heracles,  which  arose  from  his  en- 
deavor to  secure  the  girdle  of  their  queen,  and 
led,  according  to  some  writers,  to  their  annihila- 
tion; (3)  the  war  with  Athens,  which  began 
with  the  expedition  of  Theseus  to  carry  off  the 
Amazon  queen,  and  ended  with  their  invasion  of 
Attica,  attack  on  the  Acropolis  from  the  Areo- 
pagus, and  total  destruction  by  Theseus  and  the 
Athenians.  The  origin  of  these  legends  is  not 
clear;  but  if  we  consider  the  localities  in  which 
the  Amazons  lived,  and  that  in  historic  times  the 
Greeks  found  tribes  about  the  Black  Sea  in  which 
the  women  held  sway  and  took  part  in  war,  while 
in  Caria,  Lycia,  and  Lydia  there  is  much  evidence 
for  descent  traced  through  the  mother,  it  seems 
not  improbable  that  the  Amazons  embody  a  remi- 
niscence of  the  people  and  civilization  which  pre- 
ceded  the  Greeks  on  the  east  of  the  JEgettn, 
Representations  of  the  Amazons  are  very  com- 
mon in  all  periods  of  Greek  art.  At  first  they 
appear  in  the  costume  of  Greek  hoplites,  but  later 
assume  the  Scythian  garb.  They  are  armed  with 
lance,  battle  axe,  or  bow,  and  usually  carry  a 
crescent  shield.  Among  the  chief  ancient  repre- 
sentations are  the  reliefs  from  GySlbaschi,  in 
Vienna,  which  seem  to  reflect  the  painting  of 
Micon  at  Athens;  and  the  friezes  from  Phigalia. 
and  the  mausoleum  at  Halicamassus,  in  the 
British  Museum.  Of  the  statues,  three  types  ^ 
back  to  the  best  period  of  Greek  art:  the 
"Wounded  Amazon,"  in  Berlin,  probably  by  Poly- 
cletus;  the  "Wounded  Amazon"  of  the  Capitol ine 
Museum  in  Rome,  and  the  "Unwounded  Amazon" 
in  the  Vatican.  It  was  said  that  in  order  to  be 
imimpeded  in  war,  they  burned  off  their  ri^ht 
breasts;  but  no  work  of  art  shows  them  thus 
mutilated,  and  undoubtedly  the  story  is  merely 
an  invention  to  explain  a  false  etymology,  as 
though  the  composition  of  the  word  Amazon 
were  a  priv.  and  y«of«Jf,  mazos,  breast  Con- 
sult: Kltigmann,  Die  Amazonen  in  der  attischen 
Litteratur  und  Kunst  (Stuttgart,  1875),  and 
Corev,  De  Amazonum  Antiquissimis  Figuris 
(Berlin,  1891). 

AK'BAKIS^A.     A  Bantu  tribe  of  Amboia, 
Portuguese  West  Africa.   They  were  enterprising 


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AMBEBr-FISH. 


traders  originally,  but  were  ruined  by  the  Portu- 
guese, and  dispersed  to  other  regions. 

AMBALA,  &m-banA,  or  TTMBALLA.  A  city 
in  India,  capital  of  the  district  of  Ambala  in  the 
Punjab  (Map:  India.  C  2),  and  an  important 
station  on  the  Sindh,  Punjab,  and  Delhi  Rail- 
way, 150  miles  northwest  of  Delhi.  It  is  a  large, 
walled  town,  in  a  level,  well-watered,  and  culti- 
vated country,  and  has  an  extensive  trade.  It 
contains  a  fine  Gothic  church,  a  Presbyterian 
church,  dispensary,  hospital,  and  leper  asylum. 
The  to^'n  was  founded  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
Here,  at  a  grand  durbar,  in  1869,  Shere  Ali, 
Ameer  of  Afghanistan,  concluded  a  treaty  with 
Lord  Mayo,  Governor-General  of  India.  Popu- 
lation, 79,300.  including  the  English  military 
station  or  cantonment  near  by. 

AMBALEMA,  ftm^bft-lft^mft.  A  city  in  the 
department  of  Tolima,  Colombia,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Magdalena  (Map:  Colombia,  B  3).  The 
city  lies  28  miles  above  Honda  in  the  midst  of  an 
excellent  tobacco-growing  district,  and  is  one  of 
the  most  modern  as  well  as  one  of  the  most 
thriving  towns  of  Colombia.  Pop.,  8000. 
AM^ABI  HEKP.  See  Hibiscus. 
AMBAS^SUU30B  (Med.  Lat.  amhaaciator, 
agent,  from  amhasciare,  to  go  on  a  mission,  ear- 
lier amhactiare,  from  Lat.  amhactus^  vassal;  ac- 
cording to  Festus,  of  Celtic  origin;  compare 
Welsh  amaeth,  husbandman,  and  Goth,  andhahta, 
servant;  Ger.  Amt,  oflSce).  The  highest  rank  of 
public  minister  accredited  to  a  foreign  court. 
Though  used  popularly  and  sometimes  by  writ- 
ers on  public  law  in  a  loose  sense  as  the  equiva- 
lent of  minister  (q.v),  the  term  is  strictly  appro- 
priately used  only  of  the  highest  of  the  four 
orders  of  diplomatic  agents  established  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  in  1815,  and  that  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  in  1818.  The  classification  then 
adopted,  which  has  been  generally  accepted,  is  as 
follows :  ( 1 )  Ambassadors,  and  legates  and  nun- 
cios of  the  Pope.  (2)  Envoys  and  ministers 
plenipotentiary.  (3)  Ministers  resident,  accredi- 
ted to  the  sovereign.     (4)  Charges  d'affaires. 

The  ambassador  is  supposed  to  represent  di- 
rectly the  person  of  his  sovereign,  who  signs  his 
credentials,  or  letters  of  credence,  and  the  am- 
bassador, therefore,  enjoys  of  right  the  privilege 
of  personal  communication  with  the  sovereign 
to  whom  he  is  accredited.  Ministers  and  charges 
d'afTaires  do  not,  in  theory,  possess  this  right, 
thougli  in  the  case  of  the  minister,  at  least,  the 
privilege  is  not  usually  denied.  The  charge 
d'affaires  is,  in  fact,  not  accredited  to  the  sov- 
ereign, but  to  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs,  and 
is  regarded  merely  as  an  agent  of  his  government 
to  transact  the  business  intrusted  to  him.  Mod- 
ern methods  of  carrying  on  the  diplomatic  inter- 
course of  states  have  greatly  diminished  the 
relative  importance  of  ambassadors,  as  compared 
with  other  diplomatic  agents,  and  little  remains 
of  their  primacy  excepting  a  superior  dignity  and 
impressiveness  and  certain  rights  of  precedence 
on  ceremonial  occasions.  Prior  to  1893  the  Gov- 
ernment of  the  United  States  had  been  repre- 
sented abroad  by  no  agents  of  higher  rank  than 
ministers  resident,  who  were,  in  the  case  of  the 
great  Powers,  accredited  as  envoys  extraordinary 
and  ministers  plenipotentiary.  But  in  that  year, 
in  order  to  give  pur  diplomatic  representatives 
at  foreign  courts  an  equal  dignity  and  importance 
with  that  enjoyed  by  the  representatives  of  other 
great  Powers,  Congress  passed  an  act  authoriz- 


ing the  President  to  accredit  ambassadors  to  rep- 
resent the  United  States  at  certain  European 
courts.  The  privileges  and  immunities  of  am- 
bassadors, which  are  shared  by  them  with  other 
international  representatives,  will  be  dealt  with 
in  the  article  on  Diplomatic  Agents.  See  also 
Asylum;  Exterbitobiaxity ;  Legation. 

AITBATO,  &m-ba^td,  or  Asiento  de  Ambato, 
ft-ayftn'tA  dft  Am-bft^td.  A  town  in  the  province  of 
Leon,  Ecuador,  on  the  northeastern  slope  of 
Chimborazo,  78  miles  south  of  Quito,  and  8859 
feet  above  the  sea  (Map:  Ecuador,  B  4)i  It  was 
destroyed  in  1698  by  an  eruption  of  Cotopaxi,  but 
was  soon  rebuilt,  and  became  more  flourishing 
than  before.  It  carries  on  an  active  trade  in 
grain,  sugar,  and  cochineal,  the  products  of  the 
surrounding  country.    Pop.,  about  10,000. 

AJC^EB  ( From  Ar.  'anhar,  ambergris ;  called 
so  from  its  resemblance  to  ambergris).  A  fossil 
resin  of  vegetable  origin.  It  is  usually  of  a  pale- 
yellow  color,  sometimes  reddish  or  brownish; 
it  is  sometimes  transparent,  sometimes  almost 
opaque.  It  occurs  in  round  irregular  lumps, 
grains,  or  drops;  has  a  perfectly  conchoidal 
fracture,  is  slightly  brittle,  emits  an  agreeable 
odor  when  rubbed,  melts  at  550^  F.,  and  burns 
with  a  bright  flame  and  pleasant  smell.  Thales 
of  Miletus  was  the  first  to  notice  that  when 
amber  is  rubbed  it  becomes  capable  of  attracting 
light  bodies;  this  was  the  first  electric  phenom- 
enon produced  by  man.  An  acid  called  succinic 
acid  (named  from  the  Lat.  auccinum,  amber)  is 
obtained  from  it  by  distillation.  Amber  had 
formerly  a  high  reputation  as  a  medicine,  but 
the  virtues  ascribed  to  it  were  almost  entirely 
imaginary.  It  is  employed  in  the  arts  for  the 
manufacture  of  many  ornamental  articles,  and 
for  the  preparation  of  a  kind  of  varnish.  Great 
quantities  are  consumed  in  Mohammedan  wor- 
snip  at  Mecca,  and  it  is  in  great  demand  through- 
out the  East.  It  was  obtained  by  the  ancients 
from  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  Sea,  where  it  is 
still  found,  especially  between  Konigsberg  and 
Memel,  in  greater  abundance  than  anywhere  else 
in  the  world.  It  is  there  partly  cast  up  by  the 
sea,  partly  obtained  by  means  of  nets,  and  partly 
dug  out  of  a  bed  of  carbonized  wood.  Limited 
quantities  of  it  are  found  in  the  United  States. 
It  sometimes  occurs  in  diluvial  deposits,  as  in 
the  gravel  near  London;  but  it  is  very  rare  in 
Great  Britain.  It  is  obtained  in  small  quantities 
from  the  coasts  of  Sicily  and  the  Adriatic,  and  is 
found  in  different  parts  of  Europe,  in  Siberia, 
Greenland,  etc.  It  sometimes  incloses  insects  of 
species  which  no  longer  exist.  Leaves  have  also 
been  found  inclosed  in  it.  Specimens  which  con- 
tain insects  or  leaves  being  much  valued,  artific- 
ial substitutes  are  often  manufactured  and  im- 
posed upon  collectors.  According  to  an  ancient 
fable,  amber  is  the  tears  of  the  sisters  of  Phag- 
thon,  who,  after  his  death,  were  changed  into 
poplars.  The  ancients  set  an  immense  value 
upon  it.  Pieces  of  amber  have  occasionally  been 
found  of  twelve  or  thirteen  pounds  weight,  but 
such  pieces  are  extremely  rare. 

AMBEB-FISH.  Any  of  several  carangoid 
fishes  of  the  genus  Seriola,  numerous  on  both 
coasts  of  North  America,  which  are  of  moderate 
size,  graceful  form,  often  brightly  colored  and 
excellent  to  eat.  The  commonest  species  of  the 
Atlantic  coast  is  Seriola  lalandi.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  an  allied  species  {Seriola  dorsalift),  the  yel- 
lowtail,  is  highly  valued  as  a  food-fish,  and  by 


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anglers.      See  Madregal,   and  plate  of   Hobse 
Mackerels. 

AHBEEG,  am'bfirK.  The  old  capital  of  the 
Upper  Palatinate  in  Bavaria,  35  miles  east  of 
Nuremberg  and  32  north  of  Ratisbon  (Map: 
Bavaria,  D  4).  It  is  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  Vils,  and  is  well  built.  The  ancient  walls  are 
now  transformed  into  shady  avenues.  Amberg 
is  the  seat  of  the  court  of  appeal  for  the  district, 
possesses  a  library  of  34,000  volumeB,  a  lyceum, 
an  agricultural  and  industrial  school,  a  munici- 
pal hospital,  a  house  of  correction,  etc.  There 
is  also  a  royal  factory  for  the  manufacture  of 
arms.  The  principal  products  are  earthenware, 
woolen  cloths,  ironmongery,  and  beer.  Near  Am- 
berg, Archduke  Charles  defeated  the  French  un- 
der Jourdan  on  August  24,  1796.  Pop.,  1890, 
19,000;  in  1900,  22,000. 

AMBEBOEB,  am'berK-er,  Christoph  (c.1500- 
c.  1661?).  A  German  painter.  He  was  received 
into  the  Augsburg  guild  in  1530,  and  is  best 
known  for  his  careful  portraits  of  contempora- 
ries, particularly  those  of  Charles  V.,  Frunds- 
berg,  and  the  geographer  MUnster.  Various 
altar-pieces  by  him  are  in  Augsburg  churches. 

AMBEBGBIS,  Am^gr-gres  (Fr.  amhre  gris, 
gray  amber;  Ar. 'on 6or).  Also  spelled  ambergrise 
and  ambergrease.  A  fatty  secretion  formed  in  the 
bowels  of  some  sperm  w^hales  (q.v.),  and  valued 
as  a  material  for  perfume.  It  is  taken  from 
whales  directly,  but  more  is  found  floating  in 
waters  (especially  of  the  tropics)  frequented  by 
these  cetaceans,  or  cast  upon  the  beaches  in 
lumps  of  all  sizes  up  to  a  mass  exceeding 
200  pounds  in  weight.  It  is  lighter  than  water, 
gray  marbled  with  blackish  in  color,  opaque  and 
waxy  in  consistency,  softens  readily  under 
heat,  melting  into  resinous  liquid  at  145**  F., 
and  develops  on  exposure  to  the  air  a  sweet, 
"earthy"  odor  in  place  of  its  disagreeable  smell 
when  first  taken  from  a  whale.  Chemically,  it 
is  soluble  in  oils,  but  resists  acids;  and  it  dis- 
solves readily  in  hot  alcohol,  yielding  a  substance 
termed  ambrein.  As  this  is  closely  related  chem- 
ically to  known  biliary  secretions,  it  is  further 
evidence  that  ambergris  is  of  this  nature,  perhaps 
induced  by,  and  partaking  of,  the  squids  upon 
which  the  sperm  whale  largely  feeds,  remains 
of  whose  beaks  are  frequently  found  mixed  with 
it.  Like  other  bezoars  and  substances  of  mys- 
terious origin,  ambergris  was  formerly  regarded 
as  an  efficacious  medicine,  but  its  virtues  were 
imaginary,  and  it  is  no  longer  used  in  pharmacy, 
nor  as  a  flavor  in  cookery,  except  among  a  few 
barbarians  of  the  East.  It  has  a  high  commer- 
cial value,  however,  as  a  material  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  various  perfumes,  and  the  price  is 
increasing,  owing  to  the  increasing  rarity  of  the 
sperm  whale,  and  a  growing  demand.  Hence  it 
is  adulterated  and  imitated;  a  test  of  its  genu- 
ineness is  described  as  "its  solubility  in  hot  alco- 
hol, its  fragrant  odor,  and  its  uniform  fatty  con- 
sistence on  being  penetrated  by  a  hot  wire." 

AM^EB  ISLANDS,  or  Electrides.  In 
later  Greek  geography,  the  islands,  famed  for 
their  amber,  in  the  North  Sea,  from  Denmark  to 
the  mouth  of  the  Rhine.  Also  certain  islands 
at  the  mouth  of  the  legendary  river  Eridanus 
(the  Po). 

AMBEBT,  aNHjar',  Joachim  Marie  Jean 
Jacques  (1804-90).  A  French  general  and- 
writer.     He  was  born  at  Chillas,  near  Cahors 


(Lot),  and  was  educated  at  St.  Cyr.  He  served 
in  the  Spanish  and  Belgian  campaigns,  distin- 
guished himself  in  Algeria,  and  became  brigadier- 
general  in  Europe.  He  traveled  extensively  in 
Europe  and  America,  and  for  some  time  was  a 
contributor  to  L'Abeille,  a  French  journal  pub- 
lished at  New  Orleans.  Among  his  numerous 
writings  are:  Etudes  tactiques  (1865),  Histoire 
de  la  guerre  de  1S70-7I  (1873),  Les  soldaU 
francaia  (1878-82),  Gaulois  et  germaina,  reciis 
militdires  (1884-80). 

AM'BEB  WITCH,  The.  An  English  opera 
by  W.  V.  Wallace,  the  text  being  by  H.  F.  Chor- 
ley,  first  presented  at  Her  Majesty's  Theatre, 
London,  February  28,  1861.  Its  incidents  are 
based  on  those  of  a  German  story  by  Meinhold 
(1843). 

AM'BIGU^TY  (Lat.  ambiguus,  going  about 
hither  and  thither,  uncertain,  doubtful) .  In  law, 
the  duplicity  or  uncertainty  of  meaning  of  a 
word,  clause,  or  other  part  of  a  written  instru- 
ment. The  rule  of  evidence  forbidding  the  ad- 
mission of  parol  evidence  to  contradict,  vary,  or 
explain  a  written  document  is  subject  to  the 
important  exception  that  parol  evidence  may 
be  introduced  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  an 
ambiguity  in  a  written  Instrument.  Ambiguities 
"patent"  and  "latent."  A  patent  ambigu- 
ity is  one  which  appears  on  the  face  of  an  in- 
strument without  referring  to  any  intrinsic  fact 
or  circumstance.  Thus,  if  a  testator  after  refer- 
ring in  his  will  to  two  persons  named  John,  made 
a  bequest  to  John,  the  term  of  the  bequest  would 
constitute  a  patent  ambiguity.  A  latent  arabi^- 
ity  is  one  which  is  disclosed  only  by  the  proof  of 
extrinsic  facts.  Thus,  if  a  testator  made  a  be- 
quest to  a  person,  naming  or  otherwise  describ- 
ing him,  and  it  appeared  extrinsically  that  there 
were  two  perons  answering  the  description,  the 
terms  of  the  bequest  would  constitute  a  latent 
ambiguity.  It  is  sometimes  said  that  parol  evi- 
dence cannot  be  introduced  to  explain  a  latent 
ambiguity.  While  the  judicial^  decisions  are  not 
altogether  harmonious,  the  weight  of  authority 
does  not  favor  such  a  rule.  See  the  authorities 
named  under  the  titles  Contract;  Wiix,  and 
Evidence. 

AKBFOBIX.  A  chief  of  the  Eburones  in 
Belgic  Gaul,  who  fought  against  Julius  Csesar  in 
54  B.C.  By  cunning  and  strategy  he  defeated  one 
important  Koman  garrison  and  massacred  every 
man;  but  while  on  the  march  to  another  camp, 
he  encountered  Csesar  himself,  who  easily  de- 
feated him,  though  Ambiorix  with  a  few  men  es- 
caped into  the  forests. 

AMBI'TPIOUS  STEPOiCOTHEB,  The.  A 
tragedy  by  Nicholas  Rowe,  produced  and  printed 
in  1700.    The  scene  is  laid  in  Persepolis. 

AM^LEBiy  James  Markhau  Mabshaix 
(1848-81).  An  American  surgeon,  born  in  Fau- 
quier Co.,  Va.,  and  educated  at  the  medical 
college  of  the  University  of  Maryland.  He  vol- 
unteered as  surgeon  to  the  Jeanneltc  Arctic  ex- 
pedition in  1879  (see  De  Long,  Geobge  W.),  and 
was  in  the  first  cutter  with  De  Long  when  the 
officers  and  crew  left  the  sinking  vessel  (June  13, 
1881 ) .  His  body  was  found  March  23,  1882,  and 
buried  on  Manument  Hill,  on  the  Lena  Delta, 
where  a  pyramidal  structure  of  stone  and  timber 
w'R9  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  explorers. 

AMBLESIDE.  A  town  in  the  heart  of  the 
English  lake  district,  Westmoreland;  a  favorite 


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resort  for  tourists  on  account  of  its  scenery  and 
its  nearness  to  points  of  historic  interest,  the 
homes  of  Wordsworth,  Dr.  Arnold,  and  others. 
Fragments  of  Roman  buildings  have  been  found 
in  the  neighborhood.  Stock  Gill  Force  is  a  water- 
fall in  the  hills  near  the  town.    Pop.,  1901,  2536. 

AMBLETEUSE,  aN^r-tu?/.  A  seacoast  vil- 
lage of  France,  in  the  department  of  Pas-de- 
Calais,  on  the  English  Channel,  about  15  miles 
southwest  of  Calais  and  six  miles  north  of  Bou- 
logne. It  is  famous  as  the  landing  place  of  James 
II.  after  his  flight  from  England  in  1689.  There 
is  a  monument  erected  by  Napoleon  to  the  Grand 
Army  in  1805.     Pop.,  1901,  685. 

AM'BLY(yPIA  (Gk.  dfiiS/ivuvta^  dim-sigh t- 
edness,  from  afijSXv^,  aniblys,  blunt,  dull  -|-  cnjjf 
apSf  eye).  A  name  given  to  diminished  acuteness 
of  vision  not  relieved  by  the  use  of  glasses,  and 
not  accompanied  by  any  visible  ocular  changes. 
The  term  is,  however,  sometimes  more  loosely 
used  to  include  other  forms  of  imperfect  sight. 
Congenital  amblyopia  of  one  or  both  eyes  is  often 
due  to  hyperopia,  myopia,  or  astigmatism.  These 
prevent  perfect  vision,  and  although  the  use  of 
proper  glasses  may  eventually  cause  an  improve- 
ment in  young  persons,  this  is  impossible  if  the 
lack  of  proper  vision  has  lasted  long.  Congenital 
amblyopia  for  colors  (see  Color  Blindness), 
mav  occur  with  a  contraction  of  the  field.  Hys- 
terical amblyopia,  usually  unilateral,  may 
amount  to  total  blindness.  There  is  contraction 
concentrically  of  the  field  of  vision  for  white  and 
colors,  and  the  fields  for  colors  do  not  maintain 
the  relative  sizes  which  they  normally  possess. 
There  are  generally  other  hysterical  .symptoms. 
Simulated  amblyopia  is  simply  a  pretense  of 
blindness  in  one  or  both  eyes,  and  is  usually 
readily  detected.  Toxic  amblyopia  is  produced 
at  times  by  large  doses  of  quinine,  or  excessive 
and  continual  use  of  tobacco,  alcohol,  opium,  and 
other  drugs.  If  the  drug  is  entirely  given  up 
recovery  usually  occurs  after  a  long  "time.  Ma- 
larial amblyopia  of  one  or  both  eyes  is  usually 
relieved  by  quinine.  Uraemic  amblyopia  some- 
times appears  suddenly  in  both  eyes  during  an 
attack  of  ursemia,  without  retinal  changes, 
though  at  times  accompanying  an  albuminuric 
retinitis.  It  is  generally  very  transitory.  See 
Day  Blindness;  Night  Blindness. 

AM'BLYOP^SIDJE  (Gk.  afiSXvg,  amhlys,  dull 
-f-  dtjfic,  opsiSy  the  look,  eyesight).  A  family  of 
small  fishes  allied  to  the  cyprinodonts,  mostly 
living  underground,  and  having  their  eyes  in 
varying  degrees  of  degeneration.  See  Ca^'^  Ani- 
mals. 

AMBI^YS^OMA  (Gk.  afz^Xv^,  aniblys,  blunt, 
dull  -f.  oT6fia,  8ioma,  mouth ) .  A  genus  of  Sala- 
manders ranging  over  Mexico  and  the  United 
States.  They  generally  prefer  damp  climates, 
for  the  fifteen  or  more  species  are  grouped  in  the 
watered  regions  on  either  side  of  the  arid  plains. 
Only  one  species  {Amhlystoma  tigrinum)  ranges 
over  all  of  the  United  States  and  into  Mexico. 
The  eastern  examples  transform  early  and  while 
yet  small.  The  larval  or  "axolotl"  stage  of  the 
western  forms  grows  large,  transforms  late,  and 
may  even  become  sexually  mature  while  still 
bearing  external  gills.  One  Mexican  form  has 
never  been  observed  to  metamorphose.  See 
AxoLOTL,  and  Salamander. 

AM^O  (Gk.  &fi0uv,  Lat.  amho,  from  hvaliai- 
vtiv     to  ascend).     The  pulpits  or  reading-desks 


used  in  the  early  Christian  churches.  There  were 
usually  two  of  them,  placed  on  either  side  of  the 
raised  choir  for  the  lower  clergy,  which  occupied 
the  upper  part  of  the  middle  nave,  below  the 
altar.  These  ambones  were  entered  from  within 
the  choir,  and  stood  on  its  outside  edge,  toward 
the  aisles,  connected  with  the  encircling  parapet 
or  screen.  They  had  usually  a  double  staircase 
on  either  side,  and  three  levels ;  the  upper  for  the 
reading  of  the  Gospels  and  for  preaching,  confes- 
sions of  faith,  and  important  ecclesiastical  an- 
nouncements; the  middle  one  for  the  reading  of 
the  Epistles;  the  lower  for  other  parts  of  the 
Bible.  Usually  one  ambo  was  devoted  to  the 
reading  of  the  Gospels,  and  near  it  stood  the 
paschal  candlestick,  while  the  second  ambo  was 
for  the  Epistles.  The  earliest  ambones  are  at 
Kavenna  (cathedral  and  Sant'  Apollinare),  those 
at  Rome  are  mediaeval  (San  Clemente,  San  Lo- 
renzo), but  are  better  preserved.  They  were  of 
marble,  merely  carved  in  the  earliest  examples; 
inlaid  with  mosaics  in  later  times.  To  the  form 
with  a  single  stairway  the  term  "pulpit"  is  more 
appropriate.    See  Pulpit. 

AMBOISE,  aN'bwSa/.  A  town  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Loire,  in  the  department  of  Indre- 
et- Loire,  France  (Map:  France,  H  4).  It  is  15 
The  town  owes  much  of  its  importance  to  the  re- 
gion so  rich  in  vineyards  that  it  has  been  called 
"the  garden  of  France."  The  town  has  consider- 
able steel  manufactures  and  a  trade  in  leather 
and  cloth.  It  possesses  a  castle,  in  which  several 
of  the  French  kings  have  resided.  Charles  VIII. 
was  born  here.  It  was  also  the  scene  of  his  death. 
The  town  owes  much  of  its  importance  to  the  re- 
nown of  the  great  churchmen  and  statesmen,  Car- 
dinal Georges  and  Frangois  Charles  d'Amboise. 
The  town  is  memorable  as  the  place  in  which  the 
religious  wars  which  devastated  the  kingdom  dur- 
ing the  sixteenth  century  broke  out,  and  where 
the  word  "Huguenot"  was  first  applied  to  the 
Protestant  Party.  The  castle  of  Amboise  was 
much  improved  by  Louis  Pliilippe,  and  was  the 
residence  of  the  Arab  chief,  Abd-el-Kader,  dur- 
ing his  captivity  in  France.  Pop.,  1901,  4538. 
Consult  Chevalier,  Inventaire  analytique  dca 
archives  communales  (TAmhoise,  1421-1789 
(Tours,  1874). 

AMBOISE,  Georges  d'  (1460-1510).  Car- 
dinal and  Prime  Minister  under  Louis  XII.  of 
France.  He  was  born  at  Ohaumont-sur-Loire.  At 
a  very  early  age  he  became  almoner  to  Louis  XI. 
It  is  generally  stated  that  he  became  Bishop  of 
Montauban  at  fourteen;  but  he  did  not  attain  to 
the  dignity  till  the  age  of  twenty-four.  In  1493 
he  was  made  Archbishop  of  Rouen,  and  in  1499 
Cardinal.  Initiated  in  early  years  into  the  in- 
trigues of  the  court,  he  soon,  by  his  zealous  serv- 
ices, secured  the  confidence  of  Louis  of  Orleans 
(Louis  XII.),  by  whom  he  was  made  Premier  in 
1498.  From  this  time  Amboise  became  the  prime 
mover  in  all  the  political  affairs  of  France.  By  his 
advice  the  King  undertook  the  conquest  of  Milan, 
which  had  such  great  influenc^e  on  the  fortunes  of 
France.  After  the  death  of  Pope  Alexander  VI., 
Amboise  endeavored  to  raise  himself  to  the  Papal 
see,  and,  having  failed,  became  the  dangerous 
enemy  of  the  succeeding  popes.  Pius  III. — ^>vho  oc- 
cupied the  Papal  chair  only  twenty-seven  days — 
and  Julius  II.  To  secure  his  own  election,  Am- 
boise encouraged  a  schism  between  the  French 
Church  and  the  see  of  Rome,  and  convened  a 
separate  council,  held  first  at  Pisa,  afterward  at 


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Milan  and  Lyons;  but  his  plans  were  frustrated 
by  the  failure  of  the  French  army  in  Italy. 
Cardinal  Amboise  was  a  dexterous,  experienced, 
and  ambitious  statesman.  He  governed  France 
wisely,  introduced  reforms  in  the  judicial  sys- 
tem, reduced  taxation,  and  by  his  benevolence 
earned  the  respect  of  the  whole  nation.  Consult : 
Le  Gendre,  Vie  du  Cardinal  d' Amboise  (Rouen, 
1726) ;  Hardouin,  Le  Cardinal  d' Amboise {Bouen, 
1875). 

AK^OY  CI«AYS.  A  great  series  of  upper 
Cretaceous  clay  deposits  found  extensively  devel- 
oped in  northeastern  New  Jersey,  especially  in 
the  region  around  Perth  Amboy,  whence  the 
name.  The  beds,  which  are  of  non-marine  origin, 
are  also  known  as  the  Raritan  clays,  because  the 
Raritan  River  flows  through  the  area  in  which 
they  outcrop,  and  their  total  thickness,  including 
the  inter  bedded  sands,  is  about  350  feet.  A  few 
of  the  beds  contain  an  abundance  of  plant  re- 
mains, as  well  as  some  of  mollusks.  The  Amboy 
clays  are  of  great  economic  value,  beinff  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  chinaware,  firebricks,  stone 
ware,  brick,  and  tile.  Large  pits  have  been 
opened  in  the  deposits  at  Perth  Amboy,  South 
Amboy,  Woodbrid^,  and  other  points.  The  clays 
are  used  chiefly  within  the  State,  but  large  quan- 
tities are  also  sent  to  neighboring  States.  See 
Cretaceous;  Fireclay;  Clay. 

AMBOY^A  (Malay  Ambun),  Apon  or  Thau. 
The  most  important  of  the  Moluccas,  belonging  to 
the  Dutch,  and  lying  southwest  from  Ceram,  and 
northwest  from  Banda.  The  island  covers  an 
area  of  264  square  miles  and  is  divided  by 
the  bay  of  Amboyna  into  two  unequal  penin- 
sulas (Map:  East  India,  G  5).  Hitu,  the  larger, 
and  Leitimor,  the  smaller.  The  surface  is  highly 
mountainous,  and  traversed  by  numerous  streams 
abounding  in  fish.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  pro- 
duces coffee,  pepper,  indigo,  and  rice.  But  the 
main  product  of  the  island  is  the  clove,  which 
grows  there  in  abundance,  and  constitutes  the 
chief  article  of  commerce.  A  great  part  of  the 
island  is  covered  with  forests  full  of  valuable 
woods.  The  inhabitants  in  1801  numbered  30,- 
380.  They  are  physically  and  linguistically 
Malayan,  although  some  Papuan  admixture 'from 
Ceram  has  occurred.  They  have  also  some  Portu- 
guese blood.  Their  language  contains  a  consider- 
able Portuguese  element,  and  their  religion  is 
Protestantism  (introduced  by  the  Dutch),  with 
the  addition  of  rites  and  ceremonies  borrowed 
from  the  Portuguese  Catholics,  and  inherited 
from  their  aboriginal  past.  The  residency  of  Am- 
boyna comprises  besides  the  Amboyna  Island,  the 
Southern  Moluccas,  the  Banda  group  (q.v.), 
Ceram,  Burn,  Key  Islands  (q.v.),  Aru  Islands 
(q.v.),  and  a  few  other  islands,  with  a  total 
area  of  over  18,000  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  over  200,000.  The  capital  of  the  island 
and  of  the  residency  is  Amboyna  (q.v.)  The  his- 
tory of  Amboyna  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Moluc- 
cas, except  for  the  massacre  of  the  British  set- 
tlers by  the  Dutch  in  1623,  for  which  the  Dutch 
Government  was  compelled  by  Cromwell  in  1654 
to  pay  the  sum  of  £300,000,  in  addition  to  a  small 
island,  as  a  compensation  to  the  families  of  the 
massacred.  Consult:  The  Barbarous  Proceed- 
inga  Against  the  English  at  Amboyna  (London, 
1051);  Beaumont,  Dutch  Alliances  (London, 
1712)  ;  Verbeek,  "Over  de  geologievan  Ambon," 
in  volumes  6  and  7,  Konitikl.  akad.  van  weten- 
schappen  (Amsterdam,  1899). 


AMBOYKA.  The  capital  of  the  Dutch  resi- 
dency of  that  name,  situated  near  the  middle  of 
the  northwest  shore  of  Leitimor,  one  of  the 
peninsulas  of  the  island  of  Amboyna,  in  3**  41' 
S.  lat.,  and  128"*  E.  long.  It  is  well-built,  has 
wide  streets,  and  contains  a  church,  several 
schools,  a  hospital,  and  an  orphan  asylum.  The 
government  buildings  are  situated  in  Fort  Vic- 
toria. The  roadstead  is  spacious  and  affords 
safe  anchorage.  The  town  suffered  considerably 
during  an  earthquake  in  January,  1898.  Its 
population  is  about  9000. 

AMBOYNA  WOOD.    See  Kiaboucca. 

AJIBKA^CIA  (Gk.  ^Aft^paxia,  Ambrakia).  A 
Greek  city  in  the  southern  part  of  Thesprotia, 
on  the  Arachthus  River,  about  ten  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river.  It  was  colonized 
by  the  Corinthians,  under  the  leadership  of  Gor- 
gUB,  son  of  Cypselus,  in  the  last  half  of  the 
seventh  century  B.C.,  and  soon  rose  to  a  position 
of  great  wealth  and  power.  Pyrrhus  of  Epirus 
made  it  his  capital,  and  enriched  it  with  many 
public  buildings  and  works  of  art.  The  latter 
were  removed  and  carried  to  Rome  when  the 
town  was  taken  by  the  Romans  in  189  B.C.  After 
Augustus,  in  31  B.C.,  transferred  the  inhabitants 
of  Ambracia  to  the  newly  founded  city  of  Nicop- 
olis,  the  former  town  sank  into  insignificance. 
The  modem  town  is  Arta. 

AMBKA^CIAN  QULF.    See  Abta,  Gulf  of. 

AM^BEE,  Mart.  The  subject  of  a  ballad 
included  in  Percy's  Reliques  of  Ancient  English 
Poetry;  a  woman  who  to  avenge  the  death  of 
her  lover  is  said  to  have  disguised  herself  as  a 
soldier  and  fought  against  the  Spaniards  at  the 
siege  of  Ghent  in  1584.  Though  unknown  in  his- 
tory, she  is  frequently  alluded  to  by  the  poets, 
especially  by  Ben  Jonson,  who  refers  to  her  in  his 
Epicoene  (iv.  2),  Tale  of  a  Tub  (i.  2),  and  For- 
tunate Isles,  by  Fletcher,  in  his  Scornful  Lady 
(Act  v.),  and  by  others  of  the  period,  to  whom 
she  became  a  sort  of  typical  virago. 

AHBBIZy  &m-br^z^  A  seaport  town,  the  cap- 
ital of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  in  Portu- 
guese Angola,  West  Africa.  It  has  a  large  ex- 
port trade  in  coffee,  ivory,  and  gums.  Extensive 
copper  deposits  exist  in  the  district.  Its  occu- 
pation dates  from  1855.     Pop.,  2560. 

AMBBOGIO  II.  CAHALDGLESE,  km-hr^- 
jd  el  kA-mStrdA-la^zA  (properly  Ambrogio  Tba- 
VERSABi  (1378-1439).  An  Italian  humanist  and 
Greek  scholar,  born  in  the  Romagna.  He  early 
entered  the  Convent  degli  Angeli  at  Florence, 
studied  the  Greek  ecclesiastical  writers  in  the 
original  when  a  knowledge  of  Greek  was  rare 
even  among  scholars,  and  in  1431  was  appointed 
Director  General  of  the  Camaldolese  Order  by 
Eugenius.  IV.  A  member  of  the  circle  which 
Cosimo  de'  Medici  had  assembled  at  Florence  for 
the  restoration  of  the  studies  of  antiquitv,  he  pre- 
pared at  the  request  of  Cosimo  a  translation  of 
Diogenes  La^rtius.  Symonds  refers  to  him  as  a 
"little,  meagre,  lively,  and  laborious  man." 

AMBBOS,  Hm'brds,  August  Wilhblm  •(1816- 
76).  A  musical  historian,  critic,  and  composer. 
He  was  born  at  Mauth,  Bohemia.  His  History 
of  Music,  on  which  he  was  engaged  from  1860, 
was  left  unfinished  with  the  £)urth  volume, 
reaching  the  seventeenth  century.  This  masterly 
work  has  been  completed  in  five  volumes  by  W. 
Langhans.  Die  Grenzen  der  Musik  und  Poesie 
(1856),  a  reply  to  Hanslick's  (q.v.)  ultra-purist 


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AMBROSIA    BEETLES. 


theory  of  the  beautiful  in  music,  is  of  exceptional 
value.  His  compositions  include  pianoforte 
pieces,  songs,  two  masses,  and  a  national  opera, 
Bretislav  a  Jitka. 

AMBROSE,  Saint  (c.  340-397).  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  ancient  Fathers  of  the 
Church,  and  one  of  the  four  doctors  of  the  West- 
ern Church.  He  was  born  about  the  year  340, 
at  Treves,  where  his  father,  as  prefect  of  Gaul, 
was  w^ont  to  reside.  According  to  his  earliest 
biographer,  Ambrose  received  a  fortunate  omen 
even  in  his  cradle:  a  swarm  of  bees  covered  the 
slumbering  boy,  and  the  astonished  nurse  saw 
that  the  bees  clustered  round  his  mouth  without 
doing  him  any  harm.  His  father,  perhaps  re- 
membering a  similar  wonder  related  of  Plato, 
foretold  from  this  a  high  destiny  for  Ambrose.  He 
received  an  excellent  education  in  Rome  with  his 
brother  Satyrus,  who  died  early,  and  his  sister 
Marcellina,  who  became  a  nun.  Ambrose  studied 
law  and  entered  the  civil  service,  and  soon  dis- 
tinguished himself  so  much  that  he  became, 
alx)ut  370,  a  consular  magistrate  in  upper  Italy, 
with  his  court  at  Milan.  In  this  oflBce  his  gentle- 
ness and  wisdom  won  for  him  the  esteem  and  love 
of  the  people,  whose  prosperity  had  been  much 
injured  by  the  troubles  caused  by  Arianism. 
Accordingly,  he  was  unanimously  called,  by  both 
Arians  and  Catholics,  to  be  Bishop  of  Milan  in 
374.  Ambrose  long  refused  to  accept  this  dignity, 
and  even  left  the  city;  yet  he  soon  returned,  was 
baptized,  as  hitherto  he  had  only  a  catechumen, 
and  was  consecrated  eight  days  afterward.  The 
anniversary  of  this  event  is  still  celebrated  as  a 
fite  by  the  Catholic  Church.  As  a  bishop,  Am- 
brose won  universal  reverence  by  his  mild  and 
gentle,  though,  toward  wickedness  of  every  kind, 
severe  and  unbending  character.  Thus  he  de- 
fended the  churches  of  Milan  against  the  pro- 
posed, introduction  of  Arian  worship  by  the  Em- 
press Justina  (385-86),  and  brought  to  repent- 
ance and  public  penance  the  Emperor  Theodosius 
himself,  who  had  caused  the  rebellious  Thessa- 
lonians  to  be  cruelly  massacred  by  Rufinus 
( 390 ) .  He  is  best  remembered,  however,  not  as 
the  faithful  bishop  and  wise  counselor,  nor  as 
the  fluent  preacher  and  learned  theologian,  but 
as  the  sympathizing  friend  of  Monica,  the 
mother  of  Augustine,  when  she  deplored  his  re- 
jection of  orthodox  Christian  teaching,  and  as 
the  one  whom  Augustine  heard  with  pleasure 
and  who  received  him  into  the  Church.  Ambrose 
died  in  Milan,  April  4,  397.  The  best  edition 
of  his  works,  in  which  he  followed  in  many 
things  the  Greek  theological  writers,  is  that  pub- 
lishwi  by  the  Benedictines  (2  volumes,  Paris, 
1086-90),  reprinted  in  Migne,  Patr.  Lat.,  XIV.- 
X\ai.,  later  edited  by  Ballerini  (Milan,  1875-86; 
6  volumes)  ; by C. Schenkle  in  Corpus  Scriptorum 
Ecelesiasticorum  Latinorum  ( Vienna,  1 896-8qq. ) . 
English  translation  of  some  of  his  principal 
works  by  H.  de  Romestin  (New  York,  1896). 
For  his  biography  consult  Barry  (London, 
1896).  His  fifteenth  centenary  was  observed  in 
Milan  in  1897.  Consult  II  Quindici  Centenario 
della  morte  di  8,  Amhrogio  (Milan,  1897).  The 
hymn,  Te  Deum  Laudamus,  is  ascribed  to  Am- 
brose, but  it  is  proved  to  have  been  written  one 
hundred  years  later.  The  Ambrosian  ritual  has 
also  received  his  name,  only  because  Ambrose  had 
made  some  changes  in  it,  which  are  retained 
at  the  present  day  in  the  Milanese  Church.  A 
commentary  on  the  Epistles  of  Paul,  which  was 
formerly  ascribed  to  Ambrose,  is  now  frequently 


ascribed  to  the  Roman  deacon  Hilarius,  and  is 
usually  quoted  as  the  "Commentary  of  the  Am- 
brosiaster."  Ambrose  is  the  patron  saint  of 
Milan,  and  the  large  Ambrosian  Library,  estab- 
lished by  Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo  in  1602- 
09,  which  now  contains  the  famous  cartoon  by 
Raphael  for  his  school  of  Athens,  received  its 
name  in  honor  of  him. 

AMBROSE'S  TAV^BN.  An  old  tavern  in 
Edinburgh,  noted  as  the  scene  of  the  Nodes 
ambrosial  may  be  applied  to  any  of  their  pos- 
Wilson).  It  is  no  longjer  standing;  its  site  is 
occupied  by  the  new  register  house. 

AMBBCKSIA  (Gk.  afi^poaia;  ^n^poTOd  am- 
hrotos,  immortal,  from  a,  a,  priv.  +  ppordq, 
hrotosj  for  * fiporog^  *fnroios,  mortal).  In  the 
classical  mythology,  with  nectar  (q.v.),  the  food 
and  drink  of  the  gods.  The  word  is  etymologi- 
cally  identical  with  the  Sanskrit  a-mf  ta,  immor- 
tal, drink  of  immortality,  and  the  same  root  ap- 
pears in  the  Latin,  im-morialis.  Naturally  the 
gods  not  only  eat  ambrosia,  but  also  bathe  and 
anoint  themselves  with  it;  and  the  adjective 
ambrosial  may  be  applied  to  any  of  their  pos- 
sessions. Without  ambrosia  the  gods  lose  their 
strength,  and  if  given  to  mortals  it  confers  age- 
less immortality.  It  also  preserves  bodies  from 
decay.  The  conception  of  the  nature  of  ambrosia 
varied,  according  to  its  use.  As  a  food  it  was 
like  bread;  as  nectar,  like  wine.  In  some  of  the 
later  writers,  nectar  becomes  the  food  and  am- 
brosia the  drink  of  the  gods. 

AMBBO^SIA  BEE^TLES.  Beetles  of  the 
family  Scolytidte,  which  differ  from  the  dark- 
borers  by  pushing  their  galleries  deeply  into  tim- 
berwood  and  feeding  upon  a  substance  called  "am- 
brosia." They  include  the  genera  Xyleborus, 
Platypus,  Corthylus,  and  their  allies,  and  are  com- 
mon, and  are  often  injurious  throughout  North 
America.  All  are  very  small,  elongate,  compact 
beetles,  of  the  form  shown  in  the  illustrations 
of  their  work  on  the  Plate  illustrating  Army- 
Worm  and  Ambrosia  Beetles,  and  their  cylin- 
drical galleries  rarely  exceed  a  tenth  of  an  inch 
in  diameter.  These  galleries  penetrate  the  solid 
wood  deeply,  ramify  widely,  are  uniform  and  free 
from  dust,  and  have  many  short  branches,  serv- 
ing as  brood-cells;  their  walls  are  stained,  and 
the  perforations  and  stain  injure  the  wood  for 
many  uses,  although  not  sufficient  to  harm  the 
life  of  the  tree  perceptibly.  The  most  interest- 
ing feature  of  their  history  is  the  care  given  to 
their  young,  and  the  cultivation  of  fungi — ^acts 
unique  among  beetles,  and  comparable  to  those 
of  the  social  hymenoptera.  Habits  and  methods 
vary  among  the  different  genera,  but  in  general 
are  as  follows:  Within  their  galleries  is  found  a 
substance,  taking  various  forms,  most  usually 
that  of  a  cluster  of  chains  of  beads,  which  has 
been  named  "ambrosia,"  and  which  is  shown  by 
the  microscope  to  be  a  fungus.  This  fungus  is 
succulent,  and  forms  the  food  of  the  insects  and 
their  young,  and  it  is  planted  and  cultivated  by 
these  beetles,  which  regard  its  safety  with  the  ap- 
parently anxious  solicitude  that  bees  feel  toward 
their  stores  of  honey  food.  It  is  started  by  the 
mother  insect  upon  a  carefully  prepared  bed  of 
wood  dust,  some  species  devoting  special  cham- 
bers to  this  purpose,  others  starting  a  bed  any- 
where near  the  larvsB,  using  the  excrement  of  the 
larvae  as  an  aid  to  its  propagation.  Sap  must  be 
present,  however,  in  or»ler  to  secure  its  gro\vth, 
and  in  most  species  the  sap  must  be  in  a  condi- 


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AMBXrSCADR 


tion  of  fermentation.  Then  the  fungus  must  be 
eaten  as  it  grows — ^kept  grazed  do^n — or  it  will 
ripen,  emit  spores,  and  choke  up  the  tunnels. 
All  these  difficulties  are  so  well  met  by  these 
minute  gardeners  that  many  generations  in  suc- 
cession sometimes  inhabit  and  continue  to  en- 
large their  system  of  galleries.  These  are  some- 
times bored  in  vigorous  timber,  but  more  often  in 
weak  trees,  and  dead  wood  is  sometimes  occupied, 
certain  species  exhibiting  a  special  predilection 
for  the  staves  of  wine  casks.  A  full  treatment  of 
this  group  and  their  customs  and  effects  has  been 
given  by  H.  G.  Hubbard,  United  States  Depart- 
went  of  Agriculture^  new  series,  Division  of  En- 
tomology, Bulletin  No.  7    (Washington,   1897). 

AMBBCXSIAN  CHANT.  The  choral  music 
of  the  early  Christian  Church,  introduced  from 
the  Eastern  Church  into  the  Western  by  St.  Am- 
brose, Bishop  of  Milan,  in  the  fourth  century. 
It  was  founded  on  the  first  four  authentic  modes 
of  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  was  sung  antipho- 
nally.  It  continued  in  use  until  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, when  Pope  Gregory  the  Great  reformed  the 
music  of  the  Church  by  introducing  the  Gregorian 
chant  (q.v.).  There  exists  still  another  speci- 
men of  music  by  St.  Ambrose,  which  is  now 
known  only  in  the  German-Lutheran  Church  by 
Luther's  translation  of  the  words,  Nun  kommt 
der  Heiden  Heiland;  it  is  beyond  a  doubt  1400 
years  old,  and  remains  to  this  day  a  beautiful 
specimen  of  melody,  expressive  of  filial  humility 
and  submission.  The  Ambrosian  chant  continued 
to  be  still  sung  in  the  cathedral  at  Milan  long 
after  Gregory's  reformation,  and  even  now,  it  is 
said,  may  be  heard  there.  Consult:  Camilla 
Perego,  Regola  del  canto  Ambrosiano  (Milan, 
1862)  ;  A.  W.  Ambros,  Geschichte  der  Musik, 
Volume  IT.  (Breslau,  1862-82). 

AMBBCXSIAN  LI^KABY.  A  famous  li- 
brary in  Milan,  so  named  in  honor  of  St.  Am- 
brose, the  patron  saint  of  the  city.  It  was 
founded  in  1602  by  Cardinal  Federigo  Borromeo, 
who,  in  1609,  formally  opened  it  to  the  public. 
The  library  contains  upward  of  175,000 
printed  volumes  and  8400  manuscripts,  some  of 
them  of  great  value.  Among  the  latter  the  chief 
treasures  are  a  Greek  Pentateuch  of  the  fifth 
century;  several  palimpsest  texts,  including  an 
early  Plautus;  fragments  of  Ulfilas's  Gothic 
translation  of  the  Bible;  the  celebrated  Codex 
Atlanticus,  containing  original  drawings  and 
MSS.  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  a  copy  of  Vergil, 
with  marginal  notes  by  Petrarch. 

AJCBBO'SIO,  or  The  Monk.  A  romance  by 
M.  G.  Lewis  (hence  known  as  "Monk"  Lewis), 
first  published  in  1795.  The  hero  is  a  Capuchin 
abbot  of  Madrid,  who  loses  his  character  and  is 
condemned  by  the  Inquisition,  but  saves  himself 
for  a  time  by  a  compact  with  Lucifer. 

AKBBOSIUS,  &m-brd^sA-vis,  Johanna  (1854 
— ).  A  German  writer.  She  was  born  at  Leng- 
wethen,  East  Prussia,  August  3,  1854,  the  daugh- 
ter of  a  mechanic,  and  in  1874  married  Joseph 
Voigt.  With  only  a  village-school  education,  in 
a  life  of  poverty  and  daily  work,  she  wrote  verses 
which,  by  their  intense  earnestness  and  rhythmic 
beauty,  at  last  attracted  admiration.  Her  Poems 
{Gedichte)f  two  volumes  (1894-97),  have  passed 
through  numerous  editions  and  have  been  in  part 
translated. 

AM^BOTYPE  (Gk.  ifipporoc,  amhrotos,  im- 
mortal-j- TJrtJof,    typos,    impression).     An    early 


form  of  positive  photograph  on  glass,  similar  to 
the  daguerreotype.  It  consisted  of  a  thin  col- 
lodion negative  backed  with  a  black  surface  and 
viewed  by  refiected  light. 

AK^BY,  AuMEBT,  or  Almebt  (O.  F.  almane, 
Fr.  armoire,  from  Lat.  armarium,  a  closet,  chest; 
for  the  6,  see  Alhambra)  .  A  niche  in  the  wall  of 
a  church  shut  in  by  a  door,  or  a  small  cabinet 
of  wood  placed  by  the  side  of  the  altar  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  the  vestments  and  utensils, 
such  as  the  chalices,  basins,  cruets,  etc.,  used  for 
the  service  of  the  mass.  In  monastic  buildings, 
ambries  were  presses,  or  even  store-rooms  or  pan- 
tries, used  for  various  purposes,  such  as  keeping 
plate,  hanging  towels,  and  the  like.  In  this 
sense,  the  term  ambry  seems  to  have  been  ap- 
plied to  any  kind  of  locked  cupboard. 

AX^TTLANCE  (Fr.  hdpital  ambulant,  walk- 
ing hospital,  from  Lat.  amhulare,  to  walk).  A 
two  or  four-wheeled  wagon  constructed  for  con- 
veying sick  or  wounded  persons.  Ambulances 
are  constructed  to  run  very  easily,  and  are  de- 
signed to  carry  one  or  two  tiers  of  stretchers. 
Some  forms  are  fitted  with  water-tank,  medicine 
chest,  operating-table,  and  other  conveniences. 
City  hospital  ambulances  are  light,  four-wheeled 
wagons  furnished  with  one  or  two  l»eds,  surgical 
appliances,  and  restoratives.  Since  1899  electric 
automobile  ambulances  have  been  used  by  the 
larf^er  hospitals  in  the  larger  cities  of  the 
United  States.  A  surgeon  rides  in  the  ambulance, 
and  in  crowded  streets  a  gong  is  kept  sounding 
in  order  that  the  ambulance  may  have  the  road 
cleared.  In  the  army  the  term  is  usually  con- 
fined to  small  spring  wagons,  provided  with  all 
the  necessary  appliances  for  care  of  the  sick 
or  wounded.  In  each  division  of  the  army  these 
wagons  are  organized  into  a  corps,  and  placed 
under  the  command  of  an  ambulance  officer. 
Railway  cars  and  steamers  are  also  fitted  up 
with  conveniences  for  transporting  patients  to 
more  remote  and  permanent  hospitals.  The  sys- 
tem perfected  in  this  country  during  the  Civil 
War  has  now  been  adopted  by  most  of  the  civ- 
ilized nations.  Several  of  the  Continental  coun- 
tries keep  permanently  in  store  railway  trains 
completely  equipped  for  hospital  service.  In 
France  an  ambulance  is  a  portable  hospital  at- 
tached to  every  division  of  an  army  in  the  field, 
and  provided  with  all  the  requisites  for  the  medi- 
cal succor  of  sick  and  wounded  treops.  Such  an 
ambulance  is  stationed  at  some  spot  removed 
from  immediate  danger,  and  soldiers  after  a  bat- 
tle seek  those  who  have  been  wounded  and  con- 
vey them  to  the  ambulance.  The  French  also 
introduced  the  cacolets,  which  consist  of  two 
easy  chairs  slung  in  panniers  across  the  back 
of  a  mule,  which  are  available  along  paths  where 
no  wheel-carriage  could  pass.  The  cacolets  have 
since  been  adopted  by  other  armies,  as  well  as 
improved  hand-litters,  and  wheeled-litters  or  bar- 
rows. 

AKBULANCE  GOBPS.  See  Hospital 
Corps. 

AK^ULATOBY  (from  Lat  amhulare,  to 
walk).  A  name  given  sometimes  in  architecture 
to  passages  or  covered  walks  intended  for  prome- 
nades in  monastic,  collegiate,  or  cathedral  struc- 
tures, such  as  the  arcades  of  a  cloister.  See 
Monastery. 

AK'BUSGADE^  (from  Low  Lat.  imhoaeare, 
to  ambush,  from  in,  in  +  boacua,  bush,  wood') . 


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A  device  of  military  strategy  often  employed 
in  ancient  and  medieval  warfare;  now,  owing  to 
the  changed  conditions  of  fighting,  rarely  pos- 
sible. Originally  it  had  special  reference  to 
bodies  of  men  "concealed  in  a  wood,"  as  its  name 
implies.  The  only  modern  instance  of  the  use 
of  this  particular  device  occurred  at  the  battle 
of  Santiago,  during  the  Spanish- American  War 
of  1898,  when  effective  damage  \ni3  inflicted  on 
the  American  attacking  forces  by  Spanish  sharp- 
shooters hidden  in  the  dense  foliage  of  the  trees. 
Ambuscade  must  not  be  confused  with  Ambush, 
which  see. 

AK^TTSH  (For  derivation,  see  Ambuscade). 
A  strategical  device,  enabling  one  force  success- 
fully concealed  to  surprise,  defeat,  or  capture 
another.  It  is  probably  the  one  element  of  strat- 
egy' that  time  has  never  changed;  for  notwith- 
standing the  transformation  that  has  taken  place 
in  the  general  science  of  warfare,  the  ambush 
with  all  its  variations  of  form  and  method  still 
remains.  An  ambush  may  be  on  any  scale,  from 
the  surprise  and  capture  of  a  small  reconnoiter- 
ing  patrol,  to  the  defeat  of  an  army.  In  the  lat- 
ter case,  it  occasionally  is  described  by  a  more 
ambitious  title  by  some  European  authorities,  but 
such  is  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule.  Every 
campaign  that  history  has  recorded  gives  inci- 
dent after  incident  of  the  more  or  less  success- 
ful practice  of  this  particular  form  of  strategy; 
but  it  has  been  left  to  the  Anglo-Boer  War  of 
1900-01  for  its  highest  and  most  successful  de- 
velopment. In  this  campaign  the  Boers  practi- 
cally owed  nearly  every  success  to  the  use  of  the 
ambush  in  one  form  or  another;  typical  example 
was  encountered  on  General  Roberts's  campaign. 
During  his  march  to  Bloemfontein,  a  strong 
detachment  of  Boer  troops,  under  General 
Christian  De  Wet,  cleverly  concealed  themselves 
among  the  rocks  and  kopjes  at  a  place  called 
Sannahspost.  A  convoy  of  128  wagons,  carry- 
ing valuable  supplies  and  munitions  of  war,  to- 
j?ether  with  their  escort,  walked  unsuspectingly 
into  the  trap,  and  were  captured  without  the 
firing  of  a  shot  or  the  showing  of  a  single  man 
other  than  De  Wet  himself.  A  body  of  200  vol- 
unteer horse,  sent  from  the  main  column  to 
ascertain  the  whereabouts  of  the  convoy,  were 
similarly  captured,  and  on  attempting  to  escape 
were  practically  annihilated  by  their  unseen 
enemv.  Consult  Conan  Doyle,  The  Great  Boer 
Trar*(  London,  1901). 

AXEEB/.    See  Emib. 

AM'ELAN^CHIEB.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Rosaces  distinguished  by  having 
five-celled  ovaries,  each  of  which  is  divided  by 
a  false  partition  into  two  cells,  with  one  ovule 
in  each  cell,  the  ripe  fruit  including  three  to 
five  carpels.  It  consists  of  a  few  species  of 
small  trees  with  deciduous  simple  leaves,  abun- 
dant racemes  of  white  flowers,  and  soft,  juicy, 
and  agreeable  fruit  somewhat  larger  than  a  pea. 
The  common  Amelanchier  {Amelanchier  vulga- 
ris) ,  is  a  native  of  the  Alps,  Pyrenees,  etc.  Other 
species  are  natives  of  North  America  and  Asia. 
Amelanchier  botryapium  is  sometimes  called 
June-berry,  from  its  fruit  ripening  in  June,  and 
Amelanchier  Canadensis  produces  a  very  pleasant 
fruit.  Among  the  North  American  species  are 
Amelanchier  Canadensis,  known  as  Shad-bush  or 
Service  berry,  Amelanchier  oligocarpa,  Amelan- 
chier alnifolia,  and  Amelanchier  rotundifolia. 
The  Amelanchiera  are  planted  in  Great  Britain 
Vol.  I.-» 


merely  as  ornamental  trees.  They  are  hardy. 
A  MELT  A,  &-man^-&  ( Ancient  Ameria) .  A  city 
of  central  Italy,  21  miles  southwest  of  Spoleto. 
It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  340  a.d., 
has  a  cathedral,  was  the  birthplace  of  Sextus 
Roscius  Amerinus,  and  claims  to  be  four  hun- 
dred years  older  than  Rome.     Pop.,  1881,  5400. 

AME^IilA.  A  novel  by  Fielding,  published  by 
Millar,  who  is  said  to  have  paid  £1000  for  the 
copyright,  December  19,  1751.  Two  editions 
were  called  for  on  the  day  of  publication.  Much 
of  the  story  is  autobiographical,  some  of  the  ad- 
ventures of  the  hero,  Booth,  recalling  incidents 
in  the  author's  earlier  life  in  the  country,  while 
the  title-character  was  largely  suggested  by  the 
personality  of  Fielding's  first  wife.  The  book 
was  a  great  favorite  with  Dr.  Johnson.  Con- 
sult Piozzi,  Anecdotes  of  the  Late  Samuel  John- 
son, LL.D.  (London,  1786). 

AMETiTA  ISIiAND.  A  small  island  off  the 
east  coast  of  Florida,  opposite  the  mouth  of  St. 
Mary's  River  (Map:  Florida,  G  1).  It  was 
settled  by  General  Oglethorpe  in  1736,  and 
in  1739  it  was  the  scene  of  the  first  blood- 
shed in  the  war  between  Spain  and  England, 
a  party  of  Spaniards  killing  two  unarmed 
Highlanders.  After  1808  the  island,  then  a 
part  of  Spanish  East  Florida,  was  a  notorious 
resort  for  pirates,  smugglers,  and  slave-traders. 
In  March,  1812,  it  was  captured  by  rebels 
against  Spain,  and  immediately  handed  over  to 
the  United  States;  early  in  1813  the  United 
States  troops  stationed  here  were  withdrawn, 
and  in  1817  the  island  was  captured  by  a  filibus- 
tering expedition,  while  later  in  the  year  a  Mexi- 
can force  took  temporary  possession  of  it  in  the 
name  of  Mexico.  The  United  States  again  occu- 
pied it  in  1818,  and  held  it  in  trust  for  Spain 
until  she  acquired  the  Floridas  by  the  treaty 
of  1819.  Consult  McMaster's  History  of  the 
People  of  the  United  States  (New  York,  1893- 
1900). 

AMELIE-LES-BAINS,  A'm&'lA'l&'bfiN'  (Fr. 
*watering-place  of  Amelia,*  wife  of  Louis  Phil- 
ippe ) ,  formerly  called  Aries- les-Bains.  A  famous 
watering-place  and  summer  resort  in  France, 
situated  in  the  department  of  Pyr4n6es-Orien- 
tales,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tech  and  the  Mon- 
dony,  at  an  altitude  of  over  700  feet  above  the 
sea.  It  has  sulphurous  springs,  with  a  tempera- 
ture from  63°  to  145°  F.,  the  waters  of  which 
are  used  both  externally  and  internally.  It  con- 
tains a  very  large  military  hospital  and  numer- 
ous remains  of  Roman  thermae.    Pop.,  1901,  1340. 

AHELOT  DE  LA  HOXTSSAYE,  ^m'W  de  1& 
So'sA',  Abraham  Nicolas  (1634-1706).  A  French 
historian,  who  was  made  a  prisoner  in  the  Bas- 
tile  by  order  of  Louis  XIV.  He  published  a 
History  of  the  Govff-nment  of  Venice,  transla- 
tions of  Macchiavelli's  Prince,  of  Tacitus's  An- 
nals, and  of  Sarpi's  History  of  the  Council 
of  Trent,  the  notes  to  the  last  of  which, 
written  by  himself,  gave  great  offense  to  the 
advocates  of  the  unlimited  authority  of  the  Pope. 
Voltaire  speaks  of  his  histories  as  very  good, 
and  of  his  memoirs  as  very  faulty. 

AMEN'  (Heb.  word  "it  is  trustworthy," 
transliterated  into  Gk.  dfivv,  am^n,  Lat.  amen, 
and  so  in  later  versions) .  A  word  differently  used 
in  the  Scriptures.  ( 1 )  To  express  the  idea  that 
the  thing  just  stated  is  true,  or  will  come  to 
pass;  e.g.  Numbers  v  :  22;  Deuteronomy  xxvii  : 


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15  passim;  1.  Corinthians  xiv  :  16;  (2)  To 
confirm  one's  own  utterances,  as  in  prayers  and 
doxologies ;  e.g.  Romans  xv  :  33 ;  Galatians  vi  : 
18;  (3)  In  descriptions  of  God  as  Christ;  e.g. 
Isaiah  Ixv:  -16;  (Heb.  translated  "truth")  Rev- 
elation iii:  14;  (4)  To  introduce  an  affirmation. 
This  is  only  done  by  Christ;  e.g.  John  xiii  :  21. 
In  John  the  amen  is  doubled,  for  solemnity  and 
emphasis,  as  elsewhere 

AMEN,  Harlan  Page  (1853 — ).  An  Ameri- 
can educator.  He  was  born  at  Sinking  Spring, 
O.,  and  graduated  at  Harvard  University  in  1879, 
having  won  a  scholarship  in  each  year  of  his 
course.  In  1895  he  became  principal  of  Phillips 
Exeter  Academy,  which  under  his  management 
became  one  of  the  foremost  educational  institu- 
tions in  the  United  States. 

AMENDE  HONOBABLE,  &'mftNd^  ^'n^rft^bl, 
(Fr.  honorable  amends,  satisfactory  reparation). 
Formerly  an  infamous  punishment  to  which 
criminals  were  condemned  who  had  offended 
against  public  decency  or  morality.  It  was  first 
introduced  in  France  in  the  ninth  century,  and  . 
remained  in  force  there  until  formally  abrogated 
in  1791.  It  was  restored  as  a  punishment  for 
sacrilege  in  1826,  but  disappeared  finally  in  1830. 
It  consisted  of  a  confession  made  by  a  bare- 
headed and  kneeling  criminal  in  open  court,  con- 
ducted thither  with  a  rope  arounl  his  neck  by 
the  common  hangman.  In  popular  language,  the 
phrase  now  denotes  a  public  recantation  and 
reparation  to  an  injured  party  for  improper  lan- 
guage or  treatment,  or  is  still  further  extended 
to  mean  an  apology  of  any  kind,  an  "honorable 
compensation"  for  insult  or  injury. 

AMENIXMENT.  A  term  used  with  reference 
both  to  legislative  action  and  parliamentary  and 
judicial  procedure.  Amendment  in  legislation  is 
the  alteration  of  an  existing  statute  by  means  of 
a  new  legislative  enactment,  which  may  expressly 
refer  to  and  modify  the  earlier  law,  or  which  by 
reason  of  its  inconsistency  with  the  earlier  law 
may  impliedly  modify  its  meaning.  In  general 
there  is  no  limitation  upon  the  power  of  legisla- 
tive bodies  to  amend  or  repeal  existing  laws, 
except  the  provisions  of  the  constitution  to 
which  the  legislative  body  is  subject.  The 
British  Parliament,  being  itself  the  constitution- 
making  body,  has  unrestricted  power  to  amend 
and  repeal  existing  laws.  In  the  United  States, 
Congress  has  power  to  repeal  laws  of  the  United 
States,  but  it  has  no  power  to  amend  the  pro- 
visions of  the  constitution.  The  method  of 
amending  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
is  provided  by  Article  V.  of  that  instrument,  but 
the  exercise  of  this  power  is  limited  by  the  pro- 
vision "that  no  State  without  its  consent  shall  be 
deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate." 
The  United  States  Constitution  contains  no  pro- 
vision directly  limiting  the  power  of  the  State 
Legislatures  to  repeal  the  statute  law  of  the  sev- 
eral States:  but  Article  1.,  Section  10,  providing 
that  "No  State  shall  pass  any  law  impairing  the 
obligation  of  contract,"  amounts  to  a  restriction 
on  the  power  of  the  State  Legislature  to  repeal 
statutes  which  are  in  effect  contracts  with  the 
citizen  of  the  State.  This  construction  was  first 
established  in  the  celebrated  Dartmouth  College 
case  (q.v.).  The  several  State  constitutions  may 
also,  and  frequently  do,  limit  the  power  of  the 
Legislature  to  amend  or  repeal  existing  laws. 
See  Constitittionai.  Law;  Abrogation. 

Amendment    in    parliamentary    procedure    is 


used  in  order  to  vary  or  to  qualify  a  motion, 
bill,  or  resolution  before  the  House.  Amendment 
is  usually  ofi'ered  by  means  of  a  motion,  and  when 
adopted  in  accordance  with  the  rules  of  parlia- 
mentary procedure  becomes  a  part  of  the  orivinnl 
motion  or  bill,  which  may  then  be  voted  upon. 
In  the  case  of  bills  before  legislative  bodies, 
amendment  is  not  infrequently  a  method  of 
changing  the  entire  scope  and  meaning  of  a  bill, 
or  of  dismissing  it  from  any  further  considera- 
tion. See  Parliament  AST  Law,  and  the  au- 
thorities there  referred  to. 

Amendment  in  the  law  of  pleading  and  prac- 
tice is  the  correction  of  an  error  or  defect  in 
a  pleading  or  judicial  proceeding  in  the  progress 
of  action  or  proceeding.  The  amendment  may  be 
"as  of  course,"  i.e.,  without  application  to' the 
counsel  or  judge,  or  "on  leave,"  as  the  statute  or 
rules  of  pleading  and  practice  may  require. 
Amendment  at  common  law  independently  of 
statute  might  be  made  to  remedy  formal  defects, 
by  leave  of  the  court  at  any  time  before  the  sign- 
ing of  the  judgment  in  the  action.  Leave  to 
amend  was  a  discretionary  matter,  and  when 
granted,  it  might  be  on  such  terms  as  the  court 
should  direct,  usually  on  payment  of  the  costs  of 
the  action  up  to  the  time  of  amendment  By 
modern  statutes  amendments  are  allowed  after 
judgment  in  furtherance  of  justice,  and  are 
more  liberally  allowed  than  formerly,  when  the 
defect  is  one  of  substance  or  affects  the  merits  of 
the  case.  See  Pleading  ;  Practice  ;  Statitte  of 
Jeofails,  and  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

A'MENEM^HAT.  The  name  of  four  Egyptian 
kings  of  the  twelfth  dynasty.  Amenhmhat  I. — 
He  reigned  for  thirty  years,  beginning  about  2130 
B.C.  How  he  came  to  the  throne  is  not  known^ 
but  on  his  accession  he  found  Egypt  in  a  state 
of  great  disorder.  He  thoroughly  reorganized 
the  government,  restored  order,  and  conducted  a 
wise  and  vigorous  administration.  He  checked 
the  power  of  the  great  nobles,  and  personally 
superintended  a  new  survejr  of  the  whole  landL 
Amenemhat  warred  in  Nubia  and  on  the  Asiatic 
frontier  of  Egypt,  but  his  chief  attention  was 
devoted  to  internal  affairs.  He  was  a  great 
builder,  and  his  monuments  are  found  from 
Nubia  to  the  Delta.  In  later  times  he  was  es- 
teemed a  sage,  and,  in  a  work  composed,  appar- 
ently, under  the  ninteenth  dynasty,  he  is  repre- 
sented as  giving  instructions  in  the  art  of  gov- 
ernment, based  on  his  own  experience,  to  his  son 
Usertesen  (afterward  Usertesen  I.).  Amenem- 
ITAT  II. — He  reigned  for  35  years,  beginning  about 
2066  B.O.  During  the  first  two  years  of  his  reign 
he  was  regent  with  his  father,  Usertesen  I.,  and, 
for  three  years  before  his  death,  his  son  User- 
tesen II.  was  associated  with  him  in  the  gov- 
ernment. In  the  twenty-eighth  year  of  his  reign 
he  sent  an  expedition  to  Punt  on  the  Somali 
coast.  Amenemhat  III. — Son  of  Usertesen  HI. 
He  reigned  for  44  years,  from  about  1986  b.c. 
Monuments  of  this  king  are  found  throughout 
Egypt,  but  his  greatest  work  was  connected  with 
the  Fayum  (Coptic,  Phiom,  "the  lake").  Amen- 
emhat I.  (q.v.),  had  built  a  dam,  reclaiming 
a  considerable  extent  of  land  from  the  highest 
part  of  the  bed  of  Lake  Mceris.  Amenemhat  III. 
greatly  extended  this  system  of  damming.  By 
means  of  a  large  embankment,  about  20  miles 
long,  he  reclaimed  some  40  square  miles  of  fer- 
tile land,  and,  at  the  same  time,  converted  the 
lake  into  a  gigantic  reservoir,  whose  waters,  re- 
plenished annually  by  the  inundation  of  the  Nile» 


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were  used  for  irrigating  the  adjacent  country. 
The  lake  continued  to  serve  this  purpose  down  to 
the  fifth  century  B.C.  Later  it  was  gradually 
dried  up,  and,  under  the  Ptolemaic  dynasty,  a 
Macedonian  colony  was  established  on  a  portion 
of  its  former  bed.  The  pyramid  of  Amenemhat 
MI.,  at  Hawara,  near  Illahun,  is  built  of  Nile 
brick  and  formerly  had  a  casing  of  limestone. 
When  entered  by  Petrie,  in  1880,  the  King's 
stone  sarcophagus  was  found  in  the  sepul- 
chral chamber,  but  the  mummy  had  been  re- 
moved. Adjoining  the  pyramid  are  the  ruins  of 
the  famous  Labyrinth,  formerly  a  gigantic  peri- 
style temple,  covering  an  area  1000  feet  long  by 
800  feet  broad.  Amenemhat  IV. — Son  of  Amen- 
emhat III.,  reigned  for  some  nine  years,  from 
about  1941  B.C.  His  reign  seems  to  have  been 
marked  by  no  event  of  special  importance. 

A^HEN-HCKTEP.     See  Ambnophis. 

AMENITIES  OF  LIT^EBATUBE.  A  work 
relating  to  English  literary  history,  by  Isaac 
Disraeli,  completed  in  1841. 

AJi'ENO^HIS  (Egypt.  Amen-hdiep,  Ammon 
is  pleased).  The  name  of  four  Pharaohs  of  the 
eighteenth  dynasty. 

Amenophis  I.,  the  second  king  of  this  dynasty, 
son  of  Amasis  I.  He  reigned  for  ten  years,  from 
about  1570  B.C.  He  carried  on  some  insignificant 
wars  in  Nubia,  and  against  the  Libyans  on  the 
northwest  frontier  of  Egypt.  After  his  early 
death  he  was  revered  as  the  patron  of  the  Theban 
necropolis,  and,  together  with  his  mother,  Nofret- 
ari,  received  divine  honors.  His  mummy,  found 
at  Dair  el-Bahri,  is  now  in  the  museum  of  Gizeh. 

Amenopuis  II.  He  reigned  for  some  twenty 
five  years,  from  about  1450  B.C.,  waged  energetic 
wars  in  Syria,  and  maintained  the  territory  in- 
herited from  his  father,  Thothmes  III.,  in  Asia 
and  Ethiopia. 

Amenophis  III.  Son  of  Thothmes  IV.  He 
reigned  for  thirty-six  years,  from  about  1410  B.C. 
In  the  early  part  of  his  reign  he  seems  to  have 
warred  in  Asia,  but  later  he  did  little  to  main- 
tain his  Syrian  provinces.  The  Amarna  Letters 
(q.v.)  show  that  in  his  reign,  and  in  that  of  his 
successor,  the  Egyptian  supremacy  in  Asia  was 
seriously  threatened.  Amenophis  is  noted  for  his 
activity  as  a  builder.  He  erected  in  Thebes  a 
gigantic  temple;  but  of  this  nothing  remains  ex- 
cept the  two  colossi  at  the  entrance,  one  of 
which,  in  classical  times,  became  famous  as  "the 
vocal  Memnon."  The  Amarna  letters  record  the 
fact  that  Amenhophis  married  Gilukhepa,  sister 
of  King  Dushratta  of  Mitani  in  northern  Meso- 
potamia. He  chose,  however,  as  his  principal 
wife  a  woman  not  of  royal  blood,  the  fair  Teye, 
and  indicated  his  love  for  her  on  his  monuments. 
She  was  the  mother  of  his  son  and  successor. 

Amenophis  IV.  The  Na^khururiya  (Egyptian 
Nefer-Khoper-re)  of  the  Amarna  Tablets.  This 
monarch  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  characters 
in  Egyptian  history,  because  of  the  great  relig- 
ious reform  which  he  attempted.  He  endeavored 
to  supersede  the  old  polytheistic  religion  of 
Egypt  by  the  exclusive  worship  of  the  Sun.  But 
his  fanatical  efforts  in  this  direction,  his  perse- 
cution of  the  cult  of  the  Theban  god  Ammon, 
and  the  shifting  of  his  residence  to  Tel-el- 
Amarna,  led  to  no  permanent  results.  After  his 
reign  of  eighteen  years  (beginning  about  1375 
B.C.),  his  innovations  were  abolished,  and  the 
old  religion  was  again  triumphant.  By  his  wife 
Kefer-titi  he  had  six  daughters. 


AMEN'ORBHCE^A  (Gk.  d,  a,  priv. -f  u^i^ 
men,  month  +  fioia,  rhoia,  flow,  flUx).  The  sus- 
pension from  any  cause  other  than  pregnancy, 
or  the  menopause,  of  the  catamenial  now.  It  is 
generally  an  indication  of  functional  disturb- 
ance, and  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  symptom  rather 
than  as  a  malady.  It  is  frequently  an  accom- 
paniment of  anemia  (q.v.),  and  due  to  poverty 
of  the  blood.  It  very  often  is  an  early  symptom 
of  an  impending  chronic  malady,  such  as  tuber- 
culosis. In  both  these  cases  the  treatment 
adopted  should  be  one  tending  to  strengthen  the 
general  health ;  the  diet  should  be  nourishing  and 
generous,  iron  and  arsenic  should  be  adminis- 
tered, the  bowels  should  be  carefully  regulated, 
and  the  patient  should  take  mild  exercise  in  the 
sunlight.    See  Emmenagooub;  Menstruation. 

A^ENT  (Lat.  amentum,  strap  or  thong),  or 
GAT^KIK.  A  flower-cluster  in  which  simple 
flowers  are  developed  upon  an  elongated  axis, 
and  are  subtended  and  more  or  less  concealed  by 
conspicuous  bracts.  Such  clusters  are  found  in 
the  birches,  alders,  willows,  etc.,  which,  in  conse- 
quence, are  often  called  Amentiferse.  See  Inflor- 
escence. 

A'MENT^  WiLLiAic  Scott  (1851—).  An 
American  missionary  in  China.  He  was  bom  at 
Owosso,  Mich.,  of  Dutch  descent,  and  educated  at 
Oberlin,  and  at  Union  ( N.  Y. )  and  Andover  theo- 
logical seminaries.  He  went  to  China  as  a  mis- 
sionary of  the  American  Board,  and  was  sta- 
tioned in  Peking,  w^here,  in  the  summer  of  1900, 
he  was  one  of  the  eight  hundred  foreigners  and 
three  thousand  native  Christians  who  were  be- 
sieged. When  the  siege  was  raised,  Dr.  Ament, 
with  the  missionaries  of  his  station  and  500 
native  Christians,  took  possession  of  the  deserted 
premises  of  a  lesser  Mongol  prince  who  had  be- 
come a  fugitive.  They  acted  as  intermediaries 
in  reestablishing  the  native  Christians,  and  in 
some  of  the  economic  readjustments  made  neces- 
sary by  the  outbreak;  but  subsequently  they 
were  severely  criticised  by  many  of  the  American 
newspapers,  which  accused  them  of  having  been 
morally  guilty  of  looting.  This  charge  was 
strenuously  denied  by  all  the  missionaries  and 
their  supporters. 

AMEN^HES.  The  Greek  form  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Am€nte[t],  "the  I^ower  World,"  or  realm  of 
departed  spirits.  The  word  signifies,  liter- 
ally, "the  Western  (World),"  as  the  mysterious 
abode  of  the  dead  was  supposed  to  lie  beneath  the 
western  horizon.  The  graves  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians  were  situated  in  the  desert  on  the 
western  side  of  the  Nile,  and  the  souls  of  the 
dead  were  believed  to  pass,  with  the  setting  sun, 
through  the  gates  of  Amenthes,  where,  after  many 
perils,  they  appeared  before  Osiris  (q.v.)  and  his 
forty- two  assessors  to  undergo  final  judgment. 
The  views  of  the  Egyptians  in  regard  to  t£e  life 
of  the  soul  in  the  nether  world  were  manifold. 
Plutarch  defined  Amenthes  as  meaning  "giving 
and  taking,"  and  it  is  sometimes  derived  from 
amen,  "hidden,"  but  such  etymologies  are  value- 
less.   See. also  Anubis;  Set;  Athob. 

AMEBBACH,  ^mer-bfiG,  Johann  (1443- 
1513).  A  German  printer,  educated  in  Paris. 
He  established  a  press  at  Basel,  publishing  the 
works  of  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine,  and  be- 
gan to  publish  those  of  St.  Jerome,  which  were 
finished  by  his  son  Boniface.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  use  Roman  instead  of  Gothic  letters. 


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AMEBCEMENT. 


436 


AMEBICA. 


AMEBCE'MEKT  (Angl.  Fr.  amercimeni, 
from  amercicr,  to  be  at  the  mercy  of).  In  old 
English  la\v,  a  pecuniary  penalty  imposed  for 
crime  or  for  the  violation  of  the  fealty  which  the 
freeholder  owed  his  lord.  It  was  imposed  as  the 
result  oC  a  judicial  conviction  of  the  offense 
charged,  bpt  differed  from  a  fine  in  that  it  was 
a  commut!ation  of  a  sentence  of  forfeiture  of 
goods,  while  the  fine  was  a  commutation  of  a 
sentence  of  imprisonment  of  the  person.  The  de- 
cree of  the  court  was  that  the  offender  was  at 
the  mercy  {in  misericordia,  d  merci)  of  the 
king,  the  sheriff,  or  the  lord  in  whose  court  the 
judgment  was  rendered.  The  amount  of  the 
amercement,  originally  unlimited,  as  the  term 
implies,  was  regulated  by  a  provision  of  Magna 
Charta  (1215),  which  decreed  that  all  amercements 
should  be  set,  or  fixed,  by  good  men  of  the  neigh- 
borhood, the  peers  of  the  offender,  and  that  the 
amount  should  vary  with  the  gravity  of  the  of- 
fense. Consult  Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of 
English  Law,  second  edition  (London  and  Boston, 
1899).  See  Criminal  Law;  Fine;  Punishment. 

AMELIA.  The  ancient  name  of  Amelia 
(q.v.),  a  city  in  Italy. 

AMEBIC  A  (named  after  Amerigo  Vespucci, 
an  Italian  navigator).  America,  or  the  New 
World,  is  one  of  the  great  land  divisions  of  the 
earth.  It  has  a  meridional  extent  of  about  9000 
miles,  stretching  from  72**  N.  lat.  (Boothia  Felix) 
to  50°  S.  lat.  (Cape  Horn),  without  including 
the  Arctic  islands.  Its  extreme  northern 
part  extends  far  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  while 
on  the  south  it  stretches  to  the  border  of  the 
Antarctic  Ocean.  Excluding  its  islands,  it  lies 
between  the  meridians  of  34**  and  168**  west  of 
Greenwich,  and  has  a  maximum  breadth  of  about 
3300  miles.  The  entire  area  is  estimated  to  be 
16,000,000  square  miles. 

General  Features.  The  New  World  differs 
from  the  Old  in  size,  having  about  half  its  area. 
It  differs  also  greatly  in  outline,  in  location  on 
the  earth's  surface,  and  in  the  character  of  its 
coasts  and  its  relief.  The  Old  World  has,  very 
roughly,  a  triangular  form ;  while  the  New  World 
consists  of  two  triangles  connected  with  each 
other.  While  both  grand  divisions  lie  mainly 
north  of  the  equator,  a  greater  proportion  of  the 
Old  World  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The 
coasts  of  the  Old  World,  taken  as  a  whole,  are 
much  more  broken  than  the  American  coasts. 
The  principal  relief  feature  of  the  Old  World 
is  a  great  stretch  of  elevated  land  crossing  most 
of  Europe  and  Asia  in  an  east  and  west  direction, 
while  the  backbone  of  America  traverses  its 
length  in  a  direction  nearly  north  and  south, 
near  its  western  coast. 

America  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  on  the  south  by  the  Antarctic,  on  the 
east  by  the  Atlantic,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific.  While  stretching  from  one  polar  ocean 
to  the  other,  it  separates  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
throughout  their  whole  length.  In  the  extreme 
northeast  it  almost  touches  Asia,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  Bering  Strait.  Very  narrow 
passages  separate  it  from  the  extensive  islands 
that  constitute  the  Arctic  Archipelago  of  the 
Western  Hemisphere. 

Physical  Divisions.  America  is  divided  in- 
to two  continents,  North  and  South  America, 
separated  in  part  by  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  connected  by  the  narrow 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  30  miles  in  width. 


North  America  has  an  area  of  about  8,300,000 
square  miles,  and  South  America  of  7,700,000. 
The  mean  altitude  above  sea  level  of  both  conti- 
nents  is  not  far  from  2000  feet. 

These  two  great  continents  are  much  alike  in 
some  respects,  while  differing  in  others.  They 
are  both  triangular  in  shape,  with  the  base  of  the 
triangle  at  the  north  and  the  opposite  apex  at 
the  south.  Each  has  its  greatest  length  along 
meridians,  and  greatest  breadth  along  parallels 
of  latitude;  each  has  a  great  mountain  system 
running  the  whole  length  of  the  western  side  and 

Sara]  lei  to  it,  and  a  shorter  secondary  and  more 
isconnected  mountain  system  in  the  eastern 
part,  also  parallel  to  the  coast,  the  two  moun- 
tain systems  in  each  case  converging  toward 
the  lower  apex  of  the  continent.  In  Iwth  cases 
the  eastern  ranges  are  the  oldest  geologically. 

While  the  two  American  continents  thus  pre- 
sent certain  similarities  of  configuration,  they 
are  very  differently  placed  on  the  sphere,  and 
thus  their  climatic  differences  are  marked,  and 
the  conditions  dependent  on  climatic  influences 
likewise  differ.  The  broad  part  of  North  Ameri- 
ca lies  mainly  within  the  north  temperate  zone, 
and  only  its  apex  extends  into  the  tropical  zone: 
thus  causing  a  great  portion  of  the  continent 
to  be  dominated  by  comparatively  low  tempera- 
ture conditions.  In  South  America,  on  the  con- 
trary, the  broad  part  lies  within  the  tropics,  and 
a  comparatively  small  portion  of  it  extends  into 
the  temperate  zone. 

Coasts.  With  regard  to  the  nature  of  their 
coast-lines,  North  and  South  America  present  an 
extraordinary  contrast.  North  America,  in  its 
extreme  irregular  coast-line  and  its  great  penm- 
sulas  is  the  counterpart  of  the  Eurasiatic  Con- 
tinent in  the  Old  World,  while  South  America, 
with  its  almost  unbroken  coast,  is  the  counter- 
part of  Africa.  In  North  America  we  have  the 
peninsulas  of  Alaska,  Labrador,  Nova  Scotia, 
Florida,  Yucatan,  and  Lower  California.  South 
America  presents  but  one  great  peninsula,  that 
of  Patagonia.  The  Atlantic  coast  of  America  is 
far  more  irregular  and  broken  than  that  of  the 
Pacific.  On  the  north  of  North  America,  Hudson 
Bay  projects  far  into  the  interior  of  Canada, 
forming  a  vast  inland  sea.  Farther  south,  the 
Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Bay  of  Fundy  form 
deep  indentations.  On  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States  are  several  large  bays  and  harbors, 
Massachusetts  Bay,  Long  Island  Sound,  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays,  and  Albemarle  and  Pamlico 
sounds  being  among  them.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico 
and  the  Caribbean  Sea  have  many  arms,  extend- 
ing into  the  land,  among  them  the  gulfs  of  Cam- 
peachy,  Honduras,  and  Colon. 

The  Atlantic  coast  of  South  America  is  sim- 
pler, the  chief  indentations  being,  on  the  north, 
the  gulfs  of  Darien  and  Venezuela,  on  the  north- 
east, and  on  the  east  the  estuary  of  the  Amazon, 
the  harbors  of  Bahia  and  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the 
estuary  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and  the  gulfs  of 
Blanca,  San  Matias,  and  San  Jorge,  on  the  Arge- 
tine  coast. 

Tlie  west  coasts  of  both  continents  are  in  the 
main  extremely  simple.  Between  latitudes  42" 
S.  and  48*'  N.  there  are  fe>y  harbors.  In  South 
America,  the  Gulf  of  Guyaquil  is  almost  the  only 
indentation  of  magnitude.  South  of  latitude  42**, 
S.,  however,  the  character  of  the  coast  changes  to 
a  fiord  coast,  with  many  deep,  narrow  passage 
and  hundreds  of  islands*.  Where  the  two  conti- 
nents meet,  the  bend  of  the  Pacific  coast  forma 


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AMESICA. 


437 


AMERICA. 


the  deep  bay  of  Panama.  The  west  coast  of 
North  America  south  of  the  parallel  of  48°  N. 
is  broken  deeply  only  by  the  Gulf  of  California 
and  San  Francisco  Bay,  but  near  the  north- 
west corner  of  the  United  States  a  fiord  coast 
commences  with  Puget  Sound,  and  extends 
thence  along  British  Columbia  and  Alaska  to  the 
Aleutian  Islands.  The  Bering  Sea  coast  of  Alas- 
ka is  low,  and  broken  by  many  indentations,  and 
similar  conditions  prevail  on  the  Arctic  coast. 

Topography.  The  prominent  relief  feature  of 
both  continents  consists  in  a  great  system  of  ele- 
vation, stretching  along  or  near  the  western 
coast,  from  Cape  Horn  in  South  America  to  the 
extreme  end  of  the  Alaska  peninsula  in  North 
America.  This  is  known  in  South  America  as 
the  Andean  Cordillera,  and  in  North  America  as 
the  Cordillera.  Tt  differs  greatly  in  its  different 
parts,  in  breadth,  height,  complexity,  and  char- 
acter. In  North  America  the  Cordillera  are  suc- 
(^eeded  on  the  east  by  a  broad  valley ;  east  of  this 
valley,  and  separating  it  in  the  south  from  the 
Atlantic,  is  the  shorter,  smaller,  and  lower  Appa- 
lachian system.  In  South  America  the  succes- 
sion is  somewhat  similar.  East  of  the  Andes  is 
a  broad  slope  or  depression,  which  in  Argentina 
continues  to  the  Atlantic;  but  in  eastern  Brazil 
and  the  Guianas  the  continuity  of  the  eastward 
slope  is  broken  by  numerous  short  and  compara- 
tively low  ranges,  corresponding  roughly  with 
the  Appalachians  of  the  northern  continent. 

North  America.  In  North  America  the  Cor- 
dillera develops  its  greatest  breadth  and  complex- 
ity in  the  main  body  of  the  United  States. 
Here  it  includes  a  broad  plateau  1000  miles  in 
width,  with  an  elevation  of  from  6000  to  10,000 
feet,  on  which  stand  a  succession  of  mountain 
ranges  trending  nearly  north  and  south,  thci 
highest  of  which  rise  to  altitudes  of  from  14,000 
to  15,000  feet.  The  highest  of  these  ranges  are 
in  Colorado  and  California.  In  the  former  State 
are  the  Front  Range,  with  Long's  Peak,  14,271 
feet;  Gray's  Peak,  14,341  feet;  Pike's  Peak,  14,- 
108  feef ;  the  Sangre  de  Cristo  Range,  with  Blan- 
ca  Peak,  14,300  feet;  the  Park  Range,  with  Mount 
Lincoln,  14,297  feet;  the  Sa watch  Range,  with 
the  Mountain  of  the  Holy  Cross,  14,006  feet, 
Elbert  Peak,  14,421  feet,  and  Mount  Harvard, 
14,375  feet:  and  the  San  Juan  Mountains,  with 
Uncompahgre  Peak,  14,289  feet,  and  Mount  Wil- 
son, 14,280  feet. 

The  principal  range  of  California  is  the  Sierra 
Nevada,  with  Mount  Corcoran,  14,093  feet;  Fish- 
erman Peak,  14,448  feet;  Mount  Whitney,  14,- 
898  feet;  and  Mount  Shasta,  an  extinct  volcano, 
14,380  feet.  The  Cascade  Range  of  Oregon, 
Washington,  and  British  Columbia  is  a  contin- 
uation of  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  direction,  though 
not  in  structure,  as  it  is  in  the  main  the  product 
of  volcanic  action,  and  contains  many  extinct 
volcanoes,  the  highest  of  these  being  Mount 
Rainier,  14,526  feet.  Northward  in  British  Co- 
lumbia the  system  is  not  as  high  nor  as  broad, 
but  following  the  coast  around  through  Alaska, 
it  rises  in  semi-detached  groups  and  ranges, 
some  of  which  are  of  great  height,  culminating 
in  Mount  McKinley,  north  of  the  head  of  Cook 
Inlet,  20,464  feet  in  height,  the  highest  summit 
in  North  America.  Another  high  peak,  on  the 
boundary  between  Alaska  and  British  America, 
is  Mount  St.  Elias,  18,100  feet  above  the  sea. 
This  was  long  supposed  to  be  the  highest  point 
in  North  America. 

The  area  of  Mexico,  with  the  exception  of  the 


State  of  Yucatan,  lies  almost  entirely  within  the 
Cordilleran  mountain  system.  The  plateau  ex- 
tends southward  into  it  from  the  United  States, 
with  an  elevation  ranging  from  4000  to  7000 
feet.  Upon  this  undulating  table-land,  which  is 
known  as  the  plateau  of  Anahuac,  are  many 
mountain  ranges  and  many  active  or  dormant 
volcanoes,  the  latter  being  the  highest  peaks  of 
the  country.  Among  them  are  Popocatepetl, 
ir,520  feet;  Orizaba,  18,250  feet;  Iztaccihuatl, 
16,960  feet;  Nevada  de  Toluca,  14,950  feet;  and 
Malinche,  13,460  feet.  In  the  countries  of  Cen- 
tral America  the  Cordillera  is  represented  by 
detached  ranges  of  hills,  with  numerous  volcanic 
peaks,  some  of  which  are  active,  others  extinct. 

The  depression  lying  east  of  the  Cordillera 
stretches  in  the  north  to  the  Atlantic  or  to  Hud- 
son Bay,  and  in  southern  Canada  and  the  United 
States  to  the  Appalachian  or  Eastern  Moun- 
tains, with  a  breadth  of  25°  of  longitude.  Over 
this  great  area  the  surface  presents  no  serious 
variations  of  level.  The  only  elevations  of  im- 
portance are  the  Ozark  Hills  in  Arkansas,  South- 
ern Missouri,  and  Indian  Territory,  with  a  maxi- 
mum altitude  little  over  3000  feet. 

The  Appalachian  Mountains,  in  a  broad  sense, 
extend  from  the  Gasp6  Peninsula  in  southeastern 
Canada,  south  westward  through  the  eastern 
United  States  to  northern  Alabama  and  Georgia, 
in  a  fairly  continuous  system.  They  form  a  nar- 
row plateau,  70  to  200  miles  in  width  and  1500 
to  3000  feet  in  height,  which  is  bordered  on  the 
east  by  the  Blue  Ridge  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Alleghany  Mountains.  In  the  northern  section 
the  line  of  elevations  includes  the  Green  and 
White  Mountains  of  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire and  the  Adirondacks  of  New  York,  all  of 
which  differ  more  or  less  in  their  geological 
structure  from  the  central  and  southern  portions 
of  the  system.  The  highest  summits  are  Mount 
Washington  in  New  Hampshire,  6294  feet,  and 
Mount  Mitchell  in  North  Carolina,  6707  feet. 
East  of  this  mountain  system  the  land  slopes 
gently  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  is  known  as 
the  Piedmont  Region  and  the  Atlantic  Plain. 
See  Rocky  Mountains;  Appalachians,  etc. 

South  America.  The  Cordillera  of  the  Andes 
follows  the  western  coast  of  South  America  in  a 
continuous  mountain  system  from  Cape  Horn  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  leaving  a  narrow  strip 
of  lowland  between  its  base  and  the  coast  no- 
where much  more  than  a  hundred  miles  in 
breadth.  In  the  south  the  system  is  narrow  and 
simple,  consisting  in  great  part  of  a  single  range, 
which  has  no  great  height.  Northward  it  in- 
creases in  altitude  and  becomes  more  complex, 
reaching  a  culminating  point  in  the  great  peak 
of  Aconcagua,  in  lat.  32°  S.,  which  reaches  the 
height  of  23,080  feet,  the  loftiest  summit  in 
South  America.  Still  farther  north  the  peaks 
are  not  as  high,  but  the  system  broadens  and 
becomes  more  complicated  by  the  appearance  of 
ranges  in  Argentina,  east  of  the  Andes  proper. 
In  lat.  18°  S.  the  system  curves  to  tlie  northwest, 
following  the  coast;  here  it  has  a  breadth  of 
fully  300  miles,  with  two,  and,  in  places,  three 
main  ranges,  and  encloses  an  elevated  plateau,  on 
which  is  situated  Lake  Titieaca,  12,645  feet 
high.  Near  this  lake,  in  the  Cordillera  Real,  are 
many  high  peaks,  among  them  Ancohuma,  21,490 
feet;  Cacaca,  20,250  feet;  and  Illimani,  21,192 
feet. 

Still  following  the  coast,  the  system  turns 
north  again  at  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  main- 


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taining  the  form  of  a  broad,  elevated  plateau, 
bordered  by  lofty  ranges,  with  many  volcanic 
peaks.  In  the  neighborhood  of  the  equator,  in 
Ecuador,  are  many  notable  peaks,  among  them 
Tunguragua,  16,690  feet;  Cotopaxi,  19,613  feet; 
Chimborazo,  20,498  feet;  Antisana,  19,335  feet: 
Cayambe,  19,186  feet;  and  Pichincha,  15.918 
feet.  From  this  knot  of  lofty  volcanoes  the 
system  falls  oflf  in  altitude  northward  toward  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  the  shores  of  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  splitting  into  three  ranges,  which 
trend  away  from  one  another  to  the  north  and 
northeast. 

East  of  the  Andes  the  level  of  the  land  descends 
rapidly  to  the  llanos  of  the  Orinoco,  the  valley  of 
the  Amazon,  and  the  pampas  of  Argentina.  This 
great  area,  comprising  by  far  the  greater  part  of 
South  America,  is  but  slightly  diversified  by  hills, 
forming  mainly  an  immense  plain.  In  eastern 
Brazil  is  a  mountain  system  standing  on  a  broad 
plateau,  and  composed  of  many  ranges,  trending 
in  general  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  having  col- 
lectively a  great  breadth.  The  highest  point  in 
this  system  is  Itatiaia,  with  an  altitude  of  10,- 
340  feet.  A  similar  but  smaller  plateau  occupies 
much  of  the  area  of  the  Guianas.  See  An- 
des, etc. 

The  islands  pertaining  to  this  grand  division 
belong  mainly  to  North  America.  In  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean  these  land  bodies  are  numerous  and 
large,  Greenland,  almost  continental  in  area, 
being  the  largest  of  them.  West  of  Greenland, 
across  Smith  Round,  is  the  great  extent  of  Grin- 
nell  Land,  and  south  of  this  island  are  North 
Devon,  Cockbum  Land,  and  Baffin  Land,  with 
many  other  large  islands  to  the  west,  including 
Bathurst,  Melville,  Prince  of  Wales,  and  North 
Somerset  islands,  and  Prince  Albert  and  Banks 
Land,  the  whole  forming  an  extensive  archipel- 
ago in  the  Arctic  Sea.  In  Bering  Sea,  on  the 
northwest  of  the  continent,  are  many  smaller 
islands,  while  the  chain  of  the  Aleutian  Islands, 
stretching  in  a  great  curve,  convex  southward, 
from  the  point  of  the  Alaskan  Peninsula,  partly 
separates  Bering  Sea  from  the  Pacific.  On  the 
east  side  of  the  continent,  the  great  island  of 
Newfoundland  partially  closes  the  mouth  of  the 
Gulf  of  St.  LaMTence. 

Mainly  within  the  tropics  and  lying  between 
the  northern  coast  of  South  America  and  the 
southeast  coast  of  the  United  States,  are  the 
West  Indies,  with  Cuba,  Haiti,  Jamaica,  and 
Porto  Rico,  known  collectively  as  the  Greater 
Antilles,  and  many  smaller  islands  grouped 
about  and  stretching  away  from  them.  They 
are  the  unsubmerged  portions  of  a  mountain 
system.  On  the  north  side  are  the  Bahamas, 
consisting  of  a  large  number  of  small  coral 
islands,  and  on  the  southeast,  stretching  in  a 
broad  curve,  convex  to  the  east,  to  the  south 
American  coast,  are  the  L^ser  Antilles,  all 
small,  and  many  of  them  of  volcanic  origin.  The 
best  known  among  them  are  Guadeloupe,  Mar- 
tinique, and  Trinidad.  South  America  has  few 
islands,  the  Falkland  Isles,  east  of  the  Strait 
of  Magellan,  being  the  largest,  if  we  except  Tierra 
del  Fuego,  at  the  south  end  of  the  continent. 
Oflf  the  west  coast,  and  under  the  equator,  are  the 
Gallapagos  Islands,  once  prominent  as  a  source 
of  guano. 

Hydroqbaphy.  North  America. — While  most 
of  North  America  is  drained  to  the  Atlantic,  yet 
great  areas  are  drained  into  the  Pacific  and 
Arctic  oceans.    The  Rocky  Mountains,  i.e.,  the 


easternmost  ranges  of  the  Cordillera,  carry  the 
continental  divide,  and  most  of  the  ranges  and 
valleys  of  this  system  are  drained  westward  to 
the  Pacific  by  the  Colorado  River  of  the  west, 
through  its  marvelous  cafions  to  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  California,  by  the  Sacramento  to  San 
Francisco  Bay,  and  by  the  Columbia,  the  Eraser, 
Copper,  and  other  rivers.  The  northern  and 
northeastern  slopes  of  the  system,  as  well  as 
most  of  Alaska  and  much  of  the  Yukon  province 
of  Canada,  are  drained  by  the  great  river  Yukon 
to  Berinff  Sea.  The  northern  part  of  the  great 
central  depression  of  the  continent  sends  its 
waters  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  by  way  of  Mackenzie 
River.  Farther  south  the  land  is  drained  to 
Hudson  Bay  by  the  Nelson  and  other  rivers,  and 
to  the  Atlantic  directly  by  the  chain  of  the  great 
lakes,  Superior,  Michigan,  Huron,  Erie,  and  On- 
tario, and  the  River  St.  Lawrence.  The  waters 
of  the  southern  part  of  this  depression  are  col- 
lected by  one  of  the  greatest  rivers  of  the  earth, 
the  Mississippi,  with  its  branches,  the  Ohio,  Mis- 
souri, Arkansas  and  Red  rivers,  and  are  carried 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  coast-land  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  itself  is  drained  by  a  number  of 
rivers  on  either  side  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
Atlantic  slope  of  the  Appalachian  mountain  sys- 
tem is  drained  to  the  Atlantic  by  many  compara- 
tively small  rivers. 

Besides  the  great  lakes  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
system,  North  America  contains  many  large  bod- 
ies of  water.  In  Canada  are  Great  Bear  and 
Great  Slave  and  Athabaska  lakes  in  the  Macken- 
zie River  system;  lakes  Reindeer, Winnipeg, Man- 
itoba, and  Lake  of  the  Woods,  which  are  drained 
to  Hudson  Bay,  and  Lake  Nepigon,  tributary  to 
the  St.  Lawrence  system.  In  the  northern  Unit- 
ed States  are  thousands  of  small  lakes,  which, 
in  common  with  thbse  of  Canada,  were  formed 
by  the  Laurentian  glacier.  In  the  Cordilleran 
region  are  many  lakes,  some  of  glacial  origin, 
like  Pend  Oreille  and  Flathead,  others  of  vol- 
canic origin,  like  Yellowstone  Lake,  while  man/ 
occupy  desert  valleys  and  have  no  outlet,  like 
Great  Salt,  Carson,  and  Walker  lakes.  See 
Yukon;  Misstsstppi,  etc. 

South  America, — South  America  is  for  the 
most  part  drained  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  the 
Andes  forming  a  great  and  continuous  water- 
shed; and  while  three  great  river  systems  carry 
most  of  the  waters  to  the  sea,  yet  a  number  of 
secondary  but  by  no  means  small  rivers  aid 
them  in  this  work.  In  the  extreme  northwest 
of  South  America,  the  Magdalena  drains  the 
region  in  which  the  Andes  separate  into  diverg- 
ing ranges  before  their  subsidence.  The  area  of 
its  basin  is  not  great,  but  the  enormous  rainfall 
sends  great  volumes  of  water  through  this  river 
channel  into  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  entire 
length  of  the  Magdalena,  independent  of  its  wind- 
ings, is  not  over  700  miles.  The  great  vallej 
at  the  extreme  north  of  South  America,  lying 
between  the  Andes  on  the  west  and  the  plateau 
of  Guiana  on  the  east,  is  drained  by  the  Orinoco, 
which,  although  not  more  than  1200  or  1400 
miles  long,  not  counting  the  windings,  carries 
an  immense  volume  of  water  into  the  Atlantic, 
because  it,  too,  lies  almost  wholly  within  the 
belt  of  excessive  rains.  Between  the  Orinoco 
and  the  Amazon  there  are  a  number  of  short 
rivers  draining  the  plateau  of  Guiana,  and  head- 
ing chiefly  in  the  watershed  between  this  section 
and  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  on  the  south. 
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Atlantic  coast,  is  the  mighty  Amazon  itself, 
whose  system  drains  the  great  valley  included 
l)etween  the  plateau  of  Brazil  on  the  southeast, 
the  plateau  of  Guiana  on'  the  north,  the  Andes 
on  the  west,  and  the  highlands  of  the  Cordillera 
Oeral  and  Matto  Grosso  on  the  south,  thus  em- 
bracing about  one- third  of  South  America.  The 
Amazon  pours  a  vastly  greater  <}uantity  of  water 
into  the  ocean  than  any  other  river  on  the  globe. 
The  plateau  of  Brazil  is  drained  chiefly  by  the 
Tocantins,  which  flows  to  the  north  and  empties 
into  the  ParA  estuary;  a  number  of  smaller 
streams  which  flow  northeast  and  enter  the 
Atlantic  between  the  mouth  of  the  Par&  and 
Cape  St.  Roque;  the  Sao  Francisco,  which  has  a 
generally  northeastern  direction,  and  a  few 
smaller  streams  which  drain  the  short  eastern 
slopes  along  the  whole  extent  of  coast  be- 
tween the  mouth  of  the  Sfto  Francisco,  lat.  10" 
S.,  and  the  estuary  of  the  Plata,  lat.  35"  S.  The 
Plata,  which  receives  the  waters  of  the  Paran&, 
Paraguay,  and  Uruguay,  drains  the  whole  of 
the  south  central  part  of  South  America,  from 
the  Amazon  watershed  in  lat.  15"  S.  to  lat.  35" 
S.,  and  embraced  between  the  coast  sierra  on 
the  east  and  the  Andes  on  the  west.  This  great 
river  system  has  been  compared  with  the  Missis- 
sippi River  system,  with  which  it  has  certain 
features  in  common.  South  of  the  Plata  are  a 
number  of  rivers,  including  the  Colorado,  Negro, 
and  Chubut.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  drainage 
is  effected  by  short,  torrential  streams  scarcely 
worthy  the  name  of  river.  See  Amazon;  Or- 
inoco, etc. 

Geology.  The  geological  history  of  North 
America,  considered  in  a  broad  way,  is  not  com- 
plex. The  oldest  part  of  the  continent,  the  first 
to  be  elevated  above  the  sea,  is  the  northeastern 
section,  including  the  Adiroridacks  of  New  York 
and  the  Laurentian  Highlands  of  Canada,  and  a 
region  about  the  Great  Lakes,  together  with  a 
southward  projection  just  east  of  the  Blue  Ridge 
in  the  Southern  States.  This  is  the  Archaan 
area.  From  this,  as  a  nucleus,  the  continent 
grew  westward,  as  is  indicated  by  the  surface 
formations,  which  become  successively  more  re- 
cent. The  eastern  portions  of  the  Appalachians 
are  in  great  part  composed  of  Silurian  beds. 
The  plateau  forming  the  western  part  of  the  sys- 
tem is  Carboniferous,  which  formation  also  un- 
ilerlies  much  of  the  Mississippi  Valley.  The 
great  plains  which  form  the  eastward  slope  of 
the  Cordilleran  plateau  are  floored,  in  westward 
succession,  by  Triassic,  Cretaceous,  and  Tertiary 
beds. 

The  mountains  of  the  Cordilleran  system  are 
mainly  of  recent  formation,  and  show  strata  of 
all  ages,  as  they  have  been  much  disturbed  by 
uplift,  and  the  beds  exposed  by  subsequent  ero- 
sion. Upon  the  mountains  granitic  rocks  large- 
ly predominate,  as  the  stratified  beds  which  form- 
eVly  covered  them  have  been  eroded  away,  while 
in  very  many  cases  these  stratified  beds  still  re- 
main on  the  flanks  of  the  ranges,  as  hog-back 
ridges.  The  valleys  are  often  partially  filled 
with  detritus  from  the  mountains.  In  this  re- 
gion many  great  areas  have  been  covered  by  out- 
flows of  lava,  some  of  them  in  very  recent  times. 
The  regions  bordering  the  coasts  of  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  floored  with  Creta- 
ceous and  Tertiary  deposits,  indicating  their 
comparatively  recent  uplift.  There  are  no  active 
volcanoes  in  the  United  States  proper  or  in  Can- 
ada.   Within   historical    times   eruptions   have 


been  reported  on  the  coast  of  Alaska,  and  several 
peaks  on  that  coast  are  still  smoking.  In  Mex- 
ico, Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies 
there  are  many  active  volcanoes.  See  Geology 
under  United  States;  Canada,  etc. 

South  America. — ^The  eastern  highlands  are  of 
Archaean  and  Paleozoic  formations,  with  a  super- 
imposed layer  of  sandstone.  No  subsequent  sub- 
mergence has  occurred,  and  no  folding  has  taken 
place  since  Paleozoic  times,  so  that  no  recent 
marine  deposits  have  been  made,  and  the  deep 
valleys  are  due  to  erosion  rather  than  to  irregu- 
lar faulting,  the  rock  layers  lying  horizontally. 
These  eastern  highlands  are  but  the  remains  of 
a  great  mountain  system  which  has  been  worn 
away  to  the  existing  condition  in  the  filling  up 
of  the  plains  below,  to  which  they  have  contrib- 
uted their  material.  The  western  highlands  (see 
Andes),  while  of  more  recent  origin  than  the 
eastern,  are  made  up  of  ranges  differing  in  geo- 
logic age.  Most  of  the  great  peaks  of  the  Andes 
are  of  volcanic  origin,  and  many  of  them  are 
still  active,  or  have  been  eruptive  in  recent  and 
historic  times.  The  lowlands  east  of  the  Andes 
are,  so  far  as  known,  floored  with  Tertiary  de- 
posits, with  broad  bands  of  alluvium  bordering 
the  larger  streams.  See  Geology  under  Brazil; 
Argentine,  etc. 

Glaciation.  In  recent  geologic  times  nearly 
all  of  Canada  and  much  of  the  United  States  was 
covered  by  a  great  sheet  of  ice,  the  Laurentian 
glacier.  In  the  United  States  it  covered  New 
England  and  New  York,  extended  southward  to 
the  Ohio  River,  and  westward  to  the  Missouri. 
Throughout  this  area  the  surface  has  been  modi- 
fied by  erosion  and  deposition  by  ice.  Stream 
courses  have  been  changed,  countless  lake  basins 
have  been  formed,  and  the  surface  covered  with 
drumlins,  kames,  and  other  morainal  deposits. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  Cordillera,  evidences 
of  former  glaciation  are  everywhere  abundant, 
and  in  the  higher  ranges  many  glaciers  still 
exist.  Indeed,  in  the  mountains  on  the  Alaska 
coast,  where  the  precipitation  is  profuse,  there 
are  many  glaciers  of  great  magnitude,  some  of 
which  reach  the  sea.  The  Muir  Glacier  covers 
fully  a  thousand  square  miles,  and  there  are 
others  of  equal  size.  Even  these  great  glaciers, 
however,  are  but  the  much  reduced  relics  of  far 
larger  ones,  which  covered  the  coast  and  eroded 
the  fiords  which  intersect  it. 

In  South  America  the  glacial  history,  so  far 
as  known,  is  confined  to  the  Andes.  Most  of  the 
higher  peaks,  even  those  under  the  equator,  have 
glaciers  upon  their  upper  slopes,  while  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  system  glaciers  are  ex- 
tremely abundant,  and  the  configuration  of  the 
land  shows  that  in  past  time  they  covered  it, 
lying  in  every  gorge  and  fiord,  which  are  evident- 
ly products  of  ice  erosion. 

Climate.  Stretching  from  the  south  temper- 
ate zone  through  the  tropics  to  the  north  polar 
zone,  America  has  many  climates,  dependent 
upon  latitude,  prevailing  winds,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  relief  features.  The  main  body  of 
North  America  is  principally  within  the  region 
of  the  anti-trades  or  prevailing  westerlies.  These 
winds  give  to  the  western  coast  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada,  and  to  southeastern  Alaska, 
an  insular  climate,  with  great  uniformity  of  tem- 
perature and  a  heavy  rainfall.  Their  influence 
extends  inland  but  a  short  distance,  owing  to 
the  mountain  ranges  which  border  this  coast,  and 
the  rest  of  the  United  States  and  Canada  have  a 


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continental  climate  with  much  greater  extremes 
of  temperature;  the  Cordilleran  region,  which 
is  dependent  upon  the  Pacific  as  its  source  of 
precipitation,  has  an  arid  climate;  but  in  the 
east,  where  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic 
serve  as  sources  of  supply,  the  rainfall  is  ample. 

Central  America  is  within  the  region  of  the 
trade  winds,  and  has  measurably  an  insular  cli- 
mate, owing  to  the  narrowness  of  the  land.  That 
portion  of  South  America  which  lies  in  the  trop- 
ics, over  which  the  trade  winds  blow  continuous- 
ly from  the  east,  has  a  warm,  moist  climate  and 
a  heavy  rainfall.  This  region  is  limited  on  the 
west  by  the  Andes,  over  whose  wall  none  of  the 
moisture  from  the  Atlantic  can  pass.  Hence, 
most  of  the  Pacific  coast  of  South  America  with- 
in the  tropics  is  a  desert.  In  Chile  and  Argen- 
tina the  conditions  prevailing  in  North  America 
are  duplicated.  Here  in  the  south  temperate 
zone  the  prevailing  westerly  winds  bring  to  the 
western  coast  the  mild,  saturated  atmosphere 
of  the  Pacific.  The  temperature  is  uniform 
throughout  the  year  and  the  rainfall  heavy; 
while  east  of  the  Andes  the  westerly  winds,  de- 
prived of  their  moisture  in  crossing  the  moun- 
tains, blow  dry  over  the  land,  and  the  semi-desert 
pampas  are  the  result. 

North  America. — ^The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  80**  F.  in  Central  America  down 
to  5"  on  the  Arctic  coast,  and  except  on  the 
Pacific  coast  the  temperature  decreases  quite 
regularly  with  the  latitude.  On  the  Pacific  coast 
the  reduction  in  temperature  with  increase  in 
latitude  is  much  less  rapid.  At  San  Diego,  on 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  United  States,  the 
mean  annual  temperature  is  about  70**,  while 
the  Alaska  coast,  even  as  far  north  as  Prince 
William  Sound,  has  a  temperature  only  30° 
lower,  and  20°  higher  than  in  the  same  latitude 
on  the  Labrador  coast.  This  measures  the  effect 
of  the  ocean  in  ameliorating  the  mean  annual 
temperature. 

In  midwinter  (January)  the  temperature 
ranges  from  80°  in  the  south  to — 25°  on  the 
Arctic  coast.  Here  again  the  reduction  with  in- 
creasing latitude  is  much  less  on  the  Pacific 
ceast  than  in  the  interior  or  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  The  coast  of  southern  Alaska  is  30° 
warmer  than  that  of  Labrador  in  approximately 
the  same  latitude.  The  midsummer  (July)  tem- 
perature is  highest  on  the  arid  plateau  of  north- 
ern lilexico  and  in  southern  Arizona,  where  it 
reaches  95°.  Thence  it  diminishes  in  all  direc- 
tions, sharply  to  the  west  as  the  Pacific  coast  is 
neared,  and  much  more  gradually  northward  and 
eastward.  The  range  of  summer  temperature  be- 
tween San  Diego  and  the  Aleutian  Islands  is  but 
20°,  from  70°  to  60°,  while  in  the  eastern  part  of 
the  continent  its  range  is  from  80°  to  40°,  and  in 
the  Cordilleran  region  from  95°  to  40°.  In  this 
latter  region  extreme  heat  as  well  as  extreme  cold 
is  frequently  encountered;  in  southern  Arizona 
temperatures  of  120°  have  been  recorded,  and 
100°  as  far  north  as  latitude  60°.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  the  range  of  temperature  between  midsum- 
mer and  midwinter  (July  and  January)  seldom 
exceeds  20°,  while  upon  the  Atlantic  coast  the 
corresponding  range  is  nearly  twice  as  great, 
and  in  the  Cordilleran  region  it  is  in  many 
places  three  times  as  great. 

The  distribution  of  rainfall  over  North  Ameri- 
ca depends  upon  the  configuration  and  relief  of 
the  land  and  on  the  direction  of  the  winds.  In 
the  region  of  the  trade  winds  the  rainfall  is  very 


heavy,  200  inches  at  Panama,  and  diminishing 
northward.  In  the  region  of  tiie  anti-trades,  the 
Pacific  coast  receives  nearly  all  the  moisture 
brought  by  these  winds  from  the  Pacific,  and 
here  the  amount  and  distribution  of  the  rainfall 
are  radically  affected  by  the  relative  tempera- 
tures of  land  and  sea.  Where  and  when  the 
land  is  colder  than  the  sea,  moisture  is  condensed 
from  the  air  currents  and  falls  in  rain ;  the  rain- 
fall is  therefore  heavy  on  the  northern  part  of 
this  coast  and  light  on  the  southern  part,  and  is 
heavy  in  winter  and  light  or  entirely  absent  io 
summer. 

At  San  Diego  the  rainfall,  even  in  winter,  is 
very  light,  while  at  Puget  Sound  it  has  increased 
to  from  75  to  100  inches,  and  has  an  average 
along  the  Alaska  Pacific  coast  of  about  90  inches 
annually,  most  of  which  falls  in  winter.  Air 
currents  from  the  Pacific,  deprived  of  most  of 
their  moisture  in  passing  over  the  mountain 
ranges  near  the  Pacific  coast,  fiow  over  the  Cor- 
dilleran region  during  most  of  the  year  as  dry 
winds.  In  the  summer,  however,  they  retain 
a  little  moisture,  which  they  give  up  to  the  high 
ranges  of  the  interior.  Hence,  this  region,  which 
is  upon  the  whole  desert,  or  semi-desert,  receives 
most  of  its  scanty  supply  of  rain,  20  inches  or 
less,  in  the  summer  time. 

Moving  eastward,  this  general  air  movement 
from  west  to  east,  which  commonly  takes  the 
form  of  great  cyclones  or  anti-cyclones,  drawa 
air  currents  from  all  directions.  Tliese,  coming 
off  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  are  saturated  with  mois- 
ture, and  cooling  as  they  go  northward,  give  rain 
to  the  land,  llius  the  great  depression  of  the 
continent  is  watered  in  the  main  from  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  the  rainfall  ranging  from  60  inches 
on  the  coast  to  30  inches  in  the  region  of  the 
Great  I^kes  and  Hudson  Bay.  These  cyclonic 
disturbances,  as  they  approach  the  Atlantic 
draw  saturated  air  currente  in  from  that  ocean, 
and  from  that  source  of  moisture  the  Atlantic 
coast  is  watered,  the  amount  of  rainfall  ranging 
from  50  to  40  inches. 

iiouth  America. — ^The  southern  continent  has 
no  such  range  of  temperature  as  North  America, 
since  it  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  equator.  The 
annual  temperature  ranges  from  80°  to  40°,  the 
highest  temperature  being  in  the  northern  part. 
The  midwinter  (July)  temperature  ranges  from 
about  80°  in  the  north  to  35°  in  the  south,  and 
the  midsummer  temperature  from  85°  to  50°, 
the  highest  being  in  the  interior,  in  northern 
Argentina.  On  the  southern  part  of  the  west 
coast  of  South  America,  where  the  prevailing 
winds  are  from  the  west,  the  temperature  is 
moderated  by  them  as  on  the  western  coast  of 
North  America,  making  the  winter  temperature 
higher  and  the  summer  temperature  lower.  The 
greatest  range  between  summer  and  winter  is 
found  in  northern  Argentina,  a  region  corre- 
sponding in  situation  to  the  Cordilleran  region 
in  North  America.  Here  the  range  between  the 
hottest  and  coldest  months  is  from  25°  to  30°. 

The  great  Amazon  basin,  lying  within  the 
tropics,  is  abundantly  watered  by  the  trade  winds 
which  come  to  it  saturated  from  the  Atlantic 
The  rainfall  over  this  great  area  is  estimated 
at  from  50  to  75  inches,  and  in  some  parts  is 
150  to  200  inches.  This  heavy  rainfall  extends 
to  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  and  even  up  its  abrupt 
eastern  slopes.  The  air  currents,  thus  deprived 
of  their  moisture,  descend  the  western  slope  as 
dry  winds,  and  the  narrow  western  base  of  the 


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range  receives  little  moisture.  Farther  south, 
in  southern  Chile  and  Argentina,  the  conditions 
are  reversed.  The  westerly  winds  bring  rain 
to  the  narrow  strip  of  land  on  the  west  coast, 
which  receives  as  much  as  80  inches  in  certain 
localities,  and  the  pampas  on  the  east  receive 
very  little,  on  account  of  the  intercepting  moun- 
tains. 

Flora.  North  America. — ^The  flora  of  North 
America  is  varied,  ranging  from  those  plants 
peculiar  to  Arctic  regions  to  those  of  the  tropics. 
In  the  extreme  northern  part  of  Canada  and 
Alaska,  where  the  ground  is  constantly  frozen, 
thawing  only  on  the  surface  in  the  summer,  and 
forming  the  well  known  tundra,  the  prevailing 
plant  life  consists  of  reindeer  moss,  with  a  few 
dwarf  Arctic  willows.  But  in  the  short,  hot 
summers  of  this  region  even  the  tundra  is  gay 
with  bright -colored  blossoms.  Near  the  Arctic 
Circle  forests  of  spruce,  with  some  birch  and 
alders,  appear,  at  first  in  scattering  clumps, 
then  more  continuously.  Thence  southward  as 
for  as  the  North  Saskatchewan  River,  in  Can- 
ada, the  land  is  forested  with  coniferous  trees, 
spruce,  pine,  fir,  and  hemlock.  This  timbered 
area  extends  southward  along  the  Pacific  coast 
nearly  to  San  Francisco  Bay.  In  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  California  exist  probably  the  heavi- 
est forests  in  the  world,  consisting  entirely  of 
ooniferse,  great  firs,  sugar  pines,  redwoods,  and 
the  giant  sequoia,  the  largest  and  the  oldest  liv- 
ing thing. 

Eastern  Canada  and  the  United  States  are 
forested,  the  western  limit  including  most  of  Min- 
nesota, Wisconsin,  and  Indiana,  southern  Mis- 
souri in  the  eastern  part  of  Indian  Territory,  and 
northeastern  Texas.  In  the  central  IJnited 
States,  the  prevalent  species  change  to  hard 
woods,  while  in  the  Southern  States  yellow  pine 
becomes  the  dominant  species.  West  of  this 
forested  region  in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
is  the  prairie  region,  once  grassed,  and  with 
groves  of  timber,  now  highly  cultivated,  which 
passes  by  insensible  degrees  into  the  treeless 
plains  which  form  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cor- 
dilleran  plateau. 

In  the  Cordilleran  region  forests  are,  as  a 
rule,  found  only  on  the  mountains,  and  consist 
mainly  of  conifer*.  The  valley  vegetation  de- 
pends upon  the  degree  of  aridity;  here  may  be 
found  grass,  artemisia,  cacti,  yucca,  and  other 
thorny  desert  shrubs,  which  in  some  localities 
grow  so  densely  as  to  form  what  is  called  chap- 
arral. The  northern  plateau  region  of  Mexico 
is  without  forests,  except  upon  the  higher  ranges, 
while  the  southern  and  lower  part  of  the  country, 
with  Central  America,  has  a  tropical  profusion 
of  fruit  and  vegetation.  See  Flora  of  Rocky 
Mountains;  Canada;  United  States;  Mexico; 
Central  America,  and  West  Indies. 

8outh  America. — The  fiora  of  South  America 
ranges  from  that  of  the  tropical  to  that  of  the 
temperate  zone,  and  is  controlled  not  only  by 
latitude,  but  by  altitude  and  rainfall.  At  the 
extreme  north  in  Colombia,  on  the  waters  of 
the  Magdalena,  the  hot  climate  and  excessive 
rainfall  produce  a  luxuriant  vegetation  which 
changes  from  its  tropical  character  only  with 
great  change  of  altitude  above  the  sea,  palms, 
bamboos,  and  tree  ferns  forming  much  of  the 
lower  forests,  and  conifers  higher  on  the  moun- 
tains. To  the  east  of  this  region  are  the  llanos 
of  the  Orinoco,  with  their  tall  grasses  and  iso- 


lated trees.  To  the  south  of  these,  east  of  the 
Andes,  are  the  great  selvas  of  the  Amazon,  with 
their  rich  forests  and  mixed  fiora.  Directly 
south  of  these  occur  the  great  forests  of  the 
Matto  Grosso,  to  the  east  of  which  lie  the  Catinga 
woodlands  and  the  Brazilian  campos,  with  their 
thickets  interspersed  with  open  glades.  To  the 
west  of  the  Matto  Grosso  lies  the  great  mountain 
of  southwestern  Brazil  and  Bolivia.  To  the 
south  of  the  Matto  Grosso  lies  the  gran  chaco, 
with  its  wax  palms  and  other  rich  forest  growth. 
Still  farther  south  begins  the  plains  or  pampas 
of  the  Plata,  which,  at  first  consisting  of  rich 
grasses,  soon  degenerate  into  the  dry  plains  of 
southern  Argentina,  with  their  stunted  and  poor 
plant  growth.  The  fiora  of  the  western  strip  of 
South  America,  which  includes  the  Andean  re- 
gions, is  in  general  tropical  or  sub-tropical  at 
low  levels,  and  changes  in  altitudinal  zones  with 
increase  of  height  above  the  sea  level,  but  is 
much  modified  by  the  distribution  of  rainfall 
throughout  the  length  of  the  continent,  which 
permits  of  an  abundant  vegetable  growth  in  the 
northern  and  southern  portions,  but  greatly 
limits  it  in  the  intervening  region  of  little  rain- 
fall. The  potato  is  indigenous  to  South  America. 
See  Flora  under  Andes;  Colombia;  Ecuador; 
Peru;  Bolivia;  Chile;  Amazon;  Brazil,  and 
Argentina. 

Fauna.  In  considering  this  subject,  it  must 
be  recognized  first  that  we  here  have  to  deal 
with  two  continental  faunie,  for  the  animal  life 
of  North  America  is  almost  completely  different 
from  that  of  South  and  Central  America.  This 
unlikeness  seems  related  in  large  degree  to  his- 
tory and  derivation.  The  fauna  of  North  Amer- 
ica is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  northern  zones 
of  the  Old  World,  in  large  part  identical  with 
it.  Among  mammals  substantially  similar  to 
those  of  Europe  or  northern  Asia  are  all  the 
bears,  wolves,  the  lynx,  most  fur-bearers  (Mus- 
telicUe) f  the  bison,  reindeer,  moose  ("elk"  of 
Europe),  bighorn,  white  goat,  beaver,  and  the 
majority  of  the  rodents  and  small  insectivores, 
bats,  etc.,  where  the  differences  are  rarely  more 
than  generic.  The  peculiar  North  American 
mammals  of  note  are  the  puma,  the  skunk,  the 
pronghorn,  the  musk-ox,  and  certain  rodents, 
as  the  pouched-rats  and  sewellel.  The  absentees 
are  equally  interesting.  Although  they  arose 
in  Tertiary  North  America,  no  horses,  camels, 
or  rhinoceroses  are  in  its  recent  fauna;  nor  any 
true  antelopes  or  swine  (except  in  the  extreme 
southwest) ;  of  Marsupials  a  single  form, 
the  opossum,  is  present.  The  birds  present  a 
similar  parallelism  with  northern  Europe  and 
Asia,  many  species,  and  nearly  all  the  families, 
being  common  to  both  continents.  The  same  is 
true  of  reptiles  and  amphibians,  which  are 
marked  in  North  America  by  the  preponderance 
of  certain  subordinate  forms,  such  as  the  rattle- 
snakes, rather  than  by  anything  very  different 
from  those  of  the  Old  World.  Fishes  present 
somewhat  greater  distinctions,  yet  the  bulk  of 
fresh-water  fish  are  similar  to,  and  some  are 
identical  with,  those  of  the  colder  parts  of 
Europe.  Insects  and  fresh- water  mollusks  seem 
generally  related  to  those  of  Europe  and  Asia; 
but  the  United  States  is  richer  than  any  other 
part  of  the  world  in  fluviatile  mollusks — espe- 
cially river  mussels  (Unionidfe) .  On  the  whole, 
the  Nearctic  fauna  is  closely  allied  to  the  Palae- 
arctic,  and  by  some  students  they  are  united  in 


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a  single  grand  division,  termed  "Holarctic,"  or 
"Triarctic." 

South  America,  considered  with  reference  to 
its  fauna,  includes  Central  America,  the  low- 
lands of  Mexico,  and  the  West  Indies,  and  forms 
one  of  the  grand  zo5geographical  divisions, 
named  "Neotropical"  by  Sclater.  It  is  charac- 
terized by  richness  and  isolation,  leading  to  the 
belief  that  its  union  with  North  America  has 
been  accomplished  at  a  comparatively  recent 
date,  and  that  the  origin  of  its  animal  popula- 
tion is  exceedingly  remote  and  was  followed  by 
long  isolation.  It  has  eight  families  of  mam- 
mals absolutely  confined  to  it,  including  two  fam- 
ilies of  monkeys,  markedly  different  from  those 
of  the  Old  World  (but  no  lemurs),  the  blood- 
sucking bats,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  order 
of  Edentates,  and  many  peculiar  rodents.  The 
continent  has  no  Mustelide  nor  ViverridA;  only 
one  kind  of  bear;  almost  no  insectivora;  no 
horses  or  related  animals,  except  one  species  of 
tapir;  no  ruminants,  except  the  cameloid  llamas 
(not  known  elsewhere),  and  only  a  few  small 
un^lates  of  any  sort.  Birds  display  still  great- 
er isolation  and  singularity  when  compared  with 
the  avifauna  of  the  Old  World  or  of  North  Amer- 
ica. Wallace  gives  23  families  and  600  genera 
as  exclusively  neotropical,  while  that  continent 
or  its  northerly  extensions  possesses  the  greater 
part  of  many  other  important  families,  such  as 
the  humming-birds  ( some  400  species ) ,  tanagers, 
and  macaws,  to  which  must  be  added  a  long  list 
of  peculiar  sea-fowl.  Among  reptiles  there  are 
less  peculiar  forms,  the  boas  and  scytales  being 
most  conspicuous  amonff  snakes;  but  there  are 
several  local  families  of  lizards  and  many  genera, 
the  iguanids  being  widely  developed,  while  the 
Varanidse,  Lacertidse,  and  Agamidffi,  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  Old  Worldj  are  entirely  absent 
from  America,  llie  Amphibia  present  a  similar 
case.  Fishes  of  fresh  waters  are  enormously 
abundant,  and  their  resemblance,  as  a  whole,  is 
to  the  African  piscifauna,  while  many  are  sur- 
vivors of  very  ancient  types,  such  as  lepidosiren. 
Similar  facts  might  be  adduced  to  show  the 
regional  exclusiveness  of  the  insects  and  other 
invertebrates.  On  the  whole.  South  America  is 
characterized  by  the  possession  of  a  very  uni- 
formly distributed  fauna,  far  more  local  and 
distinct  from  any  other  region  than  that  of  any 
other  continent,  unless  it  be  Australia,  probably 
more  than  four-fifths  of  its  species  being  re- 
stricted to  its  zo5geographical  boundaries.  See 
Distribution  of  Animals. 

HISTORY. 
Discovery.  Christopher  Columbus,  in  1492, 
added  a  new  world  to  European  commerce  and 
civilization;  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
the  Western  Hemisphere  to  which  Columbus 
opened  the  way  had  previously  been  visited  by 
voyagers  from  the  older  world.  There  is  noth- 
ing inherently  impossible  in  the  stories  that 
Japanese  or  Chinese  vessels,  blown  by  storms  or 
carried  by  the  Pacific  currents,  reached  the  west- 
ern coast  of  North  America.  The  most  circum- 
stantial of  these  tales  relates  that  some  Chinese 
Buddhist  priests  in  the  fifth  Christian  century 
reached  a  land  of  Fu-sang,  and  successfully  re- 
turned with  the  account  of  their  adventures  in 
what  some  critics  have  thought  was  the  country 
now  known  as  Mexico.  From  Europe  the  ear- 
liest visitors  to  America  came  by  way  of  Iceland, 
and  the  story  of  their  experiences,  though  it  does 


not  satisfy  all  the  demands  of  modern  historical 
criticism,  may  safely  be  deemed  true  in  its  prin- 
cipal details.  In  876,  Gunnbiorn,  a  sea  rover, 
while  on  his  way  from  Scandinavia  to  the  new 
Norse  settlement  in  Iceland,  was  blown  westward 
until  he  sighted  an  unknown  land.  A  century 
later,  about  985,  a  restless  young  Norwegian 
named  Eric  the  Red  succeeded  in  verifying  the 
stories  which  had  been  handed  down  from  Gunn- 
biorn's  time,  and  in  establishing  a  settlement  on 
the  shores  of  the  land  to  which,  with  the  idea 
of  attracting  colonists,  he  gave  the  name  of 
Greenland.  Two  years  or  so  after  this,  Bjami 
Herjulfson,  while  in  command  of  a  ship  in  which 
he  had  set  out  to  visit  the  Red  Eric's  settlement, 
encountered  storms  that  drove  him,  as  he  re- 
ported, southward  until  he  came  in  sight  of  land. 

In  the  year  1000,  Leif,  Eric's  son,  started  to 
explore  Bjami's  land.  He  came  first  to  a  barren 
shore  backed  by  ice-covered  mountains,  a  descrip- 
tion which  suggests  Labrador.  Sailing  south,  he 
met  with  more  pleasant  regions,  to  which  he  gave 
the  names  of  Markland  and  Vinland.  Many  at- 
tempts have  been  made  to  identify  these  localities, 
and  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia  perhaps  best 
answer  the  essential  conditions.  At  Vinland  a 
flourishing  settlement  was  established  and  main- 
tained for  several  years,  and  there  Gudrid,  the 
wife  of  Thorfinn  Karlsefne,  gave  birth,  in  1007, 
to  a  son,  Snorre,  from  whom  the  sculptor  Thor- 
waldsen  claimed  descent.  Many  localities — ^New- 
port  and  Dighton,  on  Narragansett  Bay;  Cam- 
bridge and  Waltham,  on  the  Charles;  Salem,  in- 
deed, well-nigh  every  town  situated  beside  a 
pleasant  river  northward  from  Long  Island — have 
laid  claim  to  this  Norse  settlement,  regarding  the 
actual  situation  of  which,  however,  nothing  cer- 
tain is  known.  During  the  succeeding  five  hundred 
years,  many  voyagers  may  have  crossed  the  At- 
lantic, but  none  of  them  left  any  proof  of  their 
work.  Madoc,  son  of  Owen  Gwynnedd,  a  prince 
of  Wales,  is  said  by  Humfrey  Lloyd,  in  a  book 
printed  in  1559,  to  have  sailed  westward  and  to 
have  established  a  transatlantic  Welsh  colony 
in  1170.  The  Venetian  brothers  Zeno,  between 
1380  and  1390,  probably  made  a  voyage  from  the 
Shetland  Islands  to  Iceland  and  Greenland,  and 
in  their  letters  home  to  their  Italian  brethren 
they  seem  to  have  given  a  picturesque  account 
of  what  they  had  learned  about  the  country  lying 
still  farther  to  the  southwest.  French,  Breton, 
and  Basque  fishing  vessels  very  likely  visited  the 
cod  banks  in  the  western  Atlantic  during  the 
fifteenth  century;  but  if  they  did,  they  were  care- 
ful not  to  let  the  information  of  their  valuable 
discovery  reach  their  rivals. 

Consecutive  discovery  and  exploration  began 
with  the  voyage  of  Christopher  Columbus  in 
1492.  (For  a  full  account  of  his  expeditions,  see 
CoLtTMBUS,  Christopher.)  In  1493  and  1494 
Columbus  established  the  main  features  of  the 
islands  in  the  West  Indies.  In  his  third  voyage, 
1498,  he  touched  at  Trinidad,  and  followed  the 
mainland  for  some  distance;  and  in  1502-04  he 
coasted  from  Yucatan  to  Venezuela.  Meanwhile, 
in  1497,  John  Cabot  sailed  from  England,  and 
reached  the  neighborhood  of  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence;  but  many  years  passed  before  the 
identity  of  the  land  which  served  as  headquarters 
for  the  hosts  of  fishing  boats  which  frequented 
the  Banks  with  that  of  the  New  World  of  the 
Spaniards  was  definitely  determined.  It  appears 
probable  that  almost  simultaneously  with  Ca- 
bot's landing  on  the  American  continent,  Pinzon 


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AMERICA. 


(accompanied  by  Vespucius)  discovered  Central 
America.  A  succession  of  voyages  now  rapidly 
extended  geographical  knowledge  of  the  coast  line 
of  the  Mexican  Gulf  and  northeastern  South 
America.  In  1499  Ojeda  and  Vespucius  coasted 
the  northern  shores  of  the  southern  continent, 
namin&r  Venezuela  "the  little  Venice,"  and  unit- 
ing this  coast  with  the  territory  visited  by  Co- 
lumbus. Pinzon,  early  in  1600,  reached  Brazil, 
entered  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon,  and  crossed 
the  equator,  reaching  8°  20'  S.  on  the  Brazil 
coast.  Cabral,  in  1500,  too,  was  blown  to  the 
same  coast  while  trying  to  follow  the  route  of 
Vasco  da  Gama  to  the  East  Indies,  and  thus  es- 
tablished the  Portuguese  claim  to  a  part  of 
America.  Vespucius,  transferring  his  services 
to  Portugal,  in  1501  followed  the  coast  from 
Cabral's  Land  nearly  to  the  mouth  of  the  Plata. 
These  were  the  official  recorded  voyages;  but  the 
extent  and  importance  of  the  information  se- 
cured by  the  surreptitious  voyagers  who  were 
striving  to  gain  a  part  of  whatever  the  new- 
found lands  had  to  offer  is  best  shown  by  the  fact 
that  though  Cuba  was  not  officially  circumnavi- 
gated until  1508,  by  Ocampo,  nevertheless,  it  is 
represented  as  an  island  on  La  Cosa's  map  of 
IdOO  and  on  the  Cantino  Portuguese  map  of 
1502.  As  soon  as  it  was  realized  that  a  vast 
land  mass  still  barred  the  way  to  India  and  Ja- 
pan, the  problem  of  foremost  importance  became 
that  of  finding  a  water  route  through  or  around 
the  western  continent.  The  way  was  found  in 
1620  by  Fernao  MieigalhSes,  commonly  known  as 
Magellan.  MagalhSLes  sailed  so  directly  for  the 
strait  which  now  bears  his  name  that  it  has  been 
surmised  that  he  already  knew  of  its  probable 
existence  from  the  captains  of  merchant  vessels 
who  had  explored  the  coast  to  the  extreme  south 
in  their  search  for  trading  chances.  From  the 
western  end  of  the  strait,  Magalh9es  laid  his 
course  to  the  East  Indies.  There,  on  one  of  the 
Philippine  Islands,  he  was  killed  in  April,  1521 ; 
but  Juan  Sebastian  del  Cano,  in  command  of  the 
Victoria,  prosecuted  the  voyage  successfully,  and 
reached  Seville  in  September,  1622,  by  way  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  having  circumnavigated 
the  globe  for  the  first  time. 

The  exploration  of  the  interior  demanded  atten- 
tion as  soon  as  the  main  features  of  the  coast 
had  been  determined.  In  1613  Vasco  Nufiez  de 
Balboa  ascended  one  of  the  peaks  in  the  range 
which  forms  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  and  looked 
down  upon  a  south  sea,  to  which  Magalh^es,  a 
few  years  later,  gave  the  name  of  Pacific,  because 
of  his  calm  and  pleasant  passage.  Cortes,  in 
1519,  set  out  from  Cuba  to  investigate  the  per- 
sistent gold  rumors  from  the  West,  and  landed  at 
a  port  to  which  he  piously  gave  the  name  of 
Vera  Cruz.  Two  years  later  he  had  mastered  the 
geography,  as  well  as  the  people,  of  Central 
Mexico,  and  within  the  ensuing  ten  years  his 
captains  traversed  a  large  part  of  the  Central 
American  region,  reaching  the  Pacific  by  several 
routes.  In  1627  Cortes  built  a  fleet  on  the  west- 
em  coast,  which  he  dispatched  to  the  Moluccas 
under  Alvaro  de  Saavedra,  for  the  purpose  of  co- 
operating with  an  exx>edition  commanded  by  Se- 
bastian Cabot,  who  had,  however,  turned  aside 
from  his  original  purpose  of  sailing  to  the  East 
Tndies  by  way  of  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  and  was 
spending  three  years  in  ascending  nearly  to  the 
head  waters  of  the  Plata.  In  1530  Cortes  found 
liower  California,  which  was  supposed  to  be  an 
•   island  until,  in  1640,  Alarc6n  proved  its  con- 


tinuity "with  the  mainland  by  his  trip  up  the 
Rio  Colorado  of  the  West.  Similarly,  in  1612, 
Ponce  de  Leon  discovered  the  "island"  of  Florida, 
which  Pineda,  in  1519,  definitely  connected  with 
the  continent  by  a  voyage  along  the  coast  from 
Florida  to  Vera  Cruz.  Ponce  de  Leon  was  fol- 
lowed by  Narvaez,  Cabeza  de  Vaca,  and  Fer- 
nando de  Soto,  whose  explorations,  combined 
with  that  of  Vasquez  Coronado  from  Mexico  to 
the  Kansas-Nebraska  prairies,  had,  by  1546,  made 
knowna  the  principal  features  of  central  North 
America  south  of  the  Missouri  and  OlTio  rivers. 

Francisco  Pizarro  was  the  successful  discoverer 
of  the  truth  in  the  reports  of  a  rich  land  south- 
ward from  Panama,  of  which  the  settlers  had 
heard  from  the  time  of  their  first  visit  to  the 
isthmus.  Between  1531  and  1534  Pizarro  brought 
the  Inca  Empire  of  Peru  within  the  limits  of  the 
known  world,  while  his  associate,  Diego  de  Al- 
magro,  pushed  on  farther  south  into  the  plateau 
of  northern  Chile.  Gonzalez  Pizarro,  in  1540-41, 
crossed  the  Andes  and  reached  the  head  waters  of 
the  Amazon,  which  one  of  his  companions,  Fran- 
cisco de  Orellana,  followed  down  to  its  mouth, 
reaching  the  sea  in  August,  1541.  The  reports 
of. a  large  river  in  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
southern  continent  caused  much  confusion  in  the 
handiwork  of  European  map-makers,  and  it  was 
a  long  while  before  they  succeeded  in  evolving 
two  distinct  river  systems.  It  is  often  quite 
impossible  to  determine  from  the  narratives  of 
early  explorers  in  the  interior  whether  they  are 
describing  the  Orinoco  or  the  Amazon.  The  lat- 
ter was  known  at  first  as  the  Maraflon  or  the 
Orellana;  but  the  name  given  by  the  tribe  of  fe- 
male warriors  supposed  to  live  near  it  eventually 
became  the  accepted  designation.  The  other 
great  river  system,  that  of  the  Plata,  was  first 
visited  in  1615  by  De  Soils,  whose  name  clung  to 
it  for  several  years,  until  after  the  explorations 
of  Sebastian  Cabot  and  Diego  Garcia  in  1527-30. 
The  only  remaining  section  of  South  America, 
from  the  Strait  of  Magellan  northward  to  Chile, 
which  had  been  explored  to  40"  south  by  Val- 
divia  in  1640,  is  not  known  to  have  been  visited 
until  the  latter  part  of  the  century,  when  Drake 
and  his  fellow  freebooters  undertook  to  tap  the 
sources  of  Spanish  wealth.  Drake  started  off.  on 
a  mission  of  vengeance  for  the  injuries  he  had 
brought  upon  himself  in  the  West  Indies  in  the 
winter  of  1577-78.  Sailing  through  the  Strait 
of  Magellan,  he  followed  up  the  west  coast,  plun- 
dering as  he  went,  until  he  had  filled  his  vessels 
with  Spanish  treasure.  Learning  that  his  ene- 
mies were  watching  to  attack  him  when  he  should 
return  through  the  strait,  Drake  decided  to  seek 
some  other  way  home  to  England.  He  tried 
first  for  a  northwest  passage ;  but  the  season  was 
not  propitious,  and  after  visiting  the  California 
coast  and  annexing  it  to  the  British  crown  under 
the  name  of  New  Albion,  he  turned  westward  and 
completed  the  first  English  circumnavigation  in 
1680. 

John  Cabot  showed  the  way  to  the  Newfound- 
land Banks,  and  it  is  probable  that  English, 
Breton,  and  Basque  fishermen  visited  the  neigh- 
boring coasts  regularly  from  the  very  beginning 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  They  added  little, 
however,  to  the  general  geographical  knowledge  of 
the  country.  Gaspar  de  Cortereal  visited  the  St. 
Lawrence  region  or  the  Labrador  coast  in  1500- 
01,  and  Jean  Denys  of  Honfleur  was  on  the  New- 
foundland coaat  in  1606.  By  chance  a  record  of 
these  voyages  has  been  preserved.    Many  similar 


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voyages  must  have  been  undertaken,  but  all  traces 
of  them  are  lost.  In  1524  Giovanni  da  Verrazano, 
sailing  with  a  commission  from  the  French  king, 
followed  the  North  American  coast  for  a  long 
distance,  perhaps  from  Cape  Fear  as  far  as  Cape 
Kace.  His  narrative  provides  the  earliest  de- 
scription of  many  of  the  characteristic  features 
of  tne  coast.  At  one  point  he  saw  open  water 
beyond  low-lying  land,  such  as  the  narrow  islands 
which  protect  the  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds, 
and  he  guessed  that  this  might  be  the  much- 
sought  Southern  Sea.  In  consequence,  many  of 
the  maps  of  the  ensuing  years  represent  a  vast 
gulf  of  the  Pacific,  entering  from  the  west  and 
occupying  the  larger  part  of  the  northern  con- 
tinent, being  separated  by  a  narrow  isthmus  from 
the  Atlantic.  In  1534  and  1535  Jacques  Cartier 
entered  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and  sailed  up  the 
river  as  far  as  the  present  site  of  Montreal,  where 
he  heard  of  the  Great  Lakes — ^another  hopeful 
clue  to  the  longed-for  water  passage  to  the  east. 
During  the  second  half  of  the  century,  attempts 
at  settlement  led  to  a  more  careful  determination 
of  the  details  of  the  north  Atlantic  coast.  St. 
Augustine  was  founded  in  1565.  Raleigh's  famous 
"lost  colony"  on  the  Carolina  or  "Virginia"  coast 
was  established  in  1587,  and  the  attempts  to 
determine  the  fate  of  the  settlers  led  to  several 
voyages  during  the  next  two  decades, by  means  of 
which  the  coast  was  more  or  less  carefully  exam- 
ined from  New  Jersey  southward.  Farther  north, 
the  work  of  Gosnold  in  1602,  Pring  in  1603, 
Champlain  and  Weymouth  in  1605,  and  Hudson 
in  1609,  marked  out  the  courses  which  were  fol- 
lowed year  by  year  by  a  constantly  increasing 
number  of  vessels. 

Champlain  settled  Quebec  in  1608,  and  began 
the  systematic  exploration  of  the  interior  by 
visiting  the  lake  which  preserves  his  name  in 
1609.  In  1615  he  penetrated  to  Lake  Huron. 
Traders  and  missionaries  year  by  year  pushed 
their  way  farther  up  the  river  and  along  the 
lakes.  P6re  Allouez,  in  1665,  founded  a  mission 
on  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Superior,  and  in 
1672,  accompanied  by  P.  Dablon,  he  made  a  tour 
through  Wisconsin  and  Illinois.  A  year  later 
Marquette  and  Joliet  reached  the  Upper  Missis- 
sippi. In  1679  La  Salle  began  his  career  by  a 
voyage  from  Niagara  to  the  southern  end  of 
Lake  Michigan.  Hennepin,  one  of  La  Salle's 
companions,  crossed  to  the  Mississippi,  which  he 
followed  up  as  far  as  Minneapolis  in  1680.  Two 
years  later  La  Salle  made  a  trip  down  the  Ohio 
to  the  Mississippi,  and  on  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
establishing  the  claim  of  France  to  the  whole  of 
the  interior  of  the  continent. 

Henry  Hudson,  in  1610,  entered  the  bay  to 
which  his  name  has  been  attached,  and  there  he 
was  left  in  an  open  boat  by  his  mutinous  sailors. 
Some  years  earlier,  in  1592,  Juan  de  la  Fuca,  in 
a  Spanish  vessel,  probably  entered  the  sound  on 
the  western  coast  which  was  more  carefully  ex- 
plored and  named  by  Captain  Vancouver  ex- 
actly two  hundred  years  later,  and  carried  home 
a  report  that  he  had  seen  a  vast  stretch  of  open 
water  extending  eastward.  The  attempts  to  find 
a  way  between  these  two  bays,  the  search  for  the 
northwest  passage,  belongs  to  the  article  on 
Arctic  discovery.  The  discovery  of  the  interior 
of  Canada  was  largely  accomplished  by  the  trap- 
pers and  agents  of  the  Hudson's  Bay"  Company, 
which  was  organized  in  1670;  but  it  was  not  until 
1740  that  Varenne  de  la  Verendrye  made  known 
the  vast  extent  of  the  country  lying  east  of  the 


northern  Rocky  Mountains.  In  1769-72  the  fur 
trader  Hearne  traced  the  Coppermine  River  to 
the  sea,  and  in  1793  Mr.  (afterward  Sir  A.)  Mac- 
kenzie, while  crossing  the  continent  for  the  first 
time  north  of  Mexico,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  discovered  the  course  of  the  river  to 
which  his  name  has  been  given. 

The  exploration  of  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  did  not  begin  until  after  the  re- 
public had  acquired  that  region.  As  soon  as  the 
Louisiana  purchase  had  b^n  concluded,  Jeffer- 
son dispatched  Lewis  and  Clark  to  investigate 
the  course  of  the  Missouri  and  determine  its  rela- 
tion to  the  Pacific,  which  they  did  by  descending 
the  Columbia  to  the  sea,  their  journey  occupying 
the  years  1804-06.  Pike,  meanwhile,  was  travers- 
ing  the  country  between  the  head  waters  of  the 
Mississippi  and  Red  rivers,  and  afterward, 
1806,  he  followed  the  mountain  ranges  south, 
discovering  the  peak  known  by  his  name,  and 
making  important  contributions  to  an  under- 
standing of  the  geogi'aphy  of  the  southwest. 

Among  the  other  explorers  of  the  United  States 
in  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  were 
Long,  Bonneville,  Schoolcraft,  Catlin,  Nicollet, 
and  Fremont.  Among  their  successors  in  the 
second  half  of  the  century  were  Wheeler,  Whit- 
ney, Hayden,  and  Powell.  The  list  of  explorers 
of  British  America  and  Alaska  in  the  nineteenth 
century  embraces  Sir  John  Franklin,  Back,  Rich- 
ardson, Beechy,  Dease,  Simpson,  and  Rae,  whose 
activity  lay  in  the  realm  of  Arctic  exploration, 
and  Bell,  Selwyn,  Dawson,  Dall,  Muir,  Allen, 
Schwatka,  Ogilvie,  Russell,  and  Low.  Of  the 
many  explorers  of  South  America  in  modern 
times  mention  may  be  made  of  Humboldt,  Maxi- 
milian of  Wied,  Spix,  Martins,  Auguste  de 
Sainte-Hilaire,  Orbigny,  P5ppig,  the  brothers 
Schomburgk,  Darwin,  Av^Lallemant,  Tschudi, 
Castelnau,  Burmeister,  Hemdon  and  Gibbon, 
Chandless,  Crevaux,  Bates,  Karl  von  den  Steinen, 
and  Ehrenreich.  Among  the  explorers  of  the 
Andes  in  recent  times  have  been  Reiss,  Stiibel, 
Whymper,  Fitzgerald,  and  Conway. 

Colonization.  Before  Columbus  left  the 
newly  discovered  W^est  India  Islands  in  January, 
1493,  he  built  a  fort  on  "Espauola,  now  Hayti. 
Here  some  forty  of  his  sailors  remained  to  form 
a  settlement  which  should  serve  as  headquarters 
for  the  farther  discoveries  that  Columbus  ex- 
pected to  make  as  soon  as  he  could  return  to  the 
new  world.  These  first  Spanish  colonists  were 
killed  by  the  Indians,  but  their  places  were  taken 
by  others,  numbering  between  two  and  three  hun- 
dred, who  accompanied  Columbus  on  his  second 
voyage.  During  the  early  months  of  1494  the 
town  which  they  built,  named  in  honor  of  the 
queen,  Isabella,  rapidly  assumed  the  appearance 
of  a  flourishing  city.  During  the  next  ten  years 
a  constant  stream  of  settlers,  many  of  them  ac- 
companied by  their  families,  flowed  from  Spain 
into  the  new  city.  Many  of  these  remained  there 
to  practice  the  trades  necessary  to  town  life, 
while  others  took  farms  near  by  or  went  on  to 
assist  in  building  up  the  newer  towns  which  were 
being  established  at  every  good  harbor  and  in  the 
mining  districts.  These  places  became  in  a  sur- 
prisingly short  time  practically  self-supporting, 
and  they  were  soon  able  to  supply  men  and  equip- 
ment for  farther  exploration.  Cortes  drew  from 
Cuba  whatever  he  needed  for  his  enterprise  of 
1519,  a  debt  which  Mexico  repaid  by  furnishing 
the  supplies  for  the  large  expedition  which  Vas- 
quez  Coronado  led  through  the  present  Arizona 


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and  New  Mexico  to  the  great  buffalo  plains  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  in  1540-41.  Moreover, 
Almagro  and  Pizarro  drew  from  Panama  the 
means  for  their  adventurous  expeditions  into 
Peru  and  Ecuador,  and  these  countries  furnished 
the  supplies  to  send  Valdivia  southward  into 
Chile  (1540),  and  Orellana  and  Ursua  (see  the 
article  Aguirre)  to  explore  the  trans- Andean 
regions.  By  1550  the  Spanish -American  settle- 
ments were  firmly  established,  with  every  pros- 
pect of  developing  into  powerful  and  wealthy 
colonies.  Unluckily,  the  home  Government  in 
Spain  persisted  in  retaining  all  the  administra- 
tive authority  in  the  hands  of  officials  appointed 
in  Europe.  As  a  result,  the  colonists  were  sub- 
jected to  a  succession  of  incompetent,  corrupt 
governors,  ignorant  of  American  conditions,  and 
desirous  only  of  securing  the  greatest  annual 
revenue  for  themselves  and  for  the  royal  treas- 
ury. Deprived  of  all  the  incentives  of  public 
service,  the  Spanish- Americans  suffered  a  steady 
decline  in  social  and  intellectual  tone,  very  similar 
to  that  which  was  so  noticeable  in  the  northern 
English  colonies  between  1690  and  1750.  Mis- 
sionary zeal  supplied  almost  the  only  active  force 
for  extending  the  colonial  limits.  The  Jesuits 
built  up  a  very  remarkable  domination  over  the 
natives  along  the  upper  Paranft  and  Paraguay, 
and  north  of  Mexico  the  Franciscans,  although 
driven  out  of  New  Mexico  by  the  native  "rebel- 
lion" of  1610,  eventually  succeeded  in  laying  the 
foundations  for  permanent  settlements  in  that 
region.  During  the  eighteenth  century  there  was 
a  flourishing  provincial  life  along  the  upper  Rio 
Grande  del  Norte,  the  strength  of  which  may  be 
inferred  from  the  fact  that  the  first  printing 
press  west  of  the  Mississippi,  in  what  is  now 
United  States  territory,  was  set  up  about  1737 
in  the  town  of  San  Fernando  de  Taos,  New 
Mexico,  which  is  still  many  miles  from  any  rail- 
way. The  Franciscans,  Dominicans,  and  Jesuits 
sent  their  friars  into  Upper  California,  and  the 
mission  buildings  whose  ruins  are  now  so  care- 
fully cherished  were  begun  during  the  second 
half  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Soldiers  and 
ranchers  followed  the  priests,  and  by  1800  the 
Spanish  settlements  were  scattered  thickly  along 
the  Pacific  coast  and  throughout  the  southwest. 

Portugal  began  to  colonize  the  eastern  coast 
of  South  America  in  1531,  in  order  to  maintain 
its  claim  to  what  is  now  Brazil  against  the 
Spanish,  who  were  locating  everywhere  else  on 
the  new  continent.  A  few  settlements  along  the 
coast,  however,  were  all  that  resulted  until  early 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  Portuguese 
tried  to  develop  the  country  as  a  substitute  for 
the  East  Indian  possessions  which  the  English 
and  Dutch  had  taken  from  them.  There  was 
little  European  impress  upon  the  country, 
however,  before  1808,  when  the  Portuguese  court 
emigrated  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which  became  for  a 
while  a  pseudo-European  capital.  In  1821  King 
John  VT.  went  back  to  Portugal,  but  he  left  his 
eldest  son,  Dom  Pedro,  as  emperor.  Extensive 
Brazilian  estates  were  granted  to  Iris  European 
retainers,  and  foreign  capital  began  to  be  intro- 
duced. The  country  was  developed  for  invest- 
ment rather  than  colonization.  There  was  no 
extensive  taking  up  of  the  land  by  Europeans 
until  the  second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
when  Italians,  Germans,  and  Poles  turned  their 
attention  to  this  region  of  South  America. 

The  French  colonization  of  North  America 
began  with  De  Monts'  settlement  on  the  Bay  of 


Fundy  in  1604.  The  English  (see  the  article 
Abgall)  effectually  stopped  all  efforts  to  extend 
these  settlements  along  the  Maine  coast,  and  so 
Champlain  undertook  to  open  up  the  interior  by 
way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River.  Quebec  was 
settled  in  1608,  and  Montreal  in  1642;  but  these 
towns  grew  rapidly  as  trading  and  shipping 
places  rather  than  as  centres  for  colonization.  A 
few  other  towns  were  started  along  the  lines  of 
communication  with  the  trapping  and  hunting 
regions  around  the  great  lakes,  as  headquarters 
for  trade  with  the  Indians.  As  the  competition 
with  England  for  the  possession  of  the  country 
south  of  the  lakes  became  keen,  military  posts, 
of  which  Fort  Duquesne  is  the  best  known,  were 
established  on  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi,  to 
emphasize  and  protect  the  French  claims.  No- 
where was  there  much  actual  possession  of  the 
soil.  When,  in  1763,  England  secured  the  whole 
of  French  North  America  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  greatest  part  of  it  was  open  for  settle- 
ment by  her  own  people. 

The  English,  like  the  other  European  nations, 
began  by  establishing  outposts,  first  for  the  fish- 
ermen on  Newfoundland  before  1570,  and  in  1585 
on  the  Carolina  coast  for  the  purpose  of  extend- 
ing the  search  for  gold  and  treasures  inland. 
Religious  and  political  conditions,  however, 
changed  the  character  of  the  English  emigration 
to  America  soon  after  1600.  In  1620  and  1630 
the  Pilgrims  and  Puritans  established  themselves 
along  Massachusetts  Bay,  with  the  deliberate 
purpose  of  becoming  permanent  inhabitants  of 
the  country.  A  few  years  earlier,  in  1607,  a 
Church  of  England  colony  had  been  attempted 
at  Sagadahoc,  now  Popham  Beach,  on  the  Maine 
coast;  but  it  made  no  permanent  impression  on 
New  England.  The  same  year  a  settlement  was 
started  at  Jamesto-^^Ti,  in  Virginia,  a  successor 
to  Raleigh's  "lost  colony"  of  1587;  and  after 
many  vicissitudes  this  gradually  acquired  a  per- 
manent character.  The  English  Roman  Catholics 
had  held  themselves  ready  to  emigrate  if  neces- 
sary throughout  the  reign  of  Elizabeth;  but  it 
was  not  until  1634  that  they  prepared  a  place  for 
themselves  iu  Lord  Baltimore's  grant  of  Mary- 
land. The  development  of  New  England,  begin- 
ning with  the  "great  immigration"  of  1630,  was 
very  rapid.  In  1635  the  "Bay  Colony"  was  able 
to  spare  a  large  body  of  people,  who,  disagreeing 
with  the  majority  in  some  minor  matters  of  doc- 
trine, preferred  to  live  by  themselves  along  the 
Connecticut  River.  A  year  later,  others  who 
differed  from  the  Boston  elders  in  opinions  re- 
garding more  vital  points  of  dogma  formed  the 
Providence  Plantations  as  a  refuge  for  those  who 
desired  religious  liberty.  The  Southern  colonies 
were  settled  more  slowly,  the  formal  organiza- 
tion of  colonial  governments  (the  Carolinas  in 
1663  and  Georgia  in  1733)  being  brought  about 
partly  by  the  necessity  of  counteracting  the  ex- 
tension of  the  Spanish  settlements  north  and 
west  from  St.  Augustine  (founded  in  1565). 

The  Dutch  promptly  organized  trading  posts 
along  the  river  explored  by  Hudson  in  1609,  and 
sent  over  a  large  body  of  colonists  during  the 
next  ten  years  to  hold  the  country.  Rivalry 
with  the  English  on  the  east,  and  with  the 
Swedes,  who  settled  on  the  Delaware  in  1638, 
prepared  the  way  for  the  absorption  of  the  lat- 
ter by  the  Dutch  in  1655,  and  in  turn  for  the 
occupation  of  the  Dutch  territory  by  the  English 
in  1664. 

French  trappers  and  frontiersmen  wandered  up 


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AHEBICA. 


and  down  the  Mississippi  and  along  its  western 
tributaries  in  steadily  increasing  numbers  from 
the  time  of  La  Salle's  voyage  down  the  river  in 
1682.  By  1803,  the  year  of  the  Louisiana  pur- 
chase, these  men  and  their  descendants  were 
scattered  widely  over  the  western  plains,  draw- 
ing their  supplies  from  the  large  village  at  St. 
Louis  or  the  small  town  of  New  Orleans.  There 
was  no  real  occupation  of  the  country,  however, 
until  the  signs  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  farming 
lands  in  the  east,  combined  with  political  con- 
siderations, led  to  an  investigation  of  the  oppor- 
tunities for  profitable  existence  beyond  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Politics  was  largely  responsible  for  the 
annexation,  in  1845,  of  Texas,  and  the  same  force, 
acting  in  advance  of  economic  or  agricultural 
reasons,  led  to  the  organization  of  the  emigrant 
aid  societies  in  1854  to  hasten  the  settlement  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska.  The  discovery  of  gold  in 
California  in  1848,  in  Nevada  a  decade  later, 
and  in  the  Klondike  in  1897,  resulted  in  opening 
up  those  regions,  and  in  the  sudden  extension  of 
the  limits  of  permanent  occupation.  For  further 
information  on  America,  see  special  articles  un- 
der the  political  divisions  of  the  continent. 

/.  Independent  States  of  the  American  con- 
tinent and  islands: 


446  AHEBICA. 

II,    European  dependencies — continued. 


United  States  Proper 

Alaska 

Porto  Rico 

Hawaii 

Mexico I 

Oaatemala 

Salvador 

T^icaragna 

Hondaras 

CoBta  Rica 

Cuba , 

Haiti 

San  Domingo 

Colombia        , 

Venezuela 

Brazil  (1890) 

Ecuador 

Peru    

Bolivia 

Chile 

Argentine  Republic 

Uruguay 

Paraguay 

Total  for  Independent  States. 


Sq.  Miles.       Population. 


2,970,000 

631,000 

8,580 

6,640 

8,611,170 

767,006 

48,290 

7.226 

49,200 

46,250 

28.000 

44,000 

10,204 

18,045 

604.773 

693,948 

8,218.130 

120,000 

696,733 

667,430 

290,829 

1,113,849 

72,210 

157,000 

11,858,286 


//.  European  dependencies: 


75,994,576 
63,692 
953,243 
154,081 

77,166,411 

12,491,578 

1,574,340 

808,534 

420,000 

407,000 

810,000 

1,572,797 

1,300,000 

800,000 

4,200,000 

2,444,816 

14,333,915 

1,271,000 

4,609,999 

1,300,000 

2,712,145 

4,794,149 

900,600 

665,000 

188,237,041 


Sq.  Miles. 

Population. 

British  Posbessioms  : 
Canada: 
Ontario 

222,000 

847,850 

20,600 

28,200 

73,956 

388,800 

2,050 

2,576,540 

3,703,996 

42,i>00 

120,000 

20 

7,562 

6,460 

166 

4,424 

2,167,978 

Quebec 

1,620,974 

Nova  Scotia 

459,116 

New  Brunswick 

881,098 

Manitoba 

246,464 

British  Columbia 

190,000 

Prince  Edward  Island 

The  Territories 

103,268 
220,000 

Newfoundland 

5,.'«8,883 
210,000 

Labrador  

4,200 

Bermudas 

British  Honduras 

16,428 
35,226 

Bahamas                      

63,000 

Barbados     

192,000 

Jamaica  and  Turk's  Island  . . . 

745,104 

Sq.  Miles. 

Popalation. 

Windward  Islands: 
Grenada  and  Grenadines .... 
St.  Vincent 

145 
182 
288 

170 
56 

291 
66 
60 
85 
82 

1,754 

114 

120,000 

75,000 

4,081,897 

10 

88 

688 

881 

80,450 

81,607 

46,740 
84 
88 
21 

46,877 

403 
46,080 
46,463 

72,000 
41,064 

St   Lncia 

48,660 

Leeward  Islands: 
ABtlgua  (with  Barbnda  and 
Rraonda) 

39,0il0 

V^fai^n  Islands 

Dominica 

St.  Christopher 

4,639 
86,841 
82,000 

Nevis   

Angullla 

15,000 
4.100 

Montserrat 

18,0)0 

Trinidad 

960,517 

Tobago    

21,400 

British  Gaiana 

28S,«r8 

Falkland  Islands 

17,!»I 

French  Possessions  : 
St.  Pierre 

7,473,906 
6,700 

Miquelon 

Guadeloupe 

S50 
167,000 

Martinique 

187,683 

Gaiana 

80,800 

Danish  Possbbsionb: 

Greenland 

St.  Croix 

891,242 

i9,;ia 

St.  Thomas 

14,M 

St.  John 

m 

Dutch  Possessions  : 
Curacao  

46,6« 
51,524 

Surinam  or  Gaiana 

66.490 

118,014 

Total  for  Foreign   Posses- 
sions   

4,206,744 
16,066,080 

8,028.894 
141,255,875 

Total  for  the  American  Con- 
tinent and  lalands 

Bibliography.  General  Features,  Physical 
Dtvisioks. — ^A  comprehensive  work  is,  Rficlus, 
Nouvelle  g6ographic  universelle,  Volumes  XV.- 
XIX.  (Paris,  1890-94),  translateci  and  edited  by 
Keane  and  Rayenstein  (London,  1890-95).  The 
following  monographs  comprised  in  Stanford's 
Compendium  of  Modem  Geography  and  Travel 
are  comprehensive:  Dawson,  North  America,  Can- 
ada, and  Newfoundland (LondoTiylS^l)  ;  Gannett, 
North  America;  The  United  States  (London, 
1898) ;  Keane,  Central  and  South  America  (Lon- 
don, 1901).  Consult,  also,  in  general:  The  Sa- 
tional  Geographic  Magazine  (Washington,  1888, 
et  seq.)  ;  The  American  Geographical  Societff 
Journal  and  Bulletins  (New  York,  1852,  et  seq.) ; 
Humboldt,  Ewamen  critique  de  Vhistoire  de  la 
geographic  du  Nouveau  Continent,  new  edition 
(Paris,  1836-39);  Perez,  Geografia  general  di\ 
Nuevo  Mufido  (Bogotft,  1888)  ;  Sievers  (editor). 
Amerika.  Eine  allgemdne  Landeskunde  (Leip* 
zig,  1894)  ;  Dupont,  Notions  de  geographic  gene- 
rale  et  geographic  physique,  ethnographiqufj 
politique  et  economique  du  continent  Americain 
(Paris,  1900)  ;  Hellwald,  Amerika  in  Wort  und 
Bild  (Leipzig,  1883-85)  ;  Shaler,  Nature  and  Man 
in  America  (New  York,  1891);  Russell,  Vol- 
canoes of  North  Amet^a  (New  York,  1897) ;  id., 
Glaciers  of  North  America  (Boston.  1898); 
Wright,  Ice  Age  in  North  America  (New  York, 
1889);  Powell,  "Physiographic  Regions  of  the 
United     States,"    National     Geographic    Mono- 


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AMEBICA. 


447 


AMERICAN  ASSOCIATIONS. 


graphs.  Volume  I.  (New  York,  1895) ;  Shaler 
(editor),  United  States  of  America  (New  York, 
1894) ;  Comte  dIJrsel,  UAm&rique  du  8ud  (sec- 
ond edition,  Paris,  1879)  ;  Child,  The  Spanish- 
American  Republics  (New  York,  1891)  ;  Thomas, 
Eitplorations  dans  VAmiriqtte  du  Sud  (Paris, 
1891)  ;  Vincent,  Around  and  Ahout  South  Ameri- 
ca (New  York,  1890)  ;  Burmeister,  "Die  Stid- 
amerikanischen  Republiken,  Argentina,  Chile, 
Paraguay,  und  Uruguay,"  in  Petermann*s  Mit- 
teilungen,  Ergiinzungsheft  39  (Gotha,  1875)  ; 
Reports  of  the  Princeton  University  Expeditions 
to  Patagonia,  1896-99,  edited  by  Scott  (Prince- 
ton, 1901,  et  seq.). 

Geology.  United  States  Geological  Survey 
Annual  Reports  (Washington,  1885-1901); 
United  States  Geological  Survey  BulletiTis 
(Washington,  1884,  et  scq.)  ;  United  States 
Geological  Survey  Monographs  (Washington, 
1890,  et  seq.)  ;  Suess,  Das  Antlitz  der  Erde 
(Prague,  1883-88)  ;  Canada  Geological  and  Natur- 
al History  Survey  Reports  (Montreal,  1885,  et 
seq.)  ;  Felix  and  Lenk,  Beitrdge  zur  Geologie 
und  Palaontologie  der  Repuhlik  Mexico  (Leip- 
zig, 1890)  ;  Boletin  del  Institute  Geoldgico  de 
Mexico,  Nos.  1  to  14  (Mexico,  1895-1900)  ; 
Darwin,  Natural  History  and  Geology  of  the 
Voyage  of  the  "Beagle'*  (London,  1809)  ;  Darwin, 
Geological  Observations  on  Volcanic  Islands  of 
South  America  (London,  1892)  ;  Steinmann, 
"Sketch  of  Geology  of  South  America,"  in  Ameri- 
can Naturalist,  XXV.  (Salem,  Boston,  Philadel- 
phia, 1891) ;  Hartt,  Geology  and  Physical  Geog- 
raphy of  Brazil  (Boston,  1870). 

Hydbooraphy.  Reports  of  the  United  States 
Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  (Washington), 
United  States  Hydrographic  Office  Publications 
(Washington,  1867-1900)  ;  Newell,  "Report  of 
Progress  for  1893-95,  United  States  Division  of 
Hydrography,"  Geographical  Survey  Bulletins 
131,  140  (Washington,  1893-95)  ;  Russell,  Lakes 
of  North  America  (Boston,  1895) ;  Russell,  Riv- 
ers of  North  America  (Boston,  1898)  ;  Ray, 
"Navigation  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Carib- 
bean Sea,"  United  States  Hydrographic  Office, 
No.  86  (Washington,  1898)  ;  Humphrey  and  Ab- 
bott, "Report  on  the  Physics  and  Hydraulics  of 
the  Mississippi  River,"  United  States  Army 
Corps  of  Topographical  Engineers,  Professional 
Paper  No.  13  (Washington,  1876). 

Climate.  Publications  of  the  United  States 
Weather  Bureau  (Washington)  ;  of  the  various 
State  Weather  Series  of  the  United  States;  of 
the  Canadian  Meteorological  Office  (Toronto), 
and  of  the  Mexican  Weather  Service,  Observa- 
torio  Meteoroldgico  Central  (Mexico)  ;  Waldo, 
Elementary  Meteorology  (New  York,  1896)  ; 
Greely,  American  Weather  (New  York,  1888); 
Gould,  Annales  de  la  Oficina  Meteorologica  Ar- 
gentina (Buenos  Ayres,  1878). 

Floba.  Britton  and  Brown,  Illustrated  Flora 
of  the  Northern  United  States,  Canada  and  the 
British  Possessions  (New  York,  1896-98)  ;  Hel- 
ler, "New  and  Interesting  Plants  from  Western 
North  America,"  in  Torrey  Botanical  Club  Bul- 
letin, Volume  XXVI.  (New  York,  1899)  ;  Small, 
"Notes  and  Descriptions  of  North  American 
Plant«,"  in  Torrey  Botanical  Club  Bulletin,  Vol- 
ume XXV.  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Berg,  Physiog- 
nomy of  Tropical  Vegetation  in  South  America 
(London,  1864) ;  Rusby,  "Enumeration  of  Plants 
Collected  in  South  America,"  in  Torrey  Botanical 
Club  Bulletin,  Volumes  XV.,  XX.,  XXII.,  XXV., 
XXVII.  (New  York,  1888-96-98,  1900) ;  Goodale, 


The  Wild  Flowers  of  America  (Boston,  1887)  ; 
Hervey,  Beautiful  Wild  Floioers  of  America 
(London,  1878)  ;  Newhall,  The  Trees  of  North- 
eastern America  (New  York,  1891);  Newhall, 
The  Shrubs  of  Northeastern  America  (New  York, 
1893)  ;  Newhall,  The  Vines  of  Northeastern 
America  (New  York,  1897)  ;  Sargent,  The  Silva 
of  North  America  (Boston,  1890-91);  Heller, 
Catalogue  of  North  American  Plants  North  of 
Mexico  (Lancaster,  1900)  ;  Gray,  Synoptical 
Flora  of  North  America  (New  York,  1886-95- 
97)  ;  Scribner,  "American  Grasses,"  Parts  I.-III., 
United  Staters  Department  of  Agriculture 
(Washington,  1897-1900);  Lesquereux  and 
James,  Manual  of  Mosses  of  North  America 
(Boston,  1884-95). 

Fauna.  For  bibliography  of  American  fauna^ 
consult  the  authorities  referred  to  under  the  in- 
dividual countries,  and  under  such  heads  as 
Bird;  Insect;  Mammal;  Distribution  of  Ani- 
mals, etc.  The  one  work  best  outlining  American 
zoology  is  the  Standard  Natural  History,  edited 
by  Kingsley  (Boston,  1885).  Consult  also:  Wal- 
lace, The  Geographical  Distribution  of  Anim^ls^ 
(London  and  New  York,  1876)  ;  Merriam,  "The 
Geographic  Distribution  of  Life  in  North  Amer- 
ica," Proceedings  of  the  Biological  Society,  Vol- 
ume VIIL  (Washington,  1892);  Elliot,  North 
American  Shore  Birds  (New  York,  1895)  ;  Elliot, 
Game  Birds  of  North  America  (New  York,. 
1897);  Elliot,  Wild  Fowl  of  North  America 
(New  York,  1898)  ;  Apgar,  Birds  of  the  United 
States  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Cope,  "The  Croco- 
diles, Lizards,  and  Snakes  of  North  America,'^ 
United  States  National  Museum  Report,  1898 
(Washington,  1900)  ;  Goode,  American  Fishes 
(New  York,  1888)  ;  Edwards,  The  Butterflies  of 
North  America  (New  York,  1868-88)  ;  Scudder, 
Butterflies  of  the  Eastern  United  States  and 
Canada  (Cambridge,  1888)  ;  Scudder,  Brief 
Guide  to  the  Common  Butterflies  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  (New  York,  1893). 

History  and  Discovery.  For  the  discovery 
and  colonization  of  the  American  continent,  con- 
sult: Winsor,  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 
America  (Boston,  1884-89).  This  work  is  valu- 
able for  its  careful  study  of  the  sources  of  infor- 
mation on  American  history  and  for  its  copious 
bibliography.  For  a  more  popular  and  concise 
but  scholarly  treatment  of  the  subject,  consult 
Fiske,  The  Discovery  of  America  (Boston,  1893), 
a  work  supplied  with  ample  notes,  which  may  be 
used  as  a  basis  for  further  investigation.  The 
best  books  on  special  topics  will  be  found  in  the 
articles  on  the  individual  explorers,  countries, 
and  colonics. 

AMEBICA.  The  American  national  hymn, 
by  the  Rev.  Samuel  F.  Smith  (1832).  The  mel- 
ody, ascribed  to  Henry  Carey  ( 1742) ,  is  identical 
with  that  of  the  English  national  anthem,  "God 
Save  the  King,"  and,  popular  in  France  from 
1775,  became  national  in  Denmark,  Germany, 
and  Prussia. 

AJEEBICA.  <rhe  name  of  the  schooner-yacht 
which  in  the  international  yacht  race  of  1851 
won  the  cup  since  known  as  the  "America's  Cup." 
See  Yacht. 

AMEBaCAN    ALI/SPICE.     See    Calycan- 

THUS. 

AMEBIGAN  AI/OE.    See  Agave. 
AHEBIGAN  AS'SOCIA^IONS  AND   SO- 
CI^ETIES.   For  descriptions  of  associations  and 


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AMEBIGAN  ASSOCIATION& 


448 


AMEBICANISMS. 


societies  whose  official  titles  begin  with  the  word 
American,  see  names  of  subjects  in  which  such 
organizations  are  interested.  Example:  For 
the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science,  see  Political  and  Social  Science, 
American  Academy  of. 

AMEKICAN  BAPTIST  HIS'SIONA'BY 
UNION.     See  Missions. 

AJCEKICAN  BLIOHT.  A  term  used  in  Aus- 
tralia and  elsewhere  abroad  for  the  injurious 
effects  upon  trees  or  plants  of  the  presence  of 
plant-lice  of  the  cosmopolitan  genus  Schizoneura, 
especially  Schizoneura  lanigera.  Consult  Bul- 
letin No.  18,  Division  of  Entomology,  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture  (Washington, 
1898). 

AMEBICAN  BOARD  OF  GOMMIS'SION- 
EKS  FOB  FOB^IQN  HIS^SIONS.  See  Mis- 
sions. 

AMEKICAN  COUSIN,  Our.  One  of  the 
best  known  plays  of  the  English  dramatist,  Tom 
Taylor  (1858),  very  popular  a  generation  ago. 
The  unimportant  character.  Lord  Dundreary, 
became  in  the  clever  creation  of  E.  A.  Sothern  a 
great  part.  For  Americans,  however,  the  drama 
must  always  possess  melancholy  associations,  for 
it  was  while  enjoying  its  presentation  that  the 
immortal  Lincoln  was  assassinated. 

AMEBIGAN  FLAQy  The.     See  Flag. 

AJIEBICAN  IN'STITUTE  of  the  Citt  of 
New  York.  An  organization  to  promote,  by 
means  of  exhibitions  and  fairs,  the  interests  of 
agriculture,  commerce,  manufactures,  and  arts 
in  the  State  and  country.  The  institute  was 
founded  in  1828,  and  its  fairs  attracted  wide  at- 
tention from  investors  and  capitalists.  Among 
the  inventions  which  received  early  recognition 
from  the  institute  were  the  McCormick  reaper, 
the  sewing  machine,  Colt's  fire-arms,  the  type 
revolving  and  double  power  printing  press  ma- 
chines, the  first  anthracite  coal  burning  stove, 
the  Morse  telegraph,  the  stocking  loom,  the  tele- 
phone, and  the  Francis  metallic  lifeboat  and  life- 
saving  appliances.  The  American  Institute  now 
embraces  in  its  organization  five  sections:  The 
Farmers'  Club,  the  Henry  Electrical  Society,  the 
Horticultural  Section,  the  Photographic  Section, 
and  the  Polytechnic  Section.  It  has  a  valuable 
scientific  library  of  over  15,000  volumes. 

AMEBIGAN  IPrECAC.     See  Gillenia. 

AMEB/IGANISMS.  Words  and  phrases  pe- 
culiar to  the  United  States.  They  arp  classified 
by  one  writer  on  this  subject  (Bartlett)  as  fol- 
lows :  ( 1 )  Archaisms,  obsolete,  or  nearly  so,  in 
Great  Britain.  (2)  English  words  used  in  a  dif- 
ferent sense.  (3)  Words  used  in  the  original 
sense  in  the  United  States,  although  not  in  Great 
Britain.  (4)  English  provincialisms  adopted  into 
general  use  in  America.  (5)  Newly-coined  words 
owing  their  origin  to  productions  or  circum- 
stances of  the  country.  (6)  Words  derived  from 
European  languages,  especially  the  French,  Span- 
ish, and  Dutch.  (7)  Indian  words.  (8)  Negroisms. 
( 9 )  Peculiarities  of  pronunciation.  Accepting  for 
the  present  this  arrangement,  we  may  cite  as  ex- 
amples of  archaisms,  fall,  for  autumn,  freshet, 
to  lam,  in  the  sense  of  to  beat,  to  squelch,  and 
to  tarry.  These  are  only  a  few;  for  an  American 
philologist  has  stated  that  of  the  words,  phrases, 
and  constructions  found  in  the  Bible  and  Book 
of  Common  Prayer,  "about  one-sixth,  which  are 
no  longer  used  in  England  in  ordinary  prose- 


writing,  would  apparently  be  used  without 
thought  or  hesitation  by  an  American  author/' 
Among  the  many  English  words  used  in  a  differ- 
ent or  perverted  sense  are  ham  for  stable: 
hoards,  for  deals ;  huggy,  a  four-wheeled  vehicle— 
in  England,  two- wheeled;  calico,  printed  cotton, 
in  England  means  unprinted;  clever,  for  good- 
natured  —  in  England,  generally,  intelligent  or 
skillful;  com,  for  maize,  whereas  in  England 
it  means  wheat,  in  Scotland,  oats,  and  in  Ireland. 
barley;  cracker,  for  biscuit;  depot,  for  station; 
dress,  for  gown;  forehanded,  well-to-do— in  Eng- 
land, means  timely,  early;  hack,  a  hacknej 
coach — in  England,  a  hired  horse;  homely,  plain- 
featured — ^in  England,  homelike  or  unadorned; 
to  jew,  to  haggle — in  England,  to  cheat;  likely, 
for  promising;  Uimher,  for  timber;  to  mail 
for  to  post;  notify,  to  give  notice — in  Eng- 
land, to  make  known;  pond,  a  natural  pool 
of  water — in  England,  artificial;  reliable,  for 
trustworthy;  saloon,  for  tap-room;  smart,  for 
talented;  smudge,  a  smouldering  fire  used  to 
drive  away  insects — in  England,  simply  an  over- 
powering smoke ;  store,  for  shop ;  tavern,  for  inn 
(a  tavern  in  Great  Britain  provides  no  lodg- 
ings) ;  temper,  with  us  meaning  passion,  is  in 
England  control  of  passion;  ugly,  for  ill-natured: 
venison,  deer's  flesh — in  England,  meat  of  any 
wild  animal;  track,  for  line;  vest,  for  waistcoat. 
We  use  also,  in  large  number,  different  words  for 
the  same  thins,  as  conductor,  for  guard;  edt- 
torial,  for  leader;  elevator,  for  lift;  horse-car, 
for  tram,  and  sleeper,  for  tie. 

Examples  of  words  retaining  here  their  old 
meaning  are:  Fleshy,  in  the  sense  of  stout;  offal 
the  parts  of  a  butchered  animal  not  worth  salt- 
ing; siekfin  the  sense  of  ill;  AndtDilt,  in  the  sense 
of  wither.  On  the  other  hand,  to  heft,  meaning 
with  us,  to  weigh  by  lifting,  keeps,  in  England. 
its  original  meaning,  to  lift.  Many  words  called 
archaic  or  provincial  by  English  writers  are 
w^idely  current  among  Americans  in  both  speech 
and  literature — among  them  adze,  affectation, 
angry  (wound),  andiron,  bay-window,  bearer  (at 
a  funeral),  to  blaze  (a  tree),  burly,  cesspool, 
clodhopper,  counterfeit  money,  cross-purposes, 
deft,  din,  hasp,  loophole,  ornate,  ragamuffin, 
shingle,  stand  (speaker's),  stock  (cattle),  thill, 
toady,  tramp,  truck,  and  underpinning.  Among 
newly-coined  words  and  expressions  are  these, 
showing  plainly  their  origin  on  the  frontier  or 
in  the  forest:  backwoods,  cache,  clearing,  to 
draw  a  bead,  to  fight  fire,  a  gone  coon,  hogwal- 
low,  logging  camp,  prairie  schooner,  raft  (of  dead 
trees),  squatter,  squaw-man,  the  timber,  and 
trapper.  Ranch  life  has  given  us  such  words  as 
corral,  cowboy,  roundup,  and  stampede ;  the  min- 
ing regions,  bed-rock,  diggings,  to  pan  out,  to 
prospect,  and  to  stake  a  claim.  From  the  farm 
and  plantation  we  have  obtained  among  others, 
bagasse,  broom-corn,  Hessian  fiy,  Indian  meal, 
and  truck-patch;  while  trade  has  supplied  us 
with  bogus,  drummer,  posted  up,  and  to  settle 
(a  bill).  Many  others  might  be  added  from  the 
language  of  Wall  Street.  Our  political  terms 
and  phrases  include  the  following,  most  of  which 
are  the  subject  of  special  articles  in  this  Ency- 
clop^^dia :  Agricultural-wheel,  barnburner,  bloody 
shirt,  boodle,  buncombe,  carpet-bagger,  caucus, 
copperhead,  to  eat  crow,  dark  horse,  doughface, 
favorite  sons,  fence-riding,  F.  F.  V.'s,  filibuster, 
fire-eater,  gerrymander,  half  breed,  stalwart, 
hunker,  jayhawker,  Ku-Klux-Klan,  loco-foco,  log- 
rolling.   Lynch    law,    Mugwump,    omnibus-bill. 


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pipe-laying,  plank,  primary,  reconstruction,  salt 
river,  shin-plaster,  spellbinder,  squatter  sover- 
eignty, Greenbacker,  wire-puller,  Yazoo  fraud. 

Words  derived  from  foreign  languages  are 
numerous,  and  one  philologist  (W.  W.  Crane) 
asserts  that,  though  few  are  intelligible  to  Eng- 
lish people,  they  are  more  extensively  used  by 
Englishmen  than  is  generally  supposed,  and 
*'form  the  really  distinctive  features  of  what  may 
be  termed  the  American  language."  Thus,  from 
the  Spanish  we  have  in  corrupted  or  contracted 
form,  Creole  (crtoWo),  garrote  {garrota),  jerked 
beef  {oharqui),  key,  a  small  island  {cayo),  lasso 
{lazo)f  mustang  (mesteno),  pickaninny,  con- 
tracted to  pickney  in  S.  C.  ( pequeHo  nino ) ,  Sam- 
bo (Zambo,  a  person  of  negro  and  Indian  blood)  ; 
stampede  {estampedo)  ;  and  such  literally  appro- 
priated words  as  adobe,  bonanza,  cafion,  and  mesa. 
From  the  French  have  been  obtained  among 
many,  bayou  {hoyau,  a  trench),  cache  or  cash 
(cacher)  f  chowder  {chaudi^c) y  shivaree  {chart' 
vari),  metif,  an  Indian  half-breed  (nUtif  or 
fniiia),  and  the  identical  butte,  levee,  portage, 
prairie,  and  voyageur.  From  the  Dutch  have 
come  boss,  an  overseer  or  superior  {Jmas) ;  cold 
slaw,  cabbage  salad  (kool  slaa)  ;  cruller  {kruU 
ler,  to  twist)  ;  hook,  a  point  of  land  {hoek,  a 
comer)  ;  noodles,  an  imitation  of  macaroni 
{noodle jes) ;  overslough,  to  supersede  or  defeat 
{overalaan;  to  skip  or  pretermit)  ;  stoop  or 
stoup,  the  step  or  steps  of  a  house  (stoep).  Kill, 
a  small  stream,  retains  both  its  old  sound  and 
spelling,  and  Santa  Claus  (KUias)  receives  as 
much  respect  as  before  the  slight  change  in  his 
name.  The  Germans  have  contributed  bummer 
(bummler,  a  braggart,  a  wanderer);  pretzel, 
and  dude. 

From  the  Indian  we  have  chinquapin,  a  kind  of 
oak  (Va.  Algonquian  che-chionafnin) ;  hominy 
(Va.  Algonquian,  (matathominy)  ;  moccasin 
(Mass.  Algonquian,  mockiain)  ;  opossum  (oppcw- 
^um)  ;  pow- wow ( poiran,  a  prophet  or  conjuror)  ; 
raccoon  (Algonquian,  aroughcun)  ;  sachem  {aak' 
emo)  ;  skunk  (Abnakis,  secancu)  ;  succotash 
(Nanaheganset,  meaicmotdsh)  ;  toboggan  {oda- 
hogan)  ;  tomahawk  (Algonquian,  tamahagan,  a 
war-club)  ;  wigwam  (Natic,  weecwahm).  Among 
words  introduced  or  invented  by  the  Southern 
negroes  are:  brottus,  a  small  gift  (Ga.),  buccra, 
a  white  man;  com  (harvest)  songs  (Md.) ; 
cracklings  or  goody-bread,  bread  containing 
roasted  pork-rinds;  enty?  is  that  so?  (Sea  Is- 
lands) ;  goober,  a  peanut  (W.  African  guja,  or 
Guinea  gohhe-gohhe,  Va.  and  N.  G.)  ;  lagniappe, 
a  tradesman's  gratuity  (Sp.  flapa,  La.)  ;  moon- 
ack,  a  mythical  animal;  pickaninny,  and  pinder, 
a  peanut  ( Fla. )  :  while  the  Chinese  word  kowtow 
or  kotow,  salutation  by  prostration,  has  (or  had) 
a  limited  use  in  the  sense  of  obsequious  polite- 
ness. 

In  the  matter  of  pronunciation,  slight  differ- 
ences exist.  The  word  trait,  for  instance,  is  pro- 
nounced tray  by  the  English,  the  i  in  sliver  is 
lengthened  by  them,  and  schedule  is  commonly 
pronounced  shedule.  We  may  mention  here  that 
cheerful  retains  in  some  parts  of  the  South  its 
old  pronunciation,  cherful.  In  the  pronunciation 
of  proper  names,  English  and  American  usage 
frequently  disagree.  In  England  Ralph  is  pro- 
nounced Rafe;  Brownell,  Parnell,  etc.,  are  ac- 
cented on  the  first  syllable;  the  last  syllable  of 
Gladstone  is  sounded  short.  With  English  sur- 
names and  geographical  names  cultivated  Ameri- 
cana should  seek  to  follow  English  usage.  In 
Vol.  I.— 29 


Christian  names  •Englishmen  generally  use  only 
the  first,  while  Americans  always  give  the  full 
form.  In  England  we  read  of  Ralph  Emerson, 
Edgar  Poe,  etc.  W^hat  have  been  termed  by 
Grant  Allen  "Americanisms  in  spelling,"  exam- 
ples of  which  are  labor,  offenses,  and  theater, 
are  undoubtedly  the  result  of  the  extensive  use 
of  Webster's  spelling-books  and  dictionary. 

Americanisms  are  classified  by  Reeves  as  fol- 
lows: (1)  Eastern  dialects.  (2)  Southern.  (3) 
Western.  (4)  Pacific  or  mining,  and  adds  as  a 
possible  (5)  English-Dutch  (German)  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. This  convenient  arrangement  enables  us 
to  separate  such  words  and  phrases  as  are  lim- 
ited to  particular  sections  or  localities  (provin- 
cialisms) from  those  that  may  be  called  national. 
Beginning  with  New  England,  we  have:  to  ad- 
mire, for  to  like,  e.g.,  "I  should  admire  to  go;" 
to  allot,  or  'lot,  for  intend;  harm,  for  yeast;  he, 
for  am  or  are;  hettermost;  hloh,  a  blossom; 
hlowth,  blossoming  time;  hungtoum  copper,  a 
counterfeit;  to  calculate,  for  to  infer  or  sup- 
pose; empti'n's,  any  dregs;  to  fail  up;  to  fay, 
for  to  fit;  fore-chamber,  a  front  bedroom  (Me.)  ; 
gawnious,  a  dolt;  graysliok,  a  glassy  stretch  of 
water  (Me.)  ;  Hessian,  as  a  term  of  reproach; 
*like,  without  a  specified  object,  as,  "How  did  you 
like?"  (a  place,  person);  long-favored,  tall; 
mush-muddle,  a  potpie  (Cape  Cod)  ;  pew-cart, 
a  box-like  carriage  (Nantucket) ;  pleasant,  for 
pleasing;  pokeloken,  a  marsh  (Me.)  ;  priest,  for 
a  minister  of  any  denomination ;  pung,  a  kind  of 
sleigh ;  rifle,  a  whetstone  for  scythes ;  sconce,  for 
discretion;  to  seep,  to  pour  through  a  sieve  or 
hole;  slip,  for  pew;  spero,  a  commonplace  enter- 
tainment, "small  doings"  (Vt.)  ;  staddle,  a  sap- 
ling; suant  or  suent,  level,  uniform;  to  sugar  off, 
to  boil  maple  syrup  down  until  it  grains;  tack- 
ling, for  harness;  timbers,  for  skeleton  of  a 
whale;  torsh,  the  youngest  child  (Cape  Cod)  ;  to 
train,  to  move  briskly  (like  the  militia  on 
"training  day"),  to  frolic;  vestry,  the  chapel  or 
"lecture-room  of  a  non-liturgical  church;  v^yge, 
for  voyage;  wopper  (or  whopper)  jawed;  wicket, 
a  hut  or  shelter  of  boughs  (Me.)  ;  winegar,  for 
vinegar  (Essex  Co.,  Mass.)  ;  York  shilling,  nine- 
pence.  In  New  York  State,  among  localisms  de- 
rived from  the  Dutch,  are  bockey,  a  gourd-dip- 
per; fyke,  a  bow-net;  hoople,  a  child's  hoop; 
pile,  an  arrow,  and  scup,  a  swing,  a  name  still 
used  by  children  of  foreign  parentage  on  the 
"east  side"  of  New  York  City.  8lip,  an  opening 
between  wharves,  is  apparently  an  indigenous 
English  word;  the  provincial  English  duff,  dough 
or  paste,  signifies,  in  the  Adirondacks,  fallen  and 
matted  hemlock  needles;  and  dimpy  (probably 
from  the  English  dimpsy,  a  kind  of  preserve)  is 
the  name  given  in  some  places  to  a  tea-party,  or 
a  small  social  gathering  at  which  refreshments 
are  served.  New  Jersey,  settled,  like  New  York, 
both  by  English  and  Dutch,  preserves  in  remot? 
localities  some  Old  World  words,  or  perversions 
of  the  same ;  for  example,  blickie,  a  tin  pail ;  to 
heir  to,  to  inherit;  jag,  a  small  load;  muw,  dis- 
order, and  piece,  a  cold  meal  hastily  prepared, 
or  one  for  farm  hands.  Examples  of  the  pro- 
vincialisms of  Pennsylvania,  which  were  intro- 
duced by  the  English,  Scotch-Irish,  and  Germans, 
and  in  many  instances  have  been  carried  beyond 
her  borders  by  emigration,  are:  after-night,  for 
after  candle-light;  Aprile,  for  April  (Cuml)er- 
land  Valley)  ;  barrick,  a  hill;  healing,  suppurat- 
ing; brickie,  brittle;  dipsey,  the  sinker  of  a  fish- 
line;    dozy,  timber  brittle  from  decay;   fouty. 


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AMEBICANISMS. 


trifling;  to  get  shut,  to  get  rid;  gums,  for  over- 
shoes (eastern  Pa.)  ;  horaeheast;  to  lift,  a  col- 
lection in  church,  to  take  up;  once,  immedi- 
ately; outcry,  public  auction;  riffles,  ripples; 
scrapple,  an  article  of  food;  slave,  a  fierce  dog, 
i.e.,  needing  to  be  chained  (western  Pa.) ;  to 
smoiAch,  to  kiss;  sots,  common  yeast;  to  top  (a 
candle),  to  snuff;  to  threap,  to  argue;  yammer, 
a  whine  or  whimper. 

The  South  has  retained  fully  as  many  old  Eng- 
lish words  and  pronunciations  as  New  England, 
and  has  originated  some  of  the  most  ex- 
pressive terms  used  in  ordinary  conversation,  a 
number  of  which,  by  emigration,  have  been 
domesticated  in  the  West  and  on  the  Pacific 
coast.  Among  them  are  af eared,  afraid;  am- 
ber, expectoration  produced  by  chewing  tobacco 
(Va.,  Carolina)  ;  heast,  horse;  branch,  a  stream 
of  any  size ;  bucket,  pail ;  brogan,  a  kind  of  boat 
(Chesapeake  Bay)  :  castaway,  overturned;  oen- 
trical,  central  (Va.) ;  to  chunk,  to  throw  a  mis- 
sile; coppen,  cow-pens;  complected,  having  a  cer- 
tain kind  of  complexion;  condeript,  thrown  into 
fits  (Ky.)  ;  corn-dodger;  cracker,  a  poor  white 
( Ga.,  Fla. ) ;  dinghy,  a  kind  of  row-boat  ( Fla. ) ; 
dismal,  a  swampy  tract  of  land  ( N.  C. )  ;  docious, 
for  docile ;  donock,  or  donnock,  a  stone  ( South- 
west) ;  escalan,  a  kind  of  coin  (La.)  ;  evening, 
afternoon  (also  in  Illinois) ;  feaze  or  feeze,  an 
excited  state;  fice  or  phyce,  a  small  dog,  from 
French,  anything  distasteful  (Va.,  Md.)  ;  grund- 
py,  groundpea  (Tenn.) :  gum  or  bee-gum,  a  hive 
made  from  a  hollow  tree;  <7um&o, okra,  or  a  dish 
made  of  it;  gumbo,  a  patois;  hammock  or  hum- 
mock, a  peculiar  kind  of  land,  often  hilly  (Fla., 
Tex.)  ;  hoe  cake,  a  corn  cake  once  baked  on  a  hoe; 
holpen,  helped  (biblical)  ;  honey -f ogling,  for 
cheating  or  coaxing;  hot,  hit;  howdy,  how  do  you 
do?;  human,  for  person;  Jeames,  James  (Ind., 
Va.)-;  kiver,  cover;  lane,  any  inclosed  road; 
lightwood,  pine  chips  or  knots;  marooning,  pic- 
nicking or  traveling  by, carriage;  m,ammoxed, 
seriously  injured;  marvel,  for  marble;  maverick, 
an  unbranded  yearling  (Texas  and  Southwest) ; 
million,  melon;  needcessity,  necessity;  or*nary, 
contemptible;  paint,  a  spotted  horse;  peart, 
lively,  brisk;  pine-tag,  pine  needle;  a  polt,  a 
blow;  pone,  bread  of  Indian  meal;  powerful, 
very;  quarters,  farm  buildings  or  out-houses  in- 
habited by  negroes ;  ranee  sniffle,  a  malignant  act 
(Ga.)  ;  rantankerous,  quarrelsome  (Ga.)  ;  to 
reckon,  to  suppose  or  conclude;  rock,  stone; 
roustabout;  savigerous  or  survigrous,  fierce, 
alert;  slash,  low  ground  or  an  opening  in  the 
woods;  righ  smart,  great  or  considerable;  to 
scringe,  to  flinch  (Tex.)  ;  skygodlin,  obliquely 
(Tex.)  ;  swash,  a  narrow  channel  of  water; 
tackey,  neglected  or  dowdy;  to  tarrify,  to  co- 
erce; to  tote,  to  carry;  trash,  worthless  or  low- 
bom  persons,  especially  poor  white  trash;  to  up, 
used  as  a  verb;  used,  used  to;  you  all,  of  any 
number  of  persons;  you-uns,  for  you. 

The  West,  using  the  term  in  its  old  sense,  which 
included  the  interior  States  as  well  as  the  North- 
west and  Southwest,  in  addition  to  words  derived 
from  the  French  and  Spanish,  some  of  which  have 
already  been  cited,  has  brought  into  its  vocabu- 
lary many  peculiar  words  and  expressions.  Such 
are  after-clap,  a  demand  made  after  a  bargain 
is  closed;  Arkansas  toothpick,  a  kind  of  bowie- 
knife:  had  man,  a  murderer;  hell  mare,  the 
horse  leading  a  drove  of  mules  (Southwest)  ; 
to  bear  off,  to  separate  a  stray  "brand"  by  rid- 
ing between  it  and  the  herd  (Southwest)  ;  bode- 


wash   {bois  de  vache),  dried  cow-dung  used  as 
fuel     (Southwest);    to    build,    to    make    shoes 
(Ohio)  ;    to    buss,    to   strike;    catawampous  or 
catawamptious  terribly  or  completely;  country, 
for    State    or    section;    cowbrute    (Mo.);    dog- 
gery,   a    grogshop;    drink,    river;    galoot,     to 
take  a  gird,  for  to  make  an  effort;  to   hustle; 
keener,  a  sharp  man;  lave!   (Uve),  get  up!  or 
rise  up  I    (Mississippi  Valley)  ;  locoed,  for  fren- 
zied,  Sp.    loco    (Kansas   and   Southwest) ;  long 
sweetening,  molasses  (Iowa,  from  New  England); 
main  traveled  road,  highway;  naked  possessor, 
one  without  title  to  his  farm  (Southwest) ;  old- 
ermost,   oldest;    plumb   sure;   to   pull  foot,   to 
hasten;    to   raise,    to    obtain;    robbike,   pemmi- 
can  boiled  with  flour  and  water  (Northwest) ;  to 
slosh  'round,  to  brag,  also  to  frequent  saloons 
(South  and  West)  ;  sugar  or  sugar-tree,  maple: 
sun-up,    sunrise;    swinger,    the    middle    horses 
in    a   team    of   six;    tenderfoot,    a    new-comer; 
to  trash  (to  cover)  a  trail;  every  whipstick,  for 
continually,  often;  to  want  down  or  up  (111.) ; 
worm    (or  snake)    fence;  to  zit,  to  sound  like 
a  bullet  striking  the  water.     The  Pacific  slope 
is  responsible  for  adobe,  soil  from  which  adobe 
bricks  are  made;  to  bach,  to  camp  out  without 
ladies     (Cal.)  ;    Bostons,    white    men    in    gen- 
eral    (Or.    Indian) ;     coulee,    a    rocky    valley 
(Or.) ;   claim,  land  to  which  one    has    a  legal 
right;  claim-jumper,  one  who  forcibly  takes  an- 
other's claim;  to  coyote,  to  sink  a  small  shaft 
(Cal.)  ;  diggings,  a  particular  locality;  hardpan; 
heeled,  for  armed;  pay-streak,  a  profitable  lode 
or  vein;   rusher,  a  person  going  to  the  mines; 
tanglefoot,  bad  liquor.    Local  usage  differs  great- 
ly in  connection  with  articles  in  common  use. 
The  Eastern  paper  bag  is  in  the  central  West  a 
sack;  a  scuttle  or  pail  is  a  bucket.    The  British 
perambulator  is  in  the  East  a  baby  carriage,  and 
in  the  Central  West  a  baby  buggy  or  cab.     A 
comfortable  is  a  comfort.    A  distinction,  further- 
more, should  be  made  between  words  that  are 
used  in  large  cities  and  those  that  are  in  the 
main  confined  to  small    communities.     In     the 
country,  people  hire  help  and  keep  gifls;  in  the 
cities  they  have  servants  or  maids;  the  city  nurse 
is  lengthened  in  the  country  to  nurse  girl.     The 
original  English  folks  is  now  a  provincialism  in 
this  country.     It  should  be  noted  that  most  of 
the  New  England  words  and  forms  used  by  Low- 
ell in  the  Bigloito    Papers    are    provincialisms. 
Some  Eastern  provincialisms  are  in  general  use 
in  the  Central  West. 

Early  writers  on  Americanisms  were  wont  to 
stamp  every  odd  or  vulgar  word  and  expression 
as  American,  with  the  lamentable  result*  as 
Richard  Grant  White  complained,  of  creating  a 
belief  that  there  is  a  distinctive  American  lan- 
guage, "a  barbarous,  hybrid  dialect,  grafted  upon 
lilnglish  stock;"  the  truth  being  that  most  of 
the  so-called  Americanisms  were  brought  to  this 
country  by  its  early  settlers,  English,  Scotch- 
Irish,  Dutch,  Germans,  etc.,  and  that  many  of 
them  are  now  used  only  by  the  unlettered.  The 
language  of  the  "stage  Yankee,"  and  that  of  the 
characters  in  dialect-stories,  Northern  and  South- 
ern, are  with  few  exceptions  English,  provincial 
or  obsolete  in  the  mother  country,  and  not 
"American"  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word.  In  the 
county  of  Suffolk,  according  to  Lounsbury,  the 
following  "Americanisms"  were  current  as  re- 
cently as  1823:  Apple-fritters,  by  gum,  chaw, 
cute,  damation,  gal,  gawky,  hoss,  ninny-hammer, 
ride  like  biases,  sass   (sauce),  sappy,  and  ton- 


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irum.  Wliite  prepared  a  long  list  of  words  and 
phrases  supposed  to  be  indigenous,  and  proved 
their  British  origin  by  citing  early  dates  at 
which  they  appear  in  literature,  or  the  names 
of  authors  in  whose  works  they  occur.  Selecting 
from  this  list,  and  indicating  by  the  letter  "a." 
words  known  to  be  ancient,  by  "m."  such  as  are 
still  used  in  provincial  speech,  and  by  "Bible," 
King  James'  version,  we  submit  the  following: 
To  admire,  in  the  sense  of  to  wish  eagerly  ( Chap- 
man's Homer,  1655)  ;  to  advocate  (Milton)  ; 
apart,  aside  (Bulwer) ;  haggage,  luggage  (Field- 
ing, T.  Hughes);  blizzard  (m.) ;  blow,  boastful 
talk  (a.  m.)  ;  to  bolt,  to  rush  or  escape  (Dry- 
den)  ;  bosom,  applied  to  a  man  (Shakespeare)  ; 
bull-doze  (W.  Scott);  bureau,  for  chest  of 
drawers  (Fielding,  Hare) ;  by  the  skin  of  one's 
teeth  (Bible) ;  catamount  (a.)  ;  chaw  (1530,m.)  ; 
chore,  light  work  (Ben  Jonson) ;  clean  gone 
(Bible) ;  clever,  good-natured  (Elizabethan  writ- 
ers) ;  conclude,  resolve  (Tyndale,  Froude)  ;  cre- 
vasse (Chaucer) ;  deck  of  cards  (Shakespeare) ; 
divine,  clergyman  (W.  Scott,  G.  Eliot)  ;  elect, 
for  conclude  or  determine  (Lord  Thurlow,  Rus- 
kin) ;  to  enjoy  poor  health  (m.)  ;  fall,  for  au- 
tumn (Cairne,  1552;  Froude) ;  feel  to,  as  in  the 
expression,  "I  feel  to  rejoice"  (m.)  ;  to  fellow- 
ship (Chaucer)  ;  fiw,  to  put  in  place  or  order 
(Farquhar,  Sterne) ;  fleshy,  stout  (Chaucer, 
Prof.  Owen)  ;  folks,  people  (Byron,  Bulwer,  Lyt- 
ton) ;  gent  (Pope) ;  a  good  time  (Swift) ;  grain, 
any  cereal  (Wycliffe)  ;  guess,  think  or  suppose 
(Wycliffe,  Milton,  A.  Trollope)  ;  gumption  (a. 
m.)  ;  lieft  (Sackville,  T.  Hughes)  ;  help,  servant 
(T.  Hughes)  ;  human,  person  (Chapman's  Hom- 
er; hung,  hanged  (Shakespeare,  C.  Reade)  ;  to 
hustle  (a.)  ;  illy  (a.  m.) ;  influential  (W.  Thomp- 
son, c.  1760)  ;  improvement,  of  an  occasion,  etc. 
(Defoe,  Gibbon) ;  institution  in  the  sense  of  an 
establishment  or  foundation  (Beatty,  1784;  Trol- 
lope) ;  interview,  to  meet  for  conversation  (Dek- 
ker)  ;  to  let  on,  to  divulge  (m.)  ;  to  let  slide 
(Gower)  ;  limb,  leg  (Fielding)  ;  love,  like  (Cow- 
per) ;  lucrative  (Bacon);  mad,  angry  (Bible, 
Middleton)  ;  magnetic  as  an  adjective  (Donne)  ; 
to  make  a  visit  (m.)  ;  m>etropolis,  the  chief  city 
of  the  State  (Milton,  De  Quincey,  Macaulay) ; 
million,  melon  (Pepys)  ;  musicianer  (Byron)  ; 
nice,  pleasing  or  agreeable  (a.  m.)  ;  notify,  to 
give  notice  (m.)  ;  notions,  for  small  wares 
(Young) ;  overly,  excessively  (m.)  ;  parlor,  for 
drawing-room  {G,  Eliot,  Helps) ;  peruse,  scan  or 
read  ( W.  Scott)  ;  professor  of  religion  (Milton)  ; 
pumpion  (pumpkin)  pie  (1655);  quit,  \eB.Ye  off 
(Ben  Jonson)  ;  railroad,  railway  (J.  H.  Newman, 
Mrs.  Trollope) ;  rare,  underdone  (Dryden)  ;  reli- 
able (Richard  Montagu,  1624;  Gladstone)  ;  reck- 
on, suppose  or  conclude  (Bible,  W.  Scott)  ;  rock, 
stone  (a.)  ;  run,  a  small  stream  (a.)  ;  sick,  ill 
(Bible,  Evelyn)  ;  skeddadle  (m.)  ;  slick  (a.)  ; 
span  new  (Chaucer)  :  spell,  a  period  of  time  (a.)  ; 
spruce,  for  neat  (Evelyn)  ;  spunky  (Burns)  ; 
sioop  (B.  Jonson,  Dryden)  ;  to  take  on^  to  wail 
or  grieve  (a.)  ;  tend,  attend  (Shakespeare)  ; 
toiD7i  as  a  geographical  division  (Wycliffe)  ; 
well,  prefacing  a  sentence  (Disraeli)  ;  whittling 
(Walpole) ;  and  the  writer  would  add  the 
following  which  are  sometimes  ridiculed  as 
outlandish      products      of     the    New     World: 

A    howling   wilderness    (Bible)  :    Mr.   

and  lady  (Thackeray)  ;  and  to  set  store  by,  in 
the  sense  of  to  prize  or  appreciate  (Mrs.  Oli- 
phant).  Gilbert  M.  Tucker  says  that  the  460 
words  in  Elwyn's  Glossary  of  Supposed  Ameri- 


canisms are  all  of  British  origin;  that  in  Pick- 
ering's work  (1816)  not  more  than  70  words  out 
of  the  500  are  really  American;  and  that  out 
of  the  6000  or  more  entries  in  Bartlett's  Diction- 
ary, only  about  500  are  genuine  and  distinct 
Americanisms  now  in  decent  use.  Most  New 
Englanders,  said  James  Russell  Lowell,  speaking 
of  colloquialisms  still  heard  in  Massachusetts, 
stand  less  in  need  of  a  glossary  to  Shakespeare 
than  many  a  native  of  the  old  country.  It  may 
be  added  that  many  words  formerly  termed 
Americanisms  are  as  commonly  used  in  England 
as  here,  though  not  in  polite  speech  or  literature: 
e.g.,  bamboozle,  chock ful,  duds,  and  sight  for 
number,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  such  old  forms 
as  axe  for  ask,  and  housen  for  houses,  are  fre- 
quently heard  in  England  and  rarely  here. 

Ricliard  Grant  White  and  T.  R.  Lounsbury 
limit  the  term  "Americanisms"  narrowly.  Accord- 
ing to  the  former,  they  must  not  have  been  trans- 
planted, but  must  be  perversions  or  modifica- 
tions of  English  words  or  phrases,  and  must  be 
used  in  the  current  speech  or  literature  of  the 
United  States  at  the  present  day.  "Words  which 
are  the  names  of  things  peculiar  to  this  country 
are  not  Americanisms,  except  under  certain  con- 
ditions {maize,  squaw,  wigwam).  They  are 
merely  names  which  are  necessarily  used  by 
writers  and  speakers  of  all  languages.  If,  how- 
ever, any  such  word  is  adopted  here  as  the  name 
of  a  thing  which  already  had  an  English  name 
{wigwam,  fo.r  hut;  squaw,  for  wife),  it  then  be- 
comes properly  an  Americanism.  Indian,  and 
names  compounded  df  Indian,  were  given  by 
Europeans.  Indian  pudding  is  an  American 
thing,  but  its  name  is  not  an  Americanism."  As 
he  rejects  Indian  summer,  paleface,  succotash, 
tomahawk,  and  the  rest.  White  asks,  "What  have 
we  to  do  with  the  Indian?"  and  proceeding, 
crosses  from  the  list  of  cherished  "American- 
isms," bronco,  lacrosse,  stampede,  and  their  kin; 
abolitionist,  border-ruffian,  gerrymander,  reserva- 
tion, etc.,  as  well  as  groundhog,  long-moss,  pine 
barrens,  and  saltlick,  to  go  farther,  besides 
refusing  to  discuss  such  words  as  intervale  and 
water-gap,  because  they  are  "legitimate  English." 
Lounsbury,  like  White,  objects  to  the  expression, 
"the  American  language,"  and  remarks  of  the 
so-called  "Yankee  dialect"  that  it  is  never  "the 
characteristic  tongue  of  any  one  man,  or  of  any 
one  class,  or  of  any  one  district."  He  doubts 
whether  the  term  "Americanisms"  can  be  regu- 
larly applied  to  cent,  congress,  mileage,  nullifica- 
tion, and  so  on,  and  prefers  to  call  them  "Ameri- 
can contributions  to  the  common  languac;e." 

American  newspapers  are  largely  to  blame  for 
the  mongrel  and  high-sounding  words  heard  in 
the  United  States,  especially  those  derived  from 
the  Latin  or  the  Greek.  The  oratory  of  political 
campaigns  gives  rise  to  not  a  few  astonishing 
Americanisms,  and  our  humorists  have  coined 
many  more  that  are  beloved  by  the  public.  Per- 
sons of  fair  education,  who,  as  we  learn  from 
their  talk,  engage  in  avocations,  reside  in  a  man- 
sion, wear  pants,  donate  to  charities,  ride  to  the 
metropolis  in  a  smoker,  retire  to  bed,  and  have 
proclivities,  must  be  expected  to  use  also  enthuse, 
funeralize,  saleslady,  and  shootist,  when  they  find 
them  in  their  favorite  journals;  but  criticism 
under  this  head  comes  with  little  grace  from  the 
English,  whose  leaderette  is  as  absurd  as  our 
editorial  paragraph,  and  agricultural  laborer,  a 
clumsy  name  for  him  whom  we  term  a  farm- 
hand.   Our  colleges,  "iale  in  particular,  are  proli- 


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AMEBICAN  LITEBATUBE. 


fie  in  slang,  some  of  which,  as  to  rattle,  in  the 
sense  of  to  confuse,  soon  become  public  property. 
Most  of  our  colloquial  expressions  are  short-lived, 
but  the  following  may  be  instanced  as  having 
been  in  use  for  a  long  period:  to  absquatulate; 
baggage-smasher;  to  bark  up  the  wrong  tree;  bot- 
tom dollar;  caboodle;  to  boost;  to  cavort;  con- 
niption fit;  not  to  care  a  continental;  a  contin- 
ental dam;  to  chip  in;  coon^  a  colored  man;  a 
coon's  age,  an  indefinitely  long  time;  to  dust, 
to  leave  quickly;  to  euchre  out;  to  flash  in  the 
pan;  flat  footed;  gum  game;  highfaluting ;  last  o' 
pea  time;  level  best;  to  liquor;  to  m^yosey,  to 
leave  quickly;  obligated;  to  paddle  one's  own  ca- 
noe; to  pan  out;  picayune,  small,  mean;  to  raise 
Cain;  right  away;  to  run,  in  the  sense  of  to 
manage  or  conduct ;  to  salt  a  mine ;  sample  room, 
drinking-bar ;  shoddy,  applied  to  a  person; 
to  smile,  to  drink  spirits^  socdologer,  a  finishing 
blow  or  argument;  to  sour  on;  a  square  meal; 
to  strike  oil,  to  get  rich  suddenly;  to  stump, 
to  puzzle,  or  challenge;  to  talk  turkey,  to  brag; 
tuckered  out;  to  vamose  (Sp.  vamos),  to  leave 
quickly ;  to  weaken,  to  yield  or  give  out. 

T.  W.  Higginson  (see  Bibliography,  infra),  in 
examining  a  glossary  of  the  slang  used  about 
1798  by  British  prisoners  in  the  Castle  in  Bos- 
ton Harbor,  now  Fort  Independence,  discovered 
a  number  of  words  that  had  been  classed  as  of 
recent  origin,  the  most  familiar  of  which  are 
gpib,  victuals;  douse  the  glim,  to  put  out  the 
light;  and  spotted,  for  found  out.  Also  some 
that  arc  not  given  in  any  English  glossaries,  as 
briar,  a  saw;  nijyping-jig,  the  gallows;  and  uh6- 
ble,  a  dollar.  Most  of  these  expressions  belong 
to  the  argot  of  thieves. 

When  we  remember  that  the  dialects  of  the 
counties  in  England  have  marked  differences — so 
marked  indeed  that  it  may  be  doubted  whether  a 
Lancashire  miner  and  a  Lincolnshire  farmer 
could  understand  each  other — we  may  as  well  be 
proud  that  our  vast  country  has,  strictly  speak- 
ing, only  one  language.  It  is  remarkable  that 
the  influx  of  European  immigrants  has  not  re- 
sulted in  some  States  in  reducing  English  to  a 
patois,  if  not  in  extinguishing  it,  or  in  giving  it 
scant  room  in  a  mongrel  vocabulary.  Again,  it 
might  reasonably  be  expected  that,  in  the  course 
of  three  centuries,  the  political  and  social 
changes  which  we  have  imdergone,  and  the  pe- 
culiar circumstances  attending  the  settlement  of 
new  regions,  would  have  separated  us  so  widely 
from  the  mother  country  that,  in  spite  of  kinship 
and  commercial  and  literary  intercourse,  some 
radical  differences  in  language  would  have  been 
evolved. 

BiBLiooBAPHY.  J.  Witherspoon,  D.D.,  essay  in 
The  Druid,  Volume  IV.  (Philadelphia,  1801); 
J.  Pickering,  Vocabulary  of  Words  and  Phrases 
Supposed  to  be  Peculiar  to  America  (Boston, 
1816)  ;  J.  R.  Lowell,  introduction  to  the  Biglow 
Papers  (Cambridge,  1848)  ;  A.  L.  Elwyn,  Glos- 
sary of  Supposed  Americanisms  (New  York, 
1858)  ;  J.  R.  Bartlett,  Dictionary  of  American- 
isms (Philadelphia,  1859)  ;  Scheie  de  Vere, 
Am,ericanisms  (New  York,  1872)  ;  Norton,  Poli- 
tical Americanisms  (London,  1890)  ;  Leland,  A 
Dictionary  of  Slang,  Jargon  and  Cant  (London, 
1887 )  ;  G.  Gibbs,  Dictionary  of  the  Chinook  Jargon 
(Washington,  1863)  ;  Leland,  Hans  Breitmann's 
Ballads  (Philadelphia,  1870) ;  Harris,  Uncle 
Remus,  His  Songs  and  His  Sayings  (New  York, 
1880) ;  and  Nights  With  Uncle  Remits  (New 
York,  1883)  ;  R.  G.  White,  "Americanisms,"  At- 


lantic 3/on*Wy,  Volumes  XLL-XLV.;T.  R.  Loniifr 
bury,  "The  English  Language  in  America,"  In- 
ternational Review,  Volume  VIII. ;  G.  M.  Tucker, 
"American  English,"  North  American  RevievD^ 
Volume  CXXXVI.;  W.  W.  Crane,  "The  American 
Language,"  Putnam's  Magazine,  Volume  XVL; 
Rev.  H.  Reeves,  "Our  Provincialisms,"  Lippin- 
cott's  Magazine,  Volume  III.;  T.  W.  Higginsoh, 
"American  Flash  Language  in  1798";  Science, 
May,  1885;  "Southwestern  Slang,"  Overland 
Monthly,  August,  1869;  Brander  Matthews, 
"Briticisms  and  Americanisms,"  Harper's  Maga- 
zine, July,  1891.  See  also  Dialect  Notes,  pub- 
lished by  the  American  Dialect  Society  since 
1889.  The  same  society  has  issued  a  list  of 
American  slang  words,  edited  by  E.  H.  Babbitt. 
Studies  of  several  Southern  dialects,  by  Calvin 
S.  Brown  and  Sylvester  Primer,  have  appeared 
in  the  Publications  of  the  Modem  Language 
Association. 

AXEB/ICAS  KNIGHTS,  Ordeb  of.  See 
Khiouts  of  the  Golden  Cibcle. 

AMERICAN  LIT^BATTJBE.  A  term  ap- 
plie^l  rather  loosely  to  the  body  of  writings  in 
the  English  language  produced  in  the  territory 
now  occupied  by  the  United  States.  It  includes 
a  period  extending  from  1608,  when  Captain 
John  Smith's  True  Relation  was  published  in 
London,  to  the  present  day.  Strictly  speaking, 
the  works  of  Smith  and  of  those  of  his  contempo- 
raries who  did  not  make  a  permanent  sojourn 
in  the  New  World,  belong  rather  to  British  than 
to  American  literature.  Again,  it  is  plain  that 
the  term  literature  must  be  used  with  consid- 
erable latitude,  if  it  can  be  made  to  include  the 
news-letters,  the  bare  annals,  the  topographical 
treatises,  the  controversial  pamphlets,  the  ser- 
mons and  other  theological  lucubrations  that 
form  the  bulk  of  the  writings  produced  by  the 
colonists  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  cen- 
turies. The  paucity  of  the  materials  at  their 
command  has,  however,  induced  American  liter- 
ary historians  to  give  a  hospitable  reception  to 
almost  everything  that  can  be  called  a  book 
written  in  the  American  colonies  or  about  them, 
whether  published  in  England  or  at  home  after 
Stephen  Daye  had  set  up  his  press  at  Cambridge, 
Mass.,  in  1639.  We  need  not  here  imitate  their 
grasping  tendencies,  yet  we  may  find  a  few  works 
of  importance  dating  before  1700  that  will  de- 
mand our  attention. 

Surprise  has  sometimes  been  expressed  at  the 
fact  that  Englishmen,  contemporaries  of  Shake- 
speare and  Milton,  should,  in  their  new  environ- 
ment, have  written  practically  nothing  of  sesthetic 
value.  The  excuse  is  usually  made  for  them  that 
they  had  many  more  necessary  things  to  do,  such 
as  felling  the  forests  and  keeping  off  the  Indians. 
This  excuse  is  certainly  applicable,  but  it  may 
be  doubted  whether  the  Puritan  or  the  Cavalier 
stock  that  settled  America  would  have  been 
noted  for  great  contributions  to  English  litera- 
ture had  they  remained  in  the  mother  country. 
The  companions  of  Bradford  and  Winthrop  would 
have  done  what  writing  tbey  did  on  Uieological 
lines;  the  companions  of  Captain  Smith  and  the 
younger  sons  of  royalist  country  gentlemen  would 
have  written  little  more  than  they  did  in  Vir- 
ginia. This  is  but  to  say  that  there  is  slight 
reason  to  express  surprise  that  the  colonial  lit- 
erature of  the  seventeenth  century  is  chiefly  val- 
uable to  the  historian  and  the  antiquarian.  The 
early  colonists  wrote  for  utilitarian  purposes.  The 


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Virginians  wrote  to  convey  information  to  their 
friends  at  home  and  to  encourage  emigration; 
the  Puritans  wrote  for  these  reasons  and  also  to 
defend  and  expound  their  theology  and  to  train 
up  the  new  generations  in  the  ways  of  the  old. 
For  literary  art  in  itself,  or  indeed  for  any  art, 
they  had  little  care;  but  when,  as  not  infre- 
quently happened,  the  men  who  wrote  were  in- 
teresting or  even  great  in  their  private  or  pub- 
lic capacities,  they  managed  to  impart  some  of 
their  own  finer  qualities  to  their  writings,  which 
may  not  exactly  live,  but  are,  at  least,  worthy  of 
remembrance  if  not  of  perusal  by  the  reader  in- 
terested in  the  history  of  his  country. 

The  portion  of  this  early  literature  produced 
by  the  Southern  and  Middle  colonies  is  com- 
paratively meagre.  Captain  Smith's  works, 
which  culminate  in  the  composite  General  His- 
tory of  Virginia,  Neto  England  and  the  Summer 
Isles  (1624),  are  quaint  and  crude  but  full  of 
their  adventurous  and  magniloquent  author's  en- 
ergy. William  Strachey's  account  of  the  famous 
wreck  of  Sir  Thomas  Gates  (1610)  may  possibly, 
some  think  probably,  have  given  Shakespeare 
hints  for  his  description  of  the  storm  in  The 
Tempest,  Nothing  so  interesting  was  in  all  prob- 
ability produced  in  Virginia  until  1649,  when  a 
certain  Colonel  Norwood  narrated  to  his  relative. 
Sir  William  Berkeley,  the  adventures  that  had 
befallen  him  during  and  after  his  shipwreck.  The 
fame  picturesque  Governor  Berkeley  is  one  of  the 
protagonists  in  the  next  Virginian  tract  of  impor- 
tance— the  so-called  Burwell  Papers,  descriptive 
of  Bacon's  Rebellion  (1676).  Only  two  interest- 
ing books  are  credited  to  Maryland  during  this 
century,  John  Hammond's  Leafc  and  Rachel  ( 1656) 
and  George  Alsop's  quaint  Character  of  the 
Province  of  Maryland  (1666).  The  Carolinas 
were  settled  too  late  to  produce  anything  of 
consequence.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  mid- 
dle colonies,  although  Daniel  Denton's  Brief  De- 
scription of  New  York  (1670)  is  not  uninterest- 
ing, and  Gabriel  Thomas's  Account  of  Pennsyl- 
vania and  New  Jersey  (1698)  does  not  lack 
sprightliness. 

An  abundance  rather  than  a  lack  of  writings 
confronts  the  student  of  the  Seventeenth  Century 
New  England,  but  few  books  and  writers  need 
mention  here.  The  histories  composed  by  Gov- 
ernor William  Bradford  of  Plymouth  and  Gov- 
ernor John  Winthrop  of  Massachusetts  have  many 
merits,,  but  are  on  the  whole  fatiguing  reading. 
The  sermons  and  theolo^cal  treatises  of  such 
representative  divines  as  Thomas  Hooker,  Thomas 
Shepard,  John  Cotton,  Peter  Bulkeley,  and  their 
compeers  furnish  interesting  passages  for  our 
anthologies,  but  are  rarely  read  in  extenso.  The 
works  of  Roger  Williams  are  probablv  treated  in 
a  similar  fashion;  but  the  loss  falls  upon  the 
reader  as  well  as  upon  the  fame  of  that  truly 
great  man.  Another  writer  who  deserves  more 
attention  than  he  receives  is  Daniel  Gookin,  who 
wrote  two  books  about  the  Christian  Indians,  for 
whom  he  labored  in  conjunction  with  that  famous 
apostle,  John  Eliot.  But  unquestionably  the  most 
interesting  book  in  prose  produced  in  New  Eng- 
land during  the  seventeenth  century  was  Na- 
thaniel Ward's  Simple  Gobbler  of  Agawam 
(1647) — a  whimsical  compound  of  satire  and  in- 
vective that  is  almost  without  parallel.  John 
Josselyn's  New  England^s  Rarities  Discovered 
(1672)  and  his  Account  of  Two  Voyages  (1674) 
deserve  mention  also  as  almost  turning  credulity 
into  artistic  virtue. 


But  the  early  New  Englanders  wrote  verse  as^ 
well  as  proso — especially  verse  of  an  elegiac  na- 
ture. In  1640  appeared  the  astonishingly  crude 
Bay  Psalm  Book.  Ten  years  later  Mrs.  Anne 
Bradstreet's  Tenth  Muse  Lately  Sprung  up  in 
America  was  published  in  London,  accompanied 
by  poetical  panegyrics  that  made  the  modest 
woman  blush.  Mrs.  Bradstreet  w^as  not  without 
genuine  powers,  as  her  later  works  showed;  but 
she  followed  bad  models,  had  no  eye  for  the  beau- 
ties of  nature,  and  is  in  consequence  almost  un- 
readable to-day.  This  fate  has  not  befallen 
Michael  Wigglesworth's  Day  of  Doom  (1662) — a 
New  England  Inferno  which  long  continued  to  be 
popular.  Its  quaint  stanzas  are  perused  to-day 
with  sensations  quite  different  from  those  pro- 
duced by  them  two  hundred  years  ago;  but  they 
are  still  read,  and  even  quoted  for  amusement,  a 
fortune  not  accorded  to  the  amiable  Wriggles- 
worth's  other  performances.  Wigglesworth  is, 
however,  almost  a  great  poet  when  he  is  com- 
pared with  contemporaries  like  Peter  Folger, 
Franklin's  grandfather,  whose  Looking-Glass 
for  the  Times  (1677)  is  almost  the  ne  plus 
ultra  of  doggerel.  Perhaps  the  only  poems  of 
any  decided  merit  composed  in  America  during 
the  seventeenth  century  are  an  anonymous  epi- 
taph on  Bacon,  given  in  the  Burwell  Papers, 
and  an  Elegy  on  the  Rev,  Thomas  Shepard 
(1677),  by  the  Rev.  Uriah  Cakes,  President  of 
Harvard. 

The  close  of  the  seventeenth  century  in  New 
England  is  marked  for  us  by  the  famous  persecu- 
tions for  witchcraft  which  have  given  so  sinister 
a  reputation  to-  many  good  men,  especially  to 
the  two  Mathers,  Increase  and  (Ilotton.  These 
are  in  some  ways  the  most  important  divines  of 
early  New  England,  although  they  mark  the  de- 
cline of  the  theocracy  rather  than  its  culmina- 
tion. Both  were  voluminous  writers,  and  both 
treated  in  particular  the  two  topics  uppermost 
in  the  New  England  mind:  to  wit,  the  struggles 
of  the  saints  against  witches  and  fiends  and 
against  the  savage  Indians.  All  the  dominant 
ideas  of  the  times  are  found  embodied  in  the 
younger  Mather's  encyclopaedic  Magnalia  Ghristi 
Americana  (1702),  a  chronicle  which  is  not  alto- 
gether authoritative  as  to  facts,  but  is  typical  of 
its  fantastic  author  and  of  the  Brahmin  caste  he 
represented.  Typical  of  the  old  order  that  was 
passing,  and  of  the  new  that  was  coming  in,  is 
Judge  Samuel  Sewall's  Diary,  which  ran  from 
1673  to  1729.  Sewall  is  the  Pepys  of  his  time, 
and  many  a  quaint  page  can  be  extracted  from 
his  jottings;  but  he  should  also  be  remembered  as 
perhaps  our  first  abolitionist,  his  short  tract. 
The  Selling  of  Joseph,  dating  from  1700.  An- 
other early  diarist  is  Mrs.  Sarah  Kemble  Knight, 
who  wrote  a  sprightly  account  of  a  journey  she 
took  on  horseback  in  1704  from  Boston  to  New 
York.  Even  in  New  England,  secular  writing  be- 
came more  popular  as  the  eighteenth  century  ad- 
vanced, which  is-  what  one  might  expect,  since 
the  colonics  were  growing  prosperous  and  were 
being  affected  by  the  utilitarian  tendencies  of  the 
epoch.  There  is  a  considerable  amount  of  verse, 
none  of  it  of  much  consequence,  and  there  is  quite 
a  mass  of  history,  particularly  of  narratives  deal- 
ing with  Indian  atrocities.  Probably  the  most 
important  poets  are  the  Rev.  Mather  Byles 
and  his  contemporary,  Joseph  Green,  but  they 
succeeded  best  in  trifles.  The  most  scientific  his- 
torian of  the  period  is  the  Rev.  Thomas  Prince; 
the  most  interesting  is  the  quaint  Scotchman, 


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William  Douglass,  whose-  Summary  dates  from 
1747-61. 

But  theology  did  not  vanish  from  New  Eng- 
land with  the  weakening  of  the  theocracy.  The 
Rev.  John  Wise,  with  his  Churches*  Quarrel  Es- 
poused (1710)  and  his  Vindication  of  the  Gov- 
ernment of  Nevf  England  Churches  (1717) 
showed  himself  to  be  the  peer  of  any  of  his  fore- 
runners, and  gave  lessons  in  statesmanship 
to  the  Revolutionary  leaders  who  were  to  follow 
him.  Greater  than  Wise  was  Jonathan  Edwards, 
the  most  original  theologian  and  metaphysician 
that  the  New  World  has  produced.  In  his  juvenile 
papers  Edwards  anticipated  Berkeley;  in  his 
personal  memoranda  and  occasionally  in  his  for- 
mal treatises,  he  showed  that  he  was  a  poet-mys- 
tic and  a  lover  of  nature  rare  for  his  times; 
in  his  Narrative  of  Surprising  Conversions 
(1736),  he  displayed  a  remarkable  psychological 
acumen.  He  is,  of  course,  best  known  to-day  by 
his  Freedom  of  the  Will  (1754),  which  is  still  a 
powerful  piece  of  exposition,  although  its  con- 
clusions seem  monstrous  and  untenable,  and  by 
his  minatory  sermons,  which,  like  the  famous  one 
preached  at  Enfield,  Conn.,  held  his  awestruck 
hearers  ^Suspended  over  the  very  mouth  of  hell. 
Edwards's  theology  is  now  antiquated,  but  his 
works  contain  the  germs  of  nearly  all  subsequent 
theological  speculations,  and  they  are  a  well  of 
inspiration  to  thoughtful  readers. 

The  only  American  colonial  who  ranks  with 
Edwards  as  a  writer  and  thinker,  Benjamin 
Franklin,  while  also  a  New  Englander,  is  always 
regarded  as  a  representative  of  the  middle  colo- 
nies. Other  interesting  writers  were  grouped 
about  him  in  Philadelphia,  but  New  York  and 
New  Jersey  produced  few  of  any  consequence.  As 
a  student  of  nature  Franklin  was  only  the  fore- 
most of  an  interesting  group  of  men  such  as 
James  Logan,  John  Bertram,  and  John  Winthrop, 
of  Harvard.  As  a  writer  and  thinker  on  political 
subjects  he  exemplified  the  spirit  of  the  age  that 
was  to  produce  publicists  like  John  Dickinson, 
whose  Letters  from  a  Farmer  (1767)  focused  the 
spirit  of  resistance;  Samuel  and  John  Adams, 
Jefferson,  Hamilton,  and  Madison — ^men  whose 
political  writings,  culminating  in  The  Federalist 
(1788),  astonished  Europe  and  reached  what  per- 
haps is  the  high- water  mark  in  this  species  of 
composition.  For,  as  is  well  known,  the 
eighteenth  century  was  not  less  predominatingly 
political  than  the  seventeenth  had  been  theologi- 
cal.. It  was  also  utilitarian,  and  so  Franklin, 
who  thoroughly  summed  up  his  age,  was  the  cre- 
ator of  Poor  Richard,  whose  Almxinac  may  almost 
be  said  to  be  the  foundation  stone  of  popular 
education  in  America.  It  is  probably  his  de- 
lightful Autobiography,  however,  that  gives 
Franklin  his  position  as  the  writer  of  the  only 
literary  classic  produced  in  America  before  the 
nineteenth  century.  Taken  along  with  his  let- 
ters, this  book,  in  both  style  and  substance,  fur- 
nishes us  with  one  of  the  most  remarkable  self- 
revelations  in  literature.  We  read  from  a  sense 
of  duty  a  few  authors  of  our  Revolutionary  pe- 
riod, like  the  satirists  Francis  Hopkinson  and 
John  Trumbull,  author  of  McFingal  (1776-82)  ; 
we  know  The  Indian  Burying  Ground,  and  a  few 
other  verses  of  the  patriotic  poet,  Philip  Fre- 
neau;  we  remember  from  our  histories  that  the 
ill-fated  Thomas  Godfrey  was  the  author  of  our 
first  real  po.tical  tragedy.  The  Prince  of  Par- 
thia  (1765);  we  smile  at  the  mention  of  Joel 
Barlow's  Vision  of  Columbus  (1787),  which  de- 


veloped into  his  formidable  epic.  The  Columhiad 
(1807)  ;  but  for  many  of  us  the  true  American 
literature  of  the  eighteenth  century  is  repre- 
sented by  the  miscellaneous  writings  of  Franklin. 

This,  however,  is  not  altogether  fair.  Several 
of  Franklin's  contemporaries  deserve  to  be  re- 
membered as  writers  of  interest  and  of  some  im- 
portance. Among  these  are  the  Quaker  John 
Woolman,  the  loyalist  historian  of  Massachu- 
setts; Thomas  Hutchinson,  the  patriotic  historian 
and  portentous  dramatist  and  poet;  Mrs.  Mercy 
Otis  Warren;  the  negro  poetess,  Phillis  Wheatley, 
whose  imitative  verses  astonished  the  learned  of 
her  day;  the  laborious  poet.  Rev.  Timothy 
Dwight,  whose  Conquest  of  Canaan  (1785),  to- 
gether with  the  productions  of  the  so-called 
"Hartford  Wits," was  intended  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion of  a  real  American  literature,  and  has  at 
least  been  buried  sufficiently  deep  for  that  pur- 
pose; the  novelist,  Mrs.  Susanna  HaswcII  Row- 
son,  whose  Charlotte  Temple  (1790)  is  still  read 
— all  these  and  a  few  other  writers  should  be  re- 
membered before  we  accuse  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury in  America  of  literary  barrenness.  These 
are  not  a  tithe  of  the  authors  whom  a  serious 
literary  historian  would  feel  obliged  to  treat,  and 
even  we  must  add  to  them  such  a  conscientious, 
if  dull,  historian  as  the  Rev.  William  Stith,  of 
Virginia,  the  distinctly  more  picturesque  de- 
fender of  the  Old  Dominion,  Robert  Beverley, 
and  the  genial  cavalier.  Colonel  William  Byrd, 
of  Westover,  whose  History  of  the  Dividing  Line 
(1729)  between  Virginia  and  North  Carolina  is 
a  remarkably  entertaining  production.  To  these 
Southern  historians  the  name  oi  Dr.  David  Ram- 
say, of  South  Carolina,  should  be  added ;  but  it  is 
of  more  importance  not  to  forget  the  greater 
works  of  two  citizens  by  adoption — the  English- 
man, Thomas  Paine,  and  the  Frenchman,  Hector 
St.  Jean  de  Cr^vecceur.  Paine's  Crisis  and  his 
Common  Sense  ( 1776)  did  perhaps  more  to  make 
independence  the  goal  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tionists than  any  other  contemporary  writings, 
and  it  was  the  spirit  of  the  Revolution  that  ani- 
mated his  later  but  less  acceptable  books.  Crftve- 
coeur's  Letters  from'an  Am^erican  Farmer  (1782) 
are  full  of  an  idealism  more  charming  than  can 
be  found  in  Paine  and  of  a  love  of  nature  almost 
worthy  of  Thoreau  himself. 

The  confused  period  between  the  close  of  the 
Revolution  and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  was  naturally  not  propitious  to  litera- 
ture. But  many  of  the  writers  mentioned  in  the 
last  paragraph  did  their  best  work  in  it,  and  to 
t^em  we  may  add  the  names  of  Royall  Tyler, 
whose  play,  entitled  The  Contrast  (1786),  was 
the  first  American  comedy  of  importance;  Noah 
Webster  and  Lindley  Murray,  famous  later  for 
their  works  in  lexicography  and  grammar;  Jere- 
my Belknap,  author  of  one  of  the  best  of  our 
early  State  histories,  that  of  New  Hampshire 
(1784)  ;  William  Dunlap,  whose  History  of  the 
American  Stage  (1832)  is  still  important,  and 
Joseph  Dennie,  a  writer  of  a  mildly  Addisonian 
type,  whose  Portfolio,  founded  in  1801,  marked, 
with  the  contemporaneous  establishment  of  the 
New  York  Evening  Post,  the  great  aid  that  jour- 
nalism would  give  to  literature  throughout  the 
new  century. 

But  a  more  oonspicuous  writer  than  any  of 
these,  our  first  novelist,  Charles  Brockden  Brown, 
had  written  his  three  most  important  novels,  Wie- 
land,  Ormond,  and  Arthur  Mervyn  in  the  three 
closing  years  of  the  eighteenth  cent\iry.    He  pub- 


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lished  three  other  novels  in  1801,  and  his  literary 
activity,  which  was  mainly  associated  with  Phila- 
delphia, promised  much  for  the  new  Republic. 
But  his  work  was  cut  short  by  ill-health  and  an 
early  death,  and  to  modern  readers  his  stories, 
while  marked  by  distinct  imaginative  power,  are 
too  plainly  connected  with  the  extravagant  school 
of  Godwin  and  Mrs.  Radcliffe  to  be  attractive. 
Brown  deserves,  however,  to  be  remembered  as 
the  first  American  who  made  the  profession  of 
letters  a  success,  and  he  was  a  genuine  prede- 
cessor of  Hawthorne  and  Poe. 

The  opening  decade  of  the  nineteenth  century 
was  one  of  great  political  importance;  but  it  is 
marked  by  few  literary  names  of  note,  John  Mar- 
shall's Life  of  Washington  (1804)  being  less  im- 
portant than  his  judicial  decisions,  and  the  writ- 
ings of  the  Rev.  M.  L.  Weems  and  William  Wirt 
not  meaning  much  to  the  sophisticated  readers  of 
a  century  since.  But  in  1809  a  work  that  will 
probably*^  never  lose  its  interest  made  it  certain 
that  American  literature,  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  term,  had  been  born.  In  this  year  Washing- 
ton Irving  gave  the  world  "Diedrich  Knicker- 
bocker's" History  of  New  York.  Irving  may  be 
■a  little  out  of  fashion  to-day  with  some  readers, 
and  he  may  seem  almost  as  much  a  British  as  an 
American  classic;  but  a  classic  he  is,  whose  style 
has  perhaps  not  been  surpassed,  and  whose  es- 
says,  short  stories  and  works  of  travel,  biogra- 
phy and  history  must  be  read  by  all  cultivated 
Americans.  During  his  long  life  he  was  the 
worthy  head  of  the  Knickerbocker  school  of 
writers  who  made  New  York  the  literary  centre 
of  the  country  before  the  rise  of  New  England 
Transcendental  ism. 

It  was  more  than  a  decade,  however,  after 
Irving*s  success  before  a  really  great  writer  arose 
to  keep  him  company.  Such  poets  as  Washington 
AUston,  John  Pierpont  and  Mrs.  Sigourney,  and 
such  a  dramatist  as  John  Howard  Payne,  can- 
not send  us  back,  with  any  great  enthusiasm,  to 
the  second  decade  of  the  century  just  passed.  It 
is  true,  nevertheless,  that  the  foundmg  of  the 
North  American  Review  at  Boston  in  May,  1815, 
was  an  important  event,  and  that  by  publishing 
two  years  later  the  youthful  Bryant's  Thanat op- 
sis,  it  introduced  to  the  world  a  poet  of  dignity 
and  power,  who,  if  not  precisely  great,  was  at 
least  able  to  interpret  pleasingly  and  satisfac- 
torily to  Americans  the  natural  beauties  of 
their  native  land.  Two  other  poets,  inferior  to 
Brj'ant,  yet  still  remembered,  Joseph  Rodman 
Drake,  author  of  The  Culprit  Fay,  and  Fitz- 
Greene  Halleck,  author  of  an  elegy  on  Drake  and 
some  stirring  lyrics,  also  made  their  first  appear- 
ance in  this  decade. 

When  James  Fenimore  Cooper  published  Pre- 
caution, in  1820,  he  gave  the  public  no  evidence 
that  one  of  the  greatest  of  modern  writers  of 
fiction  had  arisen.  A  competent  reader  of  The 
Spy,  which  was  issued  the  very  next  year,  might, 
however,  have  perceived  the  fact.  Two  years 
later,  The  Pilot  and  The  Pioneers  showed  that  al- 
though Cooper  might  be  essentially  a  follower  of 
Scott,  and  although  his  style  might  be  often  slip- 
shod and  his  power  of  characterization,  especially 
in  the  case  of  women,  almost  nil,  he  was,  never- 
theless, master  in  his  own  splendid  domain,  the 
sea,  the  forest,  and  the  prairie.  The  Leather- 
stocking  Tales  have  been  frequently  called  the 
real  American  epic,  and  a  recognition  of  the 
truth  of  this  statement  would  prevent  many  per- 
sons from  underrating  the  genius  of  one  of  the 


few  Americans  who  have  won  a  world-wide  fame 
by  their  writings.  America  has  produced  several 
authors  of  finer  genius  than  Cooper  possessed, 
but  perhaps  none  of  larger. 

Besides  Cooper,  the  third  decade  of  the  last 
century  brought  into  notice  the  poet  James 
Gates  Percival,  who  unfortunately  did  not  de- 
serve the  reputation  he  speedily  acquired.  A 
less  highly  praised  poet,  Edward  Coate  Pinkney, 
is  now  more  interesting  on  account  of  his  small 
•but  genuine  lyric  vein.  The  same  decade  counts 
among  its  worthies  the  indefatigable  historiog- 
rapher, Jared  Sparks,  and  the  admirable  student 
of  Spanish  literature,  George  Ticknor.  Lydia 
Maria  Child,  Edward  Everett,  the  elder  William 
Ellery  Channing,  and  Bronson  Alcott  also  made 
their  appearance  as  writers;  and  Poe  and  Haw- 
thorne published  juvenile  works  that  are  now 
very  rare.  But  perhaps  the  best-known  produc- 
tion of  the  period  is  Webster's  reply  to  Hayne, 
which  struck  the  keynote  that  was  to  dominate 
our  literature  for  the  next  generation. 

The  year  1831  saw  the  establishment  of  William 
Lloyd  Garrison's  Liberator  and  the  publication  of 
Whittier's  first  book.  Legends  of  New  England, 
Both  men  were  to  do  a  great  work  for  the  anti- 
slavery  cause,  and  Whittier  in  especial  was  to 
endear  himself  to  his  native  section  as  its  true 
poet  laureate.  The  writer  who  best  represented 
New  York  at  this  period  was  Nathaniel  Parker 
Willis,  poet,  traveler,  and  journalist.  But  he, 
though  still  interesting,  ha,s  greatly  declined  in 
reputation.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  those 
representative  ante-bellum  Southern  writers, 
William  Gilmore  Simms,  of  South  Carolina,  and 
John  Pendleton  Kennedy,  of  Maryland,  who, 
with  Robert  Montgomery  Bird,  of  Pennsylvania, 
formed  a  group  of  romancers  inferior  indeed  to 
Cooper,  yet  worthy  of  being  read,  at  least  in 
their  best  novels,  such  as  The  Yenuissee,  Horse- 
Shoe  Robinson,  and  Nick  of  the  Woods.  Besides 
these  writers,  who  began  their  careers  in  the 
thirties,  we  should  recall  the  historian  George 
Bancroft,  whose  History  of  the  United  States  re- 
mains eminently  valuable. 

The  Transcendental  movement  in  New  England, 
culminating  in  The  Dial  of  the  early  forties,  is, 
of  course,  the  prime  fact  of  American  literary 
history  before  the  Civil  War.  Yet  many  of 
the  writers  more  or  less  connected  with  it, 
such    as    the    critics    Greorge    Ripley    and   Mar- 

faret  Fuller,  and  the  poets  C. .  P.  Cranch  and 
ones  Very,  have  long  since  become  mere 
names  to  most  readers.  The  poet  -  naturalist, 
Thoreau,  however,  has  not  only  held  his  own, 
but  gained  ground  year  by  year,  and  Emerson  has 
taken  his  place  with  Hawthorne  and  Poe  in  the 
very  front  rank  of  American  writers.  Through- 
out his  long  life,  Emerson  was  to  his  countrymen 
and  to  many  Europeans  not  merely  a  great  writer 
but  an  inspiring  seer,  and  there  are  not  wanting 
readers  to-day  who  consider  him,  in  his  double 
capacity  of  philosopher  and  poet,  the  greatest  of 
American  men  of  letters.  Since  the  publication 
of  his  Scarlet  Letter  (1860),  this  position  has 
been  assigned  to  Hawthorne  by  the  majority  of 
his  fellow  citizens,  while  foreign  readers  have 
unhesitatingly  assigned  it  to  Edgar  Allan  Poe, 
whose  haunting  poems  and  tales  have  seemingly 
exerted  a  greater  literary  influence  than  the 
works  of  any  other  American. 

More  influential,  so  far  as  the  culture  of  the 
American  people  is  concerned,  has  been  the 
poetry  of  Henry  Wadsworth  Longfellow.     It  has 


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been  recognized  by  the  critics  that  Longfellow's 
genius  was  at  first  overestimated ;  but  critical  de- 
preciation has  probably  been  carried  too  far,  and 
it  seems  quite  likely  that  the  best  loved  of  Ameri- 
can poets  will  continde  to  rank  not  far  below 
the  greatest  of  his  contemporaries.  Much  the 
same  thing  may  be  said  of  Oliver  Wendell 
Holmes,  whose  Autocrat  of  the  Breakfast  Table 
(1868)  has  lost  little  or  nothing  of  its  popu- 
larity. As  a  poet  also,  Holmes,  though  he  may 
most  fairly  be  called  the  laureate  of  Boston,  still 
has  a  hold  upon  the  heart  of  the  nation,  and  he 
should  perhaps  be  better  known  as  a  novelist 
than  he  is;  for  his  Elsie  Venner  (1861)  is  a 
striking  book. 

James  Russell  Lowell,  by  his  Fable  for  Critics 
and  the  first  series  of  The  Biglovo  Papers  ( 1848) , 
had  proved  himself  to  be  our  greatest  poetical 
humorist  and  satirist  before  the  Civil  War  be- 
gan. That  cataclysm  inspired  him  to  write  his 
great  odes,  and  later  he  became  easily  the  first 
of  American  critics  and  letter-writers,  and  one  of 
the  first  of  American  publicists.  He  is  too  noar 
us  for  a  proper  estimate  to  be  made  of  his  rank 
in  our  literature,  but  it  would  appear  that  his 
fame  as  humorist,  essayist,  and  epistolary  master 
is  secure.  Secure,  too,  seems  the  fame  of  those 
admirable  historians  William  H.  Prescott  and 
John  Lothrop  Motley,  although  the  former's 
works  have  suffered  through  the  discoveries  of 
modem  investigators.  Their  junior,  Francis 
Parkman,  is,  however,  generally  regarded  as  their 
superior,  his  great  series  of  histories  dealing 
with  the  struggle  between  French  and  English  for 
the  mastery  of  the  New  World  being  as  fascinating 
and  at  the  same  time  as  scientifically  thorough 
as  any  other  modern  historical  compositions. 

All  the  writers  treated  in  the  immediately 
foregoing  paragraphs  won  at  least  a  partial 
recognition  before  the  Civil  War.  Their  fame 
has  not,  however,  entirely  cast  in  the  shade  such 
writers  as  Richard  Henry  Dana,  Jr.,  author  of 
Two  Years  Before  the  Mast  (1840),  and  Herman 
Melville,  whose  Typee  (1846),  Omoo  (1847),  and 
Moby  Dick  (1851),  are  among  the  best  books  of 
adventure  in  our  literature.  Nor  is  the  work  of 
Bayard  Taylor,  Donald  -G.  Mitchell,  Richard 
Grant  White,  James  T.  Fields,  Thomas  Went- 
worth  Higginson,  and  Charles  Eliot  Norton, 
to  be  omitted  even  in  so  brief  a  sketch  as  the 
present.  Mention  should  be  made  also  of  George 
William  Curtis,  E.  P.  Whipple,  and  the  two 
Southern  poets,  Paul  H.  Hayne  and  Henrjr  Tim- 
rod,  as  well  as  of  the  worthy  Philadelphia  dra- 
matist and  poet,  George  Henry  Boker.  Two  other 
\vTiters  who  emerged  before  the  Civil  War  have 
attained  positions  only  just  below  the  highest. 
One,  Mrs.  Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  stirred  the 
sympathies  of  the  civilized  world  by  her  pathetic 
story  of  American  slavery,  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin 
(1852)  ;  the  other,  Walt  Whitman,  by  his  Leaves 
of  Grass  (1856-83)  poetically  expressed  the 
democratic  ideal  in  a  way  that  appealed  pro- 
foundly to  European  readers,  and  has  won  him 
quite  a  large  circle  of  devotees  at  home. 

The  most  noteworthy  name  in  the  decade  to 
which  the  Civil  War  belongs  is  that  of  Samuel  L. 
Clemens,  who,  over  the  pseudonym  of  "Mark 
Twain"  won  a  world-wide  reputation  as  a  hu- 
morist and  writer  of  fiction.  With  him  ap- 
peared a  number  of  authors  whose  later  and 
more  mature  work  has  made  them  known 
throughout  the  country.  One  of  the  most  im- 
portant books  of  the  decade  was  The  Man  With- 


out a  Country  (1863),  bv  Edward  Everett  H&le. 
Appearing  at  a  time  when  the  feelings  of  the 
nation  were  so  divided,  it  did  much  to  strengthen 
a  spirit  of  loyalty  to  the  Union.  Two  other 
writers,  who  first  came  to  notice  in  the  sixties, 
were  cut  off  in  what  promised  to  be  most  fruit- 
ful careers — ^Theodore  Winthrop,  the  novelist, 
whose  Jo/in  Brent  (1862)  was  full  of  racy  vigor, 
and  Sidney  Lanier,  regarded  by  some  critics  as 
the  most  important  American  poet  of  the  last 
forty  years. 

Since  1870,  the  number  of  publications  has 
been  constantly  and  rapidly  increasing,  and  two 
dominant  types  have  appeared — the  local  short 
story  and  an  exaggerated  form  of  the  romantic 
novel.  As  the  Middle  and  Western  States  be- 
came more  settled,  a  new  type  of  literature  arose, 
which  was  especially  adapted  to  the  new  con- 
ditions. As  early  'as  1868  a  magazine.  The 
Overland  Monthly,  had  been  established  in  San 
Francisco  r  and  in  it  appeared  the  vivid,  racy, 
unconventional  story,  The  Luck  of  Roaring 
Camp,  by  Bret  Harte.  From  the  appearance  of 
this  tale  may  be  dated  the  vogue  of  the  short 
story  dealing  with  the  local  conditions  in  vari- 
ous sections  of  the  United  States.  Following 
Bret  Harte,  a  score  of  writers  appeared  all  over 
the  country,  each  depicting  the  life  and  man- 
ners of  his  OA\Ti  particular  section.  For  the 
most  part,  they  emphasized  local  conditions  by 
employing  the  dialect  peculiar  to  their  division 
of  the  country.  Among  the  more  successful  of 
these  dialect  writers  were  Joel  Chandler  Harris, 
with  his  Uncle  Remus  stories;  Edward  Eggle- 
ton,  the  author  of  The  Hoosier  Schoolmaster 
(1871),  and  other  tales  of  the  Middle  West; 
G.  W.  Cable,  who  so  skillfully  depicted  the 
French  Creole  life  of  New  Orleans;  and  Mary 
Noailles  Murfree,  better  known  under  her  pseu- 
donym "Charles  Egbert  Craddock,"  whose  novels 
of  the  mountain  whites  of  Tennessee,  Kentucky, 
North  Carolina  and  Georgia  first  attracted  tiie 
attention  of  the  country  to  these  peculiar  people. 
But  although  the  majority  of  short-story  ^Titers 
used  dialect  forms,  there  were  a  number  who 
adhered  to  more  conventional  styles  of  ex- 
pression, depending  upon  their  power  of  charac- 
terization and  the  enumeration  of  salient  details 
to  give  the  necessary  semblance  of  reality. 
Among  these  were  Harold  Frederic,  who  dealt 
with  the  crude  life  of  West-Central  New  York; 
Hamlin  Garland,  who  wrote  of  the  North- West; 
James  Lane  Allen,  who  depicted  the  people  of 
Kentucky;  and  Mary  E.  Wilkins,  who  with  de- 
served success  wrote  her  vignettes  of  the  narrow- 
er life  of  New  England.  F.  R.  Stockton  drew 
with  much  quaint  humor  some  familiar  and  very 
characteristic  American  types  in  Rudder  Orange; 
and  Ernest  Seton-Thompson  described  the  lives 
of  wild  animals  by  the  original  and  interesting 
method  of  looking  at  their  environment  from 
their  own  standpoint. 

Besides  these  writers  there  were  a  few  suc- 
cessful authors  whose  works  cannot  be  classi- 
fied under  any  one  division.  First  of  these  is 
General  Lew  Wallace,  whose  Ben  Eur  (1880),  a 
tale  of  the  early  days  of  Christianity,  was  im- 
mensely popular.  It  was  a  forerunner  of  the  re- 
action against  the  short  dialect  story;  for  just 
as  the  psychological  novel  had  given  place  to  the 
story,  so  it  in  turn  was  to  be  superseded  by  the 
unalloyed  romance.  A  prolific  and  interesting 
writer  was  Francis  Marion  Crawford,  who  was 
an  exponent  of  the  theory  that  a  novel  should  be 


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AlEEBXCAN  BIVEB. 


essentially  a  drama,  in  which  descriptions  should 
take  the  place  of  scenery.  At  the  same  time, 
William  Dean  Howells  and  Henry  James  were 
working  along  lines  which,  though  parallel,  were 
nevertheless  clearly  separated.  The  former  prac- 
tically created  the  novel  of  American  social  life. 
His  material  was  found  in  men  and  women 
rather  than  in  incidents;  and  in  his  stories  the 
most  commonplace  occurrences  are  rich  in  fas- 
cination, because  of  his  skillful  realization  of  the 
characters  of  whom  he  writes.  Henry  James 
has  been  characterized  as  the  "creator  of  the 
international  novel."  His  psychology  is  ad- 
mirable, though  almost  too  subtle,  and  his  style 
is  refined  to  a  degree. 

In  1894  the  success  of  The  Prisoner  of  Zenda, 
by  an  English  author,  Anthony  Hope  Hawkins, 
drew  the  attention  of  American  writers  to  the 
possibilities  of  the  romantic  novel.  The  reading 
public  had  tired  of  psychology  and  dialect,  and 
was  only  too  glad  to  welcome  tales  of  adventure 
and  of  love,  which  were  all  the  more  acceptable 
because  their  themes  were  in  direct  contrast 
with  the  commonplace  civilization  of  the  day. 
Winston  Churchill,  Mary  Johnston,  Charles 
Major,  Maurice  Thompson,  S.  Weir  Mitchell, 
Paul  Leicester  Ford,  and  many  less  known  writ- 
ers wrote  historical  romances,  of  which  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  copies  sold  within  incredibly 
short  periods.  Tlie  beginning  of  the  twentieth 
century  was  marked  by  the  introduction  of  the 
novel  dealing  with  the  individual  who  is  in  re- 
volt against  existing  social  conditions.  Although 
this  perhaps  is  not  yet  a  clearly  defined  depart- 
ment of  fiction,  CZnZeavened  Bread  (1900),  by  Rob- 
ert Grant,  A  Singular  Life  (1895),  by  Elizabeth 
Stuart  Phelps,  and  A  Gentleman  from  Indiana 
(1900),  by  Booth  Tarkington,  are  all  novels 
which  show  the  same  general  tendency  to  empha- 
size individualism. 

In  turning  from  fiction  to  poetry  one  is  struck 
with  the  dearth  of  really  important  names. 
There  have  been  any  number  of  versifiers  whose 
lyrics  are  musical  and  commonplace;  but  E.  C. 
Stedman,  R.  H.  Stoddard,  T.  B.  Aldrich,  Rich- 
ard Watson  Gilder,  H.  C.  Bunner,  Richard 
Hovey,  and  Madison  Cawein  are  almost  the  only 
ones  whose  poetry  has  risen  in  the  slightest  de- 
gree above  the  ordinary  level. 

In  historical  composition  there  has  been  a 
marked  inclination  to  follow  the  example  set  by 
the  English  historian,  J.  R.  Green,  and  not  only 
to  weigh  carefully  the  dramatic  events  of  politi- 
cal history,  but  also  to  study  with  equal  thor- 
oughness the  character  of  the  people  themselves. 
This  tendency  has  been  especially  evident  in  the 
works  of  John  Fiske,  John  Bach  McMaster,  Wood- 
row  W^ilson,  and  Edward  Eggleston,  all  of  whom 
have  added  much  to  our  knowledge  of  conditions 
and  men  at  the  beginnings  of  our  national  life, 
and  in  the  elaborate  researches  of  Justin  Winsor. 
Other  historical  writers  of  importance  are  James 
Ford  Rhodes,  the  historian  of  the  Civil  War, 
and  W^illiam  M.  Sloane,  the  author  of  a  monu- 
mental biography  of  Napoleon. 

Literary  criticism  has  had  many  representa- 
tives; but  since  James  Russell  LowelVs  death, 
American  literature  has  found  no  one  fitted  to 
succeed  him.  The  best  known  critics  who  en- 
joyed a  certain  amount  of  authority  in  the  de- 
cade ending  with  the  year  1900,  were  William 
Dean  Howells,  Henry  James,  Hamilton  W.  Mabie, 
Brander  Matthews,  George  E.  Woodberry,  Harry 
Thurston  Peck,  and  William  C.  Brownell.     Re- 


cent criticism,  however,  has  been  distinguished 
by  the  note  of  individual  preference  which  is  at 
times  almost  emotional,  and  by  the  absence  of 
definite  and  unalterable  sesthetic  standards,  such 
as  those  which  characterized  the  work  of  Sainte- 
Beuve  in  France  and  of  Matthew  Arnold  in  Eng- 
land. 

In  conclusion,  the  most  important  develop- 
ments since  1870  may  be  summed  up  as  being 
New  England's  loss  of  literary  supremacy;  the 
wide  distribution  of  literary  activity;  the  de- 
cline of  the  essay  as  a  recognized  medium  of 
purely  literary  expression;  the  predominance  of 
light  fiction;  and  an  unparalleled  increase  in 
the  number  of  books,  newspapers,  magazines,  and 
other  periodicals. 

BiBUOORAFHT.  For  the  best  account  of  Colo- 
nial and  Revolutionary  literature,  consult:  Tyler, 
History  of  American  Literature,  4  vols.  (New 
York,  1878-97) ;  for  a  good  general  survey,  Rich- 
ardson, American  Literature  (New  York,  1887- 
88);  Nichol,  American  Lt^era^i^re  ( Edinburgh, 
( 1882)  ;  Wendell,  A  Literary  History  of  America 
(New  York,  1901)  ;  C.  Noble,  Studies  in  Ameri- 
can Literature  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Katherine 
Lee  Bates,  American  Literature  (New  York, 
1898)  ;  for  poetry,  Stedman,  Poets  of  Amer- 
ica (Boston,  1885)  ;  Stedman,  An  American  An- 
thology (New  York,  1901);  for  prose,  Car- 
penter, American  Prose  (New  York,  1898)  ;  for 
anthologies  of  prose  and  verse,  Stedman  and 
Hutchinson,  Library  of  American  Literature 
(New  York,  1888-90)  ;  Duyckinck,  Cyclopaedia  of 
American  Literature  (New  York,  1865).  The 
best  series  of  monographs  on  American  authors 
is  the  American  Men  of  Letters  Series  (Bos- 
ton). A  valuable  handbook  is  Whitcomb, 
Chronological  Outlines  of  American  Literature 
(New  York,  1894). 

AMEBICAN  KTTSEOnC  OF  NATOJRAI. 
HIS^OBY.     See  Museum. 

AMEBICAir  KOTES.  By  Charles  Dickens, 
published  in  1842,  after  his  first  visit  to  the 
United  States.  A  volume  of  impressions  which 
excited   much   resentment   in  America. 

A3CEBICAN  PAB^Y.  The  name  applied 
to  three  parties  in  the  history  of  the  United 
States.  The  first  and  best  known  was  organized 
in  1852,  chiefiy  to  oppose  the  immigration  of 
foreigners,  and  had  a  considerable  following 
between  the  years  1852  and  1856.  A  fuller 
account  is  given  under  the  title  Know-Nothings, 
the  name  by  which  the  party  was  generally 
known.  The  second  party  was  an  outgrowth  of 
the  National  Christian  Association,  and  was 
organized  in  1872  to  oppose  secret  societies  and 
to  advocate  the  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  intoxi- 
cants, the  regular  use  of  the  Bible  in  the  schools, 
arbitration  of  international  disputes,  a  direct 
popular  vote  for  President,  the  resumption  of 
specie  payments,  and  a  more  general  observance 
of  Sunday.  After  1888,  when  it  cast  its  largest 
vote,  it  virtually  went  out  of  existence.  The 
third  party  was  organized  in  Philadelphia  in 
September,  1887,  to  restrict  the  immigration  and 
n.^turalization  of  foreigners,  to  exclude  all  Anar- 
ch i&  s  and  Socialists  from  the  privilege  of  citi- 
zensU'n,  and  to  prevent  alien  proprietorship  of 
the  sot.      Its  infiuenoe  has  been  inconsiderable. 

Alili.^CAN  BIV'EB.  A  river  in  north  cen- 
tral Calitornia  (Map:  California,  C  2).  It  rises 
in  Eldorado  County  and  flows  southwesterly  to- 


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458 


ward  the  Sacramento  River,  into  which  it  emp- 
ties a  little  above  Sacramento  City.  Gold  has 
been  frequently  found  along  its  banks. 

AMEBICAK  SYC'AMOBE.     See  Plake. 

AMERICAN  SYSTEM.    See  Tariff. 

AMBBICAN  U'NIVBB'SITY.  An  institu- 
tion of  higher  learning  for  post-graduate  study 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  situated  at  Washington,  D.  G.  It  was 
chartered  in  1893,  and  the  plans  include  a  series 
of  colleges,  specializing  respectively  in  history, 
language,  and  literature,  philosophy,  the  several 
sciences,  technology,  sociology,  and  economics, 
law,  civics,  medicine,  art,  and  comparative  re- 
ligion. The  plan  of  organization  provided  that 
for  entrance  to  all  courses,  the  bachelor's  degree, 
or  its  equivalent  in  scholarship,  should  be  re- 
quired. The  assets  in  1901  amounted  to  $1,600,- 
000.  Chancellor,  1901,  John  F.  Hurst,  D.D., 
LL.D. 

AMEBICAK  WIITB.    See  Wiite. 

AMEKaCUS.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Sumter  Co.,  Ga.,  70  miles  south-southwest  of 
Macon,  at  the  junction  of  the  Central  of  Georgia, 
and  Georgia  and  Alabama  railroads  (Map: 
Geor^a,  B  3).  It  is  in  a  cotton  and  sugar-cane 
district,  and  has  chemical  works,  iron  foundry, 
and  machine  shops.  The  city  owns  and  operates 
its  water  works.  Americus  was  settled  in  1832, 
incorporated  1855,  and  is  governed  by  a  charter 
of  1889,  which  places  the  mayor's  term  at  two 
years,  and  provides  for  »  city  council  of  six, 
elected  on  a  general  ticket,  with  full  power  of 
appointments.     Pop.,  1890,  6398;  1900,  7674. 

AMEBIQHIy  rm&-r$^g6,  Michelangelo. 
tSee  Caravaggio. 

AMEBIGO  VESPTJCCI,  rmlL-re^gd  vSs-p;^- 
<*hd.    See  Vespucius,  Americus. 

AM^BIND.  A  name  suggested  as  a  designa- 
tion for  the  American  Indians  (including  the 
Eskimo  and  the  Fuegians),  as  distinguished 
from  the  natives  of  India  and  the  adjacent  re- 
gions. It  is  compounded  from  the  two  words, 
American  and  Indian,  and  originated  with  Major 
J.  W.  Powell,  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Amer- 
ican Ethnology. 

AMEBLIKGy  a^m?^r-IIng,  Friedrich  (1803- 
87 ) .  An  Austrian  painter,  bom  at  Vienna.  He 
studied  there  and  at  London,  Paris,  and  Munich, 
and  went  to  Italy  in  1831.  Upon  his  return  he 
painted  a  portrait  of  the  Emperor  Franz  I.,  and 
from  that  time  was  the  most  prominent  of  Aus- 
trian portrait  painters.  His  portraits  number 
not  far  from  a  thousand,  and  are  distinguished 
by  brilliant  coloring,  but  sometimes  fail  of 
deflniteness  in  characterization.  Consult:  Bo- 
denstein,  Hundert  Jahre  Kunstgeschichte  Wiens 
(Vienna,  1888) ;  and  for  his  life,  Frankl  (Vienna, 
1889). 

AMEBSEOOBTy  il^m?lrz-f57Frt.  An  ancient 
town  in  the  province  of  Utrecht,  Netherlands, 
15  miles  northeast  of  Utrecht  on  the  Eem,  which 
flows  into  the  Zuyder  Zee  (Map:  Netherlands, 
D  2 )  The  town  is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  at 
the  foot  of  sandy  hills.  Tobacco  is  mucn  grown 
in  the  district,  and  cotton  and  woolen  goods, 
leather,  soap,  beer,  etc.,  are  manufactured.  The 
Catholic  church  of  St.  Mary,  built  in  the  four- 
teenth century,  has  a  Gothic  tower  308  feet 
high,  considered  the  finest  in  Holland.  There 
is  also  a  college  of  Jansenists  in  the  town,  it 


being  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  this  sect,  which 
does  not  now  exist  outside  of  Holland.  Pop., 
1890,  15,500;   1900,  19,000. 

AMES.  A  city  in  Story  Co.,  la.,  37  miles 
north  of  Des  Moines,  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western Railroad  (Map:  Iowa,  D  3).  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  State  Agricultural  College,  which  has 
a  plant  covering  some  900  acres.  The  electric 
light  plant  is  owned  and  operated  by  the  munici- 
pality.    Pop.,    1890,    1276;    1900,    2422. 

AMES,  Adelbebt  (1835 — ).  An  American 
soldier.  He  was  born  at  Rockland,  Me.,  and 
graduated  at  West  Point  in  1861.  He  wu 
wounded  at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run,  and  after- 
ward served  with  distinction  at  Malvern  Hill, 
Antietam,  Fredericksburg,  Chancellorsville,  Get- 
tysburg, and  Petersburg.  He  was  brevetted 
(March  13,  1865)  major-general  of  volunteers  for 
conduct  at  Fort  Fisher,  and  on  July  28,  1866,  be- 
came a  lieutenant-colonel  in  the  regular  army. 
He  was  afterward  Provisional  Governor  of  MiV 
sippi  from  1868  to  1869,  and  was  commandant  of 
the  Fourth  Military  District  (including  Missis- 
sippi) from  1869  to  1870,  and  was  a  United  States 
senator  from  1870  to  1873,  when,  in  spite  of  the 
white  population,  he  became  Grovemor  of  Missis- 
sippi by  popular  election.  His  administration 
of  affairs  soon  antagonized  the  whites,  who  ac- 
cused him  of  favoritism  to  the  negro  population, 
and  a  bitter  race  war  ensued,  culminating  in  the 
Vicksburg  riot  of  December  7,  1873,  and  in 
numerous  minor  confiicts  between  Democrats  and 
Republicans.  Finally,  in  1876,  the  Democrats 
having  secured  a  majority  in  the  Legislature, 
Ames  was  impeached,  and  resigned  on  condition 
that  the  charges  against  him  be  withdrawn.  (See 
article  on  Mississippi.)  He  then  removed  to 
New  York,  and,  later,  to  Lowell,  Mass.,  and 
during  the  Spanish-American  War  served  as 
brigadier-general  of  volunteers. 

AMES,  FiSHEB  (1758-1808).  An  American 
orator  and  Congressman.  He  was  bom  at  Ded- 
ham,  Mass.,  April  9,  1758.  He  graduated  at 
Harvard  in  1774,  began  the  practice  of  law  in 
1781,  and  soon  became  favorably  known  through 
his  trenchant  newspaper  articles  in  condemna- 
tion of  Shays's  Rebellion  (q.v.)  and  in  favor  of 
a  strong  government.  This  local  reputation  was 
increased  by  his  efforts  in  favor  of  the  Federal 
constitution  in  the  Massachusetts  Convention  of 
1788,  the  immediate  result  of  which  was  his 
election  to  Congress,  where  he  served  for  eight 
years,  becoming  known  especially  as  an  accom- 
plished public  speaker.  In  his  later  years  he 
served  in  the  Meissachusetts  Council,  delivered 
a  eulogy  on  Washington  before  the  Legislature, 
and  produced  a  number  of  essays ;  but  he  took  no 
part  in  active  politics.  In  1804  he  declined  the 
presidency  of  Harvard.  He  died  July  4,  1808. 
A  single  volume  of  his  Works  was  published  in 
Boston  (1809),  and  later  his  son,  Seth  Ames, 
edited  his  writings  and  speeches  in  more  extend- 
ed form,  with  a  memoir  by  J.  T.  Kirkland 
(Boston,   1854). 

AMES,  James  Barr  (1846 — ).  An  eminent 
American  educator  and  legal  scholar.  He  was 
born  in  Boston,  graduated  in  1868  at  Harvard 
and  in  1872  at  the  Law  School  of  the  University, 
in  1868-69  was  an  instructor  in  a  private  school 
at  Boston,  and  from  1871  to  1872  was  tutor  in 
German  and  Franch  at  Harvard.  In  the  same 
institution  he  was  appointed  successively  instruc- 
tor in  history  (1872),  associate-professor  of  law 
(1873),  and  professor  of  law  (1877).    In  1895 


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AMETHYST. 


he  became  Dean  of  the  Harvard  Law  School.  He 
has  published  various  articles  in  the  Harvard 
Law  Review  and  similar  periodicals,  and  has 
compiled  and  edited  numerous  valuable  collec- 
tions of  cases  on  torts,  trusts,  and  suretyship, 
and  other  legal  questions.  He  received  the  de- 
gree of  LL.D.  from  New  York  University  ( 1898) , 
the  University  of  Wisconsin  (1898),  and  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania  (1899). 

AMES,  Joseph  ( 1689-1759) .  An  English  an- 
tiquary and  bibliographer,  born  at  Yarmouth. 
He  was  in  some  sort  of  mercantile  pursuit,  and 
in  addition  to  various  other  compilations  pub- 
lished the  Typographical  Antiquitiea  (1749), 
regarded  as  forming  the  foundation  of  English 
bibliography. 

AMES,  Joseph  (1816-1872).  An  American 
portrait  painter.  He  was  born  in  Roxbury, 
N.  H.,  and  studied  at  Rome,  Italy,  where  he 
painted  a  fine  picture  of  Pope  Pius  IX.  On  his 
return  to  America  he  lived  successively  at  Bos- 
ton, Baltimore,  and  New  York,  where  he  was 
elected  a  member  of  the  National  Academy  of 
Design  in  1870.  His  best  portraits  are  those  of 
Emerson,  Hachel,  Ristori,  Clarence  H.  Seward, 
Webster,  Choate,  and  President  Felton  of  Har- 
vard. Among  the  paintings  treating  of  ideal 
subjects,  that  entitled  "The  Death  of  Webster" 
is  generally  considered  the  best. 

AMES,  Joseph  Sweetman  (1864 — ).  An 
American  physicist  and  educator,  born  at  Man- 
chester, Vt.  He  graduated  in  1886  at  the  Johns 
Hopkins  University,  and  became  professor  of 
physics  there.  He  was  elected  an  honorary  mem- 
ber of  the  Royal  Institution  of  Great  Britain, 
has  edited  (New  York,  1898)  J.  von  Fraunhofer's 
memoirs  on  Prismatic  and  Diffractive  Spectra, 
and  has  published  The  Theory  of  Physios  ( 1897 ) , 
Elements  of  Physics  (1900),  and  The  Induction 
of  Electric  Currents   (2  volumes,  1900). 

AMES,  Mabt  Clemmeb  ( 1839-84) .  An  Amer- 
ican author,  best  known  by  her  "Woman's  Letter 
from  Washington,"  contributed  for  many  years 
to  the  New  York  Independent,  She  was  born  at 
Utica,  New  York,  and  at  an  early  age  married 
the  Rev.  Daniel  Ames,  from  whom  she  was 
divorced  in  1874.  In  later  life  she  removed  to 
Washin^on,  where  her  home  was  a  literary 
and  social  centre,  and  in  1883  she  married  Ed- 
mund Hudson,  editor  of  the  Army  and  Navy 
Register.  Her  works  include  Eirene,  a  novel 
(1870),  Ten  Years  in  Washington  (1871),  and 
Memorials  of  Alice  and  Phoebe  Gary  (1872),  of 
whom  she  had  been  an  intimate  friend.  Her  com- 
plete works  were  published  at  Boston,  4  volumes 
(1885).  Consult  Hudson,  Memorial  Biography 
of  Mary  C.  Ames  (Boston,  1886). 

AMES,  Nathan  P.  (1803-47).  An  American 
manufacturer  of  firearms,  ordnance,  and  cutlery. 
In  early  life  he  owned  extensive  cutlery  works 
at  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.,  but  afterward  removed 
to  Cabotsville.  The  works  were  supplemented  in 
1836  by  a  bronze  foundry,  where  most  of  the 
brass  guns  for  the  United  States  Army  were  cast. 
There  also  the  statues  of  DeWitt  Clinton,  in 
Greenwood  Cemetery,  Brooklyn;  of  Washington, 
in  Union  Square,  New  York;  and  of  Franklin, 
in  School  Street,  Boston,  were  cast. 

AMES,  Oakes  (1804-1873).  An  American 
manufacturer  and  legislator.  He  was  born  at 
Easton,  Mass.,  and  at  an  early  age  entered  his 
father's  workshop,  where  he  soon  familiarized 


himself  with  every  detail  of  the  shovel  business, 
which,  upon  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California 
and  the  impetus  thereby  given  to  railroad  build- 
ing, soon  became  a  most  important  industry. 
In  1864,  after  others  had  failed,  he  was  called 
upon  by  President  Lincoln  and  others  to  build 
the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  which  great  under- 
taking he  successfully  completed  on  May  10, 
1869.  He  had  invested  $1,000,000  in  the  enter- 
prise, and  had  pledged  the  remainder  of  his  for- 
tune for  the  same  purpose.  He  was  censured 
by  the  Forty-second  Congress  for  participation 
in  the  Credit  Mobilier  scheme,  but  afterward  was 
vindicated  in  a  resolution  passed  by  the  Massa- 
chusetts Legislature  (May  10,  1883).  From 
1862  to  1873  he  was  a  member  of  Congress  from 
the  second  Massachusetts  district.  His  will 
contained  a  bequest  of  $50,000  to  children  of 
North  Easton,  Mass.  A  fine  monument  in  his 
memory  was  erected  by  the  Union  Pacific  Rail- 
road at  Sherman,  Wyoming,  8550  feet  above  the 
sea  level — the  highest  point  reached  by  the  rail- 
road. 

AMES,  Oliveb  (1831-95).  The  thirty-first 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  a  son  of  Oakes  Ames 
(q.v.).  He  was  trained  in  his  father's  manufac- 
tory, and  upon  his  death  undertook  the  discharge 
of  the  numerous  financial  obligations  incurred 
by  the  building  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad 
and  other  enterprises,  paying  within  a  few  years 
debts  aggregating  millions  of  dollars.  In  1882 
he  was  chosen  Lieutenant-Governor  of  Massachu- 
setts, serving  for  four  successive  terms,  and  in 
1886  was  elected  Governor,  to  which  office  he 
was  reelected  in  1887  and  1888. 

AMES,  William  (1576-1633).  An  English 
Puritan  clergyman  and  writer  on  moral  philos- 
ophy, born  in  the  county  of  Norfolk.  He. studied 
at  Christ  College,  Cambridge,  and  was  professor 
of  theology  in  the  University  of  Franeker,  Fries- 
land,  from  1622  to  1632.  His  best-known  work 
is  De  Consoientia,  eius  lure  et  Casihus  (1632). 
long  highly  esteemed  in  the  schools. 

AMESBUBY,  flmz^r-I.  A  town  in  Essex 
Co.,  Mass.,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad, 
42  miles  northeast  of  Boston  (Map:  Massachu- 
setts, F  2).  It  has  a  public  library  of  7500  vol- 
umes, and  extensive  manufactures  of  carriages, 
carriage  manufacturers'  supplies,  hats,  shoes, 
cotton  goods,  and  underwear.  The  government  is 
administered  by  town  meetings,  held  annually. 
Originally  a  part  of  Salisbury,  Amesbury  was 
virtually  separated  as  New  Salisbury  in  1654, 
and  was  incorporated  in  1666,  and  named  (from 
Amesbury,  England)  in  1667.  John  Greenleaf 
Whittier  (q.v.)  lived  here  from  1836  until  his 
death  in  1892.  Pop.,  1890,  9798;  1900,  9473. 
Consult:  J.  Merrill,  History  of  Amesbury 
(Haverhill,  1880). 

AM'ETHYST  (Gk.  afik^varoq,  amethystos,  a 
remedy  against  drunkenness,  from  a,  a,  priv.  -|- 
/iti^,  mcthy,  wine.  A  violet  blue  or  bluish 
violet  variety  of  quartz,  the  color  of  which  is 
believed  to  be  due  to  manganese  oxide.  It  is  one 
of  the  most  esteemed  varieties  of  quartz,  and  is 
much  employed  for  seals,  rings,  and  other  articles 
of  jewelry.  The  ancients  imagined  it  to  possess 
the  property  of  preventing  drunkenness,  and 
those  addicted  to  that  habit  wore  it  on  their  per- 
sons. Amethyst  frequently  occurs  lining  the 
interior  of  balls  or  geodes  of  agate,  and  in  veins 
and  cavities  in  various  rocks.  The  finest  speci- 
mens are  from  Scotland,  Siberia,  India,  and  Cey- 


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AKETHYST. 


460 


AHHEBST. 


Ion.  In  the  United  States  the  amethyst  is  found 
in  many  localities,  but  seldom  of  sufficient  clear- 
ness or  color  to  be  used  as  a  gem.  The  Lake 
Superior  crystals,  from  the  slaty  formations 
around  Thunder  Bay,  are  perhaps  the  best  known, 
and  annually  thousands  of  dollars  worth  is  sent 
from  this  locality  to  be  sold  at  Niagara  Falls, 
and  othet  tourist  resorts.  The  Oriental  amethyst 
is  a  purple  variety  of  corundum. 

AM'ETBCyPIA  (Gk.  d,  a,  priv.  -h  fUrpoif, 
metroHf  measure,  or  dfitrpitc,  ametros,  dispropor- 
tionate 4-  <5^,  ^8,  eye ) .  A  condition  of  the 
eye  such  that  when  it  is  resting  parallel  rays  of 
light  reaching  it  are  focused  either  in  front  of  or 
behind  instead  of  upon  the  retina.  It  is  the  re- 
verse of  emmetropia,  the  condition  of  the  nor- 
mal eye.  See  Hyfebopia;  Myopia;  Astigmat- 
ism; Vision. 

AMGAy  &m-g&^  A  river  in  the  territory  of 
Yakutsk,  Siberia,  rising  in  the  Yablonoi  Moun- 
tains, running  north-northeast,  and  joining  the 
Aldan,  one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Lena  (Map: 
Siberia,  M  2). 


L,  &m-ha'r&  (the  high  lands).  The 
central  division  of  Abyssinia,  occupying  the  ter- 
rit<ory  around  Lake  Tsana  (Map:  Africa,  H  3). 
The  capital  is  Gondar  (q.v.)  See  Amhabio 
Laxguaoe. 

AMHABIC    (&m-hilMk)    LAN^OTJAGE.     A 

modem  Semitic  dialect  which  derives  its  name 
from  the  people  of  Amhara  (q.v.),  one  of  the 
divisions  of  Abyssinia.  Next  to  the  Arabic,  Ara- 
haric  is  the  most  widely  spread  of  the  Semitic 
languages.  It  has  displaced  in  popular  usage 
the  original  language  of  Abyssinia,  the  Ethiopic 
or  Creez,  and  is  now  the  spoken  tongue,  whereas 
the  Geez  is  the  religious  tongue.  For  many  years 
Amharic  had  no  writing,  so  that  it  changed  very 
much  in  its  forms,  conjugations,  and  even  in 
the  meanings  of  its  roots.  Moreover,  its  vocabu- 
lary received  non-Semitic  additions  from  the  sur- 
rounding African  tribes.  Hence  it  is  .  that 
Amharic  is  the  least  Semitic  of  the  Semitic  lan- 
guages, and  this  appears  very  strongly  in  the 
syntax.  When  the  Amharic  language  began  to 
be  written,  the  Ethiopic  or  Geez  letters  were 
used.  In  this  way  something  resembling  a  lit- 
erature has  grown  up  in  comparatively  modern 
times.  There  is  an  Amharic  Bible,  prepared  by 
missionaries,  and  we  have  a  few  texts,  such  as 
Guidi's  Le  Canzoni  geez-amarina  in  onore  di  Rd- 
Ahifisini  (Borne,  1880)  :  of  grammars  there  are 
Ludolph's  (Frankfort,  1698);  Isenberg's  (Lon- 
don, 1842)  ;  Massaja's  (Paris,  1867)  ;  PrJltorius 
(Halle,  1879)  ;  Guidi  (Rome,  second  edition, 
1892)  ;  of  dictionaries,  Isenberg's  (London, 
1841);  A.  d'Abbadie's  (1881).  See  African 
Languages. 

AM^EBST.  A  district  of  Lower  Burma 
(q.v.),  British  India. 

AMHEBST.  A  town  in  Hampshire  Co., 
Mass.,  98  miles  west  of  Boston,  on  the  Boston 
and  Maine  and  Vermont  Central  railroads  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  0  3).  The  scenery  is  picturesque, 
with  beautiful  views  of  the  Connecticut  Valley, 
Mount  Holyoke,  and  other  mountains.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Amherst  College,  and  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Agricultural  College  (q.v.).  Straw  hat 
manufacture  is  the  principal  industry.  Prob- 
ably settled  as  early  as  1703,  Amherst  was  part 
of  Hadley,  and  was  known  successively  as  New 
Swamp,  Hadley  Farms,  East  Farms,  and  East 


Hadley  until,  in  1759,  it  w^as  incorporated  as  a 
district  under  its  present  name,  given  by  Gover- 
nor Pownall  in  honor  of  General  Jeffrey  Amherst 
(q.v.).  In  1776  it  became  a  town.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered  by  town  meetings,  which 
convene  annually  to  elect  officers  and  raise  funds 
for  current  expenses.  Pop.,  1890,  4512;  1900, 
6028.  Consult  Carpenter  and  Morehouse,  The 
History  of  the  Town  of  Amherst  (Amherst 
1896). 

AJCHEBST.  A  busy  Canadian  seaport,  the 
capital  of  Cumberland  Co.,  Nova  Scotia,  near 
the  head  of  (?umberland  Basin,  an  inlet  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy.  It  is  138  miles  northeast  of 
Halifa?c  by  rail,  has  substantial  public  and  pri- 
vate buildings,  and  a  considerable  lumber  and 
general  trade.    Pop.,  1901,  4964. 

AMHEBST,  Jeffrey,  Baron  (1717-79).  An 
English  soldier.  He  was  born  at  Riverhead, 
Kent,  and  for  some  time  was  a  page  in  the  house- 
hold of  the  Duke  of  Dorset.  He  entered  the 
army  as  ensign  in  1731,  soon  became  an  aide-de- 
camp of  Greneral  Ligonier,  and  in  the  War  of  the 
Austrian  Succession  served  at  Dettingen,  Fonte- 
noy,  and  Roncoux,  and  in  the  Seven  Years*  War 
at  Hastenmbeck.  In  1768  Pitt  raised  him 
from  the  rank  of  lieutenant-colonel  to  that  of 
major-general,  and  put  him  in  command  of  the 
expedition  against  Louisburg,  which,  after  a 
short  siege,  surrendered  on  July  27.  In  Septem- 
ber he  replaced  Abercromby  as  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  English  forces  *in  America;  and  in 
1759  led  the  expedition  against  Ticonderoga  and 
Cro\vn  Point,  gaining  possession  of  the  former 
July  23,  and  of  the  latter  August  1.  In  the  fol- 
lowing year  he  commanded  in  person  the  forces 
before  Montreal,  and  on  September  8  compelled 
the  French  to  capitulate  and  surrender  Canada 
with  all  its  dependencies  to  the  British  crown. 
For  his  services  he  was  appointed  Govemor-CSen- 
eral  of  British  North  America,  was  formally 
thanked  by  Parliament,  and  was  made  a  Knight 
of  the  Bath.  Having  no  knowledge  of  Indian 
warfare,  and  scorning  to  avail  himself  of  the 
undisciplined  colonifil  militia,  he  proved  unfit  for 
the  task  of  suppressing  the  conspiracy  of  Pontiac 
(q.v.),  and  returned  to  England  in  1763,  where, 
as  the  conqueror  of  Canada,  he  was  received  with 
the  greatest  enthusiasm.  He  was  absentee  Gov- 
ernor of  Virginia  from  1763  to  1768,  was  ap- 
pointed Governor  of  Guernsey  in  1770,  and  be- 
came a  Privy  Councillor  in  1772.  From  1772  to 
1782.  and  from  1783  to  1793  he  was  acting  Com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  British  Army.  He  became 
a  general  in  1778,  was  Commander-in-Chief  1793 
to  1796,  and  was  made  a  Field-Marshal  in  1796. 
For  his  record  as  an  officer  in  America,  consult .- 
Parkman,  Montcalm  and  Wolfe  (Boston,  1884); 
and  The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  (Boston,  1851). 

AMHEBST,  Wn.LiAM  Pitt,  Earl  (1773- 
1857).  A  British  diplomatist  and  statesman. 
He  succeeded  his  uncle  Jeffrey  as  Baron  Amherst 
in  1797.  In  1816  he  was  sent  as  ambassador  to 
C^hina,  where  he  refused  to  perform  what  he 
thought  a  degrading  act  of  kneeling,  which  was 
required  of  all  who  would  see  the  Emperor.  For 
this  he  was  not  allowed  to  enter  Peking,  and  the 
object  of  his  mission  was  frustrated.  On  the 
w^ay  home  he  was  wrecked.  Another  ship,  in 
which  he  returned,  touched  at  St.  Helena,  where 
he  had  several  interviews  with  Napoleon.  He 
was   Governor-General   of  India,   from   1823   to 


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AMHEBST. 


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AHICTJS   CTJBIiES. 


1828,  and  for  his  services  in  conducting  the  first 
Burmese  War  he  was  created  an  earl  in  1826. 

AH^HEBSTBUBO.  A  town  in  Ontario, 
Canada,  on  the  Detroit  River,  six  miles  above 
Lake  Erie.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  settlements  in 
Upper  Canada,  is  a  port  of  entry,  was  formerly  a 
garrison  town,  and  is  connected  with  Detroit, 
Mich.,  by  a  steamer  line.  It  has  a  public  li- 
brary, electric  lighting,  water  works,  various 
manufactures,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  United  States 
consulate.  In  the  war  of  1812  it  was  dis- 
mantled by  the  British  in  September,  1813,  and 
destroyed  by  General  Harrison,  of  the  United 
States  Army,  a  week  later.     Pop.,  1901,  2222. 

AK^HEBST  COI/IiEGE.  A  leading  American 
college,  situated  at  Amherst,  Mass.,  and  founded 
in  1821  by  Congregationalists  in  the  interest  of 
Christian  education.  Up  to  the  year  1900  the 
graduates  numbered  4160,  of  whom  1237  entered 
the  clergy,  while  an  equally  large  number  became 
teachers.  The  unusual  educational  influence 
wielded  by  Amherst  for  half  a  century  was  due 
to  a  considerable  extent  to  two  of  its  presidents, 
Edward  Hitchcock  and  Julius  H.  Seelye.  The 
former  was  probably  the  most  distinguished 
American  geologist  of  his  time,  and  the  latter 
united  with  a  broad  scholarship  in  the  human- 
ities great  ability  as  a  practical  educator.  Am- 
herst has  never  endeavored  to  branch  out  as 
a  university,  but  has  steadily  increased  in  efl&- 
ciency  as  a  non-specialized  and  non-technical 
liberal  college.  In  1900  the  faculty  numbered 
36,  and  the  students  400.  The  total  value  of 
the  buildings  and  grounds  is  about  $1,000,000; 
the  interest  of  over  $240,000  is  used  to  aid 
needy  students ;  the  annual  income  of  the  college 
is  about  $110,000,  and  the  entire  property  under 
the  control  of  the  college  aggregates  $2,500,000. 
The  library  contains  75,000  volumes,  and  is  the 
largest  belonging  to  any  purely  collegiate  insti- 
tution in  the  country.  Of  accessories  to  the  col- 
lege may  be  mentioned  the  Hitchcock  ichnolog- 
ical  cabinet,  the  Adams  collection  in  conchology, 
the  Shepard  meteoric  collection,  and  an  extensive 
and  valuable  geological  and  mineralogical  collec- 
tion gathered  largely  by  the  personal  efforts  of 
Professor  Benjamin  K.  Emerson.  The  Pratt 
Gymnasium,  athletic  field,  and  college  hospital 
are  the  gifts  of  the  sons  of  the  late  Charles  Pratt 
of  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  The  presidents  have  been: 
Zephaniah  Swift  Moore,  D.D.,  1821-23;  Heman 
Humphrey,  D.D.,  1823-45;  Edward  Hitchcock, 
D.D.XL.D.,  1845-54;  William  A.  Stearns,  D.D., 
LL.D.,  1854-76;  Julius  H.  Seelye,  D.D.,  LL.D., 
1876-90;  Merrill  Edwards  Gates,  LL.D.,  Ph.D., 
1890-99 ;  George  Harris,  D.D.,  LL.D.,  1899.  Con- 
sult Tyler,  A  History  of  Amherst  College  (New 
York,  1896). 

AHaCABLE  NTJM'BEBS  (Lat.  amicabilis, 
friendly).  Two  numbers,  each  of  which  is  the 
sura  of  the  factors  of  the  other,  are  called  ami- 
cable numbers,  as  220  and  284,  e.g.: 

220=1+2+4+714-142 
284=1+2+4+5+10+11+20+22+44+55+110 

The  classification  and  fanciful  name  are  due 
to  the  Pythagoreans,  who  made  much  of  number 
mysticism. 

AHICE,  am^s.  See  Costume,  Ecclesias- 
tical. 

AHICI,  ft-mg'ch^,  Giovanni  Battista  (1786- 
1864).     An  Italian  astronomer  and  optician.   He 


was  born  at  Modena,  where  he  was  afterward 
professor  of  mathematics  at  the  University.  In 
1831  he  was  appointed  superintendent  of  educa- 
tion, and  subsequently  became  director  of  the 
observatory  and  professor  of  astronomy  at  Flor- 
ence. The  various  pieces  of  physical  and  astro- 
nomical apparatus  designed  or  constructed  by 
him  include  a  reflecting  telescope,  an  achromatic 
microscope,  polarization  apparatus,  a  micrometer 
for  telescopes,  and  a  reflecting  prism.  He  pub- 
lished papers  on  observations  on  double  stars,  the 
moons  of  Jupiter,  the  sun,  and  on  various  botan- 
ical subjects,  such  as  the  circulation  of  the  sap 
in  plants. 

AlilCIS,  A-me'chte,  Edmondo  de  (1846 — ). 
One  of  the  most  popular  of  living  Italian  authors. 
He  was  born  at  Oneglia,  in  Liguria,  October  21, 
1846.  In  1861  he  graduated  from  the  military 
academy  at  Modena,  with  the  rank  of  sub-lieu- 
tenant, and  five  years  afterward  participated  in 
the  battle  of  Custozza.  For  a  while  he  edited 
a  Florentine  journal,  L*Italia  militare,  and  sub- 
sequently took  part  in  the  Roman  occupation  of 
1870;  but  having  achieved  some  success  with  a 
volume  of  sketches  of  army  life,  Bozzetti  ( 1868) , 
he  abandoned  both  the  military  and  the  journal- 
istic career,  and  undertook  a  series  of  voyages 
to  England,  Holland,  Spain,  Africa,  Turkey,  and 
South  America.  Almost  all  these  gave  him 
material  for  brilliant  and  widely  popular  vol- 
umes of  travel,  such  as  La  Spagna  ( 1873) ,  Ricor- 
di  di  Londra  (1874),  UOlanda  (1874),  Marocco 
( 1875 ) ,  and  Conatantifwpoli  ( 1877 ) .  These  vol- 
umes have  been  translated  into  many  languages. 
They  show  a  keen  power  of  observation,  a  genial 
humor,  and  a  broad  spirit  of  tolerance,  which 
would  justify  their  popularity  even  without  the 
w^arm  coloring  and  glowing  vividness  of  descrip- 
tion, in  which  respect  his  style  challenges  com- 
parison with  that  of  Th^ophile  Gautier.  Other 
writings  include  Ritraiti  letterari  (1881),  a 
series  of  personal  impressions  of  well-known 
writers,  including  Zola  and  Dumas  fits;  a  sym- 
pathetic and  semi-humorous  volume  on  friend- 
ship, Oli  Amici  (1882),  and  a  number  of  his- 
torical novelettes,  collected  under  the  title,  Alle 
porte  d'ltalia  ( 1888) .  Of  recent  years  De  Amicis 
has  become  deeply  interested  in  educational  and 
economic  questions,  and  in  many  ways  his  great- 
est literary  success  is  a  simple  little  volume, 
II  Cuore  C'The  Heart  of  a  Boy"),  intended  pri- 
marily for  children,  and  recording  the  events 
of  a  single  school  year  as  told  from  day  to  day 
by  one  of  the  pupils.  In  Italy,  it  is  nearing 
its  two  hundredth  thousand.  Educational  prob- 
lems have  also  given  De  Amicis  his  subject  for 
his  more  serious  attempt  at  fiction.  La  mcestrina 
degli  operai  (1895),  and  II  romanzo  d'un 
mcestro  (1895).  The  last-named  volume  shows 
a  strong  socialistic  tendency,  which  he  has  since 
openly  avowed.  "As  a  fountain  of  literary  in- 
spiration," he  said  recently,  "socialism  seems  to 
me  most  valuable.  Since  the  last  outbreak  of 
patriotism  and  of  patriotic  literature  in  Italy, 
we  have  had  no  sort  of  vital  literature.  But 
socialism  will  give  it  to  us."  His  latest  volumes 
are  La  carozza  di  tutti  (1899),  Memorie  (1899), 
Speranza  e  glorie  (1900),  Ricordi  dHnfanzia  e  di 
scuola  (1001). 

AMFCUS  CTJ'RI.ffl  (Lat.  friend  of  the  court) . 
One,  usually  a  counselor  at  law,  who  Volunteers 
information,  or  gives  it  at  the  request  of  the 
court,  upon  some  matter  of  law  in  regard  to 


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AMICUS   CU31M. 


462 


A'MTB'Tf, 


which  the  judge  is  doubtful,  or  information  upon 
matters  of  fact  of  which  the  court  may  take 
judicial  co^izance.  The  amicus  curite  cannot 
add  anything  to  the  record  or  increase  the 
power  of  the  court  to  dispose  of  the  matter  in 
hand.  The  amicus  curise  in  general  has  no  con- 
trol over  an  action,  as  does  the  attorney  of 
record;  but  in  some  cases,  as  when  letters  of 
administration  have  been  issued  without  author- 
ity, he  may  move  to  set  the  proceeding  aside. 
By  an  early  English  statute  tne  amicus  curie 
was  permitted  to  move  to  quash  an  improper 
indictment. 

AM^TDAS,  Philip.    See  Amadas,  Philip. 

AMTDAVAIX  (Amadavat,  Indian  name;  the 
bird  was  first  imported  from  the  city  of  Ahmeda- 
bad).  A  cage-bird  {Eatrilda  amandava),  one  of 
the  small  weaver- finches  of  India,  having  a  pretty 
.  song  and  a  social  disposition,  so  that  it  is  a 
favorite  for  aviaries.  The  plumage  is  most 
brilliant,  the  prevailing  colors  being  fiery  red, 
black,  and  yellow.  It  requires  the  food  and  care 
given  to  a  canary.    See  Cage-Birds. 

AJE^BES,  or  ACaB  AMOBBS  (derived 
from  ammonia).  An  interesting  class  of  organic 
compounds  formed  by  the  substitution  of  organic 
acid  radicles  for  one  or  more  hydrogen  atoms 
in  ammonia  (NH«).  If  one  of  the  hydrogen 
atoms  of  ammonia  is  replaced  by  an  acid  radicle, 
the  resulting  compound  is  termed  a  primary 
amide;  if  two  acid  radicles  are  introduced  into 
the  molecule  of  ammonia,  a  secondary  amide  is 
obtained ;  finally,  if  all  the  three  hydrogen  atoms 
of  ammonia  are  replaced  by  acid  radicles,  a  ter- 
tiary amide  is  obtained.  The  relation  of  these 
three  sub-classes  of  amides  to  ammonia  is  shown 
by  the  following  formuloe,  representing  com- 
pounds containing  one  or  more  acetyl  groups 
(radicles  of  acetic  acid) : 

/H  /COCH  /COCH,  /COCH3 

N-.H       N— H  N-COCH,       N— COCH, 

\H  \H  \H  \COCH3 

Ammonia  Acetamide         Di-acetylamide        Tri-acetylamide 
(a  primary  (a  secondary  (a  tertiary 

amide)  amide)  amide) 

Amides  are  also  subdivided  into  fatty  and 
aromatic  amides,  according  as  their  acid  radicles 
are  derived  from  fatty  or  from  aromatic  acids; 
thus,  acetamide  (corresponding  to  acetic  acid) 
is  a  fatty  amide,  while  benzamide  (derived  from 
benzoic  acid)   is  an  aromatic  amide. 

Tlie  primary  amides  are  by  far  more  numerous 
and  important  than  the  secondary  or  tertiary 
amides.  From  the  above  it  is  evident  that  their 
molecule  consists  of  two  parts:  viz.,  one  acid 
radicle  and  the  group  NHj.  A  number  of  inter- 
esting derivatives  of  the  amides  have  been  ob- 
tained by  replacing  the  hydrogen  of  the  latter 
group.  Thus,  from  acetamide,  CH3CONH2,  com- 
pounds may  be  readily  obtained,  represented  by 
the  following  formuhe:  CH3CONH  ( CH, )  — me- 
th.yl-acetamide ;  CH3CON  ( CH, )  r-di-methyl -acet- 
amide; CH,CONHAg— silver-acetamide;  CH3CO 
NHBr — ^bromine-acetamide,  etc. 

The  following  are  the  principal  general  meth- 
ods by  which  primary  acid  amides  may  be  pre- 
pared ; 

1.  When  the  ammonium  salts  of  many  fatty 
organic  acids  are  distilled,  they  lose  the  elements 
of  water,  and  the  corresponding  amides  are 
formed.     Thus,  acetamide  is  made  by  distilling 


Benzamide  Hrdro- 

chloricacid 


ammonium   acetate,   the   reaction   taking  place, 
according  to  the  following  chemical  equation: 

CH,C00NH4  —  Hrf)  =  CH,CONH- 
Ammoniam  acetate  Acetamide 

2.  The  chlorides  of  acid  radicals  are  treat€d 
with  ammonia.  Thus,  benzamide  (the  amide  of 
benzoic  acid)  is  readily  prepared  by  slowly  add- 
ing benzoyl  chloride  to  strong  ammonia  in  the 
cold,  the  reaction  taking  place  as  follows: 

CJI.C0C1    -h    NH.    =    C,H.CONH,    .-f    EO 
Benzorl  Ammonia 

diloride 

When  acid  amides  are  boiled  with  dilute  acids 
or  alkalies,  they  take  up  the  elements  of  water 
and  are  reconverted  into  the  ammonium  salts  of 
the  corresponding  acids.  Thus,  acetamide  yield* 
ammonium  acetate,  according  to  the  following 
equation : 

CH.CONH,    +    H,0    =    CH3COONH4 
Acetamide  Ammonium  acetate 

The  amides  are  all  soluble  in  alcohol  and  in 
ether,  and  many  are  more  or  less  soluble  in  water. 
Most  of  them  are  solid  crystalline  substances 
'that  can  be  distilled  without  decomposition. 

The  acid  amides  should  be  distinguished  from 
the  amido-aoida;  compounds  of  the  latter  class 
may  be  obtained  by  treating  the  halogen-substi- 
tution products  of  acids  with  ammonia,  while, 
as  stated  above,  the  acid  amides  are  produced  by 
the  action  of  ammonia  on  the  chlorides  of  acid 
radicles.  The  following  two  equations  may 
serve  to  show  the  formation  of,  and  the  diflfer* 
ence  in  chemical  constitution  between,  an  acid 
amide  and  an  amido-acid: 

CH,C0C1     +     NH,     =    CH,CONH,     -f     HCl 
Acetyl  chloride  Acetamide 

CI  /NH, 

CHjCOOH     +     NH,     =     CH,COOH     -f     HCl 

Mono-chloro-  Amido-acetic  acid 

acetic  acid 

AM^TDO-AOODS.     See  Amides. 

AMUKSHTPS.     See   Ship. 

AMIEL,  &'myeK,  Henri  FRt^D^Ric  (1821-81). 
A  Swiss  essayist,  poet,  and  professor  of  aesthetics. 
He  was  bom  at  Geneva,  September  27,  1821. 
and  died  there,  March  11,  1881.  He  is  remem- 
bered almost  solely  for  his  Journal  intimCi  a 
diary  of  1700  pages*  of  manuscript,  posthumously 
published  in  part  in  1883-84  and  translated  into 
English  in  1889,  with  a  critical  study  by  Mrs. 
Humphry  Ward.  This  journal,  through  its  singu- 
lar clearness,  keenness  of  insight,  and  sensitive- 
ness to  impression,  is  the  complete  revelation  of  s 
cast  of  mind  that  felt  itself  peculiarly  modern 
and  peculiarly  entitled  to  be  self-distressed.  It 
expresses  with  masterful  passion  and  original 
power  the  spiritual  yearning  and  despair  of  a 
pure  soul  gasping  in  a  rationalistic  atmosphere. 
Thus  Amiel  is  a  curious  projection  into  reality 
of  the  Shakespearean  Hamlet,  in  whom  morbid 
introspection  numbs  action.  He  is  more  fasci- 
nating than  stimulating,  more  sombre  than  pessi- 
mistic, more  subtle  than  strong.  His  thoughts 
will  be  cherished  for  the  beauty  of  their  form 
rather  than  for  any  tonic  quality  in  their  teach- 
ing.   There  is  a  Life  of  Amiel,  by  Vadier  (Pans, 


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AMIEL. 


463 


AHINES. 


1885).  Consult  also,  Bourgat,  Nouveatuo  Essaia 
(Paris,  1885). 

AJOENSy  &'myftN'  (From  the  Lat.  Amhiani, 
the  name  of  a  Belgic  tribe;  literally  '^dwellerson 
the  water;"  compare  Gadhel,  abhain,  dbhuinne, 
water,  a  river).  The  capital  of  ancient  Picardy 
and  of  the  present  French  department  of  Somme, 
situated  on  the  River  Somme,  81  miles  by  rail 
from  Paris  (Map:  France,  J  2).  The  residential 
section  is  well  built  with  wide,  well-paved  streets 
and  fine  squares.  The  business  part  of  the  town 
is  crossed  by  several  canals,  and  is  rather  unat- 
tractive. The  old  town  is  surrounded  with 
boulevards,  which  occupy  the  site  of  the  ancient 
fortifications,  and  there  is  in  the  western  part  of 
the  town  an  extensive  pleasure  ground,  the 
Promenade  de  la  Hotoie,  used  for  public  concerts 
and  festivals.  The  world-famous  cathedral  is 
situated  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  city,  facing 
the  Place  NOtre  Dame.  Besides  being  the  largest 
ecclesiastical  edifice  of  France,  the  cathedral  of 
Amiens  is  also  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  Europe.  Its  construction 
was  begun  in  1220  by  the  architect  Robert  de 
Luzarches,  and  was  continued  by  Thomas  de 
Cormont  and  his  son  Renault.  It  was  finished  in 
1288,  but  many  additions  have  been  made  since; 
the  two  side  towers  of  the  western  facade,  how- 
ever, are  still  unfinished.  The  length  of  the  ca- 
thedral is  470  feet,  that  of  the  transept  213  feet, 
and  the  width  of  the  nave  144  feet.  The  main 
facade  has  three  lofty  porches  profusely  decora- 
ted with  statuary  and  other  sculptural  orna- 
ments. The  central  spire  over  the  transept  is 
very  slender,  and  3(50  feet  in  height.  The  inte- 
rior is  also  very  imposing.  The  nave  is  147  feet 
high,  and  the  vaulting  is  supported  by  126  col- 
umns. There  are  numerous  chapels,  and  the 
transepts  are  covered  with  fine  reliefs.  At  the 
sides  of  the  nave  are  placed  bronze  statues  of  the 
two  founders  of  the  cathedral,  and  there  are  also 
large  marble  statues  at  the  entrance  to  the  choir. 
Besides  the  cathedral  the  most  noteworthy  build- 
ings are  the  town  hall  and  the  Chftteau  d'Eau, 
where  the  water  works  of  the  city  are  situated. 
Of  educational  establishments  Amiens  has  a  ly- 
ceum,  a  medical  school,  a  theological  seminary, 
a  municipal  library,  with  about  100,000  volumes 
and  nearly  600  manuscripts,  and  the  museum  of 
Picardy,  containing  collections  of  antiquities, 
sculptures,  and  paintings.  Amiens  was  of  con- 
siderable industrial  importance  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  century,  and  in  the  sixteenth  century  it 
became  one  of  the  largest  centres  of  the  textile 
industry  in  France.  At  present  the  chief  manu- 
factures of  Amiens  are  linen,  woolens,  silk,  plush; 
and  shoes.  Amiens  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and  of 
a  court  of  appeals.     Pop.,  1901,  90,758.    • 

Amiens  was  anciently  known  as  Samarobriva, 
and  was  the  capital  of  the  Gallic  Ambiani.  Cssar 
included  it  in  Gallia  Belgica,  and  it  became  a 
Roman  stronghold;  Marcus  Aurelius  adorned  it. 
In  the  fifth  century  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Franks.  In  1185  Philip  Augustus,  in  consolidat- 
ing the  kingdom,  induced  Philip  of  Alsace  to 
cede  it  to  the  crown.  The  famous  Treaty  of 
Amiens  between  Great  Britain  on  one  side  and 
France,  Spain,  and  the  Batavian  Republic  on  the 
other,  in  which  Great  Britain  recognized  the 
changes  made  by  France  in  the  map  of  Europe, 
and  gave  up  most  of  her  recent  conquests,  was 
signed  in  the  HOtel  de  Ville  on  March  27,  1802. 
Among  notable  men  born  in  this  city  was  Peter 
the  Hermit. 


AHIKAy  &-m^n&.  In  Bellini's  opera,  La 
Sonnambula,  the  heroine,  an  orphan,  who  walked 
in  sleep. 

AHIN'ADAB  SLEEK.     See  Sleek,  Amin- 

AOAB. 

AMIKE,  &-men^  The  name  of  two  characters 
in  the  Arabian  Nights,  (1)  In  the  History  of 
8idi  Nouman,  his  wife,  whose  habit  of  eating 
only  so  much  rice  as  she  could  pick  up  on  a  bod- 
kin excited  his  suspicions,  and  who,  he  discovered, 
partook  of  ghoulisn  feasts  in  the  cemetery.  She 
used  also  to  lead  her  three  sisters  about  like 
hounds.  (2)  In  the  story  of  Three  Ladies  of  Bag- 
dad, the  half-sister  of  Zobeide  and  wife  of  Amin, 
the  Caliph's  son,  who  becomes  estranged  from 
her,  but  is  reconciled. 

AMfUSTES  (Derived  from  ammonia),  A  gen- 
eral term  applied  in  organic  chemistry  to  an  im- 
portant class  of  basic  compounds  derived  by  sub- 
stituting hydro-carbon  radicles  like  methyl 
(CHj),  ethyl  (CA)>  etc.,  for  one  or  more  of  the 
hydrogen  atoms  of  ammonia  (NH,).  The  com- 
pound, CH3NH2,  is  called  methyl-amine ;  the  com- 
pound (CHa),NH  —  di- methyl-amine ;  the  com- 
pound (CH,),N  —  tri- methyl-amine.  An  amine 
derived  by  replacing  one  hydrogen  atom  of  am- 
monia is  called  a  primary  amine;  one  derived  by 
replacing  two  hydrogens  is  called  a  secondary 
amine;  finally,  one  derived  by  replacing  all  of  the 
hydrogen  of  ammonia  is  called  a  tertiary  amine. 
The  three  compounds  just  mentioned  are  exam- 
ples, respectively,  of  primary,  secondary,  and 
tertiary  amines. 

The  amines  may  be  readily  prepared  by  the 
action  of  halogen  substitutive  products  of  the 
hydrocarbons  upon  ammonia  (Hofmann's 
method).  Thus,  by  the  action  of  mono-iodo- 
ethane  (ethyl  iodide)  upon  ammonia,  one  or 
more  ethyl  groups  (C2H5)  are  introduced  into 
the  molecule  of  ammonia  (NH,),  according  to 
the  following  chemical  equations,  which  usually 
take  place  simultaneously: 

1.  CH.!     -f-   NH,    =     C,H.NH,     -f      HI 

Ethyl-  Ammooia         Ethyl-amine         Hydriodic 

iodide*  acid 

2.  2C,HJ  +   NH,    =    (C,H.),NH    +    2HI 

Di-ethyl-amine 
8.    8C,HJ  -+.   NH,    =     (C,H5),N     +    8HI 
Tri-ethyl-amine 

As  the  amines  are  powerful  bases,  they  combine, 
of  course,  with  the  hydriodic  acid  formed  in  these 
reactions,  producing  salts  like  CjHjNHsHI, 
from  which  the  amines  are  readily  isolated  by 
distilling  with  caustic  alkalies. 

Simultaneously  with  the  above  three  reactions, 
a  fourth  reaction  takes  place:  viz.,  between  the 
halogen  substitution  product  of  the  hydrocarbon 
and,  the  tertiary  amine  produced  in  the  third 
reaction.  This  fourth  reaction,  in  the  case  of 
tri-ethyl-amine,  is  represented  by  the  following 
equation: 

4.     CH^I        +        (C,H.),N       =        (C,H5),NI 

Ethyl-iodide  Tri-ethyl-amine  Tetr-ethvl-am- 

monium  iodide 

The  compound  formed  in  this  reaction  is  evi- 
dently ammonium  iodide  (H4NI),  all  the  hydro- 
gen of  which  has  been  replaced  by  ethyl-groups 
(CjHa)  ;  it  is  therefore  named  tetr-ethyl-ammo- 
nium- iodide.  When  treated  in  aqueous  solution 
with  silver  hydroxide,  it  is  transformed  into  tetr- 


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AKIKEB.  464 

ethyl-ammonium  hydroxide,  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing equation: 

(CA)4NI  +  AgOH  =  (CA)4N0H  +  Agl 


AMINES. 


Tetr-«thyl-ani- 
monlam  iodide 


Tetr-ethyl-am- 
monium  hydroxide 


just  as  ammonium  iodide  is  transformed  into 
ammonium  hydroxide: 

H,NI    -f    AgOH    =    H4NOH    +    Agl 

Ammooiam  AmmoDiam 

iodide  hydroxide 

Bases  like  (C3Hb)4N0H,  derived  from  ammonium 
hydroxide  by  substituting  hydrocarbon  radicles 
like  methyl  (CH,),  ethyl  (C,H.),  etc.,  for  all  of 
its  hydrogen,  are  termed  qtMtemary  ammonium 
bases. 

The  above  method  of  preparation  of  the  amines 
and  the  substituted  ammonium  salts  may  also 
serve  in  determining  the  nature  of  an  amine. 
An  example  will  render  this  clear:  an  amine 
found  in  herring-brine  has  the  molecular  for- 
mula CsH^N;  is  it  the  primary  amine  CaHyNHs 
(propyl-amine),  or  the  tertiary  amine  (CHa),N 
(tri-methyl-amine)  7  To  answer  this  question 
the  amine  may  be  treated  with  methyl  iodide, 
and,  when  the  reacrtion  is  completed,  the  result- 
ing substance  analyzed.  The  formation,  as  a 
final  product  of  the  reaction  of  the  compound 
€4X1,2X1,  proves  that  the  substance  C,H^,  found 
in  herring-brine,  is  a  tertiary  amine  (CH3)aN, 
for  only  one  methyl  group  (CH,)-  is  required  to 
transform  it  into  the  substituted  ammonium 
iodide  C4H12NI  [(CHa)4NI] ;  while  if  it  were  the 
priraarj-  amine,  CaH^NlIj,  the  number  of  methyl- 
groups  taken  up  would  be  three,  and  the  com- 
pound CoHx.NI  [CaHT(CH,),NI]  would  be  formed. 
The  number  of  groups,  like  methyl,  ethyl,  etc., 
taken  up  by  an  amine  thus  generally  determines 
its  nature. 

The  nature  of  amines  is  also  shown  by  their 
behavior  toward  nitrous  acid,  the  three  sub- 
classes of  amines  being  characterized  as  follows: 

1.  Primary  amines  are  converted  by  nitrous 
acid  into  the  corresponding  alcohols;  thus,  ethyl- 
amine  is  transformed  into  ethyl  alcohol,  accord- 
ing to  the  following  chemical  equation : 

C,H,NH,  -f  HNO.  =  C,H.OH  -f  H,0  -f  N, 

Ethyl 
alcohol 

just  as  ammonia  is  transformed  into  water: 

NH,    4-    HNO,    =    H2O    +    H,0    +    N, 

Ammonia        Nltroue  Water 

acid 

2.  Secondary  amines  are  converted  by  nitrous 
acid  into  compounds  containing  the  group  NO, 
and  called  nitroso-amines ;  thus,  di-ethyl-amine 
(C2Ha)jNH  is  transformed  into  ethyl-nitroso- 
amine,  according  to  the  following  equation: 

(C^,),NH   4-   HNO,  =    (p,H,),N.NO  -f   H,0 
Di-ethyl-  Ethyl-nitroao- 

amine  amine 

3.  Tertiary  amines  are  not  affected  by  nitrous 
acid. 

It  has  been  stated  above  that  when  ethyl-iodide 
or  similar  substances  are  treated  with  ammonia, 
four  reactions  take  place  simultaneously,  and  a 
mixture  of  four  compounds  is  obtained:  viz.,  the 
salts  of  a  primary,  a  secondary,  and  a  tertiary 
amine,  and  a  substituted  ammonium  iodide.  The 
separation  of  the  four  compounds  may  be  effected 
by  the  following  method:    (1)    The  mixture  is 


Etbyl-amine       Kitroas 
acid 


distilled  with  caustic  potash,  which  leaves  the 
substituted  ammonium  iodide  undeoomposed  as  a 
residue,  while  the  salts  of  the  three  amines  are 
decomposed,  and  a  mixture  of  the  amines  in  the 
free  state  passes  over  in  the  distillate.  (2)  When 
the  distillate  is  treated  with  ethyl-oxalate,  the 
primary  amine  (say,  ethyl-amine)  is  converted 
into  a  derivative  of  oxamvde  (the  amide  of  oxalie 

OONH, 
acid,  I  \i  according  to  the  following  equa* 

CONH,/ 
tion: 

COOCA      CONHCA 
2C,H,»NH,  +  1  =1  +  2(yi,09; 

COOCH.      CONHCA 
Ethyl-amine    Ethyl-oxalate    Ethyl-oxamlde         Alcohol 

while  the  secondary  amine  (say,  di-ethyl-amine) 
is  converted  into  a  derivative  of  owamic  acid 

CONH, 
(the  amide  of  oxalic  acid,  I  V  according  to 

the  following  equation: 

COOCA    CON(CA)t 
(C,H,),NH-f|  =1  H-C,H.OH; 

COOCJI5     COOC^, 


Bl-etbyl- 
amine 


Ethyl-  Ethyl^i-ethyl-  Alcohol 

oxalate  oxamate 


the  tertiary  amine  is  not  affected  by  treatment 
with  ethyl-oxalate,  and  as  it  is  much  more  vola- 
tile than  both  ethyl-oxamide  and  ethyl-di-ethyl- 
oxamate,  it  may  be  readily  separated  from  these 
compounds  by  distillation.  Finally,  the  two 
compounds  derived  respectively  from  the  primary 
and  secondary  amines  may  be  readily  separated, 
since  ethyl-oxamide  is  solid,  while  ethyl-di-ethyl- 
oxamate  remains  liquid  on  cooling  the  mixture. 
The  primary  and  the  secondary  amines  may  be 
obtained  separately  in  the  free  state  by  distilling 
the  substances  thus  separated  with  caustic  pot- 
ash, the  reactions  taking  place,  respectively,  ac- 
cording to  the  following  two  equations : 


CX)NHC,H. 


ho 


NHCJB. 

Ethyl- 
oxamide 

CON(C,H.), 


-f-   2K0H  =  2CJi,NH,   +   K,CA 


Ethyl- 
amine 


PotasBiiim 
oxalate 


I 

COOCH. 

Ethyl-di-ethyl- 
oxamate 


+  2K0H  = 


(CJl5),NH  -f  K,C04  -f  C,H,OH 
Di-ethyl-  Potaniiim        Alcohol 


amine 


oxalate 


The  amines  are  much  more  powerful  bases  than 
ammonia.  Their  odor  resembles  that  of  ammonia, 
from  which,  however,  the  gaseous  amines  may  be 
readily  distinguished  by  their  infiammability. 
Many  liquid  and  solid  amines,  too,  have  been 
obtained.  All  of  the  amines  known  have  been 
made  by  artificial  chemical  processes,  and  certain 
amines  are  found  among  the  products  of  decom- 
position of  nitrogenous  substances.  The  quater- 
nary ammonium  bases  (such  as  tetr-ethyl-ammo- 
nium-hydroxide)  are  similar,  and  even  more  pow- 
erful in  their  action  than  caustic  potash. 

Amines  containing  a  benzene-nucleus  are  classed 
with  the  so-called  aromatic  compounds  of  organic 
chemistry,  and  are  subdivided  into  amido-com- 
pounds  and  aromatic  amines  proper,  according 
as  their  nitrogen  is  linked  to  the  nucleus  imme- 
diately, or  through  the  medium  of  CH,-groups. 
Ordinary  aniline  is  an  example  of  an  amido-com- 


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AMIENS  CATHEDRAL 


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AMIKES. 


465 


AMLWCH. 


pound,  its  formula  being  C«H-NHs.  Benzylamine, 
C;«H«CH8NH«  is  a  true  aromatic  amine.  The  aro- 
matic amido-compounds  undergo  an  interesting 
transformation  when  treated  with  nitrous  acid 
in  the  cold,  the  resulting  substances  being  known 
as  diazo-compounds  { q.v. ) . 

AMIN^A.  A  celebrated  pastoral  play  by 
Torquato  Tasso,  produced  at  Ferrara  in  1573.  It 
is  an  allegory,  presenting  the  characters  of  the 
•court  where  Tasso  lived. 

AJONTE,  rm&Nt^  (1)  In  Molidre's  Les  Prd- 
detises  Ridicules  (q.v.),  the  sentimental  name 
taken  by  the  girl  Cathos.  (2)  A  character  in 
Molidre's  L* Amour  m^decin, 

AMIN^TOR.  The  hero  of  Beaumont  and 
Fletcher's  Maid's  Tragedy  (q.v.),  a  young  noble- 
man who,  though  betrothed  to  Aspatia,  yet  by 
the  king's  command  marries  Evadne,  the  heroine. 

AMIOT,  &'my6'.    See  Amyot. 

AMTTJANTE,  i^m'^rfint^  or  AIKMIBAL, 
ISIjANDS.  A  group  of  islets  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  in  lat.  5**  8.  and  long.  53**  E.  They  belong 
to  Great  Britain  and  are  dependencies  of  Mauri- 
tius. There  is  a  small  population,  chiefly  en- 
gaged in  fisheries. 

AMIS  ET  AMUiES,  k'm^  xk  &'mM^  also 
<?alled  Amis  et  AmdjOUN.  A  chanson  de  geste, 
dating  from  the  twelfth  or  thirteenth  century.  It 
consists  of  about  3500  verses,  chiefly  decasyllabic. 
Amis  and  Amiles  are  two  noble  knights  whose 
«lose  resemblance  and  whose  friendship  and  mu- 
tual sacrifices  are  the  theme  of  the  poem.  They 
first  escape  the  machinations  of  the  treacherous 
Hardr4  while  in  the  service  of  Charlemagne, 
whose  niece  is  given  in  marriage  to  Amis.  Belli- 
cent,  the  Emperor's  daughter,  loves  Amiles,  who  is 
thereby  brought  into  great  peril,  but  he  is  rescued 
by  Amis  and  obtains  the  princess.  Amis,  how- 
ever, in  fighting  in  place  of  his  friend,  has  had 
to  perjure  himself.  For  this  he  is  punished 
with  leprosy,  of  which  at  last  he  is  cured  by  the 
blood  of  Amiles's  two  sons,  voluntarily  sacrificed 
by  their  father.  These  then  are  miraculously  re- 
stored to  life. 

AMISH,  The.    See  Mennonites. 

AMISH,  Tns  Old.    See  Mennonites. 

AMISTAB  (ft'm^'stfti/)  CASE,  The.  A  case 
before  the  bnited  States  Supreme  Court  involv- 
ing the  legal  status  of  kidnapped  negroes.  In 
1839  some  slaves  recently  kidnapped  from  Africa, 
who  were  being  carried  from  Havana  to  Puerto 
'Prfncipe,  Cuba,  in  the  Spanish  schooner  L'Ami- 
Mad,  killed  two  of  the  crew,  the  others  escaping, 
and  ordered  two  whites,  their  owners,  whose 
lives  tiiey  spared,  to  steer  the  vessel  to  Africa. 
The  latter « steered  north  instead,  and  in  August 
the  vessel  was  captured  off  Long  Island  by  a 
United  States  warship.  President  Van  Buren 
wished  to  surrender  the  negroes  to  the  Spanish 
Government,  in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of 
1795,  as  "property  rescued  from  pirates";  but  the 
Supreme  Court  finally' decided  (in  March,  1841) 
that  the  blacks,  having  been  originally  kidnapped, 
were  by  international  law,  which  then  prohibited 
the  slave  trade,  free  men.  The  case  was  argued 
before  the  Supreme  Court  with  great  ability  by 
John  Quincy  Adams,  and  aroused  much  excite- 
ment throughout  the  country,  especially  among 
the  radical  abolitionists,  who  advocated  violent 
measures  to  secure  the  release  of  the  negroes. 
Consult:  Peters,  Reports  of  United  States 
Vol.  I.-80 


Supreme  Court  XV.  (Washington,  1828-43) ; 
Barber,  History  of  the  Amistad  Captives,  and  an 
interesting  article  in  Volume  XXII  (N.S.)  of  The 
New  EngUind  Magazine  (Boston,  1900). 

AMITE,  &-met^  A  town  and  parish  seat  of 
Tangipahoa  Parish,  La.,  about  70  miles  north  by 
west  of  New  Orleans,  on  the  Tangipahoa  River 
and  on  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad  (Map: 
Louisiana,  E  3 ) .  It  is  the  centre  of  a  prosperous 
agricultural  conmiunity.  Pop.,  1890,  1510;  1900, 
1547. 

AM'ITO^SIS  (Gk.  a,  a  priv,  +  fiiroc,  mitos, 
a  thread  of  the  warp).  A  division  (rare)  of  the 
animal  or  plant  cell  by  simple  constriction  with- 
out the  formation  of  nuclear  figures.     See  Cell; 

l^TOSIS. 

AM^TYVILLE.  A  village  in  Suffolk  Co., 
N.  Y.,  30  miles  east  of  New  York  City,  on  the 
Long  Island  Railroad  (Map:  New  York,  G  5). 
It  is  near  the  southern  shore  of  Long  Island,  and 
is  popular  as  a  place  of  residence  and  as  a  sum- 
mer resort.    Pop.,  1890,  2293;  1900,  2038. 

AM^ET,  Dick,  or  Richabd.  In  Vanbrugh's 
play.  The  Confederal  (q-v.),  the  dissipated  son 
of  a  vulgar  old  woman,  who  is  proud  of  him  and 
gives  him  money  with  which  to  play  the  fine  gen- 
'tleman.  His  breeding  betrays  itself,  however, 
and  he  marries  the  daughter  of  Grife  the  Scriv- 
ener. 

AM^LETH,  or  Hamleth.  Prince  of  Jutland, 
supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  second  century 
B.C.  According  to  Saxo  Grammaticus,  he  was 
the  sou  of  Horvendill  and  (rerutha;  and  after 
the  murder  of  his  father  by  his  uncle  Fengo,  who 
married  Gerutha,  he  feigned  himself  a  fool  to 
save  his  own  life.  Saxo  relates  a  number  of 
little  things  regarding  Amleth,  which  are  a 
curious  medley  of  sharp  and  lively  observation, 
and  apparent  madness.  We  are  told  that,  on 
one  occasion,  when  he  visited  his  mother,  sus- 
pecting that  he  was  watched,  he  commenced  to 
crow  like  a  cock  and  dance  idiotically  about  the 
apartment,  until  he  discovered,  hidden  in  a  heap 
of  straw,  a  spy  in  the  person  of  one  of  Fengo's 
courtiers,  whom  he  immediately  stabbed;  he 
then  so  terrified  his  mother  by  his  reproaches, 
that  she  promised  to  aid  him  in  his  intended 
revenge  on  his  father's  murderer,  and,  according 
to  the  old  chronicler,  really  did  so.  Scandina- 
vian traditions  confirm  the  existence  of  a  prince 
of  this  name.  In  the  vicinity  of  Elsinore  is 
shown  a  suspiciously  modern-looking  pile  of 
stones,  which  bears  the  name  of  Hamlet's  grave. 
Saxo  himself  does  not  mention  the  manner  or 
circumstances  of  Amleth's  death ;  but  the  French 
translator  says  that  he  was  murdered  at  a  ban- 
quet. Most  of  the  recent  historians  of  Denmark 
consider  the  history  of  Amleth  fabulous.  As  the 
ultimate  source  of  Shakespeare's  tragedy  of 
Hamletf  it  possesses  a  perennial  interest  for  all 
the  civilized  world.  There  are  two  Hamlet  sagas 
in  Icelandic,  one  of  which,  the  romantic  Am- 
hales  Saga,  has  been  edited  and  translated,  with 
an  introductory  essay,  by  I.  Gollancz  (1898). 

AMLWCH,  ftm'lyk.  A  seaport  town  of 
Anglesey,  North  Wales,  on  the  northern  coast 
of  the  island,  14  miles  northwest  of  Beaumaris 
(Map:  Wales,  B  3).  It  is  a  busy  but  rather 
dirty  town,  deriving  its  importance  and  wealth 
almost  entirely  from  the  rich  Parys  and  Mona 
copper  mines  in  its  vicinity.  Copper-smelting 
is  carried  on  in  Amlwch,  and  a  harbor  has  been 


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AMMTANUB   ]CABCEIiLINir& 


formed  by  excavation  out  of  the  solid  slate  rock, 
at  the  expense  of  the  mining  companies,  capable 
of  receiving  vessels  of  600  tons.  Pop.,  1891, 
6400;  1001,  5300. 

AMfULAN.    See  Rabbah. 

AH'ICAN,  JouANN  KONHAO  (1669-1724).  A 
Swiss  physician,  and  one  of  the  earliest  writers 
on  the  instruction  of  the  deaf  and  dumb.  In 
his  work,  Surdua  Loquens  (1692),  he  describes 
the  process  employed  bv  him  in  teaching,  which 
was  principally  by  fixing  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  on  the  motions  of  his  lips  and  larynx 
while  he  spoke,  and  inducing  them  to  imitate  him 
uniii  they  could  utter  distinct  words.  He  prac- 
ticed in  Holland. 

AM^MANy  JosT,  or  Justus  (1539-91).  An 
engraver  and  designer  of  great  productiveness, 
many  of  whose  works  are  in  the  Berlin  col- 
lection of  engravings.  He  was  born  in  Ztirich 
and  after  1560  livS  at  Nuremberg.  He  began 
a  series  of  copperplate  portraits  of  the  kings  of 
France  (published  1576),  and  made  many  wood- 
cuts for  the  Bible.  His  drawing  is  correct  and 
spirited,  and  his  costumes  are  minutely  ac- 
curate. 

AlffMANATI,  &m'm&-nft^t6,  Babtolommeo 
(1511-92).  An  Italian  architect  and  sculptor, 
born  at  Florence.  He  was  one  of  the  foremost 
artists  of  the  Late  Renaissance  or  Barocco,  was 
at  first  a  pupil  of  Baccio  Bandinelli,  and  after- 
ward of  Sansovino,  at  Venice,  whom  he  assisted 
in  connection  with  the  Library  of  St.  Mark. 
On  his  return  to  Florence  he  came  under  the 
influence  of  Michaelangelo's  Medici  Chapel 
sculptures.  He  went  to  Rome  and  collaborated 
with  Vignola  at  the  Villa  of  Pope  Julius,  under 
Pope  Paul  III.  He  returned  to  Florence  in  1557, 
became  architect  of  Cosmo  de*  Medici,  and  devot- 
ed himself  thenceforth  to  the  beautifying  of  his 
native  city.  His  Santa  Trinita  Bridge,  several 
fountains  and  small  private  palaces  (Pucci, 
Giugni),  are  successful;  but  his  great  courts  of 
the  Pitti  Palace  and  Santo  Spirito  are  in  bad 
taste.  He  afterward  redeemed  himself  in  the 
simpler  court  of  the  Collegio  Romano  at  Rome 
(1582),  and  in  the  Ruspoli  Palace  (1586). 

AH^MENy  Daniel  (1820-98).  An  American 
naval  officer.  He  was  born  in  Brown  Co.,  Ohio, 
entered  the  naval  service  as  midshipman  in 
1836,  and  by  successive  promotions  rose  to  the 
rank  of  rear-admiral  in  1877.  In  1861-62,  and 
again  in  1863-64,  he  served  in  Admiral  Dupont's 
blockading  squadron,  and  as  commander  of  the 
gunboat  Seneca  participated  in  the  reduction 
of  Port  Royal  (November  7,  1861),  and  took 
command  of  the  forts  after  their  s\irrender.  He 
commanded  the  monitor  Patapsco  before  Fort 
Macallister  (March  3,  1863),  and  before  Fort 
Sumter  (April  7,  1863)  ;  and  in  the  two  attacks 
on  Fort  Fisher  (December,  1864,  and  January, 
1865),  was  in  command  of  the  Mohican.  He 
served  as  chief  of  the  Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks 
from  1869  to  1871,  and  of  the  Bureau  of  Navi- 
gation from  1871  to  1878,  when  he  retired  to  pri- 
vate life.  He  designed  the  "Ammen  life  raft" 
and  the  ram  Katahdin,  and  wrote  The  American 
Inter  Oceanic  Ship  Canal  Question'  (1880);  The 
Atlantic  Coast  (1883),  a  discriminating  ac- 
count, from  the  standpoint  of  a  naval  specialist, 
of  the  operations  of  the  Federal  navy  along  the 
Atlantic  coast  during  the  Civil  War;  Country 
Homes  and  Their  Improvem^ent ;  and  The  Old 
'Navy  and  the  New  (1891). 


AMMENHATJSENy  Am^men-hou'zen,  Kon- 
BAD  VON.  A  German  poet  of  the  fourteenth 
century.  He  traveled  extensively,  became  a 
monk  at  Stein,  and  wrote  a  long,  rhymed  poem 
on  the  game  of  chess.  For  much  of  his  material 
he  drew  upon  the  Latin  work  of  Jacobus  de 
Cessolis.  The  poem  is  valuable  for  the  anec- 
dotes of  the  Middle  Ages  which  it  preserves, 
and  still  more  for  extended  references  to  con- 
temporaneous history. 

AMMEBGAU  (Am^m^fr-gou)  KYSTEBY. 
See  Plays. 

AMOiCETEBy  or  AMPESE^ICETEB  {am- 
p^e  +  Gk.  fiirpo,  met  ran,  measure).  An  in- 
strument which  is  used  to  measure  the  intensity 
of  an  electric  current,  and  which  indicates  this 
quantity  directly  in  amperes  (q.v.).  Ammeters 
are  constructed  in  numerous  forms,  which  are 
based  for  the  most  part  on  the  galvanometer 
(q.v.),  on  the  intensity  of  attraction  for  soft 
iron  exerted  by  a  hollow  coil  of  wire  carry- 
ing a  current,  or  on  the  electro-dynamometer. 
As  the  galvanometer  is  used  to  detect  and 
measure  minute  currents,  so  the  ammeter  is 
employed  in  testing  and  engineering  to  indicate 
large  currents,  and  to  enable  an  observer  to  read 
directly  in  amperes  the  current  flowing  at  any 
instant  in  a  circuit.  The  best  form  of  ammeter 
is  the  Weston  instrument,  made  in  the  United 
States,  and  used  all  over  the  world.  It  consists 
of  a  voltmeter  (q.v.)  or  portable  galvanometer, 
whose  movable  coll  is  connected  iu.  parallel  with 
a  low  resistance  formed  by  one  or  more  copper 
wires.  As  the  current  in  a  circuit  depends 
upon  the  fall  in  potential  across  a  constant 
resistance  (in  this  case  the  copper  wire),  the 
operation  of  the  instrument  will  readily  be  seen. 
Numerous  other  forms  of  ammeters  are  con- 
structed, the  simplest  of  which  consist  of  a  coil 
of  wire  through  which  the  current  passes,  in- 
closing a  soft  iron  core  suspended  by  a  spring. 
The  amount  that  this  core  is  attracted  is  indi- 
cated by  a  pointer  on  a  scale,  which  can  be  made 
regular  by  constructing  the  core  of  suitable 
shape.  In  other  anmieters  a  magnetic  needle 
is  placed  between  the  poles  of  a  strong  perma- 
nent magnet,  and  is  surrounded  by  coils  through 
which  the  current  passes.  This  current 
in  passing  deflects  the  needle  by  an  amount 
depending  upon  its  intensity.  The  dynamometer 
or  some  modification  of  it,  is  often  used  to 
measure  alternating  currents,  and  consists  of 
two  coils,  one  of  which  is  free  to  revolve  against 
the  action  of  a  spring.  When  the  current  passes 
through  the  two  coils,  which  are  normally  at 
right  angles,  there  is  a  tendency  for  the  movable 
coil  to  take  a  position  parallel  to  the  other,  and 
the  amount  of  motion  depends  upon  the  intensity 
of  the  .current. 

AHL^MlAnsnJB  HAB'CELLinSTTS.  The 
last  Latin  historian  of  the  Roman  Empire.  He 
flourished  in  the  closing  years  of  the  fourth 
century,  and  wrote  a  history  of  Rome  from  the 
accession  of  Nerya  (96)  to  the  death  of  Valena 
(378),  designed  as  a  continuation  of  the  histo- 
ries of  Tacitus.  The  work  when  complete  was 
in  thirty-one  books,  of  which  only  eighteen 
(14-31)  are  extant,  covering  the  last  twenty-five 
years  of  contemporaneous  history  (363-378).  Am- 
mianus  Marcellinus  was  himself  a  Greek,  born 
at  Antioch;  but  he  had  served  for  years  in  the 
army,  and  had  risen  to  rank  in  the  Eastern 
and  Gothic  campaigns  before  he  settled  down 


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AMMONIAC. 


in  Rome  to  a  quiet  and  studious  life.  His  book 
is  of  great  importance  as  the  conscientious  work 
of  an  experienced  man;  but  the  Latin  is  rude 
and  the  style  is  heavy  and  dull.  The  account  of 
the  events  of  Julian's  reign  is  especially  val- 
uable. Best  edition  by  Gardthausen  (Leipzig, 
(1875);  English  translation  by  C.  D.  Yonge, 
in  Bohn's  Classical  Library  (London,  1862). 

AMMIBATO,  &m'm«-ra^td,  Scipionb  (1531- 
1(^01.)  An  Italian  historian  of  some  merit.  He 
was  born  in  Leece,  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples,  and 
after  living  in  Venice,  Home,  and  Naples,  settled 
at  Florence.  In  Venice  he  aided  in  editing  an 
edition  of  Aribsto.  His  reputation,  however, 
rests  mainly  upon  his  Istorie  fiorentine,  w^hich 
in  1570  he  was  commissioned  to  write  by  the 
Grand  Duke  Cosimo  I.,  and  which  covers  the 
history  of  Tuscany  from  the  earliest  times  down 
to  1574.  It  shows  distinct  ability  and  historical 
acumen,  and  is  based  upon  original  documents 
and  other  authentic  sources.  First  complete 
edition,  Florence,  1641-47;  best  modern  reprint, 
Turin,  1869. 

AM^MON.  An  Egyptian  deity.  His  name 
(Egyptian  Amon,  later  Amiin)  was  explained  by 
the  priests  as  meaning  "the  hidden,"  or  "myste- 
rious;" but  this  etymology  is  not  reliable.  Orig- 
inally Ammon  was  merely  the  local  god  of 
Thebes;  but  after  the  Theban  dynasties  became 
rulers  of  all  Egypt  (beginning  with  the  Eight- 
eenth Dynasty,  about  1600  B.C.),  he  became  the 
official  head  of  the  pantheon  and  national 
deity  of  Egypt.  His  worship  spread  through- 
out Ethiopia  and  Libya,  and  he  had  a  famous 
oracle  in  the  Libyan  Desert.  The  Greeks  iden- 
tified him  with  their  supreme  god  Zeus,  and 
named  Thebes,  his  original  seat  of  worship, 
Diospolis.  In  the  Old  Testament  the  city  is 
called  No-Ammon,  "The  City  of  Ammon." 

Although  not  originally  a  solar  divinity,  later 
theological  schools  ascribed  a  solar  character  to 
this  god,  and  he  was  called  Ammon-R$,  i.e., 
"Ammon  the  Sun."  In  his  statues,  Ammon  is 
generally  represented  in  human  form,  with  skin 
of  a  bluish  tint,  and  wearing  a  peculiar  Jiead- 
dress,  from  which  rise  two  immense  feathers, 
while  a  long  and  narrow  band  hangs  down  be- 
hind. He  often  appears  in  the  form  of  his  sacred 
animal,  the  ram,  or  as  a  ram  with  a  man's 
head.  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  Lib- 
yan type,  with  a  human  head  bearing  a  ram's 
horns,  became  popular.  For  illustration,  see 
Egypt. 

AMMON,  Otto  (1842—).  A  German  an- 
thropologist and  editor.  He  was  born  at  Karls- 
ruhe, and  was  educated  as  a  civil  engineer,  which 
profession  he  followed  from  1863  to  1868.  He 
then  became  a  publisher  and  editor,  but  in  1883 
began  to  devote  himself  to  literary  work,  and 
afterward  made  several  important  contributions 
to  sociological  and  anthropological  literature. 
He  was  the  discoverer  of  the  so-called  "Ammon's 
law,"  that  the  Teutonic  race  betrays  almost  ev- 
erywhere a  marked  tendency  toward  city  life, 
which  he  has  demonstrated  in  a  series  of  interest- 
ing measurements  of  the  physical  characteristics, 
especially  of  the  head,  of  thousands  of  conscripts 
in  the  Baden  army,  showing  radical  differences 
between  the  form  of  the  head  in  city  and 
country,  and  between  the  upper  and  lower  classes 
in  the  larger  towns.  His  chief  works  are:  Die 
natUrliche  Auslese  heim  Menschen  (Jena,  1893), 
Die  Oesellschaftsordnung  und  ihre  nattirlichen 


•  Cfrundlagen  (second  edition,  Jena,  1896),  and 
important  articles  as  follows:  "Die  Geschichte 
einer  Idee,"  Rundschau  (Berlin,  1896),  on  the 
physical  types  of  city  populations;  "Der 
Abfindeningsspielraura,"  Natunoissenschaftliche 
Wochenschrift  (Berlin,  1896);  "Die  Menschen- 
rassen  in  Europa,"  Rundschau  (Berlin,  1896); 
"Die  K^rpergrOsse  der  Wehrpflichtigen  in  Ba- 
den, 1840-04"  (Karlsruhe,  1849)  ;  "Anthropolo- 
gische  Untersuchungen  der  Wehrpflichtigen  in 
Baden"   (1890). 

AMMONIA.    See  Antidotes. 

AMMONIA  (Gk.  afifjiuviandv,  ammdniakon, 
rock-salt),  NH«.  A  colorless,  pungent,  gaseous 
compound  of  nitrogen  and  hydrogen.  It  was 
known  to  the  ancients  as  volatile  alkali,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  called  vehement  odor  by  Pliny. 
Its  name  is  believed  to  be  derived  from  Zeus 
Ammon,  near  whose  temple  in  Libya,  Upper 
Africa,  it  was  first  produced  by  burning  camels' 
dung.  Others  derive  it  from  Ammonia,  a  Cyre- 
naic  territory.  In  1774  Priestley  obtained  it  by 
boiling  its  aqueous  solution  and  collecting  the 
gas,  which  he  termed  alkaline  air,  over  the  mer- 
curial pneumatic  trough.  Scheele  showed  that 
it  contained  nitrogen,  and  Berthollet,  in  1786, 
demonstrated  its  composition.  Free  ammonia 
does  not  occur  in  nature,  but  its  salts  are  found 
in  the  atmosphere  and  in  rain-water,  in  mineral 
and  sea  waters,  in  most  plants,  and  as  a  product 
of  the  decay  of  nitrogenous  organic  bodies. 

It  may  be  made  by  heating  ammonium  chloride 
with  lime.  The  principal  commercial  source  of 
ammonia  is  from  the  destructive  distillation  of 
coal  in  gas  making.  In  the  distillation  of  coal 
in  a  retort,  there  is  obtained,  first,  illuminating 
gas,  and,  secondly,  a  liquor  which  contains  ammo- 
nia. Allowing  this  liquid  to  settle,  the  aqueous 
portion  separates,  from  which  free  ammonia  is 
first  expelled  by  means  of  steam,  after  which 
the  liquor  is  treated  with  lime  and  further  steam 
to  expel  the  fixed  ammonia.  The  steam,  ammo- 
nia, and  other  gases  are  passed  through  strong 
sulphuric  acid  in  lead  tanks,  and  the  crystals  of 
ammonium  sulphate  which  then  form  are  re- 
moved from  time  to  time  by  means  of  ladles, 
while  the  free  ammonia  is  collected  in  water 
yielding  aqueous  ammonia  or  hartshorn,  a  trans- 
parent, colorless,  and  strongly  alkaline  liquid 
with  an  acrid,  caustic  taste  and  pungent  odor. 
When  exposed  to  the  air,  it  loses  ammonia,  and 
when  reduced  to  minus  40°  C.  it  freezes. 

Liquid  ammonia  has  been  used  for  motive 
power,  and  its  evaporation  is  the  basis  for  the 
Carr^  and  Linde  processes  for  the  production 
of  artificial  cold.  It  is  also  used  in  pharmacy, 
dyeing,  calico  printing,  and  in  the  preparation 
of  coloring  matters,  and  many  chemicals. 

Ammonium  sulphate,  which  is  a  white  crys- 
talline compound,  is  largely  used  both  alone  and 
in  mixtures  as  an  artificial  fertilizer;  it  is  also 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  alum,  and  in  the 
preparation  of  other  ammonium  salts.  Ammo- 
nium chloride,  called  also  sal  ammoniac,  is  used 
in  pharmacy,  in  dyeing,  and  as  a  convenient 
source  of  anunonia.  Ammonium  carbonate, 
called  also  sal  volatile,  is  used  for  scouring  wool, 
for  dyeing,  and  as  a  baking  powder.  Consult: 
Arnold,  Ammonia  and  Ammonia  Compounds 
(London,  1889) ;  and  Lunge,  Coal  Tar  (London, 
1882). 

AMMOITIAC  (Lat.  ammoniacum,  Gk.  afifiv- 
viaKov,  ammoniakon,    gum-ammoniac),    or    GuM 


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AMMONIAC. 


468 


AMMOHror& 


Ammoniac.  A  gum-resin,  used  medicinally 
in  certain  plasters.  It  is  obtained  from  the 
Dorema  ammoniacum,  an  umbiliferous  plant 
found  in  Persia  and  Turkestan.  The  gum  is 
made  by  drying  the  milky  juice  of  the  plant. 
It  occurs  in  commerce  either  in  tears,  or  in 
masses  formed  of  them,  but  mixed  with  impuri- 
ties. It  is  whitish,  becoming  yellow  by  exposure 
to  the  atmosphere,  is  soften^  by  the  heat  of  the 
hand,  and  has  a  peculiar  heavy  smell  and  a 
bitter  taste. 

AM'MONI^ACAL  COP^EB  CAB'BON- 
ATE.     See  Fungicides. 

AM^MONITE  (Derived  from  ammonia).  A 
trade  name  of  a  product  rich  in  nitrogen  (thir- 
teen to  fourteen  per  cent.),  obtained  largely 
from  rendering  establishments  where  different 
portions  of  dead  animals  are  subjected  to  treat* 
ment — ^usually  drying  and  extracting  the  fat 
by  means  of  steam.  The  product  is  also  ob- 
tained in  considerable  quantities  from  beef-ex- 
tract factories.  It  is  a  high-grade,  nitrogenous 
fertilizer,  practically  identical  with  the  "dried 
meat  or  meal,"  "animal  matter,"  or  "azotin," 
found  on  the  market  as  a  fertilizer.  See  Bones  ; 
Fertilizers. 

AMMONITES.  A  people  allied  to  the  Mo- 
abites,  and  also  (thougn  in  a  minor  degree)  to 
the  Hebrews,  whose  settlements  were  on  the 
ed^  of  the  Syrian  Desert.  According  to  Grenesis 
(xix  :  38)  they  were  descendants  of  Ben-Ammi, 
the  son  of  Lot,  and  while  this  account  is  fanciful, 
there  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  relationship 
implied  between  Ammonites  and  Moabites.  The 
Ammonites  inhabited  the  country  east  of  the 
Jordan,  between  the  rivers  Arnon  and  Jabbok 
i.e.,  the  desert  country  east  of  Gad.  Their  chief 
city  was  Rabbath  Ammon  ( Deuteronomy  iii  :  11; 
Ezekiel  xxi  :  20),  known  as  Philadelphia  in  the 
Greek  occupation.  The  relations  between  the 
Ammonites  and  the  Hebrews  were  almost  contin- 
uously hostile.  Jephthah  defeated  them  with 
great  slaughter  (Judges  xi  :  4-33;  xii  :  28  may 
be  a  later  interpolation)  ;  they  were  also  over- 
come by  Saul  (I.  Samuel  xi  :  1-11),  and  by 
David  (II.  Samuel  xii  :  26-31).  After  the  king- 
dom was  divided,  the  Ammonites  attacked  Gil- 
ead,  perhaps  together  with  the  Assyrians  (II. 
Kings  XV  :  29;  I.  Chronicles  v  :  26),  for  which 
they  are  denounced  by  the  prophets  Amos 
i  :  13),  Zephaniah  (xxviii,  xxix),  Jeremiah 
(xlix  :  1-7),  and  Ezekiel  (xxi  :  28-32).  In  the 
days  of  Jehoshaphat,  the  Ammonites  made  an 
abortive  attempt  to  attack  Judah  (II.  Chronicles 
XX  :  1-30) ,  and  later  they  were  defeated  by  King 
Jotham  (II.  Chronicles  xxvii  :  5).  After  the 
captivity  they  recommenced  their  feuds  with 
the  Jews  (Nehemiah  iv  :  1-15),  but  in  the  days 
of  Judas  Maccabseus  the  Ammonites,  together 
with  their  Syrian  allies,  were  thoroughly  routed 
by  the  Jews  (I.  Maccabeus  v:6).  Justin 
Martyr  affirms  that  in  his  day  (about  150  a.d.) 
the  Ammonites  were  still  numerous.  The  chief 
deity  worshipped  by  the  Ammonites  was  Milcom, 
which  signifies  "king"  (I.  Kings  xi  :  5,  7-33), 
who  bore  the  same  relation  to  his  subjects  as 
Chemosh  did  to  the  Moabites  and  Yahweh  to  the 
Hebrews.  He  was  the  natural  protector  to  whom 
the  people  looked  for  succor  in  distress.  Of  the 
rites  of  the  Ammonites  we  know  nothing  beyond 
the  prejudiced  references  in  the  writings  of  the 
Hebrew  prophets,  but  the  supposition  seems 
reasonable  that  the  worship  was  similar  to  that 


of  the  Moabites  as  well  as  to  that  of  the  Hebrews 
in  the  early  stages  of  their  history.  The  Am- 
monitish  language,  likewise,  was  practically  iden- 
tical with  Moabitish  and  ancient  Hebrew,  the 
differences  between  them  being  merely  of  a  dia- 
lectical order.  See  the  commentaries  on  Genesis 
xix.  38  Dillmann,  Delitzsch,  Gunkel,  and  Hoi- 
zinger. 

AMMOKTTES.  A  generic  name  given  by 
Lamarck  and  L.  von  Buch  to  a  group  of  tetre- 
branchiate  cephalopod  shells  found  in  the  Meso- 
zoic  rocks  of  Europe.  A  still  earlier  name 
applied  to  them  by  the  alchemists  and  others  of 
the  Middle  Ages  was  Comu  Ammonis,  from  a 
fancied  resemblance  to  the  horns  of  Zeus 
Ammon.  The  term  Ammonites  has,  as  a  generic 
name,  fallen  into  disuse,  for  more  recent  re- 
searches have  shown  that  Von  Buch's  name  in- 
cluded a  large  array  of  species  that  present 
characters  not  only  of  a  generic  but  also  of 
famify  rank.  The  name  is,  however,  still  used 
in  a  loose  wa^  to  distinguish  those  Mesozoic 
cephalopods,  with  complicated  suture  lines,  from 
the  Paleeozoic  Goniatites  with  more  simple  su- 
tures. Von  Buch's  three  genera,  Ammonites, 
Ceratites,  and  Goniatites,  with  their  numerous 
species,  have  been  broken  up  into  a  host  of  new 
generic  terms,  about  fifty  in  number,  and  these 
latter  have  been  grouped  into  about  ninety  fam- 
ilies, all  of  which  are  included  in  the  order  Am- 
monoidea.  For  the  structure  of  the  shell,  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  species,  and  the  geological  his- 
tory of  the  group,  see  Cephalopoda. 

AMMOanXTM  (From  ammonia),  NH«.  A 
chemical  radicle  composed  of  one  atom  of  nitro- 
gen and  four  atoms  of  hydi^gen.  This  radicle 
or  atomic  group,  acts  like  the  monovalent  ele- 
ments, sodium  and  potassium,  and  is  contained 
in  ammoniacal  salts.  An  amalgam,  too,  has 
been  obtained  in  which  it  exists  m  direct  com- 
bination with  mercury.  Ammonium  amalgam 
is  a  pasty,  lustrous,  metal-like  substance  formed 
by  passing  an  electric  current  through  ammoni- 
um chloride  in  contact  with  mercury.  It  is  an 
unstable  body,  which  readily  decomposes,  giving 
off  ammonia  and  hydrogen. 

AMM(KtnXTK.     See  Siwah. 

AMMOOriTTS  (Gk.  'Afifiuvtoc,  Ammdnias), 
An  Alexandrian  philosopher  of  the  third  century 
A.D.,  surnamed  Saccas  (sack-carrier),  because, 
as  it  is  said,  he  had  been  a  porter  in  his  youth. 
He  was  of  Christian  parentage,  but  according  to 
his  most  eminent  pupil,  Plotinus,  his  studies 
led  him  to  abandon  Christianity  for  the  old 
Greek  religion ;  this  is  denied,  however,  by  Euse- 
bius  and  St.  Jerome.  Longinus  says  that  as  a 
philosopher  he  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries; 
his  teaching  was  directed  chiefly  toward  har- 
monizing the  doctrines  of  Plato  and  Aristotle, 
and  through  his  disciples  he  became  the  founder 
of  the  Neo-Platonic  school  of  philosophy. 
Among  his  pupils  were  Origen,  the  Neo-Platon- 
ist,  Origen  the  Christian,  I^nginus,  Herennius, 
Theodosius,  Antoninus,  and  Plotinus.  Ammo- 
nius  left  no  writings,  but  his  esoteric  teachings 
were  spread  by  Origen  and  Herennius,  and  espe- 
cially by  Plotinus. 

Ammonius  was  the  name  of  several  other 
learned  men  in  the  later  periods  of  Greek  his- 
tory: Ammonius,  a  Peripatetic  philosopher  of 
the  first  century,  the  teacher  of  Plutarch;  Am- 
monius, a  Christian  philosopher  at  Alexandria 
in  the  third  century,  who  wrote  a  work  on  the 


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AMMONirrS. 


469 


AlOnrKITION. 


agreement  of  the  teachings  of  Moses  and  Jesus, 
and  composed  a  harmony  of  the  Gospels;  Am- 
monins,  son  of  Hermeas,  a  Peripatetic  philoso- 
pher of  the  fifth  century,  disciple  of  Proclus  and 
author  of  commentaries  on  Aristotle;  Ammo- 
nius,  the  famous  surgeon  of  Alexandria,  who 
lived  in  the  latter  halt  of  the  first  century  b.g  ; 
Ammonius,  the  grammarian,  pupil  of  Aristar- 
chus,  and  his  successor  as  head  of  the  Alex- 
andrian School. 

AM'HON'OIiyEA.  An  order  of  tetrahran- 
chiate  cephalopods,  equivalent  in  rank  to  the 
Nautiloidea.  It  contains  more  than  five  thou- 
sand species,  all  of  which  are  extinct  and  found 
in  a  fossil  state  in  marine  rocks  of  Devonian 
and  Carboniferous,  and  abundantly  in  those  of 
Mesosoic  age  of  all  parts  of  the  world.  The 
form  of  the  animal  in  this  order  is  unknown; 
but  from  the  structure  of  the  shell,  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  a  form  like  that  of  its  only 
living  ally,  the  nautilus,  though  of  a  more 
delicate  construction,  and  to  have  been  a  crawler 
instead  of  a  swimmer.  The  shell  is  coiled  in  a 
single  plane,  with  its  apex  in  the  centre  of  the 
coil,  and  it  is  usually  compressed  into  a  discoid. 
This  discoid  form  is  in  some  phylogerontic  or 
senile  types  of  Mesozoic  Age  changed  to  a  tur- 
reted,  or  irre^lar,  or  straight  shell.  The  five 
thousand  species  of  the  order  are  grouped  under 
about  five  hundred  genera  and  some  ninety-eight 
families,  according,  chiefly,  to  the  form  and 
mode  of  development  of  the  so-called  suture 
lines,  which  are  the  lines  of  union  of  the  internal 
septal  walls  with  the  inner  wall  of  the  shell. 
The  order  is  of  peculiar  interest,  in  that,  of  all 
groups  of  animals,  it  furnishes  the  finest  illus- 
trations of  evolution,  and  the  laws  of  growth 
and  decline,  of  ontogeny  and  phylogeny;  in  other 
words,  of  bioplastology.  For  more  particular 
information  and  illustrations,  see  Cephalopoda. 

AK'HONOO^SXTC,  Lower.  A  river  rising  in 
the  White  Mountains,  New  Hampshire,  and 
flowing  through  Coos  and  Grafton  counties 
(Map:  New  Hampshire,  G  5).  It  is  90  miles 
long,  drains  an  area  of  nearly  400  square  miles, 
and  furnishes  extensive  water  power.  It  flows 
into  the  Connecticut  River  opposite  Wells  River, 
Vermont. 

AHKON'OOSXTC,  Upper.  A  river,  40  miles 
long,  rising  in  the  Randolph  range  of  the  White 
Mountains,  and  draining  an  area  of  252  square 
miles  of  Coos  County,  New  Hampshire  (Map: 
New  Hampshire,  J  3).  It  flows  into  the  Con- 
necticut below  Groveton. 

AHKOPHILA  (Gk.  ififioc,  ammoB,  sand -f 
^^f,  philos,  friend,  loving) .  A  genus  of  grasses, 
closely  allied  to  Arundo.  (See  Reed.)  It  is 
distinguished  by  a  spike-like  panicle,  and  by  the 
character  of  the  glumes,  which  are  nearly  equal, 
keeled,  longer  than  the  palese  of  the  single  floret, 
and  surrounded  at  the  base  by  a  tuft  of  hairs. 
Ammophila  arenaria  or  Ammophila  arundina- 
cea,  formerly  called  Arundo  arenaria — ^a  grass 
about  two  to  three  feet  high,  with  rigid  bluish 
leaves,  the  edges  of  which  are  rolled  in,  and  creep- 
ing rootstocks — is  frequent  on  sandy  shores 
of  Great  Britain  and  the  Continent  of  Europe, 
It  is  sometimes  called  beach  grass,  sea  reed,  or 
sand  reed,  and  sometimes  mat  grass,  because  the 
culms  are  wrought  into  foot-mats,  coverings  for 
stairs,  etc.  It  is  also  called  marram,  by  which 
name  it  is  designated  in  laws  both  English  and 
Scottish,  by  which  the  destruction   of   it  was 


prohibited  under  severe  penalties,  because  of  its 
great  utility  in  fixing  the  shifting  sand.  In 
Holland  and  in  Norfolk,  as  well  as  in  the  United 
States,  it  is  extensively  employed — along  with 
the  Sea  lyme  grass  (q.v.) — in  preserving  the 
banks  of  sand  which  prevent  the  inroads  of  the 
sea.  It  is  of  little  value  as  food  for  cattle, 
although  they  eat  the  very  young  leaves.  The 
fibre  has  been  used  instead  of  flax,  but  is  too 
short.  Beach  grass  has  been  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paper  of  coarse  quality. 

AM'MXJNI^nON'  (Fr.  amunition,  prohably 
by  wrong  division  of  la  munition  into  Vamuni- 
tion;  from  Lat.  munire,  to  fortify,  defend).  A 
term  which  embraces  all  the  ordnance  stores 
used  in  the  actual  firing  of  guns  of  every  sort 
and  calibre,  and  which  includes  gunpowder,  prp- 
jectiles,  primers,  and  their  accessories.  When 
the  powder,  projectile,  and  primer  are  so  com- 
bined in  a  single  piece  as  to  be  ready  for  firing 
as  soon  as  placed  in  the  gun,  the  packages  so 
formed  are  called  fixed  ammunition;  the  term 
is  also  extended  to  ammunition  for  large  ffuns 
in  which  the  powder  is  inclosed  in  a  primed 
metallic  case,  but  loaded  separately  from  the 
projectile.  In  small  arms  the  ammunition  is 
invariably  of  the  fixed  type.  For  heavy  guns 
the  ammunition  is  almost  universally  fixed  for 
calibres  of  less  than  four  inches.  Above  this, 
the  practice  is  not  uniform  in  all  countries  or 
in  all  classes  of  guns.  In  the  United  States 
Navy  fixed  ammunition  is  used  in  all  calibres 


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fixed    ammunition — ^UNITED    STATES    NAVY. 

1.  One-poander.    8,  Siz-ponnder,  three  inch  and  four  inch. 

A.  Brass  Cartridge  Case,  bottle-necked  at  B. 

B.  Rotatinfi^  Band  (copper). 

C.  Projectile. 

D.  Base  of  Cartridge  Caae. 

B.  Bottle-neck  of  Cartridge  Case. 
F.  Primer. 

of  guns  Up  to  and  including  that  of  four  inches; 
guns  of  five-inch  calibre,  of  models  antedating 
1899,  are  also  supplied  with  it;  six-inch  guns, 
except  those  of  1899  and  later  models,  have  the 
powder  charge  put  up  in  primed  brass  cartridge 
cases,  but  the  projectile  is  separately  load^. 
In  other  services,  army  and  na^,  the  rule  was, 
and  is,  about  the  same.  In  the  new  United 
States  Navy  guns  (model  of  1899),  fixed  ammu- 
nition is  used  for  guns  of  four-inch  calibre  and 
less.  No  cartridge  cases  are  used  for  the  larger 
calibres.  A  new  form  of  lock,  which  automati- 
cally ejects  the  primer,  assists  to  make  the  load- 
ing with  powder  in  bags  quite  as  rapid  as  if  it 
were  incased  in  metal.  The  metallic  cartridge 
cases  used  for  fixed  ammunition  are  now  gen- 
erally made  of  hard  drawn  brass  of  the  best 
quality,  stamped  from  sheets  or  plates  of  vary- 
ing thickness,  depending  upon  the  calibre  of  the 
gun  for  which  they  are  designed.  The  circular 
disk  cut  from  the  sheet  or  plate  is  first  given 
the  form  of  a  shallow  cup  and  then  drawn  out 


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AKMTTNITION   CHESTS. 


and  pressed  into  finished  shape.  The  cases 
usually  have  a  rim  around  the  base,  but  some 
have  a  groove,  called  a  cannelure,  sunk  into  and 
surrounding  the  base;  the  chief  use  of  both  rim 
and  cannelure  is  to  enable  the  extractor  to  take 
hold  of  and  extract  the  empty  case  after  firing; 
but  the  rim  also  assists  to  hold  the  case  in  its 
proper  position  in  the  gun.  The  high  velocity 
given  the  projectile  in  a  modern  gun  entails 
the  use  of  a  relatively  large  charge  of  powder; 
to  hold  this,  and  to  avoid  undue  length  of  case, 
which  involves  unnecessary  weight  and  intro- 
duces difficulties  in  connection  with  vibrations 
and  pressures,  the  case  is  increased  in  diameter 
.  over  the  powder  and  drawn  down  to  form  a  bot- 
tle-neck where  it  grips  the  projectile.  No  paper 
cases  are  used  for  military  or  naval  arms,  but 
the  cases  for  the  ammunition  of  breech-loading 
shot-guns  have  the  cylindrical  portion  of  card- 
board or  papier-maoh4,  the  base  being  of  brass 
formed  in  the  manner  already  described. 

Gunpowder  (see  Explosives  and  Gunpowi»s), 
the  propelling  force  in  all  military  weapons  in 
general  service  (except  pneumatic  guns,  which 
have  a  very  limited  use  and  are  not  generally 
approved  for  any  purpose),  is  put  up,  for  guns 
of  large  calibre,  in  bags  made  of  some  sort  of 
cloth,  usually  serge.  For  convenience  of  hand- 
ling, the  charges  are  divided  into  sections  when 
the  weight  of  the  full  charge  exceeds  one  hun- 
dred pounds.  Powder  charges,  when  in  bags, 
are  stowed  in  water-tight  copper  tanks  in  com- 
partments or  buildings  called  magazines;  on 
shipboard,  magazines  are  placed  below  the  water 
line,  near  the  bottom  of  the  ship,  and  as  far 
away  as  practicable  from  the  heat  of  boilers  and 
engines.  In  fortifications  the  magazines  for 
war  service  are  below  ground  or  behind  ample 
protections.  Fixed  ammunition  is  stored  in 
rooms  similar  to  magazines,  as  are  also  projec- 
tiles (q.v.).  Powder  charges,  whether  in  metal- 
lic cases  or  in  bags,  are  ignited  by  primers ;  these 
are  of  four  types:  percussion,  friction,  electric, 
and  combination  (percussion  and  electric).  Per- 
cussion primers  resemble  miniature  fixed  ammu- 
nition; those  used  in  the  United  States  Navy 
are  about  an  inch  long,  one-fifth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  in  the  body,  and  enlarged  considerably 
at  the  base;  they  contain  seven  grains  of  fine 
powder  in  the  body,  and  a  primer  cap  in  the 
head,  which  will  ignite  when  struck  by  the  firing 
pin  of  the  gun  lock.  Friction  primers  are  of 
the  same  shape  and  size,  but  are  ignited  by  the 
friction  caused  by  drawing  a  serrated  strip  of 
metal  through  the  fulminate  in  the  primer  head. 
Their  use  in  the  United  States  Navy  has  been 
discontinued,  but  they  are  still  in  some  favor 
abroad.  Electric  primers  differ  from  those 
already  mentioned  in  being  ignited  by  an  electric 
spark  instead  of  by  friction  or  percussion.  Sin- 
gle and  double  wire  systems  are  employed,  but 
only  the  former  is  used  in  the  United  States 
Navy;  in  guns  which  do  not  use  fixed  ammuni- 
tion the  current,  furnished  by  a  dry  battery, 
or  the  dynamo,  passes  through  a  single  insulated 
copper  wire  into  the  primer ;  there  it  encounters 
resistance  in  the  shape  of  a  bridge  of  platinum 
wire,  and  thence  escapes  through  the  metal  of 
the  primer  to  the  gun  and  so  to  earth ;  in  pass- 
ing through  the  platinum  bridge  it  heats  the 
latter  white  hot  and  thus  causes  ignition.  In 
guns  using  fixed  ammunition,  the  electric  primer 
is  screwed  or  pressed  into  the  base  of  the  powder 
case;  the  current  enters  the  primer  through  the 


electric  primer  connection,  which  is  similar  to 
the  percussion  firing  pin,  but  is  insulated  in 
order  to  carry  the  current.  The  combination 
primer  is  being  experimented  with  in  Europe; 
in  the  United  States  Navy  it  is  displacing  the 
percussion  and  electric  primers,  as  all  new  guns 
and  powder  cases  are  fitted  to  take  it,  and  the 
old  ones  are  being  altered  as  opportunity  offers. 
It  may  be  ignited  either  by  an  electric  current 
or  by  percussion.  It  is  much  larger  than  the 
older  primers,  being  about  two  inches  long  and 
about  as  large  around  as  a  lead  pencil. 

Effective  ammunition  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant factors  of  modern  warfare,  and  the  one 
great  factor  in  determining  prevailing  tactics, 
methods  of  defense,  and  equipment  of  men  and 
materials.  Every  improvement  in  rapidity  of 
fire  of  weapons  increases  the  anxiety  about  the 
supply  of  ammunition  in  the  field;  nevertheless, 
it  must  be  remembered  that,  although  separate 
battalions  or  batteries  have  on  occasion  been 
without  ammunition,  the  troops  as  a  whole  have 
never  suffered  from  this  want.  The  soldier  car- 
ries a  considerable  number  of  rounds  on  his 
person,  and  at  the  very  opening  of  a  battle  the 
company  ammunition  wagons  are  available; 
when  they  are  exhausted,  they  go  to  the  nearest 
ammunition  column,  replenish,  and  return  as 
quickly  as  possible.  The  field  artillery  uses  its 
limber  ammunition  only  when  no  other  is  avail- 
able, that  of  the  caissons  being  used  first;  the 
empty  caissons  being  replaced  by  others  from 
the  second  Echelon  of  the  battery,  and  the  latter 
obtaining  further  supplies  from  the  ammunition 
columns. 

The  question  of  ammunition  was  one  of  the 
subjects  of  the  Peace  Congress  held  at  The  Hague 
in  the  summer  of  1899,  and  strong  recommenda- 
tions were  made  to  discountenance  the  use  of 
explosive  or  expanding  bullets.  The  English  in 
the  Sudan,  and  in  smaller  Indian  punitive  expe- 
ditions, found  that  the  smallness,  shape,  and 
velocity  of  a  modem  rifie  bullet  had  not  a  suf- 
ficiently deterring  effect  on  the  charging  mas.«*es 
of  tribesmen,  and  frequently  used  the  so-called 
dum-dum  bullet,  which  is  made  of  softer  metal 
and  expands  or  contracts.  During  the  Boer  War 
dum-dum  and  explosive  cartridges  were  fre- 
quently found  after  the  various  battles,  each  side 
charging  the  other  with  having  used  them.  In 
the  Spanish- American  War  of  1898-99  the  small, 
clean-cut  wounds  caused  by  the  Krag-JSrgensen 
(United  States)  and  Mauser  (Spanish)  bullets 
were  found  fatal  only  in  a  small  percentage  of 
cases.  Instances  were  frequent  where  men  con- 
tinued to  fight  for  some  time  after  being  hit. 

In  England,  and  Europe  generally,  all  govern- 
ment-made ammunition  is  manufactured  at  the 
government  arsenals.     See  Arsenal. 

The  word  ammunition  is  still  retained  in  the 
English  services  in  its  early  English  form,  as 
pertaining  to  certain  forms  of  military  supplies; 
ammunition  shoes,  ammunition  socks,  ammuni- 
tion bread,  ammunition  shirts,  etc.,  as  distinct 
from  the  same  articles  supplied  from  purely 
civil  sources.  See  Projectile;  Fuse;  Primer; 
Cartridge;  Ordnance;  Artiixert,  etc. 

AMMUNITION  CHESTS.  Boxes  contain- 
ing ammunition,  packed  so  as  to  be  fitted  for 
transport  by  either  elephant,  camel,  bullock, 
pack-horse  or  mule;  or  in  the  case  of  horse  and 
field  artillery  so  arranged  that  the  gunners  may 
utilize  them  for  seats  or  pack  them  in  caissons. 


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471 


AMCEBA. 


AMMUNITION'  WAGKON.  A  specially  built 
wagon  for  the  safe  and  speedy  transport  of  am- 
munition. The  general  use  of  rapid-fire  guns 
has  made  the  question  of  suitable  wagons,  capa- 
ble of  carrying  the  tremendous  quantities  of  am- 
munition demanded  by  modern  arms  and  war- 
fare, one  of  the  most  important  features  of  a 
campaign.  It  is  worthy  of  note  that  Lord  Rob- 
erts, the  British  commander-in-chief  in  the  Boer 
War,  specially  employed  and  strongly  recom- 
mended wagons  built  in  the  United  States  and 
used  genersilly  in  the  United  States  Army.  The 
important  features  of  such  wagons  are  great 
strength,  easy  draft,  great  flexibility,  and  ad- 
justed balance.  They  must  also  be  so  arranged 
that  the  shells  and  fuses  are  held  firmly  in  place, 
and  secured  as  strongly  as  possible  against 
shocks  and  jolts  or  damage  by  water. 

AM^ESTT  (Gk.  a/ivrfariot  amnestia,  forget- 
fulness,  from  a,  a,  priv.  -j-  fivuai^ai,  mndsthai,  to 
remember).  An  act  of  State  granting  oblivion 
for  past  offenses,  and  generally  employed  where 
pardon  (q.v.)  is  extended  to  whole  classes  or 
communities  instead  of  to  individuals  before 
trial  and  conviction.  The  President  may  grant 
amnesty  by  a  general  proclamation  for  offenses 
against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  im- 
peachment; and  the  Supreme  Court  has  held 
that  Congress  also  may  pass  acts  of  general  am- 
nesty. (Brown  vs.  Walker,  161  V.  S.  691. 
[1895].)  Tliere  was  a  vigorous  dissent,  however, 
in  this  case. 

AM^NTON  (Gk.  afivlov.).  The  membrane 
which  immediately  invests  the  embryo,  appearing 
very  early  in  the  development  of  the  latter,  and 
adhering  closely  to  it.  As  gestation  proceeds, 
this  membrane  secretes  from  its  inner  surface  a 
fluid  which  separates  it  from  the  foetus.  This 
fluid,  the  liquor  amnii,  supports  and  at  the  same 
time  gives  free  movement  to  the  foetus,  preserves 
it  from  injury,  and  maintains  around  it  an  equa- 
ble temperature,  and  later,  during  labor,  becomes, 
with  its  inclosing  membranes,  an  important  di- 
lator of  the  genital  canal.  See  Development 
OF  THE  Embryo,  and  Caul. 

AM'NTO^A.    See  Reproduction. 

AMCE3A  (Neo-Lat.;  Gk.  afioiprj,  amtoihe, 
change,  alternation).  A  microscopic  animalcule, 
classified  among  the  lowest  Protozoa,  which  in- 
habits fresh  water  or  occasionally  moist  earth. 
It  appears  in  water  under  great  magnification 
as  a  clear,  translucent,  highly  refracting  body. 
It  is  made  up  of  a  substance  that  does  not  mix 
with  water,  is  viscid  like  glue,  and  has  a  specific 
gravity  a  little  greater  than  water,  namely 
about  1.015.  Under  the  highest  power  of  the 
microscope,  particularly  after  death,  the  body  is 
seen  not  to  be  perfectly  homogeneous,  but  to  be 
made  up  of  films  inclosing  water-filled  spaces. 
This  structure  may  be  imitated  by  making  a 
fine  mixture  of  oil  and  potassium  carbonate,  and 
letting  it  stand  in  water.  The  potassium  carbon- 
ate is  hydroscopic,  and  eventually  an  emulsion 
is  produced  in  which  the  oil  stands  to  the  water 
in  the  same  relation  that  the  protoplasmic  films 
do  to  the  water  spaces.  The  cytoplasm  is  not  all 
of  the  same  kind.  Near  the  centre  is  a  special- 
ized portion  known  as  the  nucleus,  the  proto- 
plasm outside  of  which  is  called  cytoplasm.  Be- 
tween nucleus  and  cytoplasm  a  constant  inter- 
change of  material  is  taking  place  in  the  living 
«ell,  and  the  two  parts  are  interdependent. 

A  living  amoeba  under  appropriate  conditions 


exhibits  a  continual  movement  of  the  protoplasm. 
The  very  structure  favors  a  constant  movement, 
as  witness  the  artificial  emulsion,  whose  outline 
is  constantly  changing.  In  amoeba  processes 
(pseudopodia)  are  thrust  out  at  certain  points 
of  the  body,  and  others  behind  them  are  re- 
tracted, and  thus  a  change  occurs  in  the  centre 
of  the  mass  and  locomotion  is  effected.  Amoeba 
is  irritable,  i.e.,  it  is  affected  in  a  definite  man- 
ner by  external  conditions;  it  "responds"  tO' 
them  by  moving  with  reference  to  them.  With- 
out a  stimulus  there  would  probably  be  no  move- 
ment at  all.  If  the  stimulus  comes  upon  the  or- 
ganism from  one  side,  it  may  move  toward  or 
From  that  side.  Thus  the  amoeba  moves  from  the 
point  of  contact  of  a  needle  or  from  the  source 
of  light,  or  it  moves  so  as  to  keep  in  water  of 
a  medium  temperature.  Thus  we  see  that  pro- 
toplasm early  had  the  capacity  of  appreciating 


B^nnine  at  the  upper  left-hand  figure,  the  euccessive  draw- 
ingB  show  the  progreas  of  a  divlalon  of  an  amoeba  throagh  its 
nacleaa  Into  two. 

external  conditions  and  moving  with  reference 
to  them.  This  may  be  regarded  as  the  beginning 
of  a  "psychic  life." 

The  amoeba  is,  by  its  movements,  constantly  ex- 
pending energy,  'rhis  must  be  renewed  by  taking 
in  fuel.  Also,  its  plasma  is  undergoing  constant 
destruction  and  must  be  reformed.  Food  here 
serves  two  purposes.  (1)  It  serves  as  fuel;  (2) 
It  forms  new  protoplasm.  But  these  two  rOles 
may  be  played  by  the  same  food-stuff.  There  is 
no  proper  oral  aperture,  and  the  food  is  merely 
taken  into  the  interior  of  the  body  by  a  process 
of  intussusception — any  portion  of  the  surface 
being  chosen  for  this  purpose,  and  acting  as  an 
extemporaneous  mouth.  Sometimes  the  inges- 
tion of  food  takes  place  chiefiy  at  the  posterior 
end  of  the  body.  When  the  particle  of  food  has 
been  received  into  the  body,  the  aperture  by 
which  it  was  admitted  again  closes  up,  and  the 
discharge  of  solid  excreta  is  effected  in  an  exact- 
ly similar  but  reverse  manner.  Food-stuffs  that 
are  ingested  become  dissolved  (digested)  and 
penetrate  the  plasm  films.  Here  they  are  burned 
(oxidized)  and  carbon  dioxide,  water,  urea,  and 
other  substances  are  produced.  Tliese  get  back 
into  the  water  spaces  and  are  finally  thrown  out 


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with  the  "contractile  vacuole."  This  process  is 
excretion.  But  in  the  plasma  film,  where  the 
food-stuff  was  burned,  there  is  on  increase  of 
temperature.  This  heat  is  used  in  part  in  chem- 
ical work — in  the  building  up  of  new  living  mole- 
cules from  food  stuffs.  Here,  then,  is  a  great 
chemical  laboratory  in  the  protoplasm. 

"The  'contractile  vesicles'  are  cavities  within 
the  endosarc,  of  which  ordinarily  only  one  is 
present  in  the  same  individual,  though  there  may 
be  two  or  more.  In  position,  the  contractile  vesi- 
cle, or  'pulsating  vacuole,'  as  it  is  often  called,  is 
usually  placed  toward  the  hinder  end  of  the  body, 
as  is  also  the  nucleus." 

Reproduction  takes  place  by  simple  division, 
each  amceba,  as  it  reaches  maximum  size,  split- 
ting in  two,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  See 
Cell,  and  Pbotozoa. 

AM'CEBE^AN  VEBS^S  (Gk.  afioi^aioc, 
amoihaioa,  alternate).  A  species  of  pastoral 
poetry  in  which  two  persons  answer  each 
other  alternately,  as  in  some  of  the  Idyls  of 
Theocritus  and  the  Eclogues  of  Vergil. 

AMOL,  &-mol^  A  Persian  town,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Mazanderan,  situated  on  the  River 
Heraz,  a  short  distance  from  its  fall  into  the 
Caspian  Sea  (Map:  Persia,  D  3).  It  contains  a 
fine  bazaar  and  a  number  of  old  tombs,  including 
that  of  Mir  Bursuk,  who  died  in  Amol  in  1378, 
and  whose  memory  is  held  in  great  reverence  by 
the  natives.     Pop.,  about  10,000. 

AMOLE,   &-m5'l&.    See  Soapwobt. 

AMO^MTJM  (Lat.  6k.  ifiaftov,.  amdmony  an 
Indian  spice-plant).  A  genus  of  Zingiberacee, 
to  which  belongs  the  plant  yielding  Cardamom 
(q.v.)  and  Grains  of  Paradise  (q.v.). 

Fossil  forms. — Fruits  allied  to  those  of  Amo- 
mum  have  been  described  under  the  name  Amo- 
mocarpum,  from  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe. 

AM^OK.  A  king  of  Judah,  from  about  639  to 
638  B.C.,  son  of  Manasseh.  After  a  short  reign  he 
fell  a  victim  to  a  court  intrigue.  His  death  was 
avenged,  and  his  son  Josiah  succeeded  him  on  the 
throne.    He  was  buried  in  the  garden  of  Uzzah. 

AMONTON'S,  A'mON'tON^  Guillaume  (1663- 
1705).  A  French  physicist  and  inventor.  He 
devoted  himself  to  physical  research,  investigat- 
ing the  phenomena  of  friction  and  perfecting 
many  instruments  used  in  experimental  philoso- 
phy. With  the  aid  of  the  barometer  he  studied 
the  variations  of  atmospheric  pressure,  and  by 
the  use  of  a  thermometer  of  his  own  invention, 
discovered  independently,  though  simultaneously 
with  Halley,  that  the  boiling-point  of  water 
varies  with  the  external  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere, and  hence  with  the  elevation.  He 
also  invented  an  ingenious  method  of  telegraphic 
communication,  a  new  hygrometer,  etc.  He 
wrote:  Remarques  et  expMences  physiques  sur 
la  construction  tTune  nouvelle  clepsydre,  sur  les 
haromitreSf  les  thermomdtreSy  et  les  hygromd- 
tres  (1695),  besides  contributions  to  the  M^- 
moires  of  the  Academic  des  Sciences. 

AM'ORET.  In  Fletcher's  Faithful  Shepherd- 
ess (q.v.),  a  shepherdess  bethrothed  to  Perigot  at 
the  "Virtuous  Well,"  and,  after  many  troubles, 
patiently  borne,  united  to  him. 

AMOBET,  or  AM 'OBET^A.  In  Spenser's 
Faerie  Queene  the  twin  sister  of  Belphoebe(q.v.), 
brought  up  by  Venus  and  Psyche.  She  loves  Sir 
Scudamore,  but  is  imprisoned  by  the  enchanter 
Busirane;   in  the  end,  however,  she  is  happily 


married,  appearing  as  the  type  of  feminine  affec- 
tion. 

AMOBETTI,  a'md-ret't*,  Cablo  (17411816). 
An  Italian  naturalist  and  author.  He  was  born 
near  Genoa,  and  died  at  Milan.  He  was  & 
member  of  the  order  of  St.  Augustine,  professor 
of  law  at  the  University  of  Parma,  and  after- 
ward curator  of  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan. 
He  is  remembered  chiefly  for  a  good  biography 
of  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (1784),  and  various  treat- 
ises on  natural  science,  including  a  study  of  the 
natural  history  and  geography  of  lakes  Como, 
Maggiore,  and  Lugano,  entitled  A  Journey  from 
Milan  to  the  Three  Lakes  (1794). 

AMOBGOS,  &-m0r^g6s  (Gk.  'Afwpydc).  The 
most  easterly  island  of  the  Cyclades,  Greece, 
having  an  area  of  52  square  miles,  with  it& 
greatest  length  from  northeast  to  southwest. 
The  island  is  crossed  by  a  mountain  range,  and 
yields  olive  oil,  wine,  fruit,  and  grain.  Its 
chief  town  is  Korax,  or  Chora,  on  the  eastern 
coast.  Amorgos  was  famous  in  antiquity  for  the 
fine  quality  of  its  flax.  Population  in  1889,  4000. 
Consult:  H.  Hauttecceur,  "L'lle  d'Amorgos,"  in 
Bulletin  de  la  8oci4t^  royale  helge  de  geographies 
Volume  XXIII.  (Brussels,  1899) ;  J.  Delamarre, 
"Amorgos,"  in  La  Revue  de  philologie,  Volume 
XXV.  (Paris,  1901). 

AM^OBITES.  The  name  of  a  people  of 
Canaan  (II.  Samuel  xxi  :  12;  Anioa  ii  :  9,  10). 
The  name  is  known  outside  of  biblical  literature, 
occurring  on  both  the  Assyrian  and  Egyptian 
inscriptions.  The  E^gyptian  documents  speak  of 
a  people  called  the  Amar.  In  the  Assyrian 
monuments  Nebuchadnezzar  I.  styles  himself 
the  conqueror  of  the  "land  of  Amurru,"  while 
even  earlier  we  know  of  Amurru  from  the  Tel-el- 
Amarna  tablets.  The  name  was  applied  origin- 
ally to  the  highlands  in  the  northeast  and  gradu- 
ally spread  southward  (Genesis  xiv  :  7;  Deute- 
ronomy i  :  7-44)  and  westward,  where  it  met  the 
term  Canaan.  From  that  time  on  considerable 
confusion  took  place  in  the  use  of  the  name. 
Sometimes  the  terms  coalesce,  Amorite  being 
used  for  the  whole  of  Canaan  (II.  Samuel  xxi:  \i 
Amos  ii:  9,  10);  again  some  tribes  are  called 
Amorites  in  one  place  and  another  name  in  an- 
other (Joshua  X  :  5 ;  Joshua  xv  :  63 ) .  In  the  nar- 
rower sense,  the  Amorites  lived  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  Jordan,  and  at  the  time  of  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Jews  had  two  kingdoms,  under  Og  and 
Sishon,  respectively.  This  land  the  Amorites 
had  held  against  the  Hittites  on  the  north  and 
the  Moabites  on  the  south.  In  two  battles  the 
Amorites  were  defeated  and  their  land  annexed  to 
the  territory  west  of  the  Jordan  (Deuteronomy 
xxxi  :  4).  Although  subdued,  they  were  far  from 
being  exterminated, or  else  the  injunction  against 
intermarriage  with  the  Amorites  would  have 
been  unnecessary.  And  the  injunction  further 
proves  their  final  history.  They  lived  as  tribu- 
taries among  the  conquering  nation,  as  in  the 
days  of  Solomon,  and  were  most  likely  ab- 
sorbed. 

The  meaning  of  the' name  has  been  given  in 
two  ways.  According  to  some  scholars  the  root 
idea  is  "high,"  "lofty,"  "mountaineers,"  as  op- 
posed to  the  Canaanites,  the  lowlanders;  while 
according  to  others  the  "high"  is  to  be  applied 
not  to  the  locality  but  to  the  size  of  the  men. 
Of  the  two,  the  first  is  preferable,  though  it 
should  be  added  that  there  are  strong  objection* 
to  be  urged  against  the  explanation.    Consult 


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AMPELOPSIS. 


Sayoe,  Races  of  the  Old  Testament  (London, 
1891). 

AXOBOSO,  %'md-r6^86  (It.  amorous).  In 
music,  affectionately,  tenderly. 

AX'OBOXTS  BIGKOT,  The.  A  play  by  Thom- 
as Shadwell,  presented  in  1600.. 

AXOB^HA.     See  Iitdigo. 

A^OBY,  Blanche.  A  character  in  Thack- 
eray's Pendennis  (q.v.),  really  named  Betsy; 
an  insincere  and  selfish  girl,  whose  emotions  are 
all  shams. 

AMOBYy  BoBERT  (1842 — ).  An  American 
physician.  He  was  bom  in  Boston,  and  studied 
medicine  at  Harvard  and  later  in  Paris  and  in 
Dublin.  In  1869  he  was  made  lecturer  at  Har- 
vard College  on  the  physiological  action  of  drugs. 
He  was  also  for  some  time  professor  of  physi- 
ology at  the  Bowdoin  Medical  School.  Besides 
a  translation  from  the  German*  of  Buss's  Lec- 
tures on  Physioloffy  (Boston,  1876),  Dr.  Amory 
published  a  number  of  interesting  papers  on 
the  physiological  action  of  various  chemical  sub- 
stances. He  also  wrote  a  volume  on  poisons, 
forming  part  of  Wharton  and  Still^'s  Medical 
Jurisprudence. 

AX0B7,  Thomas  (1601?-1788).  An  Irish 
author,  called  the  "English  Babelais,"  and  sup- 
posed by  certain  authorities  to  have  been  slight- 
ly insane.  He  was  the  son  of  Counselor  Amory, 
who  was  appointed  by  William  III.  secretary 
for  the  foreign  estates  in  Ireland.  His  birth- 
place is  not  known,  but  in  1757  he  was  living 
in  seclusion  in  Westminster.  It  is  supposed 
that  he  sketched  portions  of  his  own  career  in 
his  Life  of  John  Buncle,  2  volumes  (1756-66). 
He  wrote  also  Memoirs  Containing  the  Lives  of 
Several  Ladies  of  Oreat  Britain  (1755).  He 
was  married  and  had  one  son.  Dr.  Bobert  Amory. 
A  sketch  of  his  life  appeared  in  the  Saturday 
Review,  May  12,  1877. 

AK0B7,  Thomas  Coffin  (1812-89).  An 
American  lawyer  and  author.  He  was  born  in 
Boston,  Mass.,  and  after  graduating  at  Harvard 
(1830),  held  various  posts  in  connection  with 
the  municipal  government  of  Boston.  In  addi- 
tion to  official  reports  and  addresses,  his  publi- 
cations include  the  Life  of  James  Sullivan  (Bos- 
ton, 1859),  Military  Services  and  Public  Life  of 
Major-General  John  Sullivan  (Boston,  1868), 
pamphlets  on  subjects  connected  with  the  Bevo- 
lutionary  War,  among  which  was  a  Life  of  Sir 
Isaac  Coffin  (1886),  ^nd  numerous  poems,  of 
which  the  best  known  is  William  Blaxton,  Sole 
Inhabitant  of  Boston. 

A'HOS.  A  Hebrew  prophet  of  the  eighth 
century  B.C.,  author  of  the  biblical  book  which 
bears  his  name.  He  was  a  herdsman  of  Tekoa, 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Bethlehem  ( Amos  i  :  I ) , 
and  also  a  tender  of  sycamore  trees  (Amos  vii: 
14).  He  prophesied  during  the  reigns  of  Uzziah 
in  Judah  and  Jeroboam  II.  in  Israel  (about 
760  B.C. ) ,  He  foretells  the  doom,  first  of  several 
surrounding  nations,  then  of  Israel  itself,  on 
account  of  the  various  sins,  mainly  disloyalty  to 
Yahweh,  which  had  brought  the  anger  of  Yah- 
weh  upon  the  kingdom.  He  closes  with  a  pro- 
mise of  restoration  for  Israel.  The  style  of 
Amos  is  remarkable  for  its  clearness  and  pictur- 
esque vigor,  and  abounds  with  images  taken 
from  rural  and  pastoral  life.  While  Amos  is 
the  first  of  the  prophets  who  wrote  as  well  as 
spoke,  the  editing  of  his  prophecies  belongs  to 


a  period  long  subsequent  to  the  prophet's  death. 
Hence,  modern  critics  have  detected  in  the 
prophecies  numerous  additions,  insertions,  and 
changes,  made  by  the  various  hands  concerned 
in  giving  the  series  of  chapters  its  present  form. 
For  recent  discussions  of  the  problems  involved, 
consult:  G.  A.  Smith,  "The  Twelve  Prophets,"  in 
The  Expositor's  Bible,  Volume  I.  (New  York, 
1896-97);  and  H.  G.  Mitchell,  Amos  (Boston, 
1899). 

AMOSKEAOy  &m'Os-k«g^.  See  Manchesteb, 
N.  H. 

AMOYy  &-moi'  (The  local  pronunciation  of 
Hai-mun,  or  Gallery  Gate).  A  third-class  Chi- 
nese city  on  an  island  of  the  same  name,  in  N. 
lat.  24*  28',  E.  long.  118°  4',  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Pei-chi  or  Dragon  Biver,  in  the  province  of  Fu- 
kien  (Map:  China,  E  5).  The  island  of  Hai- 
mun  is  40  miles  in  circumference.  Being  the 
chief  city  and  port  opposite  Formosa,  Amoy 
enjoys  a  large  trade  with  that  island.  Amoy 
was  early  known  as  a  place  of  Asiatic  foreign 
commerce,  and  is  the  ancient  centre  of  the  tea 
trade.  TTie  Portuguese  came  here  in  1644;  but 
were  expelled  for  their  cruelty  and  their  vessels 
burned.  The  English  traded  here  until  1730, 
when  they  were  ordered  to  remove  to  Canton. 
Nearly  all  the  tea  brought  to  Boston  Harbor 
by  the  British  ships  in  1773  was  from  Amoy, 
where  the  pronunciation  of  cha  is  "tea;"  but  the 
trade  in  this  herb  is  now  nearly  annihilated 
by  the  competition  of  Formosa  Oolong  and  the 
heavy  likin  tax.  The  British  treaty  of  1842 
made  Amoy  one  of  the  five  ports  opened  to  for- 
eign commerce,  and  the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  in 
1858  confirmed  and  extended  the  privilc^. 
Amoy  has  lon^  been  the  centre  of  flourishing 
Christian  missions  in  Fu-kien.  In  1882  a  Brit- 
ish engineer  discovered  coal  and  iron  within 
40  miles  of  Amoy,  in  an  area  of  50  square 
miles,  and  within  20  miles  of  water  traffic. 
The  harbor  is  large,  safe,  and  picturesque, 
formed  partly  by  Ku-lang-su  Island,  on  which 
the  houses  of  the  foreigners,  numbering  nearly 
three  hundred,  are  built,  and  by  Kwe-moi  (Gold- 
en Harbor.)  The  Japanese  settlement,  laid 
out  in  1899,  has  several  hundred  inhabitants. 
There  are  three  granite  docks  built  by  foreigners, 
an  English  church  and  club,  and  a  daily  news- 
paper. One  hundred  thousand  emigrants  pass 
through  Amoy  every  year  to  Singapore.  Pop., 
1897,  96,370. 

AJCTELIDA^CEiE.     See  Vitace^. 

AMPE^IXTS,  Lucius.  A  Boman  writer, 
who  lived  between  the  second  and  fourth  centu- 
ries A.D.  He  was  the  author  of  a  note-book, 
Liber  Memorialis,  which  contained  a  condensed 
and  meagre  summary  of  various  astronomical, 
geographical,  and  historical  writings.  Tlie 
lAber  is  too  inaccurate  for  use  as  a  work  of  ref- 
erence, but  it  is  valuable  as  the  only  ancient 
work  which  mentions  the  celebrated  sculptures 
of  Pergamus,  discovered  in  1878,  and  now  at 
Berlin.  It  is  usually  appended  to  editions  of 
Florus,  and  has  been  edited  with  notes  by  Beck 
(Leipzig,  1826).  The  best  text  is  that  of  Wolf- 
flin  (Leipzig,  1854). 

AM'PELOP^SIS  (Gk.  dfiireh>^,  ampelos, 
vine,  -f-  ^tCt  opsis,  appearance) .  A  genus  of 
vine-like,  woody  plants,  including  Virginia 
creeper,  or  American  woodbine,  much  used  for 
ornamental  decoration  of  buildings.    In  autumn 


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AlCPHIABAtJ& 


the  dying  leaves  of  ampelopsis  turn  a  most  bril- 
liant red  and  yellow.  The  vine  called  Japanese 
ivy  or  Boston  ivy  belongs  to  this  same  genus  of 

Slants,  and  is  probably  the  favorite  of  all  the 
ardy  vines  grown  m  cities  in  the  eastern 
United  States.  It  is  especially  effective  for  a 
considerable  area  from  Massachusetts  to  Florida 
and  on  the  Pacific  coast,  but  north  of  the  Ohio 
and  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  it  is  tender. 
Fossil  forms. — A  single  fossil  species  of  this 
genus,  Amelopsis  tertiaria,  has  been  recognized 
in  the  White  River  beds  of  the  Tertiary  in 
Wyoming. 

AKFEBEy  ftm-pfir^  (Derived  from  the  name 
of  Ampere).  The  practical  unit  employed  in 
measuring  the  intensity  of  an  electric  current, 
and  technically  defined  as  one-tenth  of  the  C.G.S. 
electro-magnetic  unit  (see  Electrical  Unffs) 
of  current.  By  intensity  of  current  is  meant 
the  quantity  of  electricity  which  passes  any 
cross  section  of  the  wire  or  conductor  in  the 
course  of  one  second  of  time.  .  The  current  de- 
pends upon  the  resistance  of,  and  the  difference 
of  potential  at  the  ends  of,  the  conductor,  vary- 
ing inversely  as  the  former  and  directly  as  the 

latter.     From  Ohm's  law  that  C=-   ,  when  C  is 

K 

the  current,  £  the  difference  of  potential,  and  R 
the  resistance,  we  have  amperes=-^- — .  A  cur- 
rent of  electricity  can  do  work  in  decomposing 
certain  chemical  substances  into  their  respective 
elements,  consequently  by  measuring  the  amount 
of  a  substance  so  decomposed  in  unit  time  we 
can  ascertain  the  strengtn  of  the  current.  The 
ampere,  accordingly,  has  been  legally  defined  as 
the  amount  of  a  constant  current  which,  when 
passed  through  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
in  accordance  with  standard  specifications,  de- 
posits silver  at  the  rate  of  0.001118  of  a  gram 
per  second.  The  detailed  specifications  prepared 
by  the  National  Academy  of  Sciences  of  the 
United  States  provide  that  in  measuring  currents 
of  about  one  ampere  in  strength  the  silver  vol- 
tameter (q.v.)  employed  should  consist  of  a  pla- 
tinum bowl  as  the  cathode,  containing  a  neutral 
solution  of  pure  silver  nitrate  in  the  proportion 
of  15  parts  by  weight  of  the  nitrate  to  85  parts 
of  water,  and  an  anode  consisting  of  a  disk  or 
plate  of  pure  silver  wrapped  with  pure  filter 
paper.  Precautions  are  to  be  observed  to  insure 
cleanliness  and  accuracy  of  measurement  before, 
during,  and  after  the  experiment.  The  silver 
deposited  in  the  platinum  bowl  is  then  washed 
and  weighed,  and  the  gain  in  weight  expressed 
in  grams  is  divided  by  the  number  of  seconds 
during  which  the  current  passed  and  by  0.001118. 
Within  the  past  few  years  it  has  been  proved 
•that  the  quantity  of  silver  deposited  in  a  vol- 
tameter depends  upon  many  conditions  previous- 
ly unsuspected,  such  as  the  age  of  the  solution, 
the  construction  of  the  voltameter,  etc.  For 
full  details  as  to  our  present  knowledge  of  the 
subject,  the  reader  should  consult  a  paper  by 
A.  Leduc  on  the  electro-chemical  equivalent  of 
silver,  copper,  and  water,  in  the  Reports  of  the 
International  Congress  of  Physics  at  Paris,  Vol- 
ume IT.  (1900),  and  the  original  report  of  the 
National  Academy  of  Sciences  on  Standards  for 
Electrical  Measure. 

AMPiBE'  ftN'pftr',  ANDRfi  Marie  (1776- 
1836).  A  distinguished  French  physicist,  math- 
ematician, and  naturalist,  born  at  Lyons.     The 


death  of  his  father,  under  the  guillotine  in  1793, 
made  a  deep  and  melancholy  impression  on  tiie 
mind  of  the  young  man,  and  he  sought  solace  in 
the  study  of  nature  and  the  Latin  poets.  In 
1801,  after  he  had  been  engaged  for  some  time 
as  private  mathematical  tutor  at  Lyons,  he  be- 
came professor  of  physics  in  the  Central  School 
of  the  department  of  Ain  at  Bourg.  He  was 
afterwards  professor  of  mathematics  at  Lyons. 
He  was  called  to' Paris,  where  he  distinguished 
himself  as  an  able  teacher  in  the  Polj^hnic 
School.  He  began  his  career  as  an  author  by  the 
essay  on  the  mathematical  theory  of  chances, 
8ur  la  th^orie  math4matique  du  jeu  (Lyons, 
1802).  In  1814  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  and  in  1824  was  appointed 
professor  of  experimental  physics  in  the  GoU^ 
de  France.  Science  is  largely  indebted  to  Am- 
pere, especially  for  his  electro-dynamic  theory 
and  his  original  views  of  the  identity  of  electri- 
city and  magnetism,  as  given  in  his  Recueil  (fob- 
servations  4lectro-dynamiqu€S  (Paris,  1822), 
and  his  Th4orie  des  phenomdnes  ilectro-^yna- 
miques  (Paris,  1826).  Ampere  was  the  inventor 
of  the  astatic  needle  (q.v.),  which  made  possible 
the  modern  astatic  galvanometer  (q.v.).  He 
was  the  first  to  show  that  two  parallel  conductors 
carrying  currents  traveling  in  the  same  direction 
attract  each  other,  while  if  traveling  in  opposite 
directions  they  repel  each  other.  Amp^e  also 
formulated  the  theory  that  there  were  currents 
of  electricity  circulating  in  the  earth  in  the  direc- 
tion of  its  diurnal  revolution  which  attracted 
the  magnetic  needle.  The  ampere  (q.v.),  or  unit 
of  the  strength  of  an  electrical  current,  is  named 
after  him.  Ampere's  scientific  papers  are  largely 
contained  in  the  Annates  de  Physique  et  de 
Chimie,  A  eulogy  by  Arago,  delivered  shortly 
after  his  death,  which  contains  an  account  of 
his  life,  will  be  found  translated  into  English  in 
the  annual  report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institu- 
tion for  1872  (Washington,  1872). 

AKPiiBE,  &N'pftr^,  Jbak  Jacques  Antoine 
(1800-1864).  A  French  academician,  essayist 
literary  historian  and  professor  in  the  Ck)ll&ge 
de  France.  He  was  bom  at  Lyons,  the  son  of 
Andr6  Marie  Ampere.  His  essays,  collected  as 
Litt^rature  et  voyages  (2  volumes,  1834),  attest 
his  knowledge  of  foreign  countries  and  their  lit- 
eratures. Better  known  are  the  essays,  on  the 
formation  of  the  French  language,  Histoire  de  la 
formation  de  la  langue  frangaisc  ( 1841 )  and  La 
Ordce,  Rome  et  Dante  (1850).  Ampere  was  a 
judicious  critic,  a  profound  scholar,  and  master 
of  a  precise  style.  Consult,  Potton,  Etudes  sur 
la  vie  et  les  travauw  de  Jean  Jacques  Ampdre 
(Paris,  1867). 

AKPEBE  TURKS.  In  problems  involving 
the  magnetic  field  produced  by  a  current  fiowing 
in  a  coil  of  wire,  two  of  the  factors  necessary  are 
the  strength  of  current  in  amperes,  and  the  num- 
ber of  turns  or  revolutions  that  the  conductor 
through  which  the  current  passes  makes  in 
forming  the  coil  or  solenoid.  Their  product  is 
kno^vn  as  the  ampere  turns. 

AMTHIABA^S  (Gk.  'A^^poof.  Amphia- 
raos).  A  Greek  chthonic  divinity.  At  Oropus 
he  had  a  celebrated  oracle,  healed  the  sick, 
was  honored  with  games,  and  was  worshiped 
elsewhere  as  a  hero  and  prophet.  In  legend  Am- 
phiarafls  is  prominent  in  the  war  of  tne  Seven 
against  Thebes,  into  which  he  was  forced  by  the 
treachery  of  his  wife,  who  was  bribed  by  Poly- 


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AMPHIBIA. 


nices.  As  he  fled  from  the  victorious  Thebans, 
Zeus  caused  the  earth  to  open  and  engulf  Am- 
phiaratis  with  his  horses  and 'chariot.  He  was 
a  descendant  of  the  seer  Melampus,  and  son  of 
Oleics  and  Hypermnestra.  According  to  later 
writers,  he  took  part  in  the  Calydonian  hunt  and 
the  Argonautic  expedition. 

AMPHIB^IA  (6k.  afi^i,  amphi,  on  both 
sides -f- /3toc,  hios,  life).  A  class  of  vertebrates 
intermediate  between  fishes  and  reptiles.  It  was 
made  by  Linnseus  to  comprise  reptiles.  Amphibia, 
and  cartila^nous  fishes,  but  has  been  restricted, 
until  now,  it  is  equivalent  to  Batrachia,  and  in- 
cludes frogs,  toads,  newts,  salamanders,  the 
snake-like  Gymnophiona  and  gigantic  extinct 
forms,  the  labyrinthodonts.  As  adults,  many, 
but  not  all  of  them,  are  able,  either  by  the  pos- 
session of  lungs  or  by  means  of  skin  respiration, 
to  come  from  water  to  land ;  hence  their  name. 

Distinctive  Charactebistics.  All  the  free- 
developing  amphibia  possess  gills  in  the  larval 
stage  that,  in  some  forms,  persist  throughout  life. 
The  skin  is  soft  and  glandular,  and  serves  in  part 
or  wholly  to  aSrate  the  blood.  The  outer  layers 
of  the  skin  become  comified  and  are  periodically 
shed,  and  in  a  few  cases  there  is  a  bony  dermal 
skeleton.  The  paired  fins  of  fishes  are  replaced 
by  pentadactyl  legs.  In  some  forms,  as  in  sirens, 
one  pair  of  limbs  may  be  wanting,  and  in  such 
forms  as  gymnophiona  both  pairs  may  be  lacking. 
The  mouth  is  terminal  and  the  teeth  are  firmly 
anchylosed  to  the  supporting  bones.  The  tongue, 
when  present,  is  bifid,  and  is  so  fixed  at  the  front 
of  the  mouth  that  the  free  end  turns  backward. 
The  mouth  and  pharynx  are  ciliated  and  into 
them  open  the  internal  nares.  The  alimentary 
tract  is  nearly  straight  in  the  elongated  forms, 
or  it  may  be  much  convoluted,  as  in  the  case  of 
vegetable  feeding  tadpoles.  There  is  a  two-lobed 
liver  and  a  pancreas.  The  lungs  are  thin-walled 
sacks  that  may  have  internal  folds,  but  some 
salamanders  are  lungless.  The  heart  is  usually 
composed  of  two  distinct  auricles,  one  ventricle, 
and  a  conus  arteriosus.  The  red  blood-corpuscles 
are  oval,  nucleated,  and  large  in  comparison  with 
those  of  warm-blooded  vertebrates. 

Breeding  Habits.  The  eggs  may  be  fertilized 
internally  or  externally,  just  as  they  are  being 
deposited  in  the  water.  In  most  cases  they  are 
left  to  chance  for  care,  but  in  some  species  are 
carried  in  strands  wrapped  about  the  male  or 
female.  A  few  have  brood-pouches,  and  one  toad 
rears  its  young  in  pits  in  the  skin  of  the  back. 
A  few  forms  bring  forth  their  young  in  an  active 
condition.  The  gill-bearing  or  larval  stage 
(axolotl),  of  Amblystoma  tigrinum  is  capable  of 
breeding,  and  under  certain  conditions  may  un- 
dergo its  metamorphoses.  (See  Axoloti.)  The 
eggs  are  pigmented  and  usually  undergo  total 
and  unequal  segmentation.  They  possess  a 
large  amount  of  yolk,  so  much  in  a  few  cases, 
such  as  pipa,  that  the  embryo  lies  coiled  over 
the  egg  as  though  it  were  a  fish.  The  blastula 
and  gastrula  stages  are  present,  but  are  modified 
in  form  and  manner  of  development  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  yolk;  the  medullary  groove  develops 
by  a  pair  of  upfoldings  along  the  middle  of  the 
back,  which  there  fuse  and  the  head  and  tail  be- 
come marked  off;  on  the  neck  are  two  or  three 
pairs  of  external  gills.  At  about  this  time  the 
tadpoles  hatch,  and  begin  to  swim  about  or 
adhere  to  weeds  by  means  of  the  sucker  on  the 
ventral  surface  of  the  head.  At  first  the  tadpole 
has  no  mouth,  but  soon  one  develops,  the  external 


gills  dwindle  and  are  replaced  by  the  internal, 
which  are  covered  by  a  fold  of  skin.  The  hind 
limbs  are  the  first  to  appear  externally,  lungs 
develop,  and  the  larva  can  breathe  both  on  land 
and  in  water.  The  ^lls  of  the  Anura  continue 
to  dwindle  and  likewise  the  tail  is  gradually  and 
completely  absorbed.  Tadpoles  as  well  as  some 
adult  amphibia  have  the  power  of  reproducing 
lost  parts. 

The  early  stages  of  amphibians  are  not  al- 
ways passed  in  water.  Some  of  the  European 
salamanders  are  viviparous,  the  young  being 
born  all  developed,  but  still  requiring  water.  The 
young  of  the  viviparous  Cceciliidse,  however,  take 
to  a  terrestrial  life  as  soon  as  they  are  born.  So, 
too,  certain  frogs  (e.g.  Rana  opisthodon,  of  the 
Solomon  Islands)  hatch  from  eggs  laid  out  of 
the  water  as  perfect,  air-breathing  frogs.  In 
many  species,  as  in  the  persistent  gilled  Crodela, 
the  adult  lives  chiefly  in  the  water;  in  other 
cases,  as  in  the  other  Urodela,  the  Coeciliidas 
and  the  Anura,  the  adult  lives  on  land. 

Habits.  The  adult  Amphibia  feed  on  worms, 
slugs,  and  insects.  Hence  they  are  all  useful  to 
agriculture.  None  has  a  poisonous  bite,  but  all 
trust  largely  for  safety  to  acrid  or  poisonous 
secretions  from  the  skin-glands.  The  tadpoles 
subsist  almost  entirely  on  water  vegetation,  such 
as  alg».  In  cold  or  dry  seasons  Amphibia  pre- 
serve themselves  by  burrowing  down  into  mud 
and  earth,  and  there  fall  into  a  lethargic  sleep. 
Most  Amphibia  keep  near  water,  and  their  young 
develop  in  it.  A  few  forms  that  live  in  moun- 
tains, in  trees,  or  on  dry,  porous  volcanic  islands, 
bring  forth  their  young  well  enough  developed 
to  breathe  air,  thus  approaching  a  reptilian  con- 
dition of  development.  Many,  but  not  all,  am- 
phibians are  nocturnal, being  most  active  in  their 
search  for  food  or  mates  in  the  early  morning 
or  evening  hours. 

Geographical  Distribution.  The  amphibia 
thrive  best  in  warm  and  moist  countries.  A  few 
live  in  the  temperate  zone,  some  frogs  penetrat- 
ing far  north,  but  not  so  far  as  the  polar  regions. 
The  order  of  relative  abundance  of  amphibia  in 
the  different  countries  is  as  follows:  Tropical 
America,  India,  Africa,  Australia,  North  Ajner- 
ica,  Europe.  Many  families  and  genera  have  a 
very  limited  range,  since,  although  fresh  water 
is  a  necessity  to  them,  the  sea  is  a  complete 
barrier  to  their  spread.  Salamanders  are  con- 
flned  mainly  to  Europe  and  North  America,  and 
only  toads  and  frogs  are  of  world-wide  distri- 
bution. 

Classification.  There  are  four  orders  .  of 
Amphibia:  the  Urodela  (q.v.),  possessing  a  tail 
throughout  life  (newts  and  salamanders)  ;  the 
Anura  (q.v.),  without  tail  in  the  adult  stage 
(frogs  and  toads);  the  Gymnophiona  (q.v.), 
snake-like,  without  limbs,  and  blind,  and  the 
Stegocephali  (q.v.),  and  other  extinct  often 
gigantic  tailed  forms  fossil  in  the  Carboniferous, 
Permian  and  Trias  rocks.  The  existing  species 
number  about  1000. 

Ancestry.  The  Amphibia  have  doubtless 
sprung  from  flsh-like  ancestors,  and  the  link 
with  that  ancestry  is  found  in  the  fossil-group 
of  Stegocephali,  whose  head  carries  great  plates. 
The  piscine  group  from  which  the  Amphibia 
arose  must  have  been  either  the  Dipnoi,  which 
are  to-day  largely  air  breathers,  or  the  Cros- 
sopterygii.  Gadow,  in  1901,  gave  the  following 
features  of  Amphibia  as  those  that  proclaim 
their  piscine  descent:    (1)    The  possession  by 


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AMPHIBIA. 


476 


AMPHYCTIONIC  C0T7HCIL. 


the  heart  of  a  long  conus  arteriosus  (anterior 
to  the  ventricle)  provided  with,  in  many  ca«es, 
numerous  valves,  on  at  least  (in  Anura)  one 
series  at  the  base,  another  at  the  beginning  of 
the  truncus  where  the  arches  branch  off;  (2) 
the  strictly  symmetrical  arrangement  of  these 
arches;  (3)  the  three-chamber^  heart  is  still 
like  that  of  Dipnoi;  (4)  the  occurrence  of  as 
many  as  four  or  even  five  branchial  skeletal 
arches  in  the  larval  stage;  (6)  the  glottis  (or 
entrance  to  windpipe)  is  supported  by  carti- 
lages which  themselves  are  derivatives  of  pos- 
terior visceral  arches;  (6)  the  development  (in 
Urodela  as  in  Stegocephali)  of  the  vertebrae  from 
four  pairs  of  elements  called '  arcvalia,  and  the 
formation  of  the  intervertebral  joints  by  a  split 
across  the  intervertebral  ring  of  cartilage;  (7) 
the  hypoglossal  n^rve  still  lies  outside  and  be- 
hind the  skull  as  a  cranial  nerve;  (8)  the  pres- 
ence of  lateral  sense  organs;  (0)  the  possession 
of  external  gills  as  in  Dipnoi  and  Crossopterygii. 
It  is  frequently  assumed  that  the  firs};  Urodela 
were  aquatic  creatures,  provided  with  a  finned 
tail  and  small  lun^.  Gadow  believes  these  to 
be  larval  acquisitions,  not  ancestral  reminis- 
cences. The  fact  that  the  ancestors  of  Amphibia 
evolved  the  pentadactyl  condition  proves  that 
they  were  land  animals.  The  evolutionary 
change  through  which  the  early  Amphibia  passes 
are  thus  enumerated  by  Gadow. 

(1)  "Terrestrial,  with  two  pairs  of  pentadac- 
tyloid  limbs;  breathing  by  lungs  only;  with  a 
fully  developed  apparatus  of  five  pairs  of  gill- 
arches,  which  during  the  embryonic  life  perhaps 
still  carried  internal  gills,  with  or  without  sev- 
eral pairs  of  gill  clefts.  Reduction  of  the 
dermal  armor  and  of  the  cutaneous  scutes  had 
taken  place. 

(2)  "Additional  respiratory  organs  were  de- 
veloped by  the  embryo,  in  the  shape  of  external 
gills;  these  were  at  first  restricted  to  embryonic 
life  (as  in  the  existing  Apoda),  but  were  grad- 
ually used  also  during  the  aquatic  life  of  the 
larva.  These  external  gills,  together  with  the 
lungs,  have  superseded  the  internal  gills,  of 
which  there  are  now  no  traces  either  in  Urodela 
or  in  Anura. 

(3)  "Some  Urodela,  retaking  to  aquatic  life, 
retained  and  further  enlarged  the  external  gills 
into  more  or  less  permanent  organs.  The 
majority  of  Urodela  hurried  through  the  larval, 
aquatic  stage,  and  some — e.g.,  Salamandra  atra 
— ^became  absolutely  terrestrial.  The  possession 
of  unusually  long  external  gills  by  this  species 
and  by  the  Apoda  indicates  that  these  organs 
are  essentially  embryonic,  not  larval,  features." 

BiBLiooRAPHT :  The  foremost  systematic 
writers  upon  this  group  are  G.  A.  Boulenger,  of 
the  British  Museum,  and  E.  D.  Cope.  The  latter 
has  completely  monographed  North  American 
forms  in  "Batrachia  of  North  America,"  Bulletin 
3jJ,  United  States  National  Museum  (Washing- 
ton, 1889).  This  discusses  the  larger  relations 
of  the  group,  and  gives  an  extensive  bibliography. 
For  a  still  more  recent  general  treatise,  consult 
H.  Gadow,  "Amphibia,"  Cambridge  Natural  His- 
tory, Volume  VIII.  (Cambridge,  1901).  See 
Alimentary  System  (Evolution  of)  and  simi- 
lar articles  relating  .to  comparative  anatomy. 

AMPHIBIA,  Fossil.    See  Steoocephalia. 

AMPHIBIOUS  PLANTS.  A  remarkably 
plastic  group,  generally  classed  among  water 
plants  (Hydrophytes,  q.v.).    Not  only  are  these 


plants  able  to  endure  life  in  wet  or  dry  habitats, 
but  their  leaves  often  show  remarkable  varia- 
iioDs.  (See  Leaves.)  Shallow  ditches  common- 
ly furnish  good  illustrations  of  amphibious 
plants. 

AM^PHIBOLE  (Gk.  a^fioJioq,  amphiholoa, 
doubtful,  ambiguous ;  alluding  to  its  being  easily 
confounded  with  augite).  An  important  group 
of  rock-making  minerals  closely  allied  to  the 
Pyroxene  (q.v.)  group.  The  amphiboles  are 
metasilicates,  principally  of  calcium,  magnesium, 
or  iron,  and  sometimes  also  of  manganese,  ao- 
diuni,  and  potassium.  The  group  'is  subdivided 
according  to  the  forms  of  crystallization.  Those 
that  crystallize  in  the  orthorhombic  system  in- 
clude Anthophyllite  and  its  variety  Gedrite;  the 
monoclinic  section  includes  the  typical  mineral 
Amphibole  with  its  varieties,  as  well  as  Glauco- 
phane,  Crocidolite,  and  certain  other  minerals; 
while  the  triclinic  section  includes  .^nigmatite. 
All  of  these  minerals  have  a  common  prismatic 
cleavage  of  from  54**  to  66',  and  also  agree  in 
their  optical  characters  and  chemical  composi- 
tion. 

The  most  important  member  of  the  group  is 
the  mineral  Amphibole,  which  gives  its  name  to 
the  series.  The  several  varieties  of  amphibole 
are  divided  into  two  groups,  according  as  they  do 
or  do  not  contain  aluminum.  The  non-aluminous 
varieties  include  Tremolite,  a  calcium  magnesium 
silicate  that  is  usually  white  to  dark  gray  in 
color,  and  is  found  both  in  crystals  and  massive; 
Actinolite,  a  calcium  magnesium  and  iron  sili- 
cate of  varying  shades  of  green;  Griinerite,  an 
iron  silicate  which  is  of  a  brown  color  that  oc- 
curs in  fibrous  masses.  The  aluminous  varieties 
include  the  several  varieties  of  Hornblende, 
which  comprises  the  dark  green  and  black  va- 
rieties, known  as  common  Hornblende  (black), 
Pargasite  (green  and  blue),  and  Edenite  (white. 
gray,  and  pale  green) .  These  minerals  are  found 
in  crystalline  metamorphic  limestones,  granitic, 
and  schistose  rocks,  and  in  volcanic  or  igneous 
rocks.  Nearly  every  member  of  the  group  has 
several  varieties,  each  of  which,  besides  having 
a  separate  name,  differs  from  the  type  by  some 
slight  variation  in  color,  optical  properties,  or 
chemical  composition.  Many  varieties  of  amphi- 
bole have  been  cut  as  gem-stones. 

AMPHIC'TYONa:C  COXTN'CIL  (from  Am- 
phictyon;  see  below).  A  celebrated  religious 
congress  of  the  confederated  tribes  of  ancient 
Greece,  which  met  twice  every  year,  in  spring  and 
in  autumn,  at  both  Delphi  and  Thermopylie.  The 
meetings  at  Delphi  took  place  in  the  temple  of 
Apollo,  those  at  Thermopylae  in  the  temple  of 
Demeter,  which  was  in  the  village  of  Anthela. 
llie  congress  was  composed  of  the  deputies  of 
twelve  tribes,  the  list  of  which  is  given  differently 
in  different  authors.  The  list  of  the  orator 
iEschines  (containing  but  eleven  names,  how- 
ever) is  as  follows:  Thessalians,  Boeotians, 
Dorians,  lonians,  Perrhsebians,  Magnetes,  Lo- 
crians,  CEtseans,  Phthiots,  Malians,  and  Phocians. 
The  twelfth  tribe  was  probably  either  the  Dolo- 
pians  or  the  ^Enianians.  (See  Pausanias,  ix.  b. 
and  Herodotus,  vii  :  132;  also  Cauer  in  Pauly- 
WissoVs  Realencyclopadic) .  Each  tribe  sent 
two  members,  and  the  twenty-four  representa- 
tives possessed  equal  authority.  The  origin  of 
the  Amphictyonic  Clouncil  is  a  matter  of  legend 
only.  Tradition  connects  it  with  the  name  of 
Amphictyon,  son  of  Deucalion,  or  with  that  of 


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AMFHICTYOKIC  COUNCIL. 


477 


AKPHIOXXTS. 


Androtion.  We  may  at  least  be  sure  that  the  in- 
stitution was  one  of  great  antiquity.  Its  impor- 
tance declined  in  the  course  of  time,  and  by  the 
third  century  b.c.  it  had  lost  much  of  its  old 
authority.  The  duties  of  the  Council  were  pri- 
marily religious,  and  were  connected  with  the 
care  of  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  and  the 
protection  of  the  holy  lands,  treasures,  and  other 
perquisites  of  the  god.  It  was  also  intrusted 
with  the  preparation  and  direction  of  the 
Pythian  Games.  The  duty  of  protecting  the 
property  of  Apollo  carried  with  it  the  power  to 
prosecute  and  punish  all  who  in  any  way  injured 
the  majesty  of  the  god.  Thus  the  Council  pos- 
sessed important  judicial  rights,  and,  as  it  also 
had  power  to  regulate  matters  relating  to  peace 
and  war  among  the  different  members  of  the  fed- 
eration, it  in  time  acquired  political  importance 
also.  The  members  bound  themselves  by  an  oath 
not  to  destroy  any  city  of  the  Amphictyons  or 
cut  off  their  streams  in  war  or  peace;  also,  if 
any  State  should  break  this  oath,  to  unite  in 
proceeding  against  and  destroying  such  a  State. 
There  were  in  early  times  various  other  am- 
phictyonies,  or  associations  of  tribes,  among  the 
Greeks,  as  at  Argos,  Delos,  and  elsewhere,  but 
little  is  known  of  these.  Consult:  Tittmann, 
Ueher  den  Bund  der  Amphictyanen  (Leipzig, 
1880) ;  and  Freeman,  History  of  Federal  Gov- 
eminent   (2d  ed.  London,  1893). 

AMPHII/OCHXTS  (Gk.  •A/i^/Ao;rof.  Amphil- 
ocho»).  In  legend,  a  son  of  AmphiaraOs,  and, 
like  him,  worshiped  as  a  prophet  at  Oropus  and 
elsewhere;  one  of  the  £pi^ni  (q.v.),  and  founder 
of  Amphilochian  Argos  m  Ambracia.  Another 
group  of  legends  connected  Amphilochus  with 
Cilicia  and  Pamphylia,  where  he  was  said  to 
have  gone  after  the  Trojan  War,  in  which  he 
took  part  as  a  suitor  of  Helen.  With  Nopsus, 
he  founded  Mallus,  but  later  they  quarreled  and 
killed  each  other.  Their  graves  were  shown 
at  Mallus,  where  was  also  an  oracle  of  Amphil- 
ochus. 

AM'PHINEXT^A  (Gk.  au<pU  amphi,  around 
-h  veifpov,  neuron^  sinew,  nerve).  A  class  of 
mollusks,  characterized  by  the  peculiar  arrange- 
ment of  the  nervous  system.  There  are  two 
lateral  and  two  ventral  nerve  trunks  bound  to- 
gether by  numerous  commissures  and  provided 
with  ganglion  cells  throughout  their  whole 
length.  Anteriorly  these  cords  pass  into  the 
cerebral  ganglion,  which,  however,  is  often  hardly 
more  than  the  upper  half  of  a  ring  which  encir- 
cles the  oesophagus.  The  amphineura  are  bi- 
laterally symmetrical  and  have  the  foot  some- 
what like  that  of  the  gastropods.  They  either 
have  a  shell  of  eight  pieces  or  there  is  no  shell 
at  all.  They  are  all  marine  forms,  chiefly  of  the 
warmer  seas,  and  rarely  reach  a  large  size.  There 
are  two  distinct  orders,  the  Polyplacophora,  or 
Chitons  (q.v.),  and  the  Aplacophora,  or  Soleno- 
gastres.  The  latter  are  degenerate,  worm-like 
animals  of  small  size,  without  a  shell,  the  foot, 
mantle,  and  mantle-cavity  neatly  reduced,  and 
in  some  forms  almost  wanting.  Only  a  few  re- 
cent species  are  known. 

AMPHFOK  (Gk.  'Afit^iuv).  In  mythology, 
son  of  Zeus  and  Antiope,  twin  brother  of 
Zethus.  The  story  of  Antiope  and  her  sons  ex- 
isted in  many  local  forms,  but  the  accepted  ver- 
sion of  later  times  was  found  in  the  Antiope  of 
Euripides,  of  which  only  fragments  have  been  pre- 
served. Antiope,  dragged  from  her  refuge  atSicyon 


by  her  uncle,  Lycus  of  Thebes,  bore  the  twins 
on  Mount  Cithaeron,  where  they  were  exposed, 
but  found,  and  reared  by  a  shepherd.  Antiope, 
cruelly  mistreated  by  Lycus  and  his  wife  Dirce, 
fled  to  the  mountain,  where  she  found  her  sons. 
To  avenge^ her  wrongs,  the  twins  tied  Dirce  to 
the  horns  of  a  wild  bull,  and  captured  Lycus, 
who  surrendered  Thebes,  which  they  fortified. 
Amphion  charmed  the  stones  into  place  by  his 
lyre.  The  characters  of  the  brothers  are  sharply 
contrasted:  Zethus,  the  rough  huntsman,  and 
Amphion,  the  gentle  musician.  Amphion  and  Ze- 
thus were  honored  at  Thebes  as  Dioscuri,  as  Cas- 
tor and  Pollux  at  Sparta.  Amphion  married 
Niobe  (q.v.),  and  was  killed  by  Apollo,  or  com- 
mitted suicide  when  his  children  were  killed.  The 
punishment  of  Dirce  is  the  subject  of  a  celebrated 
group  of  statuary — ^*The  Farnese  Bull" — ^by 
Apollonius  and  Tauriacus  of  Tralles,  found  in 
the  Baths  of  Caracalla  in  Rome  in  1546,  and 
now  in  the  Naples  Museum.  It  is  a  work  of  the 
early  part  of  the  first  century  B.C.,  but  has  been 
much  restored. 

AM'PHIOZaTS  (Gk.  afnf^,  amphi,  on  both 
sides -h  ^fvf,  oxys,  sharp).  A  small,  bilateral, 
translucent,  marine  animal,  about  two  or  three 
inches  long,  thought  by  some  to  be  an  offshoot 
of  the  primitive  vertebrate  stock,  and  by  others 
to  be  a  degenerate,  primitive  vertebrate.  The 
amphioxus  or  "lancelet"  has  no  well-defined 
brain,  but  a  persistent  and  unsegmented  noto- 
chord.  The  muscles  are  arranged  in  sixty-two 
V-shaped  myomeres  dovetailed  into  one  another. 
The  single  mouth  and  anus  are  in  the  median 
line.  There  are  no  limbs,  eyes,  ears,  sympathetic 
nerves,  or  genital  ducts.  The  gill-slits,  which 
are  numerous  and  supported  by  bars,  open  from 
the  mouth  into  the  atrial  chamber,  which  has 
one  opening  to  the  exterior,  the  atrial  pore.  The 
best-known  species  is  Amphioxus  lanceolatus, 
which  dwells  buried  in  sand  near  the  seashore 
line.  Its  food,  which  consists  mainly  of  diatoms, 
is  sucked  into  its  mouth.  The  adults  swim  about 
in  the  evening  only,  but  the  young  are  very  ac- 
tive. The  segmentation  of  the  egg  is  complete, 
and  results  in  the  formation  of  a  blastosphere, 
which    invaginates    to    form    a    gastrula.     The 


AMPHIOXUS. 

1.  Ventral  view  of  the  entire  animallying  on  its  side.  2.  Side 
view.  a.  anterior  end,  showing  cirri  about  the  hooded  mouth; 
by  candal  fin;  c,  anas;  d,  atripore  or  excurrent  orifice  for  the 
water  constantly  taicen  in  at  tne  month ;  «,  generative  organs ; 
ft,  note-chord. 

medullary  groove  is  formed  by  a  sinking  of  the 
ectoderm  along  the  mid-dorsal  line.  The  cavity 
of  the  gastrula  becomes  the  gut  of  the  adult. 
In  the  active  early  life  of  the  embryo  the  ecto- 
derm is  ciliated.  The  simplicity  of  its  develop- 
ment has  made  the  amphioxus  a  favorite  object 
of  study  for  the  descriptive  and  experimental 
embryologist.  If  the  two  cells  which  are  the 
result  of  the  first  segmentation  are  separated, 
each  cell  will  develop  into  a  complete  individual 
one-half  the  size  of  the  normal  embryo.     Incom- 


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AMPHITHEATBE. 


plete  separation  results  in  the  formation  of 
double  or  Siamese-like  twins.  Compare  Balano- 
GLOSSUS;  and  consult  A.  Willey,  Amphioxus 
and  the  Ancestry  of  the  Vertebrates  (New  York, 
1894).  See  the  articles  on  the  evolution  of  the 
alimentary,  circulatory,  muscular,  nervous,  and 
respiratory  systems,  under  Alimentabt  Sys- 
tem, etc. 

AKPHIP^ODA  (Gk.  nom.  neut.  pi.,  from 
&/i^i,  amphi,  around  +  vov^,  pous,  foot).  An 
order  of  crustaceans,  distinguished  by  the  ses- 
sile, lateral  eyes,  and  the  greatly  compressed 
body.  They  are  mostly  of  small  size,  and  some 
very  minute.  Their  name  alludes  to  the  peculiar 
arrangement  of  the  so-called  walking-feet,  four 
pairs  of  which  point  forward  and  three  back- 
ward. The  abdomen  or  "tail"  is  also  a  powerful 
locomotive  organ,  and  assists  the  animal  in  jump- 
ing, which  is  its  usual  mode  of  progression.  Even 
in  swimming  its  movements  are  chiefly  a  succes- 
sion of  jumps.  The  amphipods  are  usually 
plainly  colored,  but  some  forAis  are  very  hand- 
some. A  large  number  of  species  is  known,  but 
zoologists  are  by  no  means  agreed  as  to  their 
classification,  some  making  only  two,  and  some 
as  many  as  nine,  families.  They  occur  in  both 
fresh  and  salt  water,  and  are  especially  abundant 
along  sandy  beaches,  where  they  skip  about  in 
such  a  lively  manner  that  they  are  called  beach- 
fleas  or  sand-hoppers.  They  are  widely  distrib- 
uted over  the  world,  occurring  even  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  and  are  of  great  practical  importance  .as 
food  for  fishes.  See  Beach-flea,  and  Cbustacea. 

AKPHIP^OLIS  (Gk.  Afoj^iiroXic) .  A  city 
of  ancient  Macedonia,  situated  in  a  deep  bend 
of  the  Strjmion,  about  three  miles  from  the  sea 
(Map:  Turkey  in  Europe,  D  4).  Its  position 
made  it  important  as  the  port  of  entry  for  the 
fertile  Strymon  Valley  and  Thrace;  and  the 
neighborhood  yielded  timber  for  ships,  as  well  as 
gold  and,  silver.  It  belonged  originally  to  the 
Edoniansj  a  Thracian  people,  and  was  called,  on 
account  of  the  roads  which  met  here,  Eyv£a  '0- 
Moi  (Nine  Ways).  The  first  who  attempted  to 
colonize  it,  Aristagoras  of  Miletus,  was  cut  off 
with  his  followers  by  the  Edonians.  The  Atheni- 
ans next  tried  to  gain  possession  of  it.  Their  first 
army,  amounting  to  10,000  men,  was  utterly  cut 
to  pieces  at  Drabescus,  465  B.C.,  but  their  second, 
437  B.C.  under  Hagnon,  son  of  Nicias,  was  suc- 
cessful. The  Thracians  were  expelled  and  a  new 
city  built,  to  which  Hagnon  gave  the  name  Am- 
phipolis,  because  it  had  the  river  on  both  sides. 
Owing  to  its  mixed  population,  Amphipolis  was 
not  friendly  to  Athens,  and  in  424  B.C.  readily 
joined  the  Spartan  Brasidas.  The  Athenian  gen- 
eral, Cleon,  having  been  sent  to  recover  the  city, 
was  defeated  and  slain  in  a  battle  fought  near 
its  walls  in  422  b.  c,  Brasidas  also  falling  in 
the  engagement.  Though  nominally  restored  to 
Athens  by  the  peace  of  Nicias,  Amphipolis 
seems  to  have  remained  independent  until  its  sur- 
render to  Philip  of  Macedon.  At  Amphipolis 
was  situated  the  chief  mint  of  the  Macedonian 
kings,  and  under  the  Romans  it  was  the  capital 
of  Eastern  Macedonia.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it 
was  called  Popolia.  Its  site  is  now  occupied  by  a 
Turkish  town,  but  a  few  of  its  ruins  are  still 
visible.  Consult:  Leake,  Travels  in  Northern 
Greece  (London,  1835)  ;  and  Heuzey  and 
Daumet,  Mission  agch^ologique  en  Maoidonie 
(Paris,  1876). 


AM'PHISBiE^A  (Gk.  afii^ic,  ampfcw,  on 
both  ends,  ilaivetv,  hainein,  to  go).  The  type 
genus  of  a  family  of  degraded,  limbless  lizards, 
of  the  general  appearance  of  snakes  or  womu, 
found  only  in  the  West  Indies  and  South  Amer- 
ica. The  best  known  is  the  sooty  or  duskj 
species,  Amphisbaena  fuliginosa.  The  body  is  18 
to  24  inches  long  and  nearly  the  same  thickness 
throughout;  head  small,  eyes  small,  ears  covered 
with  skin,  and  tail  very  short.  It  tunnels  under 
ground,  feeding  on  insect  larvse  and  worms. 
As  it  moves  either  way  with  equal  ease,  rumor 
gave  it  two  heads,  and  asserted  that  when  cut  in 
twain  the  parts  would  find  each  other  and  re- 
unite. Its  dried  and  pulverized  flesh  was  sup- 
posed to  possess  miraculous  curative  properties. 

AMPHIS^SA  (Gk.  'Afuj^iaoa) ,  The  official 
name  of  Salona,  the  capital  of  the  Greek  nome  of 
Phocis  (Map:  Greece,  D  3).  It  is  situated 
31  miles  northeast  of  Lepanto,  at  the  western 
foot  of  the  Parnassus,  a  few  miles  from  the  site 
of  Delphi.  The  town  lies  in  a  fertile  plain, 
and  has  trade  in  oil,  tobacco,  and  grain.  A 
road  runs  to  the  harbor  of  Itea,  five  miles  to 
the  south,  on  the  Bay  of  Salona.  It  is  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Amphissa.    Pop.,  1896,  5416. 

AK'PHITHS/ATBE  (Gk.       duptBiarpw, 

amphitheatron,  a  double  theatre,  from  dfi^, 
amphif  on  both  sides  -f  Oiarpov,  theatron^  a 
theatre).  An  architectural  structure  invented  by 
the  Romans  for  exhibiting  gladiatorial  combats, 
fights  of  wild  beasts,  and  other  spectacles.  These 
contests  were  at  first  given  in  the  Roman  Forum, 
within  hastily  contrived  wooden  scaffoldings,  or 
in  the  Circus.  But  in  59  B.c.,  Curio,  wishing  to 
surpass  all  his  predecessors  in  the  sumptuous- 
ness  of  his  shows,  erected  two  wooden  theatres, 
back  to  back,  where  dramatic  performances  were 
given  simultaAeously ;  and  when  these  were  over 
the  two  theatres  were  made  to  revolve  and  close 
up.  Their  tiers  of  seats  inclosed  an  arena  suit^ 
for  the  contests  which  then  followed.  Perhaps 
the  model  was  found  in  the  cities  of  Campania; 
for  Pompeii  had  an  amphitheatre  as  early  as  70 
B.C.  Caesar  first  erected,  in  46  B.C.,  a  permanent 
structure  of  this  kind  in  wood,  and  it  was  called 
amphitheatre,  from  its  shape,  or  theatrum  vena- 
torium  or  "theatre  of  the  chase,"  from  the  kind 
of  contests  held  in  it.  Still,  combats  of  gladia- 
tors and  wild  beasts  continued  to  be  given  in 
the  Circus  and  the  Forum.  In  30  b.c.,  under 
Augustus,  Statilius  Taurus  built  the  first  am- 
phitheatre that  was  partly  of  stone,  in  the 
Campus  Martins:  it  remained  the  only  one  in 
Rome  not  entirely  of  wood  until  the  erection  of 
the  Coliseum  by  Vespasian,  whose  son  and  suc- 
cessor, Titus,  dedicated  the  edifice  in  80  A.D. 
Even  the  upper  part  of  the  Coliseum  itself 
was  originally  of  wood  until  the  restoration, 
after  a  great  fire,  in  223.  The  example  of 
Rome  was  followed  by  all  the  cities  of  any  im- 
portance throughout  the  Empire,  where  the  love 
of  bloody  sports,  so  repugnant  to  the  Greeks, 
spread  rapidly.  Amphitheatres  were  erected 
throughout  Italy  and  Sicily  (Verona,  Puteoli, 
Capua,  Pola,  Syracuse,  Pompeii,  etc.),  Spain 
(Tarragona,  Italica),  France  (Aries,  Ntmes,  Bor- 
deaux, Saintes,  etc. ) ,  England  ( Silchester,  Ciren- 
cester), Germany,  North  Africa  (El-Jemm),Asia 
Minor  (Pergamum,  Cyzicus),  Greece  (CJorinth, 
Sparta.)  The  ruins  of  almost  a  hundred 
have  been  found.    Those  that  are  well  preserved 


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479 


AMPHORA. 


are  among  the  finest  remains  of  Roman  architec- 
ture. .  Whenever  possible,  the  natural  lay  of  the 
ground  was  utilized  to  save  expense,  by  cutting 
part  of  the  seats  in  the  natural  rock  and  using 
the  hillside  as  an  incline.  But  in  most  cases  the 
amphitheatres  were  entirely  free-standing  struc- 
tures of  elliptical  shape,  built  of  brick,  stone, 
and  marble.  The  Coliseum  at  Rome  seated  87,- 
000  persons,  according  to  a  document  of  the 
fourth  century;  but  Hiilsen  believes  that  there 
were  that  number  of  running  feet  of  benches,  and 
that  only  about  60,000  persons  could  be  seated. 
Its  greatest  length  is  616  feet,  its  greatest 
breadth  510  feet.  Several  others  are  of  about 
the  same  size,  as,  for  example,  those  at  Pozzuoli, 
Capua,  Italica,  Verona,  Tarragona,  £1-Jemm. 
The  exterior  wall  of  the  Coliseum,  160  feet  high, 
was  divided  into  four  stories;  the  three  lower 
ones  consisted  of  a  series  of  arcades  framed  by 
architraves  and  pilasters,  the  lowest,  Tuscan- 
Doric;  the  second,  Ionic;  the  third,  Corinthian, 
according  to  a  common  Roman  usage.  The 
upper  story  was  broken  merely  by  windows 
and  pilasters,  as  well  as  bv  the  high  masts  to 
support  the  awnings.  The  lower  arcades  served 
as  entrances;  four  were  main  entrances;  sev- 
enty-six were  numbered  entrances  leading  to 
the  staircases.  The  arcades  of  the  second  and 
third  stpries  opened  on  the  covered  promenade 
galleries,  passage-ways,  and  staircases.  To  the 
upper  story  were  fastened  the  great  awnings, 
which  protected  the  spectators  from  the  sun 
when  necessary.  Other  amphitheatres  vary, 
from  two  stories  at  Ntmes,  to  three  at  Verona, 
three  and  a  basement  at  Pola,  to  four  at  £1- 
Jemm.  The  arrangements  were  as  follows  at 
the  Coliseum:  There  were  four  tiers,  or  stories, 
of  seats,  forming  the  cavea,  and  corresponding  to 
the  four  external  stories.  Under  their  founda- 
tions were  five  concentric  corridors  communicat- 
ing with  the  staircases;  and  the  raking  vaults 
that  support  the  seats  and  staircases  are  one  of 
the  most  superb  and  impressive  parts  of  the 
Btructure.  The  interior  of  the  cavea,  or  place  for 
the  spectators,  had  three  sections:  the  lower 
one,  or  podiunif  with  the  seats  and  thrones  of 
honor;  the  manianaf  or  lines  of  steps  for  the 
seats ;  the  portictts,  or  portico.  The  podium  was 
a  platform  immediately  above  the  arena,  reserved 
for  the  Emperor  and  other  persons  of  greatest 
distinction,  and  crowned  with  special  boxes  and 
balconies.  The  mseniana  were  in  three  horizontal 
sections,  where  the  spectators  could  be  seated 
according  to  their  rank;  the  equestrian  order 
in  the  lower,  the  citizens  in  the  middle,  and  the 
general  populace  in  the  upper  section.  Ordi- 
narily, the  women  were  obliged  to  be  satisfied 
with  the  highest  places  under  the  portico.  Each 
row  of  seats  was  numbered  and  the  places 
chalked.  A  large  personnel  kept  order.  The 
central  space,  measuring  280  by  176  feet,  in 
which  the  contests  took  place,  was  called  the 
arena  and  was  encircled  by  a  low  wall  to  protect 
the  podium  from  the  wild  beasts.  Under  it  was 
an  elaborate  system  of  substructures,  not  only 
for  under-draining,  but  also  for  housing  men  and 
animals,  with  wells,  windlasses,  and  inclined 
planes  for  hoisting  the  animals,  and  other  means 
of  communicating  with  the  arena — such  as  the 
romitoria — and  with  the  outside — such  as  pas- 
sages to  the  imperial  palaces.  Especially  inter- 
esting is  a  row  of  beasts'  dens  following  the  oval 
outline  of  the  arena  above.  The  Coliseum  has  not 
preserved  its  seats;  those  at  Verona  and  Ntmes 


have.  Neither  is  the  entire  circuit  of  outer  wall 
as  well  preserved  in  the  Coliseum  as  at  these 
cities  or  at  Pola.  At  Capua  and  Pozzuoli  the  sub- 
structures of  the  arena  are  in  perfect  condition. 
Consult:  Friedl&nder,  Sittengeschichte  Rotns 
(Leipzig,  1881-90)  :  De  Ruggiero,  Dizionario  Epi- 
grafico  (Rome,  1887-93) ;  Middleton,  Remains  of 
Ancient  Rome  (London,  1892)  ;  Daremberg  and 
Saglio,  Dictionnaire  des  antiquitis  Orecquea 
et  Romainea  (Paris,  1881-92),  and  Baumeister, 
Denkmaler  des  klassischen  Alterthums  (Munich^ 
1885-88). 

AMTHITBI^E  (Gk.  'Afninrptrff) .  The 
daughter  of  the  sea-god  Nereus  and  of  Doris,  and 
the  wife  of  Poseidon.  Amphitrite  was  wor- 
shiped only  in  company  with  Poseidon,  and  ap- 
pears with  him  on  many  painted  votive  tablets 
from  Corinth.  Her  marria^  forms  the  subject 
of  a  fine  Roman  marble  relief,  in  Munich,  with 
Poseidon,  representing  her  as  drawn  in  a  car  by 
Tritons,  surrounded  by  Nereids  and  sea-monsters. 
She  also  appears  with  Poseidon  in  representa- 
tions of  assemblies  of  the  gods. 

AMPHTFBUO,  or  AMPHIT^YOK.  A 
comedy  or  burles<|ue  by  Plautus  (q.v.),  based  on 
the  legend  of  Jupiter  and  Alcmene,  Amphitryon's 
wife.    Its  Greek  prototype  is  unlmown. 

AMPHIT^YOK  (Gk.  'AtM^irpvuv).  Legend- 
ary son  of  Alcseus  of  Tiryns.  He  accidentally 
killed  Electryon,  father  of  Alcmene  (q.v.),  King 
of  Mycenae,  for  which  deed  he  was  expelled 
from  Mycenae.  He  took  refuge  in  Thebes  with 
his  wife  Alcmene.  Here  she  became  the  mother 
of  Heracles  b^  Zeus,  and  of  Iphicles,  by  Amphit- 
ryon. Amphitryon's  tomb  and  the  ruins  of  his 
house  were  shown  in  Thebes  in  the  days  of 
Pausanias. 

^AKFHITBTOK.  (1)  A  comedy  of  Molidre, 
produced  in  1668,  and  taken  from  that  of  Plautus. 
(2)  An  opera  by  Gr^try,  the  words  being  by 
Sedaine,  produced  in  Paris,  1781.  (3)  A  com- 
edy by  Andrieux,  presented  in  1782.  There  are 
also  operas  with  this  title  in  Italian,  Portuguese^ 
and  Swedish. 

AMFHITBYON,  OB  THE  TWO  SCVCIAS. 

A  comedy  by  Dryden,  with  musical  portions,  pro- 
duced in  1690.  It  was  adapted  from  Moli^re'a 
play. 

AMTHTCrOffA  (Corruption  from  Gk.  afj^i, 
amphiy  on  both  sides  -f-  m/evfia,  pneumay  breath, 
referring  to  the  gill).  A  genus  of  tailed  amphi- 
bia that  loses  its  tadpolie  gills  but  retains  in  the 
adult  stage  one  gill-slit  on  each  side  of  the  neck ; 
hence  it  is  half-way  between  the  mud-puppy 
(Proteus),  which  retains  its  external  gills 
throughout  life,  and  the  newts,  which  retain 
neither  gills  nor  slits.    See  Congo-snake. 

AM^HOBA  (Gk.  ofi^pevc,  amphoreus^ 
Homeric  afi^i^pe^,  amphiphoreus,  from  d//^/, 
amphi,  on  both  sides,  and  ^fpeiv,  pherein,  to 
carry).  Among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  a  large 
vessel,  usually  made  of  clay,  with  a  narrow  neck 
and  two  handles.  Many  amphorie  ended  in  a 
sharp  point  below  for  insertion  in  a  stand  or  in 
the  ground.  The  pointed  form  of  the  amphora 
was  used  for  preserving  wine  and  oil,  as  in  the 
Panathenaic  amphorse.  A  peculiar  tall  and 
slender  form  was  the  Loutrophoros,  which  was 
used  for  water  for  the  bridal  bath  and  to  mark 
the  graves  of  the  unmarried.  The  amphora  ap- 
pears in  a  great  variety  of  forms  among  the 


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Greek  painted  vases.  Amphora  was  also  a  liquid 
measure  in  Rome,  equivalent  to  26.26  litres,  or 
about  seven  gallons.     The  name  was  also  given 


sometimes  to  the  Attic  metretes — equal  to  about 
11  gallons.  In  modem  times,  anfora  is  the  name 
of  a  wine-measure  in  Venice.    See  Vases,  Greek. 

AMTLOTCA^nOK  (Lat.  amplua,  large  + 
facere,  to  make).  A  term  in  rhetoric,  meaning 
that  an  idea,  an  opinion,  or  an  inference  is  pre- 
sented to  the  mind  accompanied  by  accessory 
circumstances.  Its  aim  is  to  make  a  powerful 
and  vivid  impression  on  the  reader  or  the  hearer. 
It  is  generally  produced  by  breaking  up  general 
statements  into  particulars,  by  employing  some 
form  of  repetition;  by  adding  illustrative  details, 
and  by  quotation.  Consult  Crenung,  The  Work- 
ing Principles  of  Rhetoric  ( Boston,  1901 ) . 

AM^LlTUllE  (Lat.  atnplitudo,  from  amplus, 
large).  In  astronomy,  the  angular  distance  of  a 
heavenly  body,  at  the  time  of  its  rising  or  setting 
from  the  eastern  or  the  western  point  of  the  hori- 
zon. When  the  sun  is  in  the  equator  (i.e.,  at  the 
time  of  either  equinox),  he  rises  exactly  east  and 
sets  exactly  west,  except  for  the  small  effects  of 
refraction  (q.v.)  Therefore,  at  these  times  the 
amplitude  is  zero.  His  amplitude  is  at  its  maxi- 
mum at  midsummer,  and  again  at  midwinter; 
and  that  maximum  depends  upon  the  latitude  of 
the  place,  being  23^^  at  the  equator,  and  in- 
creasing to  latitude  66%**,  where  it  becomes  90**. 
The  amplitude  of  a  fixed  star  remains  constant 
all  the  year  round. 

AHFTHILL,  fimfhlll,  FiBST  Babon.  See 
Russell,  Odd  William  Leopold. 

AMPULLA  (dimin.  of  amphora;  in  Greek, 
^7#ci;6of.  lakythoa).  Apparently  a  generic  term 
among  the  ancient  Romans  for  any  little  bottle 
of  earthenware,  glass,  or  other  material,  used 
for  holding  liquids  or  ointments.  The  ampulla 
Remensis  (the  holy  vessel,  Fr.  la  sainte  am- 
poule) was  the  name  of  that  famous  vessel  in 
which  was  contained  the  unguent  (believed  to 
have  been  brought  by  a  dove  from  heaven)  that 
anointed  Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  at  Rheims 
in  496  A.D.,  and  with  which  eyevy  succeeding 
monarch  of  France,  down  to  fiouis  XVL,  was 
anointed  at  his  coronation.  This  ampulla  was 
shattered,  along  with  a  great  many  more  valu- 
able things,  at  the  Revolution  of  1789;  but  a 
fragment  of  it  was  preserved  by  some  devout 
royalist,  and  handed  over  at  the  restoration  to 


the  Archbishop  of  Rheims.  Curious  to  say,  t 
little  of  the  miraculous  substance  still  remained, 
and,  being  mixed  with  oil,  was  used  to  anoint 
Charles  X.  in  1825. 

AMTITTA'TION  (Lat.  amputare,  to  lop  off, 
cut  around).     The  cutting  off  of  a  part  which, 
by  its  condition,  endangers  the  safety,  health  or 
comfort  of  the  patient.     Injury,  gangrene,  and 
malignant  growths  are  the  most  frequent  causes 
for  amputation.     The  amputation  of  a  limb  was 
in  ancient  times  attended  with  great  danger  o! 
the  patient  dying  during  its  performance,  as  sur- 
geons had  no  efficient  means  of  restraining  the 
bleeding.    They    rarely  ventured    to  remove   a 
large  portion  of  a  limb,  and  when  they  did  so, 
they  cut  in  the  gangrened  parts,  where  they  knew 
the  vessels  would  not  bleed;  the  smaller  limbs 
they  chopped  off  with  a  mallet  and  chisel;  and 
in  both  cases  had  hot  irons  at  hand  with  which 
to  sear  the  raw  surfaces,  boiling  oil  in  which  to 
dip  the  stump,  and  various  resins,  mosses,  and 
fungi,  supposed  to  possess  the  power  of  arresting 
hemorrhage.     Some  tightly  bandaged  the  limbs 
they  wished  to  remove,  so  that  they  mortified 
and  dropped  off;    and   others   amputated  with 
red-hot  knives,  or  knives  made  of  wood  or  horn 
dipped  in  vitriol.     The  desired  power  of  con- 
trolling the  hemorrhage  was  obtained  by  the  in- 
vention of  the  ligature  by  Par6  in  the  sixteenth 
century,  and  by  the    invention    of    the    tourni- 
quet    (q.v.)     in    1674    by    a    French    surgeon, 
Morell.     The    ancient    surgeons    endeavored    to 
save   a  covering  of   skin   for   the   stump,  hav- 
ing  the    skin    drawn    upward   by    an    assistant 
previously  to  using  the  knife.     In  1679,  Lowd- 
ham,  of  Exeter,  suggested  cutting  semicircular 
flaps  on  one    or    both  sides  of    a  limb,  so    as 
to    preserve    a    fleshy    cushion    to    cover    the 
end  of  the  bone.     Both  these  methods  are   now 
in  use,  and  are  known  as  the  "circular''  and  the 
"flap"  operations;  the  latter  is  most  frequently 
used. 

A  **flap"  amputation  is  performed  thus:  The 
patient  being  placed  in  the  most  convenient  posi- 
tion, an  assistant  compresses  the  main  artery  of 
the  limb  with  an  elastic  band  or  a  tourniquet 
Another  assistant  supports  the  limb.  The  sur- 
geon with  one  hand  lifts  the  tissue  from  the 
bone,  and  transfixing  with  a  long  narrow  knife, 
cuts  rapidly  downward  and  toward  the  surface  of 
the  skin,  forming  a  flap;  he  then  repeats 
this  on  the  other  side  of  the  limb.  An  assist- 
ant now  draws  up  these  flaps,  and  the  knife 
is  carried  round  the  bone,  dividing  any  flesh 
still  adhering  to  it.  The  surgeon  now  saws 
the  bone.  He  then,  with  a  small  forceps, 
seizes  the  end  of  the  main  artery,  and  draw- 
ing it  slightly  from  the  tissues,  an  assistant 
ties  it  with  a  thread.  All  the  vessels  being  se- 
cured with  ligatures,  after  removal  of  the  tourni- 
quet, the  flaps  are  stitched  toother  with  a  needle 
and  thread,  or,  if  heavy,  with  silver  wire.  A 
suitable  dressing  is  then  applied. 

AM^YX  (Gk.  ifiTTv^,  a  woman's  head-band, 
a  snood).  A  characteristic  Ordovician  genus, 
comprising  about  fifty  species,  restricted  to 
North  America  and  Europe,  of  blind  trilobites,  in 
which  the  central  portion  {glabella)  of  the  head- 
shield  is  often  armed  with  a  cylindrical  or  angu- 
lar sharp  spine,  the  length  of  which  in  many 
species  exceeds  that  of  the  entire  body.  Long 
curved  spines  are  also  developed  upon  the  genal 
angles  or  posterior  corners  of  the  sides  of  the 


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AMSLEB. 


head-shield.  The  thoracic  portion  of  the  body 
is  short,  consisting  of  five  or  six  segments,  and 
the  tail-shield  is  triangular  and  unarmed.  For 
illustration,  see  TuiLOBiTEti. 

AM^RAPHEL.  In  Genesis  ziv:  1,  a  king  of 
Shinar,  who  by  this  name  is  mentioned  as  in- 
vading Palestine,  together  with  Chedporlaomer, 
King  of  Elam,Arioch,Kingof  EUasar,  and  Tidal, 
King  of  Ooiim.  There  is  no  account  of  this 
expedition  in  Babylonian  literature,  and  none 
of  the  names  has  been  identified  with  certainty. 
The  chapter,  as  a  whole,  is  generally  regarded 
by  the  school  of  modern  Bible  critics  as  a 
very  late  midraah,  and  not  wholly  historical. 
But  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  account  of 
8uch  an  expedition  has  been  drawn  from  Baby- 
lonian sources.  The  names  of  the  four  kings 
inspire  confidence;  and  the  expedition  against 
the  westland  by  Kudur  Mabuk  furnishes  a  paral- 
lel. Schrader  may  therefore  be  right  in  identi- 
fying Amraphel  with  Hammurabi  (Amru),  the 
sixth  king  of  the  first  Babylonian  dynasty.  A  re- 
cently published  cuneiform  letter,  in  which  this 
king's  name  is  apparently  given  as  Kimta-rap- 
ashtu,  removes  a  part  of  the  difficulty,  since 
rapashtu  is  but  the  softened  pronunciation  of 
rapaltii.  The  expedition  would,  in  that  case, 
have  taken  place  about  2250  B.C.  As  the  connec- 
tion with  the  Hebrew  patriarch  is  likely  to  be 
a  late  development,  no  light  is  thrown  by  this 
identification  on  the  historic  character  or  date 
of  Abraham.    See  Hammurabi. 

AKB  IBN  AL  AAS,  Am^r'  'b'n  &1  !ls^  (died 
663  A.D. ) .  An  Arabian  eeneral.  He  was  one  of 
Mohammed's  disciples,  though  before  conversion 
a  furious  opponent.  Chiefly  to  him  were  the 
Prophet's  successors  indebted  for  the  conquest  of 
Syria.  In  639  he  led  40,000  men  into  Egypt,  and 
within  three  years  effected  the  subjugation  of 
the  country.  In  641,  after  a  siege  of  fourteen 
months,  he  took  Alexandria,  losing  23,000 
men.  In  the  struggle  between  Ali  and  Moawiyah 
for  the  caliphate,  Amru  sided  with  the  latter, 
and  to  him  was  due  the  triumph  of  the  Om- 
miads  over  the  Fatimites.  From  661  to  his 
death  he  was  Emir  of  Egypt,  and  by  his  wise 
administration  facilitated  the  conversion  of  the 
country  to  Islam.  He  is  credited  with  pro- 
jecting a  canal  to  unite  the  Mediterranean 
and  Red  seas,  and  is  charged  with  causing 
the  destruction  of  the  famous  library  at  Alex- 
andria; but  the  charge  may  well  be  dismissed, 
as  it  was  not  advanc^  until  six  centuries  after 
his  death.  Consult  Sir  William  Muir,  The  Ca- 
liphate (London,  1891). 

AHBITSAB,  tim-rlt^sftr  {Umriiaar).  A  city 
of  the  Punjab,  India,  in  lat.  31**  40'  N.  and  long. 
74'*  45'  E."  on  the  Sindh,  Punjab  and  Delhi  Rail- 
way (Map:  India,  B  2).  It  is  the  capital  of  a 
district  of  1574  square  miles,  with  a  population 
of  about  900,000,  and  of  a  division  with  an  area 
of  5354  square  miles  and  a  population  of  about 
2,750,000,  both  of  the  same  name.  Amritsar  is, 
next  to  Delhi,  the  richest  and  most  prosperous 
city  in  northern  India,  being  connected  with 
Lahore,  the  capital  of  the  Punjab,  distant  36 
miles  to  the  west,  by  a  canal,  and  possessing  con- 
siderable manufactures  of  cotton,  silks,  shawls, 
etc.,  and  carrying  on  considerable  trade.  It  is 
the  religious  metropolis  of  the  Sikhs,  a  distinc- 
tion which,  along  with  its  name,  it  owes  to 
its  "pool  of  immortality,"  on  an  islet  of  which 
stands  the  marble  Darbar  Sahib,  the  chief  temple 
Vol.  I.— «1 


of  the  Sikh  faith,  maintaining  an  establishment 
of  over  500  priests,  and  founded  in  1574  by  the 
minor  apostle  Guru  Ram  Das.  Amritsar  is  a 
favorite  pilgrim  resort;  and  it  was  the  place 
where,  perhaps  to  bind  the  Sikhs  more  firmly, 
was  signed  the  treaty  of  1846,  providing  for  the 
cession  to  the  British  the  territory  between  the 
Beas  and  the  Sutlej.  The  huge  Govindgarh,  or 
fortress,  built  in  1809,  is  the  most  prominent 
feature  of  Amristar.  The  town  has  a  gopd  water 
supply  in  connection  with  the  Bari  Doab  Canal. 
It  is  a  municipality  of  the  first  class,  with  a  pop- 
ulation of  136,766  in  1891,  which  increased  to 
162,548  in  1901. 

AMBXT-EL-KAIS,  Am^rl^M-kls^  (written 
also  Amrulcais,  and  Ambu'l-Kais).  By  many 
esteemed  the  greatest  of  Arabian  poets.  He  has 
been  by  some  authorities  assigned  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  century,  but  by  others  is 
described  as  contemporary  with  Mohammed.  The 
accounts  of  his  life  are  equally  diverse,  generally 
unreliable,  and  not  infrequently  legendary.  He 
was  the  author  of  the  first  of  the  Moallakdt,  a 
collection  of  seven  Arabic  poems,  which  from 
their  collective  title  ("Suspended")  were  once 
believed  to  have  been  hung  in  the  Kaaba,  at 
Mecca,  but  are  now  thought  to  have  been  so 
called  as  an  indication  of  special  excellence.  His 
Moallakala  was  rendered  into  English  by  Sir 
William  Jones  (1782). 

AMBXTM,  &m'r?$?Jm,  or  AMBOK,  ftm'rdm. 
One  of  the  North  Friesian  Islands,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Schleswig,  Germany,  south  of  the  Sylt, 
an  island  of  the  same  group  (Map:  Denmark,  B 
4) .  The  island  is  about  6  miles  long  and  has  an 
area  of  about  8  square  miles.  On  the  west  side 
are  high  sand-dunes.  The  island  is  unproductive, 
but  contains  monuments  of  former  prosperity. 
The  fishing  and  oyster  gathering  were  formerly 
considerable,  but  have  dwindled  away;  but  of 
late  Amrum  has  gained  some  importance  as  a 
watering-place. 

AMSDOBF,  amsMftrf,  Nikolaus  von  (1483- 
1565).  A  German  Protestant  reformer,  an  early 
and  determined  supporter  of  Luther.  He  was 
born  at  Torgau,  December  3,  1483,  educated  at 
Leipzig,  and  was  among  the  very  first  students 
of  the  universitv  at  Wittenberg  ( 1502) ,  where  he 
afterward  taught  philosophy  and  theology.  He 
was  with  Luther  at  the  Leipzig  disputation 
(1519),  and  the  Diet  of  Worms  (1521),  and  in 
the  privacy  of  his  Wartburg  seclusion.  He  as- 
sisted the  first  efforts  at  reformation  in  Magde- 
burg, Goslar,  and  Einbeck.  He  was  active  in  the 
Smalkald  debates,  and  spoke  strongly  against  the 
bigamy  of  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse.  Amsdorf  was 
made  Bishop  of  Naumburg  in  1542,  was  driven 
away  in  1547  by  the  Imperial  party  during  the 
Smalkaldic  War,  and  took  part  in  founding 
the  University  of  Jena.  In  1552  he  became 
superintendent  at  Eisenach,  where  he  died  un- 
married, May  14,  1565.  He  superintended  the 
publication  of  Luther's  works,  and  opposed  Me- 
lanchthon  on  the  separation  of  the  High-Lutheran 
party.  He  is  the  author  of  the  familiar  dictum, 
**good  works  are  prejudicial  to  salvation,"  by 
which  he  meant  those  works  which  man  thinks 
in  themselves  certain  to  save  his  soul.  For  his 
biography, consult:  T.  Pressel  (Elberfeld,  1862)  ; 
E.  Meier,  Lehen  der  AUvater  der  Lutherischen 
Kirche,  Volume  III.  (Leipzig,  1863). 

AMSIiEB,  amsHer,  Samuel  (1791-1849).  A 
professor  of  the  art  of  engraving  on  copper,  in 


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AJCSTESDAlflL 


the  Academy  of  Arts,  Munich.  He  was  bom  at 
Schinznach,  in  Switzerland,  received  his  first 
lessons  from  Lips  of  ZUrich,  and  afterward 
studied  under  Hess,  in  Munich.  His  first  great 
work  was  an  engraving  from  a  Magdalen  by 
Carlo  Dolce.  In  1816  he  went  to  Rome,  where, 
in  several  engravings  of  statues  by  Thorwaldsen, 
he  succeeded  well  in  uniting  the  characteristics 
of  the  originals  with  the  simple  style  of  Marcus 
Antonio.  Aided  by  Barth  and  Hildburghausen, 
he  engraved  a  title-page  for  the  Lay  of  the  Nibel- 
ungen,  from  a  design  by  Cornelius.  During  his 
second  sojourn  in  Rome  (1820-24),  he  began 
his  great  work,  an  engraving  of  "Alexander's  Tri- 
umphal Procession,"  by  Thorwaldsen.  At  Mun- 
ich, in  1831,  he  finished  his  large  plate  of  the 
"Burial  of  Christ,"  by  Raphael,  which,  with  his 
engraving  of  a  statue  of  Christ,  by  Dannecker, 
displayed  the  highest  qualities  of  imitative  art. 
These  works  were  followed  by  a  "Holy  Family," 
from  Raphael,  and  the  "Madonna  di  Casa 
Tempi."  His  last  great  work  was  an  engraving 
from  Overbeck*s  "Triumph  of  Religion  in  the 
Arts."  His  style  is  marked  by  a  clear  and  noble 
treatment  of  form,  rather  than  by  strong  con- 
trast of  tones.  Few  engravers  have  equaled  Ams- 
ler  in  his  deep  knowledge  and  faithful  represen- 
tation of  the  works  of  i^phael. 

AM^STEBBAM,  or  AM^STELDAM  (ear- 
lier Amstelledamine,  the  dam  or  dyke  of  the 
Amstel ) .  The  chief  city  of  the  Netherlands,  situ- 
ated at  the  confluence  of  the  Amstel  with  the  Y 
or  Ij  (pronounced  Eye),  an  arm  of  the  Zuyder 
Zee  (Map:  Holland,  C  2).  Amsterdam  has  an 
area  of  18^  square  miles,  and  has  the  shape  of 
a  semicircle,  its  diameter  being  the  Y  or  Ij.  The 
town  is  further  cut  up  into  six  other  concentric 
zones  by  canals.  Other  canals  (or  grachten) 
split  up  the  city  into  ninety  islands,  crossed  by 
about  300  bridges.  Along  these,  rows  of  trees  are 
planted,  making  the  finest  avenues  of  the  city, 
of  which  the  Singelgracht,  seven  miles  long,  the 
Prinsengracht,  the  Keizersgracht,  and  the  Heer- 
engracht,  which  is  147  feet  wide,  are  the  most 
Imndsome.  The  bridge  over  the  Amstel,  the 
HoogeslQs,  has  thirty-two  arches,  is  620  feet  long, 
and  affords  a  fine  view  of  the  city  and  harbor. 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  city  some  of  the 
canals  have  been  drained  and  filled  in  to  form 
broad  streets,  as  also  a  portion  of  the  Y,  which 
now  is  the  site  of  the  central  railroad  station. 
The  great  square  of  Amsterdam  is  the  so-called . 
Dam,  getting  its  name  from  its  position  on  the 
west  side  of  the  old  wall  that  is  popularly  be- 
lieved to  be  the  site  of  the  city's  first  founda- 
tions. Around  it  are  the  royal  palace,  the  ex- 
change, and  the  Nieuwe  Kerk  ( New.  Church ) ,  and 
from  it  as  a  centre  radiate  the  principal  streets 
and  street-car  lines  of  the  city.  Here  is  the  monu- 
ment to  the  loyalty  of  Holland  during  the  Bel- 
gian revolution  of  1830-31.  It  is  called  Het 
Metalen  Krins,  a  reminiscence  of  the  commemo- 
rative war  medals  then  issued.  Here,  too,  for 
one  week  in  summer  the  boys  of  the  city  have  the 
privilege  of  playing,  because,  it  is  said,  in  1622 
some  boys  here  discovered  a  conspiracy  of  the 
Spaniards  against  the  town. 

Many  of  the  buildings  of  the  city  are  the  Dutch 
brick  style  of  the  seventeenth  century.  They  are 
all  built  on  piles,  because  of  the  loose,  shifting 
nature  of  the  sandy  soil  near  to  its  surface.  It 
is  necessary  to  go  down  from  fourteen  to  sixty 
feet  before  a  firm  foundation  can  be  secured. 
An  interesting  part  of  the  city  is  the  Jewish 


quarter,  the  Jews  having  formed  an  important 
section  of  the  inhabitants  from  the  middle  of 
the  seventeeth  century.  In  ^is  part  of  the 
city  Spinoza  lived. 

Among  the  ecclesiastical  structures  of  the  city, 
the  Nieuwe  Kerk   (New  Church),  or  St  Cath- 
arine's Church,  a  cruciform  basilica  in  the  late 
Gothic  style,  erected  in   1408-78,  is  the  finest 
The   interior  contains   interesting  remnants  of 
old  stained  glass,  a  beautifully  carved  pulpit, 
executed   by    Viuckenbrinck    in    1049,   and  the 
monuments  of  Admiral  De  Ruyter  and  the  fa- 
mous Dutch  poet  Vondel.    The  Oude  Kerk  (Old 
Church),  a  Gothic  structure  dating  from  about 
1300,   is  noticeable  for  handsome  stained-glass 
windows  of  the  sixteenth  century,  and  contains 
several    monuments    to    naval    heroes.    In   the 
Jewish  quarter,  the  synagogue  of  the  Portuguese 
Jews  is  interesting,  as  being  built  in  imitation  of 
Solomon's  Temple;  it  also  boasts  of  a  consider- 
able number  of  costly  vessels.    The  handsomest 
secular  edifice  is  the  royal  palace,  built  in  1648- 
66  as  a  atcidthuis,  or  town  hall,  a  massive  struc- 
ture resting  on  a  foundation  of  13,659  piles,  and 
surmounted  by  a  round  tower  rising  187  feet 
from   the  base,   and  commanding  an  extensive 
view.     The  gilded  vane  of  the  tower  represents 
a  merchant  vessel.    The  building  is  adorned  with 
numerous  statues,  bas-reliefs,  and  mural  paint- 
ings, the  interior  profusely  decorated  by  eminent 
Dutch  sculptors  and  painters  of  1^  seventeenth 
century.    All  the  principal  apartments  are  lined 
with  white  Italian  marble  and  richly  adorned 
ivith  sculptures,  especially  the  magnificent  recep- 
tion room,  an  apartment  of  great  splendor,  and 
one  of  the  largest  halls  in  Europe,  measuring  120 
feet  in  length,  57  feet  in  width,  and  100  feet  in 
height.    The  building  was  converted  into  a  roval 
residence  in  1808,  being  presented  by  the  city  to 
King   Louis    Napoleon.    The    Rijks-Museum,    a 
stately  edifice,  erected  in  1877-85,  in  the  earlv 
Dutch   Renaissance  style,   with   various  Gothic 
and     Romanesque     characteristics,     is     richly 
adorned  with  statues  of  Dutch  architects,  paint- 
ers,   and    sculptors,    allegorical   bas-reliefs,   en- 
caustic paintings,  and  figures  in  colored  tiles, 
symbolic  of  the  Dutch  towns  and  provinces.    The 
museum  contains  one  of  the  most  important  col- 
lections of  paintings  and  engi-avings  in  the  world. 
The  works  of  Rembrandt  are  especially  well  rep- 
resented, and  besides  his  most  celebrated  work, 
the  so-called  "Night  Watch,"  include  "De  Staal- 
meesters,"  "The  Jewish  Bride,"  and  one  of  his 
most  finished  portraits,  that  of  "Elizabeth  Bas." 
Van  der  Heist's  "Banquet  of  the  Arquebusiers" 
is  another  highly  prized  gem  of  this  collection, 
which  abounds  in  select  paintings  by  the  most 
famous  Dutch  and  Flemish  masters.     The  mu- 
seum further  includes  an  interesting  department, 
showing  the  development  of  ecclesiastical  art  in 
the   Netherlands    from   the   Carolingian    period 
to  the  seventeenth  century,  and  a  valuable  col- 
lection of  objects  of  industrial  art.    In  the  Fodor 
Museum  may  be  seen  161  admirable  paintings 
by  modern  Belgian,  Dutch,  and  French  artists; 
about  300  drawings  by  old  masters,  and  about  100 
engravings.    The  Six  Gallery  is  a  small  but  ex- 
tremely valuable  collection  of  paintings  by  the 
old  Dutch  masters,  while  the  modem  Dutch  ar- 
tists may  be  studied  to  great  advantage  in  the 
^funicipal  Museum,  containing  about  200  select 
specimens. 

Amsterdam  has  long  been  renowned  as  a  cen- 
tre   of    learning.     The    school    known    as   the 


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AHSTEBDAM. 


Athenseum  Illustre  of  Amsterdam,  which  was 
founded  in  1632,  in  1877  was  reorganized  as  a 
university.  The  University  Library  now  has 
more  than  100,000  volumes,  including  the  Rosen- 
thal collection  of  8000  works  on  Indian  litera- 
ture. It  is  rich  in  manuscripts  and  original 
letters,  such  as  a  Syria  New  Testament  and 
Caesar's  De  Bello  Gallico  of  the  tenth  century. 
Amsterdam  possesses  excellent  facilities  for 
medical  study,  as  her  hospitals  are  famous. 
Other  educational  institutions  are  State,  nor- 
mal, industrial,  and  commercial  schools,  the 
National  Academ^  of  Arts,  the  Royal  Academy 
of  Sciences,  the  Royal  Dutch  Geographical  So- 
ciety, a  school  of  navigation,  and  a  municipal 
school  for  primary  teachers,  besides  a  school  of 
acting,  set  up  by  the  Society  for  the  Promotion 
of  the  Art  of  Acting.  The  Botanical  Garden 
ranks  among  the  foremost  in  Europe,  and  is 
equipped  with  a  library  and  ethnographical  mu- 
seum. It  was  established  by  the  Society  Natura 
Artis  Magistra,  founder  also  of  the  Zoological 
Gardens.  There  are  numerous  other  institutions 
of  learning  and  scientific  societies,  the  most  re- 
markable of  the  latter  being  the  Maatschappij  tot 
Nut  van't  Algemeen,  or  Society  for  the  Public 
Welfare,,  which  has  spread  over  all  Holland.  It 
was  founded  at  Edam  in  1784,  and  moved  to 
Amsterdam  in  1787.  It  aims  at  bettering  the 
education  and  normal  culture  of  the  people,  and 
strives  toward  this  end  in  every  conceivable  way. 

Amsterdam  has  six  theatres,  one  of  them 
owned  by  the  city.  Prominent  among  the  benev- 
olent institutions  are  the  various  orphan  asy- 
lums, one  of  which,  the  Diaconic  Asylum,  erected 
in  1880,  has  about  1200  inmates. 

For  centuries  Amsterdam  has  been  the  centre 
of  Dutch  ii}dustry,  and  its  diamond  polishing 
factories  are  the  most  extensive  in  the  world. 
These  are  exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  Portu- 
guese Jews,  and  employ  upward  of  12,000  work- 
men. Machinery,  ship  building,  and  iron  mold- 
ing are  important  industries,  and  there  are  large 
refineries  for  borax  and  camphor  in  the  town, 
producing  over  22,000  tons  annually.  The  prepa- 
ration of  rice  for  the  market  amounts  to  23,000 
tons  yearly,  and,  besides,  there  are  large  glass- 
blowing  establishments,  many  breweries  and  lum- 
ber mills.  Other  manufactures  are  articles  of 
gold  and  silver,  silk,  porcelain,  and  carpets,  cor- 
dials, chocolate,  tobacco,  leather,  dyestuffs,  as- 
tronomical instruments,  chemicals,  cobalt  blue, 
stearine  and  sperm  candles,  and  sailcloth. 

Amsterdam's  commercial  importance  has  ad- 
vanced rapidly  since  1865.  Since  1876  the  short 
North  Sea  Canal  has  been  in  operation,  running 
to  an  artificial  harbor  of  250  acres  on  the  North 
Sea.  The  celebrated  North  Holland  Canal  has 
been  supplanted  by  it  for  most  of  the  sea  traffic. 
Within  the  city  much  attention  is  paid  to  dredg- 
ing and  improvement  of  the  canals  centring  to 
the  north  in  the  three  islands,  near  which  are  the 
docks  of  the  various  steamship  lines,  that  connect 
the  city  with  all  the  great  ports  of  the  world. 
Here,  too,  are  the  naval  docks  and  stores,  a  vast 
system  of  docks  for  merchant  shipping,  grana- 
ries, and  railway  terminals  for  the  reception  of 
coal  and  iron  ore,  raw  materials,  etc.  Another 
canal  connects  Amsterdam  with  Utrecht.  There 
is  a  floating  dry-dock  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Y 
for  ships  of  4000  tons  and  of  16  feet  draught, 
while  another  dock  of  twice  the  size  has  been 
recently  constriicted.  Amsterdam  has  need  of 
such  improvements,  for  her  proportion  of  ships 


entering  Holland  was  18.8  in  1889,  and  6.66  in 
1899;  whereas  in  those  years  Rotterdam  had  52.1 
per  cent,  and  63.3,  respectively. 

The  chief  trade  is  with  the  Dutch  East  India 
colonies,  and  the  imports  are  mainly  tropical 
products,  such  as  raw  sugar,  Java  and  Sumatra 
tobacco,  coffee  from  Brazil  and  Java,  tea,  chemi- 
cals, drugs,  lumber,  and  rice.  Other  articles  of 
import  are  machinery  and  manufactured  articles, 
wheat,  glassware,  and  petroleum.  In  addition 
to  the  colonial  products — coffee,  tobacco,  and 
rice — ^Amsterdam  exports  such  Dutch  products 
as  cheese,  beer,  manufactured  articles  mentioned 
above,  and  drugs. 

Amsterdam  is  the  chief  financial  centre  of  the 
Netherlands,  and  her  stock  exchange  is  one  of  the 
most  important  in  Europe.  There  are  many  other 
financial  and  commercial  institutions,  and  the 
city  is  the  seat  of  the  Bank  of  the  Netherlands^ 
the  successor  of  the  famous  Bank  of  Amsterdam, 
founded  in  1609,  which  played  so  important  a 
rdle  in  the  history  of  banking,  with  a  capital  of 
$8,000,000,  which  has  full  control  of  all  the 
country's  paper  money. 

Amsterdam  has  a  complete  network  of  commu- 
nications with  the  interior  through  railway  and 
steamship  lines,  while  various  street-car  routes, 
carried  on  by  horse  and  electric  power,  traverse 
her  streets.  There  is  also  a  suburban  steam  rail- 
road. 

Amsterdam's  new  method  of  fortification 
merits  some  attention.  In  1870  the  old  walls 
had  all  been  razed,  and  since  then  a  system  of 
dikes  and  sluices  has  been  devised  whereby  the 
Surrounding  country  may  be  flooded ;  so  that  now 
there  is  only  one  fort,  that  at  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor. 

Upward  of  one-fifth  of  the  population  of  Am- 
sterdam are  Catholics,  and  the  Jews  form  nearly 
one-ninth.  There  are,  besides,  many  Germans. 
Population  in  1879,  316,600;  in  1891,  426,914.  In 
1900,  after  a  part  of  Nieuwer  Amstel  had  been 
added  to  the  city,  the  population  was  510,900. 

History.  We  first  hear  of  Amsterdam  in  the 
thirteenth  century,  when  the  lords  of  Amstel  had 
a  castle  there  to  protect  the  town,  and  when  also 
the  Dam  which  gives  the  town  its  name  had  al- 
ready been  built.  The  count  of  Holland,  Floris 
v.,  gave  the  city  free  trade  with  his  territories, 
and  Amsterdam  became  part  of  the  County  of 
Holland  in  1347.  From  now  on  the  town  in- 
creased rapidly,  and,  though  devastated  by  fire  in 
1421,  it  was  influential  enough  to  obtain  the  right 
of  bearing  the  imperial  crown  as  its  crest  from 
Maximilian  I.  After  the  war  for  independence, 
when  Antwerp  succumbed  to  the  Spaniards,  Am- 
sterdam became  the, chief  commercial  centre  of 
the  North ;  and  after  the  foundation  of  the  Dutch 
East  and  West  India  Companies,  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  seventeenth  century,  with  their 
headquarters  in  the  city,  it  attained  still  greater 
prosperity.  Even  the  wars  with  England  In 
1652-54  and  1665-67  did  not  for  long  check  its 
progress.  The  decline  of  the  city  came  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  as  a  result 
chiefly  of  the  war  with  England  of  1780-84,  and 
the  alliance  with  France.  Its  commerce  disap- 
peared entirely  after  it  became  a  part  of  the 
French  Empire  in  1810,  only  to  revive  in  the 
second  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  by  the 
building  of  the  great  canals  to  the  sea  and  to  the 
Rhine  system. 

AMSTEBDAM.  A  barren  islet  of  volcanic 
origin,  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  situated  in  lat.  37° 


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AMUIiET. 


62'  S.  and  long.  77**  37'  E.  It  covers  an  area 
of  25  square  miles,  and,  together  with  the  adja- 
cent island  of  St.  Paul,  forms  a  dependency  of 
Mauritius.  Both  islands  lie  about  midway  be- 
tween the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Tasmania.  It 
was  discovered  by  Van  Diemen  in  1663. 

AMSTEBDAM.  A  city  in  Montgomery  Co., 
New  York,  33  miles  northwest  of  Albany;  on  the 
Mohawk  River,  the  Erie  Canal,  and  the  New 
York  Central  and  Hudson  River  and  the  West 
Shore  railroads.  Among  numerous  industrial 
establishments,  it  has  factories  producing  knit 
goods,  carpets,  rugs,  wagon  springs,  silk,  paper 
boxes,  etc.,  and  foiuidries  and  machine  shops.  An 
academy,  a  hospital,  and  a  board  of  trade  are 
features  of  the  city.  First  settled  about  1778, 
and  known  as  Veedersburg  until  1804,  Amster- 
dam was  incorporated  as  a  village  in  1830,  and 
as  a  city  in  1886.  Pop.,  1890,  17,336;  1900,  20,- 
929. 

AMSTEBDAHy  University  of.  A  Dutch 
university  founded  by  the  city  in  1632  as  the 
Athenieum  Illustre.  After  a  checkered  existence 
it  was  reorganized  in  1867,  and  in  1877  was 
raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  royal  university,  rank- 
ing with  Ley  den,  Groningen,  and  Utrecht.  It 
has  an  income  of  372,000  florins,  and  about  1000 
students.  Its  faculties  include  law,  medicine, 
mathematics  and  science,  arts,  and  theology.  Its 
administration  is  in  the  hands  of  a  "Curatorium" 
of  five  members  and  a  secretary,  chosen  by  the 
crown.  The  professors  form  the  Senate,  with  a 
Rector  Magnificus  as  their  head,  and  a  Secretary 
of  the  Senate.  The  library  is  large,  and  includes 
a  number  of  special  collections,  particularly  in 
Hebrew  and  in  medicine. 

AMJJ,  k-mm',  or  AHTJ  DABYA,  k-mW 
dUr'yft  (ancient  Oxus) .  A  large  river  of  Central 
Asia,  which  has  its  source  in  the  Pamirs  be- 
tween India  and  Bokhara,  flowing  thence  north- 
west into  the  Aral  Sea.  In  its  course  through 
the  mountains  it  is  joined  by  the  Surkhab  from 
the  region  of  the  Alai  and  Trans-Alai  Mountains, 
by  the  Kafirnahan  and  Surkhan  from  the  Hazrot 
Sultan  chain,  and  by  numerous  smaller  streams, 
but  after  emerging  from  the  outer  slopes  it  re- 
ceives no  important  tributaries.  The  Zerafshan 
on  the  north  and  the  Murghab  on  the  south, 
which  formerly  drained  into  the  Amu,  now  lose 
their  waters  in  the  desert  regions  at  some  dis- 
tance from  its  bed.  It  is  navigable  by  light 
draught  boats  for  nearly  one-half  of  its  total 
length  of  about  1600  miles,  but  its  chief  im- 
portance is  as  a  reservoir  for  irrigation,  rather 
than  as  a  commercial  highway.  A  remarkable 
feature  of  the  Amu  is  that  its  course  has  been 
frequently  changed  within  historic  times.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  present  era  it  flowed  into 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  records  show  that  since 
that  time  the  course  has  been  changed  twice  to 
the  Aral  Sea.  As  late  as  the  first  half  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  it  was  a  feeder  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Consult  Sir  H.  C.  Rawlinson,  "Tlie  Road 
to  Merv"  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geo- 
graphical Society,  new  series  1.  161  (London, 
1879)  ;  Krapotkin,  "The  Old  Beds  of  the  Amu- 
Daria,"  Geographical  Journal,  Volume  XII. 
(London,  1898). 

AMXJCX^  or  AMOX^  Running  (Javanese, 
amook,  to  kill).  A  practice  in  Java  among 
those  in  whom  a  ferocious  madness  is  produced 
by  long  use  of  opium.  The  sufferer  rushes  abroad 
armed  with  some  weapon,  usually  a  kria,  or  large 


dirk,  striking  indiscriminately  at  all  whom  he 
encounters.  When  one  is  seen  to  start  on  his 
madness,  the  people  cry  "amok,"  and  immeili- 
ately  hunt  the  maniac  to  death.  Probably  in 
many  cases  this  is  deliberate  on  the  victim's  part, 
as  a  means  of  suicide. 

AldJLET  (Lat.  amuleium,  from  Ar.  hatna- 
let,  that  which  is  8us])ended).  Any  object  worn 
as  a  charm,  or  sometimes  placed  in  a  building 
to  ward  oflf  eviL  Amulets  originated  at  an  early 
date  in  the  Orient,  and  regard  for  them  is  among 
the  earliest  superstitions  of  the  Babylonians  and 
Egyptians.  The  magical  formulas  connected 
with  them  are  frequent  in  early  Babylonian 
texts.  Their  religion  included  belief  in  a  multi- 
tude of  spirits  present .  everywhere  and  influ- 
encing every  act.  Hence  the  necessity  of  pre- 
serving the  house,  property,  and  person  by  images 
and  formulas,  and  these  were  from  the  beginning 
connected  with  medicine.  Even  the  monotheistic 
Hebrews  were  not  free  from  the  ta.'nt,  and  the 
so-called  phylacteries,  with  passages  from  sacred 
writ  were  an  adaptation  of  these  magical  be- 
liefs. The  Greeks  and  Romans  inherited  the 
same  beliefs  in  a  modified  degree.  Perhaps  the 
most  general  evil  to  be  guard^  against  by  amu- 
lets at  all  times  was  the  Evil  Eye,  which  is  still 
so  firmly  believed  in  throughout  lAtin  countries. 
There  were  various  classes  of  amulets.  First 
came  certain  precious  or  other  stones  supposed  to 
possess  mysterious  helpful  properties:  agates  for 
spiders'  and  scorpions'  stings,  and  for  protection 
against  thunderstorms;  diamonds  for  melan- 
choly; jasper  for  the  tongue-tied  and  to  bring 
on  rain ;  amethyst  against  drunkenness,  and,  with 
certain  inscriptions  and  figures,  as  antidotes  to 
poisons,  hail,  and  locusts,  etc.  One  of  the  most 
permanent  of  all  such  beliefs  is  that  in  the  bene- 
ficial effects  of  coral.  Metals,  also*  and  plants, 
were  used  as  amulets.  So  were  various  parts  of 
certain  animals,  such  as  hyena  teeth  or  marrow, 
wolves'  fat,  rats'  ears,  foxes'  tongues,  and  bats* 
heads.  Most  efficacious  of  all  are  the  teeth  of 
different  animals.  After  these  natural  objects 
come  artificial  ones.  A  large  proportion  of  an- 
cient jewelers' work  was  undoubtedly  made  in  con- 
nection with  the  wearing  of  amulets,  especially 
necklaces,  rings,  bracelets,  earrings,  and  other 
pendants.  Other  ways  of  carrying  amulet  ma- 
terial was  in  gold  balls  or  hullcB,  or  in  sachets. 
The  formulas  carried  were  usually  inscribed,  not 
on  paper,  but  on  some  durable  substance — ^metal. 
terra  cotta,  ivory,  precious  stones.  Trinkets  of 
every  variety  and  shape — crescents,  disks,  pend- 
ants— ^were  hung  about  the  necks  of  children  and 
adults  as  charms;  and  few  went  without  them. 
Figures  of  gods  and  genii  had  magic  virtue  as 
well ;  so  did  verbal  formulie.  ( See  Abbacadabra, 
and  Abbaxas.)  Many  of  such  tiny  images  are 
found  on  necklaces.  Anchors  and  horseshoes, 
heads  and  figures  of  animals,  votive  hands  and 
feet,  thunderbolts,  vases,  and  many  other  objects, 
all  had  their  specific  values.  The  amulets  not 
only  were  suspended  around  the  neck,  worn  in 
jewelry,  and  sewed  in  the  clothing,  but  also  were 
affixed  to  furniture  and  walls,  painted  or  carved 
on  doors  and  walls,  and  burial  in  the  ground. 
They  even  followed  the  deceased  to  his  grave. 
Christianity  was  as  unable  as  Judaism  to  eradi- 
cate the  practice;  so  it  sought  to  mitigate  it  by 
legislation  and  by  offering  less  harmful  substi- 
tutes in  the  form  of  sacred  relics  or  formulas 
from  the  Bible.  These  substitutes  were  care- 
fully distinguished   from  the  heathen  amulets 


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which  the  clergy  were  forbidden  in  the  fourth 
century  to  make,  under  pain  of  deprivation  of 
holy  orders,  and  the  wearing  of  which  was  sol- 
emnly condemned  by  a  council  in  721.  But  in 
the  East  the  practice  still  flourishes,  as  well  as 
in  primitive  parts  of  southern  Europe.  Consult : 
King,  History  of  Precious  Stones  and  Oems 
(London,  1873) ;  and  Wachsmuth  in  the  Athe- 
ncBum  (Berlin),  Volume  II.,  pp.  209  foil. 

AUXJNATEani,  a'moS-nrtA-gS,  Miguel 
Luis  (1828-8S).  A  Chilean  author,  born  at  San- 
tiago. He  studied  at  the  National  Institute  and 
was  appointed  professor  there  in  1847.  He  won 
a  prize  in  1850,  offered  by  the  Institute  for  the 
best  history  of  the  Spanish  conquest  of  1814-17, 
with  his  La  reconquista  Espanola  (1850).  He 
became  a  member  of  the  philosophic  faculty  of 
the  Institute  in  1851,  was  appomted  Assistant 
Secretary  of  the  Interior  and  of  State  in  1862, 
and  held  several  important  public  offices.  He 
published  La  IHctadura  de  O'Higgins  (1854), 
Biograflas  Americanos  (1856),  Compendio  de 
historia  poUtica  y  ecclesidstica  en  Chile  (1856), 
Los  Prccursore^  de  la  Independencia  de  Chile 
(1870-72)  and  other  works. 

AMTSBff  &-moor^.  A  province  of  eastern  Si- 
beria (q.v.),  situated  north  of  the  River  Amur; 
area,  172,848  square  miles.  It  was  ceded  by 
C*hina  to  Russia  in  1858.  The  capital  is  Blagov- 
yestchensk.     Pop.,  1891,  87,705;  1897,  118,570. 

AUXJB.  A  river  of  Asia,  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Shilka  and  Argun  rivers,  near  the 
Russian  village  of  Ust-Strielka,  at  the  north  end 
of  the  Khingan  Mountains,  lat.  53''  20'  N.  and 
long.  121°  28'  E,  (Map:  Asia,  N  4).  From  the 
point  of  junction  of  the  two  rivers  the  Amur 
flows  at  first  east  and  then  southeast  along  the 
northern  boundary  of  Manchuria.  At  the  east- 
ern extremity  of  Manchuria  it  turns  northward 
and  near  Fort  Nicolayevsk,  in  lat.  53**  20'  N.,  it 
empties  into  the  strait  which  separates  the 
island  of  Saghalin  from  the  mainland,  near  the 
I>oint  where  that  channel  opens  into  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk.  Including  its  headstream  of  Argun, 
the  Amur  has  a  total  length  of  nearly  2800  miles 
and  its  basin  is  estimated  at  about  750,000 
square  miles.  The  principal  tributary  of  the 
Amur  is  the  Sungari,  which  joins  it  on  the  right 
near  the  point  at  which  the  Amur  begins  its 
great  bend  toward  the  north.  Another  impor- 
tant affluent  from  the  right  is  the  Ussuri.  The 
chief  affluents  on  the  left  are  the  Seya  and  the 
Bureya.  The  river  is  very  wide  in  the  lower 
part  of  its  course,  and  there  are  many  islands 
in  it.  The  great  station  of  the  steamers  that 
navigate  the  Amur  and  the  Ussuri  is  Khabor- 
ovsk  (formerly  called  Khaborovka),  which  is 
connected  by  rail  with  Vladivostok.  On  the  left 
bank  of  the  Amur,  near  the  parallel  of  50°,  Is 
Blagovyestchensk,  the  capital  of  the  Amur  ter- 
ritory. A  short  distance  below  this  town,  on 
the  opposite  bank,  is  Aigun.  The  Amur  is  nav- 
igable for  smaller  vessels  through  its  entire 
course,  and  steamers  can  ascend  tne  Shilka  be- 
yond the  town  of  Strietensk.  The  Amur  is  open 
for  navigation  only  for  about  six  months  in  the 
year.  'The  region  through  which  it  flows  is 
partly  covered  with  thick  forests,  and  but  few 
settlements  are  found  on  its  banks. 

As  early  as  1636,  several  Russian  adven- 
turers, attracted  by  rumors  of  the  wealth  of  the 
regions  to  the  southeast  of  Lake  Baikal,  made 
excursions  into  the  Chinese    territories    on  the 


Lower  Amur  by  way  of  the  Shilka  River.  In 
1649  Khabaroff  descended  the  Amur,  subdued  the 
native  tribes,  and  erected  a  number  of  forts  at 
the  junction  of* its  tributaries.  In  1658,  Ner- 
tchinsk  on  the  Shilka  was  founded,  and  about 
1665  Fort  Albasin  was  erected.  The  Chinese, 
who  had  watched  the  Russian  advance  with  great 
uneasiness,  now  took  up  arms,  attacked  Fort 
AlbaBinrepeatedly,andin  the  peace  of  Nertchinsk 
(1689)  succeeded  in  closing  the  Amur  to  the 
Russians,  who  for  more  than  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  made  no  conquests  in  Manchuria,  and 
contented  themselves  with  extending  their  in- 
fluence through  commerce,  missionary  work,  and 
diplomacy.  With  the  appointment  of  Count 
Nicholas  Muravieff  to  the  governorship  of  East 
Siberia,  active  operations  recommenced.  A  line 
of  forts  was  constructed  on  the  Amur,  the  coast 
of  the  Gulf  of  Tartary,  and  the  island  of  Sag- 
halin. In  four  expeditions  undertaken  in  1854 
and  subsequent  years  Muravieff  established  the 
authority  of  Russia  over  the  Amur  region,  and 
some  slight  attempts  were  made  at  colonizing 
the  country  with  Russian  settlers.  With  the 
English  and  French  marching  upon  Pekin,  China 
could  not  resist  the  Russian  encroachments.  The 
treaties  of  Aigun  and  Tien-tsin  concluded  in  1858, 
and  the  supplementary  treaty  of  Pekin  in  1860, 
in  ceding  Eastern  Manchuria  to  the  Russians, 
merely  gave  formal  recognition  to  an  accom- 
plished fact.  By  these  treaties  Russia  obtained 
possession  of  all  the  country  between  the  Pacific 
and  the  Amur,  the  Ussuri  and  the  Tiumen  rivers 
down  to  the  Korean  frontier.  In  this  manner 
the  long-desired  goal  of  Russian  foreign  policy, 
an  outlet  and  an  ice-free  port  on  the  Pacific,  was 
attained.  The  new  territory  was  divided  into 
two  regions,  the  Amur  Territory  and  the  Mari- 
time Province.  In  1861,  Vladivostok  (Mis- 
tress of  the  East),  was  founded  on  the  Gulf  of 
Peter  the  Great,  in  the  extreme  southeast  of 
Russian  territory;  strongly  fortified,  it  became 
the  chief  military  centre  and  arsenal  of  the 
Russians  in  the  East,  while  its  port  was  made  the 
rendezvous  for  the  Russian  Asiatic  fleet.  Con- 
sult: Schrenck,  Reisen  und  Forschungen  im 
Amur  Lande  (St.  Petersburg,  1858-92); 
Shirnkievitch,  "Reisen  bei  den  Amur-Volkern," 
in  pt.  74,  Globus  (Brunswick,  1898).  See  also 
Russia;  China;  Manchuria. 

AMXJBATH,  ft'mM-rftt^  or  MUBAIX  I. 
( 1319-89) .  Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  from 
1369  to  1389,  succeeding  his  father  Orkhan:  He 
was  the  first  to  lead  a  powerful  Turkish  army 
into  Europe,  and  in  1361  took  Adrianople  and 
fixed  there  his  residence.  He  completed  the  sub- 
jugation of  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1389  his  army 
dealt  a  crushing  blow  to  the  kingdom  of  Servia 
in  a  battle  fought  at  Kossovo.  The  great  Sultan 
himself  was  slain  on  the  field  of  battle,  stabbed, 
according  to  the  common  account,  by  a  wounded 
Servian  nobleman  as  he  was  surveying  the  scene 
of  his  victory.  Amurath  was  illiterate,  signing 
treaties  by  dipping  his  hand  in  ink  and  making 
a  mark  with  three  fingers  together,  with  the 
fourth  finger  and  thumb  stretched  wide  apart. 

AMXJBATH,  or  MXJBAD  H.  (1401-51).  The 
tenth  Sultan  of  the  Turks.  He  succeeded  his 
father,  Mohammed  I.,  in  1421.  In  1422  he  con- 
tended against  a  pretender,  Mustapha  (the  legit- 
imate Mustapha  having  previously  died),  but 
overcame  him  without  bloodshed.  He  took  Sa- 
lonica  from  the  Venetians  in  1430,  and  opened  the 


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way  for  subjugating  Greece.  He  went  on  suc- 
cessfully till  1442,  when  he  was  defeated  by 
Hunyadi,  and  was  obliged  to  make  peace  with 
the  Christians.  At  that  time  he  lost  a  son,  and 
abdicated  in  favor  of  another  son,  Mohammed, 
only  fourteen  years  old.  .The  Hungarians  re- 
newed the  war,  and,  hastening  from  retirement, 
he  overwhelmed  them  in  the  battle  of  Varna, 
November  10,  1444,  where  Ladislas,  King  of 
Hungary  and  Poland,  fell.  He  again  retired, 
and  again  came  forth  to  quell  an  insurrection  of 
the  Janissaries.  He  invaded  Albania  and  was 
defeated  by  George  Castriota  (Scanderbeg) ;  but 
he  retired  only  to  gain  a  great  victory  over  his 
formidable  adversary  Hunyadi  at  Kossovo,  in 
1448.  He  was  the  first  Ottoman  monarch  who 
caused  bridges  of  great  length  to  be  built;  and 
in  his  reign  poetry,  jurisprudence,  and  theology 
began  to  flourish.  He  died  of  apoplexy  at 
Adrianople. 

AHTJBATH,  or  MTTBAD  m.  (1545-95). 
A  sultan  of  the  Turks.  He  succeeded  his  father, 
Selim  II.,  in  1574.  He  was  a  feeble,  uxorious, 
superstitious  man.  His  reign  was  marked  by 
great  reverses  in  Hungary,  counterbalanced  by 
territorial  gains  in  Persia  and  Asia  Minor.  He 
made  commercial  treaties  with  the  Western  Pow- 
ers, and  was  also  the  first  to  feel  the  tyranny  of 
the  Janissaries. 

AMXJBATH,  or  MXJBAD  IV.  (1611-40).  A 
sultan  of  the  Turks.  He  succeeded  his  uncle, 
Mustapha,  in  1623.  He  is  known  as  "the  Turkish 
Nero,"  and  like  his  Roman  namesake,  he  began 
his  reign  with  great  promise;  but  the  mutinous 
behavior  of  his  soldiers,  and  the  frequent  rebel- 
lions that  marked  the  first  years  of  his  rule, 
made  him  a  tyrant  of  extraordinary  cruelty. 
His  greatest  exploit  was  the  retaking  of  Bagdad 
from  the  Persians  (1638),  after  an  assault  last- 
ing thirty  days,  an  occasion  on  which  he  slaugh- 
tered 30,000  of  the  inhabitants. 

AMTTBATH  V.  ( 1840—) ,  Sultan  of  Turkey. 
He  is  the  son  of  Sultan  Abd  ul  Medjid,  and  was 
born  September  21,  1840.  After  the  accession  of 
his  uncle,  Abd  ul  Aziz  in  1861,  he  was  kept  in 
forced  retirement,  but  was  placed  upon  the 
throne  by  a  revolution  May  30,  1876.  He  showed 
strong  symptoms  of  insanity,  however,  and  was 
deposed  August  31st  of  the  same  year. 

AMXJSSAT,  &'mv'sA^  Jean  Zul£ma  (1796- 
1856).  A  French  surgeon.  He  entered  the 
army,  was  assistant  surgeon  under  Esquirol  in 
the  *Saltp€tri^re  Hospital,  and  prosector  at  the 
Paris  faculty  of  medicine.  He  improved  and 
invented  many  surgical  instruments,  and  was 
the  first  to  show  the  importance  of  torsion  of 
arteries  in  hemorrhage.  He  wrote  on  the  nerv- 
ous system,  lithotomy,  etc.  An  operation  for 
opening  the  large  intestine  at  a  point  where  it  is 
not  covered  with  peritoneum  was  perfected  and 
first  practiced  by  Amussat.  It  is  still  performed, 
and  it  bears  his  name.  Among  his  publications 
are  researches  regarding  the  nervous  system 
(1825),  and  a  memoir  on  the  torsion  of  arteries 
(1829),  the  latter  winning  a  prize  from  the 
Institute. 

AMY^CLJE  {Gk, 'AfjiiK^at,Amyklai).  (1)  An 
ancient  town  of  Laconia,  on  the  eastern  bank 
of  the  Eurotas,  two  and  a  half  miles  southeast 
of  Sparta,  in  a  richly  wooded  and  fertile  region. 
It  was  early  a  famous  city,  and  after  the  Dorian 
conquest  seems  to  have  maintained  its  independ- 


ence as  an  Achiean  town  umtil  the  development 
of  the  Spartan  power.  In  the  neighborhood  of 
Amyclie  nave  been  found  important  remains  of 
Mycensean  civilization,  including  the  gold  cups 
of  Vaphio.  At  Amyclse  was  an  ancient  temple 
of  Apollo,  containing  a  primitive  bronze  image 
of  the  god  (woanon),  standing  on  an  elaborate 
bronze  throne.  It  was  the  work  of  Bathycles. 
Pausanias  has  given  a  description  of  it,  impor- 
tant in  the  history  of  early  Ionic  art.  AtAmycbe 
were  celebrated  annually  the  Hyacinthia,  in 
memory  of  Hyacinthus  (q.v.).  (2)  Amycl£,  or 
Amucis?,  an  ancient  city  on  the  coast  of  Latium, 
Italy,  said  to  have  been  built  by  a  colony  from 
the  Greek  Amycle.  It  had  ceased  to  exist  before 
the  time  of  Varro. 

AHYOa)AIiIN  (Lat.  amygdala,  Gk.  ofay 
SuAij,  amygdaU,  almond),  Ca^srNOu,  3HsO.  A 
crystalline  substance  existing  in  the  kernel  of 
bitter  almonds  and  in  various  other  plants.  It 
is  obtained,  by  extraction  with  boiling  alcohol, 
from  the  paste  of  bitter  almonds,  which  remains 
after  the  fixed  oil  has  been  separated  by  pressure. 
The  alcoholic  solution  usually  contains  more  or 
less  oil,  which  must  be  removed  by  decantation 
or  filtration;  it  is  then  evaporated  till  a  syrup 
is  left,  from  which  the  amycdalin  may  be  ob- 
tained by  the  addition  of  ether;  amygdalin  is 
insoluble  in  ether,  and  is,  therefore,  precipitated 
by  it  from  its  solutions.  Amygdalin  has  a  some- 
what bitter  taste,  but  it  not  poisonous.  It  may 
be  dissolved  in  water  for  any  length  of  time  with- 
out undergoing  any  change ;  but  if  some  emulsine 
(or  some  dilute  mineral  acid)  be  added  to  the 
solution,  a  sort  of  fermentation  is  set  up,  and  the 
amygdalin  gradually  undergoes  decomposition 
into  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  sugar,  and  hydro- 
cyanic or  prussic  acid.  Now,  as  emulsine,  too, 
is  one  of  the  constituents  of  bitter  almonds, 
when  the  ^aste  of  bitter  almonds  is  brought  into 
contact  with  water,  a  poisonous  liquid  is  ob- 
tained. 

AHYGa)ALOIl>  (Gk.  duvydaXif,  amygdaU, 
almond  -f-  eZdoc,  eidos,  shape).  A  name  given 
in  geology  to  iffneous  rocks,  generally  of  a  basal- 
tic nature,  which  contain  numerous  almond- 
shaped  or  spheroidal  cavities  filled  with  foreign 
minerals,  such  as  quartz,  calcite,  or  some  one 
of  the  zeolites.  These  cavities  are  regarded  as 
the  result  of  the  escape  of  gases  when  the  rocks 
cooled,  at  which  time  the  ci^stallization  of  the 
minerals  also  took  place,  these  being  for  the 
most  part  similar  in  composition  to  the  rock. 

AMTTL  (Lat.  amylum,  from  Gk.  hfUXov^  amy- 
Ion,  starch -f  l\ri,  hyU,  material),  CjSu.  A 
radicle,  or  group  of  atoms,  found  in  the  mole- 
cules of  many  organic  compounds,  but  incapable 
of   existing   independently.    See   Carbon    Ck>H- 

POUNDS. 

AMYL  AI/COHOL.  A  name  applied  to 
eight  alcohols  having  the  same  molecular  compo- 
sition (CJInOH),  but  more  or  less  different 
chemical  and  physical  properties.  Seven  of 
these  alcohols  have  actually  been  prepared;  the 
possibility  of  the  existence  of  the  eighth  is  indi- 
cated by  the  structural  theorv  of  compounds. 
The  most  important  amyl  alcohols  are  the  two 
found  in  fusel  oil,  which  is  produced  as  an  im- 
purity during  alcoholic  fermentation.  ( See  Alco- 
hol.) Of  these,  one  is  called  iso-butyl-carbinol, 
(CH,),CH.CH,.CH,OH;  the  other,  secondary 
butyl-carbinol,  CH,.CH,CH(CH,)  .CH,OH.  Iso- 
butyl-carbinol  boils  at  131*   C,  has  a  specific 


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AHY&AXJT. 


gravity  of  0.810,  and  is  optically  inactive;  it 
forms  the  predominating  constituent  of  fusel  oil. 
Secondary  butyl-carbinol  boils  at  128**  C,  and 
imparts  to  fusel  oil,  of  which  it  forms  10  to 
20  per  cent.,  the  property  of  turning  the 
plane  of  polarized  light  to  the  left.  The  separa- 
tion of  the  two  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty. 
It  may,  however,  be  effected  by  treating  the  mix- 
ture with  hydrochloric  acid:  iso-butyl-carbinol 
is  more  readily  attacked  by  the  acid*  than  sec- 
ondary butyl-carbinol;  it  is,  therefore,  the  first 
to  be  converted  into  the  corresponding  chloride, 
CgHnCl,  the  separation  of  which  from  the  unat- 
tacked  secondary  butyl  alcohol  can  be  effected 
by  ordinary  laboratory  methods.  A  third  amyl 
alcohol,  known  as  amylene  hydrate,  or  di-methyl- 
ethyl-carbinol,  and  having*  the  constitutional 
formula  (CH,)aCjH5C0H,  is  a  colorless  liquid, 
with  a  penetrating  and  pungent  odor  and  an 
unpleasant  taste.  When  taken  internally  in 
moderate  doses  it  acts  as  a  hypnotic;  in  larger 
doses  it  is  liable  to  cause  narcotic  symptoms. 
The  esters  (compound  ethers),  formed  by  the 
union  of  amyl  alcohols  with  some  of  the  acids  of 
the  acetic  acid  series,  have  highlv  aromatic  odors, 
resembling  those  of  the  apple,  the  pineapple,  the 
strawberry,  the  banana,  and  other  fruits.  Fusel 
oil  is  therefore  used  in  making  artificial  fruit 
e««ences,  which  are  now  generally  employed  for 
flavoring  syrups,  confectionery,  etc. 

AU^YLENE  HYa>BATE.    See  Amyl  Alco- 
hol. 

AU^YL  NI^TBITE.    An  extremely  volatile, 
pale  yellow,  oily  liquid,  with  an  aromatic  taste 
and  an  odor  resembling  bananas.     It  is  formed 
by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  amyl  alcohol 
(fusel   oil).     As   it  rapidly   deteriorates,   it   is 
necessarily  kept  in  "small,  dark,  amber-colored 
and  glass-stoppered  vials,  in  a  cool  and  dark 
place,  remote  from  lights."    The  last  precaution 
is  due  to  its  inflammable  nature.    The  drug  is 
also  put  into  closed  glass  capsules,  commonly 
known  as  "pearls,"  which  are  so  fragile  that  they 
•can  be  crushed  in  a  handkerchief  when  desired 
for  use.  Though  occasionally  administered  inter- 
nally, it  is  usually  given  by  inhalation.     A  mod- 
crate  amount  inhaled  causes  almost  immediately 
Pushing  of  the  face,  a  feeling  of  fullness  and  pain 
in    the   head,    rapid    and   strong   heart   action, 
labored  breathing,  and  a  very  soft  and  full  pulse. 
If  continued,  the  head  seems  distended  as  though 
it  would  burst,  and  the  other  symptoms  increase. 
Within  a  few  minutes  all  these  symptoms  dis- 
appear.    Poisonous  doses  cause  pallor,  irregular 
t>reathing,     muscular     relaxation,     and     death. 
JCanthopsia,  or  yellow  vision,  sometimes  follows 
inhalation   of  amyl   nitrite,   but  within   a   few 
TTiinutes  objects  gradually  resume  their  natural 
colors.     Besides  the  marked  diminution  of  arte- 
rial  tension,  the  drug  causes  a  change  in  the 
t>lood,  with  the  formation  of  what  appears  to  be 
Iifemoglobin.     The  chief  use  of  amyl  nitrite  is  to 
relieve  the  attacks  of  angina  pectoris.     It  is  also 
-valuable   for   aborting   epileptic   seizures,   espe- 
cially when  there  is  an  aura,  or  peculiar  sensa- 
-tion  denoting  the  approach  of  one  of  these.     In 
spasmodic  conditions,  such  as  asthma,  tetanus, 
oi-   strychnine   poisoning,   it   is   used,   and   also 
A  59  a  rapidly  acting  heart-stimulant.    See  Nitbo- 

OI'TCEBINE. 

AmrWTAS  I.  ( Gk.  'Afiifvrac ) .  ( c.  498  b.c.  ) . 
JCing  of  Macedonia  from  about  540  to  498  e.g. 
Xxi   token  of  submission  to  the  Persians,  he  pre- 


sented earth  and  water  to  the  ambassador,  Mega- 
bazus,  whom  Darius,  on  his  return  -from  the 
Scythian  expedition,  had  left  at  the  head  of 
80,000  men  in  Europe. 

AMYNTAS  H.  King  of  Macedonia  from 
about  394  to  369  B.G.,  son  of  Philip,  the  brother 
of  Perdiccas  II.  He  succeeded  his  father  in 
Upper  Macedonia,  and  obtained  the  crown  of 
the  entire  country  by  the  murder  of  the  usurper, 
Pausanias  (393  B.C.).  Soon  after  his  accession 
he  was  driven  from  Macedonia  by  the  lUyrians, 
but  by  the  aid  of  the  Thessalians  was  restored 
to  his  kingdom.  Afterward  he  entered  into  an 
alliance  with  the  Spartans.  He  left  three  sons, 
Alexander,  Perdiccas,  and  Philip  the  Great. 

AMYNTAS  HL  ( ?-336  B.C.).  Grandson  of 
Amyntas  II.,  son  of  Perdiccas.  On  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  360  B.C.,  he  was  the  lawful  heir 
to  the  throne,  which  was  usurped  by  his  uncle, 
Philip.  He  was  put  to  death  in  the  first  year  of 
the  reign  of  Alexander  the  Great  (336  B.O.), 
who  charged  him  with  having  conspired  against 
his  life. 

AMYOT,  ft'myy.  Jacques  (1513-93).  Tutor 
of  King  Charles  IX.,  of  France,  Bishop  of  Aux- 
erre,  and  Commander  of  the  Order  of  the  Holy 
Ghost.  He  was  born  at  Melun.  He  is  remem- 
bered chiefly  for  his  translations  into  exquisite 
French  of  the  Greek  romances,  Theagenes  and 
Chariclea  (1546),  and  Daphnia  and  ChloS 
(1559),  together  with  Diodorua  8ioulu8  (1554), 
Plutarch's  Lives  (1559),  and  Plutarch's  Morals 
(1572) .  This  Plutarch  was  the  basis  of  North's 
English  version  (1575)  used  by  Shakespeare.  It 
was  itself  used  by  Corneille,  and  ranks  with 
Amyot's  other  translations  among  French  clas- 
sics. 

AHYOT,  A'myy,  or  AMIOT,  Joseph  (1718- 
94).  A  celebrated  French  Jesuit  and  Oriental 
scholar.  He  lived  as  a  missionary  in  China  from 
1750  to  the  time  of  his  death.  His  knowledge 
of  Chinese  langua^  enabled  him  to  collect 
many  valuable  notices  of  antiquities,  history, 
language,  and  arts  in  China.  His  writings  in- 
clude large  contributions  to  the  M^moires  con- 
cemants  Vhistoire,  les  sciences  et  lea  arts  des 
Chinois  (1776-1814).  His  Dictionnaire  Tatar- 
Manchu-Frangais  (1789-90)  was  edited  by 
Langl^. 

A]C'YRALa>ISM.     See  Amybaut. 

AHYBAXJT,  &'m«'ry,  Mo'isE.  (1596-1664).  A 
French  Protestant  theologian  and  metaphysician. 
He  was  bom  at  Bourgueil.  near  Tours.  His  father 
set  him  to  study  law,  and  he  made  rapid  progress 
in  the  University  of  Poitiers.  He  became  a 
licentiate  in  law  (1616),  but  the  reading  of 
Calvin's  Institutes  induced  him  to  leave  law  for 
theology,  and  he  studied  at  Saumur,  and  "sat 
at  the  feet  of  the  great  Cameron,"  a  pupil  as 
great  as  his  master.  There  he  became  a  pastor 
in  1626;  in  1633  professor  of  theology.  He  was 
co-professor  with  Louis  Capel  and  Josua  de  la 
Place.  Their  life-long  friendship  was  beautiful 
and  remarkable,  as  is  their  memory  as  joint  au- 
thors of  the  Theses  Salmuriensis.  In  1631  Amy- 
rant  published  Trait^s  des  religions  (Saumur), 
still  a  living  work;  and  thenceforward  he  was 
foremost  in  provincial  and  national  synods.  The 
esteem  in  which  he  was  held  was  shown  when 
the  Charenton  synod  of  1631  chose  him  to  present 
to  the  King  the  Copy  of  the  Complaints  and 
Grieuances  for  the  Infractions  and  Violations  of 


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ANABAPTISTS. 


the  Edict  of  Nantes.  Before  this  time  all  save 
Roman  Catholic  deputies  had  addressed  the  King 
on  their  knees;  but  Amyraut  refused  to  speak 
unless  he  could  stand  as  did  the  Romanists,  and 
carried  the  day,  his  rehearsal  charming  even  his 
adversaries.  His  oration  is  an  historic  landmark 
of  French  Protestantism.  He  held  fast  to  Calvin- 
ism, but  with  an  unusual  liberality.  He  was  re- 
peatedly accused,  but  never  convicted,  of  heresy, 
because  in  his  Traits  de  la  predestination  { 1634) 
he  advocates  a  modification  of  the  strong  predes- 
tination theory  of  the  Synod  of  Dort  by  the 
"Universalismus  hypotheticus,"  i.e.,  the  theory 
that  God  offers  salvation  to  all  under  the  con- 
ditions of  faith.  This  is  known  as  Amyraldism, 
and  found  many  adherents — among  them  Baxter, 
Andrew  Fuller,  and  the  New  England  divines. 
He  died  at  Saumur,  January  8,  1604.  He  left 
many  religious  works. 

ANy  or  ON.  The  Egyptian  name  of  Helio- 
polis  (q.v.). 

A^A.  A  termination  added  to  the  names  of 
remarkable  men,  to  designate  collections  of  their 
sayings,  anecdotes,  etc. ;  as  in  the  works  entitled 
Baconiana,  Johnsoniana.  Such  titles  were  first 
used  in  France,  where  they  became  common  after 
the  publication  of  Scaligerana  by  the'  brothers 
Diipuy  (The  Hague,  1666).  In  English  litera- 
ture there  are  many  works  of  this  kind.  Amer- 
ica, also,  has  its  Wa^hingtoniana,  and  Jefferson's 
Anas  are  well-known  to  students  of  our  history. 

AJf'ABAP^TISTS  (Gk.  dvalSavTi^etv,  anahap- 
tisetHf  to  rebaptize).  A  term  applied  generally 
in  Reformation  times  to  those  Christians  who 
rejected  infant  baptism  and  administered  the 
rite  only  to  adults;  so  that  when  a  new  member 
joined  them,  he  or  she  was  baptized,  the  rite  as 
administered  in  infancy  being  considered  no  bap- 
tism. Still,  because  all  other  branches  of  the 
church  considered  this  a  second  baptism,  the 
term  Anabaptist,  i.e.,  one  who  baptizes  again, 
was  naturally  applied  to  them.  The  name  is, 
however,  not  now  used  by  the  present  Baptists. 

The  primitive  baptism  was  doubtless  of  adults 
only,  but  infant  baptism  early  became  the 
Church  practice.  Opposition  to  it  was  kept  up 
by  a  number  of  minor  and  obscure  sects  in  the 
Middle  Ages.  When  the  Reformation  unshackled 
the  popular  mind  it  came  into  prominence.  Un- 
fortunately, it  was  linked  with  other  unpopular 
ideas  of  a  revolutionary  character,  and  adopted 
by  a  set  of  fanatical  enthusiasts  called  the 
prophets  of  Zwickau,  in  Saxony,  at  whose  head 
were  Thomas  MUnzer  (q.v.)  (1520)  and  others. 
MUnzer  went  to  Waldshut,  on  the  borders  of 
Switzerland,  which  soon  became  a  chief  seat  of 
anabaptism,  and  a  centre  whence  visionaries  and 
fanatics  spread  over  Switzerland.  They  pre- 
tended to  new  revelations,  dreamed  of  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  on  earth, 
and  summoned  princes  to  join  them,  on  pain  of 
losing  their  temporal  power.  They  rejected 
infant  baptism,  and  taught  that  those  who 
joined  them  must  be  baptized  anew  with  the 
baptism  of  the  Spirit;  they  also  proclaimed  the 
community  of  goods,  and  the  equality  of  all 
Christians.  These  doctrines  naturally  fell  in 
with  and  supported  the  "Peasant  War"  (q.v.) 
that  had  about  that  time  (1525)  broken  out  from 
real  causes  of  oppression.  The  sect  spread  rapid- 
ly through  Westphalia,  Holstein,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands, in  spite  of  the  severest  persecutions. 
The   battle    of    Frankenhausen    (see    MUnzer) 


crushed  their  progress  in  Saxony  and  Francoma. 
Still  scattered  adherents  of  the  doctrines  con- 
tinued, and  were  again  brought  together  in  vari- 
ous places  by  traveling  preachers.    In  this  capa- 
city Melchior  Hoffmann,  a  furrier  of  Suabia.  dis- 
tinguished himself,  who  appeared  as  a  visionary 
preacher  in  Kiel  in  1527,  and  in  Emden  in  1528. 
In  the  last  town  he  installed  a  baker,  John  ^fat- 
thiesen,  of  Haarlem,  as  bishop,  and  then  went 
to  Strassburg,  where  he  died  in  prison.  Matthie- 
sen  began  to  send  out  apostles  of  the  new  doe- 
trine.     Two  of   these  went  to  Mlinster,  where 
they  found  fanatical  coadjutors  in  the  Protes- 
tant minister  Rothmann,  and  the  burghers  Knip* 
perdolling    and    Krechting,    and    were    shortly 
joined  by  the  tailor  Bockhold,  of  Leyden,  and 
Gerrit  Kippenbrock,  of  Amsterdam,  a  bookbind- 
er, and  at  last  by  Matthiesen  himself.    With 
their    adherents    they    soon    made    themselves 
masters  of   the  city;    Matthiesen  set  up  as  a 
prophet,  and  when  he  lost  his  life  in  a  sally 
against  the  Bishop  of  Mtlnster,  who  was  besieg- 
ing the  town,  Bockhold  and  Knipperdolling  took 
his  place.    The  churches   were   now  destroyed. 
and    twelve    judges    were    appointed    over   the 
tribes,  as  among  the  Israelites;   and  Bockhold 
(1534)   had  himself  crowned  king  of  the  "New 
Sion,"  under  the  name  of  John  of  Leyden.    The 
Anabaptist  madness  in  MQnster  now  went  be- 
yond all  bounds.    The  city  became  the  scene  of 
the  wildest  licentiousness,   until   several  Prot- 
estant princes,  uniting  with  the  bishop,  took  the 
plan,  and  by  executing  the  leaders  put  an  end  to 
the  new  kingdom  (1535). 

But  the  principles  disseminated  by  the  fanati- 
cal Anabaptists  were  not  so  easily  obliterated. 
As  early  as  1533  the  adherents  of  the  sect  had 
been  driven  from  Emden  and  taken  refuge  in 
the  Netherlands,  and  in  Amsterdam  the  doc- 
trine took  root  and  spread.  Bockhold  also  had 
sent  out  apostles,  some  of  whom  had  given  up 
the  wild  fanaticism  of  their  master;  they  let 
alone  the  community  of  goods  and  women,'  and 
taught  the  other  doctrines  of  the  Anabaptists, 
and  the  establishment  of  a  new  kingdom  of  pure 
Christians.  They  grounded  their  doctrines  chief- 
ly on  the  Apocalypse.  One  of  the  most  distin- 
guished of  this  class  was  David  Joris,  a  glass 
painter  of  Delft  (1501-66).  Joris  united  liber- 
alism with  Anabaptism,  devoted  himself  to  mys- 
tic theology,  and  sought  to  effect  a  union  of 
parties.  He  acquired  many  adherents,  who 
studied  his  book  of  miracles  {Wunderbuch) , 
which  appeared  at  Deventer  in  1542,  and  looked 
upon  him  as  a  sort  of  new  Messiah.  Being  per- 
secuted, he  withdrew  from  his  party,  lived  inof- 
fensively at  Basel,  under  the  name  of  John  of 
Bruges,  and  died  there  in  the  communion  of  the 
Reformed  Church.  It  was  only  in  1559,  when  his 
heretical  doctrines  had  come  to  light,  that  the 
council  of  Basel  had  the  bones  of  Joris  dug  up 
and  burned  under  the  gallows. 

Contemporary  with  these  fanatical  Anabap- 
tists there  were  those  who  united  denial  of  the 
validity  of  infant  baptism  with  mystical  views, 
and  even  with  denial  of  the  deity  of  Christ.  But 
in  Switzerland  and  South  Germany  the  Anti- 
psedo-Baptists,  who  date  from  1623,  and  were 
dominated  by  the  theological  views  of  Balthazar 
Hubmeier,  though  reckoned  with  the  other  Ana- 
baptists and  cruelly  persecuted  and  suppressed, 
held  only  at  worst  defective  political  views,  but 
had  no  part  or  parcel  with  any  immoral  prac- 
tices.    Their  creed  can  be  learned  from  Zwingli's 


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attack  upon  them.  See  the  English  translation 
in  Jackson's  Select  ions  from  Zwingliy  pp.  123- 
258  (New  York,  1901).  This  humble  folk  were 
treated  like  criminals,  because  the  authorities 
recognized  that  their  principles,  though  in  no 
way  sinful,  were  subversive  of  the  tyrannical 
government  they  exercised.  Anabaptists  must 
die  because  they  would  not  submit  to  the  estab- 
lished order.  To  this  day  the  advocates  of  the 
State  Church  look  askance  at  them.  At  first 
among  them  the  mode  of  baptism  was  not  con- 
sidered important,  and  so  not  much  discussed. 
It  was  by  pouring  or  sprinkling. 

A  new  era  for  the  Anabaptists  begins  with 
Menno  Simons.  (See  Menno.)  Surrounded  by 
dangers,  Menno  succeeded,  by  prudent  zeal,  in 
collecting  the  scattered  adherents  of  the  sect, 
and  in  founding  congregations  in  the  Nether- 
lands and  in  various  parts  of  Grermany.  He 
called  the  members  of  the  community  "(jrod's 
congregation,  poor,  unarmed  Christians,  bro- 
thers;" later,  they  took  the  name  of  Mennonites, 
and  at  present  they  call  themselves,  in  Germany, 
Taufgesinnte ;  in  Holland,  Doopsgezinden — cor- 
responding very  nearly  to  the  English  designa- 
tion Baptists.  This,  besides  being  a  more  appro- 
priate designation,  avoids  offensive  association 
with  the  early  Anabaptists.  Menno  expounded 
his  principles  in  his  Elements  of  the  True  Chris- 
tian Faith  in  Dutch.  This  book  is  still  an 
authority  among  the  body,  who  lay  particular 
stress  on  receiving  the  doctrines  of  the  Scrip- 
ture with  simple  faith,  and  acting  strictly  up 
to  them,  setting  no  value  on  learning  and  the 
scientific  elaboration  of  doctrines.  They  reject 
the  taking  of  oaths,  war,  every  kind  of  revenge, 
divorce  (except  for  adultery),  infant  baptism, 
and  the  undertaking  of  the  office  of  magistrate; 
magistracy  they  hold  to  be  an  institution  neces- 
sary for  the  present,  but  foreign  to  the  kingdom 
of  Christ;  the  Church  is  the  community  of  the 
saints,  which  must  be  kept  pure  by  strict  disci- 
pline. With  regard  to  grace,  they  hold  it  to 
be  designed  for  all,  and  their  views  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  fall  in  with  those  of  Zwingli ;  in  its  cele- 
bration the  rite  of  feet-washing  is  retained.  In 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Alsace  their  form  of 
worship  differs  little  from  the  Lutheran.  Their 
bishops,  elders,  and  teachers  serve  without  pay. 
Children  receive  their  name  at  birth,  baptism  is 
performed  in  the  place  of  worship,  and  adults 
that  join  the  sect  are  rebaptized.  (See  Men- 
nonites. ) 

Almost  the  only  split  among  the  early  Conti- 
nental Baptists  on  doctrinal  grounds  was  that 
which  took  place  in  Amsterdam  in  1664.  Ar- 
minianism  had  not  been  without  its  influence, 
especially  among  the  Waterlttnders,  originally 
more  liberal  in  their  views.  A  leading  congrega- 
tion accordingly  divided  into  two  parties,  one 
(Galenists,  from  Galenus,  their  leader)  advo- 
cating freer  views  in  doctrine  and  discipline; 
the  other  ( Apostoolists,  from  Samuel  Apostool) 
adhering  to  absolute  predestination  and  the  dis- 
ciple of  Menno.  The  liberal  party  rejected 
creeds  as  of  human  invention,  adopted  much  of 
the  philosophy  and  theology  of  England,  and 
exercised  no  little  influence  on  the  intellectual 
progress  of  Holland.  These  two  parties  grad- 
ually absorbed  the  other  sections  of  the  Baptists 
in  the  Netherlands;  and  about  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  a  union  took  place  by 
which  all  the  congregations  now  belong  to  one 
body. 


For  the  modem  denomination  called  Baptists, 
which  continues  the  same  protest  against  infant 
baptism,  but  has  little,  or,  as  some  claim,  no 
genetic  connection  with  the  Anabaptists,  see 
Baptists. 

ANABATIA,  &-na'b&-r&^  A  river  in  Siberia, 
emptying  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  (Map:  Asia, 
LI),  and  forming  the  boundary  between  the  gov- 
ernment of  Yenisseisk  and  the  territory  of 
Yakutsk. 

AITABAS,  AN'ABAT^D^.  See  Climbing 
Fish. 

ANAB^ASIS  (Gk.  avd^aaig,  from  avd,  ana,  up 
-f  Palveiv,  hainein,  to  go) .  The  name  of  two  his- 
torical works.  (1.)  The  Anabasis  of  Cyrus,  writ- 
ten by  Xenophon  early  in  thg  fourth  century 
B.C.,  which  gives  a  narrative  of  the  unfortunate 
expedition  of  the  younger  Cyrus  against  his 
brother,  the  Persian  King  Artaxerxes,  and  of 
the  retreat  of  his  10,000  Greek  allies  under  the 
command  of  Zenophon.  (2.)  The  Anabasis  of 
Alexander,  written  by  Arrian  166-168  a.d.,  and 
giving  an  account  of  the  campaigns  of  Alexander 
the  Great. 

AK^ABLEPS  (Gk.  avaSXineiv,  anablepein,  to 
look  up).  A  genus  of  cyprinodont  flshes,  the 
four-eyes,  remarkable  for  the  incomplete  division 
of  the  eye  into  an  upper  smaller  and  a  lower 
larger  part.  This  division  is  effected  by  the 
growth  of  two  processes  of  the  iris  toward  each 
other  across  the  pupil,  and  a  corresponding  band 
of  the  conjunctiva  across  the  cornea.     As  they 


ANABLKPB  TBTRAOFTHAUIUB. 

A.  Attitude  in  swimming.  B.  Vertical  section  of  the  eje 
through  the  lens,  showing  the  lenticilar  form  of  the  upper 
half  receiving  lisht  through  the  air,  and  the  suborbicular  Bnape 
of  the  lower  hair  receiving  light  through  water.  C.  Diagram  of 
the  eye  across  the  front,  showing  external  dark  band.  (After 
Tegetmeler.) 

are  surface  fish,  and  swim  with  their  eyes  partly 
projecting  above  the  water,  the  upper  part  serves 
the  purpose  of  seeing  in  the  air  and  the  lower 
for  seeing  in  the  water.  They  occur  in  shallow 
water  along  the  coast,  and  in  the  rivers  of  trop- 
ical America. 

AKAB'OLISM  (Gk.  avapoTi^,  anabol€,  some- 
thing heaped  up),  and  Constructive  Metabol- 
ism. Terms  applied  to  the  chemical  processes 
of  the  living  body,  which  result  in  the  formation 
of  more  complex  compounds  from  simpler  ones. 
See  Metabolism. 

ANAB^XJS.     See  Locust. 

ANACANOA,  a'nft-ka'6-nA,  or  Golden  Flow- 
er. An  Indian  Princess,  sister  and  wife  re- 
spectively of  Behechio  and  of  Caonabo,  caciques 
of  Haiti  when  Columbus  discovered  the  island 


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ANACLETXTS. 


(1492).  She  succeeded  her  brother  as  ruler  of 
his  tribe,  and  after  the  death  of  Caonabo  was  on 
friendly  terms  with  the  Spanish  until  1503.  In 
the  latter  year  she  gave  a  feast  in  honor  of  Ovan- 
do,  the  Spanish  governor,  but  in  the  midst  of  the 
festivities  was  arrested  and  put  to  death  by  his 
order. 

AN'ACAB'DIA^CEiE  (Gk.  &vd,  ana,  [like] 
unto  +  KapAia,  kardia,  heart) ,  SuHAO  Family. 
An  order  of  dicotyledonous  plants  consisting 
mostly  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  acrid,  resinous, 
or  milky  sap,  in  some  instances  very  irritating 
and  poisonous.  The  leaves  are  usually  alternate, 
rarely  opposite;  flowers  small,  polygamous,  dioe- 
cious or  perfect;  calyx  small,  usually  five- 
parted  ;  petals  of  the  same  number  as  the  sepals ; 
stamens  as  numerous  as  the  petals  and  opposite 
them,  or  twice  as  many,  rarely  fewer;  ovaries 
of  the  staminate  flowers  one-celled,  of  the  pistil- 
late flowers  three  to  seven-celled,  with  a  single 
ovule  in  each  cell ;  fruit  generally  a  drupe ;  seeds 
bony,  endosperm  little  or  none ;  cotyledons  fleshy. 
This  family  embraces  about  60  genera  and 
500  species,  most  of  which  occur  in  the 
tropics  of  both  hemispheres,  the  only  prominent 
genus  indigenous  to  the  United  States  being 
Rhus;  the  Sumac  and  Poison  oak  (q.v.).  The 
genera  of  the  family  are  grouped  into  a  number 
of  sections,  the  more  important  of  which  are: 
Mangiferie,  of  which  Mangifera  and  Anacardium 
are  the  principal  genera;  Spondiese,  represented 
by  Spondias ;  Rhoidesp,  the  chief  genera  of  which 
are  Pistacia,  Rhus,  Cotinus,  and  Schinus;  and 
Semecarpes,  represented  by  Semecarpus.  The 
entire  order  abounds  in  resins  and  tannins,  fur- 
nishing the  source  whence  some  of  the  most  val- 
uable lacquers,  varnishes,  and  tanning  materials 
are  obtained,  while  some  species  produce  whole- 
some and  pleasant  fruits,  some  of  which  are 
extensively  grown  in  the  tropics.  For  detailed 
economic  descriptions,  see  Cashew  Nut;  Pista- 
cia; Mastic;  Hog  Plum;  Tahiti  Apple; 
MAI7GO;  Sumac,  and  other  names  mentioned 
above. 

AN'ACAB^IXXM.    See  Cashew  Nut. 

ANACHABIS,  &-nfik^&-rl8  (Neo-Lat.  from 
Gk.  dvd^  ana,  up -f  x^P^C  charis,  grace).  An 
aquatic  plant  {Anacharis  Canadensis),  native  of 
North  America,  where  it  grows  entirely  sub- 
merged in  the  water  of  ponds  and  slow-flowing 
streams.  The  plant  is  a  much-branched  peren- 
nial, with  long,  slender  stems  that  bear  numerous 
small  sessile,  linear-oblong  leaves  arranged 
either  in  whorls  or  oppositely  upon  the  axis. 
The  small  flowers  appear  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water  for  a  short  period  of  time  suflicient  for 
pollination,  after  the  accomplishment  of  which 
act  the  female  flowers  are  withdrawn  beneath  the 
surface;  a  case  similar  to  that  in  the  eel-grass 
(Vallisneria,  q.v.).  This  plant  was  intro- 
duced into  Great  Britain  about  1842.  and  because 
of  its  rapid  growth  has  become  a  serious  obstacle 
to  navigation  in  many  of  the  tide  water  streams. 
Anacharis  is  a  good  example  of  a.  plant,  innoc- 
uous in  its  native  country,  which  has  been  intro- 
duced elsewhere,  and  found  there  such  congenial 
habitat  as  to  enable  it  to  become  a  most  ob- 
noxious weed.  It  is  also  known  as  Elodea  Cana- 
densis. 

AKACHABSIS,  &n'&-kfir^sls  (Gk.  'Avd- 
Xapoiq),  A  Scythian,  the  brother  of  King  Saul- 
ius,  said  by  Plutarch  and  Diogenes  LaSrtius  to 
have  visited  Solon  at  Athens,  to  have  lived  with 


him  on  terms  of  intimacy,  and  also  to  have  been 
initiated  into  the  Mysteries.  From  the  early 
fourth  century  B.G.,  the  tendency  to  idealize  the 
barbarian  peoples  of  the  North  assigned  to  him 
the  highest  qualities;  his  love  of  learning  is  said 
to  have  caused  him  to  travel  through  many 
lands;  he  was  numbered  among  the  Seven  Wise 
Men;  and  from  Aristotle's  time  many  wise 
sayings  and  proverbs  were  attributed  to  him. 
They  are  edit^  by  MuUach,  PhilosopKoTum  Qtw- 
corum  Fragmenta  (Paris,  1860-81).  Under  the 
title  Voyage  du  jeune  Anacharsis  en  Or^,  Jean 
Jacques  Barth^lemy,  a  well-known  French 
author  (q.v.),  wrote  in  1789  a.  description 
of  Greek  life  and  manners,  displaying  learn- 
ing and  good  taste,  but  disflgured  by  many 
anachronisms.  Anacharsis  is  made  to  visit 
Athens  only  a  few  years  before  the  birth  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  and  the  features  of  several 
distinct  periods  in  Grecian  history  are  confused- 
ly regarded  as  having  been  contemporaneous. 
The  book,  therefore,  will  not  bear  a  critical 
examination;  but  it  has  contributed  its  share 
toward  an  improved  knowledge  of  ancient  life, 
and  has  given  rise  to  several  similar  works, 
such  as  the  Gallus  and  the  Charicles  of  Becker. 

ANACH'BONISM  (Gk.  avaxpovl^ea^ai,  ana- 
chronizesthai,  to  refer  to  wrong  time,  from 
iivd,  ana,  back,  against  +  XP^og*  c^ron09,  time). 
An  error  in  chronology.  Sometimes  an  anach- 
ronism is  purposely  made  for  the  sake  of  effect 
or  to  bring  certain  events  within  convenient 
compass  for  dramatic  purposes.  Shakespeare, 
in  his  Julius  Ctesar,  makes  the  "clock"  strike 
three;  and  Schiller,  in  his  Piccolomini,  speaks  of 
a  "lightning-conductor"  as  known  a  hundred 
and  flft^  years  before  its  invention.  These  dis- 
crepancies, however,  do  not  seriously  injure  the 
general  truth  of  a  poetical  work.  The  anach- 
ronism is  more  offensive  when,  in  a  work  which 
pedantically  adheres  to  the  costumes  and  other 
external  features  of  old  times,  we  find  a  modern 
style  of  thought  and  language,  as  in  the  old 
French  dramas  of  Corneille  and  Racine.  In  pop- 
ular epic  poetry  anachronism  is  a  common  fea- 
ture. Achilles  is  always  young;  Helena,  always 
beautiful.  In  their  versions  of  old  classic  tra- 
ditions, the  writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  converted 
Alexander,  i^neas,  and  other  ancient  heroes 
into  good  Christian  knights  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. In  the  Nihelungenlied,  Attila  and  Theo- 
doric  are  good  friends  and  allies,  though  the 
latter  began  to  reign  some  forty  years  after  the 
former.  At  the  end  of  the  poem,  the  heroine, 
who  must  have  been  nearly  sixty  year^  old,  and 
had  passed  through  great  affliction  and  sorrow,  is 
still  the  **beautiful  Queen  Kriemhild."  Many 
ludicrous  examples  of  anachronism  may  be  found 
in  old  Dutch  paintings;  e.g.,  Abraham,  Isaac, 
and  Jacob  in  modern  costumes,  and  Adam  in 
Paradise  armed  with  a  musket. 

AKACLACHE,  &'n&-kla^chft.  One  of  the 
mountains  of  Bolivia,  in  lat.  18**  12^  S.,  long. 
69**  20'  W.,  about  four  miles  high,  and  always 
covered  with  snow. 

AN'ACLE^XJS  I.,  Saiitt,  otherwise  Cletus. 
Second  or  third  bishop  of  Rome.  A  martyr  under 
Domitian.  Others  say  that  he  succeeded  Clement 
I.  as  fifth  bishop  of  Rome,  and  was  martyred 
under  Trajan.     His  day  is  July  1 3th. 

ANACLBTXrSH.  (?— 1138).  Anti-pope,  by 
name  Peter  Pierleoni.  He  sprang  from  a  rich  and 


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ANESTHESIA. 


powerful  Roman  Jewish  family,  studied  in  Paris, 
became  cardinal  in  1110,  was  chosen  Pope  in 
1130  by  a  faction  of  cardinals  opposed  to  Inno- 
cent II.,  and  was  sustained  by  the  Roman  and 
some  other  States.  He  maintained  himself  at 
Rome  against  the  arms  of  Lothaire,  the  opposi- 
tion of  other  kings,  and  the  clergy  in  general; 
died  January  25,  1138. 

AN'AC6LXT^TH0N(6k.  av,  an,  priv.+ <U<$Aov. 
i9oc,  akoloutho8f  following,  attending) .  A  term 
employed  both  in  grammar  and  in  rhetoric  to 
denote  the  absence  of  strict  logical  sequence  in 
the  grammatical  construction.  In  colloquial 
speech,  nothing  is  more  common  than  anacolu- 
thon;  but  careful  writers  shun  it.  The  follow- 
ing from  Disraeli  illustrates  the  term:  **Lost 
in  profound  reverie,  the  hours  flew  on." 

AN'ACONa>A  (Origin  unknown;  possibly 
native  name).  Any  large  crushing  snake,  a  boa. 
l^Iore  especially  the  great  South  American  water- 
boa  {Eunectes  murinus),  called  in  Brazil  Suc- 
uriu,  which  is  closely  allied  to  the  boa  con- 
strictor, and  is  sometimes  30  feet  long.  Its  nos- 
trils are  capable  of  being  closed  while  in  the 
water.  It  haunts  the  banks  of  streams  in  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  where  it  preys  on  the  animals  that 
li%'e  in  the  water  or^come  to  the  banks  to  drink. 
When  on  land  it  is  rather  helpless.  It  is  rich 
brown,  beautifully  decorated  by  a  double  series 
of  dorsal  blotches  and  with  irregular  ring-spots 
along  the  sides.  Consult  Molls  and  Ulrich, 
Proceedings  Zoological  Society  of  London  (1894). 
See  Boa,  and  plate  of  Boas. 

ANACONDA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Deer  I^odge  Co.,  Mont.,  27  miles  west  by  north  of 
Butte,  on  the  Northern  Pacific,  the  Great  North- 
ern, and  the  Butte,  Anaconda  and  Pacific  rail- 
roads (Map:  Montana,  C  2).  It  has  parks,  driv- 
ing park  grounds,  the  Hearst  Free  Library  of 
about  5500  volumes,  and  two  commodious  opera 
houses.  Deposits  of  graphite  and  sapphires  are 
found  in  the  vicinity,  and  the  city  is  noted  for 
its  great  copper-smelting  works,  which  are 
amon^  the  largest  in  the  world,  having  a  daily 
capacitv  of  some  5500  tons  of  ore.  Railroad 
shops,  foundries,  machine  shops,  and  brick  works 
further  represent  the  industrial  interests. 
Founded  in  1884,  when  the  reduction  works  were 
established.  Anaconda  has  developed  with  the 
copper  industry.     Pop.,  1890,  3976;  1900,  9453. 

ANA^CBEON  (Gk.  'AvoKpiov,  AnakreOn) 
(561-470  B.O.).  One  of  the  most  esteemed  lyric 
poets  of  Greece.  He  was  born  at  Teos,  a  seaport 
of  Ionia,  and  spent  part  of  his  youth  in  Abdera, 
to  which  place  most  of  his  fellow- townsmen  emi- 
grated when  their  city  was  taken  by  the  Persians 
in  545  B.C.  He  was  patronized  by  Polycrates, 
the  ruler  of  Samos  (533-522),  who  invited  him 
to  his  court;  and  there  he  sang  in  light  and 
flowing  strains  the  praise  of  wine  and  love.  After 
the  death  of  Polycrates,  he  went  to  Athens  (521 
B.C.)  and  was  received  with  distinguished  honor 
by  Hipparchus.  After  the  fall  of  Hipparchus,  he 
accepted  an  invitation  from  Echecrates,  a  Thes- 
Balian  prince,  to  make  his  home  with  him.  He 
died  in  476  B.C.,  at  the  age  of  eighty-five.  Great 
honors  were  paid  to  him  after  his  death.  Teos 
put  his  likeness  upon  its  coins,  and  Pausanias 
Baw  a  statue  to  him  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens, 
mrhich  represented  him  in  a  half -drunken  con- 
dition. The  Alexandrians  knew  five  books  of  his 
poems;  but  we  have  only  two  poems  complete, 
and  a  few  scanty  fragments.    The  collection  of 


poems  known  as  Anacreontics  are  weak  imita- 
tions of  his  work,  dating  from  the  Alexandrine 
period  to  late  Byzantine  times.  The  genuine 
fragments  are  published  in  Bergk's  Poetw  Lyrici 
GrcBci  (fifth  edition  Volume  III.,  Leipzig,  1900). 
They  have  been  paraphrased  in  English  by 
Thomas  Moore. 

AK'ACYCTLXJS.    See  Pellitoby  op  Spain. 

ANADIB,  a'nft-dlr^,  or  Anadyr  Bay.  A  sea 
or  large  gulf  of  northeastern  Asia,  constituting 
the  northwestern  part  of  Bering  Sea  (Map:  Asia, 
Siberia,  It  3).  It  is  about  480  miles  in  circum- 
ference and  about  250  miles  wide.  It  is  fre- 
quented by  whalers. 

ANADIB.  A  river  in  the  extreme  northeast 
■of  Siberia,  rising  in  the  mountain-lake  Ivash- 
kino,  and  flowing,  first  in  a  southwesterly,  and 
then  in  an  easterly,  direction,  mostly  through 
rocky,  snowy  regions,  for  a  distance  of  about  300 
miles,  and  emptying  itself  into  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name,  in  lat.  64**  40'  N.  It  drams  an  area 
of  about  115,000  square  miles.  Its  principal  tribu- 
taries are  the  Mayin,  the  Bielaya,  and  the  Kras- 
naya.  Consult  Krahmer,  "Der  Anadyr-Bezirk 
nach  A.  W.  Olssufjew,"  in  Volume  XLV.  Peter- 
fnann*8  Mitteil  (Gotha,  1879). 

AK'ADYOM^KE  (Gk.  ^  avadvofUvij,  from 
ava&veaBai,  anadyeathai,  to  rise).  A  name  ap- 
plied to  Aphrodite  emerging  from  the  sea.  The 
ancients  used  the  word  to  denote  a  celebrated 
painting  by  Apelles  (q.v.),  representing  the  god- 
dess at  this  moment.  It  was  painted  for  the  tem- 
ple of  Asclepius  on  the  island  of  Cos.  Augustus 
bought  it  for  a  hundred  talents  of  remitted 
taxes,  and  placed  it  in  the  temple  of  Julius 
Csesar.  It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  the  Greek 
Anthology,  but  the  allusions  do  not  furnish  the 
data  for  accurate  reconstruction  of  the.  painting. 
The  name  is  freauently  applied  to  similar  repre- 
sentations of  Aphrodite  rising  from  the  waves  or 
standing  in  a  shell  and  wringing  the  water  from 
her  hair. 

ANADYB,  rn&-dlr^.    See  Anadib. 

ANM^MIA  (Gk.  av,  an,  priv.  -f  alfia,  haima, 
blood).  The  condition  generally  termed  pov- 
erty of  blood.  In  medicine  two  distinct  kinds  of 
anaemia  are  recognized — primary  and  secondary. 
Primary  anwmia,  or  pernicious  ancemia,  is  a 
rare,  generally  fatal  disease  of  the  blood-making 
organs,  notably  either  of  the  spleen,  the  marrow 
of  the  long  bones,  or  of  the  lymph  glands.  Its 
cause  is  unknown.  The  chief  changes  consist  in 
a  marked  reduction  of  the  number  of  the  red- 
blood  cells,  a  diminution  in  the  percentage  of  the 
hemoglobin,  and  changes  in  the  heart,  liver,  and 
blood-making  organs.  There  is  usually  great  pal- 
lor, shortness  of  breath,  weakness,  and  palpita- 
tion of  the  heart.  Secondary  anaemia  is  a  symp- 
tom found  in  many  diseases  and  conditions,  as 
malaria,  hemorrhage,  jaundice,  poisoning  by  lead, 
mercury,  copper,  or  arsenic;  further,  it  may  be 
due  to  improper  food,  insufficient  sunlight,  or 
animal  parasites ;  or,  finally,  it  may  occur  during 
Bright's  disease  (q.v.),  diabetes  (q.v.),  or  can- 
cer (q.v.).  The  symptoms  are  similar  but  less 
severe.  The  curative  treatment  of  the  sec- 
ondary anaemias  consists  in  allowing  the  patient 
fresh  air,  good  nourishment,  and  those  materials 
which  promote  the  formation  of  the  deficient  ele- 
ments of  the  blood.  Of  these  the  principal  are 
iron  and  arsenic.     See  Chlokosis. 

AN'.ZBSTHE^SIA  (Gk.  av,  an,  pviy, -^  ala&ifotc. 


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ANESTHESIA. 


492 


ANAGNI. 


iisthSsiSy  feeling,  sensibility,  and  Analgesia). 
Terms  used  to  denote  a  loss  of  sensibility 
to  external  impression.  Anaesthesia  means, 
properly,  the  loss  of  the  sense  of  touch;  analge- 
sia, the  loss  of  the  sense  of  pain.  They  are  often 
used  interchangeably,  and  anesthesia  has  come 
to  mean  the  loss  of  sensibility  to  all  kinds  of 
sensory  impressions.  Tactile  pain,  heat,  cold, 
and  muscular  senses  are  those  usually  affected. 
All  these  sensations  are  received  by  special  sense 
organs  situated  on  the  outside  of  the  body  or 
in  mucous  membranes.  From  the  sensory  end 
organs  the  paths  for  these  sensations  pass  into 
the  spinal  cord,  and  thence  pass  up  to  more  or 
less  distinct  areas  of  the  brain.  Disease  or  in- 
jury in  any  part  of  the  path  may  produce  a  loss 
of  these  sensations.  Thus,  if  a  nerve  which  con- 
tains sensory  nerve  fibres  is  injured  or  cut,  the 
parts  whose  sensory  nerves  are  detached  from  the 
brain  lose  all  sensibility.  In  certain  diseases  of 
the  spinal  cord  the  sensory  nerve  fibres  are  af- 
fected, and  all  parts  below  the  site  of  the  morbid 
process  lose  their  sensibility.  In  a  certain  rare 
disease  (syringomyelia),  there  is  loss  of  pain 
sense,  but  not  of  tactile  sense,  and  loss  of  the 
sense  of  heat  and  cold.  Should  accident  or  dis- 
ease occur  still  higher  up  in  the  sensory  area  of 
the  brain,  or  in  such  areas  where  sensory  fibres 
come  together,  as  they  do  in  the  medulla  and  in- 
ternal capsule,  then  one  side  of  the  entire  body 
may  become  anasthetic.  Such  extreme  grades  of 
aneesthesia  are  infrequent,  but  there  is  almost  no 
area  in  the  body  which  may  not  lose  its  sensibil- 
ity by  accident  or  disease.  Even  in  certain  func- 
tional diseases,  in  which  no  distinct  changes  have 
taken  place  in  the  nervous  tissues,  loss  of  sen- 
sibility may  occur.  This  is  the  case  in  hysteria. 
Certain  drugs,  when  locally  applied,  or  when 
taken  into  the  body,  may  produce  similar  diminu- 
tion or  loss  of  sensibility.  Such  medicaments 
are  termed  ansesthetics.  See  AN-ffiSTHETic ;  Sen- 
sation. 

AN'.ffiSTHET^C  (for  derivation,  see  An- 
iESTHESiA ) .  Any  remedy  used  to  relieve  pain  or 
other  hypersesthetic  conditions  of  the  sensory 
nerves.  Those  that  relieve  pain  alone  are  fre- 
quently termed  analgesics.  The  broader  term  is 
used  indiscriminately,  including  two  great  groups 
of  anaesthetics:  (1)  Local  anaesthetics,  affecting 
a  restricted  area;  (2)  General  anaesthetics,  tem- 
porarily affecting  the  sensibility  of  the  entire 
body.  Cold  is  one  of  the  safest  local  anaesthet- 
ics,' in  the  form  of  cold  water  or  cracked  ice. 
Various  freezing  mixtures,  such  as  ether  spray 
or  ethyl  chloride  spray  are  even  more  valuable, 
but  require  skill  and  experience  in  use,  or  the 
part  may  be  frozen  and  thus  injured.  Such  are 
carbolic  acid  and  its  allies,  creosote,  thymol,  and 
other  volatile  oils,  containing  phenol-like  bodies, 
are  powerful  anaesthetics.  These,  when  applied 
locally,  have  the  power  of  paralyzing  the , sense 
organs  of  the  skin  and  mucous  membranes. 
Their  use  is  attended  with  danger,  however,  and 
should  be  administered  by  a  physician  only.  The 
most  important  of  the  local  anaesthetics  is  the 
alkaloid  cocaine  (q.v.),  which  has  the  peculiar 
and  useful  property  of  being  able  to  paralyze 
sensory  nerves  alone.  In  a  2  to  4  per  cent,  solu- 
tion, it  is  injected  under  the  skin,  which  it  ren- 
ders anaesthetic,  relieving  pain,  as  in  neuralgia, 
and  permitting  operations  on  the  part.  Applied 
to  the  mucous  membrane,  it  destroys  all  feeling, 
and  can  be  used  in  the  eye,  ear,  nose,  mouth,  rec- 
tum, vagina,  urethra,  and  bladder,  to  overcome 


pain  or  permit  operations.  Dr.  J.  Leonard  Com- 
ing, of  New  York,  in  1880  discovered  that  it  could 
be  injected  in  weak  solution  into  the  spinal  canal, 
and  produced  a  loss  of  all  sensation  below  the 
place  of  injection.  Extensive  operations  have 
been  performed  under  cocaine,  and  children  have 
been  oorn  without  pain  to  the  mother ;  but  there 
are  some  serious  disadvantages  in  this  medullary 
narcosis.  Other  bodies,  like  cocaine,  have  been 
used  for  the  same  purpose,  such  as  eucaine,  hoio- 
caine,  orthoform,  etc. 

There  is  a  constantly  increasing  number  of 
drugs  which,  when  taken  internally,  have  the 
power  of  diminishing  or  stopping  pain.  It  is 
probable  that  for  thousands  of  years  the  natives 
of  India  have  used  Indian  hemp  for  the  relief  of 
pain,  while  the  inhabitants  of  China  have  used 
opium  from  the  poppy  plant.  In  all  ages  and 
among  all  peoples,  as  far  back  as  history  records, 
and  as  far  abroad  as  travelers  have  explored, 
people  have  used  alcoholic  drinks  to  produce 
diminished  sensibility  to  pain.  Within  recent 
years  the  pharmaceutical  chemist  has  been  in- 
dustrious in  making  new  compounds  to  relieve 
pain.  There  are  hundreds  of  such  substances 
now  in  use,  among  which  are  acetanilid  (q.v.), 
antipyrine  (q.v),  methacetine,  phenacetine  (q.v.), 
thallin,  kairine,  phenetidin,  phenocoll,  salocoll, 
etc. 

In  1800,  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  experimenting 
with  nitrous  oxide,  or  laughing-gas,  sug- 
gested its  usefulness  as  an  anaesthetic.  In  1844, 
Dr.  H.  Wells,  an  American  dentist,  demonstrated 
that  the  gas  may  be  actually  employed  for  pain- 
less extraction  of  teeth.  (See  Niteoub  Oxide.) 
In  1828,  Dr.  Hickman  suggested  carbonic  acid  gas. 
As  early  as  1795,  Dr.  Pearson  had  used  the  vapor 
of  sulphuric  ether  for  the  relief  of  spasmodic 
affections  of  the  respiration.  The  fact  that  sul- 
phuric ether  could  produce  insensibility  was 
shown  by  the  American  physicians,  Godwin 
(1822),  Mitchell  (1832),  Jackson  (1833),  Wood, 
and  Bache  ( 1834 )  ;  but  it  was  first  used  to  pre- 
vent the  pain  of  an  operation  in  1846,  by  Dr.  W. 
T.  G.  Morton,  a  dentist  of  Boston.  At  the  request 
of  Dr.  John  C.  Warren,  Morton  administered 
ether  in  an  operation  at  the  Massachusetts  Gen- 
eral Hospital  on  October  16,  1846.  The  fiftieth 
anniversary  of  this  event  was  celebrated  in  Bos- 
ton on  October  16,  1896.  In  December,  1846, 
Robinson  and  Liston,  in  England,  operated  on 
patients  rendered  insensible  by  the  inhalation  of 
sulphuric  ether.  This  substance  was  extensively 
used  for  a  year,  when  Sir  J.  Y.  Simpson,  of  Edin- 
burgh, discovered  the  anaesthetic  powers  of 
chloroform  (see  Chjx)ROFORM),  and  introduced 
the  use  of  it  into  his  own  department,  midwifery. 
Since  that  time,  chloroform  has  been  the  anss- 
thetic  in  general  use  in  Europe;  but  ether  is  pre- 
ferred in  America,  except  for  children  and  par- 
turient women.  Chloroform  should  not  be  given 
where  there  is  a  weak  action  of  the  heart  from 
disease.  No  anaesthetic  should  be  g^ven  in  case 
of  chronic  or  severe  kidney  disease.  Consult 
Probyn-Williams,  Ouide  to  Administrationr  of 
AncBsthetics  (New  York,  1901). 

AN'AGAI/LIS.    See  Pimpernel. 

ANAGNIy  k-nH^ny^,  An  episcopal  city  in 
South  Italy,  situated  on  a  hill  36  miles  southeast 
of  Rome  (Map:  Italy,  H  6).  Four  popes  were 
born  here,  and  four,  (xelasius  II.,  Adrian  IV.. 
Alexander  III.,  and  Boniface  VIII.  sought  refuge 
here  from  persecution,  while  many  noble  Italian 


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ANAaNI. 


493 


ANAlfTIS. 


families  still  have  homes  here.  The  cathedral 
of  Santa  Maria  dates  from  the  eleventh  century, 
and  contains  many  interesting  antiquities.  Papal 
and  other.  Vergil  speaks  of  the  ancient  Anag- 
nia,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  the  Hemici,  as 
"wealthy  Anagnia."  Pop.,  1881,  8023;  1901, 
10,059. 

AN'AGKAM  (Gk.avd,  arw,  backward  H-y/Kx/i- 
im,  gramma,  writing).  The  transposition  of  the 
letters  of  a  word,  phrase,  or  short  sentence,  so  as 
to  form  a  new  word  or  sentence.  It  originally 
signified  a  simple  reversal  of  the  order  of  letters, 
but  has  long  borne  the  sense  in  which  it  is  now 
used.  The  Cabalists  attached  great  importance 
to  anagrams,  believing  in  some  relation  of  them 
to  the  character  or  destiny  of  the  persons  from 
whose  names  they  were  formed.  Plato  enter- 
tained a  similar  notion,  and  the  later  Platonists 
rivaled  the  Cabalists  in  ascribing  to  them  mys- 
terious virtues.  Although  now  classed  among 
follies,  or  at  best  among  ingenious  trifles,  ana- 
grams formerly  employed  the  most  serious  minds, 
and  some  of  the  Puritan  writers  even  commend- 
ed the  use  of  them.  Cotton  Mather,  in  his  elegy 
on  the  death  of  John  Wilson,  the  first  pastor  of 
Boston,  in  New  England,  mentions: 

His  care  to  gnide  hl«  flock  and  feed  hie  lambe 

By  words,  works,  prayers,  piNilms,  alms,  and  aruxgrami. 

The  best  anagrams  are  such  as  have,  in  the  new 
order  of  letters,  some  signification  appropriate 
to  that  from  which  they  are  formed.  It  was  a 
great  triumph  of  the  mediseval  anagrammatist  to 
find  in  Pilate*s  question,  "Quid  est  veritasT" 
(What  is  truth?)  its  own  answer:  "Eat  vir  qui 
adest"  (It  is  the  man  "who  is  here) .  Anagrams, 
in  the  days  of  their  popularity,  were  much  em- 
ployed, both  for  complimentary  and  for  satirical 
purposes;  and  a  little  straining  was  often  em- 
ployed in  the  omission,  addition,  or  alteration 
of  letters,  although,  of  course,  the  merit  of  an 
anagram  depends  miich  upon  its  accuracy. 

Isaac  D'Tsraeli  ( Curiosities  of  Literature,  Vol- 
ume III.)  has  a  chapter  on  anagrams,  which,  as 
an  exercise  of  ingenuity,  he  ranks  far  above  acros- 
tics. Among  a  great  many  considered  by  him 
worthy  of  record,  are  the  following:  the  mis- 
tress of  Charles  IX.  of  France  was  named  Marie 
Touchet;  this  because  le  charme  tout  ("I  charm 
every  one").  Tlie  flatterers  of  James  I.  of  Eng- 
land proved  his  right  to  the  British  monarchy, 
as  the  descendant  of  the  mythical  King  Arthur, 
from  his  name  Charles  Jaines  Stuart,  which  be- 
comes claims  Arthur's  seat.  An  author,  in  dedi- 
cating a  book  to  the  same  monarch,  finds  that  in 
Jaines  Stuart  he  has  a  just  master.  But,  per- 
haj)s,  the  happiest  of  anagrams  was  produced 
on  a  singular  person  and  occasion.  Lady  Elea- 
nor Davies,  the  wife  of  the  celebrated  Sir  John 
Davies,  the  poet,  was  a  very  extraordinary  char- 
acter. She  was  the  Cassandra  of  her  age,  and 
several  of  her  predictions  induced  her  to  imagine 
that  she  was  a  prophetess.  As  her  prophecies 
in  the  troubled  times  of  Charles  I.  were  usually 
against  the  Government,  she  was  at  length 
brought  by  them  into  the  Court  of  Hiirh  Commis- 
sion. The  prophetess  was  not  a  little  mad,  and 
fancied  the  spirit  of  Daniel  was  in  her,  from  an 
anagram  she  had  formed  of  her  name, 

Elsakor  Davibs. 
Beveat,  O  Daniel/ 

The  anagram  had  too  much  by  an  I,  and  too  little 
byan«;yet  Daniel  and  reveal  were  in  it,and  that 


was  sufficient  to  satisfy  her  inspirations.  The 
Court  attempted  to  dispossess  the  lady  of  the 
spirit,  while  the  bishops  were  in  vain  reason- 
ing the  point  with  her  out  of  the  Scriptures,  to 
no  purpose,  she  poising  text  against  text;  one 
of  the  Deans  of  the  Arches,  says  Heylin,  shot  her 
through  and  through  with  an  arrow  borrowed 
from  her  own  quiver;  he  took  a  pen,  and 
at  last  hit  upon  this  excellent  anagram: 

Daxb  Blbanob  Dayixs. 
Jfever  90  mad  a  Ladie/ 

The  happy  fancy  put  the  solemn  court 
into  laughter,  and  Cassandra  into  the  ut- 
most dejection  of  spirit.  Foiled  by  her  own 
weapons,  her  spirit  suddenly  forsook  her,  and 
either  she  never  afterward  ventured  on  proph- 
esying, or  the  anagram  perpetually  reminded 
her  hearers  of  her  state,  for  we  hear  no  more 
of  this  prophetess.  On  a  visit  to  King's  New- 
ton Hall,  in  Derbyshire,  Charles  It.  is  said  to 
have  written  on  one  of  the  windows,  Cras  ero 
lux  (To-morrow  I  shall  be  light),  which  is  the 
anagram  of  Carolus  Rex. 

^agrams  have  now  gone  out  of  fashion,  or 
rather  have  been  relegated  to  the  puzzle  column 
of  the  magazine  for  the  household.  And  yet  even  ' 
in  this  century,  writers  have  formed  their  pen- 
names  by  recombining  the  letters  of  their  real 
names.  For  example,  Bryan  Waller  Proctor  is 
still  called  Barry  Cornwall;  add  poet,  and  the 
anagram  becomes  complete.  Besides  D'Israeli, 
cited  above,  consult  Wheatley,  On  Anagrams 
(Hartford,  1862). 

AN^AHEIM.  A  city  in  Orange  Co.,  Cal.,  27 
miles  southeast  of  Los  Angeles ;  on  the  Santa  Ana 
River,  and  on  the  Southern  California  Railroad 
(Map:  California,  E  6).  It  is  in  a  fertile  val- 
ley, manufactures  beer,  wines,  and  brandies,  and 
has  fruit  canning  and  drying  interests,  and  a 
large  trade  in  oranges,  lemons,  walnuts,  and 
farm  and  dairy  products.  The  water  works  and 
electric  light  plant  are  owned  and  operated  by 
the  municipality.  Anaheim  was  settled  by  fifty 
German  families  in  1867  on  cooperative  .princi- 
ples, and  in  1878  was  incorporated  as  a  town. 
An  interesting  account  of  its  early  history  is 
given  in  Nordhoff,  Communistic  Societies  of  the 
United  States  (New  York,  1875).  Pop.,  in  1890, 
1273;   in  1900,  1456. 

ANAHXJAC,  ft'n&-wak^.  A  Mexican  term 
applied  to  the  great  central  plateau  of  Mexico, 
which  comprises  nearly  half  of  the  total  area  of 
the  Republic.  Roughly  speaking,  it  lies  between 
15^  and  3V  N.  lat.  and  long.  95**  and  110** 
W.;  while  its  altitude  ranges  between  6000 
and  9000  feet.  The  plateau  is  the  granary  and 
stock-raising  centre  for  the  country,  whose  chief 
cities  are  mainly  situated  upon  it.  The  name 
Anahuac  was  the  Aztec  term  for  all  Mexico. 

ANAITIS,  &-n&^-tIs.  The  ancient  Persian 
goddess  of  waters,  whose  worship  was  widely 
spread  in  the  East  in  early  times.  The  Avesta 
(q.v.)  celebrates  her  praise  as  the  celestial 
stream  Ardvi  Sura  Anahita  "the  lofty,  mighty, 
and  undefiled,"  and  describes  her  descent  from 
the  heavens,  as  well  as  the  worship  that  is  due 
her.  She  appears  as  Anahata  in  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions '  of  the  Persian  king  Artaxerxes  II. 
(fourth  century  b.c. ).  Her  name  as  ^Avaing 
AnattiSy  is  in  Strabo,  Plutarch,  and  elsewhere, and 
she  became  familiar  in  Greece  as  Venus  Anflhita 
^AiftpodiTij  *AvatTig,  Aphroditd  Anaitis) .  Con- 
sult: Windischmann,  Die  Persische  Anahita  oder 


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Ana'itis  (Munich,  1856) ;  Jackson,  Iraniache  Re- 
ligion (Strassburg,  1900). 

AN^AXIM  (Heb.  children  of  Anak;  i.e.,  the 
long-necked,  a  giant).  Represented  in  the  Old 
Testament  as  a  race  of  giants  (Numbers  xiii  : 
33;  Deuteronomy  ii  :  10-12,  etc.),  one  of  whose 
strongholds  was  Kirjath-Arba  or  Hebron  in 
southern  Palestine  (Joshua  xiv:  12-15),  but 
who  were  spread  over  the  mountains  of  Judah 
and  Israel  in  Onal.  Anakim  is  an  indefinite 
designation  like  Rephalm  for  miscellaneous 
groups  of  the  pre-Israelitish  inhabitants  of  Pal- 
estine. They  were  conquered  by  Joshua  together 
with  the  rest  of  the  Canaanitish  peoples  {ibid., 
xi  :  21),  though  according  to  verse  22,  a  remnant 
survived  in  the  Philistine  cities  of  Gaza,  Qath, 
and  Ashdod. 

ANAI/CITE,  Analcime,  or  Cubictte  (Gk. 
dv,  an  priv.  -|-  aXhij,  alkS,  strength;  refers 
to  its  weak  electricity  when  heated  or  rubbed  J. 
A  zeolite  mineral,  consisting  of  sodium  and 
aluminum  silicate,  found  in  the  Bergen  tunnel. 
New  Jersey,  in  the  Lake  Superior  copper  region, 
and  with  other  zeolites  in  Colorado.  It  crystal- 
lizes in  the  isometric  system,  frequently  occur- 
ring in  the  form  of  twenty-four  sided  crystals. 

AN'AIiEM^^A  (Gk.  AvaXni^/ia,  a  support, 
prop;  a  sun-dial).  A  name  given  to  an  ortho- 
graphic projection  of  a  sphere  upon  the  plane 
of  a  meridian,  the  point  of  sight  being  assumed 
at  an  infinite  distance  on  a  line  normal  to  the 
given  plane  and  passing  through  the  centre  of 
Die  sphere.  The  term  was  also  applied  to  the 
sun-dial,  but  more  often  to  an  instrument  of 
brass  or  wood,  on  which  the  above  projection 
could  be  drawn,  and  which  was  used  for  astro- 
nomical purposes.  The  term  is  further  employed 
to  designate  a  scale,  often  seen  on  terrestrial 
globes,  showing  the  declination  of  the  sun  and 
the  equation  of  time  for  various  days  of  the 
year. 

AN'AIiOE^IA.     See  Anesthesia. 

ANAIiOOISTS.     See  Philology. 

AN^ALOGXJE  (Gk.  av4,  ana,  according  to 
-^  ?^'yoc,  logoSy  due  ratio).  A  term  in  compara- 
tive anatomy.  Organs  are  analogous  to  one  an- 
other, or  are  analogues,  when  they  perform  the 
same  function,  though  they  may  be  altogether 
different  in  structure;  as  the  wings  of  a  bird 
and  the  wings  of  an  insect.  Organs,  again,  are 
homologous,  or  homologues,  when  they  are  con- 
structed on  the  same  plan,  undergo  a  similar 
development,  and  bear  the  same  relative  posi- 
tion, and  this  independent  of  either  form  or 
function.  Thus,  the  arms  of  a  man  and  the 
wings  of  a  bird  are  homologues  of  one  another. 
See  Homology. 

ANAI/OGY  (Gk.  avaTioyia,  analogia,  equality 
of  ratios).  In  general,  an  agreement  or  corres- 
pondence in  certain  respects  between  things  in 
other  respects  different.  Euclid  employed  it  to 
si^ify  proportion,  or  the  equality  of  ratios,  and 
it  has  retained  this  sense  in  mathematics;  but  it 
is  a  term  little  used  in  the  exact  sciences,  and 
of  very  frequent  use  in  every  other  department 
of  knowledge  and  in  human  affairs.  In  grammar 
we  speak  of  the  analogy  of  language;  i.e.,  the 
correspondence  of  a  word  or  phrase  with  the 
genius  of  the  language,  as  learned  from  the  man- 
ner in  which  its  words  and  phrases  are  ordi- 
narily formed.  Analog}',  in  fact,  supposes  a  rule 
inferred  from  observation  of  instances,  and  is  the 


application  of  this  rule  to  other  instances  not  pre- 
cisely, but  somewhat,  similar.     We  venture  upon 
this  application  with   more  or  less  confidence, 
according  to  the  degree  of  ascertained  similarity, 
and  according  to  the  extent  of  observation  from 
which  our  knowledge  of  the  rule  has  been  de- 
rived.    John  Stuart  Mill,  in  his  Logic,  states 
the  formula    of  analogy  in    this    way:    ''Two 
things  resemble  each  other  in  one  or  more  re- 
spects; a  certain  proposition  is  true  of  the  one, 
therefore  it  is  true  of  the  other."     What  makes 
analogical  reasoning  successful  at  all  is  the  fact 
that  superficial  resemblances  often  point  to  fun- 
damental identity  in  type.    Analogical  reasoning 
is  the  assumption  of  a  deeper   significance  in 
similarities  than  our   knowledge    of  the    facts 
warrants.     When  this  assumption  is  justified  by 
the  event,  the  analogy  has  been  fruitfully  sug- 
gestive;  when  it  is  not,  the  analogy  has  been 
misleading.    Even  when   analogy   leads  to  dis- 
covery, it  does  this  merely  by  suggestiveness; 
the  final  establishment  of  the  truth  analogically 
adumbrated   is   never  accomplished  by  analogy 
but  by  some  stricter  logical  method.    Thus,  rea- 
soning from  analogy  indeed  warrants  only  prob- 
able conclusions;   but  the  probability  may  be- 
come of  a  very  high  degree,  and  in  the  affairs 
of  life  we  must  often  act  upon  conclusions  thus 
attained.    Keasoning  from  analogy,  however,  re- 
quires much  caution  in  the  reasoner.    Yet  even 
when  its  conclusions  are  very   uncertain,  they 
often  serve  to  guide  inquiry  and  lead  to  dis- 
covery.   Many  of  the  most  brilliant  discoveries 
recently  made  in  natural  science  were  the  result 
of  investigations  thus  directed.     In  law,  reason- 
ing from  analogy  must  often,  to  a  certain  extent, 
be  admitted  in  the  application  of  statutes  to 
particular  cases.     Upon  similar  reasoning,  the 
practice  of  medicine  very    much    depends.    In 
literary  criticism,  it  is  also  often  necessary  for 
purposes  of  interpretation,  the  sense  of  the  auth- 
or in  a  passage  somewhat  obscure  being  in  some 
measure  determined  according  to    passages    in 
which   he  has   expressed  himself  more  clearly. 
The  application  of  this  rule  to  the  interpretation 
of   Scripture   is   a  point  of  difference  between 
Protestants  and  Catholics,  the  latter   insisting 
upon  the  interpretation  of  difficult  passages  by 
ecclesiastical    tradition    and    authority.     Prot- 
estant theologians  have  very  generally  employed, 
with  reference  to  this  rule  of  interpretation,  the 
phrase  "analogy    of    faith,"  deriving    it    from 
Romans   xii.    16;  but   the   meaning  of   the   ex- 
pression in  that  verse  is  disputed.     ( See  Phoxet- 
IG  Laws.)     The  opposite  of  analogy  is  anomaJti 
(Gk.  irregularity)  ;  and  this  term  is  used  not 
only  in  grammar,  but  with  reference  to  objects 
of  natural  history  which  in  any  respect  are  ex- 
ceptions to  the  ordinary  rule  of  their  class  or 
kind.     In  physiology,   analogy  is   similarity  of 
function  between  organs  which  are  structurally 
or   morphologically   different*,    e.g.,   the   tail  of 
a  fish  and  that  of  a  whale  are  analogous  organs; 
in  this  usage  analogy  is  opposed  to  homology, 
which  refers  to  the  structural  similarity  of  or- 
gans that  may  even  perform  different  functions; 
e.g.,  the  wing  of  a  bird  and  the  arms  of  a  man. 

▲KAI/YSIS  (Gk.  avdXvaig,  a  resolution  into 
parts,  from  dvA,  ana,  up  -j-  ^•vet*',  ly^in,  to 
loosen).  A  term  frequently  employed  in  general 
philosophy  and  in  the  sciences,  as  the  opposite 
of  the  term  synthesis.  In  philosophy  the  term 
analysis  is  generally  applied  to  the  mental  act 
of  distinguishing  within  a  given  object  its  van- 


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OU8  characteristics;  thus,  the  process  by  which 
we  recognize  that  an  apple  is  a  thing  whose 
attributes  are  sweetness,  roundness,  rosiness, 
etc.,  is  said  to  be  a  process  of  analysis.  On 
the  contrary,  the  process  by  which  we  recognize 
that  various  properties  together  form  the  char- 
acteristics of  a  single  object,  is  termed  synthe- 
sis; thus  the  consolidation,  in  our  mind,  of  the 
several  characteristics  of  an  apple  into  a  single 
concept,  is  a  synthesis.  The  two  processes  are 
complementary  aspects  of  the  same  mental  act. 
It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  analysis  does  not 
really  destroy  the  unity  of  a  given  object;  it 
merely  recognizes  various  distinctions  within 
that  unity.  Nor  does  svnthesis  fuse  into  indis- 
tinguishableness  the  characteristics  it  starts 
with ;  it  correlates  them  into  a  unity,  but  in  that 
unity  the  identity  of  each  part  is  fully  preserved. 

In  mathematics  the  term  analysis  is  employed, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  denote  a  potent  method  of 
discovery  and  demonstration;  on  the  other  hand, 
and  more  or  less  inaptly,  to  designate  collectively 
several  important  branches  of  modern  mathe- 
matics. 

The  method  said  to  be  analytic  consists  in 
resolving  a  given  relation  into  its  mathematical 
elements.  Analysis  in  this  sense  of  the  term  is 
sometimes  applied  to  the  solution  of  geometric 
questions.  It  consists  in  assimiinff  a  certain 
relation  to  be  the  true  answer  to  the  question, 
and  resolving  that  relation  into  simple  truths. 
Euclid  {Elements,  Book  XIIL),  formulates  this 
idea  as  follows:  "Analysis  is  the  obtaining  of 
the  thing  sought  by  assuming  it  and  so  reason- 
ing up  to  an  admitted  truth."  For  example, 
let  the  question  be,  In  what  ratio  does  the  alti- 
tude of  an  isosceles  triangle    divide  its    base? 


The  simple  answer  that  suggests  itself  through 
the  inspection  of  a  figure  is,  that  the  base  is 
bisected.  Assume  this  to  be  so.  In  that  case 
the  two  triangles  into  which  the  altitude  divides 
the  given  triangle  are  identically  equal,  because 
their  sides  are  respectively  equal;  and  therefore 
the  two  angles  made  by  the  altitude  and  the 
base  are  also  equal.  But  the  latter  conclusion 
is  an  evident  truth,  if  we  remember  that  the 
altitude  of  a  triangle  is  a  line  perpendicular  to 
its  base.  We  therefore  infer  that  our  assump- 
tion was  correct  and  that  the  base  is  really 
biscHited.  Furthermore,  by  reversing  the  above 
process  we  can  now  demonstrate  our  assumed 
truth  synthetically;  i.e.,  reconstruct  it  from  the 
simple,  admitted  truths,  to  which  the  analysis 
has  led. 

Now,  although  the  demonstrations  of  geomet- 
ric theorems  and  perhaps  most  of  the  theorems 
themselves,  were  originally  discovered,  in  the 
manner  just  indicated,  by  analysis — most  of  the 
ordinary  text-book  demonstrations  are  undoubt- 
edly syntheses,  for  they  gradually  lead  from  the 
mathematical  elements — the  axioms — ^to  more  or 


less  complex  truths.  Geometry  is  therefore 
spoken  of  as  a  synthetic  science.  However,  the 
reductio  ad  ahsurdumf  which  is  not  infrequently 
employed,  is  a  purely  analytical  method,  differ- 
ing only  in  form  from  the  type  of  analysis  con- 
sidered above.  The  suggested  relation  is,  name- 
ly, assumed  to  be  not  true,  but  false,  and  this 
is  shown  to  lead  to  absurd  conclusions — the  in- 
ference being  that  the  suggested  relation  is  nec- 
essarily true. 

In  designating  a  part  of  mathematical  science, 
the  term  analysis  is  applied,  on  the  one  hand, 
to  the  theory  of  functions  (including  series, 
logarithms,  curves,  etc.),  on  the  other  hand, 
to  the  mathematics  of  infinite  quantities,  com- 
prising the  differential  calculus,  the  integral 
calculus,  and  the  calculus  of  variations.  Alge- 
bra, although  usually  limited  to  equations,  in- 
cludes in  the  wider  sense  of  its  name  the 
branches  just  enumerated.  Indeed,  it  is  because 
of  their  relation  to  algebra  that  these  branches 
have  been  united  under  the  general  term  of  math- 
ematical analysis.  Algebra  itself,  however,  is 
far  from  being  uniformly  analytical,  and  many 
an  instance  of  pure  synthesis  may  be  found  in 
any  of  the  branches  of  applied  algebra,  say  in 
analytical  geometry.  In  ^neral,  there  is  no 
branch  of  human  thought  in  which  the  method 
of  analysis,  or  that  of  synthesis,  is  used  exclu- 
sively. The  complete  abolition  of  either  of  these 
methods  would  involve  not  a  small  diminution 
in  our  ppwer  of  establishing  interesting  truths. 

In  discussions  concerning  the  methods  of 
science,  the  processes  of  analysis  and  synthesis 
are  often  erroneously  identified  with  those  of 
induction  and  deduction.  The  reason  of  this  lies 
mainly  in  the  fact  that  there  has  been  consider- 
able disagreement  as  to  the  proper  definition 
of  the  terms  in  question.  The  distinction  be- 
tween the  two  pairs  of  antithetic  terms  becomes 
perfectly  clear,  however,  if  we  define  analysis 
as  leading  from  the  compound  to  the  ele- 
mentaryl  and  synthesis  as  leading  from  the 
elementary  to  the  compound;  induction  as  lead- 
ing from  the  particular  to  the  general,  and 
deduction  as  leading  from  the  general  to  the 
particular.  As  thus  defined,  analysis,  as  well 
as  synthesis,  maj  be  coincident,  though  not 
identical,  with  either  induction  or  deduction. 
Thus,  to  turn  for  an  illustration  again  to  math- 
ematics, the  ordinary  demonstration  of  a  geo- 
metric theorem  is  a  deduction;  for  what  can  be 
more  general  in  character  than  the  axiomatic 
truths  from  which  the  theorem  is  deduced?  But 
the  demonstration  is  also  a  synthesis;  for  what 
can  be  more  elementary  than  those  axioms  which 
ate  used  in  reasoning  up  to  the  theorem?  On 
the  other  hand,  Newton's  binomial  theorem,  as 
often  demonstrated  in  text-books  of  algebra,  pre- 
sents an  instance  of  synthesis  coincident  with 
induction.  .The  general  relation  expressed  by 
that  theorem  is  induced  by  the  examination  of  a 
number  of  particular  instances.  But  the  demon- 
stration is  also  a  true  synthesis,  for  it  combines 
a  number  of  relations  into  one. 

More  or  less  extensive  discussions  of  the  ana- 
lytical processes  of  philosophy  may  be  found  in 
the  following  works:  R.  H!  Lotze,  Logic,  Eng- 
lish translation  (Oxford,  1888) ;  F.  H.  Bradley, 
Principles  of  Logic  (London,  1883)  ;  L.  T.  Hob- 
house,  Theory  of  Knowledge  (Ix)ndon,  1896), 
and  Bosanquet,  Logic  (Oxford,  1888).  See  also 
articles,  Analytic  Judgment;  Judgment; 
Knowledge,  Theory  of,  and  Logic. 


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ANALYSIS,  Chemical.  The  art  of  deter- 
mining the  chemical  compoeition  of  substances. 
The  derivation  of  the  word  analysis  (see  preced- 
ing article)  suggests  that  chemical  analysis 
necessarily  requires  the  breaking  up  of  substances 
into  their  constituent  parts.  In  practice  the 
term  is  used  in  a  wider  sense,  and  is  often  ap- 
plied to  methods  of  testing  that  involve  no 
processes  of  separation.  In  most  cases,  however, 
one  or  the  other  constituent  is  actually  isolated, 
or  some  constituents  of  the  original  substance, 
which  would  interfere  with  the  examination,  are 
actually  removed. 

An  analyst  may  restrict  himself  to  merely  de- 
termining what  are  the  constituents  of  the  sub- 
stance submitted  to  him;  in  that  case  the  an- 
alysis is  qualitative.  Or  he  may  also  determine 
the  relative  amounts  of  some  or  all  of  the  con- 
stituents; then  the  analysis  becomes  quantita- 
tive. In  some  cases  he  can  only  state  what  ele- 
ments are  present,  and  in  what  (quantities  they 
enter  into  the  composition  of  the  given  substance. 
The  analysis  is  tiien  said  to  be  ultimate.  In 
most  cases,  however,  he  further  tries  to  deter- 
mine in  what  combinations  and  in  what  condi- 
tions in  respect  to  their  capacity  of  forming 
combinations  the  elements  exist  in  the  given  sub- 
stance; and  then  the  analysis  is  termed  proxi- 
mate. The  ultimate  analysis  of  organic  sub- 
stances is  of  great  importance,  and  has  been 
brought  to  high  perfection.  (See  Carbon  Com- 
pounds.) On  the  other  hand,  the  proximate 
analysis  of  organic  substances  is  often  a  task 
beyond  the  power  of  analytical  chemistry.  At- 
tempts, however,  have  been  made  to  treat  this 
subject,  too,  in  a  systematic  manner. 

Preliminary  Examination  op  Inorganic 
Substances.  When  a  substance  is  submitted  for 
qualitative  analysis,  the  chemist  first  notes  its 
color  and  form — the  latter  with  the  aid  of  a 
simple  magnifying  glass.  The  substance  is  then 
usually  subjected  to  an  examination  by  means  of 
the  blowpipe  (q.v.)  or  the  non-luminous  gas- 
flame.  (See  Flame.)  Blowpipe  analysis  has  Wn 
elaborated  into  a  systematic  scheme  for  the  de- 
tection of  all  the  important  metallic  and  of  some 
acidic  radicals,  and  has  proved  of  great  value, 
especially  to  the  mineralogist.  The  chemist,  as 
a  rule,  makes  only  a  brief  examination  to  deter- 
mine the  general  nature  of  the  substance,  and 
to  answer  such  questions  as  whether  water,  or- 
ganic matter,  silicates,  complex  cyanides,  large 
quantities  of  an  easily  reducible  metal,  sulphur 
and  arsenic,  are  or  are  not  present,  such  con- 
stituents often  rendering  necessary  a  modification 
of  the  usual  scheme  of  systematic  analysis. 
Heating  a  small  portion  Of  the  substance  in  a 
closed  glass  tube  reveals  the  presence  of  most 
kinds  of  organic  matter  by  the  smell  and  separa- 
tion of  carbon,  and  the  presence  of  water  by  the 
drops  which  condense  in  the  cooler  part  of  the 
tube.  Heating  on  charcoal  with  a  reducing  flame, 
sometimes  with  the  aid  of  fluxes,  shows  the  pres- 
ence of  metals  that  give  volatile  oxides,  the  latter 
forming  characteristic  coats  on  the  charcoal; 
and  the  same  test  makes  it  possible  to  detect 
any  important  quantity  of  an  easily  reducible 
metal,  metals  in  the  free  state  being  readily 
identified  by  their  lustre  and  physical  properties. 
The  behavior  of  the  substance  when  fused  with  a 
bead  of  sodium  metaphosphate  or  of  sodium  car- 
bonate shows  whether  a  silicate  or  much  silica 
is  present,  etc.  Often  additional  special  tests  are 
made.    For  example,  gently  warming  a  small  por- 


tion of  the  substance  with  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  may  serve  to  detect  volatile  acidic  sub- 
stances, such  as  sulphurous  acid  and  nitrous  acid, 
which  might  be  lost  in  the  regular  processes  or 
appear  in  another  form. 

If  the  substance  submitted  for  analysis  h  a 
liquid,  its  color  and  odor  are  noted,  its  reaction 
toward  litmus  is  ascertained,  a  portion  is  evapo- 
rated to  dryness,  and  the  solid  residue,  if  there 
is  any,  is  subjected  to  the  preliminary  examina- 
tion as  in  the  case  of  any  other  solid. 

Qualitative  Inorganic  Analysis.    Before  a 
systematic  qualitative  analysis  of  a  solid  sub- 
stance can  be  undertaken,  the  substance  must  be 
obtained  in  solution.    Sometimes  substances  sub- 
mitted for  analysis  are  found  to  be  directly  sol- 
uble in  water.  In  most  cases,  however,  substances 
cannot  be  dissolved  unless  transformed  chemi- 
cally.    Since  most  chlorides  and  most  inorganic 
acids  are  soluble  in  water,  the  desired  transfor- 
mation can  usually  be  effected  by  treating  the 
finely  powdered  substances  with  aqueous  hydro- 
chloric acid,  which  converts  the  metals  or  metal- 
lic oxides  present  into  chlorides,  while  the  acids 
originally  combined  in  the  substance  are  set  free. 
In  case  metals  (such  as  silver)  are  present,  which 
form  insoluble  chlorides,  or  in  case  non-metals 
(such  as  sulphur  or  arsenic)   are  present,  or  in 
case  hydrochloric  acid  does  not  attack  the  sub- 
stance, nitric  acid  is  used.    Bv  this  the  metallic 
compounds  present  in  the  substance  are  trans- 
formed  into   nitrates,  and  all   normal   nitrates 
are  soluble  in  water ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  non- 
metals  present  are  mostly  changed  into  the  cor- 
responding   oxygen    acids,    which    are    likewise 
soluble  in  wat^ — sulphur,  for  instance,  being 
transformed  into  sulphuric  acid.     Many  impor- 
tant  and   familiar   substances,   however,   resist 
the  action  of  both  of  these  acids.    A  few,  as  gold 
and  platinum,  will  dissolve,  forming  soluble  com- 
pounds in  a  mixture  of  hydrochloric  and  nitric 
acids,  the  so-called  aqua  regia,  which,  on  warm- 
ing, gives  off  free  chlorine.    But  other  substances, 
such    as    glass,    porcelain,    and    many    natural 
silicates,  resist  the  action  of  acids  almost  en- 
tirely.    Such  substances  are  usually  broken  up 
by  melting  them  with  carbonates  of  the  alkali 
metals  and  potassium  nitrate,  or  by  treatment 
with   hydrofluoric   acid.     Subse<^uent   treatment 
with  water  and  hydrochloric  acid  then  usually 
yields  the  required  solutions. 

Let  us  suppose  that  we  have  obtained  a  clear 
solution  in  nitric  acid,  which  may  contain  all 
the  more  familiar  metals  and  is  free  from  or- 
ganic matter.  To  this  solution  we  add  hydro- 
chloric acid;  if  we 'obtain  a  white  solid  substance, 
which  does  not  dissolve  in  a  moderate  excess  of 
acid,  we  know  we  must  have  present  some  or  all 
of  the  three  metals,  lead,  silver,  or  mercury  in 
the  univalent  form,  since,  of  all  the  more  famil- 
iar metals,  only  these  three  form  insoluble, 
or  nearly  insoluble, chlorides.  The  solid  precipitate 
is  separated  from  the  liquid  by  filtration,  and  we 
have  then  on  the  filter  a  solid  which  may  con- 
sist of  any  or  all  of  the  chlorides  of  lead,  silver, 
and  univalent  mercury.  A  study  of  tlie  proper- 
ties of  these  chlorides  shows  that  lead  chloride 
is  freely  soluble  in  hot  water,  while  the  othor 
two  are  not.  Therefore,  if  the  mass  is  treated 
with  hot  water,  the  lead  chloride,  if  present,  will 
dissolve,  and  can  be  filtered  off  while  the  other 
two  remain  behind.  The  liquid  is  then  examined 
for  l^ad,  which  is  easily  done,  since  all  metals 
which  could  interfere  with  the  test  have  been 


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separated.  Further,  since  silver  chloride  is 
knowni  to  be  easily  soluble  in  aqueous  ammonia, 
while  mercurous  chloride  is  converted  into  a 
black,  insoluble  mass  containing  free  mercury, 
one  might  assume  that  treatment  of  the  two 
chlorides  with  ammonia  solution  would  affect 
an  easy  separation  of  silver  chloride  from  mer- 
curous chloride.  This  case,  however,  well  illus- 
trates one  of  the  difficulties  of  analytical  work. 
If  the  amount  of  mercurous  chloride  is  large  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  of  silver  chloride,  the 
metallic  mercury  siet  free  by  the  action  of  am- 
monia causes  the  formation  of  metallic  silver, 
which  is  practically  insoluble  in  ammonia.  If, 
therefore,  ammonia  has  failed  to  extract  any- 
thing from  the  precipitate  in  question,  we  can- 
not conclude  that  silver  is  absent.  We  must, 
then,  treat  the  black  mass  with  a  mixture  of 
nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  which  dissolves  the 
black  substance  containing  mercury;  while  the 
silver,  if  at  all  present  in  the  original  substance, 
remains  behind,  again  in  the  form  of  silver  chlo- 
ride, but  this  time  unmixed  with  anything  else. 
Such  cases  frequently  occur.  So  often  is  the  be- 
havior of  a  substance  toward  a  reagent  modifled 
by  the  presence  of  other  substances,  that  no 
scheme  of  analysis  worked  out  at  the  writing 
table  possesses  any  value  until  thoroughly  tested 
in  the  laboratory. 

The  filtrate  obtained  on  precipitating  out  the 
three  metals  just  spoken  of  is  treated  with  sul- 
phuretted hydrogen.  This  precipitates  a  second 
group  of  metals,  which  are  separated  from  one 
another  by  methods  analogous  to  those  employed 
for  the  first  group.  The  filtrate  obtained  on  pre- 
cipitating out  the  metals  of  the  second  group 
is  usually  treated  with  ammonium  sulphide,  and 
the  filtrate  from  the  ammonium  sulphide  group 
with  ammonium  carbonate.  Thus  the  metals 
that  may  be  present  in  the  original  substance 
are  separated  into  several  groups,  and  then 
special  methods  are  employed  to  separate  and 
test  for  the  several  metals  composing  each  group. 

The  acid  radicals  are  tested  for  in  a  somewhat 
similar  manner,  but  usually  less  systematically; 
because  by  the  time  all  the  metals  present  have 
been  identified,  the  analyst  usually  is  able  to  ex- 
clude the  possibility  of  the  presence  of  a  large 
number  of  acids. 

The  spectroscope  (q.v.)  is  usually  applied  to 
identify  the  metals  potassium  and  lithium,  and 
is  quite -indispensable  when  substances  are  to  be 
examined  to  ascertain  whether  they  are  in  the 
pvrest  condition  possible,  since  the  instrument  is 
capable  of  revealing  the  presence  of  the  merest 
traces  of  substances.    See  Spectrum  Analysis. 

The  system  of  analysis  usually  followed  may 
be  carried  out  mechanically  and  almost  without 
intelligence,  if  the  substance  examined  contains 
only  the  more  familiar  metals  and  acids,  and 
those  in  considerable  quantities.  In  fact,  quali- 
tative analysis  is  criticised  bv  teachers  on  this 
account,  when  used  as  a  discipline,  or  as  a  means 
of  acquiring  a  scientific  knowledge  of  chemistry. 
The  ordinary  scheme,  however,  overlooks  even 
some  elements  of  common  occurrence,  as  tita- 
nium; and  when  the  chemist  has  to  take  into 
consideration  small  amounts  and  the  less  famil- 
iar elements,  all  his  chemical  knowledge  and 
acuteness  find  full  field  for  exercise. 

It  may  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  chem- 
ist relies  on  two  sets  of  properties  for  the  identi- 
fication of  a  substance.  First,  those  that  belong 
to  the  substance  itself  under  ordinary  condi- 
Voi..  I.— 88 


tions;  for  example,  the  yellow  color  and  the 
lightness  of  sulphur.  Such  properties  may  be 
called  properties  of  condition.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  sulphur  is  heated  sufficiently  without 
access  of  air,  it  assumes  the  form  of  a  red  vapor ; 
if  heated  with  access  of  air,  it  forms  with  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  a  colorless  gas  possessing  a 
characteristic  odor.  The  first  of  these  changes 
is  physical;  the  second,  chemical.  Physical  or 
chemical  changes  may  thus  serve  to  bring  out 
certain  properties  that  are  just  as  characteristic 
of  the  substance  as  the  properties  of  condition. 
Such  properties  may  be  called  properties  of  re- 
action. They  are  far  more  numerous  than  prop- 
erties of  condition,  and  far  more  useful  to 
the  analyst.  In  the  case  of  sulphur,  for  instance, 
the  properties  of  condition  are  only  apparent 
when  the  sulphur  is  in  a  nearly  pure  form;  but 
the  two  properties  of  reaction  just  mentioned  as 
an  example  enable  us  to  identify  sulphur  even 
when  mixed  with  so  much  foreign  matter  that 
the  characteristic  color  and  lightness  are  quite 
masked. 

Quantitative  Analysis.  Before  beginning  a 
quantitative  analysis  the  chemist  must  know,  in 
part  at  least,  the  qualitative  composition  of  the 
substance  to  be  analyzed.  This  knowledge 'may 
be  obtained  by  a  special  qualitative  analysis,  or, 
more  frequently,  from  the  results  of  numerous 
analyses  of  similar  substances. 

Methods  of  ouantitative  analysis  which  involve 
weighing  (see  Balance)  are  termed  gravimetric. 
Methods  that  involve  measuring  the  volumes  of 
solutions  are  termed  volumetric.  Finally,  meth- 
ods involving  the  decomposition  of  substances 
by  means  of  an  electric  current  are  termed  elec- 
trolytic. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  methods  of  gravi- 
metric analysis,  we  may  take  the  analysis  of  an 
alloy  of  silver  and  copper,  such  as  is  used  for 
silver  coins  in  the  United  States.  If  high-class 
weights  and  a  balance  are  at  the  disposal  of  the 
analyst,  not  more  than  half  a  gram  (less  than 
one- fourth  of  a  dime)  is  the  most  suitable  weight 
to  be  taken  of  the  alloy.  If  the  weights  or  the 
balance  is  inferior,  a  larger  amount  must  be 
taken,  so  that  the  errors  of  weighing  may  remain 
proportionately  small.  The  alloy  is  dissolved  in 
nitric  acid,  the  insoluble  residue  (carbon  and 
tin  oxide)  filtered  off  and  weighed,  and  the  fil- 
trate is  treated  w^ith  hydrochloric  acid  to  pre- 
cipitate silver  chloride,  just  as  in  qualitative 
lyork.  In  quantitative  work,  however,  certain 
precautions  must  be  taken  in  carrying  out  this 
simple  operation.  Thus,  only  a  slight  excess  of 
hydrochloric  acid  must  be  added,  since  silver 
chloride  is  somewhat  soluble  in  a  large  excess  of 
that  acid ;  the  liquid  must  be  vigorously  stirred 
and  warmed  to  cause  the  precipitate  to  assume 
a  form  in  which  it  can  be  easily  filtered  and 
washed,  etc.  The  silver  chloride  is  then  filtered 
off,  dried,  and  weighed,  proper  corrections  being 
made  for  the  weight  of  the  ash  of  the  filter.  The 
amount  of  silver  in  the  allov  is  then  readily  cal- 
culated from  the  weight  of  silver  chloride  yielded. 
The  filtrate  from  the  silver  chloride  contains 
copper  and  Usually  a  small  amount  of  lead.  The 
exact  amount  of  copper  contained  in  this  filtrate 
may  be  best  determined  by  electrolysis.  For  this 
purpose  the  filtrate  is  first  evaporated  to  dryness, 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  the  hydrochloric  acid;  the 
residue  is  taken  up  with  dilute  nitric  acid,  and 
the  solution  thus  obtained  is  subjected  to  the 
action  of  an  electric  current  passing  between  two 


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carefully  weighed  platinum  terminals  immersed 
in  the  liquid.  The  copper  is  thus  deposited  in 
the  metallic  state  on  the  electro-negative  termi- 
nal, while  the  lead  is  deposited  in  the  form  of 
lead  dioxide  on  the  terminal  connected  with  the 
positive  pole.  The  gain  in  weight  of  the  ter- 
minals gives  directly  the  weight  of  copper  and 
permits  the  calculation  of  the  weight  of  the  lead. 

Another  method,  involving  the  fusion  of  sub- 
stances by  heat,  and  usually  termed  the  "fire 
method,"  is  applied  chiefly  to  the  determination 
of  metals  in  ores,  and  is  especially  useful  in  the 
case  of  gold  and  silver  ores.  Thus,  the  amount  of 
silver  in  an  ore  free  from  gold  mav  be  easily 
and  quickly  found  by  heating  a  weighed  portion 
of  the  ore  with  metallic  lead  and  a  little  fused 
borax  in  an  oxidizing  atmosphere.  The  lead 
melts,  the  ore  floats  on  the  surface,  sulphur  and 
arsenic  are  volatilized  as  oxides,  the  lead  is 
partly  oxidized,  and  the  oxide  of  lead  forms  a 
liquid  slag  with  most  of  the  constituents  of  the 
ore.  At  the  end  of  the  operation  a  lead  button 
is  obtained,  containing  the  silver.  This  button  is 
placed  on  a  porous  support  made  of  bone-dust 
(calcium  phosphate),  and  again  heated  in  an 
oxidizing  atmosphere.  The  lead  melts  and  oxi- 
dizes, part  of  the  oxide  passes  off  as  gas  and 
part  sinks  into  the  porous  support,  while  the  sil- 
ver remains  behind  as  a  metallic  button,  which 
can  be  weighed.  If  gold  is  present,  it  is  found 
and  weighed  with  the  silver,  and  then  separated 
by  a  wet  process. 

Although  gravimetric  methods  are  the  more 
generally  applicable,  volumetric  methods  are 
much  more  commonly  used  in  the  everyday  work 
of  the  technical  analytical  chemist.  Hundreds  of 
volumetric  determinations  are  made  daily  in  all 
great  manufacturing  centres  for  every  one  gravi- 
metric determination.  As  an  illustration  of  volu- 
metric analysis,  we  may  take  a  method  used  for 
the  determination  of  iron  in  iron  ores,  and  ap- 
plicable to  all  iron  ores  found  in  the  United 
States,  except  those  containing  titanium.  The 
process  depends  on  the  fact  that  when  a  solution 
of  potassium  permanganate  is  added  to  an  acid 
solution  of  iron  in  the  ferrous  state,  the  iron  is 
changed  into  the  ferric  state,  while  the  strongly 
colored  permanganate  is  transformed  into  an  al- 
most colorless  manganous  salt,  the  volume  of 
potassium  permanganate  solution  thus  decolor- 
ized being  proportional  to  the  amount  of  ferrous 
iron  present  in  the  acid  solution.  This  fact  is 
made  use  of  by  the  analyst  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  He  first  determines  the  maximum  volume  of 
the  given  permanganate  solution  which  can  be 
completely  decolorized  by  a  known  amount  of 
iron.  For  this  purpose,  say,  300  milligrams  of 
pure  iron  are  dissolved  in  hydrochloric  acid  and 
some  metallic  zinc  is  added  in  order  to  make 
certain  that  all  the  iron  is  present  as  ferrous 
chloride,  FeOls  (and  not  as  ferric  chloride,  FeCls) . 
The  given  permanganate  solution  is  then  slowly 
added  from  a  burette  to  the  solution  of  iron 
until  the  disappearance  of  the  color  has  ceased 
to  take  place.  The  burette  then  shows  what  vol- 
ume of  the  permanganate  solution  can  be  decol- 
orized by  SCM)  milligrams  of  iron  dissolved  as  a 
ferrous  salt.  Suppose  the  volume  of  permanga- 
nate solution  thus  measured  is  40  cubic  centi- 
metres. Then  it  is  evident  that  one  cubic  centi- 
metre of  the  solution  could  be  decolorized  by 
7.6  milligrams  of  iron.  A  weighed  portion  of  the 
ore  to  be  examined,  say,  500  milligrams  of  it,  is 
now  treated  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  were 


the  300  milligrams  of  iron;  i.e.,  the  ore  is  dis- 
solved in  hy£ochloric  acid,  its  iron  is  carefully 
reduced  to  the  ferrous  state,  and  the  perman- 
ganate solution  is  slowly  added  from  the  burette 
until  no  more  can  be  decolorized.  Suppose  the 
volume  of  the  permanganate  solution  decolorized 
this  time  is  41  cubic  centimetres.  Then,  since 
7.6  milligrams  of  iron  are  required  to  decolorize 
every  cubic  centimetre  of  the  permanganate  aolu- 
tion,  it  is  evident  that  the  500  milligrams  of  the 
ore  must  contain  307.5  (i.e.,  7.5X41)  milli- 
grams of  iron,  and  hence  the  ore  is  reported  to 
contain  61.5  per  cent,  of  iron. 

Special  Methods  of  Analysis.  Any  physical 
property  which  depends  on  the  amount  of  sub- 
stance present,  and  is  capable  of  measurement, 
may  be  used  for  quantitative  determinations. 
Thus,  the  specific  gravity  of  liquids,  which  can  be 
readily  determined  with  great  accuracy,  is  ex- 
tensively used  to  determine  the  amount  of  the 
dissolved  substance  in  pure  or  nearly  pure  solu- 
tions. In  this  manner  the  amount  of  alcohol, 
potassium  or  sodium  hydroxide,  common  salt, 
and,  indeed,  of  all  the  more  familiar  salts  con- 
tained in  aqueous  solutions  may  be  determined 
more  readily  than  in  any  other  way.  For 
determinations  of  this  kind,  when  no  high  degree 
of  accuracy  is  required,  the  hydrometer  is  ex- 
tensively used  in  chemical  laboratories.  (See 
Htdbometeb,  and  Alooholometbt.  )  Among  other 
properties  used  may  be  mentioned  the  coefficient 
of  refraction,  the  optical  rotatory  power — ^much 
used  in  determining  the  strength  of  sugar  solu- 
tions (see  Sugar),  the  intensity  of  the  color  or 
the  degree  of  opacity  of  solutions  and  of  liquids 
containing  solids  in  suspension,  the  electrical 
conductivity,  the  boiling  point  of  solutions,  the 
melting  point  of  solids,  etc. 

Analysis  of  Gases.  The  analysis  of  gases 
differs  from  that  of  solids  and  liquids  in  that  it 
is  more  easy  to  measure  than  to  weigh  gases, 
and  hence  the  results  are  usually  given  in  per- 
centages by  volume.  For  many  gases  reagents  are 
known  which  absorb  the  gas  readily  and  com- 
pletely. Thus,  a  mixture  of  carbon  dioxide,  ethy- 
lene, oxygen,  carbon  monoxide,'  and  nitrogen  may 
be  analy:^  by  bringing  a  measured  volume  into 
contact  with  caustic  potash  (which  absorbs  the 
carbon  dioxide),  then  with  fuming  sulphuric  acid 
(which  absorbs  the  ethylene),  then  with  an  al- 
kaline solution  of  pyrogallol  (which  absorbs  the 
oxvgen),  then  with  a  solution  of  cuprous 
chloride  (which  absorbs  the  carbon  monoxide), 
and  noting  the  contraction  caused  by  each  treat- 
ment. The  nitrogen  remains  behind  unabaorbed. 
Hydrogen  and  marsh-gas  are  usually  determined 
by  combustion  with  oxvgen.  (rases  very  soluble 
in  i^'ater,  such  as  sulphur  dioxide,  are  absorbed 
in  that  liouid,  and  then  the  amount  dissolved  is 
determinea  by  a  volumetric  process.  Carbon 
dioxide  in  air  offers  a  special  case.  As  in  nor- 
mal air  only  3  parts  in  10,000  are  present,  the 
ordinary  process  of  measuring  the  volume  before 
and  after  treatment  with  caustic  potash  requires 
special  apparatus  and  great  care  to  get  good  re- 
sults. Usually  a  large  volume  is  treated  with  a 
measured  quantity  of  a  solution  of  barium  hy- 
droxide of  known  strength,  a  portion  of  the 
barium  hydroxide  being  thus  converted  into  in- 
soluble barium  carbonate,  and  the  rest  estimated 
volumetrically. 

When  the  highest  degree  of  accuracy  in  gas 
analysis  is  required,  the  gases  must  be  confined 
over    mercury;    further,    only   solid   absorbents 


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miiBt  be  used,  and  careful  corrections  must  be 
made  for  changes  of  pressure  and  temperature. 
When  water  is  used  to  confine  the  gas,  some  in- 
accuracy is  introduced,  since  all  gases  are  more 
or  less  soluble  in  water.  In  technical  work,  how- 
ever, a  very  high  degree  of  accuracy  is  but  rarely 
required.  The  technical  analysis  of  gases  has 
assumed  ^eat  practical  importance,  owing  to 
the  extension  of  the  use  of  gaseous  fuels. 

Accuracy.  The  accuracy  of  analytical  work 
varies  within  wide  limits,  according  to  the  pur- 
pose which  an  analysis  is  intended  to  serve.  The 
most  accurate  analyses  are  those  made  to  deter- 
mine the  proportions  by  weight,  in  which  the 
various  elements  unite  with  each  other.  Thus, 
the  proportion  in  which  silver  and  chlorine  unite 
forms  one  of  the  best  determined  constants  of 
nature.  In  determining  the  proportion  in  which 
magnesium  unites  with  chlorine,  a  series  of  de- 
terminations has  been  obtained,  agreeing  so  per- 
fectly with  each  other  that  a  loss  or  gain  of  only 
one-twentieth  of  a  milligram  of  the  magnesium 
chloride  analyzed  corresponds  to  the  difference 
between  the  highest  or  lowest  results  and  the 
average.  No  such  accuracy  is  attainable  in  com- 
mercial or  technical  work.  Nor,  if  attainable, 
would  it  be  of  any  value,  since  it  is  but  seldom 
possible  to  obtain  samples  representing  precisely 
the  average  composition  of  large  quantities  of 
material. 

The  aim  of  the  commercial  and  technical  ana- 
lyst is  usually  not  to  attain  extreme  accuracy, 
but  to  obtain  results  which  he  knows  to  be  cor- 
rect within  certain  limits.  Thus,  if  an  anajyst 
is  required  to  find  the  percentage  of  copper  in 
a  sample  representing  a  large  cargo  of  ore,  in 
order  to  fix  its  commercial  value,  he  can  deter- 
mine the  copper  by  the  electrolytic  method  to 
within  about  one  part  in  four  hundred  without 
undue  expenditure  of  time  or  labor.  If  the  ob- 
ject of  tne  analysis  is  to  enable  the  superin- 
tendent of  the  smelting  furnace  to  make  up 
charges  of  a  suitable  content  of  copper,  a  much 
quicker  volumetric  process  is  used;  the  results 
are  then  less  accurate  than  those  of  the  electro- 
lytic process,  but  still  much  more  accurate  than 
is  necessary  for  the  purposes  of  the  smelter. 
When  it  becomes  necessary  to  determine  the 
amount  of  substances  which  occur  in  relatively 
very  small  quantities,  it  is  impossible  to  avoid 
relatively  large  errors.  For  instance,  in  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  phosphorus  in  a  specimen 
of  steel,  where  the  total  amount  is  only  about 
one  part  in  a  thousand,  the  analyst  is  not  sur- 
prised to  find  that,  in  spite  of  all  care,  differences 
of  2  per  cent,  occur  between  the  results  of  deter- 
minations made  carefully  and  under  exactly  the 
same  conditions. 

History.  Systematic  chemical  analysis  only 
dates  from  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, although  chemists  of  an  earlier  period  had 
accumulated  observations  which  made  it  possible 
to  test  for  the  presence  of  many  substances. 
Bergman  (1735-84)  first  attempted  to  give  a 
plan  for  systematic  qualitative  analysis  of  in- 
organic substances  in  the  wet  way.  Until  the 
work  of  Lavoisier  (1743-94)  had  shown  the  im- 
portance of  relations  by  weight,  quantitative  de- 
terminations attracted  little  attention,  although 
such  determinations  were  by  no  means  entirely 
wanting.  After  the  triumph  of  Lavoisier's 
views,  the  importance  of  quantitative  analysis 
was  fully  seen;  and  the  labors  of  Klaproth  ( 1743- 


1817),  Proust  (1766-1826),  and  Vauquelin  (1763- 
1829),  rapidly  enriched  chemistry  with  new 
methods.  But  it  is  to  Berzelius  (1779-1848) 
that  quantitative  analysis  owes  the  heaviest 
debt.  Berzelius  published  tables  of  the  atomic 
weights  of  all  the  elements  well  known  at  that 
time,  and  some  of  his  values  for  these  important 
constants  have  scarcely  been  improved  on  since. 
In  the  course  of  these  researches  an  immense 
number  of  new  methods  were  developed.  Two  of 
his  pupils,  Heinrich  Rose  (1795-1864)  and  Fried- 
rich  WOhler  (1800-82),  not  only  added  to  the 
methods  in  use,  but  published  comprehensive 
works  on  inorganic  analysis.  The  final  edition 
of  Rose's  work,  published  after  his  death, by  his 
pupil,  R.  Finkener,  remains  an  invaluable  work 
to  the  analyst  of  to-day.  Although  K.  R.  Fre- 
senius  (1818-97)  added  many  new  methods,  his 
great  service,  which  secures  him  a  conspicu- 
ous place  in  the  history  of  analytical  chemistry, 
was  the  collection  and  comparison  of  the  various 
methods  in  use,  the  publication  of  text-books, 
which  have  formed  the  models  of  most  others 
since  published,  and  the  founding  of  a  periodical 
devoted  to  analytical  chemistry.  The  last  edi- 
tions of  his  standard  works  are  in  the  hands 
of  every  analyst. 

Volumetric  analysis  was  introduced  by  Gay- 
LuBsac  (1778-1850)  ;  but  although  he  gave  the 
first  of  his  important  processes  to  the  world  as 
early  as  1824,  it  was  not  until  the  publication 
of  Fr.  Mohr's  text-book  on  the  subject  that 
volumetric  analysis  began  to  rank  in  importance 
with  gravimetric  methods.  The  ultimate  an- 
alysis of  organic  bodies  was  attempted  with  some 
success  by  Lavoisier  and  Berzelius.  Gay-Lussac, 
in  1815,  introduced  the  use  of  cupric  oxide,  and 
Liebig  (1803-73)  gave  the  process  essentially  its 
present  form.  Dumas  (1800-84)  introduced,  in 
1830,  the  method  for  the  determination  of  nitro- 
gen by  direct  measurement  of  the  liberated  gas, 
which  is  still  preferred  in  strictly  scientific  work 
to  the  easier  method  devised  by  Kjeldahl. 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  analyze  gases  in 
the  eighteenth  century  and  in  the  beginning  of 
the  nineteenth,  but  it  is  to  Bunsen  (1811-99) 
that  we  owe  the  perfection  of  the  methods  at 
present  in  use  for  gas  analysis.  The  first  edition 
of  his  text-book,  Oasometrische  Methoden,  was 
published  in  1857.  The  improvements  since 
that  time  have  been  principally  in  the  direction 
of  adapting  the  methods  to  rapid  work  for  tech- 
nical purposes. 

BiBLTOORAPHY.  Rose,  Handhuck  der  analy- 
tiachen  Chemie,  completed  by  Finkener  (Leipzig, 
1867-71);  Mohr,  Lehrhuch  der  cheTnisoh-analy- 
tiachen  Titrirmethodenf  edited  by  Classen 
(Brunswick,  1886),  and  Chemisch-techniache 
Unterauchungs- Methoden,  edited  by  Lunge  (Ber- 
lin, 1900)  ;  Fresenius,  Manual  of  Qualitative 
Chemical  Analyaia,  translated  by  Wells  (New 
York,  1897) ;  Fresenius,  Anleitung  zur  quanti' 
tativen  chemiachen  Analyse  (Brunswick,  1876- 
87) ;  Hempel,  Methoda  of  Oaa  Analyaia,  trans- 
lated by  Dennis  (New  York,  1892)  ;  Treadwell, 
Kurzea  Lehrhuch  der  analytiachen  Ohemie  (Leip- 
zig and  Vienna,  1899). 

AN'AIiYTICGEOM'ETBY.  Geometry  treat- 
ed by  means  of  Algebra.  Geometric  conditions 
are  expressed  by  equations  which,  after  certain 
transformations,  are  interpreted  again  in  geo- 
metric concepts.  The  powerful  algebraic  method 
is  thus  made  use  of  for  discovering  and  demon- 


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ANALYTIC  QEOMETBT. 


500 


ANALYTIC  JITDOMENT. 


strating  in  a  simple  and  easy  manner  the  most 
complicated  relations  existing  between  quantities 
in  space. 

The  interpretation  of  geometric  relations  in 
algebraic  terms  is  effected  by  the  use  of  some  sys- 
tem of  coordinates  (q.v.).  The  primitive  system 
of  coordinates,  called  rectangular  coordinates,  is 
due  to  Descartes  (Lat.  Cartesiua),  from  which 
fact  they  are  often  called  Cartesian.  In  this  sys- 
tem the  position  of  a  point  (as  P^  in  the  figure) 


is  determined  by  its  distance  from  the  fixed  axes 
in  the  plane,  called  cudcs  of  coordinatea,  which 
intersect  at  right  angles  in  a  point  called  the 
origin.  The  distance  Xi  of  P^  from  YF'  is 
called  the  ahaciaaa  of  P^,  and  the  distance  y^ 
from  XX^,  is  called  the  ordinate.  The  two  lines 
^u  Vii  ftre  called  the  coordinates  of  Pi.  Similarly, 
the  coordinates  of  P,  are  x^  y,.  Pj,  P„  or  the 
points  (a?„  j/i),  (a?„  y,)  are  sufficient  to  deter- 
mine the  straight  line  AB.  The  algebraic  func- 
tion (q.v.),  y  =  (M5  4-6,  «,  6i  being  constants, 
will  have  different  values  according  to  the  va- 
rious values  given  to  x.  The  various  values  of  x,  as 
fl^i.  (Bt»  *a — ^taken  with  the  corresponding  values 
of  y,  as  yi,  y,,  y, — ^will  represent  a  series  of  points 
(»i,  yi),  (««,  y.),  (»8,  y.),  lying  in  »  straight 
line.  That  is,  an  algebraic  equation  of  the  first 
degree  is  represented  by  a  straight  line.  In  a 
similar  manner  a  function  of  the  second  degree 


is  represented  by  a  curve.  In  the  figure,  c  is  a 
circle  whose  equation  is  gf  -\-  'i^=:f^,  r  be- 
ing the  radius  of  the  circle.  This  is  evident  by 
reference  to  the  figure,  since  the  coordinates  of 
any  point  {x,  y)  form  the  sides  of  a  right-angle 
triangle  of  hypotenuse  r,  so  that  a?"  -f  y*  =  ^. 
Here  the  function  of  x  is  Vr*  —  a?*,  since  y  = 
V^  —  ■or'.  The  curve  e  is  an  ellipse  whose  equa- 
tion is  6V  +  oV  =  ^^  ^  being  the  semi-major 
axis  and  6  the  semi-minor  axis.    The  curve  h  is 


an  hyperbola  whose  equation  is  h^a^  —  a^y  =  kf. 
If  the  equations  ap*  -f  y*  :=  r*  and  6iV  —  a^y  = 
fci*  are  solved  for  x,  y,  their  roots  are  the  coordi- 
nates of  the  points  of  intersection  of  the  curves 
c,  h.  These  values  may  be  real  or  imaginary; 
if  real,  the  curves  cut  in  real  points,  as  in  the 
case  of  c,  h;  if  imaginary,  the  curves  are  said 
to  cut  in  imaginary  points,  as  in  the  case  of  c,  h. 
The  practical  work  of  plotting  a  curve  may 
be  explained  by  referring  to  a  particular  exam- 
ple; thus,  to  represent  graphically  the  equation 
2«*  —  3y*=10.  Rearranging  and  solving  the 
equation  for  y,  y=:  ±  %V6(«'  —  5).  Therefore, 
by  giving  x  various  values  (noticing  that  «*  >5 
for  real  values  of  y)  we  have  corresponding 
values  of  y  as  follows: 

y  =     0.  ±  i  i/s:  ±  f  i/s;  ±  4/2:  ±  f  f '6. 

Taking  the  approximate  square  roots,  and  laying 
off  the  abscissas  and  ordinates  as  indicated,  *»nd 
then  connecting  the  successive  points,  the  graph 
is  the  hyperbola  h,  shown  in  the  figure. 

The  power  of  the  analytic  forms  to  express 
geometric  relations  may  be  seen  from  the  follow- 
ing: Let  Zi  =  o  and  2^  =  0  represent  the  equa- 
tions cii«*  -H  6iy*  —  Cx  =  o  and  a^  +  6jy,*  —  (?,= 
o.  Any  values  of  d?,  y  satisfying  these  two  equa- 
tions will  evidently  satisfy  the  equation 
(o,«"+6iy»  — cj  -^k  (apj»-|-6d^--c)=o,fc 
being  any  constant.  But  this  equation  is  21  — 
ks^-nzo.  Hence,  if  2?  =  o,  aj,  =  o  are  the  equa- 
tions of  any  two  curves,  any  point  common  to  the 
two  satisfies  the  equation  z^  —  kz^r=o,  and, 
therefore,  this  is  the  equation  of  the  curve  pass- 
ing through  all  intersections  of  the  given  curves. 
In  the  same  way,  equations  of  any  degree  may  be 
represented  -  and  discussed. 

The  position  of  a  point  in  space  of  three  dimen- 
sions may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  its  distances 
from  three  fixed  planes.  In  this  way  the  prop- 
erties of  spheres,  ellipsoids,  and  other  solids  are 
expressed  by  equations.  In  space  of  four  dimen- 
sions the  coordinates  of  a  point  are  (a;,  y,  2;,  ir), 
and  in  space  of  n  dimensions  {x,  y,  Zy  .  .  .  .a 
quantities) ,  although  we  cannot  draw  the  figures. 

The  ellipse,  hyperbola,  and  parabola  being  sec- 
tions of  a  right  circular  cone,  are  known  as  conic 
sections  (q.v.).  They  were  chiefly  investigated  by 
purely  geometric  methods  until  the  appearance 
of  Descartes's  Discours  (1636).  In  the  exten- 
sive development  of  analytic  geometry  since 
Descartes,  a  large  number  of  coordinate  systems 
have  been  introduced,  the  most  important  being 
the  polar,  generalized,  homogeneous,  Lagrangian. 
Eulerian,  barycentric,  and  trilinear  coordinates. 

The  most  comprehensive  English  works  are 
those  by  Salmon,  Treatise  on  the  Conic  Sections 
(Dublin,  1869);  Higher  Plane  Curves  (1873); 
Treatise  on  the  Analytic  Geometry  of  Three 
Dimensions  (Dublin,  1874).  Other  noteworthy 
works  are:  R.  F.  A.  Clebsch,  Vorlesungen  uhvr 
Geometric  (Leipzig,  1876) ;  M.  Chasles,  Traits 
de  Giom^trie  BupMeure  (Paris,  1880);  and 
among  recent  elementary  works  are  those  of 
Steiner,  Briot,  Bouquet,  Townsend,  and  Scott 
See  Geometbt;  Modebn  Gbometbt,  and  Ooob- 
DINATE8. 

ANAIiYTIC  JimGKMENT.  In  Kantian 
philosophy,  judgments  in  which  the  predicate 
IS  the  definition  (q.v.)  or  part  of  the  definition 
of  the  subject.  All  other  judgments  are  syn- 
thetic.   The   distinction   between    analytic  and 


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ANALYTIC  JITDGMENT. 


601 


ANAPHBODISIACS. 


synthetic  judgments  is  open  to  serious  objec- 
tions, if  the  distinction  is  to  be  made  absolute. 
Concepts  (q.v.)  vary  from  mind  to  mind,  and 
even  in  the  same  mind  from  time  to  time.  To 
the  laboratory  chemist,  perhaps  the  most  essen- 
tial mark  in  the  concept  water  is  expressed  in 
the  formula  HjO;  i.e.,  water  is  conceived  to  be 
a  chemical  union  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in 
definite  proportions.  But  the  non-scientific  man 
may  have  a  clear  idea  of  what  he  means  by 
water  and  can  perhaps  define  his  concept.  In 
such  a  case  the  definition  would  not  include 
any  reference  to  oxygen  and  hydrogen.  Thus, 
the  judgment  that  water  is  a  certain  chemical 
combination  of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  while  an 
analytic  judgment  for  the  chemist,  may  be  a 
synthetic  judgment  for  the  person  who  has  not 
yet  studied  chemistry.  This  shows  that  concepts 
are  not  necessarily  fixed,  but  may  be  capable  of 
growing  and  changing.  Analysis  and  synthesis 
in  logic  are  concomitant  aspects  of  the  same 
operation;  every  analytic  judgment  may  be 
viewed  as  at  the  same  time  synthetic,  and  every 
synthetic  judgment  as  at  the  same  time  analytic. 
Consult:  E.  Caird,  The  Critical  Philosophy  of 
Immanuel  Kant,  2  volumes  (New  York  and 
London,  1889).  See  also  bibliography  under 
Analysis. 

AN'AIiYiyiC  LAN^GUAOES.     See  PhiloIt 

COY. 

AN^AIiY'ZEB.  That  part  of  a  polariscope 
(q.v.)  which  is  used  for  examining  light  after 
it  has  been  polarized.  ( See  Light.  )  It  may  be 
a  movable  mirror,  a  plate  of  tourmaline,  a 
doubly  refracting  crystal,  or  a  Nicol  prism. 
The  latter  is  most  frequently  employed  for  this 
purpose. 

ANAM^     See  Annam. 

ANAM^SITE.     See  Basalt. 

AKAMIBTAy  ftn'&-mlr^t&.  See  Cocculus 
Indicus. 

ANA  MTWrFXECH,  &-n&m^6-l$k.  A  god  wor- 
shiped by  the  inhabitants  of  Sepharvaim,  who 
were  deported  to  Samaria  (II.  Kings  xvii  :  31). 
This  city  is  probably  identical  with  Shabarain, 
or  Sibraim,  near  Damascus;  and  the  deity  may 
be  Anath,  the  Syrian  goddess,  rather  than  Anu. 

AN'AM(ySA.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Jones  Co.,  la.,  55  miles  southwest  of  Dubuque, 
on  the  Wapsipinicon  and  Buflfalo  rivers,  and  on 
the  Chicago  and  Northwestern  and  the  Chicago 
Milwaukee  and  St.  Paul  railroads  (Map:  Iowa, 
F  2).  It  is  the  seat  of  a  State  penitentiary. 
The  adjacent  country  is  largely  agricultural, 
and  contains  quarries  of  building  stone,  in  w^hich 
the  city  has  a  considerable  trade.  The  indus- 
trial establishments  include  fiour  mills,  grain 
elevators,  foundrv,  carriage,  and  wagon  works, 
etc.     Pop.,  1890,  "^2078;    1900,  2891. 

AKA^AS.     See  Pine-Apple. 

AN' ANITAS  (Gk.  'Apavla^).  (1)  One  of  the 
members  of  the  young  Church  at  Jerusalem  who 
conspired  with  his  wife,  Sapphira,  to  make  a 
false  pretense  respecting  their  gift  of  property 
to  the  community  of  the  brethren,  and  was,  with 
his  wife,  struck  dead  (Acts  v:  1-11).  (2)  A 
disciple  at  Damascus  (Acts  ix  :  10-17;  xxii  :  12) 
mentioned  in  connection  with  Saul's  experience 
in  that  place.  (3)  A  high  priest  at  Jerusalem 
(Acts  xxiii  :  2;  xxiv  :  1)   mentioned  in  connec- 


tion with  Paul  before  the  Sanhedrim  and  at 
Cesarea. 

ANANIEV,  or  ANANYBV,  A-nftn'yef.  A 
town  in  the  government  of  Kherson,  Russia, 
about  220  miles  northwest  of  Kherson,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tiligula  (Map:  Russia,  D  5).  Very 
little  manufacturing  is  carried  on,  but  there  is 
some  trade  in  agricultural  products.  It  has  a 
mixed  population  of  Russians,  Jews,  and  Ru- 
mans,  numbering  in  all  about  17,000  in  1897, 
as  against  14,200  in  1885.  Ananiev  was  annexed 
to  Russia  in  1792. 

ANAPA,  k-ntl/pk,  A  small  seaport  on  the 
Black  Sea,  in  the  ^uban  territory,  Russia  ( Map : 
Russia,  E  6).  An  old  rampart,  now  serving 
as  a  promenade,  is  a  feature  of  the  town.  A 
trade  in  grain  and  fish  is  carried  on.  Popu- 
lation, about  7600.  Founded  as  a  fortress  in 
1871,  Anapa  was  repeatedly  attacked  by  the 
Russians  in  their  wars  with  Turkey.  It  be- 
came Russian  in  1829.  In  1854,  at  the  ap- 
proach of  the  allied  fleet,  Russia  evacuated  it, 
after  destroying  its  fortifications. 

AN' AP  JEST  (Gk.  dvdnaiaroc,  anapaistos, 
struck  back,  i.e.,  a  dactyl  [q.v.]  reversed,  from 
avd  ana,  back -|-  iraittv,  paiein,  to  strike).  The 
name  of  a  measure,  or  foot,  in  Greek  verse,  con- 
sisting of  two  short  syllables  and  one  long  syl- 
lable ;  thus  \j%j — .  It  has  been  called  the  march- 
ing rhythm,  as  the  language  of  the  chorus  in 
Greek  tragedy  fell  into  anapests  on  entering  or 
leaving  the  orchestra.  It  was  also  the  prevailing 
measure  in  the  parabasis  of  Aristophanic  com- 
edy. By  analogy,  the  name  is  also  employed  to 
designate  in  modern  verse  a  trisyllabic  measure 
of  two  unstressed  syllables  foUow^ed  by  a  stressed 
syllable ;  for  example :  "/  am  mdn  \  arch  of  dll  \ 
I  survey"    See  Metre. 

ANAPHBODISIACS,  ftn-ftf'rd-dlzOf-ftks  (Gk. 
av,  an,  priv.  +  dt^poStaiaKdc,  aphrodisiakos,  per- 
taining to  Aphrodite,  goddess  of  love).  Sub- 
stances used  to  lessen  the  sexual  desire.  In  the 
first  place,  all  causes  of  genital  irritation  should 
be  removed.  Careful  cleansing  should  be  insisted 
on,  and  in  many  cases  circumcision  is  needed. 
Saccharine  or  highly  acid  urine  should  be  cor- 
rected. Distension  of  the  bladder  should  be 
avoided  if  possible.  Vesical  calculus,  worms, 
hemorrhoids,  and  anal  fissure  may  all  act  as 
causes  of  sexual  excitement,  and  should  be  treat- 
ed if  present.  Other  rarer  lesions  in  this  neigh- 
borhood may  cause  it.  Constipation  should  be 
relieved.  The  clothing,  especially  at  nighty 
should  not  be  too  warm.  The  bed  should  be 
hard.  The  diet  should  be  restricted  in  amount, 
and  chiefly  vegetable;  while  spices  and  stimulants 
of  all  kinds  should  be  avoided.  Hard  mental 
work  and  abundant  exercise,  especially  with  the 
arms,  are  strongly  indicated.  Ice,  applied  locally, 
and  cold  baths,  local  or  general,  are  very  potent  in 
allaying  sexual  excitement  for  the  time.  Besides 
these  measures,  some  drugs  are  of  value.  The 
best  are  probably  the  bromides.  Hiey  should  be 
given  in  full  doses,  and  if  necessary  pushed  to 
the  physiological  limit.  Next  to  these  comes 
camphor,  which  should  be  used  in  the  same  way. 
The  nauseants  are  valuable  temporary  expedi- 
ents, but  cannot  be  used  in  a  prolonged  treat- 
ment. It  must  be  remembered  that  nympho- 
mania and  satjrriasis  are  due  to  cerebral  condi- 
tions, and  occur  during  attacks  of  insanity  or 
during  delirium  produced  by  alcohol  and  other 
drugs. 


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ANABCHIBAS. 


602 


ANABCHIST. 


ANABCHIBAS,  A-nftrld-daB.  See  Wolf- 
Pish. 

AN^ABCHIST  (Gk.  av,  an,  priv.  +  apxv, 
arche,  power,  sovereignty).  One  who  believes 
that  all  authority,  government,  and  control  of 
one  individual  or  group  of  individuals  over  an- 
other is  necessarily  evil. 

Definitions.  The  word  "anarchy,"  first  used 
in  its  French  form  by  Proudhon  in  an  essay  en- 
titled What  M  Propertyt  (1840),  has  served, 
to  designate  a  group  of  theories,  some  of  them 
very  old,  and  the  best  of  them  formulated  in 
definite  language  by  Proudhon  and  his  personal 
followers.  There  are  several  definitions  of  an- 
archy representing  different  groups  of  anar- 
chists: (1)  Anarchy  is  the  result  of  absolute 
individualism  in  thought  as  well  as  in  social 
activity.  This  might  be  called  idealistic  anarchy. 
(2)  Anarchy  is  an  economic  and  social  system 
whereby  the  individual  is  free  to  produce  what 
he  pleases,  gets  the  full  product  of  his  labor,  and 
is  under  no  compulsion  of  social  regulation  or 
law  in  any  of  his  economic  relations  to  his  fel- 
lows. This  is  Proudhon's  theory,  and  while  less 
idealistic  than  the  first  definition,  was  regarded 
by  Proudhon  himself  as  impossible  of  realization. 
He  regarded  a  federation  of  small  autonomous 
groups  as  the  best  attainable  result  in  govern- 
ment. (3)  Anarchy  represents  a  communistic 
organization  of  individuals  in  society  having 
perfect  freedom  and  equality  as  between  them- 
selves in  the  production  and  consumption  of 
goods,  and  offering  a  combined  resistance  to  all 
existing  forms  of  social  order,  law,  and  govern- 
ment. This  definition  covers  anarchists  of  the 
Bakunin  type,  who  have  much  in  sympathy  with 
some  Socialists,  though  theoretically  Socialism 
and  Anardiism,  in  their  main  tenets  and  under- 
lying philosophy,  stand  at  opposite  poles  of 
thought.  (4)  Anarchy  comprises  all  attempts 
to  destroy  the  existing  social  order,  without  ref- 
erence to  any  theory  of  reconstruction,  and  by 
the  use  of  any  means,  fair  or  foul,  by  which  in- 
dividuals or  institutions  representing  constitut- 
ed authority  may  be  destroyed.  This  represents 
the  popular  concept  of  all  Anarchists.  It  de- 
scribes the  ultra-radicals,  who  are  the  uncom- 
promising enemies  of  public  order  and  decency, 
who  plan  murders  and  reckless  public  calamities. 
They  are  the  fanatics  who  have  oeen  most  in  evi- 
dence in  recent  years. 

History  of  the  Theory.  Greek  philosophy, 
while  in  its  main  currents  rather  socialistic,  and 
certainly  constructive,  was  not  without  its  repre- 
sentatives of  extreme  individualistic  theory 
(Zeno,  and  among  the  early  Christian  philoso- 
phers, ^e  Gnostics).  A  mystical  theory  of  the 
rights  of  the  individual,  which  resembles  ideal- 
istic anarchy,  was  held  by  some  of  the  Christian 
writers  of  the  Middle  Ages  (Joachim,  1200; 
Amalric  of  B^ne;  the  Adamites,  1421;  Chel- 
cicky,  1420;  and  others).  The  first  modern 
writer  of  scientific  repute  is  Godwin,  who,  in  his 
Political  Justice  (1793),  proceeds  on  the  doc- 
trine of  natural  rights,  and  regards  all  govern- 
ment as  a  sort  of  necessary  tyranny,  to  be  re- 
duced to  its  lowest  terms.  This  doctrine  can  be 
traced  through  a  large  number  of  writings,  down 
to  Herbert  Spencer's  ideas  of  liberty  and  the 
sphere  of  the  State.  Ideal  anarchy,  of  the  Proud- 
hon type,  is  sometimes  •  called  scientific  anarchy. 
Proudhon  thought  he  saw  in  it  the  only  way  to 
free  the  laborer  from  the  encroachments  of  the 
capitalist  and  to  guarantee  to  every  man  the 


right  to  development.    To  Proudhon's  mind  an- 
archy was  a  step  similar  in  motive  but  opposite 
in  principle  to  the  present  efforts  of  State  Social- 
ists in  tne  interests  of  labor  and  in  opposition 
to  monopoly.    He  was  blind  to  all  practical  diffi- 
culties, and  when  he  attempted  to  secure  freedom 
of  exchange,  through  a  proposition  to  establish 
exchange  banks  in  Paris,  he   failed  utterly  in 
practical  plans.     Proudhon's  ideas  found  disci- 
ples in  Germany  in  Moses  Hess,  who  published 
Philosophie  der  That   and  Sozialismus   (1843), 
and  Karl  Grfin,  both  of  whom  developed  the  bet- 
ter side  of  Proudhon's  teaching,  and  proposed 
needed  radical  reforms.     In  the  United  States, 
Proudhon's  doctrine  was  taken  up  by  B.  R.  Tuck- 
er,   of    Boston,    who    published    a    translation 
of  Proudhon's  What  is  Property?    (1876),  and 
Economic    Contradictions    (1888),    and   also   a 
translation    of    Bakunin's    God   and    the   State 
(1883).      Tucker    edited    a    periodical    entitled 
Liberty,  which  began  publication  in  Boston  in 
1881,  but  was  afterward  removed  to  New  York 
City.      Individualistic    Anarchism    has    always 
been  the  strongest  in  the   United   States.     As 
pure  egoism  it  became  an  immoral  doctrine  in 
the  hands  of  a  German  school-teacher,  Max  Stir- 
ner,  whose  real  name  was  Easpar  Schmidt  (bom 
at  Bayreuth,  Germany,  1806;  died,  1857).    Stir- 
ner  had  a  large  temporary  following,  but  was 
soon  forgotten. 

Anarchistic  Attempts.  Anarchism  as  a  po- 
litical movement  began  with  Bakunin  (q.v.), 
who  tried  to  incite  the  working  classes  through- 
out Europe  to  organized  rebellion  against  all  law 
arid  government,  and  to  resistance  by  force 
against  all  authority.  With  this  movement 
began  anarchist  communism,  with  which  the 
philosophical  and  individualistic  Anarchists  will 
have  nothing  to  do.  In  its  theoretical  aspects 
anarchistic  communism  has  been  developed  byR§- 
culus  and  Prince  Krapotkin  (q.v.),  both  noted 
travelers  and  explorers,  who  have,  however,  fre- 
quently denounced  bomb-throwers  and  attempts 
to  assassinate  rulers.  During  the  last  fifteen 
years  there  have  been  numerous  outrages  and 
assassinations  committed  by  those  calling  them- 
selves Anarchists.  In  most  cases  these  have  been 
the  acts  of  individuals  and  not  the  results  of 
any  general  conspiracy.  They  have  been  directed 
against  the  representatives  of  the  State,  and  have 
been  inspired  by  the  spirit  of  anarchy. 

United  States.  America  has  witnessed  but 
two  such  outrages.  The  first  was  the  famous 
Ha^arket  explosion  at  Chicago  on  May  4,  1886. 
This  occurred  at  a  large  assembly  of  working- 
men.  The  speakers  began  uttering  revolutionary 
sentiments,  and  the  gathering  was  ordered  to 
disperse  by  the  police.  A  bomb  was  thrown,  kill- 
ing: seven  policemen  and  wounding  sixty.  In  the 
m6l^  following,  some  workmen  were  killed  and 
others  wounded.  For  this  seven  were  condemned 
to  death,  and  one  (Neebe)  to  fifteen  years'  im- 
prisonment. Ling  committed  suicide  the  day 
before  the  time  set  for  the  execution.  Spies, 
Parsons,  Fischer,  Engel  were  hanged  November 
11,  1887,  the  sentences  of  Schwab  and  Pielden 
having  been  commuted  to  life  imprisonment 
Later  Governor  Altgeld  pardoned  Neebe,  Schwab, 
and  Fielden.  It  is  not  known  who  threw  the 
bomb.  The  second  was  the  murder  of  President 
William  McKinley,  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  September 
6,  1901,  by  Leon  F.  Czolgosz,  who  was  executed 
by  electricity  October  29,  1901. 

EuBOFB.     England  has  been  entirely  free  from 


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ANABCHIST. 


503 


ANASTASnrS. 


these  outrages,  the  nearest  approach  being  a  riot 
at  Trafalgar  Square,  London,  November  13,  1887. 
The  Continent  of  Europe  has  not  fared  so 
well.  In  March,  1892,  there  was  series  of 
explosions  in  France.  For  one  of  these  Rara- 
chol  was  executed  (June  11,  1892),  and  others 
imprisoned.  A  plot  to  blow  up  the  Paris  Bourse 
was  frustrated.  Manifestos  urging  armed  up- 
risings were  issued  by  anarchists.  There  were 
serious  distiirbances  and  explosions  in  Spain  and 
Italy.  In  February,  1893,  bombs  were  exploded 
at  Rome.  At  Barcelona,  on  September  23d,  a 
bomb  was  thrown  into  a  group  of  staflf  officers 
at  a  military  review,  which  wounded  several 
officers,  one  of  whom  was  Captain-General  Mar- 
tinez Campos,  and  killed  one  guard.  For  this, 
Codina  and  five  accomplices  were  shot  May  21, 
1894.  A  general  conspiracy  was  unearthed  at  Vi- 
enna, September  23d.  On  November  7  th  a  bomb 
was  thrown  into  the  pit  of  a  Barcelona  theatre, 
which  killed  thirty  and  wounded  eighty.  Salvada 
French  was  executed  for  this  crime.  On  December 
9th,  at  Paris,  during  a  session  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  a  bomb  was  thrown  from  the  gallery. 
A  woman,  perceiving  the  intentions  of  the 
thrower,  grasped  his  arm,  causing  the  bomb  to 
strike  a  chandelier  and  explode  harmlessly. 
Vaillant,  whose  real  name  was  Kdnigstein,  a 
man  of  German  descent,  was  immediately  identi- 
fied as  the  thrower,  and  was  executed  January 
10,  1894,  his  last  words  being  "Vive  Tanarchie!" 
The  French  Government  had  previously  passed 
a  law  making  such  attempts  capital  offenses, 
even  though  no  one  was  killed.  A  week  after 
the  execution  of  Vaillant,  and  in  revenge  for  his 
execution,  a  man  named  Emile  Henry  exploded 
a  bomb  in  the  caf4  of  the  Hdtel  Terminus,  severe- 
Iv  wounding  many  guests.  Henry  was  executed 
May  21,  1894. 

There  were  outrages  at  Marseilles  and  other 
cities.  An  infernal  machine  was  sent  to  Count 
Caprivi,  the  imperial  German  Chancellor  and 
Foreign  Minister.  In  March,  1894,  a  bomb  ex- 
ploded before  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  at  Rome, 
but  did  no  great  harm.  On  June  16th  an  attempt 
was  made  on  the  life  of  Crispi.  For  this  Paul 
Fega  was  sentenced  to  twenty  years'  imprison- 
ment. President  Carnot  of  France  was  assassi- 
nated June  24th  by  an  Italian  Anarchist,  Santo 
Caserio.  He  died  the  following  day.  The  latter 
was  guillotined  August  15th.  A  plot  against  the 
French  Premier  Dupuy  was  frustrated.  Active 
measures  were  taken  against  the  anarchists,  par- 
ticularly in  Italy,  where  some  2000  suspects 
were  arrested  during  the  summer.  The  year 
1895  was  comparatively  quiet.  In  1890  eleven 
were  killed  and  forty  wounded  by  an  explosion  at 
Barcelona.  For  this,  which  was  the  result  of  a 
conspiracy,  five  men  were  shot,  thirteen  im- 
prisoned for  over  ten  years,  and  seven  for  less 
than  ten  years.  The  premier  of  Spain,  Sefior 
Cftnovas  del  Castillo,  was  assassinated  August  8, 
1897,  by  an  Italian,  Michele  Angiolillo,  who  was 
exficuted  eleven  days  after  the  crime.  On  Sep- 
•  tember  10,  1898,  the  Empress  of  Austria  was  as- 
sassinated in  Switzerland  by  an  Italian,  Luc- 
cheni,  who  had  come  thither  intending  to  kill 
the  Duke  of  York,  but,  not  finding  him;  vented 
his  fury  upon  the  Empress.  Luocheni  was  im- 
mediately apprehended  and  sentenced  to  solitary 
confinement  for  life.  The  death  of  the  Empress 
caused  the  summoning  of  an  anti-anarchist  con- 
ference, attended  by  representatives  of  the  vari- 
ous Governments.     The  sessions  were   held  at 


Rome,  November  24th  to  December  21st.  The  re- 
sults were  not  made  public.  King  Humbert  of 
Italy  was  assassinated  July  29,  1900,  by  a  coun- 
tryman, Angelo  Bresci.  Bresci  had  been  living  in 
America,  and  went  to  Italy  intending  to  assassi- 
nate the  King.  The  murderer  was  sentenced  to 
life  imprisonment. 

BiBLiooBAPHY.  E.  V.  Zenker,  Anarchism,  A 
Criticism  and  History  of  the  Anarchist  Theory 
(New  York,  1897) ;  B.  R.  Tucker,  Instead  of  a 
Book  (New  York,  1893)  ;  Yarros,  Anarchism: 
Its  Aims  and  Methods  (Boston,  1887);  Adler, 
"Anarchism,"  in  Conrad's  Handworterhuch  der 
Staatswissenschaften  (Jena,  1901);  Stammler, 
Die  Theorie  des  Anarchismus  (Berlin,  1894)  ; 
Shaw,  The  Impossibilities  of  Anarchism  (Fabian 
tract  No.  45,  London,  1895).  Consult  also  Nett- 
lau,  Bihliographie  de  V Anarchic  (Paris,  1897). 
See  Communism;  Sociausm. 

AN'ASTA^SIA  (?-597).  A  Greek  saint. 
Her  beautv  attracted  the  Emperor  Justinian, 
and  in  order  to  escape  his  dishonorable  atten- 
tions she  retired  to  Alexandria,  where  she  lived 
twenty-eight  years,  disguised  as  a  monk.  The 
date  of  her  commemoration  is  March  10th. 

AHAS^ASIAy  Saikt.  A  Christian  martyr, 
slain  during  the  reign  of  Nero  (54-68  a.d.). 
She  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul.  The  date  of  her  commemoration 
is  April  15th. 

ANASTASIA  THE  YOUNGKEB.  A  noble 
Roman  woman  who  suffered  martyrdom  during 
the  Diocletian  persecution  (303  a.d.)  ;  the  wife 
of  Publius,  a  pagan,  who  informed  against  her 
as  a  Christian.  Two  letters  written  by  her  in 
prison  are  preserved  in  Suidas.  The  Greeks 
commemorate  her  as  a  saint  on  December  22d; 
the  Latins,  on  December  25th. 

AK'ASTA^SnrS  I.  (c.  438-518).  Emperor  of 
the  East.  He  was  proclaimed  emperor  at  Con- 
stantinople on  the  death  of  Zeno,  in  491.  He 
was  a  native  of  Dyrrachium,  but  had  spent 
most  of  his  life  in  public  ofiice  at  Constanti- 
nople. He  was  about  fifty-three  years  old  at 
his  accession,  and  was  noted  for  his  ability, 
integrity,  and  justice.  "Reign  as  you  have 
lived"  was  the  cry  with  which  he  was  greeted 
on  his  first  public  appearance.  He  married  the 
widow  of  Zeno,  but  had  no  children.  His  reign 
was  troubled  by  local  revolts,  by  a  war  with 
Persia  in  503-505,  and  by  invasions  of  Huns, 
Slavs,  and  Bulgarians.  To  check  the  last.  Anas- 
tasius  built,  in  512,  the  wall  which  bears  his 
name,  35  miles  west  of  Constantinople.  Yet 
his  reiffn  was  a  very  prosperous  one.  He  was 
unpopmar  with  some,  because  he  was  suspected 
of  being  addicted  to  the  Monophysite  heresy 
(q.v.)  ;  with  others,  because  he  was  thought  to 
be  too  puritanical.  He  suppressed  gladiatorial 
combats  with  wild  beasts  and  licentious  dances. 
He  erected  fortresses  on  the  boundaries,  restored 
iniined  cities,  suppressed  some  of  the  most  obnox- 
ious taxes ;  yet  he  left  the  treasury,  which  he  had 
found  emptv,  filled  with  320,000  pounds  of  gold ; 
and  a  well-disciplined  army  of  150,000  men. 
He  preserved  the  Empire  intact,  having  governed 
it  wisely,  leniently,  and  justly. 

AN ASTASnrS  n.  ( died  719?).  Emperor  of 
the  East,  elected  to  the  throne  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Senate  and  people  in  713.  He  organized 
a  formidable  naval  force,  which  mutinied  at 
Rhodes  and  proclaimed  Theodosius,  a  low  person, 
emperor,    llieodosius    took   Constantinople    six 


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ANASTA8rQ& 


504 


ANATOLIA. 


months  later,  and  deposed  Anastasius  (716) ,  who 
escaped  to  Thessaloniea  and  became  a  monk. 
He  was  a  man  of  wisdom  and  experience,  who 
attempted  various  reforms,  and  thereby  excited 
the  wrath  of  many  who  saw  their  person  or 
property  endangered. 

ANASTASrO'&  The  name  of  four  Popes 
and  one  Anti-pope.  Anastasius  I.,  Pope  from 
398  to  about  402.  He  healed  an  unseemly  strife 
at  Rome  by  ordering  the  priests  as  well  as  the 
deacons  to  stand  bowed  while  the  Gospel  was 
read  in  the  Church  service.  He  was  vehemently 
opposed  to  the  doctrines  of  Origen,  one  of  whose 
works  {Peri  Archon,  i.e.,  Concerning  Principles) 
he  condemned  as  heretical.  He  is  praised  by 
Jerome,  who  calls  him  a  man  of  a  holy  life,  of  a 
"rich  poverty,"  and  of  an  apostolic  earnestness. 
He  died  December,  401,  or  April,  402.  His  letters 
and  decretals  are  in  Migne,  Patrol.  Lai.  xx.  An- 
astasius II.,  Pope  from  496  to  498.  He  was  born 
in  Rome;  consecrated  Pope  November  24,  496. 
He  endeavored  to  heal  the  breach  with  the  East- 
ern Church,  but  the  attempt  was  so  ill-judged 
that  Dante  puts  him  in  hell.  He  died  in  Novem- 
ber, 498.  Two  genuine  letters  of  his  are  extant, 
one  informing  Emperor  Anastasius  of  his  ac- 
cession, the  other  congratulating  Clovis  on  his 
conversion  to  Christianity.  Anastasius  III., 
Pope  from  911  to.  913.  He  was  born  in  Rome. 
Anastasius  IV.,  Pope  from  1153  to  1154.  He 
healed  two  important  ecclesiastical  quarrels  by 
recognizing  Wichmann  as  Archbishop  of  Magde- 
burg, and  William  as  Archbishop  of  York.  He 
died  in  Rome  December  3,  1154.  His  letters  are 
in  Migne,  Patrol.  Lat.  clxxxviii.  The  Anti-pope 
Anastasitts,  opposed  to  Benedict  III.  in  855,  but 
speedily  degraded. 

ANASTASnrS  THE  LIBBA^BIAN  (  Bibuo- 
thecabtus)  (T-886).  A  librarian  of  the  Vati- 
can, and  abbot  of  Sta.  Maria  Trans-Tiberim, 
Rome.  He  was  present  in  869  at  the  eighth 
Council  of  Constantinople,  whose  canons  he 
translated  into  Latin.  He  wrote  a  Historia 
Ecclesiaatica  (edited  by  Fabretti,  1649),  and 
the  Liber  Pontificalis,  biographies  of  the  Popes 
from  St.  Peter  to  Nicolas  I. 

ANAS'TOMO^IS  (Gk.&vaoTvfiuaic,  an  open- 
ing of  the  mouth,  from  av&,  ana,  again  -j-  arofia, 
stoma,  mouth).  An  anatomical  term  used  to 
express  the  union  of  the  vessels  which  carry 
blood  or  other  fluids,  and  also,  for  convenience' 
sake,  the  junction  of  nerves.    The  veins   and 


▲BTERIBS  ANABTOXOBIirG. 

lymphatics  anastomose  to  form  large  single 
trunks  as  they  approach  their  ultimate  destina- 
tions. The  arteries  break  up  into  small  branches, 
for  the  supply  of  the  tissues,  and  each  small 
vessel  again  communicates  with  others  given  off 
above  and  below.  At  each  large  joint  there  is  a 
very  free  anastomosis,  so  that  the  safety  of  the 
limb  beyond  may  not  be  entirely  dependent  on 


the  single  arterial  trunk  passing  into  it,  exposed 
as  it  is  to  all  the  obstructive  influences  of  the 
different  motions  of  the  limb.  After  the  main 
artery  has  been  permanently  obstructed,  the 
anastomosing  vessels  enlarge,  so  as  to  compen- 
sate for  the  loss;  but  after  a  time,  only  those 
whose  course  most  resembles  the  parent  trunk 
continue  enlarged,  and  the  others  gradually  re- 
gain their  ordinary  dimensions. 

AN^ATASE.     See  Octahedbite. 

ANATH^EMA  (6k.  avd^efia  or  ava^m 
anathema,  that  which  is  set  up,  offered,  or  dedi- 
cated, from  dvo,  ana,  up  -|-  ri^Hai,  titkenai,  to 
put,  set,  place).  A  word  originally  signifyinj^ 
some  offering  or  gift  to  Deity,  generally  suspend- 
ed in  the  Temple.  Thus,  we  read  in  Luke  xxi :  5 
that  the  Temple  was  adorned  "with  goodly  stones 
and  gifts"  (anathemasi) .  It  also  signifies  a 
sacrifice  to  God ;  and,  as  the  animals  devoted  to 
be  sacrificed  could  not  be  redeemed  from  death,  the 
word  was  ultimately  used  in  its  strongest  sense, 
implying  eternal  perdition,  as  in  Romans  ix  :  3, 
Galatians  i  :  8-9,  and  other  places.  In  the  Cath- 
olic Church  a  distinction  has  been  made  between 
excommunication  and  anathematizing;  the  latr 
ter  being  the  extreme  form  of  denunciation 
against  obstinate  offenders.  The  synod  of  Elvi- 
ra (306)  anathematized  those  who  placed  libel- 
ous writings  in  the  Church  and  those  who  read 
them;  the  Nicene  Council  (325),  the  Arians: 
and  so  later  councils  and  synods  those  who  seri- 
ously offended.  Thus  that  of  Paris  (846)  forbid* 
anathematization,  on  account  of  its  being  a  ''con- 
demnation to  eternal  death,"  to  bishops  without 
the  consent  of  their  archbishop  and  fellow  bish- 
ops. 

AN'ATHOTH.  A  town  in  Palestine,  two  and 
one-half  miles  northeast  of  Jerusalem,  and  one  of 
the  places  assigned  to  the  Levites  (Joshua  xxi;  L 
Chronicles  vi  :  60).  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Jeremiah  (Jeremiah  i  :  1 ) ,  as  well  as  the  home  of 
Abiathar,  the  high  priest  (I.  Kings  ii  :  26),  of 
Abrezer  (II.  Samuel  xxiii:27),  and  of  Jehu 
(I.  Chronicles  xii  :  3),  all  prominent  in  the  day» 
of  David.'  The  name  appears  to  be  the  plural 
of  Anat,  and  it  is  of  some  significance  to  note 
that  there  was  a  goddess  Anatum  in  Babylonia, 
the  consort  of  the  sky-god  Anu,  though  the  evi- 
dence is  not  sufficient  to  assume  a  connection 
between  the  supposed  worship  of  this  goddess 
in  Canaan  and  the  Babylonian  goddess.  It  was 
an  important  place,  being  reoccupied  after  the 
exile  ( Ezra  ii  :  23 ;  Nehemiah  vii  :  27 ) .  On  its 
site  stands  at  present  the  little  village  of  Anata. 
at  the  top  of  a  hill  commanding  a  view  of  the 
Dead  Sea.  Building  stones  for  Jerusalem  are 
still  supplied  from  a  quarry  at  Anata.  It  was 
at  Anathoth  Jeremiah  bought  a  field,  as  a  sym- 
bol of  the  assured  return  from  the  Babylonian 
captivity   (Jeremiah  xxxii  :  7). 

ANATHDM  (Lat.  anas,  dnek).  The  family 
of  ducks,  geese  and  swans  (qq.v.)     See  Ansebes. 

AN'ATCKLIA  (Gk.  'AvaroX^,  AnatoU,  a  risinu. 
east,  i.e.,  from  Constantinople;  from  &vd,  ana, 
up -f- rMA,€tv,  tellein,  to  make  to  arise,  to  rise). 
The  modern  name  for  Asia  Minor;  Turkish, 
Anadoli.  It  embraces  the  western  peninsula  of 
Asia,  bounded  by  the  Armenian  highlands  on  the 
east,  the  Mediterranean  on  the  south,  the  -Egean 
Sea  on  the  west,  and  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea 
of  Marmora  on  the  north.  Its  area  is  about 
195,000  square  miles  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  D  3). 


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ANATOMY. 


It  constitutes  the  western  prolongation  -of  the 
high  table-land  of  Armenia,  with  its  border 
mountain  ranges.  The  interior  consists  of  a 
great  plateau,  or  rather  series  of  plateaus,  hay- 
ing an  average  elevation  of  about  3000  feet,  with 
bare  steppes,  salt  plains,  marshes,  and  lakes ;  the 
structure  is  volcanic,  and  there  are  several  con- 
ical mountains,  one  of  which,  the  Argish  (or 
Ergish)  Dagh  (Argsus),  with  two  craters,  rises 
about  10,000  feet  above  the  plain  of  Kaisariyeh, 
which  has  itself  an  elevation  of  between  2000 
and  3000  feet.  The  plateau  is  bordered  on  the 
north  by  a  long  train  of  parallel  mountains,  which 
skirt  the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  extend  all 
the  way  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  which  are  cut 
up  into  groups  by  cross  valleys.  These  ranges  vary 
greatly  in  height,  the  greatest  elevation  in  the 
extreme  east  being  about  12,000  feet.  They  sink 
abruptly  down  on  the  north  side  to  a  narrow 
strip  of  coast;  their  slopes  toward  the  interior 
are  gentler  and  bare  of  wood.  Similar  is  the 
character  of  the  border  ranges  on  the'  south,  the 
ancient  Taurus,  only  that  they  are  more  uniform 
and  on  the  average  much  higher,  although  their 
loftiest  summits  do  not  rise  above  the  highest 
peak  of  the  northern  mountains.  The  western 
border  is  intersected  by  numerous  valleys,  open- 
ing upon  the  Archipelago,  through  the  highlands 
of  the  ancient  Caria,  Lydia,  and  Mysia,  to  the 
northern  part  of  which  mounts  Ida  and  Olympus 
belong.  Between  the  highlands  and  the  sea  lie 
the  fertile  coast  lands  of  the  Levant.  The  west- 
ern coast  of  Anatolia  is  remarkably  indented  and 
fringed  with  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago. 
The  rivers  of  Anatolia  are  not  navigable;  the 
largest  are  the  Yeshil-Irmak  (Iris),  the  Kizil- 
Irmak  (Halys),  and  the  Sakariah  (San^arius), 
flowing  into  the  Black  Sea ;  and  the  Ghediz-Tchai 
(Hermus),  and  Menderes  (Mseander),  into  the 
JEgean.  The  largest  of  the  salt  lakes  are  Tuz- 
Tcholla,  Bei-Shehr,  and  Egerdir. 

The  climate  bears  on  the  whole  a  south  Euro- 
pean character;  but  a  distinction  must  be  made 
of  four  regions.  The  central  plateau,  nearly 
destitute  of  wood  and  water,  has  a  hot  climate 
in  summer  and  a  cold  one  in  winter ;  the  southern 
coast  has  mild  winters  and  scorching  summers; 
while  on  the  coast  of  the  iEgean  there  is  the 
mildest  of  climates  and  a  magnificent  vegeta- 
tion. On  the  northern  side  the  climate  is  not 
so  mild  as  on  the  western;  yet  the  vegetation  is 
most  luxuriant,  and  a  more  delightful  or  richer 
tract  than  the  coast  from  the  Sea  of  Marmora 
to  Trebizond  is  hardly  to  be  found.  The  whole 
peninsula  is  subject  to  earthquakes. 

In  its  flora  and  fauna,  Anatolia  forms  the 
transition  from  the  continental  character  of  the 
East  to  the  maritime  character  of  the  West.  The 
forest  trees  and  cultivated  plants  of  Europe  are 
seen  mingled  with  the  forms  peculiar  to  the  East. 
The  central  plateau,  which  is  barren,  except 
when  assisted  by  irrigation,  has  the  character  of 
an  Asiatic  steppe,  more  adapted  for  the  flocks 
and  herds  of  nomadic  tribes  than  for  agricul- 
ture; the  southern  and  western  coasts,  on  the 
contrary,  are  characterized  by  a  luxurious  veg- 
etation, which  includes  the  southern  fruits  of 
Europe  with  a  slight  admixture  of  the  tropical 
plants  of  Africa. 

The  minerals  of  Anatolia  are  of  considerable 
variety,  including  coal,  lead,  manganese,  copper, 
meerschaum,  and  a  few  others.  Salt  and  petro- 
leum also  exist,  but  are  not  exported  to  any 
extent.    The  agricultural  products  include  the 


common  grains,  fruits  in  great  variety  and 
abundance,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  poppy-seed. 
Much  silk  is  produced.  Among  the  exports  are 
prunes,  figs,  olives,  poultry,  eggs,  skins,  cattle, 
carpets,  silk,  gums,  wax,  and  minerals.  Trans- 
portation facilities  are  still  inadequate,  and  the 
railroads  have  a  total  length  of  about  1300  miles. 

The  population  of  Anatolia,  according  to 
recent  estimates,  is  over  9,000,000,  composed  of 
a  number  of  different  races.  The  Turks  are 
found  all  over  the  country,  in  which  they  occupy 
the  foremost  position,  both  in  commercial  and  in 
political  life.  The  Turkomans,  who  are  akin  to- 
the  Turks,  are  mostly  nomadic.  The  Greeks  and 
Armenians  constitute  a  considerable  fraction  of 
the  population,  and  commerce  is  to  a  great  extent 
in  their  hands.  Among  other  elements  in  the 
population  are  Kurds,  Yuruks,  Lazes,  Jews, 
Circassians,  and  Bulgarians.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  four-fifths  of  the  inhabitants  are  agri- 
culturists or  herdsmen.  Among  the  cities  of 
Anatolia  are  Smyrna,  Scutari,  Brussa,  Kaisar- 
iyeh,  Adana,  Konieh,  Sivas,  Manissa  (Magne- 
sia), Aidin,  Trebizond,  Amasia,  Tokat,  Angora, 
Adalia,  Ismid,  and  Kutaieh. 

This  region  was  an  early  seat  of  civilization. 
The  country  has  passed  under  the  supremacy  of 
one  race  a(ter  another,  and  it  has  been  the  scene 
of  numerous  wars,  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern 
times.  The  west  coast  was  early  lined  with 
opulent  Greek  cities,  the  seats  of  poetry,  learn- 
ing, and  the  arts,  and  great  centres  of  coloniza- 
tion. In  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century  B.C. 
the  kingdom  of  Lydia,  under  Croesus,  attained 
the  height  of  its  splendor.  Croesus  was  con- 
quered by  the  Persians,  who  extended  their  sway 
over  the  whole  peninsula.  The  rule  of  Macedon 
succeeded  that  of  Persia.  After  the  disrup- 
tion of  Alexander's  empire  the  Seleucidoe  kings 
of  Syria  were  dominant  in  Asia  Minor.  By  the 
side  of  the  Seleucid  realm,  various  states  arose 
in  the  peninsula,  Pergamun,  Bithynia,  Cappa- 
docia,  and  Pontus.  The  Romans  first  carried 
their  arms  into  Asia  Minor  at  the  beginning  of 
the  second  century  B.C.,  when  they  vanguished 
Antiochus  the  Great  of  Syria.  In  the  following 
century  Pontus  was  a  mighty  realm  under  Mith- 
ridates  the  Great,  who  succumbed  to  the  arms 
of  Pompey.  After  395  a.d.  Asia  Minor  formed 
part  of  the  Greek,  or  Byzantine,  Empire.  Under 
the  Byzantines,  it  received  the  name  of  Anatolia. 
In  the  eleventh  century  the  Seljuks  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  region,  where  they  estab- 
lished the  sultanate  of  Rum.  The  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century  witnessed  the  beginnings  of 
the  power  of  the  Ottoman  Turks,  who  in  the 
course  of  the  following  century  established  their 
sway  over  Asia  Minor,  which  now  became  a 
great  base  whence  Mohammedan  conquests  were 
carried  on  in  Europe.  Since  1453  the  Ottoman 
Turks  have  ruled  Anatolia  from  Constantinople. 
The  ancient  divisions  of  this  region  were  Pontus, 
Paphlagonia,  Bithynia,  Galatia,  Lycaonia, 
Phrygia,  Cilicia,  Caria,  Pisidia,  Pamphylia,  Cap- 
padocia,  Mysia,  and  Lydia. 

Consult:  Percy,  The  Highlands  of  Asiatic  Tur- 
key (London,  1901)  ;  Oberhummer  and  Zinimer- 
er,  Durch  Syrien  und  Kleinasien  (Leipzig,  1898)  ; 
K.  Kaunenberg.  Kleitiasiens  Naturschatze  (Ber- 
lin, 1897)  ;  J.  Bryce,  Trans-Oaucasia  and  Ararat 
(London,  1896)  ;  H.  C.  Barkley,  A  Ride  Through 
Asia  Minor  and  Armenia   (London,  1891). 

ANAT^OMY.  The  science  that  treats  of  the 
structure  of  organic  forms;  so  called  from  dis- 


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section  ( Gk.  avd,  ana^  apart  +  riftveiv,  temnein, 
to  cut),  formerly  the  sole  method  of  investiga- 
tion. It  is  distinguished  as  Human,  Animal,  or 
Plant  Anatomy,  according  to  the  organisms  under 
consideration;  as  Normal  or  Pathological  Anato- 
my according  as  these  are  in  health  or  diseased ; 
as  Macroscopic  or  Gross  Anatomy  when  it  deals 
with  structure  visible  to  the  naked  eye;  and  as 
Microscopic  or  Minute  Anatomy  when  the  micro- 
scope is  used  as  a  means  of  research.  This  last 
division  is  often  more  aptly  called  Qeneral  Anat- 
omy because  of  its  generalization,  or  histology, 
in  view  of  the  delicate  webs  of  structure  or 
tissues  {laro^t  ki^toa,  web)  it  investigates.  Com- 
parative Anatomy  involves  a  comparison  of  the 
different  forms  of  animals  and  plants,  and  Devel- 
opmental Anatomy  or  Embryology  an  account  of 
the  different  forms  assumed  by  a  single  indi- 
vidual during  its  growth. 

Other  designations  applied  to  anatomy  have 
reference  to  its  application.  Dissection  and  the 
preparation  of  anatomical  specimens  is  often 
called  Practical  Anatomy;  the  asran^ement  of 
the  facts  of  structure  according  to  their  bearing 
upon  the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  disorders 
is  Applied  Anatomy,  which  may  be  divided  into 
Surgical  Anatomy,  that  deals  with  structure 
accessible  for  surgical  operations,  and  Medical 
Anatomy,  that  relates  to  structure  which  can  be 
reached  only  indirectly.  Physiological  Anatomy 
fives  the  facts  of  structure  that  explain  the 
function  of  organs;  Artistic  or  Plastic  Anatomy 
gives  such  facts  as  may  be  useful  to  the  artist 
or  the  sculptor ;  Plastic  Anatomy  is  a  term  some- 
times used  to  designate  the  teaching  of  the 
science  by  means  of  artificial  models  composed 
of  separable  parts.  The  consideration  of  the 
deeper  relations  and  causes  of  structure  is  called 
Philosophical  Anatomy,  or  Morphology,  and  a 
purely  speculative  or  theoretical  disquisition  of 
this  kind  is  termed  Transcendental  Auatomy. 

Anatomy  may  be  treated  in  two  different 
ways:  as  Descriptive  or  Systematic  Anatomy, 
that  arranges  the  facts  of  the  science  with  refei- 
ence  to  the  structural  affinities  of  organs  form- 
ing the  systems  of  the  body,  or  as  Topographical 
or  Regional  Anatomy,  that  considers  the  organs 
merely  with  reference  to  their  exact  situation 
and  relations  to  each  other.  Descriptive  Anat- 
omy is  usually  subdivided  into  Osteology,  that 
treats  of  the  osseous  system ;  Syndesmology,  that 
treats  of  the  ligaments ;  or  Arthrology,  that  con- 
siders the  ligaments  and  joints;  Myology,  that 
treats  of  the  muscles;  Neurology,  of  the  nerves; 
Angeiology,  of  the  vessels ;  Splanchnology,  of  the 
viscera. 

HISTORY. 

The  knowledge  of  anatomy  possessed  by  the 
ancients  was  slight.  The  importance  of  exact 
information  not  being  generally  recognized,  and 
ttie  dead  body  being  held  especially  sacred,  exam- 
ination of  the  cadaver  was  rare,  and  attended 
with  great  difficulties.  It  is  among  the  Greeks 
that  the  first  traces  of  the  science  are  found. 
Hippocrates  (460-360  B.C.)  and  his  school 
appear  to  have  had  some  knowledge  of  the  skel- 
eton and  of  the  larger  viscera;  Aristotle  (384-323 
B.C.)  examined  a  large  number  of  animals, 
and  had  some  remarkably  just  ideas  as  to  their 
genetic  relationships:  Herophilus  (c.  300  B.C.) 
and  Erasistratus  of  Alexandria  investigated  the 
vessels  and  the  elandular  organs.  At  the  Alex- 
andrian School,  dissection  was  first  publicly  prac- 
ticed, and  there  a  considerable  advance  was  made 


in  the  knowledge  of  the  human  body.  Only  frag- 
ments of  the  writings  of  this  time  have  come 
down  to  us.  Herophilus  described  the  sinuses 
of  the  dura  mater,  the  retina,  the  lacteals,  and 
the  lymphatics,  and  admitted  that  the  arteries 
contained  blood,  his  predecessors  having  held 
that,  like  the  air-tubes  of  the  lungs,  they  nor- 
mally carried  air  during  life.  Erasistratus  con- 
sidered the  brain  as  an  organ  for  the  transfornu- 
tion  of  the  "vital  spirits"  received  from  the  air 
into  "animal  spirits,"  and  distinguished  be- 
tween nerves  of  motion  and  those  of  sensation. 

The  prejudice  against  dissection  appears  to 
have  finally  overcome  the  progress  achieved  by 
the  Alexandrian  School,  and  the  belief  became 
current  that  the  healing  art  depended  upon 
metaphysical  conditions  impossible  to  elucidate 
by  an  examination  of  structure.  The  next  con- 
siderable advance  was  made  by  Claudius  Galen 
(q.v.)  of  Pergamus  (131-201  A.D.),  who  com- 
piled much  from  his  predecessors,  and  was  tiie 
author  of  the  first  systematic  treatise  that  has 
come  down  to  us.  He  appears  to  have  examined 
apes  rather  than  man,  but  correctly  described 
most  of  the  Iwnes,  joints,  muscles,  cranial  and 
spinal  nerves,  and  many  features  about  the  brain 
and  its  membranes.  He  performed  a  great  ser- 
vice for  anatomy  by  clearly  and  exactly  describ- 
ing what  he  had  actually  inspected  and  by  re- 
cording his  observations  in  a  methodical  manner. 
These  very  merits,  however,  caused  the  almost 
universal  acceptance  of  his  erroneous  physio- 
logical speculations,  which  gave  rise  to  false 
ideas  of  the  structure  of  the  circulatory  appara- 
tus that  prevailed  until  the  middle  of  the  seven- 
teenth century.  He  taught  that  after  digestion, 
food  is  carried  to  the  liver  by  the  portal  vein, 
and  there  converted  into  crude  blood  having 
nutritive  properties  due  to  "natural  spirits-," 
that  from  the  liver  it  passes  to  the  right  side 
of  the  heart,  where  a  portion  enters  the  venous 
system,  in  which  it  ebbs  and  fiows,  affording 
nutrition  to  the  body,  another  portion  passing 
through  invisible  pores  in  the  septum  of  the 
heart  to  its  left  side,  where  it  becomes  mixed 
with  air  drawn  in  from  the  lungs  bv  the  pul- 
monary veins,  and  thus  receives  the  vital  spir- 
its," and  is  freed  from  impurities  (fuliginons 
vapors)  by  the  "innate  heat"  of  the  heart;  thus 
vitalized  and  clarified,  it  passes  into  the  arterial 
system,  in  which  it  also  has  an  oscillatory  mo- 
tion, endowing  the  body  with  the  higher  func- 
tions of  life,  while  in  the  brain  it  is  further 
elaborated  to  "animal  spirits"  that  are  con- 
veyed throughout  the  body  by  the  tubular 
nerves  to  impart  movement. 

The  irruption  of  the  northern  barbarians 
arrested  all  attempts  at  scientific  research,  and 
it  was  not  until  after  the  renaissance  of  letters 
and  science  at  the  hands  of  the  Arabs,  who  resus- 
citated the  learning  of  the  ancient  Greeks,  that 
further  advances  were  made.  At  Salerno  and 
Montpellier  active  medical  schools  were  estab- 
lished, and  some  attempt  was  made  to  revive  the 
study  of  anatomy.  Frederick  II.,  Emperor  of 
Germany  (1216-60),  is  said  to  have  forbidden 
anyone  to  practice  surgery  without  a  competent 
knowledge  of  anatomy,  and  to  have  provided 
that  every  five  years  there  should  be  held  at 
Salerno  a  public  dissection,  to  which  physicians 
and  surgeons  from  all  parts  of  the  Empire  were 
invited.  At  Montpellier  the  cadavers  of  crimi- 
nals were  regularly  dissected.  The  Senate  of 
Venice  decreed  in  1308  that  a  human  body  should 


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be  dissected  annually.  Doubtless  autopsies  were 
occasionally  held  to  determine  deaths  by  poison- 
ing, which  were  not  infrequent  at  this  period. 
At  the  University  of  Bologna,  Mundinus  dissect- 
ed several  bodies  publicly,  and  published,  in 
1315,  an  imperfect  little  handbook  based  upon 
Galen  and  Arabian  authors.  At  Prague  dissec- 
tion was  practiced  from  the  very  foundation  of 
the  University  (1348),  at  Vienna  as  early  as 
1404,  at  Tiibingen  from  1482,  and  at  London 
from  1540.  At  Padua  (1490)  Benedetti  erected 
an  anatomical  amphitheatre,  and  made  public  de- 
monstrations. Somewhat  later  Berengarius  of 
Carpi  is  said  to  have  dissected  more  than  a 
himdred  cadavers.  Vidius,  from  whom  the  Vi- 
dian nerve  and  Vidian  canal  are  named,  pro- 
fessor at  Pisa,  Guintherius  of  Andernach  (1487- 
1574),  professor  at  Louvain,  and  Jacobus  Syl- 
vius (1478-1555),  professor  at  Paris,  as  well 
as  many  others,  dissected  from  time  to  time. 
There  was,  however,  nothing  like  a  careful  and 
systematic  examination  of  the  structure  of  the 
body.  -It  was  considered  sufficient  to  open  the 
great  cavities  and  display  the  viscera,  which 
were  examined  in  the  most  superficial  manner. 
Great  reliance  was  placed  upon  Galen  and  Hip- 
pocrates, supplemented  by  their  Arabian  com- 
mentators, and  their  authority  was  rarely  ques- 
tioned. 

Andreas  Vesalius  (1614-1564)  (q.v.)  of 
Brussels  was  the  first  to  proclaim  openly  the 
new  doctrine,  that  the  structure  of  man  should 
be  learned  by  a  thorough  inspection  of  the  hu- 
man body  rather  than  by  reference  to  ancient 
authorities.  He  dissected  frequently  in  public 
at  Padua,  Pisa,  and  Verona,  and  published,  in 
1543,  his  great  work,  De  Humani  Corporis  Fah- 
rica,  the  first  careful  and  complete  description 
of  the  body  of  man  based  upon  actual  observa- 
tion. This  work  was  illustrated  by  excellent 
plates  made  by  Stephen  von  Calcar,  a  pupil  of 
Titian.  Many  of  Galen's  errors  were  corrected, 
and  the  student  was  urged  again  and  again  to 
verify  each  statement  by  reference  to  the  only 
prime  authority,  the  body  of  man  itself. 

A  storm  of  opposition  was  at  once  raised. 
Sylvius,  a  pronounced  Galenist,  declared  Vesa- 
lius to  be  an  impious  madman,  whose  breath 
poisoned  Europe,  and  he  strove  in  every  way  to 
discredit  his  work.  Others,  more  rational  in 
their  opposition,  pointed  out  errors  in  Vesalius's 
own  book.  The  ardent  young  Fleming,  impa- 
tient and  chagrined  at  this,  resigned  his  chair 
at  Padua,  and  retired  to  the  court  of  Philip  II., 
at  Madrid,  where  he  tried  to  continue  his  stud- 
ies. His  enemies  did  not  scruple  to  attempt 
to  rouse  the  Inquisition  against  him.  Philip 
interrogated  the  faculty  of  the  University  of  Sal- 
amanca, then  the  leading  theological  school  in 
Europe,  as  to  whether  dissection  was  permis- 
sible. After  due  deliberation  a  reply  was  given, 
that  since  a  knowledge  of  anatomy  is  useful  to 
man,  dissection  may  be  allowed   (1556). 

The  atmosphere  of  the  Spanish  court  was  far 
from  congenial  to  scientific  pursuits.  Vesalius 
<M)ntemplated  a  return  to  Italy ;  but  coming  back 
from  Palestine,  whither  he  had  gone,  as  is  sup- 
posed, in  fulfillment  of  some  vow,  he  was  ship- 
^Tecked,  and  died  on  the  island  of  Zante.  He 
was  the  founder  of  modern  anatomy  in  the  sense 
that  he  broke  with  tradition  and  substituted 
actual  investigation  for  reliance  on  authority. 

The  contemporaries  and  successors  of  Vesa- 
lius aided  much  in  placing  Gross  Anatomy  upon 


secure  and  lasting  foundations.  The  most  illus- 
trious amoiig  these  were  Eustachius  (c.  1520- 
74)  (q.v.),  Fallopius  (c.  1623-62)  (q.v.),  and 
Fabricius  (1537-1619,  qq.v.). 

Eustachius  made  many  corrections  of  the  work 
of  Vesalius,  and  was  besides  an  original  investi- 
gator of  great  force.  From  plates  prepared  by 
him  (but  not  published  until  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury), it  appears  that  he  anticipated  many  dis- 
coveries ordinarily  ascribed  to  anatomists  of  a 
later  period;  but  the  Eustachian  tube,  which  he 
accurately  described,  is  said  to  have  been  pre- 
viously discovered  by  Alcmseon  about  600  B.C. 

Fallopius  named  the  Fallopian  tubes  (previ- 
ously discovered  by  Herophilus )  and  the  seminal 
ducts,  and  gave  a  good  description  of  the  organ 
of  hearing,  discovering  in  the  temporal  Iwne 
the  aqueduct  and  hiatus  that  commonly  bear 
his  name. 

Fabriciu^  of  Aquapendente  erected  at  Padua 
an  anatomical  ai;Dphitheatre.  He  studied  the 
development  of  the  foetus  and  of  the  embryo 
chick,  described  the  muscular  coat  of  the  alimen- 
tary canal  and  of  the  bladder,  and  especially  the 
valves  of  the  veins  first  discovered  by  Stephanus 
of  Paris  in  1545  and  in  some  situations  figured 
by  Vesalius  in  the  second  edition  of  his  work. 
Fabricius  supposed  that  they  were  for  the  pur- 
pose of  retarding  the  oscillatory  fiow  of  the 
venous  blood. 

It  fell  to  a  pupil  of  Fabricius,  William  Har- 
vey, to  explain  them  more  satisfactorily,  and  to 
free  anatomy  from  some  of  the  false  notions 
that  survived  from  the  Galenical  teaching.  From 
about  1615  to  1628  Harvey  demonstrated  by 
public  lectures  and  by  published  experiments 
the  true  circulation  of  the  blood.  The  lesser  or 
pulmonary  circulation,  and  was  the  first  to  use 
Servetus  in  1553  in  an  obscure  pamphlet,  and 
by  Realdus  Columbus  in  1559,  but  was  not  gen- 
erally accepted.  Ciesalpinus,  in  some  controver- 
sial works  published  in  1571  and  1593,  suggested 
the  probability  of  a  systemic  as  well  as  of  a 
pulmonary  circulation,  and  was  the  first  to  use 
the  term  circulatio  in  this  connection.  Yet  the 
Galenical  theory  of  the  oscillatory  movement  of 
the  two  kinds  of  blood  and  the  necessary  sup- 
position of  orifices  in  the  septum  between  the 
cavities  of  the  heart  were  still  taught.  Vesa- 
lius, it  is  true,  had  said  that  he  comd  not  find 
the  orifices,  and  somewhat  satirically  wondered 
at  the  wisdom  of  the  Almighty,  who  had  made 
them  so  small  that  they  could  not  be  seen.  Har- 
vey, to  use  his  own  words,  "taught  anatomy,  not 
from  books,  but  from  dissections;  not  from  the 
suppositions  of  philosophers,  but  from  the  fabric 
of  Nature,"  and  in  a  series  of  most  carefully 
conducted  investigations  and  vivisections  suc- 
ceeded in  showing  that  the  blood  makes  a  com- 
plete circuit  of  the  body  as  well  as  of  the  lungs. 
Harvey's  work  led  to  a  more  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels.  Stephen 
Blancaard,  in  1676,  first  effectively  demonstrated 
the  finer  vessels  by  injection,  a  method  used 
by  Frederick  Ruysch  (1638-1731)  to  show  their 
presence  in  great  numbers  in  almost  every  part 
of  the  body.  The  lymphatics,  casually  seen  by 
several  ancient  observers,  were  first  carefully 
studied  by  Gaspare  Aselli  in  1622.  The  tho- 
racic duct,  discovered  first  by  Eustachius  in  the 
horse,  was  seen  in  the  dog  by  Pecquet  (1622-74) 
and  traced  through  the  diaphragm  to  the  recep- 
taculum  chyli.  It  was  first  observed  in  man  by 
Jan  van  Home  (1*62 1-70),  professor  at  Leyden., 


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Still  under  the  hallucination  caused  by  the 
Galenical  theories,  anatomists  thought  that  both 
lacteals  and  thoracic  duct  could  be  traced  to  the 
liver.  Rudbeck  discovered  the  general  lym- 
phatics in  1651. 

A  clearer  idea  of  the  gross  anatomy  of  the 
brain,  especially  of  its  internal  cavities,  was  due 
to  the  descriptions  of  Francis  Boe,  usually 
known  as  Franciscus  Sylvius  (1614-72),  pro- 
fessor at  Leyden,  whose  name  survives  in  the 
aqueduct,  fissure,  fossa,  and  artery  of  Sylvius. 
The  science  of  chemistry  was  at  this  time  grad- 
ually emerging  from  the  superstitions  of  al- 
chemy, and  Sylvius  is  also  famous  for  being 
among  the  first  to  attempt  to  differentiate  the 
structures  and  fluids  of  the  body  by  means  of 
their  chemical  reactions.  Vieussens  (1641-1715) 
of  Montpellier  also  increased  the  knowledge  of 
the  nervous  system,  both  central  and  peripheral, 
describing  the  anterior  pyramids,  th^  olive,  and 
the  anterior  medullary  velum  which  sometimes 
bears  his  name.  To  Thomas  Willis  (1622-75) 
(q.v.)  of  London,  sometime  professor  at  Oxford, 
is  due  a  systematic  description  of  the  brain  and 
its  cavities,  together  with  a  classification  of  the 
cranial  nerves  in  which  he  finally  separated 
the  sympathetic  cord  from  that  series.  He  rec- 
ognized that  the  brain  becomes  gradually  more 
complicated  as  we  ascend  the  animal  scale,  and 
that  it  is  more  easily  understood  by  a  study  of 
the  lower  and  more  simple  forms.  The  decussa- 
tion of  the  pyramids  was  first  described  by 
Duverney  (1648-70),  demonstrator  at  the  Jar- 
din  du  Roi,  afterward  the  Jardin  des  Plantes, 
at  Paris.  The  doctrine  of  the  "animal  spirits," 
supposed  to  fill  the  ventricles  of  the  brain  and 
to  be  distributed  by  the  nerves,  was  first  seri- 
ously attacked  by  Wepffer    (1658). 

The  advance  of  the  physical  sciences  insti- 
tuted by  Galileo  (1564-1642)  had  a  profound 
effect  upon  anatomy.  The  new  developments 
in  optics  were  now  called  on  to  contribute 
to  the  problems  of  structure.  The  optical  prop- 
erties of  the  crystalline  lens  were  now  described 
by  Kepler  (1571-1630)  (q.v.),  the  eminent  as- 
tronomer, who  denied  that  it  is  the  seat  of 
vision  as  supposed  by  Hippocrates;  the  image 
on  the  retina  was  demonstrated  by  Scheiner 
(1575-1650);  Descartes  (1596-1650)  showed 
the  eye  to  be  a  camera  obscura,  and  suggested 
that  accommodation  is  produced  by  a  change  in 
the  convexity  of  the  lens.  He  also  made  some 
very  acute  observations  on  the  structure  and 
functions  of  the  nervous  system,  marred,  however, 
by  metaphysical  speculations  that  were  attacked 
by  Stensen,  who  declared  that  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  functions  of  organs  we  must  first  ascer- 
tain their  structure. 

A  new  instrument  of  research  which  the  Ital- 
ians, impelled  by  tlie  zeal  imparted  by  Galileo, 
were  the  first  to  apply  to  scientific  uses,  was  now 
introduced.  This  was  the  microscope,  hitherto 
merely  an  optical  curiosity.  The  magnifying 
power  of  convex  lenses  was  known  to  the  an- 
cients, for  even  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  a  pol- 
ished rock  crystal  lens  has  been  found,  and 
there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  similar 
instruments  were  used  in  ancient  Egypt  and  in 
Greece.  Spectacles  were  used  in  Europe  as  early 
as  the  thirteenth  century,  and  the  compound  mi- 
croscope was  invented  about  1590  by  Hans  and 
Zacharias  Janssen  of  Middelburg,  Holland.  No 
means  for  correcting  chromatic  and  spherical 
aberration  being  then  known,  the  first  instru- 


ments were  clumsy  and  imperfect;  consequently, 
many  investigators  preferred  to  use  the  simple 
microscope,  especially  after  Leeuwenhoek  had 
shown  what  excellent  results  could  be  obtained 
with  small  but  accurate  lenses. 

Among  the  first  and  most  acute  observers  was 
Marcello  Malpighi  (1628-94),  professor  at  Bo- 
logna, Pisa,  and  Messina,  a  man  of  extraordinary 
acuteness  of  intellect,  combined  with  an  indom- 
itable zeal  for  natural  research.  He  left  his 
mark  in  almost  all  departments  of  biology.  He 
was  an  accomplished  botanist,  and  by  his  re- 
searches among  plants  laid  the  foundations  of 
the  modern  cell- theory;  he  was  an  entomologist, 
devoting  himself  to  an  exhaustive  study  of  the 
anatomy  and  development  of  the  silk- worm;  he 
was  an  embryologist,  being  the  first  to  build 
upon  the  incomplete  studies  of  Harvey  and  Fab- 
ricius  and  describe  adequately  the  changes  of 
the  chick  in  the  egg;  he  was  a  pathologist, 
studying  carefully  post-mortem  appearances 
and  the  causes  of  disease ;  he  was  also  a  compar- 
ative anatomist,  drawing  many  of  his  conclu- 
sions as  to  the  structure  of  man  from  an  exam- 
ination of  animals. 

Before  Malpighi's  time  but  little  was  knoini 
regarding  the  structure  of  glands.  Under  this 
designation  were  included  many  non-glandular 
organs,  like  the  tongue  and  the  brain,  the  latter 
being  supposed  to  secrete  not  only  the  animal 
spirits  but  the  nasal  mucus  or  pituita  which  was 
believed  to  pass  down  through  holes  in  the  crib- 
riform plate  of  the  ethnoid  bone.  Sylvius  had, 
it  is  true,  distinguished  as  conglomerate  glands 
aggregations  like  the  pancreas  and  the  salivary 
glands,  and  as  conglobate  glands  those  of 
the  lymphatic  system.  The  ducts  of  some  of 
the  larger  glands  were  unknown,  the  liver  was 
considered  a  great  blood-making  organ  that  re- 
ceived the  bile  elaborated  by  the  gall-bladder  for 
the  purpose  of  combining  it  with  the  blood,  and 
the  mechanism  of  secretion  was  wholly  misun- 
derstood. Wirsung  discovered  the  pancreatic 
duct  in  1642,  but  supposed  it  to  be  a  lymphatic 
leading  to  the  liver;  Wharton  described  the 
submaxillary  duct  in  1652;  Stensen  the  parotid 
duct  (previously  thought  to  be  a  tendon)  in 
1661;  Bartholin  the  sublingual  duct;  Bellini 
the  straight  tubules  of  the  kidney  in  1662; 
Peyer  the  closed  follicles  of  the  intestines  in 
1677,  and  Brunner  the  duodenal  glands  in  1682. 
Schneider  (1614-80),  professor  at  Wittenberg, 
finally  described  the  pituitary  membrane  of  the 
nasal  passages  and  settled  the  origin  of  the  nasal 
mucus.  It  was  Malpighi,  however,  who  fir<it 
united  these  scattered  observations  and* gave  a 
clear  idea  of  the  structure  of  acinous  glands. 
It  was  during  his  researches  on  this  subject 
that  he  discovered  the  acinous  structure  of  the 
lung,  and  demonstrated  that  there  are  no  visible 
orifices  by  which  air  can  pass  from  the  vesicles 
into  the  pulmonary  veins.  Here,  too,  he  first 
observed,  in  the  lung  of  the  frog,  the  capillary 
blood  vessels  "distributed  in  a  ring-like  fashion," 
thus  justifying  Harvey  and  forever  settling  the 
question  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.  He 
described  most  of  the  structure  of  the  kidney 
as  it  is  known  to  us  to-day,  and  in  the  spleen 
discovered  the  bodies  that  bear  his  name.  He 
saw  and  described  the  red  blood  corpuscles, 
unaware  that  they  had  been  previously  discov- 
ered by  Swammerdam,  a  Dutch  anatomist,  in 
1658.  Extending  his  researches  to  the  skin,  he 
discovered   the    rete   mucosum,    or   Malpighian 


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layer,  and  the  papillse,  which  he  surmised  were 
organs  of  touch.  He  elucidated  the  structure 
of  the  liver,  which  Glisson  (1697-1677),  pro- 
fessor at  Cambridge,  had  already  carefully  de- 
scribed, showing  that  it  is  an  acinous  gland  of 
peculiar  construction,  and,  by  tying  the  bile 
duct,  demonstrated  that  the  bile  is  formed  in 
the  liver  and  not  in  the  gall-bladder. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  increase  of  the  power 
of  vision  by  the  use  of  the  microscope,  the  phe- 
nomena of  fecundation  and  the  development  of 
the  embryo  beean  to  receive  attention.  Sper- 
matozoa were  discovered  in  1677  by  a  pupil  of 
Leeuwenhoek,  and  De  Graaf,  discovering  the  ovi- 
sacs (Graafian  follicles)  about  1672,  supposed 
them  at  first  to  be  ova.  Naboth,  too,  discovering 
the  closed  follicles  of  the  neck  of  the  uterus, 
supposed  them  to  be  ova  {Ovula  Nahoihi).  The 
ova  of  the  lower  'vertebrates  were,  of  course, 
well  known,  and  the  phenomena  of  their  devel- 
opment were  specially  investigated  by  Malpighi. 
Van  Home,  of  Leyden,  probably  saw  the  human 
ovum  in  1668,  but  it  was  not  unmistakably  rec- 
ognized until  Von  BRr  demonstrated  it  in  1827. 

During  the  course  of  this  investigation  two 
schools  arose — ^the  Animalculists  and  the  Ovists, 
that  respectively  maintained  the  superior  eflS- 
cacy  of  the  male  or  female  elements.  Attempts 
were  made  to  explain  the  transmission  of  heredi- 
tary qualities  from  parent  to  child.  Aristotle, 
having  studied  the  development  of  the  egg,  had 
declared  that  the  embryo  primitively  consisted 
of  simple,  undifferentiated  material,  from  which, 
by  successive  stages,  the  adult  was  formed  (the- 
ory of  post-formation  or  epigenesis).  Opposed 
to  this  was  another  contention,  that  either  the 
male  or  the  female  elements  must  possess  in 
miniature  all  the  organs  of  the  adult  (theory  of 
preformation ) . 

A  further  result  of  microscopic  research  was 
an  enlarged  view  as  to  the  distribution  of  living 
things.  The  discovery  by  Leeuwenhoek  (1632- 
1723)  that  organic  infusions  soon  become  replete 
with  living  forms  when  exposed  to  the  air,  led 
to  the  revival  of  the  ancient  notion  of  the  spon- 
taneous generation  of  living  from  non-living 
matter.  This  led  to  fanciful  theories  regarding 
fecundation  that  were  not  overthrown  until 
Spallanzani  (1729-99)  showed  that  living  forms 
do  not  develop  in  infusions  that  have  been  boiled 
and  then  excluded  from  the  air,  and  that  filtered 
seminal  fiuid  has  lost  the  power  of  impregnation. 
Following  up  the  researches  of  Hartsoeker(1656- 
1725)  he  also  demonstrated  that  ordinary  air 
teems  with  living  particles  that  enter  the  human 
body  and  pass  into  infusions.  This  doctrine 
was  termed  panspermatism,  and  developed  after- 
ward into  the  modem  "germ  theory,"  which  has 
had  a  profound  influence  upon  pathological  anat- 
omy. 

The  following  discoveries  of  this  period  may 
be  briefly  noted:  Ole  Worm  (1588-1654),  pro- 
fessor at  Copenhagen,  discovered  the  intercalary 
bones  of  the  skull;  Clopton  Havers  of  England, 
in  1602,  the  Haversian  canals  and  the  intimate 
structure  of  bone;  Hooke  (1635-1703),  the  prim- 
itive fibrillffi  of  muscle;  Kerkring  (1640-93),  the 
valvulse  conniventes  of  the  small  intestine;  Win- 
slow  (1669-1760),  of  Paris,  the  foramen  con- 
necting the  two  cavities  of  the  peritoneum; 
Douglas  (1675-1742),  of  London,  the  recto-uter- 
ine pouch  and  several  other  features  of  the  peri- 
toneum and  the  abdominal  wall. 

The  classification  of  animals  by  their  anatom- 


ical structure,  attempted  first  by  Aristotle,  was 
revived  by  several  authors  during  the  eighteenth 
century,  and  notably  by  Karl  von  Linng  (Lin- 
naeus) of  Rashult^  in  Sweden  (1707-78),  who 
considered  that  each  particular  species  was  im- 
mutably established  at  the  creation,  man  being 
placed  at  the  head  in  the  order  Primates. 
Buffon  (1707-88),  however,  supposed  that  varia- 
tions occur  from  changes  of  environment,  and 
even  hinted  that  all  species  may  have  origi- 
nated from  a  primitive  common  stock.  This  was 
afterward  more  boldly  advocated  by  Lamarck 
(1744-1829),  who  was  the  first  to  maintain  sys- 
tematically the  mutability  of  species,  and  to  look 
upon  man  as  derived  from  a  common  stock  with 
other  organisms,  conceiving  that  the  ancestral 
record  of  all  might  be  represented  as  a  branching 
tree.  To  this  was  opposed  the  authority  of  the 
great  comparative  anatomist  Cuvier  (1769-1832) 
who  caused  these  views  to  sink  into  obscurity 
for  a  time. 

The  controversy  concerning  the  early  develop- 
ment of  the  human  body  was  renewed  during 
this  period.  The  weight  of  authority  was  over- 
whelmingly in  favor  of  the  theory  of  preforma- 
tion, notwithstanding  the  absurdities  to  which 
it  committed  its  advocates.  Its  most  earnest 
supporter  was  Haller  (1708-77)  (q.v.),  professor 
at  G5ttingen,  a  man  of  remarkable  learning  and 
indefatigable  research,  who  did  much  to  further 
exactitude  in  anatomical  knowledge,  and  was  the 
leading  physiologist  of  his  time.  He  made  many 
anatomical  discoveries  in  all  parts  of  the  body, 
and  finally  overthrew  the  doctrine  of  "animal 
spirits,"  which  had  ruled  all  investigations  of 
the  nervous  system  since  the  days  of  Hippocra- 
tes. He  declared,  however,  that  the  body  of  our 
primitive  mother  Eve  must  have  contained  in 
miniature  all  individuals  of  the  human  race 
that  had  existed  since  her  time  and  that  were 
hereafter  to  exist!  This  was  the  less  excusable, 
as  Kaspar  Friedrich  Wolff,  a  young  medical  stu- 
dent, had  published  in  1769,  as  his  graduation 
thesis,  a  remarkable  essay,  the  Theoria  Genera- 
tionis,  in  which  he  showed  by  accurate  and  con* 
elusive  observations  that  the  organs  of  the  body 
are  developed  from  membranous  sheets^  ( the  blas- 
todermic membranes),  and  not  from  preformed 
rudiments.  He  even  anticipated  the  cell-theory 
of  the  next  century  by  stating  that  these  mem- 
branes are  themselves  composed  of  globules 
(cells).  Wolff  made  many  other  important  in- 
vestigations, and  his  name  has  been  perpetuated 
in  that  of  the  Wolffian  body  or  primordial  kid- 
ney. Such  was  the  opposition  with  which  his 
views  were  received  that  he  was  unable  to  obtain 
a  professorship  in  Germany  and  went  to  Russia. 
It  was  not  until  Meckel  called  attention  to  his 
work  in  1812  that  his  merits  were  fully  recog- 
nized. 

Aristotle,  Eustachius,  and  Fallopius  had  sur- 
mised that  the  organs  of  the  body  might  be 
composed  of  simpler  elements;  Boerhaave  (1668- 
1738)  supposed  that  everything  could  be  reduced 
to  vessels  and  fibres;  Haller  (1708-77)  classified 
structures  according  to  their  properties;  Bonn 
(1738-1818)  considered  that  membranes  are  the 
anatomical  basis  of  structure.  It  remained 
however,  for  Bichat  (1771-1802)  to  establish 
clearly  the  doctrine  that  the  body  with  all  its 
organs  is  made  up  of  a  small  number  of  simple 
tissues.  This  he  did  by  an  examination  of  their 
chemical,  physical,  and  vital  properties,  dispens- 
ing wholly  with  the  use  of  the  microscope,  then 


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a  very  imperfect  instrument.  He  applied  these 
views  to  the  elucidation  of  the  anatomy  of 
organs  affected  hy  disease,  a  subject  previously 
studied  by  Morgagni  (1682-1771)  and  by  John 
Hunter  (1728-93).  Bichat's  death,  at  the  early 
age  of  thirty-one,  caused  by  imprudent  exposure 
in  the  dissecting-room,  was  a  great  loss  to  ana- 
tomical science. 

The  science  of  chemistrv  had  now  advanced  to 
a  point  where  it  could'  throw  much  light  upon 
the  composition  of  the  animal  body.  Four  great 
organic  gases  had  been  discovered:  carbon  di- 
oxide (imperfectly  known  to  Van  Helmont  in 
(1640)  by  Black  in  1767,  hydrogen  by  Cavendish 
in  1766,  nitrogen  by  Rutherford  in  1772,  oxygen 
bv  Priestley  in  1774,  Lavoisier  (1743-94) 
showed  the  importance  of  all  these  gases  to  the 
animal  economy.  Fourcroy  (1756-1809)  was 
practically  the  first  to  investigate  the  composi- 
tion of  organic  products. 

The  investigation  of  the  human  body  by  so 
many  competent  and  careful  observers  gave  a 
new  scope  to  anatomical  teaching.  It  was  seen 
that  no  proper  knowledge  of  anatomy  or  surgery 
could  be  obtained  without  the  use  of  the  cadaver. 
At  first,  legal  enactments  and  social  ostracism 
were  direct^  against  those  who  practiced  dissec- 
tion ;  but  on  the  Continent  of  Europe  public  dis- 
sections were  frequently  held  from  the  time  of 
Vesalius,  and  as  men  of  commanding  intellect 
like  Malpighi,  Stensen,  Boerhaave,  Morgagni, 
Haller,  Bichat,  Hunter,  and  many  others  devoted 
themselves  to  the  pursuit  of  anatomy,  the  social 
stigma  was  gradually  removed.  On  the  Conti- 
nent, laws  were  early  enacted  by  which  the  bodies 
of  prisoners  and  paupers  were  turned  over  for 
anatomical  purposes.  Tn  Great  Britain,  how- 
ever, this  was  not  done,  and  bodies  were  quite 
commonly  obtained  by  robbing  graves.  When, 
in  1827,  the  University  of  Edinburgh  made 
dissection  compulsory,  and  this  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  other  large  schools  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  demand  for  cadavers  became  so 
great  that  it  was  practically  impossible  to  sup- 
ply it  without  breaking  the  law.  A  set  of  ruf- 
fians known  as  "resurrectionists"  became  estab- 
lished in  €veTj  large  city,  and  no  cemetery  was 
safe  from  their  depredations.  In  Edinburgh 
two  scoundrels  named  Burke  and  Hare  made  a 
business  of  enticing  poor  and  friendless  persons 
into  their  haunts,  smothering  them,  and  selling 
their  bodies  to  the  medical  schools  for  dissection. 
Similar  cases  were  those  of  Bishop  and  Williams 
in  London.  A  remedy  for  this  was  found  in  an 
anatomy  act  passed  in  1832,  which  legalized  dis- 
section, and  authorized  the  use  of  available 
material  under  certain  restrictions. 

Improvements  in  the  microscope  made  about 
1824  gave  a  new  impetus  to  research.  Earlier 
observers  (Hooke,  1605;  Grew  and  Malpighi, 
1671;  Wolff,  1769)  had  dimly  surmised  that 
organic  forms  were  composed  of  elementary 
units,  but  Schwann,  in  1839,  was  the  first  to 
demonstrate  this  for  animals  in  a  satisfactory 
manner.  Observations  by  Von  Mohl,  Purkinje, 
Leydig,  Kdlliker,  Virchow,  and  Max  Schultze 
soon  placed  this  fact  beyond  cavil,  and  thus  was 
established  the  celebrated  cell-theory,  which  de- 
clared all  organized  beings  to  be  composed  of 
essentially  similar  minute  units.  This  led  to 
great  improvements  in  microscopical  technique 
and  the  investigation  of  the  chemical  properties 
of  cells.  Stilling  invented  section  cutting  in 
1842;  Gerlach,  carmine  staining  in  1858;  Reck- 


linghausen, silver  staining  in  1860;  Waldeyer, 
double  staining  with  aniline  dyes  in  1863,  and 
Golgi,  bichromate  of  silver  staining  in  1873. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  cell-theory  came 
some  remarkable  generalizations,  which  have 
had  a  profound  effect  upon  anatomy.  Accord- 
iny  to  the  views  advanced  by  Herbert  Spencer, 
Milne-Edwards,  and  others,  the  human  body  is 
to  be  considered  as  a  cell-community,  in  which 
the  laws  of  division  of  labor  and  of  differentia- 
tion that  in  human  society  cause  specialization 
into  trades,  classes,  and  employments  are  ap- 
plied to  the  morphological  units,  the  cells.  Oer- 
tain  cells  become  specialized  for  special  func- 
tions, and  thus  are  produced  the  diversified 
forms  of  the  tissues  of  the  body. 

Another  remarkable  result  of  the  improTed 
methods  of  investigation  was,  that  the  body  of 
animals  was  shown  to  be  developed  from  a  single 
cell,  the  ovum.  The  series  of  phases  by  which 
this  astonishing  change  is  effected  occupied  the 
attention  of  many  investigators,  notably  Pander, 
Von  Bftr,  who  established  the  theory  of  the 
germinal  layers  or  blastodermic  membranes; 
Serres,  who  pointed  out  the  great  similarity 
between  the  successive  phases  of  the  embryo  and 
the  series  of  animal  forms  now  existent  on  the 
^lobe,  and  a  great  number  of  others  in  all  dv- 
ilized  nations.  Many  details  of  this  wonderful 
series  of  changes  have  yet  to  be  supplied,  but  the 
general  features  of  it  are  now  firmly  established. 

A  great  impulse  was  also  given  to  Pathological 
Anatomy.  The  phenomena  of  disease  were  now 
traced  to  the  cells,  and  a  knowledge  of  their  ana- 
tomical changes  was  found  to  be  essential.  In 
1836  Cagniard  de  la  Tour  discovered  the  yeast 
plant,  and  inany  fanciful  theories  of  fermenta- 
tion and  disease  were  overthrown.  Pasteur 
(1822-1895)  demonstrated  that  all  fermenta- 
tions and  putrefactions  are  caused  by  minute 
spores  that  swarm  in  ordinary  air.  The  para- 
sitic character  of  many  disorders  now  became 
evident,  and  the  foundation  was  laid  for  modem 
aseptic  surgery.    See  Histology  and  Pathology. 

It  was  not  until  1859  that  the  knowledge  hith- 
erto obtained  was  fully  applied  to  the  elucida- 
tion of  the  causes  of  bodily  structure.  In  that 
year  Charles  Darwin  published  the  Origin  of 
Species,  and  followed  it  in  1871  with  The  Df- 
scent  of  Man.  These  works  advanced  beyond 
the  position  of  Lamarck,  in  that  they  showed 
an  efficient  cause  for  the  cumulative  variation 
of  structure  among  organisms.  This  is  the 
"struggle  for  existence"  which  results  in  the 
extinction  of  those  forms  not  suited  to  the  en?i- 
ronment.  Unlike  the  speculations  of  many  pre- 
vious writers,  these  views  were  advanced'  with 
extreme  caution  and  supported  by  a  great  num- 
ber of  careful  observations.  They  were  accepted 
by  a  large  body  of  naturalists,  and  causcMl  a 
renewal  of  activity  in  anatomy  and  the  allied 
sciences.  It  became  evident  that  to  fully  under- 
stand the  structure  of  man  it  was  necessary  to 
ascertain  the  laws  of  development  both  in  the 
embryo  and  in  the  animals  from  which  the 
human  stock  may  be  derived.  ComparatiTe 
Anatomy,  Embryolopr,  and  Paleontology  thus  be- 
came powerful  coadjutors  to  Human  Anatomy. 

The  importance  of  the  study  of  the  varieties 
of  man  now  became  recognized.  Previous  work- 
ers in  this  field  were  Camper  (1722-89),  the  in- 
ventor of  the  facial  anele;  Blumenbach  (1752- 
1840),  who  divided  mankind  into  five  races;  and 
Retzius  ( 1796-1860),  the  inventor  of  the  cephalic 


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index  for  comparing  crania.  In  America  Sam- 
uel 6.  Morton  became  widely  known  by  his  gpreat 
collection  of  crania,  now  in  the  Academy  of  Nat- 
ural Sciences  in  Philadelphia.  His  Crania  Amer- 
icana and  Cranio  Mgyptiaca  were  important  con- 
tributions. His  collections  were,  in  1856,  de- 
scribed and  commented  on  by  another  anatomist, 
J.  Aitken  Meigs,  who  did  much  to  establish  the 
modem  methods  of  the  mensuration  of  the  skull. 
No  account  of  this  period  is  complete  without 
a  reference  to  the  work  of  Jeffries  Wyman,  of 
Harvard  University,  who  was  a  man  of  great 
erudition  and  philosophical  insight.  As  a  mor- 
phologist  he  had  no  superior  among  the  anato- 
mists of  his  day.  He  was  the  first  to  describe 
the  arrangement  of  the  bony  spiculse  in  the  neck 
of  the  human  femur,  and  to  contrast  it  with 
that  in  those  animals  that  do  not  assume  the 
erect  posture.  He  gave  the  first  scientific  de- 
scription of  the  anatomy  of  the  gorilla,  and 
wrote  on  symmetry  and  homology  in  the  limbs, 
on  the  vertebral  theory  of  the  skull,  on  terato- 
logical  subjects,  on  spontaneous  generation,  and 
on  the  anatomy  of  the  Hottentot.  The  question 
of  the  unity  or  diversity  of  origin  of  the  human 
race,  which  was  closely  connected  with  the 
origin  of  species,  excited  considerable  attention 
in  America  about  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  J.  C.  Nott  and  George  R.  Gliddon 
were  the  joint  authors  of  two  important  works 
on  this  subject,  entitled  Types  of  Mankind  and 
Indigenous  Races  of  the  Earth,  This  study  was 
greatly  stimulated  by  the  discovery  of  human 
remains  in  strata  belonging  to  previous  geologic 
epochs,  particularly  at  Engis  and  Spy  in  Bel- 
gium, Neanderthal  near  Dttsseldorf,  at  many 
places  in  France,  and  in  South  America.  Fi- 
nally the  prediction  of  Morton,  made  forty  years 
before,  was  verified  by  Dubois,  who  found,  in 
the  Eocene  strata  of  Java,  fossil  remains  of  a 
remarkable  transition  form  between  apes  and 
man  (1890-95).  This  department  of  anatomy 
was  greatly  advanced  by  the  zeal  and  energy 
of  Paul  Broca  (1824-80)  of  Paris,  who  system- 
atized the  methods  in  vogue,  and  invented  many 
new  ones  for  the  examination  of  the  human  body. 
The  localization  of  all  active  properties  in  the 
cells  gave  renewed  impetus  to  the  study  of  the 
structure  of  these  "elementary  organisms."  At 
first  this  structure  was  believed  to  be  compara- 
tively simple,  the  protoplasm  of  which  the  living 
substance  is  composed  being  apparently  a  struc- 
tureless jelly  having  peculiar  physical  and  chem- 
ical properties.  Further  advances  toward  per- 
fecting the  microscope  and  microscopic  technique 
have  shown  this  to  be  a  mistake.  That  proto- 
plasm has  definite  structure  is  now  agreed  by 
all;  yie  details  of  the  structure  are  still  in  dis- 
pute. Eminent  in  this  investigation  were  Carl 
Heitzmann  of  New  York,  Flemming  of  Kiel,  and 
Bfitschli  of  Heidelberg.  The  phenomena  of  indi- 
rect cell-division  {karyohinesis)  were  first  con- 
nectedly observed  by  Schneider  in  1873,  and  have 
been  especially  investigated  by  Van  Beneden, 
Boveri,  Oscar  Hertwig,  and  Rabl.  The  ulti- 
mate constitution  of  flie  cell  received  a  great 
deal  of  attention.  NBgeli,  in  1884,  framed  an 
hypothesis  that  protoplasm  is  composed  of  cer- 
tain elementary  units,  termed  mtcellcp,  whose 
combination  produces  its  physical  and  vital 
properties  much  as  a  combination  of  molecules 
produces  the  physical  properties  of  inorganic 
bodies.  Similar,  more  widely  developed  theories 
were  framed  by  De  Vries,  Hertwig,  Weismann, 


and  others.  Weismann  attempts  to  explain  the 
phenomena  of  heredity  by  supposing  that  bodily 
characters  are  caused  by  architectural  peculiari- 
ties inherent  in  the  original  generative  cells. 
This  is,  therefore,  a  reappearance  of  the  theory  of 
preformation  so  prevalent  during  the  eighteenth 
century.  Experiments  by  Hertwig  appear  to 
have  disproved  Weismann's  views.  Great  activity 
in  the  investigation  of  the  structure  of  cells  still 
continues.  In  America,  Wilson  of  New  York 
and  Whitman  of  Chicago  have  made  important 
contributions  to  our  knowledge  of  this  subject. 
Heitzmann,  of  New  York,  is  well  known  for  his 
attack  upon  the  cell-theory  as  commonly  taught, 
holding  that  the  cells  of  the  body  are  connected 
by  minute  threads  of  protoplasm;  a  theory 
that  has  recently  been  confirmed  to  a  limited 
degree. 

The  great  strides  made  in  our  general  knowl- 
edge of  structure  during  the  nineteenth  century 
can  only  be  briefly  mentioned.  The  structure 
and  development  of  bone  was  elucidated  by 
Goodsir,  Purkinje,  Sharpey,  and  Kdlliker,  the 
osteoblasts  being  discovered  by  Gegenbaur  in 
1864.  The  mechanism  and  development  of  joints 
were  studied  by  Braune  of  Leipzig,  Sutton  of 
London,  Dwight  of  Boston,  and  Bernays  of  St. 
Louis.  The  minute  anatomy  of  muscle  is  still 
under  consideration,  and  has  been  investigated 
by  Krause,  Ranvier,  Cohnheim,  and  many  others ; 
Humphrey  and  Huxley  (q.v.)  in  England  and. 
Gegenbaur  in  Germany  have  written  on  the  gen- 
eral morphology  of  the  muscular  system,  and 
Gruber,  Theile,  Testut,  and  Ledouble  have  inves- 
tigated muscular  anomalies.  The  structure  of 
the  capillary  blood  vessels  was  first  correctly 
demonstrated  by  Treviranus  in  1836,  the  blood 
platelets  or  hematoblasts  were  discovered  by 
Max  Schultze  in  1865.  The  lymphatics  were 
investigated  by  KOlliker,  Ranvier,  and  Sappey. 

In  the  nervous  system  the  discoveries  have 
been  many  and  brilliant,  completely  revolution- 
izing previous  notions  of  its  structure.  Gratio- 
let  first  showed  the  convolutionary  pattern  of 
the  brain;  Broca  was  the  first  to  prove  that 
certain  motor  faculties  may  be  localized  upon  the 
cerebral  cortex;  a  subject  upon  which  extensive 
researches  have  been  made  by  Fritsch  and 
Hitzig,  Ferrier  and  Horsley.  Ehrenberg  of 
Berlin  appears  to  have  been  the  first  to  describe, 
in  1833,  the  large  cells  of  the  cerebral  cortex 
and  of  the  spinal  cord.  The  axis  cylinder  process 
of  nerve  cells  was  discovered  by  Wagner  of  G5t- 
tingen,  Marshall  Hall  (q.v.)  of  London  was  the 
first  to  demonstrate  reflex  movements,  Prochaska 
to  discover  the  differential  function  of  the  ante- 
rior  and  the  posterior  roots  of  the  spinal  nerves. 
By  degeneration  experiments  instituted  by  Wal- 
ler, by  noting  the  myelination  of  nerve  fibres  as 
done  by  Flechsig,  and  by  comparative  studies 
it  became  possible  to  trace  in  the  central  nervous 
system  the  paths  by  which  sensations  are  re- 
ceived and  motor  influences  discharged. 

Improvements  in  technical  methods  finally 
made  it  possible  to  trace  the  processes  of  nerve 
cells  to  their  minutest  ramifications.  This  gave 
rise  to  the  neurone  theory,  which  holds  that 
the  nervous  tissue  is  composed  of  independent 
cells  or  neurones  that  may  ramify  extensively, 
some  of  the  ramifications  passing  into  nerve 
fibres  and  forming  their  active  conducting  ele- 
ments. This  theory  has  been  applied  with  suc- 
cess to  explain  the  architecture  of  the  nervous 
system;  a  subject  that  is  widely  engrossing  the 


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ANATOMY   OF   PLANTS. 


minds  of  anatomists,  and  from  which  important 
results  are  expected  in  the  future. 

In  the  organs  of  special  sense  the  new  ideas 
of  the  constitution  of  the  nervous  system  have 
elucidated  many  difficult  problems.  The  anat- 
omy of  the  ear  has  been  studied  by  Rttdinger, 
Helmholtz  (q.v.)  of  Berlin,  Retzius  of  Copenha- 
gen, and  Ayers  of  Cincinnati.  The  orsan  of 
Oorti  was  discovered  by  the  Marchese  di  Corti 
in  1851.  Schwalbe  of  Strassburg  first  saw  the 
taste-buds  of  the  tongue  in  1867,  Meissner  and 
Wagner  the  tactile  corpuscles  in  1852.  The 
teeth  have  been  a  special  object  of  research  with 
the  American  anatomists  Ryder,  Osborn,  and 
Cope,  especially  with  reference  to  the  mechanics 
of  their  development. 

The  researches  of  American  anatomists  have 
borne  fruit  in  other  fields.  W.  E.  Homer  of 
Philadelphia  discovered  the  tensor  tarsi  or  deep 
layer  of  the  orbicularis  palpebrarum,  and  Wil- 
liam Clay  Wallace  of  New  York  was  the  first  to 
show  the  real  nature  of  the  ciliary  muscle 
(1835).  It  is  to  Henry  J.  Bigelow,  of  Harvard 
University,  that  we  owe  the  first  accurate  de- 
scription of  the  ilio- femoral  ligament  of  the  hip- 
joint  and  its  application  to  the  reduction  of  dis- 
locations. His  work  on  the  hip,  published  in 
1869,  completely  revolutionized  surgical  practice 
in  this  matter.  It  should  not  be  forgotten,  how- 
ever, that  Reid,  of  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  had  previ- 
ously, in  1851,  shown  many  of  the  facts  after- 
ward more  completely  stated  by  Bigelow.  In 
the  realm  of  comparative  anatomy,  and  espe- 
<;ially  of  paleontology,  Joseph  Lieidy,  O.  C. 
Marsh,  Harrison  Allen,  and  Edward  D.  Cope 
have  done  much  to  extend  the  fame  of  American 
science. 

BiBUOOBAPHY.  Among  the  recent  works  on 
human  descriptive  anatomy  may  be  mentioned: 
Quain,  Gray,  and  Morris,  in  English ;  Testut  and 
Poirier,  in  French;  Gegenbaur  and  Rauber,  in 
Oerman.  Bardeleben  is  editing  a  large  work  in 
German,  in  eight  volumes,  by  various  authors. 
On  topographical  anatomy,  McClellan  and  Treves, 
in  English;  Tillaux,  in  French,  and  Hyrtl,  Ger- 
lach,  and  Merkel,  in  German,  are  good  works. 
There  is  no  satisfactory  treatise  on  the  history 
of  anatomy.  A  fairly  complete  rteum^  is  found 
in  Volume  I.  of  The  Reference  Handbook  of  Medi- 
cal Sciences  (second  edition,  New  York,  1900). 

ANATOMY,  Comparative.  The  science  that 
treats  of  the  structure  of  organisms  with  the 
aim  of  discovering  their  evolutionary  history  and 
of  determining  what  parts  are  fundamental  and 
primary  and  what  have  undergone  modifications 
due  to  functional  changes.  This,  at  least,  has 
been  the  aim  of  comparative  anatomy  since  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  has  guided  anatomical  re- 
search. In  the  early  half  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
turjr  the  aim  of  comparative  anatomy  was  to 
assist  taxonomy,  or  the  natural  classification 
of  organisms,  by  giving  a  basis  for  separating 
the  more  essential  parts  ( to  be  used  as  the  basis 
of  the  larger  groups)  from  the  less  essential 
parts  (the  basis  of  the  smaller  groups).  In  the 
latter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  aims  of 
comparative  anatomy  were  fostered  by  the  newer 
science  of  comparative  embryology,  which  added 
a  new  source  of  evidence  for  tracing  evolutionary 
history.  Together  these  sciences  constitute  com- 
parative morphology.  In  this  work  the  facts 
which  might  have  been  brought  together  into  a 
general  article  under  this  title  are  distributed 
under  more  special  headings.    Thus,  for  the  his- 


tory and  general  scope  of  comparative  anatomy, 
see  Anatomy;  for  the  comparative  anatomy  of 
the  several  parts  of  the  body,  see  respectively 
Skeleton  ;  Alimentaby  System  ;  Muscular  Sys- 
tem; Nervous  System;  Circulatory  System; 
Respiratory  System;  Generative  System;  Ex- 
cretory System,  and  similar  titles  in  connection 
with  human  anatomy  and  physiology,  and  in  zo- 
ology and  embryolo^.  Consult:  Cuvier,  Lcfow 
d'Anatotnie  Compared  (first  edition,  6  volumes, 
Paris,  1800-05;  second  edition,  8  volumes, 
1836-44)  ;  Meckel,  System  der  vergleichenden 
Anatomie  (Halle,  1821-29)  ;  Owen,  Comparative 
Anatomy  of  Vertebrate  Animnls  (fourth  edition, 
London,  1871);  Huxley,  Anatomy  of  Inverte- 
brates (London,  1877)  ;  id..  Anatomy  of  Verte- 
brate Animals  (London,  1871)  ;  Gegenbaur,  Ele- 
ments of  Comparative  Anatomy  (translation, 
London,  1878) ;  Wiedersheim,  Comparative  Anat- 
omy of  Vertebrates  (translation,  London,  1898) : 
id.,  Lehrbuch  der  vergleichenden  Anatomie  {Jensi, 
1866)  ;  Lang,  A.,  Textbook  of  Comparative 
Anatomy  (of  Invertebrates)  (translation,  Lon- 
don, 1891-96). 

ANATOMY  OF  ABUSES,  The.  A  work 
by  the  Puritan,  Philip  Stubbes,  published  in  1683, 
condemning  many  of  the  customary  amusements 
of  the  time.  A  reply  to  it,  by  Nashe,  was  en- 
titled Anatomic  of  Absurditie  (1589). 

ANATOMY  OF  MEL'ANCHOIiY,  The. 
A  celebrated  and  curious  work  by  Robert  Burton 
(1577-1640),  first  published  in  1621  and  many 
times  thereafter.  It  treats,  as  its  full  title  ex- 
plains, of  "all  the  Kindes,  Causes,  Symptomes, 
Prognostickes,  and  Severall  Clhires"  of  melan- 
choly. It  appeared  under  the  pseudonym  of 
Democritus  Junior,  a  name  which  indicates  its 
author's  attitude.  There  is  an  extended  preface, 
not  the  less  interesting  for  being  autobiographi- 
cal. The  body  of  the  book  is  in  three  methodical- 
ly arranged  parts,  dealing  successively  with  (1) 
the  causes  and  symptoms  of  melancholy;  (2) 
its  cure;  (3)  amorous  and  religious  melancholy. 
Throughout  there  is  a  wealth  of  historical  and 
literary  lore  and  a  quaint  and  penetrating  hu- 
mor, which  have  made  the  book  a  favorite  with 
many  of  the  finest  minds.  Dr.  Johnson  and 
Charles  Lamb  especially  have  recorded  their 
admiration  of  it.  The  five  editions  succeeding 
the  first  one  included  changes  of  text  by  Burton 
himself.  Since  his  time  it  has  been  variously 
abridged. 

ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS.  That  part  of  bo^ 
any  which  treats  of  the  structure  of  plants.  Gross 
Anatomy  relates  only  to  those  parts,  external  or 
internal,  which  can  be  observed  with  the  unaided 
eye.  Minute  or  Microscopical  Anatomy,  treating 
of  the  tissues,  the  cells  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed, and  their  relation  to  one  another,  is  tech- 
nically called  Histologv  (q.v.).  For  purposes  of 
description,  the  plant  body  is  divided  into  paiis. 
called  "members"  or  "organs,"  according  as  one 
wishes  to  emphasize  the  idea  that  they  constitute 
portions  of  the  body,  or  that  they  do  something. 
Members  or  organs  are  of  various  ranks  with  re- 
spect to  the  body  or  to  each  other.  Thus,  one 
may  speak  of  the  root  and  the  shoot  as  members 
of  the  plant;  axis  and  leaves  are  members  of  the 
shoot,  and  so  on,  each  part  being  resolvable  into 
subordinate  parts.  Analysis  ceases  only  with 
the  component  cells,  each  of  which  has  definite 
organs,  such  as  nucleus,  cholorplasts,  etc  See 
Cell. 


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External  Anatomy.  The  formation  of  ex- 
ternal organs  depends  on  the  unequal  growth  of 
the  cells  composing  the  body,  or  of  definite  groups 
of  them.  Thus  arise  lobes  or  segments  having 
their  own  special  forms.  In  the  simplest  algse 
and  fungi  the  external  segmentation  of  the  body 
is  slight  or  wanting.  The  entire  body  may  be 
represented  by  a  single  spherical  or  oblong  cell. 
Sometimes  these  cells  are  branched.  In  certain 
desmids  the  branching  is  elaborate,  and  so  sym- 
metrical as  to  make  the  body  an  object  of  great 
beauty.  In  all  these  cases,  however,  the  branch 
has,  m  itself,  a  structure  precisely  like  the  main 
body.  In  somewhat  more  complex  plants  the 
body  consists  of  a  row  or  filament  of  cells. 
Among  these  plants  it  is  very  common  to  find 
branches  arising  which  are  themselves  branched, 
and  repeat  in  all  essential  characters  the  main 
axis.  Other  plants  have  their  cells  arranged  in 
the  form  of  a  flat  plate.    This  plate  may  become 


cause  of  the  unlike  conditions  under  which  the 
two  exist.  However  little  or  much  the  body  may 
be  lobed,  there  will  be  an  unequal  exposure  to 
light,  and  the  side  best  illuminated,  whether  of 
organ  or  whole  plant,  will  take  on  a  different 
structure  from  the  shaded  one.  Thus  the  whole 
body  of  liverworts  and  the  leaves  of  seed  plants 
become  dorsiventral.  Other  factors  also  deter- 
mine the  mode  of  growth;  e.g.,  an  erect  position 
and  the  consequent  exposure  of  the  body  to  the 
loss  of  water  demands  organs  for  absorption,  for 
conduction,  and  for  protection  against  excessive 
evaporation;  again,  the  cells  in  the  interior,  re- 
moved from  the  air,  must  be  supplied  with  it 
by  the  development  of  an  aerating  system. 

Thallophytes.  The  vegetative  body  of  the 
lower  plants  is  the  gametophyte,  i.e.,  the  phase 
in  the  life  history  which  produces  sex  organs. 
(See  Alternation  op  Generations.)  The  ex- 
ternal anatomy  of  the  gametophyte  is  therefore 
first  considered.  Among  the  algse  and  fungi 
there  is  little  differentiation  of  the  body,  because 
it  is  usually  slender,  and  all  parts  are  equally 
fitted  to  carry  on  independently  the  life  work. 
Among  the  highest  algse,  the  lower  part  of  the 
body  is  often  so  constructed  as  to  form  ( a )  hold- 
fasts, by  which  the  plant  is  anchored  to  the  sur- 
face on  which  it  grows;  (b)  a  roundish  stalk  of 
greater  or  less  length;  and  (c)  thinner  flattened 
parts,  which  expose  a  large  surface  to  the  water 
and  light,  and  so  imitate  leaves.  (See  Algje.) 
Among  the  higher  fungi  the  body  is  segmented 
into  a  nutritive  portion,  the  mycelium,  which 
usually  ramifies  extensively  through  the  sub- 
stratum, and  a  reproductive  part,  which  rises 
into  the  air  and  produces  spores.  The  atrial 
part  of  the  body  may  be  club-shaped,  umbrella- 
like, diffusely  branched,  spherical,  etc.  See 
Fungi. 

Bryophttes.  Among  the  liverworts  the  body 
is  either  a  fiat  ribbon,  more  or  less  branched,  or 


An  alga,  showine  nearly  undifferentiated  bodj ;  ter- 
minal and  sexual  cellB  only  unlike  the  rest. 

more  extended  in  one  direction,  producing  a 
band-like  form.  If  branching  occurs,  it  is  likoly 
to  take  place  in  the  plane  of  the  flattening.  The 
branch  may  be  essentially  like  the  main  axis,  or 
it  may  take  on  a  special  form.  Sometimes  the 
more  extended  growth  occurs  in  several  direc- 
tions, when  the  body  becomes  more  or  less  regu- 
larly lobed.  Unequal  growth  of  any  part  of  the 
flat  body  will  produce  a  fluted  or  frilled  form. 

It  is  only  when  the  plants  become  massive,  so 
that  some  cells  are  exposed  on  the  surface  and 
others  hidden  in  the  interior,  that  marked  dis- 
similarity arises.  Then  the  external  parts  are 
likely  to*  be  differentiated  from  the  internal,  be- 
VoL.  I.-88 


A  thalluB  of  a  liverwort,  Blasia,  showing  a 
simple  ribbon-like  body,  with  lotted  edge. 

is  segmented  into  a  roundish  axis  with  thin, 
scale- 1  ike  outgrowths  on  upper  and  under  sur- 
faces, the  upper  ones  being  relatively  large,  con- 
spicuous, and  green,  whence  they  are  called 
leaves;  while  the  under  ones  are  small,  incon- 
spicuous, and  pale.  From  various  parts  of  the 
body  on  the  under  side  arise  hold- fasts  in  the 
form  of  slender  hairs   (rhizoids).     Similar  out- 


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growths,  but  of  varied  form,  are  not  infrequently 
found  on  other  parts  of  the  body.  (See  Hepa- 
tic^.) In  mosses,  the  body,  when  young,  is  a 
much-branched  filament,  usually  transient  from 
which  there  arises  a  more  permanent  cylindrical 
axis,  erect,  with  few  branches,  or  horizontal  and 
much  branched,  on  whose  sides  are  developed 
green  thin  outgro\i'ths,  the  leaves.  These  are 
usually  a  single  sheet  of  cells,  except  near  the 
middle  line,  where  several  layers  of  ceUs  con- 
stitute a  midrib.  The  shapes  of  the  leaves  are 
extremely  varied.     See  Musci. 

Pteridophytes  akd  Spermatopiittes.  The 
gametophyte  of  the  ferns  is  a  thin,  roundish, 
heart-shaped  body,  seldom  exceeding  a  auarter  of 
an  inch  in  diameter,  and  transient.  In  lern  allies 
it  is  reduced  to  a  few  cells,  and  is  not  visible 
without  microscopic  observation.  The  vegeta- 
tive body,,  which  is  long  lived,  does  not  bear 
sex  organs  as  in  the  lower  plants,  but  gives 
rise  only  to  non-sexual  reproductive  bodies  of 
various  kinds  called  spores;  whence  it  is  known 
as  the  sporophyte.  (See  Alternation  op  Gen- 
erations.) The  external  anatomy  of  the  sporo- 
phyte in  the  pteridophytes  (ferns  and  their 
allies),  and  spermatophytes  (seed  plants  or 
flowering  plants)  is  much  alike.  It  is  almost 
without  exception  segmented  into  two  distinct 
parts,  the  root  and  the  shoot.  The  root  is  usually 
much  branched,  and  bears  on  its  newer  parts  sur- 
face outgrowths  called  root-hairs.  The  tips  of 
the  branches,  at  which  the  growing  points  are  lo- 
cated, are  protected  by  somewhat  older  cells, 
which  constitute  a  root-cap.  (See  Root.)  The 
shoot  is  usually  differentiated  into  a  central  axis, 
the  stem,  with  lateral  outgrowths  of  two 
kinds :  ( 1 )  Those  having  unlimited  growth ;  i.e., 
branches,  which  are  similar  in  all  essential  re- 
spects to  the  main  axis,  though  they  may  be  spe- 
cialized in  form  and  function.  (For  further  de- 
tails respecting  the  structure  of  the  stem  and  the 
forms  which  it  assumes,  see  Stem.)  (2)  Seg- 
ments with  limited  growth,  usually  flat,  thin, 
and  broad;  i.e.,  leaves,  which  are  developed  in  a 
variety  of  forms.  (See  Leaf.)  Simple  out- 
growths of  various  forms,  arising  from  single 
cells  or  small  groups  of  cells,  may  develop  on  any 
part  of  the  shoot  as  scales,  hairs,  etc. 

Internal  Anatomy.  The  internal  anatomy  of 
plants  can  only  be  ascertained  by  the  study  of 
thin  sections,  crossing  the  body  in  various  planes, 
and  by  dissection  of  the  parts.  In  the  lower 
plants  the  internal  anatomy  is  as  simple  as  the 
external  form,  no  differentiation  of  the  cells 
being  observable. .  In  the  higher  plants,  however, 
groups  of  cells  are  differentiated  into  tissues, 
and  the  tissues  are  arranged  into  systems,  each 
of  which  has  a  particular  function  to  fulfill. 
These  tissue  systems  are  named  according  to 
their  function.  The  most  important  are  the 
following:  (1)  The  protective  system;  (2)  the 
absorptive  system;  (3)  the  conducting  system; 
(4)  the  nutritive  system;  (5)  the  aerating  sys- 
tem; (6)  the  secreting  system;  (7)  the  storage 
system;   (8)  the  mechanical  system. 

The  tissues  and  tissue  systems  all  arise  in  an 
imspocialized  formative  tissue.  Every  plant  be- 
gins its  development  as  a  single  cell.  Repeated 
divisions  of  this  cell  and  its  segments  give  rise 
to  others  essentially  similar.  For  a  time  these 
cells  retain  the  same  general  form  and  powers, 
noteworthy  among  which  is  the  capacity  of  divis- 
ion. As  the  cells  become  older  they  grow  unlike, 
and  change  not  only  in  form  but  in  function.  Some 


maintain  throughout  their  entire  existence  the 
form  and  appearance  of  the  youngest  cells.  These 
constitute  a  formative  region  (meristem),  which, 
by  its  growth,  gives  rise  constantly  to  new  tis- 
sues and  new  organs.  This  primary  formative 
tissue  is  found  in  the  larger  plants  at  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  main  axis  and  branches  of  the 
roots  and  shoots,  where  it  constitutes  the  grow- 
ing points.  It  is  possible,  however,  for  cells  which 
have  ceased  to  divide  to  regain  this  power  and 
to  resume  the  character  of  formative  tissue.  To 
distinguish  this  latter  from  the  primary  meri- 
stem  of  the  growing  points,  it  is  called  secondary 
meristem,  or  cambium.  Secondary  meristem  b 
often  formed  in  one  or  more  concentric  zones  in 
the  stems  of  those  plants  which  increase  in  thick- 
ness as  they  become  older,  in  the  vicinity  of 
wounds,  and  at  various  points  which  cannot  al- 
ways be  predicted.  At  these  points  its  activity 
results  in  the  making  of  new  tissues,  or  even  new 
organs,  in  a  maner  essentially  like  that  in  the 
growing  points.  A  short  distance  behind  each 
growing  point  the  cylinder  of  newly  formed  tis- 
sues differentiates  enough  to  show  three  regions: 
(1)  The  outer  cell  layer,  the  "dermatogen," 
which  gives  rise  to  the  epidermis,  and  all  its 
structures;  (2)  the  central  mass,  the  "plerome," 
which  develops  the  central  cylinder  or  stele,  in- 
cluding the  vascular  strands  and  pith;  (3)  be- 
tween these,  the  "periblem,"  which  produces  the 
cortex.  The  distinction  between  these  regions  is 
permanent,  becoming  more  marked  with  age. 

(1)  The  Protective  System.  In  algse  and 
fungi,  which  live  in  water  or  moist  places,  the 
need  for  protection  is  seldom  of  moment.  The 
transformation  of  the  surface  walls,  into  a  gela- 
tinous material  is  common  among  even  the  sim- 
plest algse,  and  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  protec- 
tive measure.  Some  of  the  larger  algse  have  the 
cells  near  the  surface  of  the  body  smaller  and 
more  compact  than  those  of  the  interior.  In  the 
atrial  parts  of  some  fungi  a  compact  arrange- 
ment or  coalescence  of  the  filaments,  and  some- 
times the  thickening  of  their  walls,  makes  the 
surface  firm  or  even  hard.  In  the  larger  plants, 
however,  the  surface  tissues  are  usually  organized 
into  a  continuous  membrane,  the  epidermis,  in 
places  perforated  by  numerous  but  minute  open- 
ings, the  stomata,  which  are  bounded  by  special 
cells,  and  guard  cells.     ( See  Stomata.  )     The  epi- 


Cork  cells  {periderm)  developed  under 
the  epidermis  (the  outer  layer  ot  cells)  by 
divisions  parallel  to  the  surface  in  the 
cork  cambium  {phdiogen)^  next  the 
rounded  cells  of  the  cortex. 

dermis  sometimes  becomes  more  than  one  layer 
of  cells  in  thickness.  This  is  regularly  the  case 
at  the  tip  of  the  root,  where  it  forms  a  thimble- 
shaped  cap.  The  outer  wall  of  the  epidermal 
cells  is  frequently  much  thickened,  and  is  usu- 
ally partially  occupied  by  a  wax-like  substance* 


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cutin,  which  renders  the  wall  partially  water- 
proof. The  extreme  outer  portion  of  the  wall 
may  be  completely  transformed  into  cutin,  con- 
stituting the  cuticle.  Besides  this,  the  epidermal 
cells,  when  young  and  active,  are  capable  of  ex- 
creting upon  the  surface  a  layer  of  waxy  or 
resinous  material,  which  interferes  still  more 
with  the  exit  or  entrance  of  water.  Outgrowths 
from  the  epidermal  cells  in  the  form  of  hairs  or 
scales,  with  which  the  surface  is  sometimes  com- 
pletely covered,  also  retard  evaporation.  On  the 
twigs  of  perennial  plants  the  epidermis  dies  and 
withers  away.  Its  place  is  then  taken  by  sev- 
eral or  many  layers  of  dead  cells  of  a  tabular 
form  with  waterproof  walls,  called  cork.  This 
is  the  product  of  a  zone  of  secondary  meristem 
develqped  under,  or,  more  rarely,  in  the  epider- 
mis itself.  Cork  gives  to  the  stems  or  twigs  of 
trees  their  yellowish  or  brownish  color.  On 
older  parts  it  forms  the  outer  parts  of  the  bark 
(q.v.). 

(2)  The  Absorptive  System.  (See  Absorp- 
tion.) The  absorptive  system  of  the  fungi  con- 
sists mainly  of  the  Mycelium  (q.v.).  The  Algss 
(q.v.)  may  take  up  materials  by  any  part  of  the 
surface  exposed  to  the  water.  In  mosses  and 
liverworts  the  hair-like  outgrowths  by  which 
they  are  anchored  (rhizoids)  are  supposed  to  be 
absorptive^  but  sufficient  proof  of  this  is  lacking. 
The  leaves  or  even  the 
general  surface  of  the  body 
are  the  most  efficient  ab- 
sorbing regions.  In  the 
higher  plants  the  absorp- 
tive system  for  water  and 
its  solutes  is  represented 
mainly  by  the  root,  and 
especially  by  the  root- 
hairs.  For  gases,  the  ab- 
sorptive system  is  the 
whole  surface  of  the  atrial 
parts,  but  notably  that  of 
the  leaves.  In  a  few  plants 
there  are  special  out- 
growths on  aerial  parts  in 
the  form  of  hairs,  which 
are  able  to  absorb  water, 
or  even  solutions  of  or- 
wheataeedling.  Thepro-  ganic  material;  but  as  a 
.tt'Tthiii^dLSSi  rule  the  amount  of  water 
BO  firmly  to  certain  soil  which  may  be  absorbed  by 

P^r^il*^  ^u*\  ^!2fy  ^^^^^  the  aerial  part  of  a  plant  is 
not  be  washed  off.  n        j.    t.  »•    •■li 

•  so  small  as  to  be  negligible. 

Very  young  plants  (embryos)  often  have  special 
organs  for  absorbing  the  food  materials  stored 
around  them  in  the  seed.  These  organs,  however, 
are  transient  and  disappear  with  the  exhaustion 
of  the  food  supply. 

(3)  The  CJonductinq  System.  Water  and 
foods  may  be  transferred  from  one  part  of  the 
body  to  the  other  through  any  of  its  living  tis- 
sues by  differences  in  osmotic  pressure.  (See  Os- 
mosis.) In  the  smaller  plants,  these  osmotic 
movements  probably  suffice,  but  in  the  large 
forms  they  are  too  slow,  and  special  conducting 
systems  have  therefore  been  developed.  These 
consist  of  strands  of  elongated  cells  extending 
from  the  neighborhood  of  the  absorbing  or  food- 
making  regions  throughout  the  body  and  reaching 
all  its  parts.  The  conducting  system  is  often 
called  the  fibro-vascular  system,  because  its  es- 
sential elements  were  formerly  called  "vessels" 
(after  the  analogy  of  blood  "vessels"),  and  these 


are  frequently  accompanied  by  mechanical  ele- 
ments in  the  form  of  fibres.     The  conduction 


Koot-hairs  (not  yet  f ull- 
grown)  on  the  root  of 


Diagram  of  the  tranaverse  section  of  a 
monocotyledonous  stem  (Atparcurus).  The 
o^te  booies  scattered  through  the  section 
indicate  the  sheathed  pairs  of  xylem  and 
phloem  bundles. 

(q.v.)   of  water  and  foods  is  carried  on  in  the 
main  by  separate  strands.    The  water-conducting 


Diagrammatic  longitudinal  tangential  section 
of  a  xylem  bundle  of  Com  (Zea  tnayg)y  showing 
the  surrounding  parenchyma  (thin,  isodiametric 
cells);  the  sheath  (thick- walled,  elongated, 
pointed  cells) ;  two  pitied  vessels  (tracneie) ; 
and  in  the  centre  an  annular  vessel. 

strands  are  the  xylem  strands,  the  food-conduct- 
ing ones  the  phloem  strands. 

The  xylem  strands  consist  of  trachese,  or  tra- 
cheids,  accompanied  by  variable  amounts  of 
parenchyma  cells  and  often  fibres.  The  trachese 
are. formed  by  the  fusion  of  rows  of  elongated 
cells  through  the  absorption  of  most  of  the  abut- 
ting end  walls.  They  thus  become  long  tubes 
(1  to  3  metres),  emptied  of  protoplasm  at  ma- 
turity, and  with  their  walls  irregularly  thick- 
ened, often  in  elaborate  patterns.  The  tracheids 
are  similar,  but  do  not  suffer  the  absorption  of 
the  end  walls,  so  that  each  is  a  cell  and  not  a 
cell- fusion.  The  phloem  strands  consist  essen- 
tially of  sieve  tubes  and  varying  amounts  of  elon- 
gated parenchyma-cells.  The  sieve  tubes  resem- 
ble the  tracheae  in  the  loss  of  living  contents, 
but  differ  from  them  in  the  more  uniform  thick- 
ness of  their  walls,  and  particularly  in  having 
only  portions  of  the  end  walls  (or  even  the  side 
walla  between  adjacent  sieve  tubes)    absorbed. 


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ao  that  they  are   perforated  by  many  minute 
openings. 


Transverse  section  of  a  sheathed  bondle-pair  from 
Com  {Zea  mays),  p^  parenchyma  cells ;  within  thess 
the  Bclerenchvma  sheath  ;  v,  a  pitted  vessel  with  ita 
fellow  opposite,  and  two  annular  vessels  between, 
with  the  adjacent  tissues  mark  the  zylem  bundle ; 
the  area  above  and  between  the  pitted  yeeaels  is  tha 
phloem  bundle. 

The  xylem  and  phloem-strands  have  a  definite 
relation  to  one  another  in  position.  In  the 
pteridophytes,  the  phloem-region  often  envelopes 
the  xylem  region  completely,  though  in  a  few 
cases  it  is  enveloped  by  the  xylem.  In  most  of 
the  spermatophytes,  however,  these  strands  lie 
side  by  side,  the  xylem  as  a  rule  nearest  the  cen- 
tre and  the  phloem  nearest  the  periphery  of  the 


Cross-section  of  a  sinsle  bundle  pair,  pa,  in- 
closing parenchyma ;  p,  phloem  bundle ;  ^  xylem 
bundle ;  c,  cambium ;  *,  accompanying  scleren- 
chyma,  sometimes  called  bast  fibres. 

axis.  They  extend  into  the  leaves,  in  which 
they  occupy  the  so-called  ribs  or  veins,  the  xylem 
nearest  the  upper  side,  the  phloem  nearest  the 
under  side.  Together  they  form  the  smaller  vein- 
lets,  becoming  slenderer  and  having  fewer  ele- 
ments with  successive  branching,  until  the  phloem- 
strand  disappears,  leaving  the  xylem-strand  to 
form  the  finest  veinlets,  invisible  to  the  naked 
eye,  which  end  blindly  amongst  the  green  cells, 
or  form  a  network  with  other  small  strands. 
Near  its  ending  in  the  leaf  the  xylem  strand  is 


composed  exclusively  of  tracheids.  The  xylem- 
and  phloem-strands  originate  near  the  growing 
points  by  the  dilTerentiation  of  the  tissues  which 
arise  from  the  plerome.  Taken  all  together,  they 
constitute  a  central  cylinder  in  the  root  and 
stem,  known  as  the  stele.  In  some  stems,  espe- 
cially among  the  pteridophytes,  there  are  sev- 
eral independent  steles,  but  more  often  this  ap- 
pearance is  produced  by  the  branching  of  the 


Diagram  of  a  cross  section  of  dicotyledonous 
stem,  showing  a  single  circle  of  bundle  pairs  (the 
cross-hatchea  region— phloem  bundle,  the  rest— 
xylem  bundle)  dividing  the  outer  region  (cortex) 
from  the  central  (pith). 

stele,  as  in  the  stalks  of  leaves.  In  the  stems 
of  many  plants,  especially  dicotyledons,  a  for- 
mative region,  the  stelar  cambium,  arises  in  the 
stele  between  the  xylem-  and  phloem-strands. 
This  may  give  rise  to  additional  xylem-  and 
phloem-tissue,  and  so  increase  the  size  of  these 
strands.  More  often,  however,  it  extends  from 
one  pair  of  strands  to  another,  and  so  constitutes 
a  complete  zone,  by  means  of  whi^  not  only  is 
the  thickness  of  the  original  strands  increased, 
but  that  of  the  intervening  tissues  as  well.  Usu- 
ally new  xylem-  and  phloem-strands  are  produced 
by  the  stelar  cambium  between  the  older  ones. 
Thus  it  may  come  about  that  the  stele  shows  a 
massive  development  of  secondary  xylem  in  the 
centre  and  secondary  phloem  around  it,  the  two 
separated  by  a  thin  sheet  of  cambium.  This  is 
the  condition  in  all  deciduous  and  coniferous 
trees.  The  center  of  the  trunk  is  composed  of  old 
and  dead  xylem-tissue,  its  outside  of  bark,  most 
of  which  is  likewise  dead,  the  only  living  parts 
being  the  cambium  and  adjacent  tissues. 

(4)  The  Nutritive  System.  The  nutritive 
system  consists  of  cells,  usually  thin-walled, 
among  whose  organs  are  found  one  or  more 
Chloroplasts  (q.v.).  Th^  massing  of  these  cells 
gives  the  green  color  to  the  nutritive  regions, 
if  the  plant  body  be  more  than  a  few  cells  in 
thickness  the  nutritive  tissues  are  limited  to  the 
surface,  because  the  green  coloring  matter,  Chlo- 
rophyll (q.v.).  can  1^  produced  and  maintained 
only  under  adequate  illumination.  The  interior 
tissues,  therefore,  are  colorless,  because  of  the 
absorption  of  light  by  the  outer  ones.  The  nu- 
tritive tissues  may  occupy  the  surface  of  the 
stem  only,  but  their  most  effective  disposition 
is  in  the  leaves.  In  some  liverworts  and  in  th^ 
mosses,  the  so-called  leaf  consists  of  a  single  layer 
of  cells;  they  are  not  like  the  leaves  of  the 
higher  plants  either  in  mode  of  origin  or  in  struc- 
ture, although  they  serve  the  same  function. 
(For  structure  of  the  leaf  of  the  higher  plante, 


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ANATOMY   OF   PLANTS. 


see  Leaf.)  The  manufacture  of  food  can  only 
take  place  in  cells  containing  chloroplasts,  when 
these  are  adequately  illuminated.  (See  Photo- 
synthesis.) The  food  produced  by  the  nutri- 
tive tissue  is  primarily  carbohydrates.  This  may 
be  used  at  once  for  the  formation  of  proteid 
foo<ls,  and  since  the  supply  of  carbohydrates  is 
most  abundant  in  the  leaves,  they  are  also  the 
principal  seat  of  proteid  formation.  ( See  Foods.  ) 
Foods  produced  in  the  leaves  may  be  transported 
to  other  parts  of  the  plant  and  stored  for  a  time. 
(See  Storage.)  In  those  plants  which  lack  foli- 
age leaves  the  surface  of  the  stem  only  is  occu- 
pied by  the  nutritive  tissue,  and  by  its  profuse 
branching  it  may  expose  a  considerable  area  of 
these  tissues  to  light  and  air.  In  some  cases, 
however,  the  necessity  for  protecting  the  plant 
against  excessive  evaporation  is  so  urgent  that 
the  body  has  no  outgrowths,  being  cylindrical  or 
spherical,  as  in  the  cactacese;  in  such  a  case  the 
nutritive  tissue  is  limited  to  the  surface  of  the 
compact  stem,  and  is  at  a  minimum. 

(5)  The  AiiRATiNG  System.  The  aerating 
system  consists  of  irregular  passages  amongst 
the  cells  of  the  plant  body,  formed  by  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  cells  as  they  mature.  These  pas- 
sages communicate  with  the  outside  air  by  spe- 
cial opening  through  the  epidermis,  called 
stomata  (q.v.).  If  the  epidermis  dies  and  is  re- 
placed by  cork,  as  on  the  surface  of  twigs,  com- 
munication of  the  aerating  system  ^vith  the  air 
is  maintained  for  a  few  years  through  lenticels 
(q.v.).  The  intercellular  spaces  are  largest  in 
the  water  plants,  where  they  often  form  exten- 
sive canals  easily  visible  to  the  naked  eye.  In 
most   land   plants,   however,   they   are   narrow. 


Traneverae  section  of  the  central  part 
of  the  root  of  Calamas  (Acorus  eala- 
mtts\  showing  the  central  cylinder  of 
zvlem  and  phloem  bundles  and  hnge 
air-chambers,  separated  by  plates  of 
cells. 

tortuous  passages.  Through  these,  gases  dif- 
fuse, but  there  is  little  or  no  flow;  i.e.,  mass, 
movement.  Carbon  dioxide  and  oxygen  are  sup- 
plied to  the  cells  in  requisite  amount  by  the 
aerating  system,  the  former  for  food-making  and 
the  latter  for  respiration.     See  Aeration. 

(6)  The  Secreting  System.  There  is  no 
sharp  distinction  to  be  made  between  secretion 
and  excretion  in  plants.  Many  substances,  use- 
less to  the  plant  except  incidentally,  are  stored 
in  special  receptacles,  and  are  thus  removed 
from  the  general  course  of  activity.  In  other 
cases  the  material  is  poured  out  upon  the  sur- 
face of  the  plant  and  is  thus  gotten  rid  of.  The 
secreting  system  consists  of  ( 1 )  single  secreting 
cells  or  groups  of  them,  called  glands    (q.v.)  ; 


(2)    receptacles  for  secretions.     Gland-cells  dif- 
fer in  appearance  from  the  other  cells  by  the 


Hairs  from  leaf  of  Centaarea,  terminating  In  glands 
A.    At «,  a  stoma. 


Emergences  of  the  Hemp  ( Cannabis  sativa),  capped 
by  glands,  showing  the  cuticle  lifted  into  a  vesicle  by 
the  secretion. 

very  granular  character  of  their  protoplasm. 
Single  glandular  cells  are  common  both  in  the 
interior  of  various  organs  and  at  the  surface. 


A  cross  section  of  a  resin  duct  in  a  young  pine 
leaf.  V,  receptacle  for  the  resin,  formed  by  the 
separation  of  the  secreting  cells,  z.  Later  the 
cells  surrounding  z  become  thick-walled  and 
prevent  collapse  of  the  duct. 

On  the  surface  they  are  not  infrequently  raised 
upon  a  longer  or  shorter  stalk,  in  which  case 
they  constitute  glandular  hairs. 

Receptacles  for  secretions  are  produced  either 
by  the  unusual  enlargement  of  an  intercellular 
space  among  the  gland-cells,  or  by  the  degenera- 
tion of  the  gland  itself,  leaving  the  secretion 
lying  amongst  the  tissues  originally  enveloping 
the  gland. 

(7)  The  Storage  System.  The  storage  sys- 
tem consists  of  masses  of  thin-walled  cells,  which 
are  usually  extraordinarily  developed  in  certain 
organs.  Any  organ,  root,  stem,  leaf,  or  even 
a  flower-bud,  may  thus  be  specially  adapted  to 
storage.  The  storage-cells  retain  their  vitality, 
and  have  the  power  of  organizing  the  food  ma- 
terials coming  to  them  into  permanent  storage 


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ANATOMY  OF  PLANTS. 


forms.     The    reserve    foods    consist    chiefly 
starch,  inuHn,  cellulose,  sugars,  oils,  and  proteid 


518 
of    of  the  elements. 


ANATOMY  or   PLANTS. 


0,  a  glandalar  lobe  of  the  leaf  of  Droeera,  with 
the  clear  secretion  in  situ.  In  the  centre  of  lobe  a 
water-oondQCtlng  bundle. 

by  a  glandalar  hair  from  the  leaf  of  tobacco. 
The  secreting  cells  are  shaded. 

materials  of  divers  kinds.  The  proteids  are 
stored  in  the  form  of  granules.  ( See  Alextbone.  ) 
Starch  is  also  stor^  in  granular  form,  each 
grain  being  organized  as  a  sphere-crystal  by  a 


A  bit  of  the  section  of  a  potato  taber,  showing  paren- 
chyma cells,  with  starch  grains  in  place. 

leucoplast  (q.v.).  Sugars  are  accumulated  in 
solution  in  the  cell-sap,  which  may  contain  5 
to  20  per  cent.  Oils  are  stored  usually  in  liquid 
form,  as  droplets  in  the  protoplasm. 

In  a  few  cases  tissues  are  devoted  to  water 
storage.  Water-storing  tissues  are  found  in 
plants  which  inhabit  regions  where  they  must 
provide  against  excessive  water  loss.  The  leaves 
of  Begonia  and  the  stems  of  Cactacese  furnish 
illustrations. 

(8)  The  Mechanical  System.  The  mechani- 
cal system  consists  of  cells  called  stereids,  some- 
times short,  sometimes  elongated,  whose  walls 
have  become  much  thickened.  The  living  con- 
tents of  mechanical  cells  usually  disappear  when 
the  walls  become  excessively  thick.  Short  (iso- 
diametric)  stereids,  developed  in  mass,  afford  re- 
sistance to  crushing,  as  in  fruits  and  seeds.  Elon- 
gated stereids  are  called  fibres.  They  impart 
elasticity,  extensibility,  flexibility,  and  tensile 
strength  to  the  body.  All  these  qualities  depend 
solely  upon  the  cell  walls  and  the  mode  of  union 


The  mechanical  tissues  are  dis- 
posed  in  the  plant  body  in  such  a  way  as  to  be 


Diagrams  of  cross-secUons  of  stems  to  show  the 
distribution  of  mechanical  tlesaes  (black),  a,  shows 
the  I-beam  principle ;  6,  the  hollow  column ;  c,  the 
boilt-np  girder. 

highly  efficient,  Conforming  in  their  distribution 
to  the  best  modes  of  mechanical  construction  for 
imparting  rigidity  and  strength.  In  cylindrical 
organs  like  the  stem  they  are  placed  near  the 
periphery,  on  the  principle  of  the  hollow  column, 
or  tne  built-up  column  of  latticed  girders.    In 


Elaioplasts  from  a  plant  with  the  milky  sap, 
showing  0,  oil  droplets,  which  sometlmee  accumu- 
late at  one  side  or  the  elaioplast. 

bilateral  organs,  like  leaves,  where  tearing  is  pos- 
sible from  w^ind  strains,  the  mechanical  tissues 
are  so  developed  as  to  afford  protection  to  the 
edge  against  tearing,  and  in  the  ribs  they  are  so 
placed  as  to  main&in  the  softer  tissues  in  the 
e;cpanded  position. 

The  development  of  mechanical  tissues  depends, 
in  large  measure,  upon  the  influence  of  external 
agents,  particularly  stresses  acting  in  various  di- 
rections. Thus  it  comes  about  that  the  different 
organs  attain  the  strength  necessary  to  main- 
tain their  position,  or  to  hold  the  attached  parts 
as  they  increase  in  size  and  weight. 

For  a  description  of  the  different  kinds  of  tis- 
sues involved  in  the  foregoing  systems,  see  His- 

TOTX)OY. 

BiBLTOORAPHT.  For  elementary  works,  con- 
sult: Barnes,  Plant  Life  (New  York,  1898); 
Bessey,  Botany  (New  York,  1892).  For  more 
advanced  works:  De  Bary,  Comparatii?e  Anatomff 
of  the  Vegetative  Organs  of  the  Phanerogams  and 
Ferns,  translated  by  Bower  and  Scott  (Oxford, 


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ANATOMY  or  PLANT& 


519 


ANAXnCENES. 


1884) ;  Goebel  and  Garnsey,  Outlines  of  Classi- 
fication and  Special  Morphology  (Oxford,  1887)  ; 
Strasburger,  Noll,  Schenck,  and  Schimper,  A 
Text  Book  of  Botany,  translated  by  Porter  ( New 
York,  1898) ;  Vines,  Students'  Text  Book  of 
Botany  (New  York,  1896). 

AN'AXAGKORAS  (Ok.  *Ava^ay6pag)  (e.  500- 
428  B.C.).  The  last  great  philosopher  of  the 
Ionian  School.  He  was  born  between  600  and 
496  B.C.  at  Clazomens,  in  Ionia,  the  son  of  Hege- 
sibulus.  His  family  was  wealthy  and  distin- 
guished, so  that  the  young  Anaxagoras  was  able 
to  devote  himself  to  intellectual  pursuits.  Soon 
after  the  Persian  Wars  he  moved  to  Athens, 
where  he  lived  and  taught  many  years,  thus 
transplanting  philosophy  from  Ionia  to  Attica, 
which  was  destined  to  be  its  home  for  many 
centuries.  Among  his  pupils  were  some  of  the 
most  distinguished  Athenians,  Pericles,  Euripi- 
des, possibly  Socrates  and  Archelaus.  But  after 
about  thirty  years*  residence  he  was  charged 
with  impiety  toward  the  gods,  apparently  by  the 
opponents  of  Pericles,  who  took  advantage  of 
Anaxagoras's  novel  explanations  of  natural  phe- 
nomena to  injure  the  statesman  through  his 
friend.  The  eloquence  of  Pericles,  however,  se- 
cured a  reduction  of  the  sentence  from  death  to 
banishment  for  life,  and  Anaxagoras,  after  some 
minderings,  settled  at  Lampsacus,  on  the  Helles- 
pont, where  he  diied  in  428  2.3. 

The  teachings  of  Anaxagoras  cannot  be  ex- 
actly determined  in  all  points.  Of  his  work  On 
Mature,  in  which  he  set  forth  his  system,  we  have 
only  fragments.  But  it  is  clear  that  he  made  a 
distinct  advance  over  the  earlier  Ionian  philoso- 
phers in  that  he  defined  a  new  principle.  Intelli- 
gence or  Mind  (  vovc  ),  as  operating  on  Matter, 
thus  introducing  a  dualistic  explanation  of  the 
universe  in  contrast  to  the  materialistic  monism 
of  his  predecessors.  This  dualism  was  further 
developed  by  Plato  and  Aristotle.  The  varied 
processes  of  change,  growth,  and  decay  were  ap- 
parently explained  to  be  the  combining  and  sepa- 
rating of  letter  under  the  directing  influence  of 
Intelligence.  It  was  taught  that  Matter  is 
single  in  its  nature,  and  consists  of  an  infinite 
number  of  invisible  atoms  inconceivably  small 
(^ankpiiara,  "seeds,"  named  Sfioioftep^  by  Aris- 
totle) ;  these  in  their  original  condition  make  the 
unformed  primitive  material,  possessing  no  char- 
acteristics. When  acted  on  by  Intelligence,  they 
form  individual  objects  we  see  about  us;  i.e., 
bars  of  gold,  or  iron,  or  copper  are  made  up  of 
the  same  material,  but  in  each  case  Intelligence 
has  caused  a  result  different  from  the  others; 
and  further,  the  processes  of  change  produced  by 
the  spiritual  principle  are  what  we  call  natural 
phenomena.  Intelligence  acts  from  a  point,  the 
pole,  setting  the  "seeds  of  matter"  into  spherical 
motion-  By  this  movement  the  lighter  parts  are 
separated  from  the  heavier,  the  former  to  be 
the  clear,  glowing  upper  air  (ether),  the  latter 
to  gather  in  the  centre,  and,  by  cooling,  to  become 
water,  land,  stones,  and  minerals.  The  heavenly 
bodies  are  masses  of  stone  cast  from  the  revolv- 
ing earth  into  the  fiery  ether,  where  they  are 
heated  and  continue  their  courses,  the  sun  being 
a  mass  larger  than  the  Peloponnesus.  Anaxa- 
goras's notions  with  regard  to  the  moon's  light, 
the  cause  of  the  rainbow,  of  winds,  and  of  sound 
were  fairly  accurate.  Plants,  the  lower  animals, 
and  man  owe  their  existence  and  continued  life 
to  the  Supreme  Intelligence  which  resides  in 
them.    In  his  doctrine  of  atoms,  his  "seeds,"  An- 


axagoras approaches  the  teaching  of  the  Atomic- 
School.  (See  Democritus.)  Naturally  Anaxa- 
goras did  not  conceive  the  nature  of  his  spiritual 
principle  clearly  enough  to  be  able  to  explain  de- 
tails satisfactorily,  as  Aristotle  remarks  in  his 
Metaphysics;  but  his  great  service  was  that  he 
turned  philosophy  from  thought  about  things  to 
the  consideration  of  Thought  itself,  and  made 
that  one  of  the  most  important  subjects  of  specu- 
lative inquiry  thereafter.  Anaxagoras  was  also 
classed  by  Eudemua  among  the  Greek  geometri- 
cians. Plutarch  ascribes  to  him  a  work  on  the 
SLiadrature  of  the  circle,  and  asserts  on  the  au- 
lority  of  Vitruvius  that  he  wrote  a  theory  on 
perspective.  Consult  Zeller,  Oeschichte  der  grie- 
cMschen  Philosophic  (Leipzig,  1893).  The  frag- 
ments are  edited  by  Schaubach  (Leipzig,  1827)  ; 
Schorn  (Bonn,  1829)  ;  Ritter  and  Preller,  His- 
toria  Philosophi€B  (seventh  edition, Gotha,  1888)  ; 
and  Lange,  History  of  Materialism,  Eng.  trans. 
(Boston,  1886). 

AK'AXAB^CHXTS  (Gk.  'Avd^apxoc,  Anatear- 
chos),  A  native  of  Abdera,  who  accompanied 
Alexander  in  the  Asian  expedition,  and  was 
highly  prized  by  him  as  a  counselor  and  friend. 
He  was  cruelly  put  to  death  bv  the  Cyprian 
prince,  Nicocreon.  Consult  Zelier,  Oeschichte 
der  griechischen  Philosophic   (Leipzig,  1893). 

ANAX'IMAN03EB  (Gk.  'Ava^ifiavSpog,  An- 
awimandros)  (610-646  B.C.).  A  Greek  mathe- 
matician, astronomer,  and  philosopher.  He  was 
bom  at  Miletus,  the  son  of  Praxiades,  and  was 
a  disciple  and  jfriend  of  Thales,  whom  he  suc- 
ceeded as  the  head  of  the  Ionian  School.  He  is 
said  to  have  discovered  the  obliquity  of  the  eclip- 
tic, and  certainly  taught  it.  He  appears  to  have 
been  the  first  to  introduce  in  Greece  the  gno- 
mon (an  instrument  for  determining  the  sol- 
stices), and  the  polos  (sun-dial).  The  invention 
of  geographical  maps  is  also  ascribed  to  him. 
According  to  Simplicius  and  Diogenes,  Anax- 
imander  approximated  the  size  and  distances  of 
the  planets,  constructed  astronomical  globes,  and 
wrote  a  work  on  geometry  in  prose.  He  seems  to 
have  conceived  of  the  universe  as  a  number  of 
concentric  cylinders,  of  which  the  outer  is  the 
sun,  the  middle  the  moon,  and  the  innermost  the 
stars.  Within  these  all  is  the  cylindrical  earth. 
As  a  philosopher,  he  speculated  on  the  origin 
(If  dpxv,  he  arch€)  of  the  phenomenal  world;  and 
this  principle  he  held  to  be  the  infinite  or  inde- 
terminate {rb  &rreipov,  to  apeiron).  This  indeter- 
minate principle  of  Anaximander  is  generally 
supposed  to  have  been  much  the  same  with  the 
chaos  of  other  philosophers.  From  it  he  con- 
ceived all  opposites,  such  as  hot  and  cold,  dry 
and  moist,  to  proceed  through  a  perpetual  mo- 
tion, and  to  return  to  it  again.  Of  the  manner 
in  which  he  imagined  these  opposites  to  be 
formed,  and  of  his  hypothesis  concerning  the 
formation  of  the  heavenly  bodies  from  them, 
we  have  no  accurate  information.  It  would 
seem,  however,  that  he  did  not  believe  in  the 
generation  of  anything  in  the  proper  sense  of 
the  word,  but  supposed  that  the  infinite  atoms 
or  units  of  which  the  dpxv,  or  primary 
matter,  is  composed,  merely  change  their  relative 
positions  in  obedience  to  a  moving  power  resid- 
ing in  it.  Consult  Zeller,  Oeschichte  der  grie- 
chischen Philosophie  (Leipzig,  1893). 

AN'AXIM^ENES  (Gk.  ^Ava^ifiiiTit:).  A  Greek 
historian,  born  in  Lampsacus,  Asia  Minor,  in  the 
fourth  century  B.C.     He  was  a  pupil  of  Zoilus 


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AKAXIMENES. 


520 


ANGHITHERIXrK. 


and  Diogenes;  is  said  to  have  taught  Alexander 
rhetoric,  and  to  have  accompanied  him  in  the 
Persian  expedition.  He  wrote  histories  of  Philip 
of  Macedon,  of  Alexander,  and  of  Greece,  of 
which  a  few  fragments  exist.  The  rhetoric  ad- 
dressed to  Alexander,  found  among  the  writings 
of  Aristotle,  is  also  attributed  to  him. 

ANAXnCEHES.  A  Greek  philosopher,  who 
was  born  at  Miletus,  in  Asia  Minor,  and  flour- 
ished about  646  b.g.  He  held  air  to  be  the  first 
cause  of  all  things,  or  the  primary  form  of  mat- 
ter, from  which  all  things  are  formed  by  com- 
pression. Consult  Zeller,  (Mcschichte  der  grie- 
chischen  Philosophie  (Leipzig,  1893). 

ANAYA,  &-nryA,  Pedbo  Mabia  (1795-1854). 
A  Mexican  general.  He  was  born  at  Huichapan, 
and  in  1811  joined  the  Mexican  army,  in  which 
he  attained  the  rank  of  brigadier-general  in  1833. 
During  the  Mexican  War  Greneral  Anaya  took 
part  in  the  battle  of  Churubusco  (q.v.),  on  Au- 
gust 20,  1847.  He  was  Minister  of  War  under  Her- 
rera,  in  1845;  was  Secretary  of  War  under  Arista, 
in  1852;  was  Acting  President  of  Mexico  while 
Santa  Anna  was  resisting  the  advance  of 
Scott  (April  2— May  20,  1847),  and  during  the 
absence  of  President  PeCia  y  Pefia  (September 
26,  1847— January  8,  1848).  Upon  Santa  Anna's 
restoration  (1853)  he  became  Postmaster-Gen- 
eral, and  retained  that  post  un^il  his  death. 

AK^TJBY  (probably  from  A.  S.  ange,  vexa- 
tion, trouble  4- oerry).  A  disease  of  cabbage, 
turnips,  and  other  cruciferous  plants.  See  Club 
Root. 

ANCffiOTS  (Gk.  'Ay/caiof,  Ankaios).  A 
name  of  two  of  the  Argonauts  of  Greek  legend. 
(1)  A  son  of  Poseidon,  who  became  steersman 
of  the  Argo.  He  is  noted  for  the  prophecy  that 
he  should  not  live  to  taste  wine  from  his  own 
vineyard.  At  the  moment  when  at  length  he 
did  lift  a  cup  of  its  vintage  he  was  told  that 
"there's  many  a  slip  'twixt  the  cup  and  the  lip," 
and  just  then  the  noise  of  a  wild  boar  which  had 
got  into  the  vineyard  called  him  away.  He  was 
killed  by  the  animal,  and  so  fulfilled  the  predic- 
tion. (2)  A  son  of  Lycurgus  the  Arcadian.  He 
was  killed  by  the  Calydonian  boar. 

ANCELOT,  ftNs'-iy,  Jacques  ARsi:NE  Polt- 
CARPE  (1794-1854).  French  dramatist,  novelist, 
and  poet,  born  at  Havre,  who  won  fame  and  a 
pension  in  1819  by  his  tragedy  Louis  IX.  His 
other  serious  dramas  are  not  noteworthy ;  but  an 
epic,  Marie  de  Brabant,  and  a  novel,  L* Homme  du 
wonde  (1829)  attracted  attention.  The  Revolu- 
tion of  1830  cost  him  his  pension,  and  he  became 
a  fertile  purveyor  of  light  dramas,  farces,  and 
vaudevilles  of  doubtful  morality.  Very  readable 
are  the  g^raceful  verses  of  his  epigrammatic 
satires,  Epttres  familidres  (1842)  ;  but  Louis  IX., 
his  first  considerable  work,  remains  his  best.  His 
wife,  Marguerite  Louise  Virginie  Chardon 
(1702-1875),  collaborated  with  him,  and  wrote 
independently  plays  once  successful  and  novels 
now  forgotten. 

AN^CESTOB  (M.  Engl,  ancessour,  from  Lat. 
antecessor,  a  predecessor,  foregoer).  In  the 
English  law  of  inheritance  the  person  from 
whom  one  may  inherit  real  property.  It  is  the 
correlative  of  heir.  The  term  is  sometimes  loose- 
ly used  as  signifying  a  progenitor ;  but  properly, 
in  this  legal  usage,  an  ancestor  need  not  be  a 
progenitor,  as  one  may  inherit  from  his  collateral 


relatives  as  well  as  from  an  ancestor  in  the  direct 
line.     See  Heib;  Succession. 

ANCESTOB  WOB^HIP.     See  Ma!7. 

ANCHACHS,  in-kach's.  A  maritime  depart- 
ment of  Peru,  bounded  by  the  department  of 
Libertad  on  the  north,  Huftnuco  and  Junin  on  the 
east,  Lima  on  the  south,  and  the  Pacific  on  the 
west  (Map:  Peru,  B  5).  Area,  16,562  square 
miles.  The  greater  portion  of  the  surface  is 
mountainous,  but  there  is  some  good  agricultural 
land.  The  mineral  deposits  are  supposed  to  be 
very  important,  but  are  little  worked.  There  is 
a  railway  line  running  through  the  State  from 
Chimbote  to  Huaraz,  the  capital.  The  popula- 
tion was  estimated  in  1896  at  428,703. 

AKCHIETA,  An-shya'tA,  Jos6  de  (153397). 
A  Portuguese  Jesuit  missionary,  called  "Apostle 
of  Brazil;"  related  to  Loyola.  He  was  bom 
at  Luguna,  in  Teneriffe,  Canary  Islands,  and  in 
1553  went  to  Brazil,  where  he  founded  the  first 
college  for  the  conversion  of  natives,  and  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  converted  Indians. 
Both  the  Portuguese  and  savages  ascribed  to  him 
the  working  of  miracles.  He  died  near  Espirito 
Santo.  His  work  on  the  Natural  Productions  of 
Brazil  was  published  by  the  Academy  of  Sciences 
at  Madrid.  Consult :  Rodriguez,  Vida  del  Padre 
J,  de  Anchieia  (1618),  and  Vasconcellos,  Vida 
do  Padre  Joseph  de  Anckieta  (1620). 

ANCHISAXr&TJS,  ftg'ki-sft^rils  (Gk.  avxt,  af^ 
chif  near -|- (Tarpoc,  aauros,  lizard).  The  best 
known  of  the  dinosaurian  reptiles  that  lived  on 
the  marshes,  flood-plains  and  beaches  of  the  Con- 
necticut estuary  during  the  Triassic  Period.  Two 
species  are  known,  quite  perfect  skeletons  of  both 
of  which  have  been  found ;  the  larger,  Anchisaurw 
colurus,  having  had  a  slender,  delicate  body  about 
six  feet  long,  which  length  is  hardly  one-tenth 
that  of  many  of  the  enormous  dinosaurs  found  in 
the  Jurassic  rocks  of  the  Western  States.  These 
carnivorous  Anchisauri  had  small,  bird-like 
heads  with  large  eyes,  and  beaked  jaws,  each 
provided  with  eighteen  teeth,  and  had  long, 
slender,  bird-like  necks.  The  form  and  number 
of  the  bones  of  the  tail  indicate  that  this  mem- 
ber was  slender,  round,  and  usually  carried  free 
from  the  ground.  Anchisaurus,  with  its  short 
fore  legs,  that  seldom  touched  the  ground,  and  it^ 
four-toed  hind  feet,  the  first  digits  of  which  were 
BO  weak  as  to  render  them  incapable  of  making 
impressions  upon  the  firm,  moist  sands  of  the 
beach,  was  in  all  probability  the  reptile  that 
made  many  of  the  well-known  *T)ird-tracks''  of 
the  Connecticut  Valley  sandstone.  For  illustra- 
tion, see  DiNOSAUBS. 

ANCHISES,  fin-kl'sez  (Gk.  'Ayx'tfVC,  Anchi- 
sSs).  In  Grecian  legend,  a  descendant  of  the 
royal  house  of  Ilium  (Troy),  and  the  father  by 
Aphrodite  (Venus)  of  the  Trojan  hero  iSneas 
(q.v.).  He  had  been  commanded  not  to  reveal 
the  maternity  of  the  child,  but  disclosed  the 
secret  to  his  companions,  and  was  made  blind 
(one  legend  says  killed)  by  lightning  from  Zeus. 
At  the  fall  of  Troy,  his  son  bore  him  away  on  his 
shoulders,  and  Vergil  describes  their  voyage  to 
Italy  and  Sicily,  where  the  old  father  died  and 
was  buried  at  Drepanum  (Trapani). 

ANCHITHEBIUM,  fto'kl-the'rt-tim,  (Gk. 
ivxh  a«c/it,  near  +  ^piov,  tA^^on,  wild  beast). 
One  of  the  three-toed  fossil  horses  of  Middle  Mio- 
cene Tertiary  time,  remains  of  which  have  been 
found  in  North  America  and  Europe.    The  ani- 


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mal  was  of  the  size  of  the  Shetland  pony,  and 
had  the  middle  toe  of  each  foot  well  developed, 
while  the  lateral  toes,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
middle  toe,  though  of  a  length  sufficient  to  reach 
the  ground,  were  of  such  delicate  construction 
as  to  be  incapable  of  supporting  any  weight. 
Anchitherium  was  at  one  time  thought  to  be  one 
of  the  ancestors  of  the  modern  horse,  but  is  now 
considered  to  represent  an  olTshoot  from  the 
main  line  of  evolution  of  the  horse,  although  it 
lived  at  the  same  time  and  in  company  with  the 
direct  horse  ancestors.  A  complete  skeleton  of 
Anchitherium  affine,  found  at  Pawnee  Buttes, 
Colorado,  in  1901,  is  on  exhibition  in  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York 
City.  For  descriptions  of  other  forms  of  fossil 
horses,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  article  on 
Horse;  Fossil. 

AN'CHOB  (Lat.  ancora,  Gk..  &yKvpa,  ankyra, 
akin  to  Engl,  angle;  literal  meaning,  ^'something 
crooked,  hooked" ) .  A  heavy  instrument  designed 
to  rest  on  the  sea  bottom,  and,  by  means  of  a 
cable  or  rope,  hold  a  vessel,  buoy,  or  other  float- 
ing object  in  a  desired  position.  Anchors  for 
buoys  frequently  consist  merely  of  heavy  blocks 
of  stone,  but  those  for  ships  are  now  almost  in- 
variably of  iron  or  steel.  Many  forms  of  anchors 
were  used  by  the  ancients.  The  earliest  consisted 
of  stones,  or  baskets  of  stones,  which  acted  mere- 
ly as  weights  without  hooking  into  the  ground; 
these  were  followed  by  hooked  sticks,  weighted 
to  make  them  sink,  and  having  only  one  ai-m. 
Other  arms  were  eventually  added,  so  that  the 
anchors  resembled  the  modern  grapnel.  The 
earliest  recorded  use  of  anchors  was  by  the  Egyp- 
tians on  their  Red  Sea  galleys,  while  the  Greeks 
are  credited  with  having  used  the  first  iron  an- 
chor. Greek  vessels  had  several  anchors,  one  of 
which,  called  the  "sacred  anchor,"  w^as  never  let 
go  until  the  ship  was  in  dire  distress;  and  a 
similar  custom  was,  for  many  years,  observed  in 
the  British  Navy.  All  sea-going  vessels  ordi- 
narily carry  several  anchors.  Two  of  these,  at 
least,  are  carried  well  forward,  one  on  each  bow, 
and  are  therefore  called  bowers,  and  are  desig- 
nated as  the  port  hoioer  or  starboard  6oirrr,  ac- 
cording to  the  side  of  the  ship  on  which  they  are 
carried.  In  addition  to  these,  large  vessels  carry 
one  or  two  anchors  of  about  the  same  size,  called 
sheet  anchors.  They  are  stowed  like  the  bowers, 
but  usually  some  distance  further  aft,  and,  not 
being  intended  for  immediate  use,  are  generally 
securely  lashed  in  place. 

A  stream  anchor  is  a  light  anchor,  not  more 
than  half  as  heavy  as  one  of  the  bowers,  and 
usually  about  one-fourth.  It  is  often  very  use- 
ful. Very  light  anchors  are  called  kedges.  In  the 
United  States  Navy  the  weight  of  a  battleship's 
bower  or  sheet  anchor  is  from  14,000  to  18,000 
pounds.  Stream  anchors  (the  term  "stream"  is 
not  now  much  used)  weigh  from  1,000  to  3,000 
pounds,  and  kedges  from  100  to  1,000  pounds. 
Smaller  anchors  are  carried  for  the  boats.  For 
the  purpose  of  grappling  and  holding  to  such 
objects  as  a  vessel's  rigging,  trees  on  shore, 
chains  and  the  like,  a  small  instrument  called  a 
grapnel  is  used.  It  has  no  stock,  but  has  several 
arms,  each  sharply  pointed.  They  were  much 
used  in  "cutting  out"  expeditions  in  the  days 
when  such  enterprises  were  common.  The  grap- 
nel, with  a  short  length  of  chain  attached,  as 
the  enemy  would  have  severed  a  rope  with  their 
cutlasses,  was  thrown  into  the  rigging  of  the 
ship  attacked.    This  enabled  those  of  the  attack- 


ing party,  in  a  tideway,  or  when  the  ship  at- 
tacked was  moving,  to  keep  alongside  until  they 
could  clamber  on  board.  Grapnels  are  still  is^ 
sued  for  use  in  boats  in  the  United  States  Navy, 
and  a  large  folding  grapnel,  with  straight  hinged 
arms,  is  used  to  some  extent  in  naval  boats  in 
place  of  an  anchor  of  the  customary  shape.  An- 
chors were  formerly  made  of  wrought  iron,  but 
are  now  very  largely  made  of  cast  steel.  There 
are  two  types  in  use,  the  old,  or  ordinary  type, 
in  which  the  stock  is  at  right  angles  to  the  arms, 
and  patent  anchors,  which  have  no  stock  at  all, 
or  if  they  have,  it  lies  in  the  same  plane  with  the 
arms.  The  shape  of  the  ordinary  anchor  is  fa- 
miliar, and  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.     The  main  body  is 


FlO.   1.      ANCHOR. 

A    Ring 
B    Stock 
C   Shank 
D   Crown 
E   Palm 

F    Fluke 

G   Arm 

H  Bill 

K  Shackle  or  Jewsharp 

L    Club-link 

called  the  shank;  at  one  end  it  joins  the  arms, 
and  at  the  other  is  pierced  by  a  hole  through 
which  passes  the  iron  (or  steel)  stock.  The  lat- 
ter has  a  ball  cast  on  one  end;  the  other  end 
is  bent  at  right  angles  a  few  inches  from  its  ex- 
tremity, and  also  terminates  in  a  ball,  but  the 
ball  is  removable.  The  stock  is  held  in  position 
in  the  shank  by  a  raised  lug,  or  shoulder,  on  one 
side,  and  by  a  key  on  the  other.  The  bend  at  the 
end  permits  it  to  be  partly  drawn  out  and  folded 
down  along  the  shank.  At  the  other  end  of  the 
shank  from  the  stock  are  the  arms,  which  are 
cast  or  forged  in  one  piece  with  it.  They  taper 
slightly  toward  their  ends,  which  are  called  pees, 
or  bills,  and  on  the  side  toward  the  shank  have 
shield-shaped  pieces  called  the  flukes.    The  faces 


1^ 


FIO.  2*     PATENT  ANCUOK. 

A    Ring  C    Crown 

B    Shank  DD    Flukes 

E   Pivot 

of  the  flukes  are  called  palms.  The  middle  of  the 
curve  of  the  arms,  opposite  to  and  in  line  with 
the  shank,  is  called  the  crown. 


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Patent  anchors  differ  in  details  of  design, 
but  in  all  of  them  the  arms  are  pivoted  to 
the  shank,  usually  by  a  very  heavy  bolt. 
The  flukes  are  enlarged,  and  lie  in  the  same 
plane  with  the  arms  and  shank  when  the  former 
are  in  mid-position.  When  the  anchor  is  on 
the  bottom,  the  arms  turn,  the  flukes  droop, 
and,  pointed  downward,  are  forced  into  the 
ground.  To  assist  in  preventing  the  anchor  from 
being  capsized  by  a  side  pull  on  the  chain,  some 
patent  anchors  are  fltted  with  short  stocks,  which 
lie  in  the  same  plane  as  the  arms  when  the  latter 
are  in  mid-position.  When  an  anchor  of  ordinary 
type  is  let  go,  it  strikes  on  the  crown  and  then 
falls  over  and  rests  on  one  end  of  the  stock. 
The  first  pull  of  the  chain  cants  (i.e.,  tilts  it 
over)  it,  laying  the  stock  flat  on  the  bottom  and 
pointing  one  of  the  bills  fair  for  entering  the 
gi'ound.  Additional  pulls  serve  to  drive  the  bill 
and  fluke  into  the  ground  to  a  depth  which  de- 
pends upon  the  strain  upon  the  chain  and  the 
softness  of  the  bottom.'  The  principal  points  of 
€.Ycellence  in  an  anchor  are:  Holding-power 
under  various  conditions,  strength,  quick-holding, 
quick-tripping,  exemption  from  fouling,  facility 
of  stowing,  facility  of  sweeping,  canting,  facility 
of  fishing  in  a  heavy  sea,  and  facility  of  trans- 
port in,  or  by,  boats.  Slight  differences  of  design 
make  considerable  difference  in  the  holding- 
power  of  anchors.  For  an  ordinary  anchor  the 
most  favorable  angle  for  the  palm  is  thought  to 
be  a  little  less  than  45  degreed  from  the  middle 
line  of  the  shank,  but  in  most  patent  anchors 
the  flukes  are  permitted  to  droop  not  more  than 
35  degrees.  The  shank  of  all  anchors  projects 
a  short  distance  beyond  the  stock,  where  it  is 
fitted  with  a  heavy  ring  or  shackle  called  the 
ring;  the  ring  in  turn  is  secured  to  the  chain 
by  a  heavy  shackle  called  the  jewsharp,  the  jaws 
of  which  embrace  the  club,  or  body,  of  a  club- 
link;  beyond  this  there  is  sometimes  an  open 
link,  and  then  follows  the  chain.  The  latter  dif- 
fers from  ordinary  chain  in  having  a  cross-piece 
in  each  link  called  a  stay  pin,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  prevent  the  chain  from  kinking,  to 
which  ordinary  chain  is  liable,  and  which  would 
be  a  most  serious  matter  in  an  anchor  chain,  be- 
cause it  not  only  might  cause  the  chain  to  part 
under  the  pull  of  the  ship,  but  in  letting  go  the 
anchor  a  kink  formed  in  the  chain-tocker  (the 
box  or  compartment  in  which  the  chain  is 
stowed)  might  jam  in  a  chainpipe  in  the  deck,  or 
in  the  hawsepipe,  with  disastrous  consequences. 

In  the  navy  and  in  most  vessels  of  the  mer- 
chant service  the  anchor  chain  was  formerly  di- 
vided into  lengths  of  15  fathoms  (or  12^2  fathoms 
in  England),  called  shots,  each  shot  being  joined 
to  the  succeeding  one  with  a  shackle.  At  7*4 
fathoms  from  the  anchor,  and  again  at  37  Vi 
fathoms,  were  placed  swivels,  to  prevent  the 
chain  from  getting  kinks  by  twisting.  In  the 
United  States  Navy  the  present  practice  is  to 
place  a  swivel  at  5  fathoms,  and  neither  shackle 
nor  swivel  between  that  and  45  fathoms.  This 
is  to  facilitate  petting  up  the  anchor.  Neither 
swivels  nor  shackles  fit  the  wildcat  closely,  and, 
if  the  pull  is  heavy,  they  are  apt  to  slip  and  cause 
delay.  Merchant  ships  anchor  less  frequently 
and  in  less  exposed  places  than  those  which  men- 
of-war  are  frequently  compelled  to  accept  for 
anchorage-ground,  consequently  less  attention  is 
paid  to  the  details  of  the  ground-tackle  (i.e., 
anchors,  chains,  etc.)  of  merchantmen.  When 
expecting  to  remain  in  port  for  more  than  a 


few  days,  especially  if  the  harbor  or  anchorage 
ground  is  contracted,  or  if  there  is  a  strong  tidal 
or  river  current,  mooring  is  frequently  resorted 
to.  The  length  of  chain  varies  w^ith  the  depth 
of  water  and  other  considerations,  but  a  moor 
at  forty-five  fathoms  is  common  practice.  After 
dropping  one  anchor  the  ship  veers  (i.e.,  lets 
run  out)  chain  until  about  ninety  fathoms  are 
laid  out;  then  the  other  anchor  is  let  go;  now, 
by  heaving  in  on  the  first  chain  to  forty-five 
fathoms  and  paying  out,  or  veering  on  the  second 
to  forty-five  fathoms,  the  ship  is  brought  to  a 
middle  position  between  her  anchors,  and  in 
swinging  to  the  tide  or  wind  will  cover  very 
much  less  ground  than  if  riding  to  a  single 
anchor,  and  her  chain  cannot  sweep  over  an 
anchor  and  trip  (i.e.,  cause  it  to  let  go  its  hold) 
it. 

When  the  ship  swings,  however,  she  may  not 
merely  move  back  and  forth,  but  may  turn  all  the 
way  around  (e.g.,  heading  north,  she  may  swing 
until  she  heads  east,  then  south,  and  then — in- 
stead of  going  back  to  east  and  then  north — con- 
tinue the  circle  by  heading  west  and  then  north) ; 
this  will  cause  the  chains  to  cross,  or  if  the 
operation  continues,  to  wind  themselves  around 
each  other,  and  give  what  is  called  a  foul  hawse. 
This  must  be  cleared  by  unshackling  and  unwind- 
ing one  of  the  chains,  the  operation  being  called 
clearing-hawse.  To  avoid  the  labor  of  this,  and 
it  is  a  very  laborious  task  with  heavy  chain,  a 
mooring  svyivel  is  frequently  used.  This  is  a 
swivel  having  two  shackles  at  top  and  two  at  the 
bottom;  the  chains  leading  to  both  anchors  are 
opened  at  the  forty-five  fathom  shackles,  and  the 
parts  leading  from  the  anchors  bent  (i.e.,  joined) 
to  the  lower  shackles  of  the  mooring  swivel  while 
the  inboard  ends  (i.e.,  those  extending  from  the 
ship)  are  bent  to  the  upper  shackles  of  the 
swivel.  The  ship  is  now  free  to  swing  without 
fouling  her  chains,  as  the  swivel  turns  with  her. 

Patent  anchors  are  much  used,  as  they  are 
convenient  in  more  ways  than  one.  When  on  the 
bottom,  there  is  no  arm  sticking  up  in  which  the 
chain  can  catch  as  the  ship  swings,  or  on  which 
she  might  strike  if  the  water  is  shallow.  When 
hoisted,  the  absence  of  a  stock  at  right  angles 
to  the  arms  facilitates  storage;  and  in  some 
ships  the  anchor  is  pulled  up,  without  catting  or 
fishing,  into  a  recess  for  it  in  the  bow.  Anchors 
are  hoisted  by  means  of  a  capstan  or  windlass. 
The  former  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  huge  hour- 
glass, but  is  stouter  in  the  middle,  and  carries 
about  its  lower  edge  a  recess,  with  ridges  on  the 
upper  and  lower  fianges;  this  arrangement,  in 
which  the  chain  fits,  is  called  the  unldcat.  Wind- 
lasses are  like  capstans,  but  are  turned  on  the 
side,  and  usually  have  two  or  more  wildcats.  On 
vessels  in  which  steam  gear  is  not  fitted  to  the 
capstan,  the  latter  is  turned  "by  hand;  long 
wooden  bars,  called  capstan  bars,  are  fitted  intti 
recesses  in  the  head  of  the  capstan  and  held 
in  place  by  a  small  rope  call^  the  swifter, 
which  passes  through  a  score,  or  groove,  in  their 
outer  ends.  Small  windlasses  are  operated  by 
levers  like  pump  brakes,  which  turn  the  windlass 
barrel  by  means  of  racks  and  pawls.  In  the 
older  ships,  the  first  operation  of  getting  up  the 
anchor  consists  in  bringing-to  the  chain  (i.e.,  in 
pulling  up  slack  chain  from  the  locker  and 
putting  it  in  the  wildcat  of  the  capstan) ;  large 
ships  are  now  usually  fitted  with  steam  \Wnd- 
lasses,  on  which  the  chain  is  always  in  place.  The 
next  process  is  to  release  the  chain  from  the  hitt 


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ANCHOB. 


523 


ANCHORITE. 


and  stoppers.  The  former  is  a  heavy,  cylindrical 
iron  casting  securely  bolted*  to  the  deck;  the 
chain  usually  has  one  turn  around  it,  but  when 
the  ship  is  pulling  heavily  at  her  anchor,  owing 
to  a  strong  current  or  heavy  sea,  the  chain  in 
double-bitted  (i.e.,  has  two  turns).  The  « toppers' 
are  short  lengths  of  heavy  wire  rope  hooked  to 
rings  in  the  deck  at  one  end  and  lashed  with 
rope  to  the  chain  at  the  other;  there  are  usually 
several  stoppers  on  the  chain,  and  if  there  is  no 
controller  (an  iron  contrivance  to  hold  the  chain 
from  running)  forward  of  the  bitta,  a  stopper 
must  now  be  put  on  the  chain  there.  The  chain 
is  then  unhitted  (i.e.,  thrown  off  the  bitt)  ;  the 
slack  is  taken  in  until  the  strain  is  on  the  wind- 
lass, or  capstan,  and  all  stoppers  taken  off.  The 
heaving  in  then  begins ;  when  the  chain  has  been 
hove  in  until  any  further  pull  is-  liable  to  cause 
the  anchor  to  trip,  or  the  ship  to  drag,  it  is 
said  to  be  hove  short  or  at  a  short  stay  (the 
terms  astay  and  at  a  long  stay  are  not  much 
used),  and  its  direction,  making  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees  with  the  surface  of  the  water, 
is  about  parallel  to  the  fore  stay  of  a  rigged  ship. 

If  everything  is  ready  for  leaving  the  anchor- 
age, the  heaving  continues  until  the  chain  is 
vertical,  or,  in  nautical  terms,  up  and  down  (the 
anchor  is  then  said  to  be  apeak)  ^  the  anchor  is 
broken  out  and  hoisted  to  a  convenient  position 
at  the  hawsepipe,  when  it  is  said  to  be  up.  In 
old-type  ships,  a  tackle  called  the  cat  was  next 
used*;  a  hook  on  the  lower  block  of  the  cat-fall 
was  inserted  in  the  ring  of  the  anchor,  and  the 
latter  was  catted  by  being  pulled  up  to  the 
cathead,  which  projected  slightly  from  the  ship's 
side;  the  fish  tackle  was  then  hooked  to  the 
crown,  and  the  other  end  of  the  anchor  pulled  up 
until  the  shank  was  about  horizontal  and  the 
inboard  arm  rested  on  an  inclined  iron  plate 
called  the  bill-board,  the  latter  operation  con- 
stituting fishing.  The  anchor  was  now  secured 
by  small  chains,  one  in  the  ring  called  the  ring- 
stopper;  and  the  other,  around  the  shank  close 
to  the  outboard  arm,  called  the  shank  painter. 
One  end  of  each  of  these  chains  led  to 
a  trigger,  by  striking  which  the  anchor  was 
let  go  with  ease  and  certainty.  Under  some 
circumstances  it  is  desirable  to  cockbill  the 
anchor  before  letting  it  go.  This  is  done 
by  easing  away  the  shank  painter  until  the 
anchor  hangs  at  the  cathead  by  the  ring- 
stopper:  it  is  then  said  to  be  a-cockbill.  In 
most  modern  ships  there  is  securfed  on  the 
shank  of  the  anchor,  at  the  balancing  point, 
a  link  called  the  balance-link.  When  the  anchor 
is  hove  up  to  the  hawsepipe  (i.e.,  the  cast- 
iron  pipe  in  the  ship's  bow  through  which  the 
chain  passes),  the  cat  is  hooked  to  the  balance- 
link,  and  the  anchor  is  lifted  in  a  horizontal 
position  and  put  in  place  on  the  bill-board. 
Instead  of  a  cathead,  this  form  of  cat  re<^uires  a 
heavy  cat  davit,  or  derrick,  standing  eight  or 
ten  feet  above  the  deck,  and  mounted  upon  a 
swivel  stand.  In  letting  go  the  anchor,  it  is 
necessary  to  control  the  speed  of  the  chain  as 
it  goes  out.  For  this  purpose  it  is  bitted  (single 
bitted,  with  one  turn  around  the  bitt)  ;  this 
prevents  the  velocity  of  the  chain  from  becoming 
too  great.  When  a  sufficient  quantity  of  chain 
has  run  out,  the  brake  is  put  on  the  windlass, 
and  the  compressor  (a  curved  arm  which  grips 
and  holds  the  chain)  hauled  to.  The  stoppers 
are  then  put  on  and  the  chain  is  secure. 

A  sea-anchor  is  variously  constructed ;  it  usual- 


Fio.  8. 

Mushroom 

Anchob. 


ly  floats,  and  is  then  made  up  of  spars  and  can- 
vas, or  something  that  will  not  sink  and  will 
offer  resistance  to  the  water;  but  it  is  sometimes 
made  of  materials  too  heavy  to  float,  and  is  then 
held  up  more  or  less  by  the  pull  on  the  anchor 
rope.  Its  object  is  to  keep  a  boat  or  ship  with 
her  bow  up  to  the  seas,  and  so  enable  her  to  ride 
them  better  and  roll  and  wallow  about  less;  and 
it  accomplishes  this  by  being  in  or  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  so  that  it  tends  to  drift  more 
slowly  than  the  boat  or  ship  which  is  exposed 
to  the  force  of  the  wind  and  of  the  waves. 

Mooring  anchors  are  of  various  types  and  are 
designed  for  permanent  moorings;  they  are  used 
for  holding  in  place  large  mooring  buoys  to  which 
ships  may  secure  in  lieu  of  anch- 
oring, or  as  anchors  for  buoys 
marking  a  channel  or  shoal.  As 
has  already  been  stated,  a  moor- 
ing anchor  may  consist  merelv  of 
a  heavy  stone,  but  others  are  of  the 
mushroom,  or  screw,  forna. 

Mushroom  anchors  of  one  type 
have  a  saucer-shaped  head,  from 
the  concave  side  of  which  extends 
the  shank,  which  has  a  shackle 
in  the  end  for  the  chain ;  the  other 
type  consists  merely  of  the  iron 
saucer,  with  the  shackle  on  the 
convex  side;  in  this  second  type, 
the  anchor  holds  largely  by  suc- 
tion. Screw  anchors,  as  their 
name  implies,  are  shaped  like 
screws  with  very  broad  flanges,  and  are  screwed 
down  into  the  mud  by  means  of  a  long  bar  called 
the  key. 

AN^CHORAGE,  or ANCHOBAGE-aBOXTND. 
That  portion  of  a  harbor  or  roadstead  best  suited 
for  anchoring  vessels ;  or,  in  harbors  where  there 
is  much  commerce  or  traffic,  that  portion  in  which 
vessels  are  permitted  to  anchor.  A  good  anchor- 
age is  one  in  which  the  water  is  of  sufficient  but 
not  excessive  depth;  in  which  the  bottom  is  of 
such  a  character  as  to  enable  the  anchor  (q.v.) 
to  enter  in  and  hold  (i.e.,  the  holding-ground  is 
good),  and  which  is  protected  from  the  open 
sea.  The  practice  of  indicating  upon  charts  by 
means  of  an  anchor  the  best  anchorage  in  any 
particular  locality  still  obtains,  but  is  falling 
somewhat  into  disuse,  owing  to  the  more  definite 
information  now  given  by  charts  and  sailing 
directions. 

AK^CHOB  CHAIN.     See  Anchor. 

ANCHOB  DAVIT.    See  Anchor;  Davit. 

ANCHOB  ICE.     See  Ice. 

AN^CHOBITE,  or  AN'CHOBET  (Gk.  avd- 
Xf->pfFVC*  anachdrCtSs,  a  recluse,  retired  man, 
from  dfd,  ana,  back  -f-  x^P^l^*  chdrein^  to  give 
way,  retire ) .  Literally,  a  person  who  withdraws 
from  society;  a  hermit.  The  name  was  applied 
to  those  hermits  who  began  to  appear  in  the 
Christian  Church  in  the  third  century,  living  in 
solitude,  and  not,  like  the  monks  or  cenobites, 
in  communities.  During  the  first  two  centuries, 
Christians  generally  thought  it  enough  to  with- 
draw from  the  world  by  refusing  to  participate 
in  heathen  festivals  and  amusements:  but  ex- 
treme views  became  gradually  prevalent,  and 
were  connected  with  a  belief  in  the  merit  of 
celibacy,  of  abstinence  from  particular  kinds  of 
food,  of  self-inflicted  tortures,  etc.  The  perse- 
cutions  to    which    Christians     were     subjected 


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524 


ANCIENT    LIGHTS. 


drove  some  into  the  solitude  of  deserts;  after- 
ward, the  glory  of  a  life  spent  in  loneliness  and 
austerity  became  a  substitute  for  that  of  the 
martyr's  death.  The  general  corruption  of  soci- 
ety also  caused  many  earnest  and  well-meaning 
persons  to  shun  it.  The  ascetics  (see  Asceti- 
cism) set  the  example  of  retiring  from  cities  to 
rural  districts  and  villages;  the  anchorites  went 
further,  and  sought  to  withdraw  themselves  al- 
together from  mankind;  and  if  the  reputation 
of  sanctity  which  was  connected  with  a  life  of 
solitude  constituted  its  chief  attraction  to  some, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  chose  it  in  the 
hope  of  thereby  attaining  to  real  sanctity.  Many 
of  the  anchorites  voluntarily  subjected  them- 
selves to  the  vicissitudes  of  the  weather,  without 
proper  habitation  or  clothing,  restricted  them- 
selves to  coarse  and  scanty  fare,  wore  chains  and 
iron  rings,  and  even  throughout  many  years 
maintained  painful  postures,  such  as  standing 
on  the  top  of  a  pillar  (see  Pillar  Saints),  thus 
displaying  an  earnestness  which  greater  enlight- 
enment might  have  advantageously  directed  to 
the  good  of  mankind.  Saint  Anthony  (q.v.)  was 
one  of  the  first  and  most  celebrated  anchorites. 
The  anchorites  were  not  always  able  to  preserve 
their  solitude  unbroken.  The  fame  of  their 
sanctity  drew  many  to  visit  them;  their  advice 
was  often  sought;  and  the  number  of  their  vis- 
itors was  much  increased  by  the  belief  that 
diseases,  particularly  mental  diseases,  were 
cured  by  their  blessing.  Sometimes,  also,  they 
returned  for  a  short  time  to  the  midst  of  their 
fellow  men  to  deliver  warnings,  instructions,  or 
encouragements,  and  were  received  as  if  they 
had  been  inspired  prophets  or  angels  from 
heaven.  The  number  of  anchorites,  however, 
gradually  diminished,  and  the  religious  life  of 
convents  was  preferred  to  that  of  the  hermitage. 
The  Western  Church,  indeed,  at  no  time  abounded 
in  anchorites,  like  the  Eastern,  and  perhaps  the 
reason  may  in  part  be  found  in  the  difference 
of  climate,  which  renders  a  manner  of  life  im- 
possible in  most  parts  of  Europe  that  could  be 
pursued  for  many  years  in  Egypt  or  Syria. 

AN^CHOB-WATCH.  A  portion  of  the  crew 
kept  on  deck  during  the  night  when  at  anchor. 
During  prolonged  heavy  weather,  or  unfavorable 
conditions,  the  anchor-watch  may  be  kept  on 
deck  during  the  day.  In  the  merchant  service 
one  or  two  men  form  the  ordinary  anchor- watch ; 
in  the  navy,  four  to  ten;  though  in  either  case 
these  numbers  may  be  increased  under  special 
circumstances.  The  duties  of  the  anchor-watch 
are  to  veer  chain  (see  Anchor),  if  occasion  de- 
mands it,  spread  or  take  in  awnings,  cover 
hatches,  secure  loose  articles  if  the  wind  and 
sea  rise;  and,  in  fact,  act  as  a  general  guard 
when  the  greater  part  of  the  crew  is  asleep. 

ANCHOVY,  an-chr/vl  (Of  uncertain  origin, 
perhaps  literally  a  dried  or  pickled  fish,  from 
Basque  antztia,  dry).  A  small  fish  (Engraulia 
encrasicholus)  belonging  to  the  Stolephoridte,  a 
family  closely  related  to  the  herring.  It  resem- 
bles the  latter  in  general  appearance,  but  is 
thicker  in  proportion,  and  is  about  six  inches  in 
length,  having  a  pointed  head  with  the  upper  jaw 
projecting,  and  a  widely  forked  tail.  It  abounds 
in  the  coast  waters  of  southern  Europe,  and  es- 
pecially in  the  Mediterranean,  where  extensive 
fisheries  are  carried  on,  particularly  near  Leg- 
horn. They  approach  the  coast  from  the  oceanic 
depths  to  spawn  in  early  summer,  and  are  caught 


in  seines,  to  which  they  are  attracted  by  strong 
lights  in  the  fishing-boats.  Anchovies  are  salted 
in  small  barrels,  and  have  been  much  used  for 
sauces,  etc.,  since  ancient  times.  There  are  sev- 
eral nearly  related  species  both  on  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coast  of  America  and  in  other  coun- 
tries, where  they  also  form  an  important  food- 
preparation. 

ANCHOVY  (fln-chs^vl)  PEAK  {OHas  cauli- 
flora.  So  named  from  being  pickled.  See  Ax- 
chovy)  .  A  plant  of  the  order  Myrtacese.  It  grows 
in  boggy  places* in  the  mountainous  districts  of 
Jamaica  and  other  West  Indian  islands,  attains 
a  height  of  fifty  feet,  and  has  great  oblong 
leaves  two  or  three  feet  in  length.  The  flowers 
are  numerous,  on  short  peduncles;  they  are 
large,  whitish,  and  sweet-scented;  the  corolla 
consists  of  four  petals,  and  the  calyx  is  four- 
cleft.  The  fruit  is  an  ovate  drupe  of  a  brownish 
russet  color,  crowned  with  the  persistent  calyx: 
the  stone  is  marked  with  eight  ridges.  This 
fruit  is  pickled  and  eaten  like  the  East  Indian 
mango,  and  resembles  the  mango  in  taste. 

ANCHTT'SA,  &n-ktl'sA.     See  Alkanet. 

ANCHYLOSIS,  ftn'kl-K/sls.    See  Ankylosis. 

AN^CIENT  DEMESNE,  d^men^  (O.  F.  dc- 
matne,  Lat.  dominium,  Eng.  domain).  In  Eng- 
lish law,  estates  of  great  antiquity,  constitut- 
ing the  ancient  patrimonial  possessions  of  the 
crown.  Manors  (q.v.)  of  ancient  demesne  date 
back  to  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor  or 
of  William  the  Conqueror,  and  appear  in  Domes- 
day Book  under  the  description  of  Terras  Regis. 
Though  they  might  be  alienated  and  held  by  a 
subject,  they  were  properly  kept  in  the  King's 
hands  for  the  maintenance  of  the  royal  dignity. 
Whether  held  by  a  subject  or  by  the  King,  they 
enjoyed  certain  rights  and  inimunities  which 
were  not  shared  by  other  manors,  even  when 
held  by  the  King;  especially  the  right  to  admin- 
ister their  own  justice,  free  from  the  interference 
of  the  ordinary  royal  tribunals.  Two  im- 
portant and  distinctive  varieties  of  tenure  devel- 
oped on  these  ancient  demesne  lands:  one  a 
privileged  form  of  customary  tenure  (q.v.),  mid- 
way between  copyhold  (q.v.)  and  socage  (q.v.) 
tenure,  which  came  to  be  known  as  customary 
freehold;  and  the  other  a  peculiar  form  of  socage 
tenure,  which  received  the  name  of  tenure  in 
ancient  demesne.  Though  these  tenures  still 
survive  in  England,  they  have  been  shorn  of 
niost  of  their  peculiar  characteristics  and  assim- 
ilated to  the  more  usual  tenures.  See  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law,  second 
edition  (London  and  Boston,  1899). 

ANCIENT'  LIGHTS.  Windows  that  have 
existed  so  long  that  they  have  acquired  an  in- 
defdasible  right  to  the  light  which  enters  them, 
free  from  interference  by  the  owner  of  the  prem- 
ises over  which  the  light  comes.  The  easement 
of  ancient  lights,  so  called,  is  the  right  gained 
by  the  owner  of  a  dwelling  or  other  building 
to  restrain  his  neighbor  from  interfering  with 
windows  which  have  been  in  existence  from  time 
immemorial.  The  term  does  not,  therefore,  de- 
scribe a  peculiar  and  distinctive  right,  but  only 
a  method  by  which  the  familiar  easement  of 
light  may,  like  other  easements,  be  acquired— 
the  method,  namely,  of  prescription  (q.v.).  An- 
cient lights  belong  to  the  class  of  negative  ease- 
ments, which  cannot  generally  be  acquired  by 
prescription  in  the  United  States.     In  England 


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ANCONA. 


they  are  now  regulated  by  statute  ( the  Prescrip- 
tion Act,  2  and  3  Will.  IV.  e.  71),  which  dis- 
penses with  the  old  requirement  of  use  and  en- 
joyment from  time  immemorial  and  calls  for 
an  existence  of  only  twenty  years  to  create  the 
easement.  See  Easement;  Lights;  Prescrip- 
tion. English  authorities  are  Gale  and  What- 
ley,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Easement  a  (London, 
1896),  and  Goddard,  Treatise  on  the  Law  of 
Easements  (fifth  edition,  London,  1896). 

ANCIENT  MAB^INEB,  The.  A  poem  by 
Coleridge,  published  (1798)  in  the  Lyrical  Bal- 
lads by  himself  and  Wordsworth.  It  is  founded 
on  the  sailor's  superstition  of  the  sinfulness  of 
killing  an  albatross,  and  rehearses  the  sufferings 
consequently  undergone. 

ANCIENT  OF  DAYa  A  designation  of  God 
in  Daniel  vii  :  9,  13,  22.  It  represents  him 
as  "the  aged,"  "the  advanced  in  days,"  possibly 
in  contrast  with  the  new  'divinities  Antiochus 
Epiphanes  had  sought  to  introduce  among  the 
Jews.  In  the  Ethiopic  Enoch  it  is  represented 
by  the  more  idiomatic  expression,  "head  of  days," 
(xlvi  :2). 

ANCIENT   OBa>EB.   OF    HIBEB^IANS. 

See  Associations,  Secret  and  Benevolent. 

ANCIENTS,  Council  of.  The  upper  House 
of  the  Legislative  Assembly  in  France,  under  the 
Directory,  from  1795  to  1799.  The  chief  func- 
tion of  the  Ancients  was  the  approval  or  rejec- 
tion of  measures  submitted  by  the  lower  House, 
the  Council  of  Five  Hundred. 

ANCUXON,  ftN's^'yON',  Johann  Peter 
Friedrich  (1767-1837).  A  Prussian  statesman 
and  historian.  He  was  born  in  Berlin,  a  descend- 
ant of  David  Ancillon  (1617-92),  a  French 
Protestant,  who  emigrated  from  Metz  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  and  who  be- 
came pastor  of  the  French  congregation  in  Berlin. 
Intermediate  members  of  the  same  family  occu- 
pied the  same  pastorate  or  were  in  the  service 
of  the  Prussian  Grovernment.  Friedrich  studied 
theology, philosophy,  and  history,  and  in  1792  was 
appointed  teacher  of  history  in  the  Berlin  Military 
Academy,  as  well  as  preacher  to  the  French  con- 
gregation. The  publication  of  his  Tableau  des 
revolutions  du  syst^me  politique  de  I* Europe 
depuis  le  15me  si^cle  (4  volumes,  1803-05)  se- 
cured him  the  appointment  as  royal  histri- 
ographer  as  well  as  tutor  of  the  Crown  Prince. 
In  1832  he  became  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  occupied  that  place  until  his  death.  He  was 
a  man  of  conservative  views  and  a  defender  of 
the  monarchy. 

ANCELABSTBOM,  HQ^Hr-strSm,  Johan  Ja- 
COR  (1762-92).  The  assassin  of  King  Gustavus 
III.  of  Sweden.  He  was  a  page  at  court  and  later 
an  ensign  in  the  Life-Guards,  but  in  1783  retired 
from  military  service  with  the  rank  of  captain. 
Of  haughty  temper,  angered  at  the  policy  of  re- 
pression pursued  by  the  crown  toward  the  nobil- 
ity, he  was  frequently  brought  to  trial  for  incendi- 
SLTj  speeches.  In  1791,  with  Count  Horn,  Count 
Kibbing,  Lieutenant-Colonel  Liliehorn,and  others, 
he  formed  a  conspiracy  for  the  murder  of  the 
King.  Chosen  by  lot  to  accomplish  the  deed, 
at  a  ball  held  in*  the  Stockholm  opera-house,  he 
approached  the  King  and  mortally  wounded  him 
with  a  shot  from  a  pistol  (March  16,  1792).  He 
was  condemned  to  death  and  executed  at  Stock- 
holm. 


ANCONA,  An-k6'n4  (The  name  alludes  to 
its  situation  at  the  bend  of  the  sea-coast;  Gk. 
avKLv,  ankOn,  angle,  corner).  The  capital  of 
the  province  of  Ancona,  in  central  Italy,  in  the 
division  called  the  Marches,  132  miles  northeast 
of  Rome,  lat.  43°  37'  N.  and  long.  13°  31'  E.  It 
is  an  episcopal  city,  and,  next  to  Venice,  the  most 
important  Italian  port  on  the  Adriatic  (Map: 
Italy  H.  4).  It  is  beautifully  situated  in  the 
form  of  an  amphitheatre  between  two  promon- 
tories. The  harbor  has  been  greatly  improved  by 
the  Government  in  recent  years,  and  is  now  deep 
enough  for  large  vessels.  It  is  defended  from 
naval  attack  by  forts,  and  from  the  violence  of 
the  sea  by  two  moles.  The  ancient  mole  was 
built  by  Trajan,  and  on  it  stands  a  triumphal 
arch  of  Parian  marble  designed  by  Apollodorus. 
The  modern  mole  with  the  light-house  was  built 
by  Clement  XII.,  and  its  triumphal  arch  was  de- 
sired by  Vanvitelli.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Cyriac, 
built  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries  on  the 
site  of  the  temple  of  Venus  mentioned  by  Catullus 
and  Juvenal,  contains  ten  of  its  columns,  with  a 
very  ancient  dodecagonal  dome.  The  town  hall 
was  built  in  the  thirteenth  century,  restored  in  the 
fifteenth,  and  partially  modernized  in  1647.  The 
houses  are  in  general  mean  and  the  streets  nar- 
row. The  museum  contains  many  valuable  antiq- 
uities and  some  valuable  paintings.  The  princi- 
pal industries  are  sugar  refining,  shipbuilding, 
and  the  manufacture  of  paper,  sail  cloth,  and 
silk.  The  exports  are  small;  the  imports  are 
salt  fish,  coffee,  iron  and  steel,  wheat,  raw  sugar, 
and  coal.  Regular  steamship  communication  is 
maintained  with  the  principal  Mediterranean 
ports.  The  United  States  maintains  there  a  con- 
sular agency.  The  vessels  leaving  the  port  de- 
creased from  2192,  with  a  tonnage  of  842,000,  in 
1888,  to  1183,  with  a  tonnage  of  664,000,  in  1889. 

Ancona  is  supposed  to  have  been  founded  by 
Syracusans  who  had  fled  from  the  tyranny  of 
Dionysius  the  Elder.  It  was  destroyed  by  the 
Goths,  rebuilt  by  Narses,  and  again  destroyed  by 
the  Saracens  in  the  tenth  century.  It  afterward 
became  a  republic,  and  was  later  annexed  to  the 
States  of  the  Church.  In  1798  it  was  taken  by 
the  JVench,  who  in  1799  surrendered  it  to  the 
Russians  and  Austrians  after  a  long  and  gallant 
defense.  In  1832,  when  the  Roman  frontiers 
were  in  the  possession  of  the  Austrians,  a  French 
squadron  appeared  before  the  harbor  and  landed 
1500  men,  who  took  possession  of  the  town.  It 
remained  in  their  hands  until  1838,  when  both 
French  and  Austrians  retired  from  the  Papal 
States.  In  1849  a  revolutionary  garrison  in  An- 
cona capitulated  after  enduring  a  siege  by  the 
Austrians  of  twentv-five  days.  Pop.,  in  1881,  48,- 
000;  in  1901,  57,000. 

ANCONA,  Alessandro  d'  (1835 — ).  A  dis- 
tinguished Italian  critic,  journaliet,  and  professor 
at  the  University  of  Pisa.  He  was  bom  in  Pisa. 
During  the  days  preceding  the  war  of  Italian  in- 
dependence he  'was  active  in  politics,  but  after  the 
peace  of  Villafranca  he  retired  from  political  life, 
and  for  awhile  edited  the  loading  Florentine  jour- 
nal, La  Nazione.  Since  1860  he  has  filled  the 
chair  of  literature  at  the  university  in  his  native 
city.  His  literary  activity  began  at  the  age  of 
eighteen,  when  he  published  a  life  and  critical 
edition  of  the  works  of  the  Dominican  philosopher 
Tonimaso  Campanella.  Among  the  many  volumes 
which  he  has  since  produced,  special  mention 
should  be  made  of  /  precursori  di  Dante  (1874), 


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AKDAIiXTSIA. 


Origini  del  teatro  in  Italia  ( 1877 ) ,  and  La  poesia 
popolare  iialiana  (1878). 

ANCO'BA,  (Ital.).  The  same  as  the  French 
word  encore,  again,  and  used  in  demanding  the 
repetition  of  a  song,  for  which,  however,  the 
French  use  the  word  bis,  "twice." 

ANCBE,  aNlcr'jCoNciNo  Concini,Mabquis  d'. 
A  Florentine  adventurer,  who  went  to  the  French 
court  in  1600  with  Maria  de'  Medici,  queen  of 
Henry  IV.  With  his  wife,  Leonora  Galigai,  he 
exercised  an  unhappy  influence  in  promoting  the 
disagreement  between  the  King  and  Queen.  When, 
after  Henry's  death,  the  Queen  became  regent, 
Concini,  as  her  favorite,  obtained  possession  of  the 
reins  of  government,  and  in  1613  was  made  a 
marshal  and  prime  minister.  He  bought  the  mar- 
quisate  of  Ancre,  in  Picardy,  and  took  his  title 
from  it.  Because  of  his  rapacity  he  became  an 
object  of  detestation  equally  to  the  nobility  and 
the  people.  A  conspiracy  was  formed  against 
him,  to  which  the  young  king,  Louis  XIII.,  was 
himself  privy,  and  he  was  assassinated  in  April, 
1617,  on  the  bridge  of  the  Louvre  just  as  he  was 
leaving  it.  Vitry,  a  captain  of  the  royal  body- 
guard, accomplished  the  murder.  His  wife  was 
soon  afterward  accused  of  witchcraft  and  was 
executed. 

ANCBEK  BIWLE,  flo^rfin  rS^;  Middle 
Eng.  pron,  Ho'kren  r\ile  (Rule  of  Anchor- 
esses). An  exposition  of  duties  and  rules  of 
life,  said  to  have  been  drawn  up  by  Simon  of 
Ghent,  Bishop  of  Salisbury  (1297),  for  a  relig- 
ious community  of  women  at  Tarrant-Kaines  in 
Dorsetshire. 

AN^CBXTM  MOOB.  A  moor  in  Scotland  a 
little  northwest  of  Jedburgh  (q.v.).  It  was,  in 
1544,  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  5000  English 
under  Sir  Ralph  Evers  and  Sir  Brian  Latoun  by 
a  Scottish  force  under  the  Earl  of  Angus  and 
Scott  of  Buccleuch.  A  defaced  monument  marks 
the  spot  where  a  Scottish  maiden,  named  Lil- 
liard,  is  said  to  have  done  prodigies  of  valor. 

ANCJTD,  fin-k(5oD'  (formerly  San  Carlos). 
Capital  of  the  province  of  Chiloe,  Chile.  It  is 
situated  on  the  island  Chiloe,  which  lies  near  the 
mainland,  about  575  miles  south  from  Valparaiso, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  steamship  Ime.  It 
has  an  excellent  harbor,  some  manufactures  and 
fishing  interests.  It  was  settled  in  1768;  was 
the  last  stronghold  of  the  Spaniards  in  Chile 
during  the  war  of  the  rebellion,  surrendering  to 
the  revolutionists  in  1826.     Pop.  1896,  3,182. 

AN'CTTS  ICAB^CITJS  (  ?— 614  B.c.) .  The  son 
of  Pompilia,  daughter  of  King  Numa  Pompilius, 
and  the  fourth  king  of  Rome.  Following  the  exam- 
ple of  Numa,  he  endeavored  to  restore  the  almost 
forgotten  worship  of  the  gods  and  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  arts  of  peace  among  the  Romans. 
But,  despite  his  inclination  for  peace,  he  was  en- 
gaged in  several  wars  with  the  neighboring  Latin 
tribes,  whom  he  subdued  and  reduced  to  order. 
These  Latins  Niebuhr  considers  to  have  formed 
the  original  plebeians.  Against  the  Etruscans  he 
fortified  the  Janiculum,  connected  it  with  Rome 
by  a  wooden  bridge,  and  gained  possession  of  both 
banks  of  the  Tiber  as  far  as  its  mouth,  where  he 
founded  Ostia  as  the  port  of  Rome.  He  built  the 
first  Roman  prison  of  which  we  read,  a  proof  that 
civilization  had  really  commenced,  inasmuch  as 
offenses  then  formally  ceased  to  be  regarded  as 
private  and  personal  matters  and  were  treated 
as  crimes  against  the  community.    A  prison,  said 


to  be^  his,  is  still  in  existence  near  the  Forum. 
He  died  in  614  b.c.,  after  reigning  twenty-four 
years.  It  is  needless  to  add  that  the  kings  of 
Rome,  as  we  know  them,  are  not  historical  diar- 
acters. 

AKCY'BA.     See  Angora. 

ANCZYCy  &n^;hlts,  Wladysiaw  Ludwik 
(182383).  A  Polish  writer,  bom  at  Vilna.  He 
studied  pharmacy,  but  turned  to  literature,  and 
wrote  a  number  of  popular  Polish  comedies, 
which  are  marked  by  keen  characterization  and 
forceful  style.  His  works  include  The  Peasant 
Aristocrats  (1851),  The  Raftsmen  (1875),  and 
The  Peasant  Emigration  (1876). 

AN03A.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Euphorbiacese,  the  only  species  of  which, 
Anda  brasiliensis,  is  a  Brazilian  tree  with  large 
yellow  flowers  and  an  angular  fruit  about  the 
size  of  an  orange,  containing  two  roundish  seeds 
like  small  chestnuts.  The  seeds  are  called  in 
Brazil  Purga  dos  Paulistas,  are  used  medicinally 
in  that  country,  and  are  more  purgative  than 
those  of  the  castor-oil  plant.  This  quality  seems 
to  depend  upon  a  fixed  oil,  which  is  obtained  by 
pressure.  The  bark  of  the  tree  roasted  in  the 
fire  is  accounted  in  Brazil  a  certain  remedy  for 
diarrhea  brought  on  by  cold.  The  fresh  bark 
thrown  into  ponds  is  said  to  stupefy  fish. 

ANDALUSIA,  &n'dA-l53'rf-&  (Sp.  Anda- 
lucia  for  Vandalusia,  the  Land  of  the  Van- 
dals). A  region  in  the  southern  part  of 
Spain,  a  part  of  the  old  Roman  province  of 
Betica,  which  comprises  the  present  provinces 
of  Granada,  Alnteria,  Malaga,  Cadiz,  Huelva, 
Seville,  Cordova,  and  Jaen  (Map:  Spain,  C  4). 
Its  area  is  33,663  square  miles.  The  region  is 
divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Andalusia.  The 
former  comprises  the  mountainous  regions  of  the 
Sierra  Morena  on  the  north  and  the  Sierra  Nevada 
on  the  south,  with  the  valley  of  the  upper  stream 
of  the  Guadalquivir.  Lower  Andalusia  consists 
chiefly  of  the  valley  on  both  sides  of  the  lower 
Guadalquivir.  The  lower  regions  have  a  very 
mild,  almost  African,  climate.  On  the  Atlantic 
coast  the  temperature  is  much  lower,  and  in  the 
highlands  snow  is  not  infrequent.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  both  in  the  mountain  valleys  of  Up- 
per Andalusia  and  in  the  deep  valleys  along  the 
Guadalquivir,  and  the  warm  climate  allows  of 
the  cultivation  of  many  southern  fruits.  Or- 
anges, olives,  and  sugar  are  cultivated  suc- 
cessfully, while  wheat,  corn,  and  other  grains 
ripen  as  early  as  April  and  yield  abundant  crops. 
The  districts  along  the  coast  are  generally  un- 
fruitful, and  in  some  cases  utterly  unfit  for  cul- 
tivation. In  ancient  times  the  fertility  of 
Andalusia  was  proverbial,  as  evidenced  by  the 
different  epithets  applied  to  the  region,  such  as 
"granary,"  "wine  cellar,"  and  "gold  purse"  of 
Spain.  Even  at  present  Andalusia  is  considered 
one  of  the  most  fertile  parts  of  Spain.  Cattle- 
raising  is  highly  developed,  and  the  Andalusian 
breeds  of  horses,  mules,  and  bulls  have  long  been 
famous.  The  population  was  3,450,209  in  1897, 
and  3,283,436  in  1877.  The  Andalusians  are  a 
very  graceful  people  and  picturesque  in  their  at* 
tire.  Their  language  is  Spanish  with  a  slight 
admixture  of  Arabic. 

History.  Andalusia,  which  was  overrun  by 
the  Vandals  in  the  early  part  of  the  fifth  century, 
was  probably  the  Tarshish  of  the  Bible,  its  name 
in  classical  geography  being  Tartessis  (a  very 
ancient  town  near  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalquivir, 


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ANDAQUI. 


having  borne  the  name  of  Tartessus).  From 
the  Carthaginians,  who  established  themselves 
there  in  the  third  century  B.C.,  the  country 
passed  to  the  Romans,  who  called  it  Baetica, 
from  the  river  Bsetis  (Guadalquivir).  Under  the 
Empire  it  attained  great  prosperity  •and  assim- 
ilated rapidly  the  civilization  of  the  Romans. 
The  Vandals  remained  but  a  short  time  in  the 
country  and  were  succeeded  by  the  Visigoths,  who 
ruled  Spain  till  the  invasion  of  the  Arabs,  in  711. 
The  name  of  Andalusia  is  inseparably  connected 
with  the  glory  of  Saracen  and  Moorish  civiliza- 
tion in  mediffival  Spain.  Within  its  borders  were 
situated  Cordova,  Seville,  Granada,  and  Jaen,  the 
centres  of  Mohammedan  cultiire,  industry,  and 
commerce.  By  contrast  with  the  gloom  and 
emptiness  of  the  Dark  Ages  in  northern  Europe, 
history  has  cast  almost  a  fairy  light  on  the 
plains  of  "smiling"  Andalusia,  the  home  of  learn- 
ing and  art,  of  chivalry  and  hiimane  toleration. 
Cordova  was  the  Athens  of  the  West,  the  seat  of 
the  arts  and  sciences;  and  later  still,  under  the 
Spaniards  even,  "when  the  sun  of  Raphael  set 
in  Italy,  painting  here  arose  in  ?.  new  form  in 
the  Velasquez,  Murillo,  and  Cano  schools  of  Se- 
ville, the  finest  in  the  Peninsula."  The  decadence 
of  Andalusia  set  in  with  the  downfall  of  the 
Caliphate  of  Cordova  in  the  eleventh  century 
and  the  disruption  of  Spanish  Islam  into 
a  number  of  independent  principalities.  One 
by  one  the  cities  of  Andalusia  passed  into  the 
power  of  Castile.  Granada  alone  and  the  sur- 
rounding vega  held  out  for  two  centuries  after 
Cordova,  Seville,  and  Cadiz  had  fallen.  The 
noblest  of  the  Moorish  race,  fleeing  before  the 
Christian  advance,  crowded  into  Granada,  and 
the  genius  of  an  entire  nation  made  its  home 
within  the  walls  of  a  city;  the  lustre  which  it 
shed  over  Granada,  however,  was  but  the  hec- 
tic flush  of  the  dying  Moorish  civilization.  In 
1492  Granada  was  taken  by  the  forces  of  united 
Christian  Spain.  Consult:  Murray,  The  Cities 
and  Wilds  of  Andalusia  (London,  1853)  ;  Laine, 
"Sur  les  routes  d'Andalousie"  in  La  Nouvelle 
Revue,  No.  115  (Paris,  1898). 

AlTDAIiXTSITEy  an'dA-lu'sIt  (Discovered  in 
Andalusia).  An  anhydrous  aluminum  silicate 
that  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombic  system,  and 
is  usually  found  .  in  coarse,  square,  prismatic 
forms.  A  variety  known  as  chiastolite  or  made, 
consisting  of  stout  crystals  with  the  axis  and 
angles  of  a  different  color  from  the  rest,  showing 
a  colored  cross,  has  been  found  in  several  locali- 
ties, as  Lancaster  and  Sterling,  Mass. 

ANDAMANS,  fin'd&-manz.  A  chain  of  is- 
lands politically  attached  to  British  India,  situ- 
ated toward  the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
between  10°  and  14**  N.  lat.  and  about  93**  E. 
long.,  680  miles  south  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Ganges  ( Map :  Asia,  J  7 ) .  The  group  covers  an 
area  of  2508  square  miles,  and  consists  of  the 
Great  and  Little  Andamans,  divided  by  the  Dun- 
can Passage.  Three  large  islands,  the  North,  Mid- 
dle, and  South,  and  several  smaller  ones  constitute 
the  Great  Andamans;  the  chief  of  the  Little  An- 
damans are  Interview,  Outram,  and  Henry  Law- 
rence. With  the  Nicobar  Islands  (q.v.),  they 
form  a  province  under  a  chief  commissioner  resi- 
dent at  Port  Blair.  Since  1858  the  islands  have 
been  a  penal  settlement  of  India.  Except  where 
clearings  have  been  made,  the  surface  is  densely 
covered  with  forests  yielding  valuable  timber. 
Corn,  rice,  manioc,  tea,  potatoes,  and  artichokes 


are  the  chief  agricultural  products,  and  the  cul- 
tivation of  cacao,  indigo,  and  coffee  is  being  in- 
troduced. Port  Blair,  on  the  east  side  of  South 
Island,  and  Port  Cornwallis,  on  the  same  side  of 
North  Island,  are  two  fine  natural  harbors.  The 
principal  islands  have  monthly  steamboat  com- 
munication with  Calcutta.  The  Andamanese, 
also  called  Mincopis,  are  a  physically  uniform 
Negrito  race,  whose  stature,  however,  has  a  wider 
range  than  generally  thought.  Their  head-form 
tends  to  be  brachycephalic,  suggesting  relation- 
ship with  some  of  the  natives  of  the  Nicobar 
Islands  to  the  south,  and  with  broad-headed  Ne- 
gritos elsewhere.  Their  language,  which  has  sev- 
eral dialects,  seems  to  be  unrelated  to  any  other 
tongue.  Their  culture  is  very  primitive,  but  their 
weapons  and  industrial  and  art  products 
show  that  they  have  not  neglected  their  environ- 
ment. They  have  also,  though  known  only  to 
some  of  the  older  members  of  the  more  secluded 
communities,  a  mythology,  with  characteristic 
folk-lore  tales.  The « intelligence  of  these  people 
has  been  underestimated.  The  census  of  1901 
gives  the  aborigines  as  1882,  of  whom  842  were 
females,  divided  into  twelve  small  tribes.  Lying 
in  the  route  of  the  Arabs  eastward  and  of  the 
Malays  westward,  these  islands  bear  traces  of  th'e 
influence  of  both,  and  since  the  establishment  of 
the  British  penal  colony,  there  is  growing  up 
a  very  mixed  race  of  hybrids.  The  Andama- 
nese have  inhabited  their  territory  since  pre-his- 
toric  times.  Flower  (1879)  and  Keane  (1896) 
both  hold  that  thfy  represent  a  primitive  or  gen- 
eralized type,  from  which,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
African  negroes,  and  on  the  other  the  Melane- 
sians,  may  have  proceeded.  (See  Negritos.) 
Population,  1891,  16,609;  1901,  18,190,  of  which 
the  convict  element  constitutes  four-fifths.  The 
convicts  are  employed  in  reclaiming  land  and 
erecting  government  buildings.  They  are  po- 
liced by  a  force  of  645  men.  The  Andamans  are 
mentioned  by  Arabic  geographers  of  the  ninth 
century,  by  Marco  Polo  in  the  thirteenth,  and 
Conti  in  the  fifteenth  century,  who  gives  the  sig- 
nification of  the  name  as  "Gold  Islands."  Hope- 
town,  on  Viper  Island,  was  the  scene  of  the 
assassination  by  a  Mohammedan  convict  of  Earl 
Mayo,  Governor-General  of  India,  while  on  an  of- 
ficial tour  of  inspection  in  1872.  Consult:  Man,. 
The  Ahorigines  of  the  Andaman  Islands  (Lon- 
don, 1885),  and  "The  Andaman  Islands,"  in  The 
Indian  Antiquary,  Volumes  XXVIII.  and  XXX. 
(Bombay,  1899  and  1900). 

ANDANTE^  dn-dftn^tA  (Ital.,  going,  moving, 
from  andare,  to  walk,  go).  In  music,  one  of  the 
five  principal  tempos  (q.v.).  It  implies  a  some- 
what slow  and  gentle  movement,  intermediate 
between  adagio  (than  which  it  is  faster)  and 
allegro  (than  which  it  is  slower).  This  term 
is  often  modified,  both  as  to  time  and  style,  by 
the  addition  of  other  words — as  andante  affettu- 
oso,  slow,  but  pathetically;  andante  cantabile, 
slow,  but  in  a  singing  style;  andante  con  moto, 
slow,  but  with  emotion;  andante  grazioso,  slow, 
but  gracefully;  andante  maestoso,  slow,  with  ma- 
jesty; andante  ma  non  troppo,  slow,  but  not  too 
slow;  andante  pastorale,  slow,  and  with  pas- 
toral simplicity.  Andante  also  means  the  slow 
movement  or  section  of  a  musical  composition.   . 

ANDAQXTI,  an-da'k6.  An  important  Indian 
confederacy  formerly  holding  the  head-streams  of 
the  Caqueta  and  Magdalena  rivers  and  the  ad- 
joining mountain  region  in  southern  Colombia^. 


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Before  the  period  of  the  Spanish  conc^uest  the 
tribes  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  civilisation, 
attested  by  the  ruins  of  temples  and  other  edi- 
fices, with  gigantic  statues  carved  from  the  liv- 
ing rock  yet  to  be  seen  in  their  ancient  territory. 
A  wild  and  warlike  remnant  survives  in  the  in- 
accessible fastnesses  at  the  head  of  Fragua  River, 
still  guarding,  according  to  a  local  legend,  a 
cavern  in  which  is  piled  up  the  golden  treasures 
of  their  ancestors.  The  language  shows  some 
similarities  to  the  Chibcha,  but  appears  to  con- 
stitute a  distinct  stock. 

▲NDAS'TEE.      See  Conestooa. 

ANDELYS,  Le8,  l&'zaN'  d'-l^.  An  import- 
ant town  in  the  department  of  Eure,  France, 
20  miles  northeast  of  Evreux,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Seine.  It  consists  of  Grand  and  Petit 
Andelya.  The  former  dates  from  the  sixth  cen- 
tury, and  contains  the  fine  collegiate  church  of 
Notre  Dame,  built  from  the  thirteenth  to  the 
sixteenth  centuries,  noted  for  its  superb  stained 
glass  windows  aad  valuable  paintings.  Petit 
Andelys  clusters  around  the  famous  Norman  cas- 
tle of  Gaillard,  built  by  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion  in 
1195,  which  was  once  one  of  the  strongholds  of 
France.  The  church  of  St.  Sauveur,  at  Petit 
Andelys,  is  also  a  splendid  structure,  dating  from 
the  twelfth  to  the  fourteenth  centuries.  The 
chief  trade  is  in  cloth,  and  there  are  manufac- 
tures of  thread  and  leather.    Pop.,  1896,  6923. 

ANDENNE,  ftN'dto'.  A  town  of  Belgium,  in 
the  province  of  Namur,  10  miles  east  of  Namur, 
and  nearly  two  miles  south  of  the  Maas  (Map: 
Belgium,  D  4).  It  has  manufactures  of  paper, 
porcelain,  and  tobacco-pipes,  the  latter  being  its 
most  famous  product.  There  are  beds  of  pipe- 
clay, quarries  of  marble,  and  lead,  iron,  and  coal 
mines  in  the  neighborhood.     Pop.,  1899,  7829. 

ANDEB,  Hn'der,  Aloys  (1821-64).  An  Aus- 
trian tenor,  born  at  Liebititz,  Bohemia.  He  ap- 
peared at  Vienna  in  1845,  and  was  first  to  sing 
there  the  rAle  of  Jean  de  Leyde  in  Meyerbeer's 
Le  PropMte.  His  voice  was  not  strong,  but  of 
excellent  quality. 

ANDEBAB,  ftn'der-ab',  or  INDEBAB,  In'- 
der-ai/.  A  town  of  Afghanistan,  on  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Hindu-Kush  Mountains,  and  on  the 
northern  bank  of  the  Anderab,  or  Inderab,  River 
(Map:  Central  Asia,  F  3).  It  is  surrounded  by 
gardens,  orchards,  and  vineyards.  It  is  an  im> 
portant  post  in  the  commerce  between  Persia  and 
India.    Pop.,  estimated  at  6000. 

ANDEBLECHT,  an'd^r-l6Kt.  A  manufactur- 
ing suburb  of  Brussels,  Belgium  ( Map :  Belgium, 
C  4).  It  has  numerous  manufacturing  estab- 
lishments, consisting  mostly  of  spinning  and 
weaving  mills,  dyeing  works,  and  breweries. 
Pop.,  in  1890,  32,300;  in  1900,  47,700. 

ANDEBLEDY,  Un'der-liVd6,  Antonius  (1819- 
92).  A  general  of  the  Jesuits,  born  at  Brieg 
(Valais),  Switzerland.  He  entered  the  order  of 
Jesuits  in  1838,  and  studied  philosophy  and 
theology  at  Rome  and  Freiburg.  In  1848  he  came 
to  the  United  States,  where  he  was  pastor  at 
Green  Bay,  Wis.;  and  in  1851  returned  to  Ger- 
many, where,  until  1853,  he  directed  Jesuit  mis- 
sions. From  1853  to  1856  he  was  rector  of  the 
Jesuit  seminary  at  Cologne.  In  1856  he  was  ap- 
pointed rector  of  the  seminary  at  Paderborn,  and 
in  1865  assumed  the  professorship  of  moral  the- 
ology at  the  Seminary  of  Maria-Laach,  of  which 
he  was  made  rector  in  1809.    He  was  appointed, 


in  1870,  assistant  to  J.  P.  Beckx,  General  of  the 
Jesuits,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1884. 

AKDEBMATT,  iln'der-m&t,  or  Uhsere:? 
(the  Italian  Orsera).  The  chief  town  of  the 
Andermatt  Valley,  in  the  canton  of  Uri,  Switzer- 
land, four  iftiiles  south  of  Goschenen.  It  is  4700 
feet  above  sea  level,  and  is  at  the  intersection  of 
three  of  the  most  important  Alpine  highways, 
the  road  through  the  St.  Gotthard  Pass,  that  to 
the  Rhone  Valley,  and  the  upper  Alps  road 
going  toward  the  valley  of  the  Rhine.  The 
St.  Gotthard  tunnel  passes  underneath  the  val- 
ley of  Andermatt.  For  the  protection  of  Ander- 
matt, a  strong  fort  has  been  built  to  the  north. 
The  town  has  an  active  transit  trade,  and  is  a 
summer  and  winter  health  resort.     Pop.,  700. 

ANDEBNACHy  an'dernliG.  A  to\iii  in  the 
Prussian  Rhine  province,  situated  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  about  10  miles  northwest  of 
Coblentz,  and  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nette  (Map: 
Prussia,  B  3).  Its  old  walls  and  gates  give  it 
quite  a  mediaeval  appearance.  Among  its  in- 
teresting buildings  are  the  parish  church  of  St 
Genoveva,  with  four  towers,  one  of  which  dates 
back  to  the  Carlovingian  period,  the  ruins  of 
the  old  castles  of  the  archbishops  of  Cologne, 
the  quaint  watch  tower,  and  the  Rhine  Gate.  The 
town  has  manufactures  of  chemicals,  perfumeries, 
cigars,  millstones,  exported  to  distant  parts  of 
the  world,  and  tuff  stein,  or  trass,  an  indurated 
volcanic  mud,  which,  when  pulverized  and  mixed 
with  lime,  makes  a  mortar  or  cement  for  con- 
structions under  water.  Pop.,  in  1890,  about 
6000;  in  1900,  8000,  The  town  was  founded  bv 
the  Romans  under  the  name  of  Antunnacum. 

ANDEBSEN,  HnM^r-scn,  Hans  Christian 
(1805-75).  A  celebrated  Danish  writer,  styled 
the  **children*s  poet,"  whose  best  poetry  is'hi* 
prose.  He  was  born  at  Odense,  Denmark,  April 
2,  1805.  The  child  of  poor  and  shiftless  parentis, 
he  had  little  instruction  and  few  associatei>. 
but  his  dramatic  instinct  was  stimulated  by 
La  Fontaine  and  the  Arabian  Nights,  and  a 
visit  of  a  theatrical  company  to  Odense,  in  1818. 
led  him  to  seek  his  dramatic  fortune  in  Copen- 
hagen (1819),  where  for  four  years  he  worked 
diligently,  but  produced  nothing  of  note.  He 
gained  a  scholarship,  however,  and  friends,  who 
in  1829  enabled  him  to  publish  A  Journey  on 
Foot  from  Holm  Canal  to  the  East  Point  of 
Amager,  an  arabesque  naively  plagiarized  and 
parodied  from  the  German  romanticists.  Fan- 
tasies and  Sketches,  sentimental  and  rather 
mawkish  poems,  followed  in  1831,  after  which 
he  made  a  tour  of  Germany,  the  first  of  many 
wanderings.  This  inspired  Silhouettes,  a  book 
with  admirable  pages  of  description.  In  1835 
he  essayed  the  Fairy  Tales,  by  which  he  wa^ 
to  achieve  world-wide  recognition.  The  classic 
Tinderhox  and  Big  Claus  and  Little  Clau8 
are  also  of  this  year.  He  was,  however,  disposed 
to  underrate  his  "sleight  of  hand  with  fancy's 
golden  apples,"  devoting  himself  to  novels.  The 
Improvvisatore  (1835),  0.  T.  (1836),  and  Only  a 
Fiddler  (1837),  which  gave  him  a  European 
reputation  for  picturesque  description,  humor, 
and  pathos  of  the  romantic  type.  In  the  last 
there  are  interesting  autobiographical  touches; 
but  there  is  no  clear  character-drawing  in  any 
of  them,  and  this  lack  made  his  repeated  dra- 
matic essays  uniform  failures.  He  was  still  to 
write  delightful  impressions  of  travel,  as  in 
A  Poet's  Bazaar  (1842),  In  Sweden  (1849),  and 


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▲NDEBSON. 


Jn  Spain  (1860).  He  wrote  other  novels,  The 
Tioo  Baronesses  (1849)  and  To  Be  or  Not  To  Be 
(1857),  and  an  epic  failure,  Ahasuerus  (1847) ; 
but  the  Picture  Book  Without  Pictures  (1840) 
had  revealed  his  best  talent  to  him  as  an  inter- 
preter of  child  nature.  Between  1852  and  1862 
be  printed  nine  small  volumes  of  stories,  and  fin- 
ished the  last  of  them  in  1872.  His  last  years 
were  unharassed  by  criticism,  and  attended  by 
All  the  honor  and  love  that  should  accompany  old 
age.  His  literary  jubilee  occurred  in  1869,  and 
he  died  at  Copenhagen,  August  4,  1875,  after  a 
brief  and  painless  illness. 

In  appearance,  Andersen  was  limp  ^nd  very 
ungainly.  His  nose  was  large,  his  neck  and 
limbs  long  and  lank,  and  his  hands  and  feet  very 
large;  yet  he  fancied  himself  distinguished-look- 
ing, and  had  a  child's  delight  in  dress  and  deco- 
ration. His  character,  too,  hovered  between  the 
child-like  and  the  childish.  He  never  realized 
the  limitations  of  his  genius.  He  did  not  like 
•children,  and  he  was  not  personally  attractive 
to  them.  He  was  a  shrewd  observer,  but  self- 
absorbed  and  out  of  touch  with  his  political  gen- 
eration. His  literary  style  is  faulty,  but  it  re- 
flects marvelously  the  viVid  imagery  of  juvenile 
fancy.  He  had  at  his  finger-tips  all  the  vener- 
able devices  of  the  nursery  to  spur  attention  and 
kindle  sympathy.  No  writer  looks  at  nature  so 
wholly  with  the  child's  eyes  as  he,  none  so  inter- 
penetrates narration  with  the  smiles,  the  fears, 
and  the  very  intonations  of  childhood.  His  per- 
sonifications may  tease  the  adult  fancy,  but  they 
are  the  natural  drama  of  children.  Andersen's 
w^orks  are  Englished  in  ten  uniform  but  unnum- 
bered volumes.  Mary  Howitt's  is  still  tlie  best 
of  many  translations  of  the  Tales,  though  it  is 
far  from  faultless.  A  sumptuous  centenary  edi- 
tion of  the  Tales  appeared  (1900)  under  the  pa- 
tronage of  the  Danish  Government  simultane- 
ously in  six  languages.  Andersen's  Autobiogra- 
phy was  compiled  by  Jonas  (Berlin,  1879). 
R.  Nisbet  Bain's  Life  of  Andersen  (New  York, 
1S95)  is  the  best  in  English. 

ANDEBSEN,  RnMSr-sen,  Karl  (1828-83).  A 
Danish  poet.  He  was  born  at  Copenhagen,  stud- 
ied law  there,  and  was  subsequently  appointed 
curator  of  the  royal  museums  at  the  castle  of 
Rosenborg.  He  first  became  known  through  his 
Krands  paa  en  Arbcjders  Kiste  ("A  Wreath  for 
A  Laborer's  Coffin,"  1876).  He  also  published 
Lyriske  Smaadigte  ("Shorter  Lyrics,*'  1863), 
Poesier  ("Poems,"  1870),  Oenrebillcder  ("Genre- 
Pictures,"  1876-81),  and  other  works.  He  made 
a  collection  of  Icelandic  sagas  (1864)  and  trans- 
lations of  Servian  folk-songs. 

AH'DEBSON.  A  city  and  railroad  centre, 
the  county  seat  of  Madison  Co.,  Ind.,  36  miles 
northeast  of  Indianapolis,  on  the  west  fork  of  the 
White  River,  and  the  Chicago  and  Southeastern, 
the  Cleveland,  Cincinnati,  Chicago  and  St.  Louis, 
and  other  railroads  (Map:  Indiana,  C  2).  An 
abundant  supply  of  natural  gas  promotes  the 
manufacturing  industries,  which  include  iron, 
steel,  glass,  vnre  nails,  strawboards,  tiles,  etc. 
The  city  is  the  centre  of  an  extensive  system  of 
interurban  electric  railways,  the  power  for  the 
operation  of  which  is  supplied  by  a  million- 
dollar  plant.  Anderson  owns  and  operates  its 
water  works,  gas,  and  electric  light  plants,  has 
several  small  parks  and  a  public  library.  Near 
the  city  are  the  historic  mounds  of  the  so-called 
**mound  builders."  Anderson  was  settled  in 
Vou  I.-84 


1823,  incorporated  in  1865,  and  is  governed  un- 
der the  charter  of  1865,  which  provides  for  a 
mayor,  elected  every  four  years,  and  a  city  coun- 
cil of  six  members,  controlling  all  the  appoint- 
ments. Its  rapid  growth  is  shown  by  the  follow- 
ing figures  of  population:  1880,  4126;  1890, 
10,741;   1900,  20,178. 

ANDEBSON.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Anderson  Co.,  S.  C,  about  125  miles  northwest 
of  the  State  capital,  Columbia,  on  the  Southern, 
the  Blue  Ridge,  and  the  Charleston  and  Western 
Carolina  railroads  (Map:  South  Carolina,  B  2). 
It  contains  city  and  school  libranies,  Patrick 
Military  Institute,  Anderson  Female  College,  and 
a  fine  city  hall  and  court-house  buildings.  The 
city  is  in  a  fertile  cotton-growing  and  somewhat 
diversified  agricultural  region,  and  has  several 
large  wholesale  stores,  while  among  its  indus- 
trial establishments  are  cotton  and  cottonseed 
oil  mills,  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  fer- 
tilizers, spring  beds  and  mattresses,  overalls,  col- 
lars, and  other  articles  of  apparel,  lumber  and 
flour  mills,  and  machine  shops.  A  notable  feat- 
ure of  the  city  is  a  su]>erb  electric  power  station, 
ten  miles  distant  on  the  Seneca  River,  and  con- 
trolled by  a  private  corporation,  which  supplies 
to  the  city  and  vicinity  electric  power  for  in- 
dustrial enterprises  as  well  as  light.  This  com- 
pany also  controls  the  city's  water  supply.  The 
government,  under  a  charter  of  1882,  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years,  and 
a  municipal  council.  To^vn  meetings  are  held 
when  necessarv.  Anderson  was  settled  in  1827. 
Pop.,  1890,  3018;   1900,  5498. 

ANDEBSON,  Alexandeb  (1775-1870).  The 
earliest  wood-engraver  in  the  United  States.  He 
was  born  in  New  York  City,  and  in  1796  received 
his  medical  degree  from  Columbia  College,  but 
after  two  years  he  gave  up  his  medical  work  and 
devoted  his  entire  attention  to  wood-engraving. 
Among  his  best  known  productions  are  his  forty 
illustrations  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  and  the  cuts 
for  Webster's  Spelling  Book,  He  was  commissioned 
by  the  Grovernment  to  engrave  plates  for  paper 
currency.  Consult  Lossing,  Memorial  Address 
on  Alexander  Anderson,  published  by  the  New 
York  Historical  Society. 

ANDEBSON,  Sra  Edmund  (1530-1605).  An 
English  jurist,  Chief  Justice  of  the  Court  of 
Common  Pleas  in  1582,  distinguished  for  zeal  in 
the  cause  of  the  Established  Church,  and  for 
harshness  toward  Catholics  and  other  dissenters. 
In  his  attitude  at  the  trials  of  Robert  Brown, 
the  founder  of  the  Brownists,  and  of  John  Udall, 
concerned  in  the  authorship  of  the  Martin  Mar- 
prelate  pamphlets,  he  showed  a  spirit  of  brutal 
vindictiveness  bent  on* conviction.  He  was  one 
of  the  commissioners  in  1586  to  try  Queen  Mary 
of  Scotland,  and  afterward  to  try  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh.  He  was  a  man  of  extraordinary  legal 
learning. 

ANDEBSON,  Oalusha  (1832 — ).  An  Amer- 
ican theologian.  He  was  born  at  North  Bergen, 
N.  Y.,  and  was  educated  at  Rochester  University 
and  Baptist  Theological  Seminary.  He  held  sev- 
eral pastorates,  and  afterward  became  president 
successively  of  the  universities  of  Chicago  (1878- 
85)  and  Denison,  O.  (1887-90).  Afterward  he 
took  the  chair  of  homiletics  and  theology  at 
Chicago  University. 

ANDEBSON,  Oeoroe  B.  (1831-62).  A  Con- 
federate soldier.     He  was  born  at  Wilmington, 


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AKDEBSON. 


K.  C,  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1852,  and  in 
1855  was  appointed  first  lieutenant,  serving  as 
regimental  adjutant  after  1858.  He  resigned  in 
1861  to  enter  the  Confederate  service,  and  soon 
became  a  brigadier-general  and  was  placed  in 
general  command  of  the  North  Carolina  coast 
defenses.  While  leading  a  brigade  at  the  battle 
of  Antietam  (September  17,  1862),  he  was  fa- 
tally wounded,  and  died  on  October  16th. 

ANDEBSON,  James,  LL.D.  (1739-1808).  A 
Scotch  writer  on  political  economy  and  agricul- 
ture. He  was  born  at  the  village  of  Hermiston, 
near  Edinburgh,  and  lost  both  his  parents  when 
very  young,  so  that  the  management  of  a  large 
farm,  which  had  been  in  the  possession  of  the 
family  for  a  long  time,  devolved  upon  him.  Rec- 
ognizing the  practical  importance  of  a  knowledge 
of  chemistry  to  a  farmer,  he  attended  the  chem- 
istry class  in  the  University  of  Edinburgh,  and 
brought  the  results  of  his  study  to  bea-r  on  his 
profession.  He  invented,  at  an  early  period  of 
life,  the  small  two-horse  plow  without  wheels, 
commonly  called  the  Scotch  plow,  which  is 
generally  admitted  to  have  been  one  of  the  most 
useful  improvements  of  agricultural  implements 
ever  introduced.  When  only  twenty-four  years 
old  he  went  to  Aberdeenshire,  where  he  rented  a 
large  moorland  farm  of  1300  acres.  Here  he  re- 
mained for  a  considerable  time,  devoting  his 
leisure  hours  to  writing  upon  agriculture.  His 
first  attempt  was  a  series  of  essays  upon  plant- 
ing, which,  under  the  signature  of  "Agricola"  he 
contributed  to  the  Edinburgh  Weekly  Magazine, 
In  1780  the  University  of  Aberdeen  bestowed  on 
him  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws.  In  1784,  on 
account  of  his  pamphlet,  entitled  Encouragement 
of  the  National  Fisheries,  he  was  engaged  by  the 
Government  to  make  a  suTvey  of  the  western 
coast  of  Scotland,  with  special  reference  to  that 
object.  He  next  began,  in  1791,  the  publication 
of  a  periodical  called  The  Bee,  which  was  con- 
tinued for  three  years.  In  1797  he  went  to  Lon- 
don, where  he  pursued  his  literary  occupations 
with  such  intense  assiduity  that  his  health  grad- 
ually gave  way.  He  died  on  October  15,  1808. 
Anderson  well  deserves  a  place  in  any  record 
which  details  the  remarkable  advances  made  by 
Scotland  in  agriculture  and  other  sources  of 
wealth  in  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury. His  Bee  was  the  type  of  many  periodical 
miscellanies  of  a  popular  nature,  mingling  in- 
struction with  entertainment,  which  have  since 
been  published.  He  also  published:  An  Inquiry 
Into  the  Nature  of  the  Com  Laws,  With  a  Vieu) 
of  the  Com  Bill  Proposed  for  Scotland  (1777)  ; 
Observations  on  the  Means  of  Inciting  a  Spirit 
of  National  Industry  (17J7)  ;  An  Account  of  the 
Present  State  of  the  Hebrides  (1785)  ;  Observa- 
tions on  Slavery  (1789)  ;  Recreations  in  Agri- 
culture, Natural  History,  Arts,  and  Miscellaneous 
Literature,  6  volumes  (1799-1802).  Several  of 
the  doctrines  of  later  economists,  notably  the 
Kicardian  theory  of  rent,  are  foreshadowed  in 
Anderson's  writings, 

ANDEBSON,  Sir  James  (1824—) .  A  Scotch 
navigator.  He  was  born  at  Dumfries,  and  in 
1851  entered  the  service  of  the  Cunard  company. 
He  commanded  successively  four  vessels  of  that 
line,  and  so  distinguished  himself  by  his  excellent 
judgment  and  high  skill  that,  in  1865,  he  was 
selected  to  command  the  Great  Eastern  when  that 
vessel  was  chartered  to  lay  the  Atlantic  cable 
(see  Atlantic  Tei^graph),  and  thenceforth  his 


name   becomes   intimately   associated  with  the 
achievements  of  that  celebrated  cable  transport. 

ANDEBSON,    John,    F.R.S.     (1726-96).    A 
Scotch  professor  of  natural  philosophy  in  the 
University  of  Glasgow,  and  founder  of  the  insti- 
tution in  that  city  bearing  his  name.    He  was 
born   in   the   parish   of  Roseneath,  Dumbarton- 
shire.   He  studied  at  the  University  of  Glasgow, 
in  which,  in  bis  thirtieth  >ear,  he  was  appointed 
professor    of    Oriental    languages.     Four   years 
later  ( 1760)  he  was  transferred  to  the  chair  of 
natural  philosophy.     He  was  greatly  interests 
in  the  practical  application  of  science,  and  in 
a  spirit  of  philanthropy  he  instituted  a  let'ture 
course  for  artisans,  in  addition  to  his  usual  lec- 
tures,  which   were   erudite  and   technical.    He 
continued  these  twice  every  week  during  the  ses- 
sion to  the  end  of  his  life.    His  valuable  work, 
entitled    Institutes    of    Physics,     appeared    in 
1786.     Shortly  before  the  French  Revolution  he 
invented  a  form  of  gun  whose  recoil  was  stopped 
by  the  condensation  of  air  within  the  body  of 
the  carriage;   but,  after  having  endeavored  in 
vain  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  British  (Jov- 
emment  to  it,  he  proceeded  to  Paris  in  1791, 
and,  being  a  sympathizer  with  the  Revolution, 
presented  his  model  to  the  National  Convention. 
It  was  hung  up  in  their  hall  with  the  following 
inscription  over  it:  "The  gift  of  Science  to  Lib- 
BatTY."     Afterward,  when  the  allied  forces  had 
drawn  a  military  cordon  around  the  frontiers  of 
France  to  prevent  the  introduction  of  French 
newspapers  into  Germany,  Anderson  ingeniously 
suggested  the  expedient,  which  was  adopted  and 
proved  quite  successful,  of  making  small  balloons 
of  paper,  to  which  newspapers  and  manifestoes 
were  tied,  and  letting  them  off,  when  the  wind 
was  favorable,   for  Germany.     By  his  will  he 
directed  that  the  whole  of  his  effects,  of  every 
kind,  should  be  devoted  to  the  establishment  of 
an   educational    institution    in   Glasgow   to  be 
known  as  Anderson's  University. 

ANDEBSON,  John  (1833-1900).  A  Scotch 
scientist,  born  at  Edinburgh.  He  studied  at  Ed- 
inburgh University,  and  from  1864  to  1886  was 
professor  of  comparative  anatomy  at  the  CaV 
cutta  Medical  College  and  curator  of  the  gov- 
ernment museum.  As  scientific  officer,  he  ac- 
companied expeditions  to  western  China  in  1868- 
69  and  in  1874-75.  In  1881  he  was  commissioned 
to  make  an  investigation  of  the  marine  animaU 
of  the  Mergui  archipelago.  He  was  a  fellow 
of  the  Royal  Society  and  a  contributor  to  scien- 
tific journals,  and  published  Mandelay  to  Momen 
(1875),  Anatomical  and  Zoological  Re^tearches 
(1878),  Two  Expeditions  to  Western  China 
(1876),  Fauna  of  Mergui  and  its  Archipel- 
ago (1889),  and  Herpetology  of  Arabia,  with  a 
Preliminary  List  of  the  Reptiles  and  Batrachians 
of  Egypt  (1896).  His  observations  in  the  Mergui 
archipelago  appeared  in  Volumes  XXI.  and 
XXII.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Linnsean  Society. 

ANDEBSON,  John  Jacob  (1821—).  An 
American  author.  He  was  born  in  New  York 
City,  and  graduated  at  the  Normal  School  there. 
For  thirty  years  he  was  attached  to,  and  for 
twenty. years  was  principal  of,  a  large  grammar 
school  in  New  York.  He  has  a  wide  reputation 
as  an  author  of  text-books  of  history,  among  his 
numerous  publications  of  this  description  being 
the  following:  Pictorial  School  History  of  the 
United  States  (1863),  A  School  History  of  Eng^ 


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land  (1870),  Manual  of  General  History,  The 
United  States  Reader,  and  A  History  of  France. 
ANDEBSON,  Labz  (1805-78).  An  Amer- 
ican capitalist  and  philanthropist,  a  brother  of 
Major  Anderson  of  Fort  Sumter  fame.  He  was 
born  at  the  "Soldiers*  Retreat,"  near  Louisville, 
Ky.,  and  was  educated  at  Harvard  College.  He 
was  one  of  the  most  distinguished  citizens  of 
Cincinnati  in  his  day,  being  widely  celebrated  for 
his  public  enterprise  and  numerous  charities. 

ANDERSON,  Martin  Brewer  (1815-90).  An 
American  educator.  He  was  born  at  Brunswick, 
Me.,  graduated  at  Waterville  College,  now  Colby 
University,  in  1840,  was  tutor  of  Latin  for 
two  years,  and  for  seven  years  professor  of 
rhetoric  in  the  same  institution.  In  1850  he  be- 
came editor  of  the  New  York  Recorder,  a  weekly 
Baptist  paper.  In  1853  he  was  called  to  the 
presidency  of  the  University  of  Rochester,  where 
he  remained  until  1888.  In  1868  he  declined  the 
presidency  of  Brown  University.  He  was  a  vig- 
orous and  popular  preacher,  though  never  or- 
dained to  the  ministry.  Selections  from  his 
numerous  Papers  and  Addresses  were  published 
in  two  volumes  in  1895. 

ANDEBSON,  Mart  ANTOiNirrTE  (1859 — ). 
An  American  actress,  born  at  Sacramento,  Cal. 
Her  father.  General  Anderson,  was  killed  in  the 
Civil  War,  while  serving  on  the  Confederate  side. 
Her  mother  married  Dr.  Hamilton  Griffin,  and 
removed  with  him  to  Louisville,  Ky.  She  was 
educated  at  the  Ursuline  Convent  and  the  Acad- 
emy of  the  Presentation  Nuns  in  Louisville,  and 
at  the  age  of  thirteen  began  to  study  for  the 
stage  under  Charlotte  Cushman.  She  made  her 
debut  in  the  character  of  Juliet  at  Louisville,  No- 
vember 27,  1875,  with  such  success  that  she 
was  engaged  for  other  rOles.  In  1876  she  trav- 
eled through  the  West,  and  in  the  season  of  1877- 
78  appeared  in  Philadelphia,  New  York,  and 
Boston.  In  1884-85  she  played  at  the  Lyceum 
Theatre,  London,  and  in  the  character  of  Rosa- 
lind, in  As  You  Like  It,  opened  the  Memorial 
Theatre  at  Stratford-on-Avon.  From  1885  to 
1889  she  played  in  Great  Britain,  her  chief 
parts  being  Juliet,  Bianca  in  Fazio,  Julia  in 
The  Hunchback;  Evadne,  Meg  Merrilies,  Pau- 
line, Galatea,  Clarice,  in  Comedy  and  Tragedy; 
Parthenia,  Rosalind,  and  Perdita,  in  A  Winter's 
Tale,  in  which  she  achieved  her  greatest  suc- 
cess. Illness  in  1889  compelled  her  to  retire 
from  the  stage.  In  1890  she  married  Antonio 
Navarro  de  Viana,  of  New  York,  and  soon  de- 
cided not  to  return  to  the  stage. 

ANDEBSONy  Rasmus  Bjorn,  LL.D.  (1846 
— ).  An  American  scholar  and  author.  He 
was  born  at  Albion,  Wis.,  graduated  in 
1866  at  Luther  College  (Deeorah,  la.),  and  in 
1869  at  the  University  of  Wisconsin,  where  from 
1875  to  1883  he  was  professor  of  Scandinavian 
languages  and  literature.  From  1885  to  1889 
he  was  United  States  minister  to  Denmark. 
In  1898  he  became  editor  at  Madison,  Wis.,  of 
Amerika,  a  Norwegian  journal.  His  publications 
include  The  Scandinavian  Languages  (1873), 
America  Not  Discovered  by  Columbus  (1874), 
Viking  Tales  of  the  North  (1877),  and  transla- 
tions of  Brandes's  Eminent  Authors  in  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  and  of  the  works  of  Bjornson  (7 
volumes ) . 

ANDEBSON,  Richard  Henry  (1821-79).  A 
Confederate  soldier.    He  was  born  in  South  Caro- 


lina, graduated  from  W^est  Point  in  1842,  and 
served  as  second  lieutenant  in  the  Mexican  War. 
He  took  part  in  the  southern  line  of  operations, 
and  became  first  lieutenant  in  1848  and  captain 
in  1855.  He  resigned  from  the  regular  army 
(May,  1861),  became  a  Confederate  brigadier, 
assisted  in  the  bombardment  of  Fort  Sumter, 
and  served  with  great  gallantry  throughout  the 
war,  distinguishing  himself  especially  at  Fair 
Oaks,  Gaines's  Mill,  Frazier's  Farm,  Bull  Run, 
and  Gettysburg,  where  he  commanded  a  division. 
He  rose  to  the  rank  of  major-general  (August, 
1862),  and  of  lieptenant-general  (May,  1864). 
In  the  final  campaign  he  commanded  the  fourth 
corps  of  General  Lee's  army. 

ANDEBSONy  Robert  (1805-71).  An  Amer- 
ican soldier.  He  was  born  near  Louisville,  Ky., 
and  graduated  at  West  Point  in  1825,  and  served 
in  the  Black  Hawk  War  of  1832  as  colonel  of  the 
Illinois  volunteers.  He  was  instructor  of  ar- 
tillery practice  at  West  Point,  1835-37;  served 
in  the  second  Seminole  W^ar,  1837-38,  and  in  1838 
was  brevetted  captain  and  became  assistant  ad- 
jutant-general on  General  Scott's  staff.  He  took 
part  in  the  Mexican  War,  and  was  severely 
wounded  at  Molino  del  Rey.  In  November,  1860, 
he  took  command  in  Charleston  harbor,  and  was 
for  fifteen  weeks  confined  to  Fort  Sumter  by 
the  (Confederates.  On  April  14th,  after  a  bom- 
bardment of  36  hours,  he  was  compelled  to  evac- 
uate the  fort.  (See  Fort  Sumter.)  He  was  ap- 
pointed brigadier-general  in  the  IJnited  States 
Army  in  May,  1861,  and  sent  to  command  the 
department  of  the  Cumberland;  but,  owing  to 
the  failure  of  his  health,  he  was  relieved  from 
active  duty  in  October,  1861,  and  was  retired 
from  the  service  in  October,  1863.  In  1865  he 
was  brevetted  major-general.  He  translated  and 
adapted  from  the  French,  Instrux)tions  for  Field 
Artillery  (1840)  and  Evolutions  of  Field  Batter^ 
ies  (1860).     He  died  in  France. 

ANDEBSON,  Robert  (1750-1830).  A  Scotch 
editor  and  biographer  of  the  English  poets.  He 
was  bom  at  Carnwath,  Lanarkshire ;  studied  the- 
ology and  afterward  medicine  in  th«  University 
of  Edinburgh,  and  became  a  physician,  but  soon 
after  his  marriage  ceased  practicing,  and  from 
that  time  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His 
most  important  work  was  the  compilation  of  A 
Complete  Edition  of  the  Poets  of  Great  Britain 
(14  volumes,  1792- 1807).  He  edited  the  Edin- 
burgh Magazine,  and  in  that  capacity  became  the 
friend  of  many  young  writers,  notably  Thomas 
Campbell,  who  dedicated  his  first  volume  of 
verses  to  him.  Consult  Beattie,  Life  and  Let- 
ters of  Campbell  (1849). 

ANDEBSON,  RuFUS,  D.D.,  LL.D.  (1796- 
1880).  Secretary  of  the  American  Board  of 
Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions.  He  was 
graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  (1818)  and  An- 
dover  Theological  Seminary  (1822),  and  after 
acting  as  assistant  (1822-1832),  became  full  sec- 
retary, and  so  continued  until  1866,  when  he  re- 
tired. He  was  lecturer  on  Foreign  Missions  in 
Andover  Theological  Seminary  1867-69.  He  was 
one  of  the  great  missionary  secretaries,  and  his- 
torian of  the  American  Board  (1872-74,  3  vol- 
umes.) He  ihspe(!ted  the  Board's  stations,  and 
has  left  the  memorial  in  his  Observations  Upon 
the  Peloponnesus  and  Greek  Islands  (1830),  A 
Heathen  Nation  (the  Hawaiians)  Civilized 
(1870),  and  in  the  history  mentioned  above.  He 
died  in  Boston,  May  30,  1880. 


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AN^EBSONVILLE.  A  village  in  Sumter 
Co.,  Ga.,  62  miles  Bouth  of  Macon,  notable  as 
the  site  of  a  Confederate  military  prison  during 
the  Civil  War.  When  established  in  November, 
1863,  the  prison  was  an  unsheltered  inclosure 
occupying  about  twenty-two  acres,  and  crossed  by 
a  small  stream  about  five  feet  wide  and  one  foot 
deep.  Subsequently  the  area  was  increased  to 
about  twenty-seven  acres,  though  a  part  of  this 
was  rendered  unavailable  by  the  establishment  of 
a  "dead  line,"  the  crossing  of  which  by  a  pris- 
oner meant  immediate  death.  Into  this  area  some- 
times as  many  as  33,000  Federal  soldiers  were 
crowded,  forced  for  the  most  part  to  live  without 
shelter,  fully  exposed  to  the  heat  of  summer,  the 
frosts  of  winter,  and  the  frequent  storms,  while 
they  suffered  terribly  from  the  effects  of  insuffi- 
cient and  improper  food.  Amid  surroundings  of 
indescribable  filth,  they  died  by  thousands,  of 
diarrhea,  scurvy,  dysentery,  and  fevers.  The 
first  prisoners  arrived  on  February  15,  1864,  and 
the  last  in  April,  1865,  the  total  amounting  to 
49,485,  of  whom  more  than  12,800  or  26  per  cent, 
died  in  confinement.  In  the  autumn  of  1864 
many  of  the  prisoners  were  removed  to  Millen, 
Ga.,  and  Florence,  S.  C,  where  the  conditions 
were  much  less  severe.  A  Confederate  medical 
commission,  composed  of  Dr.  G.  S.  Hopkins  and 
Surgeon  H.  E.  Watkins,  reported  in  1864  that 
the  abnormal  death  rate  was  due  (1)  to  "the 
large  number  of  prisoners  crowded  together,"  ( 2 ) 
to  "the  entire  absence  of  all  vegetables  as  diet, 
so  necessary  as  a  preventive  to  scurvy,"  (3)  to 
"the  want  of  barracks  to  shelter  the  prisoners 
from  sun  and  rain,"  (4)  to  "the  inadequate  sup- 
ply of  wood  and  good  water,"  (5)  to  "badly 
cooked  food,"  (6)  to  "the  filthy  condition  of 
the  prisoners  and  prison  generally,"  and  (7)  to 
"the  morbific  emanations  from  the  branch,  or 
ravine  passing  through  the  prison,  the  condition 
of  which  cannot  be  better  explained  than  by 
naming  it  a  morass  of  human  excrement  and 
mud."  The  post  was  in  command  of  General 
W.  S.  Winder,  while  Henry  Wirz,  a  Swiss,  was 
the  prison  superintendent.  The  latter  was  con- 
victed by  a  special  military  court,  in  session  from 
August  to  October,  1865,  of  "maliciously,  wil- 
fully, and  traitorously  conspiring  to  injure  the 
health  and  destroy  the  lives"  of  Union  soldiers 
at  Andersonville,  and  of  "murder  in  violation  of 
the  laws  of  war,"  and  on  November  10  was 
hanged.  Subsequently,  the  tract  of  land  where 
the  bodies  had  been  hastily  buried  was  turned 
into  a  national  cemetery.  Of  the  graves,  12,789 
have  been  identified  and  marked  with  tablets, 
while  925  remain  unknown.  Consult:  Chip- 
man,  The  Horrors  of  Andersonville  Rebel  Prison 
(San  Francisco,  1801)  ;  Spencer,  A  Narrative 
of  Andersonville  (New  York,  1866)  ;  and  Steven- 
son, The  Southern  Side,  or  Andersonville  Prison 
(Baltimore,  1870). 

▲NDEBSSEN,  anMer-sen, Adolf  (1818-1879). 
A  famous  German  chess  player,  born  in  Breslau. 
He  studied  philosophy  and  mathematics  at  Bres- 
lau and  taught  at  the  Friedrichs-Gymnasium 
there.  In  1851  he  defeated  Staunton  at  London. 
In  1858  he  lost  to  Morphy,  at  Paris.  He  won  two 
first  prizes  in  the  World's  Tournament  at  London 
in  1862,  and  was  victorious  in  a  number  of  other 
tournaments  and  matches.  He  was  noted  for  the 
brilliancy  of  his  style  of  play.  His  "Sixty  Chess 
Problems"  are  full  of  deep  and  ingenious  com- 
binations. He  also  wrote  several  papers  on  the 
theory  of  chess. 


ANDEBSSON,  ftn'der-sAn,^  Karl  Johas 
( 1827-67 ) .  A  Swedish  naturalist  and  South  Af- 
rican  traveler.  In  1850  he  joined  Francis  Gal- 
ton  in  a  journey  in  southwest  Africa,  continued 
alone  through  1853-54,  and  on  his  return  to 
England  published  Lake  N garni;  or.  Explorations 
and  Discoveries  during  Four  Years'  Wanderings 
in  the  Wilds  of  South-weMem  Africa  (1855). 
He  made  a  journey  to  Lake  Ngami  in  1858  with 
Green,  the  elephant  hunter.    On  his  return  he 

fublished  a  book  on  the  Okavango  River  ( 1861 ) . 
n  May,  1866,  he  went  on  an  exploration  to  the 
Kunene  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  com- 
mercial intercourse  with  the  Portuguese  settle- 
ments north  of  that  river.  He  came  in  sight  of 
the  stream,  but  was  too  feeble  to  cross  it,  and 
died  in  trying  to  return  to  Cape  Town.  After 
his  death,  his  Notes  of  Travel  in  South  Africa 
(1876)  were  published. 

ANDEBSSON,  Nils  Johan  (1821-80).  A 
Swedish  botanist,  born  at  Gftrdserum,  SmAland. 
In  1846  he  was  an  instructor  in  botany  at 
Upsala,  and  in  1847  taught  in  an  elementary 
school  at  Stockholm.  From  1851  to  1853  he  wa^ 
botanist  to  the  Swedish  circumnavigatory  expe- 
dition, which  he  described  in  En  Verldsomseg- 
ling  (three  volumes,  1853-54).  He  was  appointed 
an  adjunct  professor  and  demonstrator  of  botany 
at  Lund  in  1855,  and  in  1856  professor  and 
curator  of  the  botanical  collections  at  the  Acad- 
emy of  Sciences,  Stockholm,  and  instructor  in 
the  Bergiani  horticultural  school.  He  also  pub- 
lished Salices  Lapponice  (1845),  Conspectus  Veg- 
etationis  Lapponias  (1846),  Atlas  ofver  den 
Scandinaviska  Florans  Naturliga  Familjcr 
(1849),  Monographia  Salicum  Hucusque  Cogni- 
tarum    (1867),  and  other  works. 

ANa)BBTON,  Thomas  (1836—).  An  Eng- 
lish composer,  born  in  Birmingham,  April  15, 
1836.  Although  an  amateur,  his  works  are  fre- 
quently played  at  musical  festivals  and  concerts. 
These  include  a  symphony  and  overtures  for 
orchestra,  string-quartets,  pianoforte  music,  and 
cantatas  on  Cowper*s  John  Oilpin  and  on  Long- 
fellow's Wreck  of  the  Hesperus.  His  cantata, 
Yule  Tide,  has  had  a  considerable  success  in 
America. 

ANDES,  &nM§z  (Deriv.  uncertain,  usually  ex- 
plained as  Copper  Mountains,  from  the  Peruvian 
word  antiy  copper;  cf.  in  Germany  Erzgehirge, 
Ore-Mountains,  and  Bleiherg,  Lead-Mountain). 
The  great  mountain  chain  of  South  America, 
extending  closely  parallel  with  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  nowhere  far  from  it,  from  Cape  Horn  to  the 
northwest  coast  of  the  South  American  continent. 
Its  length  is  about  4500  miles,  extending  in 
latitude  from  56^  30'  S.  to  ir  N.  In  a  way, 
it  may  be  regarded  as  continuous  with  the  Cor- 
dilleras of  North  America,  the  two  forming  a 
well-nigh  continuous  mountain  system  9000 
miles  in  length,  stretching  from  Cape  Horn  to 
the  Aleutian  Islands.  The  average  breadth  may 
be  set  at  150  miles,  although  this  differs  greatly 
in  different  parts  of  the  system.  Its  average 
height  of  12,000  feet  is  subject  to  the  same 
qualification.  Following  the  coast,  the  system 
trends  a  little  west  of  south  through  Colombia 
and  Ecuador,  but  on  entering  Peru  it  turns  to 
the  southeast,  in  which  direction  it  extends 
through  that  country  and  part  of  Bolivia. 
Through  south  Bolivia,  Chile,  and  Argentina,  its 
trend  is  nearly  south,  but  it  swings  in  a  broad 
curve  to  the  eastward  near  Magellan  Strait 


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The  mountain  system  rises  abruptly  on  both 
sides  throughout  its  course.  Everywhere  it  pre- 
sents a  steep  wall  to  the  Pacific,  and  on  the  east 
it  drops  abruptly  to  the  Amazon  Valley ;  farther 
south,  in  Argentina,  the  land  rises  somewhat 
to  meet  it,  and  there  are  outlying  ridges,  but 
the  main  ascent  is  everywhere  steep.  The  south- 
ern part  of  the  system  consists  of  a  single  range, 
with  here  and  there  outliers  of  comparatively 
little  height,  but  from  northern  Chile  and  Argen- 
tina to  Colombia,  it  consists  of  a  high,  broad 
plateau,  capped  by  two  or  three  ranges,  with 
hundreds  of  high  volcanic  peaks,  some  active, 
others  dormant  or  extinct. 

Geologically,  the  system  is  of  recent  origin, 
although  its  age  has  not  been  closely  determined. 
The  material  of  which  it  is  composed  is  in  the 
main  granites,  with  schists,  slates,  and  other 
metamorphic  rocks  and  the  oldest  of  stratified 
rocks;  here  and  there  upturned  beds  of  more 
recent  formation,  up  to  the  Jurassic,  lie  upon  the 
flanks  of  the  ranges,  while  in  Peru,  the  eastern 
range  is  composed  largely  of  Silurian  beds. 
Over  all,  in  the  neighlK)rhood  of  the  volcanic 
peaks,  which  are  very  numerous  in  all  parts  of 
the  range,  is  spread  lava,  pumice,  scoria,  and 
ashes,  in  many  places  burying  deeply  the  meta- 
morphic rocks.  Near  the  northern  end,  in  Co- 
lombia and  Venezuela,  the  eastern  branches  are 
composed  of  recent  stratified  rocks.  For  de- 
tailed description  it  will  be  convenient  to  refer 
to  the  countries  traversed  by  this  mountain  sys- 
tem, and  this  order  will  be  followed,  commencing 
at  the  north. 

Colombia  and  Ve??ezuela.  The  Andes  orig- 
inate on  the  north  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela 
in  several  distinct  ranges,  which,  trending  south 
to  southwest,  meet  and  coalesce  in  the  Pasto 
Knot  in  southwest  Colombia.  The  westernmost 
range  of  magnitude  is  the  Cordillera  Occidental, 
which  rises  just  east  of  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato, 
and  trends  southward,  parallel  to  the  coast, 
throughout  Colombia.  In  this  are  summits  10,- 
000  and  11,000  feet  in  height,  the  highest  peaks 
being  in  the  southern  part.  Near  the  boundary 
line  with  Ecuador  it  is  cut  through  by  the  Rio 
Patia,  which  flows  south  and  west  inlx)  the  Pa- 
cific. East  of  the  Cordillera  Occidental,  and  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  the  narrow  valley  of  the  Cauca,  a 
branch  of  the  Slagdalena,  is  the  Cordillera  Cen- 
tral. This  range  rises  from  the  lowlands  be- 
tween the  Cauca  and  the  Magdalena,  and  attains 
a  great  height,  with  Cumbal,  15,715  feet;  Gua- 
cau,  16,083  feet;  Guican,  15,748  feet;  Santa 
Marta,  19,029  feet;  Santa  Isabel,  16,732  feet; 
Herveo,  18,045  feet;  Ruiz,  17,388  feet;  Sugar- 
loaf,  16,000  feet;  Tolima,  18,425  feet,  and  many 
others  of  equal  height.  The  range  is  composed 
mainly  of  crystalline  schists,  while  the  higher 
peaks  are  volcanoes,  which  have  spread  lava  and 
ashes  over  many  parts  of  the  range.  East  of  the 
Cordillera  Occidental  and  across  the  valley  of  the 
Man^dalena,  is  the  Cordillera  de  Bogota,  origi- 
nating in  several  ranges  in  the  north  of  Vene- 
zuela, which  trend  in  a  general  southwest  direc- 
tion and  come  together  at  various  points;  the 
principal  ones  are  the  Parija  and  Merida  ranges, 
which  unite  near  Bogota,  beyond  which  point  the 
range  is  single.  Its  highest 'peak  is  Cocui,  10,680 
feet  high.  The  range  is  in  the  main  composed 
of  strongly  folded  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  beds, 
and  contains  no  volcanoes. 

Ecuador.  The  Andes  of  Ecuador  form  two 
ranges,  the  Cordillera  Occidental,  the  continua- 


tion of  the  range  of  the  same  name  in  Colombia, 
and  the  Cordillera  Oriental,  or  Real;  the  two  are 
separated  by  a  high  plateau,  from  70  to  100 
miles  wide,  with  an  average  elevation  of  8000 
feet;  connecting  cross  ranges  divide  this  plateau 
into  ten  basins  or  high  mountain  valleys.  The 
western  range  is  composed  of  porphyries,  dio- 
rites,  and  greenstone,  and  the  eastern  and  higher 
range  is  composed  of  gneiss,  schist,  and  granite. 
Above  them  tower  many  high  volcanic  cones, 
which  have  spread  lava  and  ashes  over  great 
areas.  The  great  peak  of  the  western  range  is 
Chimborazo,  20,498  feet;  with  Cotocachi,  16,300 
feet;  and  Pichincha,  15,918  feet,  the  last  named 
near  the  city  of  Quito,  while  in  the  eastern  range 
are  Cotopaxi,  19,613  feet;  Antisana,  19,335  feet; 
C^yambe,  19,186  feet;  Altar,  17,736  feet;  lUiniza, 
17,023  feet;  and  Carahuairazo,  16,515  feet,  with 
the  active  volcanoes  Tiinguragua,  16,690  feet, 
and  Sangai,  17,464  feet.  The  cross  ranges  also 
contain  many  volcanic  peaks,  indicating  that 
the  whole  region  must  once  have  been  the  centre 
of  tremendous  volcanic  activity. 

Peru.  In  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  the  northern 
part  of  Chile,  the  system  is  much  broader  and 
more  complex.  The  Andes  of  Peru  consist  of 
three  ranges,  the  two  westernmost  being  the 
Maritime  or  Black,  and  the  Central  Cordillera, 
trending  parallel  to  one  another  and  to  the  coast, 
and  in  the  north  separated  only  by  a  narrow, 
high  plateau,  known  as  the  Puna,  with  an  aver- 
age height  of  12,500  feet,  and  in  the  south  by 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  Rio  Huay.  The  East- 
ern Cordillera,  though  otherwise  continuous,  is 
cut  through  by  no  less  than  six  of  the  head  tribu- 
taries of  the  Amazon.  The  broad,  elevated  region 
lying  between  this  and  the  Cordillera  Central', 
known  as  the  Sierra,  is  broken  by  mountain 
spurs,  with  broad  valleys  and  plateaus.  East 
of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  or  the  Andes,  as  it  is 
locally  known,  are  several  lower  ranges,  trend- 
ing parallel  with  the  system,  and  separating 
tributaries  of  the  Amazon.  The  Maritime  and 
Central  Cordillera  are  composed  of  crystalline 
and  volcanic  rocks,  with  stratified  beds  of  Juras- 
sic age  resting  upon  their  outer  flanks.  The 
Eastern  Cordillera  is  composed  mainly  of  strati- 
fied beds  of  Silurian  age,  with  some  intrusions  of 
granite.  The?e  ranges  are  connected  at  the 
mountain  knot  of  Cerro  de  Pasco,  14,293  feet 
high,  and  again  further  to  the  southeast,  at  the 
Knot  of  Vilcanota,  17,390  feet.  South  of  this 
latter  peak  the  Central  and  Eastern  Cordillera 
enclose  the  lofty  plateau  on  which  is  Lake  Titi- 
caca,  situated  partly  in  Peru  and  partly  in 
Bolivia,  and  12,545  feet  above  the  sea.  North 
of  the  Cerro  de  Pasco,  the  Sierra  comprises  the 
upper  valley  of  the  Marafion,  the  largest  and 
longest  of  the  head  branches  of  the  Amazon, 
which  cuts  through  the  Eastern  Cordillera  just 
south  of  the  Ecuador  frontier.  Between  the 
Cerro  de  Pasco  and  the  Knot  of  Vilcanota,  the 
Sierra  is  drained  by  the  head  streams  of  the 
Ucayali,  a  large  tributary  to  the  Amazon.  These 
streams  also  cut  gorges  through  the  eastern 
range.  This  region  was  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Inca  civilization,  and  is  still  thickly  settled. 
Among  the  high  peaks  of  this  part  of  the  Andes 
are  Huascan,  22,051  feet;  Huandoy,  21,089  feet; 
Misti,  20,013;  Chacani,  19,820  feet;  and  Tutu- 
paca,  18,960  feet. 

Bolivia.  In  Bolivia  the  system  comprises 
two  main  ranges,  one  of  which  is  formed  by  the 
coalescing  of  the  two  westernmost  of  the  Ecuador 


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ranges.  These  ranges  are  widely  separated  and 
enclose  a  broad,  greatly  elevated  plateau,  125 
miles  in  breadth  in  the  northern  part,  and  nearly 
300  miles  in  the  south,  with  an  altitude  of 
almost  18,000  feet.  The  plateau  of  the  Andes 
has  here  ttie  greatest  lateral  extent  and  altitude 
in  the  entire  system.  The  western  range  has 
an  average  altitude  of  15,000  feet,  while  the 
Eastern,  or  Cordillera  Real,  is  still  higher,  hav- 
ing peaks  exceeding  20,000  feet ;  among  them  are 
lUampu,  21,490  feet;  niimani,  21,030  feet; 
Ancohuma,  21,490  feet;  Haina,  20,171  feet;  Pani- 
ri,  20,735  feet;  Lieancaur,  19,521  feet;  Sajama, 
21,047  feet;  Isluga,  17,000  feet;  and  Cacaea,  20,- 
250  feet,  all  of  them  near  Lake  Titicaca.  East 
of  this  range  are  several  lower  subsidiary  ranges, 
which  form  a  complicated  system.  Lake  Titicaca 
drains  southeastward  into  Lake  Poopo,  a  sink 
which  collects  the  waters  from  a  large  area  of 
the  plateau.  In  the  Cordillera  Real  and  the 
lesser  ranges  to  the  east,  rise  tributaries  of  the 
Madeira,  one  of  the  main  branches  of  the  Ama- 
zon, and  of  the  Pilcomayo,  tributary  to  the  Plata. 

Chile  and  Argentina.  The  broad,  high  pla- 
teau, with  its  bordering  ranges  and  subsidiary 
eastern  ranges  of  Bolivia,  extends  southward 
into  these  countries,  gradually  narrowing  and 
decreasing  in  altitude,  until  in  latitude  32^  the 
Andes  become  reduced  to  a  single  range,  except 
for  spurs  and  outliers,  most  of  which  are  of  com- 
paratively little  importance.  In  the  northern 
part  the  altitude  of  the  ranges  decreases  great- 
ly, Juncal,  in  latitude  26°,  having  a  height 
of  17,530  feet,  and  Copaip6  volcano,  19,700  feet. 
Farther  south,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Santiago, 
the  mountains  again  become  loftier.  Here  are 
Mercedario,  22,315  feet;  Tupungato,  20,286 
feet;  San  Jose,  20,020  feet;  and  Aconcagua,  22,- 
860  feet;  this  latter  peak  is  the  highest  summit 
of  the  entire  system,  and  of  the  whole  continent, 
80  far  as  known.  Still  further  south,  the  ran^e 
again  diminishes  in  height.  In  latitude  34°  is 
Maipo  volcano,  17,670  feet;  in  latitude  36°  is 
Descabezado,  12,760  feet;  in  latitude  42°  is  Tro- 
nador  volcano,  9790  feet.  Here  begins  the  re- 
markable .  fiord  coast,  which  extends  south  to 
Cape  Horn.  The  heavy  precipitation  on  the  west 
side  of  the  range  here  produced  in  past  times 
extensive* glaciers,  which  chiseled  the  mountains 
far  down  below  sea  level,  producing  many 
islands,  and  an  intricate  system  of  mountain- 
walled  channels.  These  glaciers  have  been  able, 
by  reason  of  their  rapid  descent,  to  cut  back 
their  heads  across  the  range  in  many  places,  so 
that  now,  after  their  recession,  many  of  the 
streams  which  have  succeeded  them  rise  far  to 
the  east  of  the  Andes,  upon  the  plains  of  Argen- 
tina, and  flow  through  the  range  to  the  Pacific. 
In  this  region  the  mountains  become  still  lower, 
their  height  ranging  from  4000  to  8000  feet, 
until  they  finally  disappear  at  Cape  Horn. 

The  lower  limit  of  perpetual  snow,  although 
an  extremely  indefinite  line,  varying  from  year 
to  year  with  exposure  and  precipitation,  has  in 
general,  in  equatorial  regions,  an  altitude  of 
about  15,500  feet,  but  ranges  a  thousand  feet  on 
each  side  of  this  figure,  being  higher  on  the  east 
and  flower  on  the  west  side  of  the  range.  In 
other  words,  it  is  higher  where  the  precipitation 
is  abundant,  and  lower  where  it  is  scanty.  It 
diminishes  as  the  latitude  increases,  being  about 
13,000  feet  in  the  latitude  of  Santiago,  and  fall- 
ing to  3000  feet  near  the  southern  point  of  the 
continent.     Glaciers  are  found  on  all  the  high 


peaks,  even  those  in  equatorial  regions,  which 
exceed  13,000  feet  in  height.  Here,  however, 
they  are  small,  descending  the  mountain  slope 
only  a  few  thousand  feet.  In  southern  Chile, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  range,  are  many  of  consid- 
erable size,  originating  upon  mountains  of  infe- 
rior height,  and  descending  to  sea  level,  even 
entering  the  sea,  at  the  heads  of  fiords. 

Volcanoes.  One  of  the  striking  features  of 
the  Andes  is  its  great  number  of  active  and 
extinct  volcanoes.  Probably  not  over  sixty  are 
now  known  to  be  active,  but  the  extinct  ones  are 
numbered  by  hundreds,  and  have  played  a  very 
important  part,  though  a  secondary  one,  in  cre- 
ating the  present  conformation  of  the  mountain 
system.  Three  principal  centres  of  volcanic  ac- 
tivity are  recognized;  one  in  the  Andes  of  the 
north,  in  Colombia  and  Ecuador,  extending  in 
latitude  from  5°  N.  to  3°  S.;  a  second  in  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  northern  Chile,  extending  in  lati- 
tude from  16°  to  28°  S.;  and  a  third  in  central 
Chile,  extending  from  32°  to  40°  S.  The  highest 
peaks  of  the  Andes  are  of  volcanic  formation, 
and  their  peculiar  conical  forms  are  distinctive 
features  of  the  Andean  landscape.  Many  of  the 
most  prominent  and  highest  ones  have  been  men- 
tioned; it  remains  to  speak  of  those  which  are 
now  active,  or  which  have  been  active  within 
historic  times,  and  briefly  describe  their  erup- 
tions. 

The  northern  group,  mainly  comprised  in 
Ecuador,  is  the  most  imposing  collection  of  ac- 
tive and  extinct  volcanoes  on  earth.  Of  these, 
Cotopaxi,  Tunguragua,  Sangai,  and  Pichincha 
have  repeatedly  been  in  eruption  in  historic 
times,  but  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  others  have 
for  a  long  time  been  quiescent.  The  Altar,  a 
truncated  mountain,  17,736  feet  in  height,  ia 
said  to  have  once  been  the  highest  in  the  r^on, 
but  after  a  long  period  of  eruption  it  collapsed 
within  itself.  Kuiz,  in  Colombia,  is  still  smok- 
ing, and  Tolima  is  not  quite  extinct,  but  as  late 
as  1829  was  in  eruption.  In  1849  Purace.  in 
southern  Colombia,  suddenly  exploded,  flooding 
the  neighboring  country,  and  covering  it  with 
ashes.  A  similar  eruption  took  place  in  1869. 
Imbabura,  in  Ecuador,  is  said  to  have  discharged 
a  deluge  of  mud  and  water  at  the  time  of  the 
great  earthquake  in  1868.  Antisana  is  repoVted 
as  having  been  in  eruption  in  1590,  and  even 
now  sulphurous  fumes  arise  from  it.  Cotopaxi. 
always  smoking,  has  been  repeatedly  in  eruption, 
although  its  great  eruptions  have  occurred  at 
intervals  of  centuries.  The  last  one  was  in 
1877.  Timguragua  also  is  active  at  irregular 
intervals,  the  latest  eruption  being  in  1886. 
Sangai  sends  off  steam  constantly  with  tremen- 
dous force  and  noise.  Pichincha  has,  since  its 
eruption  in  1660,  given  off  nothing  but  steam 
and  a  little  ashes. 

The  middle  volcanic  group  is  found  in  both 
the  eastern  and  western  Cordilleras;  in  Peru  it 
includes  Sarasara,  Atchatayhua,  Corupuna.  Am- 
pato,  Chachani,  and  Misti,  all  now  quiescent. 
Omate  and  Tutupaca  have  been  in  eruption  in 
historic  times;  indeed,  the  former  was  one  of 
the  most  active  in  Peru.  In  Bolivia  are  Mount 
Sorata,  or  Illampu,  Sajama,  Aucaquilcha,  Cha- 
chacomani,  Huiana,  Cacaea,  Mesada,  and  Illi- 
mani,  while  in  northern  Chile  are  many  volcanic 
cones,  some  of  great  height;  among  them  are 
Tacora,  19,750  feet,  Chipicani,  Pomerape,  Parin- 
acpta,  Iquima,  20,275  feet,  and  Toroni,  21,340 
feet,  all  in  the  western  range.    In  the  eastern 


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range  are  Tuaehela,  Olca,  Mino,  and  OUagua, 
all  smoking  or  emitting  lava.  South  of  OUa^a 
are  at  least  thirty  extinct  volcanoes,  exceeding 
16,500  feet  in  height;  among  them  are  Autopalla, 
20,920  feet,  Socompa,  19,620  feet,  and  LluUail- 
laco,  21,670  feet. 

In  the  central  Chilean  r^ion  are  Tupungato, 
San  Jose,  Maipo,  Tinguiririca,  all  supposed  to 
be  extinct.  Las  Damas  and  Peteroa  are  said  to 
have  been  in  eruption  in  the  last  century.  The 
volcanoes  grouped  about  Descabezado  are  qui- 
escent, though  appearances  indicate  recent  erup- 
tion. Chilean  ranges  contain  several  vents, 
from  which  lava  and  ashes  have  been  ejected  in 
recent  years.  Autuco  also  has  had  eruptions 
within  historic  times.  Farther  south,  Villarica 
volcano  has  frequently  been  seen  in  eruption. 
In  all  probability,  other  active  volcanoes  exist  in 
the  fiord  region  of  South  Chile,  although  none 
has  yet  been  reported. 

Htdrography.  The  Andes  system  is  the 
source  of  most  of  the  larger  streams  of  South 
America.  Through  nearly  its  whole  extent, 
wherever  the  system  comprises  more  than  a  sin- 
gle main  range,  the  westernmost  of  these  ranges 
separates  the  drainage  to  the  Atlantic  from  that 
to  the  Pacific.  In  Ecuador,  however,  no  fewer 
than  seven  of  the  ten  high  valleys  between  the 
ranges  are  drained  westward,  and  in  southern 
Chile,  as  has  been  seen,  glaciers  have  eroded 
their  sources  back  across  the  whole  range  to  the 
Argentina  plains.  The  western  streams  are 
short,  and  owing  to  the  light  rainfall  on  most  of 
the  western  slope,  have  small  volume.  Hence 
their  cutting  power  is  slight.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  streams  to  the  east  are  long,  with  great 
drainage  basins,  and,  except  in  Argentina,  are 
suppliwi  with  abundant  precipitation  by  the 
trade  winds.  Hence  they  are  powerful  streams 
of  large  volume,  and  have  eroded  their  courses 
far  up  into  the  mountains. 

The  Andes  of  Colombia  are  drained  northward 
to  the  Caribbean  Sea  by  the  Magdalena,  Cauca, 
and  Atrato  rivers,  and  eastward  to  the  same 
body  of  water  by  the  Orinoco,  and  to  the  Atlantic 
by  the  Negro  and  Yapurft,  great  branches  of  the 
Amazon.  The  system  in  Ecuador,  Peru,  and 
most  of  Bolivia  is  drained  eastward  by  count- 
less tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  among  which 
are  the  Napo,  MaraiSon,  Ucayali,  Beni,  and  Ma- 
more.  Of  these,  the  Marafion  heads  between  the 
ranges  far  to  the  south,  near  the  Knot  of  Cerro 
de  Pasco,  flowing  northwest  within  the  mountain 
system  for  400  miles  before  breaking  through 
the  eastern  range  into  the  Amazon  basin.  T^e 
Huallaga,  Mantaro,  Apurimac,  and  Urubaraba, 
tributaries  of  the  Marafion,  also  head  between 
the  ranges,  cutting  gorges  through  the  eastern 
range.  In  Bolivia  and  northwest  Argentina  is 
a  great  region,  800  miles  in  length,  lying  between 
the  ranges,  with  an  average  altitude*  of  13,000 
feet,  which  has  no  drainage  to  either  ocean.  In 
this  region  is  the  great  Lake  Titicaca,  which 
drains  by  the  Rio  Desaguadero  to  Lake  Poopo, 
where  the  drainage  of  this  semi-desert  region 
is  collected.  This  lake  in  earlier  times  drained 
to  the  Amazon,  but  by  shrinkage  in  volume  its 
outlet  has  been  closed,  and  now  it  discharges  only 
by  evaporation.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes 
in  southern  Bolivia  and  northern  Argentina  is 
drained  to  the  Plata,  while  further  south  short- 
er streams,  the  Rio  Colorado,  the  Negro,  Chubut, 
and  the  Deseado,  and   the  Arroyos   Bayo   and 


Salado,  and  other  smaller   streams,  carry  the 
drainage  directly   to   the  Atlantic. 

Climate.  The  climate  of  the  Andes  differs 
widely  in  different  parts,  with  latitude,  altitude, 
and  exposure.  The  eastern  slope  of  the  system 
from  the  northern  end  southward  to  latitude 
25**,  comprising  the  portions  drained  by  the  Ori- . 
noco  and  Amazon,  and  lying  almost  entirely 
within  the  tropics,  has  a  heavy,  and,  in  many 
localities,  a  profuse,  rainfall.  Farther  southward 
in  the  temperate  zone,  in  the  region  of  prevailing 
westerly  winds,  the  rainfall  on  this  side  of  the 
range  diminishes,  becoming  very  light  in  Argen- 
tina, with  only  eight  inches  or  less  in  the  driest 
parts.  On  the  west  side  of  the  system,  the  rain- 
fall conditions  are  very  nearly  reversed,  though 
in  the  north,  in  Colombia,  the  tropical  rainfall 
passes  around  the  end  of  the  range  and  extends 
down  the  western  side  for  some  distance,  giving 
to  the  valleys  of  the  Magdalena,  Cauca,  and 
Atrato  abundant  moisture,  and  extending  south- 
ward along  the  coast  as  far  as  Guayaquil,  Ecua- 
dor^ Thence  southward,  the  western  coast  is  an 
arid  and  desert  region,  as  far  as  latitude  30**  S. 
Below  this  point  the  precipitation  increases,  as 
the  westerly  winds  bring  moisture,  and  the  south- 
ern coast  is  well  watered. 

From  Guayaquil  a  cooler  climate  is  reached 
either  by  going  south  or  by  going  directly  up  the 
mountains.  The  base  of  the  mountains,  within 
the  tropics,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
80°  F.  or  more,  while  in  southern  Argentina 
it  is  not  more  than  25**.  Within  the  tropics  the 
temperature  ranges  from  80**  at  the  base  of  the 
mountains  to  20°  or  less  at  their  summits,  a 
range  due  to  altitude  alone.  Upon  the  Titicaca 
plateau  Arctic  conditions  prevail,  with  frost 
every  month  of  the  year.  Where  the  rainfall  is 
copious,  as  it  is  on  the  eastern  side  within  the 
tropics,  the  range  of  temperature  between  sum- 
mer and  winter  is  slight,  while  upon  the  west 
coast,  in  the  same  latitudes,  where  desert  con- 
ditions prevail,  the  range  is  very  great.  In  gen- 
eral, as  the  mountains  are  ascended,  the  contrasts 
of  temperature  become  greater,  owing  to  the  rari- 
flcation  of  the  air.  At  great  altitudes,  even, 
the  contrasts  between  day  and  night  is  great. 
South  of  the  latitude  of  Coquimbo,  30°  S.,  these 
temperature  conditions  are  reversed,  the  west 
slopes  having  the  smallest  annual  and  diurnal 
range. 

Means  of  Communication.  Routes  of  travel 
across  the  Andes  are  few  in  number,  the  passes 
are  very  high,  and  the  roads  traversing  them 
are,  as  a  rule,  very  bad.  Communication  be- 
tween the  peoples  on  the  two  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains is  slight.  The  high  land  between  the 
ranges  is  the  best  settled  part  of  these  sparsely 
settled  countries,  and  the  inhabitants  of  these 
elevated  regions  have  some  intercourse  with  the 
western  seaboard,  but  very  little  with  the  low 
country  to  the  east.  But  with  the  development 
of  the  mining  industry  in  the  mountains  and 
the  exploitation  of  the  rubber  resources  of  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Amazon,  it  may  be  expected 
that  means  of  communication  across  the  range 
will  be  improved  in  the  near  future.  In  Colom- 
bia the  main  routes  of  travel  follow  the  valleys  of 
the  Cauca  and  the  Magdalena,  while  the  chief 
route  across  the  Cordillera  Central  is  via  Quin- 
dio  Pass,  connecting  Cartago,  on  the  Cauca,  with 
the  valley  of  the  Magdalena,  and  ultimately 
with  the  capital,  Bogota.    In  Ecuador  the  main 


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routes  pass  north  and  south  through  the  succes- 
sion of  mountain  valleys,  connecting  with  the 
coast  at  Guayaquil,  by  railroad  from  Ghimbo, 
or  northward  down  th«  Cauca  and  Magdalena. 
The  most  frequented  eastward  route  crosses  the 
Eastern  Cordillera  between  Saraurcu  and  Anti- 
sana,  and  reaches  navigable  water  in  the  Napo 
at  Puerto  Napo.  In  Peru  the  plateau  within 
the  ranges  is  connected  with  the  coast  by  two 
railways,  which  are  marvels  of  engineering.  The 
Oroya  Railway  connects  Lima  and  Gallao  with 
Oroya  and  Concepcion,  crossing  the  Western  Cor- 
dillera at  an  altitude  of  15,665  feet,  in  a  distance 
of  106  miles  from  Lima.  The  second  railway 
connects  MoUendo  on  the  coast  with  Lake  Titi- 
caca.  It  crosses  the  Western  Cordillera  at  an 
altitude  of  14,666  feet,  and  terminates  at  the 
little  town  of  Puno,  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca, 
12,540  feet  high.  Several  other  short  lines  run 
from  the  coast  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
and  even  some  distance  into  them,  following 
the  stream  valleys;  among  them  is  the  line  up 
the  Rio  Santa  to  Huaraz. 

The  somewhat  broken  character  of  the  ranges 
in  Peru  and  Bolivia  has  made  the  plateau  easier 
of  access  than  it  is  farther  north,  and  there  are 
many  roads  and  trails  from  the  coast  to  the 
summit ;  but  routes  of  communication  to  the  east, 
to  the  country  about  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Madeira  and  Plata,  are  almost  entirely  lacking. 
From  Antofagasta  in  northern  Chile,  on  the 
coast,  a  railway  has  been  constructed  to  Oruro, 
on  the  plateau,  north  of  Lake  Poopo.  This  road 
has  a  total  length  of  560  miles,  making  it  much 
the  longest  of  the  Andean  lines.  In  central 
Chile  and  Argentina  a  transcontinental  railway 
has  long  been  in  course  of  construction,  which  is 
to  cross  the  Andes  at  Uspallata  or  Cumbre  Pass, 
not  far  from  Santiago,  at  an  altitude  of  12,340 
feet.  This  is  the  most  frequented  pass  in  Chile, 
as  almost  all  the  transcontinental  travel  goes 
over  it. 

Flora.  In  plant  life  the  Andes  is  the  rich- 
est of  any  mountain  system  in  the  world. 
Not  only  do  these  mountains  sustain  at  their 
bases  the  flora  of  all  climates,  from  the  equa- 
torial zone  at  the  north  to  the  cold  zone  at  the 
south,  but  they  possess  these  zones  in  altitude 
as  well;  and  moreover,  certain  species  of  plant 
life  are  peculiar  to  this  special  region.  Plant 
life  is  especially  prolific  in  the  rainy  regions 
of  Venezuela,  Colombia,  Chile,  and  Bolivia. 
In  Colombia  the  palms  and  their  associated 
tropical  flora  extend  upward  on  the  Andean 
slopes  to  an  altitude  of  about  4500  feet,  while 
above  this  is  a  mixed  sub-tropical  be!t,  ex- 
tending to  an  altitude  of  nearly  10,000  feet,  in 
which  grow  the  cinchona,  tree  fern,  and  wax 
palm,  and  still  higher  up,  at  an  altitude  of  10,- 
000  to  12,000  feet,  the  higher  Andean  bush 
growth,  including  the  Andean  rose;  a  species  of 
bamboo  also  grows  at  these  high  altitudes. 

Farther  to  the  south,  in  the  region  of  less  rain- 
fall, the  flora  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the 
Andes  is  quite  different.  On  the  west  side,  in 
lower  Ecuador  ahd  Peru,  the  plant  life  is  poor, 
and  is  that  peculiar  to  a  semi-desert  region; 
but  it  extends  up  to  high  altitudes,  lichens 
being  found  at  18,500  feet  altitude;  while  on  the 
moister  Bolivian  and  Brazilian  side  the  various 
altitudinal  zones  occur,  beginning  with  the  rich 
flora  of  western  tropical  Brazil  and  extending  up 
to  the  true  Andean  flora.  In  northern  Chile  and 
western  Argentina,  where  there  is  a  rather  light 


AKDESITE. 

rainfall  on  both  ffides  of  the  Andes,  there  is  a 
continuation  of  the  sparser  vegetation  of  the 
relatively  dry  region,  and  the  flora  of  the  two 
sides  of  the  Andes  differs  less  than  elsewhere. 
In  the  Chile-Argentina  region  there  is  a  grett 
contrast  between  the  rich  vegetation  on  the  moist 
Chilean  side  and  the  thin  vegetation  on  the  dry 
slopes  of  Argentina.  In  the  southern  part  of 
this  Andean  region  great  forests  of  stunted  beech 
and  firs  occur  in  the  lowlands  and  extend  part 
way  up  the  mountain  slopes.  Southward  along 
the  Andean  chain  the  altitudinal  zones  diminish 
in  width  in  about  the  same  ratio  as  the  decrease 
in  altitude  of  the  snow-line,  so  that  in  the  south, 
by  making  an  ascent  of  less  than  a  vertical  mile, 
one  can  pass  through  as  many  vegetation  zones 
as  would  be  encountered  in  an  ascent  of  three 
miles  under  the  equator.  The  upper  limit  of  tree 
growth,  or  the  timber  line,  is  a  far  more  definite 
line  than  the  snow  line,  yet  in  many  places  it 
is  not  easy  to  define.  It  ranges  in  the  Andes 
from  an  average  of  1 1 ,500  feet  under  the  equator, 
down  to  about  3000  feet  near  Cape  Horn.  It 
is  higher,  for  apparent  reasons,  on  the  moist, 
than  on  the  dry,  side  of  the  range;  thus,  in 
Ecuador  it  ranges  nearly  1000  feet  higher  upon 
the  east  side  than  upon  the  west. 

Fauna.  In  the  northern  Andes  of  Venezuela 
and  Colombia,  where  the  tropical  and  sub-trop- 
ical forests  extend  up  to  an  altitude  of  10,000 
feet,  we  find  the  fauna  of  tropical  America  ex- 
isting up  to  similar  high  altitudes.  The  jaguar, 
puma,  bear,  ocelot,  monkey,  tapir,  ant-eater, 
and  capibara  are  found  in  these  forests.  Bird 
life  is  abundant,  and  the  bat  family  is  well  rep- 
resented. Snakes,  saurians,  and  turtles  are  met 
in  great  numbers  at  lower  altitudes.  Above 
6000  feet  in  altitude  there  is  a  great  diminution 
of  animal  life.  In  Ecuador  there  occur  certain 
representative  species  of  the  southern  Andes, 
such  as  the  llama  and  the  condor.  Insect  life 
also  continues  very  abundant,  and  fish  are  found 
up  to  an  altitude  of  14,500  feet.  In  the  Peruvian 
and  Bolivian  Andes  on  the  Pacific  side,  the 
fauna,  like  the  flora,  is  limited,  but  on  the  east- 
ern or  Brazilian  slope  is  exceedingly  rich.  The 
vicufia,  guanaco,  and  alpaca  are  still  found  in  the 
wild  state,  and  with  them  are  found  the  chin- 
chilla and  viscacha.  On  the  Bolivian  slopes  the 
fauna  is  much  more  abundant  than  in  Peru.  Fur- 
ther south  on  the  Andean  chain  the  fauna  is  less 
rich,  and  especially  there  is  to  be  noticed  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  larger  animals  of  the  north- 
ern Andes.  Herds  of  guanacos  are  numerous, 
and  birds  are  present  in  great  variety  and 
large  numbers,  but  the  reptiles  show  a  decided 
change  of  form.  At  the  extreme  south  the  land 
fauna  is  but  poorly  represented. 

Bibliography.  Orton,  The  Andes  and  the 
Amazon  (New  York,  1870)  ;  Crawford,  Across 
the  Pampas  and  Andes  (London,  1884) ;  GQss- 
feldt,  Reise  in  den  Andes  (Berlin,  1888) ;  Whym- 
per.  Travels  Among  the  Orrat  Andes  of  the  Equa- 
tor (London,  1892}  ;  Fitzgerald,  The  Highest 
Andes  (New  York,  1899)  ;  Conway,  The  Bolic- 
ian  Andes  (New  York,  1901)  ;  Reclus,  Physical 
Oeography,  translated  and  edited  by  Keane  and 
Ravenstein  (London,  1890-95). 

▲N^ESITE.  A  volcanic  effusive  rock  of  por- 
phyritic  texture  composed  essentially  of  lime- 
soda  feldspar  (Andesine)  with  black  mica  (Bio- 
tite) ,  hornblende,  or  augite  imbedded  in  a  ground 
mass  of  smaller  crystals  or  rock  ^lass.  The 
structure  may  be,  but  is  not  necessarily,  porous; 


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AKDESITE. 


537 


▲NDOBBA. 


in  most  cases  the  crystals  of  andesine  are  ar- 
ranged roughly  parallel,  giving  the  rock  its  char- 
acteristic fluxion  or  andesitic  structure.  This 
structure  is  due  to  the  flow  of  the  once  molten 
mass  in  the  form  of  lava.  In  composition  this 
family  of  rocks  shows  wide  variations,  limited, 
however,  by  the  rhyolites  (q.v.)  and  trachytes 
(q.v.)  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  basalts  on  the 
other.  Fairly  rich  in  silica  and  alumina,  they 
contain  moderate  amounts  only  of  the  heavier 
and  darker  bases,  viz.,  iron,  lime,  and  magnesia. 
They  contain  from  60  to  70  per  cent,  of  silica, 
13  to  18  per  cent,  of  alumina,  4  to  0  per  cent, 
of  iron,  3  to  6  per  cent,  of  lime,  5  to  9  per  cent, 
of  alkalies,  and  smaller  percentages  of  magnesia. 
They  owe  their  name  to  their  extensive  develop- 
ment in  the  Andes  of  South  America,  though 
they  occur  extensively  throughout  the  entire  Cor- 
dilleran  system  of  mountains,  in  South,  Central, 
and  North  America.    See  Ratolite;  Trachyte. 

ANDI^KA  ( Neo-Lat.,  probably  from  the  native 
Brazilian  name).  A  genus  of  about  twenty 
species  of  tropical  American  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosee,  having  almost  orbicular,  one- 
celled,  one-seeded  pods.  Andira  inermis  grows 
in  low  savannahs  in  the  West  Indies,  and  is  there 
called  cabbage  tree  or  cabbage-bark  tree.  It  is 
a  tree  of  considerable  height,  having  pinnate 
leaves,  with  thirteen  to  fifteen  ovato-lanceolate 
leaflets  and  panicles  of  reddish  lilac  flowers. 
Its  bark,  called  cabbage  bark,  or  worm  bark,  is  a 
powerful  anthelmintic,  and  although  it  has  re- 
cently been  discarded  from  the  pharmacopceias 
of  Great  Britain,  still  finds  a  place  in  those  of 
other  countries,  along  with  Surinam  bark,  the 
bark  of  Andira  retusa  of  Surinam.  Similar 
properties  reside  in  the  bark  of  several  species 
of  the  allied  genus  GeoflTroya.  A  single  fossil 
species  of  Andira  has  been  described  from  the 
middle  Tertiary  rocks  of  Europe. 

ANiyiBON  (O.  F.  andier,  from  Low  Lat. 
anderiay  a  fire-dog,  the  Fr.  landier  stands  for 
Vandier).  A  metal  utensil  used  in  burning  wood 
in  an  open  fireplace.  It  consists  of  a  horizontal 
bar  supported  on  three  short  legs  with  an  up- 
right standard  at  one  end.  Andirons  are  em- 
ployed in  pairs,  one  andiron  being  placed  on  each 
side  of  the  hearth,  with  the  uprights  in  front 
and  the  horizontal  bars  extending  backward  into 
the  fireplace,  the  logs  or  sticks  of  wood  resting 
across  the  horizontal  bars.  It  is  usual  to  make 
the  uprights  of  various  ornamental  designs,  and, 
often,  to  cover  them  with  copper,  brass  or  silver. 
Andirons  are  manufactured  by  forging,  wrought 
iron  being  the  material  of  which  they  are  most 
commonly  made.  Handirons,  fire-dogs  and  dog- 
irons  are  colloquial  names  for  andirons. 

AKDIZHAN,  an'd^-zhan^  Capital  of  the 
district  of  Andizhan,  territory  of  Ferghana, 
Russian  Turkestan  (Map:  Central  Asia,  Afghan- 
istan, E  2).  It  is  about  42  miles  from  Margelau, 
the  capital  of  the  territory,  and  has  about 
47.000  inhabitants.  Cotton  is  the  principal 
article  of  commerce.  Until  the  sixteenth  cen- 
turj-  it  was  the  principal  town  of  Ferghana.  The 
Russians  obtained  possession  of  it  in  1875. 

ANDKHTJIy  And-K?)?)'^.  A  town  of  Afghan 
Turkestan,  situated  in  the  province  of  Maimene, 
about  200  miles  south  of  Bokhara  (Map:  Central 
A-*ia,  Afghanistan,  E  2).  It  lies  on  the  trade 
route  between  Bokhara  and  Afghanistan,  and 
has  a  population  of  about  15,000. 


ANDLAUy  aN'dlA',  Gaston  Joseph  Har- 
DOUIN,  CoMTE  D'  (1824-92).  A  French  general, 
born  at  Nancy.  He  attended,  for  a  time,  the  mil- 
itary school  at  St.  Cyr,  and  later,  in  active  ser- 
vice, distinguished  himself  as  st  captain  in  the 
Crimean  War.  At  the  outbreak  of  the  Franco- 
Prussian  War  he  was  appointed  a  colonel  on  the 
general  staff  of  the  Array  of  the  Rhine,  and  sub- 
sequently he  fought  in  the  battles  before  Metz. 
He  was  elected  a  senator  in  1876,  and  promoted 
to  be  a  general  of  brigade  in  1879.  He  was 
involved  in  the  so-called  affaire  des  decorations, 
in  which  General  Caffarel  was  found  guilty  of 
selling  decorations  of  merit,  and  fled  to  the 
United  States.  He  published  De  la  Cavalerie 
dans  le  pas86  et  dans  Vavenir  (1869)  and  Organi- 
sation ct  tactique  de  rinfanterie  frangaise  depuis 
son  origine  (1872). 

ANDLAW-BIBSECK,  ant'l&v-ber's6k,  Franz. 
Xavier,  Baron  von  (1799-1876).  A  German 
diplomat  and  author.  He  was  born  at  Freiburg, 
and  in  early  life  studied  jurisprudence  at  the 
university  there  and  at  Landshut  and  Heidelberg, 
and  in  1824  entered  the  public  service  of  Baden. 
From  1826  to  1830,  and  again  from  1832  to  1835, 
he  was  secretary  of  the  embassy  at  Vienna, 
He  was  appointed  minister  at  Munich  in  1838; 
minister  at  Paris  in  1843,  and  in  1846  ambassa- 
dor extraordinary  at  Vienna.  He  retired  in 
1856,  and  subsequently  published  Erinnerungs- 
bldttcr  aus  den  Papiercn  eines  Diplomaten 
(1857),  Mein  Tagehuch  1811-61  (1802),  Die  by- 
zantinischen  Kaiser  (1865),  Siehen  heilige  Furs- 
ten  (1865). 

ANDOCIDBS,  an-d6s1-dez  (Gk.  'AvkoSAIijc, 
Andokid^s)  (c.  440  B.C.).  The  least  of  the  Ten 
Attic  Orators.  In  415,  he  was  involved  with  the 
younger  members  of  the  aristocratic  party  in 
the  charge  of  mutilating  the  Herma.  To  protect 
himself,  he  betrayed  some  of  his  associates,  but 
sufTered  partial  loss  of  civic  rights,  and  went  to 
Rhodes,  where  he  engaged  in  trade.  From  407 
he  lived  in  El  is.  The  amnesty  of  403  allowed 
him  to  return  to  Athens.  In  391,  he  was  sent  to 
Sparta  to  negotiate  a  peace.  On  his  return  he 
was  unable  to  persuade  the  Athenians  to  accept 
the  treaty,  was  charged  with  mismanagement, 
and  banished.  The  date  of  his  death  is  un- 
known. Three  of  his  speeches  are  extant:  On 
His  Return  (407),  On  the  Mysteries  (399),  On 
the  Peace  (391).  The  oration  Against  Ald- 
biades  is  spurious,  and  the  authenticity  of  On 
the  Peace  is  doubted.  Consult:  Jebb,  Atti^  Ora- 
tors (Ix)ndon,  1876-80)  ;  Blass,  Attische  Bercd- 
samkeit   (Leipzig,  1887-98). 

ANDOBBAy  &n-ddr^r&.  A  republic  in  the  val- 
ley of  the  same  name  in  the  eastern  Pyrenees, 
between  the  French  department  of  Ari^ge  and 
Catalonia,  in  Spain  (Map:  Spain,  F  1).  The 
valley  is  inclosed  by  mountains,  through  which 
its  river,  the  Balira,  breaks  to  join  the  Segre  at 
Urgel;  and  its  inaccessibility  naturally  fits  it 
for  being  the  seat  of  the  interesting  little  repub- 
lic, which  leads  a  kind  of  semi-independent  exist- 
ence under  the  joint  protection  of  France  and 
Spain.  Its  area  is  about  175  square  miles,  and 
it  is  divided  into  the  six  parishes  of  Santa  Julia, 
Andorra-Vieilla,  Encamp,  Canillo,  La  Massana, 
and  Ordino.  The  former  abundant  forests  are 
being  exhausted  from  use  as  fuel ;  there  is  much 
excellent  pasture;  vines  and  fruit  trees  flourish 
on  the  lower  grounds,  and  the  mountains  con- 
tain rich  iron  mines.    The  limited  area  of  arable 


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ANDORRA. 


538 


ANDRA8ST. 


land  makes  the  republic  partly  depend  upon 
France  for  its  grain.  The  chief  industry  is  the 
production  of  coarse  cloth,  and  the  exports  con- 
sist of  wood,  metal  ores,  cloth,  and  some  dairy 
products.  • 

Andorra  was  declared  an  independent  State  by 
Charlemagne,  in  reward  for  services  rendered  to 
hihl  by  its  inhabitants  when  he  was  marching 
against  the  Moors.  In  1278  Andorra  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Comte  de  Foix  and  the  Bishop  of 
Urgel,  and  was  administered  by  two  viguiers 
appointed  by  them.  During  the  French  Revolu- 
tion the  relations  between  Andorra  and  France 
were  interrupted  on  account  of  the  latter's  re- 
fusal to  accept  the  annual  tribute,  which  was 
considered  incompatible  with  a  republican  form 
of  government.  In  1806,  however,  the  former 
relations  were  renewed,  and  the  free  importation 
of  cereals  from  France  was  allowed  in  considera- 
tion of  an  annual  tribute  of  960  francs.  The 
Republic  is  governed  by  a  sovereign  council  of 
twenty-four  members,  chosen  for  a  period  of  four 
years  by  the  heads  of  the  communities.  The 
council  is  presided  over  by  two  syndics,  both 
chosen  by  the  members  of  the  council,  one  for 
life  and  the  other  for  a  term  of  four  years. 
There  are  two  judges  called  viguiers,  of  whom 
the  first,  a  French  subject,  is  appointed  by 
France,  and  the  second,  a  native,  by  the  Bishop 
of  Urgel.  There  is  also  a  civil  judge,  appointed 
by  France  and  the  Bishop  of  Urgel  alternately. 
Under  each  viguier  is  an  inferior  judge  called  a 
hailie;  there  is  an  appeal  from  his  judgment 
to  the  civil  judge,  and  finally  to  the  Court  of 
Cassation  at  Pari^  or  to  the  episcopal  college 
at  Urgel.  In  criminal  cases  there  is  no  appeal 
from  the  Court  of  the  Republic  itself,  in  which  the 
first  viguier  presides.  The  revenue  of  the  State 
is  derived  from  lands  and  from  some  inconsid- 
erable taxes.  The  Bishop  of  ITrgel  receives  from 
the  Republic  an  annual  sum  of  460  francs.  The 
manner  of  life  of  the  Andorrans  is  very  simple. 
There  are  schools,  but  education  is  in  a  low 
state.  Every  able-bodied  citizen  of  the  Republic 
is  liable  to  military  service  between  the  ages  of 
sixteen  and  sixty.  In  the  Carlist  wars  the  neu- 
trality of  Andorra  was  strictly  respected,  though 
various  complications  resulted  from  its  connec- 
tion with  the  Bishop  of  Urgel.  The  capital, 
Andorra,  is  situated  in  the  mountains,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  1000.  The  population  of 
the  Republic  is  estimated  at  6000.  Consult: 
Spender,  Through  the  High  Pyrenees  (London, 
1898) ;  Deverell,  History  of  the  Republic  of  An- 
dorra (Bristol,  1885)  ;  Tucker,  The  Valley  of 
Andorra  (Cambridge,  Mass.,  1882). 

AN^OVEB.  A  town  of  Essex  Co.,  Mass. 
It  includes  several  villages,  and  lies  south  of  the 
Herri  mac.  The  town  proper  is  22  miles  north  of 
Boston,  on  the  eastern  bank  of  the  Shawsheen, 
and  on  the  Boston  and  Maine  Railroad  (Map: 
Massachusetts,  E  2).  It  produces  twine  and 
thread,  woolen  goods,  shoes,  rubber  goods,  print- 
ers* ink,  and  other  manufactures.  Andover  is 
noted  for  its  educational  institutions,  namely, 
the  Phillips  Academy  for  boys,  founded  in  1778; 
Andover  Theological  Seminary,  and  Abbot  Acade- 
my for  young  ladies.  It  has  a  public  library,  and 
owns  and  operates  its  water  works.  The  srovern- 
ment  is  administered  by  town  meetings,  annual 
and  special,  which  elect  as  executive  officers  three 
selectmen,  make  appropriations,  and  transact 
other  business.  First  settled  in  1643,  Andover 
was  incorporated  as  a  town   in   1646.     It  was 


within  the  area  especially  afifected  by  the  witch- 
craft delusion  of  1692,  and  three  of  its  citizens 
were  convicted  and  executed  at  Salem,  many 
more  being  tried  and  acquitted.  On  March  5, 
1698,  it  was  attacked  by  Indians,  who  killed 
five  of  the  inhabitants  and  burned  a  number  of 
the  buildings.  Consult:  Abbot,  History  of  An- 
dover (Andover,  1829),  and  Bailey,  Historical 
Sketches  of  Andover  (Boston,  1880).  Pop., 
1890,  6142;  1000,  6813. 

ANDOVEB  THE'OLOGKICAI.  SEKIHA- 
BT.  One  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous  theo- 
logical schools  in  America.  It  was  founded  in 
1807,  and,  although  under  the  control  of  Con- 
gregationalists,  is  free  to  Protestants  of  all 
denominations.  Applicants  for  the  regular 
three  years'  course  are  required,  except  in  special 
cases,  to  present  a  college  diploma.  No  cnarge 
is  made  for  tuition  or  for  room-rent  in  the  sem- 
inary buildings.  The  endowment  fund  amounted 
in  1901  to  about  $850,000,  and  the  value  of  the 
college  property  to  $250,000.  The  library  con- 
tains over  30,000  volumes.  In  1900  there  were 
six  professors  and  five  lecturers  and  instructors. 
President,  George  Foot  Moore,-  D.D.  Consult 
Woods,  A  History  of  Andover  (Boston,  1884). 

AKDOVEB  THEOI/OGT.     See  New  Thbot-- 

GOT. 

ANDBADA  E  SILVA,  &n-drft^d&  «  sSKvi, 
Josfi  BoznFAcio  D*  (1765-1838).  A  BrazUian 
statesman  and  author,  bom  at  Santos,  fle 
studied  in  Europe,  became  professor  of  veognosj 
and  metallurgy  in  the  University  of  Coimbri, 
Portugal,  and  was  in  1812  appointed  perpetual 
secretary  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences  at  Lisbon. 
Having  returned  to  Brazil  in  1819,  he  was  a 
prominent  advocate  of  independence,  and  in  1822 
and  1823  was  minister  of  the  interior  in  the 
cabinet  of  Dom  Pedro  I.  From  1823  to  1829 
he  was  in  banishment  in  France  by  reason  of 
his  liberal  views.  He  published  Poesias  d'Amer- 
ica  Ely  sea  (Bordeaux,  1825),  and  writings  on 
mineralogy. 

ANDBAIi,  a^'drftK,  Gabbiel  (1797-1876).  A 
celebrated  French  ph^ician,  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute. He  was  born  m  Paris.  In  1823  he  estab- 
lished his  reputation  by* the  publication  of  the 
first  of  the  four  volumes  of  his  Clinique  mMicale. 
In  1827  he  was  appointed  professor  of  hygiene  in 
the  University  of  Paris,  and  in  1830  was  advanced 
to  the  chair  of  internal  pathology.  His  paper, 
8ur  VAnatomic  pathologique  du  tube  digestif 
(on  the  pathological  anatomy  of  the  alimentary 
canal)  was  greatly  admired,  and  in  1829  he 
produced  a  Precis  iUmentaire  on  the  same  sci- 
ence. His  Clinique  mddicale  treats  principally  of 
diseases  of  the  chest,  of  the  abdomen,  and  of  the 
brain.  In  1839  Andral  was  elected  by  his  col- 
leagues to  succeed  Broussais  in  the  chair  of  pa- 
thology and  general  therapeutics,  the  highest  in 
the  School.  His  other  works  include  Projet  d'un 
essai  sur  la  vitality  (1835),  an  edition  of  Len- 
nec's  Traits  de  Vauscultation  mediate  ou  traite 
du  diagnostic  des  poumons  et  du  cosur  (1836), 
Cours  de  pathologic  interne  (1836-37),  Sur  k 
trait ement  de  la  fikvre  typhoide  par  les  pur- 
gat  its  (1837).  In  1843  he  presented  to  the 
institute  his  Traits,  dl^mentaire  de  pathologic 
et  de  th^rapeutique  g6n6rale.  His  father,  Guil- 
laume  Andral,  was  also  a  physician  of  note. 

ANDBAsST,  ftn'dra-shi,"  Gyuul  (Julius), 
Count  (1823-90).  An  Hungarian  statesman,  bom 
at  Zempl6n.     He  was  in  the  Presburg  Diet  in 


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ANDK^. 


1847-48.  In  the  revolution  of  1848  he  was  an 
earnest  adherent  of  the  popular  cause,  and  spent 
the  years  1849-57  an  exile  in  France  and  Eng- 
land. Returning  home,  he  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  diet  in  1861,  and  became  its  vice-president 
from  1805  to  1866.  After  the  reconstruction  of 
Austria-Hungary  on  a  dual  basis,  De&k  procured 
the  appointment  of  Andr&ssy  as  prime  minister 
of  Hungary  in  1867,  and  his  administration  was 
thoroughly  popular  as  well  as  eminently  success- 
ful in  carrying  through  financial,  judicial,  and 
military  reforms.  He  succeeded  Count  Beust  in 
1871  as  minister  of  foreign  affairs  of  the  Austro- 
Hungarian  Empire.  He  was  the  chief  representa- 
tive of  Austria-Hungary  at  the  Congress  of  Ber- 
lin in  1878,  and  secured  for  Austria-Hungary  the 
mandate  for  the  occupation  of  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina. He  negotiated  with  Bismarck  in  1879 
the  Austro-Qerman  alliance.  He  resigned  in  that 
year. 

ANI)B£,  &N'dr&^  Chables  (1842—).  A 
French  astronomer,  born  at  Chauny  (Aisne). 
In  1877  he  became  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Lyons,  and  director  of  the  observatory  in  that 
city,  in  which  capacity  he  visited  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  Australia  to  observe  the  transit 
of  Venus.  His  principal  works  are:  Uastron- 
omie  pratique  et  les  observations  en  Europe 
€t  AmMque  depuis  le  milieu  du  XVI I e  sidcle 
jusqu*d  no8  jours  (5  volumes,  1874-78),  Re- 
cherches  sur  le  climat  du  Lyonnais  (1881). 

ANDBi:,  Christian  Karl  (1763-1831).  A 
Grerman  educator,  agriculturist,  and  author.  He 
was  born  at  Hildburghausen,  was  an  instructor 
at  Schnepfenthal,  and  in  1798  became  director  of 
the  Protestant  school  at  Brilnn.  He  was  ap- 
pointed manager  of  the  estates  of  Prince  Salm, 
at  BrOnn,  in  1812,  and  in  1821  became  secretary 
of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Agriculture 
in  Moravia.  With  Becker  he  founded  the  Allge- 
meinen  Reichsameiger  (Grotha,  1797.)  He  was 
at  different  times  an  editor  of  various  periodi- 
cals, and  in  collaboration  published  the  series 
OejneinnUttzige  Spnziergange  auf  alle  Tage  im 
Jahr  (1790-95),  and  Kompendiose  Bihliothek  der 
Cremeinniitzlichen  Kenntnisse   (1790-98). 

ANDBJ:,  ftn'drft  or  ftn'drl,  John  (1751-80). 
An  English  soldier  in  the  American  Revolution 
who  met  his  death  under  circumstances  which 
have  given  his  name  a  place  in  history.  He 
was  born  in  London  of  Genevese  and  French 
parentage,  entered  the  English  army  at  the  age 
of  twenty,  and  in  1774  joined  his  regiment  in 
Canada.  He  was  captured  by  Greneral  Mont- 
^mery  in  November,  1775,  at  St.  Johns,  and 
until  December,  1776,  when  he  was  exchanged, 
he  was  held  as  a  prisoner  at  Lancaster,  Pa.  He 
was  promoted  to  be  captain  in  1777,  and  soon 
afterward  became  an  aide  to  General  Charles 
Grey.  In  the  following  year  he  was  raised  to 
the  rank  of  major,  and  was  appointed  adjutant- 
general  of  the  English  army  in  America  and  aide 
to  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  During  the  negotiations 
between  Clinton  and  (general  Arnold,  in  1780, 
for  the  betrayal  into  the  hands  of  the  British 
of  West  Point,  with  its  stores  and  magazines, 
including  nearly  the  whole  stock  of  powder  of 
the  American  army,  Major  Andr6  acted  as  the 
confidential  agent  of  General  Clinton,  and  at- 
tended to  most  of  the  correspondence.  In  order 
to  perfect  plans  for  carrying  out  the  plot,  Andr6, 
under  the  assumed  name  of  "John  Anderson," 
left  New  York  on  September  20,  ascended  the 


Hudson  in  the  British  sloop-of-war  Vulture,  and 
on  the  21st  and  22d  met  Arnold  in  secret  and 
made  the  necessary  arrangements.  During  their 
interview,  the  Vulture  was  forced  down  stream 
by  the  fire  of  an  American  battery,  and  Andr6, 
armed  with  a  pass  from  Arnold,  and  disguised 
(against  General  Clinton's  explicit  instructions) 
as  a  civilian,  started  on  horseback  for  New  York, 
carrying  several  incriminating  papers,  in  Ar- 
nold's handwriting,  concealed  in  his  boots.  Near 
Tarrytown  at  9  a.m.  on  the  23d — ^when  almost 
within  sight  of  the  British  lines — he  was  cap- 
tured by  three  American  militiamen  (John  Paul- 
ding, David  Williams,  and  Isaac  Van  Wart),  who 
found  the  documents,  and  refusing  all  bribes, 
handed  their  prisoner  over  to  Lieutenant  Colonel 
Jameson,  by  whom  Arnold  was  blunderingly 
notified,  and  thus  enabled  to  escape.  A  military 
court,  presided  over  by  General  Nathanael 
Greene,  and  consistirig  of  six  major-generals  and 
eight  brigadiers,  convened  on  September  29th,  at 
Washington's  request,  and  unanimously  convict- 
ed Andr6  of  being  an  English  spy.  In  accordance 
with  military  usage,  he  was  therefore  condemned 
to  be  hanged,  and  on  October  2d  the  sentence 
was  carried  out  at  Tappan,  New  York,  Andr6 
behaving  with  the  utmost  courage  and  serenity, 
and  calling  upon  the  American  officers  to  witness 
that  he  died  like  a  brave  man.  His  fate  aroused 
much  sympathy  everywhere,  and  his  death  has 
passed  into  history  as  one  of  the  most  pathetic 
incidents  of  the  Revolutionary  War;  but  it  is 
now  generally  recognized  both  in  this  country 
and  in  England  that  Washington  could  not  have 
acted  otherwise  than  as  he  did,  and  that,  by  the 
rules  of  war,  Andr4  clearly  brought  upon  himself 
the  punishment  he  received.  A  monument  was 
erected  to  Andre's  memory  in  Westminister  Ab- 
bey, and  in  1821  his  body  was  disinterred  at  Tap- 
pan  and  conveyed  to  a  grave  near  the  monument. 

Andr#  had  a  singularly  attractive  personality, 
which  has  added  much  to  the  general  interest  in 
his  fate.  Vivacious,  witty,  and  strikingly  hand- 
some, he  had,  moreover,  a  charm  of  manner 
which  made  him  a  general  favorite  in  the  English 
army  and  endeared  him  even  to  the  American 
officers  who  came  in  contact  with  him  during  his 
captivity.  He  was,  besides,  remarkably  ver- 
satile, and,  in  particular,  had  considerable  lit- 
erary, artistic,  and  musical  talent.  A  facile  and 
pleasing  MTiter,  he  carried  on  much  of  Clinton's 
correspondence,  and  wrote  many  fugitive  verses, 
some  of  which,  such  as  The  Cow  Chase,  Yankee 
Doodle's  Expedition  to  Rhode  Island,  and  The 
Affair  bettoeen  Generals  Howe  and  Gadsden, 
were  very  popular  at  the  time  in  the  English 
array.  During  the  winter  spent  by  the  English 
in  Philadelphia,  he  was  the  life  and  soul  of  all 
the  gayeties  and  festivities  there,  and  took  the 
leading  part  in  the  famous  "Mischianza"  —  a 
pageant  given  in  honor  of  the  departing  Lord 
Howe.  Interest  in  Andr6  has  been  much  height- 
ened, also,  by  the  romantic  story  of  his  early 
attachment  to  a  Miss  Honora  Sneyd,  of  Lich- 
field, England,  who  was  subsequently  married  to 
the  father  of  Maria  Edgewortn. 

In  Volume  VI.  of  the  Memoirs  of  the  Historical 
Society  of  Pennsylvania  (1858)  is  the  "Case  of 
Major  Andr^,  with  a  Review  of  the  Statement 
of  it  in  Lord  Mahon's  History  of  England,"  bv 
Charles  J.  Biddle — ^an  essay  containing  a  full 
narrative  of  the  case,  with  a  discussion  of  all 
the  questions  of  law  and  duty  raised  in  connec- 
tion with  it.     Consult  also  an  excellent  work  by 


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AKDBE. 


540 


ANDSEE. 


Sargent,  Life  and  Career  of  Major  John  Andr^ 
(Boston,  18G1),  and  Lossing,  Two  Spies  (New 
York,  1886).  Many  of  the  documents  relating 
to  Andre's  capture,  trial,  and  conviction  are  con- 
tained in  H.  W.  Smith's  An(2reana(  Philadelphia, 
1805),  and  in  Dawson,  Papers  Concerning  the 
Capture  and  Detention  of  Major  John  Andri 
(Yonkers,   186G). 

ANDBEAy  &n-dr&^&,  Gibolamo,  Mabchese  d' 
(1812-68).  An  Italian  cardinal.  He  was  born 
at  Naples,  educated  at  the  College  La  Fl^he, 
France,  and  was  early  appointed  Archbishop  of 
Mytilene  in  partihus  infidelium.  In  1852  he  was 
appointed  Cardinal-abbot  of  Subiaco,  and  prefect 
of  the  Congregation  of  the  Index,  and  in  1860 
Bishop  of  Sabina.  He  took  sides  with  the  Patri- 
otic Party  in  1859  on  the  question  of  the  national 
unity  of  Italy,  and  at  the  same  time  counseled 
extensive  liberal  reforms  in  Church  policy. 
Under  papal  disfavor  he  went  to  Naples,  and 
having  refused,  after  repeated  summons,  to  return 
thence  to  Rome,  was  first  suspended  from  his 
diocese  and  abbacy  and  then  threatened  with  per- 
manent deposition  from  office.  He  ultimately 
submitted,  and  in  1868  was  rehabilitated,  with- 
out, however,  being  restored  to  his  diocese  and 
the  abbacy  of  Subiaco. 

ANDREA  DI  UGOLIKO,  d6  5?rgd-l^nd, 
called  AKDBEA  FISANO,  p^-zft'nd  (1270- 
c.  1349).  An  Italian  architect  and  sculptor.  He 
was  the  third  great  artist  of  the  Plsan  School, 
which  then  had  the  lead  in  Italy,  succeeding  Gio- 
vanni Pisano,  who  himself  followed  his  father, 
Nicola.  His  greatest  work  is  the  bronze  door  of 
the  baptistery  of  Florence,  seldom  equaled  and 
never  surpassed  in  Italian  Gothic  sculpture 
(1330) .  He  shows  the  influence  of  Giotto  in  his 
love  oif  allegory,  his  dignified  compositions  (con- 
trasted with  Giovanni's  over-dramatic  action), 
and  his  broad  style.  He  also  executed  the  bas- 
reliefs  on  the  lower  part  of  Giotto's  campanile  at 
Florence,  and  was  the  chief  designer  of  the  cathe- 
dral at  Orvieto.  He  had  a  paramount  influence 
on  art  throughout  Tuscany. 

ANDBEiE,  iln'dr&,  Jakob,  called  Schmidt- 
LEIN  (1528-90).  A  German  theologian.  He  was 
born  at  Waiblingen,  March  25,  1528.  He  gradu- 
ated at  Tubingen;  preached  in  Stuttgart  and 
Tubingen,  and  was  very  active  in  promoting 
the  Reformation  throughout  Wttrtemberg,  where 
he  was  court  preacher.  He  attended  the  diets  of 
Ratisbon  and  Frankfort  (1557)  and  Augsburg 
(1559),  became  professor  of  theology  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Tubingen  (1562),  and  provost  of  the 
church  of  St.  George.  He  took  a  leading  part  in 
Protestant  discussions  and  movements,  particu- 
larly in  the  adoption  of  a  common  declaration  of 
faith  by  the  two  parties,  the  Formula  of  Con- 
cord (1577).  In  the  latter  part  of  his  life  he 
traveled  in  Bohemia  and  Germany,  working  for 
the  consolidation  of  the  Reformation,  conferring 
with  pastors,  magistrates,  and  princes.  He  was 
the  author  of  more  than  150  works,  nearly  all 
polemical  and  vigorously  "Nvritten,  for  the  most 
part  directed  against  Calvinism.  By  his  first 
wife  (died  1583)  he  had  eighteen  children.  He 
married  again  in  1585.  He  died  at  Tubingen, 
January  7,  1590. 

ANDBE^,  JoHANN  Valentin  (1586-1654). 
A  German  theologian,  born  at  Herrenberg,  near 
Tubingen.  He  studied  at  TUbingen,  and  obtained 
ecclesiastical     preferments    in    the    Protestant 


Church  of  his  native  country,  and  became  chap- 
lain to  the  court  at  Stuttgart,  where  he  died. 
He  was  grieved  lo  see  the  principles  of  Chris- 
tianity made  the  subject  of  empty  disputations. 
His  writings  are  remarkable  for  the  wit  and 
humor,  as  well  as  for  the  learning,  acuteness,  and 
moral  power  which  they  display.  He  was  errone- 
ously regarded  as  the  founder,  or  at  least  the  re- 
storer, of  the  order  of  the  Rosicrucians  (q.v.). 
and  this  opinion  seemed  to  be  supported  by  refer- 
ence to  three  publications:  the  Chymische  Hock- 
zeit  Christiani  Rosenkreuz  (1616),  the  Fama 
fratemitatis  R,C.,  i.e.,  Rosacce  Crttcis  (1614), and 
the  Confessio  fratemitatis  R.  C.  (1615),  of  the 
first  of  which  he  acknowledged  himself  the  au- 
thor, and  the  other  two  have  so  much  resemblance 
to  it  as  to  be  evidently  from  the  same  pen.  His 
intention  in  these  works  seems  to  have  been  not 
to  originate  or  promote  secret  societies  of  mys- 
tics and  enthusiasts,  but  to  ridicule  the  follies 
of  the  age.  He  attacked  Rosicrucianism  itself  in 
some  of  his  later  wTitings  with  great  severity. 
Among  the  best  of  his  works  are  his  Menipput 
s.  Satyricorum  Dialogorum  Centuria  (1617)  and 
Mythologia  Christiana  (1619).  He  wrote  an 
allegoric  poem  called  Die  Christenhurg  (Stutt- 
gart, 1836),  and  an  autobiography  ( Winterthnr, 
1799 ) .  Herder  has  done  much  to  extend  a  knowl- 
edge of  Andrew's  works  in  the  present  age.  For 
his  life,  consult  Gl5kler  (Stuttgart,  1866). 

ANDBEJE,  Laubentius,  or  Lars  Ander8S05 
(1480-1552).  A  Swedish  reformer.  He  vas 
born  at  Strengnils,  about  40  miles  west  of  Stock- 
holm, 1480;  died  there  April  29,  1552.  He  stud- 
ied at  Rome,  but  came  home  a  Protestant,  and 
introduced  the  reformed  faith  into  Sweden,  1523. 
He  was  made  chancellor  by  Gustavus  Vasa,  who 
desired  him  to  translate  the  Bible,  in  which 
work  he  was  assisted  by  Glaus  Petri  ( New  Testa- 
ment, 1526;  Old  Testament,  1540).  Andree  wa3 
in  high  favor  until  he  was  charged  with  having 
neglected  to  disclose  a  conspiracy  against  the 
King,  of  which  he  had  knowledge,  for  which  he 
was  sentenced  to  death,  but  he  was  pardoned, 
after  being  heavily  fined  (1540).  Afterward  he 
lived  in  retirement. 

ANDBEAXn,  an'drft-fi'nd,  Andrea  (c.  1560- 
1623) .  An  Italian  engraver  on  wood  and  copper. 
Some  of  the  most  notable  of  his  works  are 
"Pharaoh's  Host  Destroyed  in  the  Red  Sea** 
(after  Titian),  **The  Triumph  of  Cuesar"  (after 
Mantegna),  and  "The  Triumph  of  Christ"  (after 
Titian).  From  using  a  similar  monogram,  his 
work  has  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  that  of 
Altdorfer. 

AJI'a)BEAS  CHES^NIXTS.  See  Duchesne, 
Andr£. 

ANDBEE,  »n^drA,  Karl  Theodor  (1808-75). 
A  German  geographer  and  journalist.  He  stud- 
ied history  at  Jena,  Gottingen,  and  Berlin, 
and  from  1830  to  1855  was  active  in  journalism, 
being  connected  with  such  publications  as  the 
Deutsehe  Reichszeitung  and  the  Bremer  Ban- 
delsblatt.  He  then  gave  his  attention  to  geograph- 
ical and  ethnological  studies,  publishing  among 
other  works,  Xordamerika  (second  edition, 
1854)  ;  Buenos  Aires  und  die  Argentinische  Re- 
ptihlik  (1856),  and  Oeographie  des  WelthandeU 
(1863-72).  In  1861  he  founded  the  Globus,  a 
geographical  and  ethnological  publication. 

ANBBEE,  RTcn.\RD  (1835 — ).  A  German 
ethnographer  and  geographer,  son  of  the  preced- 


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ANDBEW. 


ing,  born  in  Brunswick.  He  studied  natural 
sciences  at  Leipzig,  and  from  1859  to  1863  worked 
as  a  foundaryman  in  Bohemia,  for  the  purpose  of 
•  studying  the  German-Czech  race  conflict.  He  is 
known  as  a  writer  upon  ethnography,  geography, 
and,  occasionally,  other  subjects.  He  became 
editor  of  the  Olobus  in  1891.  The  books  embody- 
ing the  results  of  his  observations  in  Bohemia 
are  written  from  the  German  nationalist  point 
of  view.  They  include  Nationalitdtsverhdltnisse 
und  Spracharenze  in  Bohmen  ( 1870)  and  Tschech- 
mische  Gange  (1872).  His  later  and  better- 
known  works  comprise  Zur  Volkskunde  der  Ju- 
den  (1881),  Die  Metalle  hei  den  Naturvolkem 
(1884),  Die  Masken  in  der  Volkerkunde  (1886), 
Die  Flutsagen  ( 1891 ) ,  and  Braunachweiger  Volka- 
kunde  (1896). 

ANDBEEy  Salomon  August    (1854 — ).     A 
Swedish  scientist  and  aeronaut,  born  at  Grenna. 
He  studied  at  the  technical  college  in  Stockholm, 
and  was  a  member  of  the  Swedish  meteorological 
expedition  in  1882-83.     Between  1892  and  1895 
he  made  several  balloon  journeys,  and  finally  de- 
cided to  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole  by 
means  of  a  balloon,  partly  directed  by  sails  and 
guide-ropes.     On  July  11,  1897,  accompanied  by 
two  friends,  Strindber^  and  Frilnkel,  he  made 
the  start  from  Dane  Island,  northwestern  Spitz- 
bergen.     Four  days  afterward  a  carrier  pigeon, 
shot  on  the  sealer  Aiken,  was  found  to  convey  in 
a  small  tube  a  message  ^vritten  by  Andree  "two 
days  after  the  ascent.     The  message  gave  the 
position  of  the  party  as  lat.  82**  2',  long.  15**  5' 
E.,  or  145  miles  north  and  45  miles  east  of  the 
starting  point.    Of  the  thirteen  buoys  carried  in 
the  balloon,  five  have  been  discovered  on  coasts 
near    Spitzbergen.     Two    contained    dispatches, 
both  dated  July  11.     The  "polar  buoy/'  which 
was  to  be  cast  overboard  from  the  highest  lati- 
tude attained,  was  found  empty,  at  Spitzbergen, 
September     11,    1899.     Several    expeditions    to 
Spitzbergen,  Franz  Josef  Land,  and  East  Green- 
land have  failed  to  discover  other  traces  of  the 
explorer.     In  1901,  N.  Persson,  Swedish  consul 
at  Helsingfors,  Bussia,  offered  a  reward  for  each 
of  the   eight  remaining  buoys   that  should  be 
found  before  1905;  500  kroner  (about  $130)  for 
each  buoy   containing   intelligence;    200   kroner 
for  empty  buoys  or  other  relics  of  the  expedition. 
Consult:  Kullenbergh,  Andree,  hans  Lif  och  Per- 
son (Goteborg,  1898),  and  Annual  Report  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  for  1898   (Washington, 
1898). 

AKDBEINI,  an'drft-^n^,  Francesoo.  An 
Italian  comedian  of  about  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  He  was  head  of  the  traveling 
(-ompany  **dei  Gelosi,"  and  published  several 
plavs,  among  them  Ragionamenti  fantastici 
(1612). 

AKDBEIKIy  GiAMBAinsTA  (1578 — ?).  An 
Italian  actor  and  author,  son  of  Francesco  and 
Isabella  Andreini.  Born  at  Florence,  he  went  in 
the  course  of  his  dramatic  career  to  Paris,  where, 
during  the  reign  of  Louis  XIII.,  he  gained  dis- 
tinction, especially  in  lovers'  rCles.  The  time  and 
place  of  his  death  are  unknown.  The  most  noted 
of  his  works  is  a  religious  drama  entitled  V Ada- 
mo  (1613),  to  which  it  has  often  been  said 
Milton  owed  the  idea  of  Paradise  Lost,  Andreini 
wrote,  besides  occasional  poems,  a  number  of 
other  plays.  His  Teatro  celeste  was  published 
at  Paris  in  1625. 


ANDBEINIy  Isabella  ( 1562-1604) .  A  popu- 
lar Italian  actress  and  author,  born  at  Padua. 
She  w^as  the  wife  of  Francesco  Andreini,  and  in 
his  company  won  an  even  greater  reputation 
than  her  husband.  She  was  distinguished  both 
for  her  brilliant  acting  and  for  her  virtues  of 
character  throughout  the  cities  of  Italy  and 
France,  and  when  she  died  at  Lyons  a  medal 
was  struck  in  her  honor,  bearing  the  words, 
Sterna  Fama.  Her  writings  include  the  pas- 
toral drama  Mirtilla,  a  number  of  lyrics,  and  a 
collection  of  letters  published  after  her  death. 

ANDBEOLIy  {in'dr&-o'l£,  Giorgio.  An  Italian 
ceramic  painter  of  the  early  sixteenth  century, 
born  at  Pavia.  He  had  a  studio  at  Gubbio.  His 
majolica-ware  is  remarkable  for  its  brilliant  col- 
oring and  lustre.  Specimens  of  it  are  in  the 
South  Kensington  Museum,  London. 

Ain)BEOSSI,  aN'drft'A's^,  Antoinb  Fran- 
gois.  Count  (1761-1828).  A  French  statesman, 
born  at  Castelnaudary,  in  Languedoc.  He  was 
the  great-grandson  of  Francois  Andr^ossi,  who, 
with  Riquet,  constructed  the  canal  of  Languedoc 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  He  entered  the  army 
as  a  lieutenant  of  artillery  in  1781,  joined  the 
revolutionists,  rose  rapidly  in  military  rank, 
served  under  Bonaparte  in  Italy  and  Egypt,  ac- 
companied him  on  his  return  to  France,  and  took 
part  in  the  coup  d^etat  of  the  eighteenth  Bru- 
maire.  He  was  ambassador  at  London  during 
the  Peace  of  Amiens,  and  was  made  governor  of 
Vienna  after  the  battle  of  Wagram.  He  was  for 
some  time  ambassador  at  Constantinople,  from 
which  he  was  recalled  by  Louis  XVIII.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  by  Napoleon  after  the  re- 
turn from  Elba.  After  the  battle  of  Waterloo  he 
advocated  the  recall  of  the  Bourbons,  but  as 
deputy  from  the  department  of  Aude  he  generally 
sided  with  the  opposition.  He  died  at  Mon- 
tauban.  He  was  a  man  of  eminent  scientific  at- 
tainmenis,  and  distinguished  himself  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  institute  founded  at  Cairo.  One  of 
his  first  works  was  the  Histoire  du  Canal  du 
Midi  (Paris,  1800;  new  edition,  2  volumes, 
1804),  in  which  he  asserted  the  right  of  his 
great-grandfather  to  honors  long  enjoyed  by 
Riquet.  Consult  Marion,  Notice  n6crologique 
sur  le  Comte  Andrdossi  (Paris,  1846). 

ANDK^S,  &n-drfts',  Juan  (1740-1817).  A 
Spanish  scholar,  born  at  Planes  (Valencia).  He 
entered  the  Jesuit  order,  and  after  its  expulsion 
from  Spain  withdrew  to  Italy,  where  for  a  time 
he  taught  philosophy  in  the  College  of  Ferrara. 
Afterward  he  was  royal  librarian  at  Naples. 
In  1816  he  became  blind.  His  works  are:  Pros- 
pectus Philosophia?  UniverscB  Puhlice  Disputa- 
tioni  Propositce  Temple  Ferrariensi  (Ferrara, 
1773),  ffaggio  delta  filosofia  di  Galileo  (1776), 
and  Deir  origine,  dei  progressi  e  dello  stato  at- 
tuale  d'ogni  letteratura  (Parma,  7  volumes, 
1782-90). 

ANa)BEW  (Gk.  'AvSpiac,  Andreas).  An 
apostle,  brother  of  Simon  Peter,  born  in 
Bethsaida  of  Galilee.  He  was  originally  a  dis- 
ciple of  John  the  Baptist,  but  was  one  of  the 
first  called  of  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  and  was 
finally  chosen  by  him  from  among  his  larger  fol- 
lowing to  the  apostolic  office.  (See  list  of  apos- 
tles in  Mark  iii:  13-19,  with  Matthew  and  Luke 
parallels.)  During  the  ministry  of  Jesus  he 
figures  in  the  feeding  of  the  five  thousand.  He 
called  attention  to  the  lad  who  had  the  five  bar- 
ley loaves  and  the  two  fishes   (John  vi  :  8),  in 


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the  visit  of  the  Greeki^,  with  Philip,  he  told  Jesus 
of  the  Greeks'  desire  to  see  him  (John  xii  :  22), 
and  in  the  questions  put  to.  Jesus  by  some  of  his 
disciples  regarding  the  last  things,  with  Peter, 
James,  and  John,  he  asked  him  privately:  "Tell 
us  when  shall  these  things  be?"  (Mark  xii:  3). 
There  is  no  mention  of  him  in  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles.  Subsequent  tradition  regarding  his 
preaching  in  Scythia,  Northern  Greece,  and 
Epirus,  and  suffering  martyrdom  on  a  cross 
shaped  like  the  letter  X  about  70  a.d.  is  worth- 
less.    See  Apostles. 

ANDBEW  I.  King  of  Hungary  from  1046 
to  10(31,  and  cousin  of  bt.  Stephen,  the  apostle  of 
Christianity  in  Hungary.  He  represented  the 
party  in  opposition  to  German  influence  and  the 
spread  of  Christianity.  Andrew  fought  with 
varying  fortunes  against  Henry  III.  of  Germany, 
and  against  his  own  brother,  B^la,  whom  he  had 
exiled.  He  was  finally  defeated  by  his  Polish 
and  Hungarian  opponents. 

AKDBEW  n.  (1176-1236).  A  king  of  Hun- 
gary who  ascended  the  throne  in  1205,  after  a 
civil  war  with  his  nephew,  Ladislas  III.  In  1217 
he  conducted  an  unsuccessful  crusade  against  the 
Moslem  powers.  In  1222  he  granted  the  Golden 
Bull,  called  the  Magna  Charta  of  Hungary,  which 
defined  and  confirmed  the  rights  and  titles  of  the 
bishops  and  nobles  whose  revolts  had  disturbed 
his  reign.    See  Golden  Bull. 

AlflDBEW  m.  (?— 1301).  The  last  Hun- 
garian King  of  the  ArpAd  family,  grandson  of 
Andrew  II.  He  was  bom  in  Venice,  while  his 
father  was  in  exile,  and  succeeded  Ladislas 
IV.  in  1290.  He  had  to  defend  his  crown  against 
the  pretensions  of  Rudolph  of  Hapsburg  and 
Pope  Nicholas  IV.,  both  being  claimants,  and  also 
against  a  son  of  the  King  of  Naples,  who  claimed 
to  be  of  the  house  of  ArpAd  through  his  mother. 
Andrew  made  some  efforts  to  develop  trade,  but 
his  reign  was  brief  and  disturbed  by  rebellion. 

ANBBEW,  James  Osgood,  D.D.  (1794-1871). 
A  Methodist  bishop.  He  was  born  in  Wilkes  Co., 
Ga.,  May  3,  1794,  became  (1816)  an  itinerant 
Methodist  Episcopal  preacher  of  South  Carolina 
Conference,  until  consecrated  bishop  at  Philadel- 
phia in  May,  1832.  On  his  social  relations  be- 
gan the  division  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  into  "North"  and  "South."  His  second 
wife,  whom  he  married  in  1844,  was  a  slave- 
holder, and  in  the  general  conference  of  1844 
it  was  declared  that  "this  would  greatly  embar- 
rass the  exercise  of  his  office  as  an  itinerant  gen- 
eral superintendent,  if  not  in  some  places  entirely 
prevent  it,"  and  it  was  resolved  "that  it  is  the 
sense  of  this  general  conference  that  he  should 
desist  from  the  exercise  of  this  office  so  long  as 
this  impediment  remains."  The  Southern  dele- 
gates protested  that  the  action  was  extra-judicial 
and  unconstitutional,  and  the  difficulty  was  fi- 
nally settled  by  dividing  the  churches  and  prop- 
erty into  the  Northern  and  Southern  jurisdic- 
tions. Bishop  Andrew  adhered  to  the  South, 
and  continued  his  episcopal  work  until  1868,  re- 
tiring then  from  age.  He  died  in  Mobile,  Ala., 
March  1,  1871. 

ANDBEW,  John  Albion,  LL.D.  ( 1818-67 ) .  An 
American  statesman,  "War  Governor"  of  Massa- 
chusetts. He  was  born  in  Windham,  Me.,  gradu- 
ated at  Bowdoin  in  1837,  was  admitted  to  the 
Boston  bar  in  1840,  practiced  there  twenty  years, 
and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  cases  which 


arose  under  the  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  In  1858  he 
was  a  member  of  the  Legislature,  and  in  1860  was 
a  delegate  in  the  Republican  National  Conven- 
tion, and  was  himself  elected  Governor  of  ^iassa- 
chusetts  by  the  largest  popular  majority  ever 
given  to  a  candidate.  He  foresaw  the  danger  of 
civil  war  and  took  immediate  steps  to  perfect  the 
organization  of  the  militia  of  his  State.  Within 
a  week  after  the  first  call  for  troops  he  sent  for- 
ward five  infantry  regiments,  a  battalion  of  rifle- 
men, and  a  battery  of  artillery.  In  1861,  and 
yearly  until  he  insisted  on  retiring  in  1866,  he 
was  reelected  governor,  and  was  probably  the 
most  efficient  of  all  the  "war  governors,"  continu- 
ally organizing  militia  companies,  and  lending 
aid  in  every  possible  way  to  the  administration. 
He  was  at  the  conference  of  loyal  governors  at 
Altoona,  Pa.,  in  September,  1862,  and  wrote  the 
address  presented  by  them  to  the  President.  lie 
obtained  permission  from  the  Secretary  of  War 
in  January,  1863,  to  organize  colored  troops, 
raised  the  first  colored  regiment  (the  ^- 
ty- fourth  Massachusetts  Infantry)  which  par- 
ticipated in  the  war,  and  sent  it  to  the  front  earl? 
in  May.  After  the  war  he  contended  for  a  policy 
of  conciliation,  and  vigorously  opposed  all  meas- 
ures likely  to  humiliate  the  South.  In  religion 
he  was  Unitarian,  and  presided  at  the  first  na- 
tional convention  of  that  denomination  in  1865. 
He  declined  the  presidency  of  Antioch  (Ohio) 
College,  which  was  offered  to  him  in  1866.  After 
that  time  he  continued  the  practice  of  law  in 
Boston.  Consult  Chandler,  Memoir,  With  Per- 
sonal Retniniacenoes  ( Boston, .  1880 ) . 

ANDREW,  ST.,  or  The  Thistle.  Sec 
Thistle,  Ordeb  of. 

ANDREW,  ST.,  The  Russian  Order  of.  The 
most  distinguished  order  in  the  Russian  Empire. 
It  was  founded  on  December  10  (N.  S.),  1698, 
by  Peter  the  Great,  and  membership  in  it  is  con- 
fined to  members  of  the  imperial  family,  princes, 
generals- in-chief,  and  those  of  similarly  high 
rank.  Grand  dukes  become  Knights  of  St.  An- 
drew at  baptism,  and  other  imperial  princes  upon 
obtaining  their  majority.  Membership  in  St 
Andrew's  carries  with  it  rights  to  the  Important 
orders  of  St.  Anne,  Alexander  Nevski.  and  St. 
Stanislaus.  The  badge  of  the  order  of  St.  An- 
drew is  a  double  spread  eagle  surmounted  by  the 
Russian  crown.  On  the  obverse  of  the  medal  is 
an  enameled  cross  upon  which  is  borne  the  fig- 
ure of  St.  Andrew,  and  at  the  four  comers  of 
the  cross  are  the  letters  S.  A.  P.  R.  {Sancius 
Andreas  Patronus  Russiae),  On  the  reverse  of 
the  badge  is  the  inscription  (in  Russian)  "For 
Faith  and  Loyalty."    See  Orders. 

ANDBEWES,  Lancelot  (1555-1626).  An 
eminent  English  prelate.  He  was  born  in  London, 
September  26,  1555,  and  educat^  successively 
at  the  Coopers'  Free  Grammar  School,  Ratcliffe, 
Merchant  Taylors'  School,  London,  and  Pem- 
broke Hall,  Cambridge,  of  which  college,  after 
having  greatly  distinguished  himself  by  his  in- 
dustry and  acquirements,  he  was  in  1576  elected 
a  fellow.  On  taking  orders,  1580,  he  accompa- 
nied the  Earl  of  Huntingdon  to  the  North  of  Eng- 
land. His  talents  attracted  the  notice  of  Wal- 
singham.  Queen  Elizabeth's  Secretary  of  State, 
who  appointed  him  successively,  in  1589,  to  the 
vicarage  of  St.  Giles,  Cripplegate,  a  prebradary 
and  canon  residentiary  of  St.  Paul's,  a  preben- 
dary of  the  Collegiate  Church  of  Southwell,  and 
master  of  Pembroke  Hall.    The  Queen  next  testi- 


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ANDBEWS. 


fied  her  esteem  for  his  gifts  and  piety  by  ap- 
pointing him  one  of  her  chaplains  in  ordinary 
and  Dean  of  Westminster.  He  rose  still  higher  in 
favor  with  King  James,  who  was  well  qualified 
to  appreciate  his  extensive  learning  and  peculiar 
style  of  oratory.  He  attended  the  Hampton 
Court  Conference,  as  one  of  the  ecclesiastical  com- 
missioners, and  took  part  in  the  translation  of 
the  Bible.  The  portion  on  which  he  was  engaged 
was  the  first  twelve  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 
In  1605  he  was  consecrated  Bishop  of  Chichester. 
In  1609  he  was  translated  to  the  see  of  Ely,  and 
appointed  one  of  his  Majesty's  privy  councillors 
both  for  England  and  Scotland.  To  the  latter 
(ountry  he  accompanied  the  King  in  1617,  as  one 
of  the  royal  instruments  for  persuading  the 
Scotch  of  the  superiority  of  episcopacy  over  pres- 
bytery. In  1619  he  was  translated  to  Winches- 
ter. He  died  in  Winchester  House,  Southwark, 
London,  on  September  25,  1626.  '  Bishop  An- 
drewes  was,  with  the  exception  of  Ussher,  the 
most  learned  English  theologian  of  his  time.  As 
a  preacher  he  was  regarded  by  his  contemporaries 
as  unrivaled;  but  the  excellent  qualities  of  his 
discourses  are  apt  to  suffer  much  depreciation 
in  modern  judgment  from  the  extremely  arti- 
ficial and  frigid  character  of  the  style.  His  prin- 
cipal works  published  during  his  life  were  two 
treatises  in  reply  to  Cardinal  Bellarmin,  in  de- 
fense of  the  right  of  princes  over  ecclesiastical 
assemblies.  His  other  works  consist  of  sermons, 
lectures,  and  manuals  of  devotion.  Bishop  An- 
drewes  was  the  most  eminent  of  that  Anglican 
school  in  the  seventeenth  century  of  which  the 
nineteenth  witnessed  a  revival  under  the  name  of 
Puseyism.  Its  distinctive  peculiarities  were  high 
views  of  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  of  the  effi- 
cacy of  sacraments,  ceremonies,  and  apostolic 
succession,  and  extreme  opposition  to  Puritan- 
ism. His  works  are  in  the  Library  of  Anglo- 
Catholic  Theology,  Oxford,  1841-54,  11  volumes. 
Of  most  fame  are  his  Devotions  (many  editions, 
London,  1898)  ;  Seventeen  Sermons  on  the  Na- 
tivity (1887).  For  his  life,  consult:  Whyte 
(Edinburgh,  1896),  and  M.  Wood  (New  York, 
1898). 

ANa>BEWS,  Charles  McLean  (1863 — ). 
An  American  historian.  He  was  born  at  Weth- 
ersfield,  Conn.,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  Col- 
lege, Conn.  He  has  been  professor  of  history  at 
Bryn  Mawr  College  since  1889,  and  is  the  author 
of  a  valuable  and  very  reliable  work  on  The  His- 
torical Development  of  Modern  Europe  (2  vol- 
umes, 1806-98). 

AKDBEWS,  Christopher  Columbus  (1829 
— ).  An  American  soldier  and  diplomat.  He 
was  born  in  Hillsboro,  N.  H.,  but  lived  chiefly 
in  Minnesota  after  1856.  During  the  Civil 
War  he  rose  to  the  regular  rank  of  brigadier- 
general,  and  at  its  close  was  breve tted  major- 
general.  He  was  United  States  Minister  to 
Sweden  from  1869  to  1876,  and  United  States 
Consul-general  to  Brazil  from  1882  to  1885.  His 
publications  include  a  History  of  the  Campaign 
of  Mobile  (1867),  and  Brazil,  Its  Condition  and 
Prospects    (1887;  third  edition,  1895). 

AKDBEWS,  Edmund  (1824 — ).  An  Amer- 
ican surgeon,  •  born  at  Putney,  Vt.  He 
studied  medicine  at  the  University  of  Michigan, 
where  he  was  afterward  made  professor  of  com- 
parative anatomy.  In  1856  he  removed  to  Chi- 
cago. He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Chi- 
cago Medical  College,  which  at  present  forms  the 


medical  department  of  the  Northwestern  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago.  Dr.  Andrews  was  a  surgeon 
during  the  Civil  War,  and  has  been  consulting 
surgeon  to  several  Chicago  hospitals.  He  has 
introduced  a  number  of  valuable  improvements 
in  surgery,  and  published  a  work  on  rectal  sur- 
gery. 

ANDBEWS,  Edward  Gayer,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
(1825 — ).  An  American  clergyman;  appointed 
bishop  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  in 
1872.  He  was  born  at  New  Hartford,  N.  Y., 
and  after  graduating  at  Wesleyan  University, 
Connecticut  (1847),  entered  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal ministry  (1848).  He  served  as  pastor  at 
Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  from  1864-72,  after  which  he 
spent  many  years  visiting  foreign  missions.  Bish- 
op Andrews  delivered  the  address  at  the  state 
funeral  of  President  McKinley  in  Washington, 
September  17,  1901. 

ANDBEWS,  Elisha  Benjamin,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
( 1844 — ) .  An  American  educator,  born  at  Hins- 
dale, N.  H.  He  served  in  Connecticut  reg- 
iments during  the  Civil  War,  losing  an  eye.  He 
graduated  at  Brown  University  in  1870,  and  at 
the  Newton  Theological  Institution  in  1874.  He 
preached  for  one  year,  and  then  was  president 
of  Denison  University,  1875-79.  He  was  pro- 
fessor of  homiletics  at  Newton  Theological  In- 
stitution, 1879-82;  professor  of  history  and  po- 
litical economy  in  Brown  University,  1882-88; 
professor  of  political  economy  and"  finance  in 
Cornell  University,  1888-89,  and  president  of 
Brown  University,  1889-98.  He  resigned  as  pres- 
ident of  Brown  in  1897  because  of  criticism  by 
trustees  of  his  advocacy  of  free  silver,  but  at 
that  time  withdrew  his  resignation.  He  was  su- 
perintendent of  schools,  Chicago,  1898-1900,  and 
then  became  chancellor  of  the  University  of  Ne- 
braska. In  1892  he  was  a  United  States  com- 
missioner to  the  Brussels  monetary  conference, 
and  was  a  strong  supporter  of  international  bi- 
metal ism.  He  has  published  many  college  text- 
books on  history  and  economics;  also,  An  Hon- 
est Dollar  (1889),  Wealth  and  Moral  Law 
(1894),  History  of  the  United  States  (two  vol- 
umes, 1894),  and  The  History  of  the  Last  Quar- 
ter Century  in  the  United  States,  1870-95  (1896) . 

ANDBEWS,  Ethan  Allen  (1787-1858).  An 
American  educator.  He  was  born  in  Connecticut, 
and  graduated  at  Yale  in  1810.  He  practiced  law 
for  several  years,  then  was  professor  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  North  Carolina,  after  which  he  taught 
in  New  Haven  and  Boston.  He  published  a  num- 
ber of  Iiatin  text-books,  and  in  1850  a  Latin- 
English  lexicon,  based  on  Freund,  and  with 
Solomon  Stoddard,  a  Latin  grammar  long  very 
popular. 

ANDBEWS,  George  Leonard  (1828 — ).  An 
American  soldier.  He  was  born  in  Bridgewater, 
Mass.,  and  in  1851  graduated  at  West  Point  at 
the  head  of  his  class.  For  two  years  (1854-56) 
he  was  assistant  professor  of  engineering  at  West 
Point.  He  then  resigned  from  the  service,  and 
was  engaged  in  engineering  w^ork  until  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Civil  ^^"ar,  when  he  entered  the 
IJnion  Army  as  lieutenant-colonel.  He  served 
in  the  Shenandoah  Valley  in  1861,  took  part  in 
Pope's  campaign  in  1862,  was  raised  to  the  rank 
of  brigadier-general  in  November,  1862,  and  bore 
a  prominent  part  in  General  Banks's  expedition 
to  New  Orleans.  He  was  commander  of  the 
Corps  d'Afrique  from  1863  to  1865,  and  for 
"faithful  and  meritorious  services  in  the  cam- 


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paign  against  Mobile"  was  brevetted  major-gen- 
eral of  volunteers  in  March,  1865.  He  was  United 
States  marshal  in  Massachusetts  from  1867  to 
1871,  and  was  professor  of  French  at  West  Point 
from  1871  to  1882,  and  of  modern  languages  from 
1882  until  his  retirement  in  1892. 

ANDBEWS,  LoREN  (1819-61).  An  Amer- 
ican educator  and  sixth  president  of  Kenyon 
College.  He  was  born  in  Ashland  Co.,  Ohio, 
and  was  educated  at  Kenyon  College.  He  took 
an  active  interest  in  the  common  schools,  and  it 
is  said  that  much  of  the  present  excellence 
of  the  Ohio  school  system  is  due  to  him.  His 
administration  at  Kenyon  College  was  also  very 
successful.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War 
President  Andrews  raised  a  company  in  Knox 
County  and  was  made  captain.  Afterward,  as 
eolonel  of  the  Fourth  Ohio  Volunteers,  he  saw 
severe  service  in  Virginia.  He  died  of  camp 
fever  while  in  active  service. 

ANDBEWS,  LoBRiN  (1795-1868).  An  Amer- 
ican educator.  He  was  born  in  East  Windsor, 
Conn.,  educated  at  Jefferson  College,  Pa.,  and 
Princeton  Theological  Seminary,  and  went  as 
missionary  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  in  1827.  In 
1831  he  founded  what  became  the  Hawaiian  Uni- 
versity, in  which  he  was  professor.  He  was  long 
privy  councillor  and  judge  under  the  native  gov- 
ernment. He  wrote  a  Hawaiian  dictionary,  and 
published  part  of  the  Bible  in  that  tongue. 

ANDBEWS,  ST.     See  St.  Andiiews. 

ANDBEWS,  ST.  University  of.  See  St. 
Andrews,  University  op 

ANDBEWS,  Samuel  James  ( 1817—) .  An  Ir- 
vingite  divine.  He  was  born  at  Danbury,  Conn., 
July  31,  1817,  graduated  at  Williams  College, 
1839;  practiced  law  for  some  years,  but  turned 
his  attention  to  theology,  and  was  a  Congrega- 
tional pastor  from  1848  to  1855.  In  1856  he  be- 
came pastor  of  the  Catholic  and  Apostolic  Church 
(Irvingite)  at  Hartford,  Conn.  His  publica- 
tions embrace:  Life  of  Our  Lord  Upon  the  Earth, 
Considered  in  Its  Historical,  Chronological,  and 
Geographical  Relations  (New  York,  1863;  new 
and  wholly  revised  edition,  1801)  ;  Ood*s  Revela- 
tions of  Himself  to  Men  (1885),  Christianity 
<ind  Anti-Christianity  in  Their  Final  Conflict 
(1898),  The  Church  and  Its  Organic  Ministry 
(1899),  William  Watson  Andrews:  A  Religious 
Biography   (1900). 

ANDBEWS,  Stephen  Peakl  (1812-86).  An 
eccentric  writer  and  originator  of  a  system  of 
stenographic  reporting.  He  was  born  in  Temple- 
ton,  Mass.,  studied  for  the  law,  and  became  in- 
volved in  the  abolition  agitation,  for  which  he 
undertook  a  mission  to  England.  While  there 
he  learned  phonography,  and  on  his  return  to 
America  devised  a  popular  system  of  phono- 
graphic reporting.  To  further  this  he  published 
a  series  of  instruction  books  and  edited  two  jour- 
nals, the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Propagandist. 
He  was  a  remarkable  linguist,  but  an  erratic 
scholar  and  writer.  He  devised  a  "scientific" 
language,  "Ahvato,"  in  which  he  was  wont  to 
converse  and  correspond  with  pupils.  At  the 
time  of  his  death  he  was  compiling  a  dictionary 
of  it,  which  was  published  posthumously. 

ANDBEWS,  Thomas  (1813-85).  An  Irish 
ehemist  and  physicist,  born  at  Belfast.  He  stud- 
ied medicine  and  the  physical  sciences  at  Glas- 
gow, Paris,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  After  prac- 
ticing medicine  for  several  years  in  his  native 


city,  he  became,  in  1845,  professor  of  chemifitrT 
at  Queen's  College,  which  position  he  resigned 
in  1879.  Andrews  carried  out  a  number  of  im- 
|K)rtant  researches  on  the  heat  developed  during 
various  chemical  transformations,  and  on  the 
nature  of  ozone.  His  most  important  contribu- 
tion to  science,  however,  was  the  discovery 
(1861)  of  the  continuity  of  the  liquid  and  ga^ 
eous  states.  He  was  the  first  to  find  that  for 
every  gas  there  is  a  temperature  (called  the 
critical  temperature )  above  which  the  gas  cannot 
be  liquefied,  no  matter  how  great  the  pressure  ex- 
erted upon  it.  Below  that  temperature  the  gas 
may  be  partly  liquefied,  gas  and  liquid  being 
separated  by  the  surface  of  the  latter.  Precisely 
at  the  critical  temperature,  however,  the  surface 
of  separation  disappears,  and  the  substance  en- 
ters into  a  homogeneous  state,  combining  the 
properties  both  of  the  liquid  and  the  gaseous 
states.  This  continuity  of  states  renders  it  pos- 
sible to  extend  to  liquids  the  laws  of  gases,  and 
thus  establishes  an  intimate  relationship  between 
the  properties  of  matter  in  the  t'wo  states. 
See  Critical  Point. 

ANDBEWS,  William  (1848—).  An  Englii'h 
author.  He  was  born  at  Kirkby-Woodhouse, 
England,  and  was  educated  at  private  academies. 
In  1890  he  established  the  Press,  one  of  the  lead- 
ing papers  of  Hull,  which  he  conducted  until 
1900,  in  which  year  he  was  appointed  chief  li- 
brarian of  the  Hull  Subscription  Library.  He  is 
also  a  member  of  the  Yorkshire  Dialect  Society 
and  of  the  East  Kiding  Antiquarian  Society. 
Among  his  principal  publications  are:  Bygo**- 
England  (1892),  Literary  Byways,  Ecclesia- 
tical  Curiosities  (1899),  Old  Church  Lon 
(1891),  Legal  Lore  and  North  Country  Pofh 
(1888). 

ANDBEWS,  William  Draper  (1818-96). 
An  American  inventor.  He  was  bom  at  Grafton. 
Mass.  In  1844  he  invented  the  centrifugal  pump, 
which  made  it  possible  to  save  from  abandoned 
wrecks  goods  not  injured  by  water.  This  pump, 
patented  here  in  1846,  was  manufactured  in  Ens- 
land  as  the  G Wynne  pump.  Afterward  he  in- 
vented and  patented  the  anti-friction  centrifupi 
pump,  made  various  modifications  of  the  centri- 
fugal pumps,  of  which  the  "Cataract"  is  th* 
most  important,  and  patented  a  widely  used  *y* 
tem  of  gangs  of  tube  wells. 

ANDBEWS,  William  Watson  ( 1810-97 » 
An  American  clergyman  of  the  Catholic  Apo«»- 
tolic  Church.  He  was  born  at  Windham,  Wind- 
ham County,  Conn.,  graduated  in  1831  at  Yale, 
and  in  1834  was  ordained  and  installed  pastor  of 
the  Congregational  church,  at  Kent.  Conn.  W*- 
early  accepted  the  tenet  of  the  Catholic  Apostolif 
Church,  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  "Irvingite*." 
and  in  1849.  having  given  up  his  charge  at  Kent, 
he  assumed  charge  of  the  Catholic  Apa*tolif 
congregation  in  Potsdam,  N.  Y.  He  subsequently 
made  his  home  in  Wethersfield,  Conn.,  and  trav- 
eled much  in  the  Eastern  and  Middle  Stat»>^ 
as  evangelist.  Among  the  congregations  estab- 
lished under  his  direction  was  one  organised  at 
Hartford  in  1868.  He  was  an  eloquent  preacher, 
and  a  clear  and  forceful  writer.  He  contribute*! 
articles  on  the  Catholic  Apostolic  Church  to  thf 
Bihliothcca  Sacra  and  McClintock  and  Strong- 
Cyclopaedia,  prepared  for  the  Life  of  Prc^idmt 
Porter  a  chapter  on  Dr.  Porter  as  "A  Student  at 
Yale,"  and  published  many  reviews,  oration^, 
sermons,  and  addresses,  and  The  Miscellanies  and 


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Correspondence  of  Hon.  John  Cotton  Smith 
«1847).  Consult  Andrews,  William  Watson  An- 
drews: A  Memorial  (New  York,  1900). 

ANDBIA,  ilnMr6-&.  An  episcopal  city  in 
south  Italy,  five  miles  fromBarletta  and  31  miles 
west  of  Bari,  with  both  of  which  it  is  connected  by 
a  street  railway  (Map:  Italy,  L  6).  The  chief 
trade  is  in  almonds,  for  which  the  country  is 
amous,  grain,  cattle,  and  majolica.  Andria 
was  founded  by  the  Normans,  and  was  once  a 
flourishing  city,  but  war  and  earthquakes  con- 
j^pired  to  lay  it  waste.  Nine  miles  south  is  the 
magnificent  and  still  well-preserved  Castello  del 
Monte  built  by  Frederick  II.  Pop.,  1901  (com- 
lune),  49,509. 

AK^BJA.  The  earliest  extant  comedy  of 
Terence,  adapted  in  100  B.C.  from  the  Andria  of 
Menander. 

ANDBIETTX,  aN'dr^-?',  FBANgois  Guillaume 
Jean  Stanislas  (1759-1833).  A  French  dra- 
matist and  idyllic  poet,  born  at  Strassburg.  He 
took  an  active  part  in  the  Revolution,  was  of  the 
Council  of  the  Five  Hundred  (1798),  professor 
in  the  Polytechnic  School  (1803),  in  the  College 
de  France  (1814),  member  of  the  French  Acad- 
emy (1816),  and  its  perpetual  secretary  (1829), 
collaborating  actively  in  its  Dictionary.  He  also 
wrote  several  comedies,  of  which  the  best  is 
Molih-e  avec  ses  amis  (1804)  ;  a  tragedy,  Brutus 
(1794),  and  poems  distinguished  for  purity  of 
f-osody  and  diction.  Of  these,  he  Meunier  de 
Itjns-Souci  (1797),  is  still  remembered. 

ANDBIS^CTJS  (6k.  'AvSpiuKO^,  Andriskos). 
A  man  of  low  origin,  who  pretended  to  be  the 
son  of  Perseus,  King  of  Macedonia.  He  was 
seized,  sent  to  Rome,  and  imprisoned;  but  escap- 
ing, he  assumed  the  name  of  Philip,  and  in  149 
B.C.  defeated!  the  pretor  Juventius  in  battle.  He 
reigned  as  a  cruel  and  oppressive  tyrant  for 
about  a  year,  but  was  finally  conquered  in  148 
B.C.  by  Quintus  Csecilius  Metellus,  and  again 
taken  to  Rome,  where  he  was  put  to  death. 

AN^BOCLTJS  (Aulus  Gellius,  v  :  14),  or 
ANDBOCIiES  (.Elian,  vii  :  48).  The  slave  of 
a  Roman  consul  of  the  Early  Empire  who  com- 
pelled him  to  fight  with  a  ferocious  lion  in  the 
Circus  Maximus.  The  beast,  far  from  hurting 
him,  fondled  him  like  a  playful  dog.  The  Em- 
peror and  people  demanded  an  explanation  of 
such  strange  actions,  and  it  transpired  that  An- 
droclus  had  escaped  from  a  cruel  master  in 
Africa  and  taken  refuge  in  a  desert  cave.  One 
day,  a  lion  entered  the  cave  limping  painfully 
and  holding  up  his  paw,  from  which  Androclus 
extracted  a  large  thorn.  The  grateful  beast  never 
forgot  this,  and  when  they  met  again  in  the 
fatal  Circus  at  Rome  he  testified  his  recogni- 
tion. Both  slave  and  lion  were  freed,  and  after- 
ward were  exhibited  in  the  streets  of  Rome. 

AKDBOOTN0T7S>  an-dr6j1-nii8.  See  Flower, 
and  Reprodi-ction. 

AKDBOMACHE,  &n-dr5m'ft-ke  (Gk.  *AvSpo- 
jMXVt  Andromakh€).  The  wife  of  Heftor  and 
mother  of  Astyanax,  daughter  of  King  E^tion  of 
Asiatic  Thebes.  Her  father  and  seven  brothers 
were  killed  by  Achilles,  and  from  that  time  she 
clung  to  Hector  with  a  love  whose  tenderness  and 
pathos  are  beautifully  depicted  in  Homer's  Iliad, 
erpecially  in  her  parting  with  her  husband  ( Book 
vi.),  and  her  lament  over  his  body  (Book  xxiv). 
At  the  capture  of  Troy,  her  son  was  dashed  from 
the  walls,  and  she  became  the  prize  of  Neopto- 
VOL.I.-S5 


lemus,  son  of  Achilles,  to  whom  she  bore  a  son, 
Molossus.  Afterward  she  was  the  wife  of  Hel- 
enus.  Hector's  brother,  to  whom  she  bore  Ces- 
trinus.  Her  danger  from  the  jealousy  of  Her- 
mione,  wife  of  Neoptolemus,  is  the  subject  of  a 
tragedy  of  Euripides.  See  Hector;  Tbojan 
War. 

ANDBOMACHE.  A  tragedy  by  Euripides, 
written  probably  during  the  Peloponnesian  War, 
as  it  contains  many  unfriendly  allusions  to 
Sparta.  Its  subject  is  the  part  of  the  legend  of 
Andromache,  in  which  she  is  with  Neoptolemus, 
her  second  husband. 

ANDB0MAQT7E,  ftN'drd'm&k^  (1)  A  trag- 
edy by  Racine  (1667),  founded  on  the  classical 
legend.  The  story  is  adapted  from  Racine  in 
Phillips's  play,  The  Distressed  Mother  (1712). 
(2)  An  opera  by  Gr^try,  presented  at  Paris  in 
1780. 

ANDBOH^DA  (Gk.  ' AvSpofiiAjj,  Androm- 
cde).  Daughter  of  the  Ethiopian  King  Cepheus 
and  Cassiopeia.  Like  her  mother,  she  was  re- 
markably beautiful.  When  Cassiopeia  boasted 
that  her  daughter  was  more  beautiful  than  the 
Nereids,  the  latter  prayed  Poseidon  to  revenge 
the  insult.  Accordingly,  the  territory  of  Cepheus 
was  devastated  by  a  flood,  and  a  sea- monster  ap- 
peared, whose  A^Tath,  the  oracle  of  Ammon  de- 
clared, could  be  appeased  only  by  the  sacrifice  of 
Andromeda.  Andromeda  was  fastened  to  a  rock 
near  the  sea,  and  left  as  a  prey  to  the  monster; 
but  Perseus,  returning  from  his  victorious  battle 
with  Medusa,  saw  the  beautiful  victim,  slew  the 
monster,  and  received  Andromeda  as  his  reward. 
Our  versions  of  this  legend  seem  largely  due  to 
a  tragedy  of  Euripides,  which  ended  with  a 
prophecy  of  Athena,  that  all  concerned  should  be 
placed  among  the  stars. 

ANDBOICEDA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Ericaceae.  The  species,  which  are 
pretty  numerous,  have  very  much  the  general 
appearance  of  heaths.  Most  of  them  are  small 
shrubs,  but  some  of  them  attain  a  considerable 
size.  Andromeda  polifolia,  a  small  evergreen 
shrub  with  beautiful  rose-colored  drooping 
fiowers  is  occasionally  found  in  peat-bogs  in 
different  parts  of  Great  Britain,  and  common 
throughout  the  north  of  Europe  and  North 
America.  It  has  acrid  narcotic  properties,  and 
sheep  are  sometimes  killed  by  eating  it.  The 
shoots  of  Andromeda  ovalifolia  in  like  man- 
ner poison  goats  in  Nepaul,  and  similar  effects 
are  ascribed  to  the  Stagger-bush,  Andromeda 
mariana,  or  Pieris  mariana,  and  other  species  in 
the  United  States.  (See  Sorrel  Tree.)  The 
genus  Andromeda  is  known  in  a  fossil  state  by 
leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit,  referred  to  several  ex- 
tinct and  to  some  living  species,  from  rocks  of 
Tertiary  age  in  North  America  and  Europe. 

ANDBOHEDA.  A  constellation  in  the 
Northern  Hemisphere,  fancied  to  resemble  the 
form  of  a  woman  in  chains.  Its  principal  star 
is  Alpheratz,  of  the  second  magnitude.  Neigh- 
boring groups  are  Perseus,  Cassiopeia,  Pegasus, 
etc. 

AK'DBOKTCTJS.  The  name  of  four  Byzan- 
tine emperors.  Andronicus  I.  (1110-85)  was  the 
son  of  Isaac  Comnenus.  His  life  was  full  of 
vicissitudes.  During  part  of  his  youth  he  was  a 
prisoner  of  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor.  He  after- 
ward spent  some  time  at  the  court  of  his  cousin, 
the  Emperor  Manuel,  and  a  niece  of  the  Emperor 


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became  his  mistress.  He  was  appointed  to  a  mil- 
itary command  in  Cilieia;  but,  altliough  the 
favorite  of  the  army,  his  imprudence  and  waste 
of  time  in  dissolute  pleasures  involved  him  in  de- 
feat. Having  engaged  in  a  treasonable  corre- 
spondence with  the  King  of  ilungary  and  the 
German  Emperor,  he  was  thrown  into  prison  by 
Manuel,  and  remained  there  more  than  twelve 
years.  At  last  he  succeeded  in  making  his 
escape,  and  reached  Kiev,  the  residence  of 
Prince  Yaroslav.  He  regained  the  favor  of  his 
cousin  by  persuading  the  Russian  Prince  to 
join  in  the  invasion  of  Hungary,  but  incurred 
his  cousin's  displeasure  again  by  refusing  to  take 
the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  Prince  of  Hungary, 
the  intended  husband  of  Manuel's  daughter,  as 
presumptive  heir  to  the  Empire.  He  was  sent 
in  honorable  banishment  to  Cilieia,  where  he 
found  a  new  mistress  in  a  sister  of  the  Empress. 
The  resentment  of  the  Emperor  breaking  out 
against  him,  he  sought  refuge  in  a  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem.  His  professions  of  zeal  caused  his 
former  conduct  to  be  forgotten,  and  he  was  in- 
vested with  the  lordship  of  Bery tus ;  but  his  prof- 
ligacy became,  if  possible,  more  scandalous  than 
ever.  He  seduced  Theodora,  the  widow  of  Baldwin, 
King  of  Jerusalem,  who  lived  with  him  for  years 
as  his  mistress.  The  Emperor's  anger  made  the 
Syrian  coast  unsafe  for  him,  and  he  fled  with 
Theodora  to  Damascus,  and  finally  settled  down 
among  the  Turks  in  Asia  Minor,  with  a  band  of 
outlaws,  making  frequent  inroads  into  the 
Roman  province  of  Trebizond,  from  which  he 
carried  away  spoil  and  slaves.  Theodora 
and  her  children  were  at  last  taken  and 
sent  to  Constantinople,  and  thither  he  fol- 
lowed, imploring  the  forgiveness  of  the  Em- 
peror, which  he  obtained;  but  he  was  "sent  to 
(EnoS,  in  Pontus.  After  the  death  of  Manuel, 
popular  indignation  was  excited  against  the  Em- 
press, who  acted  as  regent  for  her  son,  Alexius 
II.,  and  Andronicus  was  recalled,  in  1182,  to  de- 
liver the  Empire  from  her  tyranny.  He  was  ap- 
pointed guardian  of  the  young  Emperor,  and  soon 
after  his  colleague  in  the  Empire.  He  caused  the 
Empress-mother  to  be  strangled,  and  afterward 
Alexius  himself,  whose  widow  he  married.  His 
reign,  though  short,  was  vigorous,  and  restored 
prosperity  to  the  provinces;  but  tyranny  and 
murder  were  its  characteristics  in  the  capital. 
He  set  no  bounds  to  the  gratification  of  his  re- 
venge against  all  who  had  ever  offended  him,  and 
hisjealousyofpossible  rivals  was  equally  sanguin- 
ary. At  last,  a  destined  victim,  Isaac  Angelus, 
one  of  his  relatives,  having  fled  to  the  church  of 
St.  Sophia  for  sanctuary,  a  crowd  gathered,  and  a 
sudden  insurrection  placed  Isaac  on  the  throne, 
while  Andronicus  was  put  to  death  by  the  in- 
furiated populace,  after  horrible  mutilations 
and  tortures,  on  September  12,  1185.  He  was 
the  last  of  the  Comneni  that  sat  on  the  throne 
of  Constantinople;  but  the  succeeding  dukes  and 
emperors  of  Trebizond  were  descendants  of  his 
son,  Manuel.  Andronicus  II.  (1269-1332),  the 
son  of  Michael  Palseologus,  ascended  the  throne 
in  1283;  but,  after  a  weak  and  inglorious  reign, 
was  driven  from  it,  in  1328,  by  his  grandson. 
Andronicl'8  III.  (1296-1 341),  after  a  reign  equal- 
ly inglorious,  died  in  1341.  ANDRONicrs  IV.,  as 
the  result  of  a  conspiracy  against  his  father, 
John  Palceologus  was  proclaimed  Emperor, 
1377,  but  was  obliged  to  abdicate  and  beg  forgive- 
ness the  following  year.  Consult  Gibbon,  De- 
cline and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 


AKDBONICTTS  (Gk.  'AvdpoviKo^,  Androni- 
ko8)y  also  called  Cyrruestes,  from  his  birth- 
place, Cyrrhus,  in  Syria.  A  Greek  archi- 
tect, who  erected  the  so-celled  Tower  of  the 
Winds  at  Athens,  a  building  dating  from  the  first 
century  B.C.  This' tower  was  an  octagonal  struc- 
ture, made  of  Pentelic  marble  and  surmounted  by 
a  figure  of  Triton,  which  moved  with  the  wind  and 
pointed  to  the  direction  from  w^hich  the  wind 
came.  On  the  eight  sides  of  the  tower  were 
sculptured  in  relief  figures  representing  the  eight 
principal  winds,  and  beneath  these  was  a  sun- 
dial. The  interior  contained  a  water-clock.  In 
the  Middle  Ages  this  structure  was  called  "The 
Lantern  of  Demosthenes." 

ANDBONI'CTJS  {Gk.' Av6p6veKodndrwiiko8) 
OF  Rhodes.  A  peripatetic  philosopher,  who 
lived  at  Rome  in  Cicero's  time  and  employed 
himself  in  criticising  and  explaining  the  works  of 
Aristotle  (q.v.),  a  great  number  of  which  he  was 
probably  the  means  of  preserving  to  us.  None  of 
the  writings  of  Andronicus  are  extant ;  a  work  On 
the  Passions,  attributed  to  him,  is  a  compilation 
of  the  Roman  imperial  period;  a  paraphrase  of 
the  Nicomachean  Ethics  is  the  work  of  Constan- 
tine  Palseocappa  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Con- 
sult, in  general,  Zeller,  Qeschichie  der  gnechis- 
chen  Phttosophie  (Leipzig,  1893). 

ANDBONICTJS,  Livius.  See  Livius  Andbo- 
wicus. 

ANDBONICTTS,  Trrus.  The  hero  of  the 
Shakespearean  play,  Titus  Andronicus  (q.v.). 

AK'DBOPO^GON  (called  so  from  the  barbed 
male  flowers,  from  the  Gk.  av^p,  on5r,  man  + 
iruyuv,  p6g6n,  beard).  A  cosmopolitan  genus 
of  grasses,  including  about  150  species,  the  rela- 
tive merits  of  which  vary  widely.  Some  are  high- 
ly prized  for  hay  and  pasturage,  as  Andropogon 
halepense,  or  Johnson  grass,  which  has  been  un- 
der cultivation  in  the  United  States  since  about 
1830.  It  yields  large  quantities  of  hay,  and  in 
the  Southern  States  may  be  cut  three  or  four 
times  a  year.  On  account  of  its  habit  of  growth 
— ^it  spreads  by  its  rhizomes — ^when  once  estab- 
lished it  is  difficult  of  eradication.  It  is  some- 
what sensitive  to  cold,  and  will  not  persist  as  a 
perennial  except  in  warm  r^ons.  A  number  of 
species  of  Andropogon  are  well  known  in  the 
semi-arid  region  of  the  United  States  under  the 
name  of  blue-stem  grasses,  and  in  these  regions 
are  of  value.  The  principal  of  these  species  are: 
Andropogon  nutans,  Andropogon  provincialis, 
and  Andropogon  scoparius.  Other  species  are 
common  in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts  of  the 
United  States  as  broom  sedge;  of  these  Andro- 
pogon virginicus  is  one  of  tne  most  widely  dis- 
tributed. If  cut  early,  the  broom  sedges  make 
good  hay;  but  if  left  too  long,  the  plant  becomes 
so  woody  as  to  be  refused  bj^  all  stock.^  An- 
dropogon squarrosus,  a  native  of  India,  is 
famous  for  the  fragrance  of  its  roots,  which  are 
employed  in  making  fans,  and  yield  the  perfume 
known  as  vtHiver.  The  roots  are  sometimes 
sold  for  their  stimulant  properties  in  drug  stores- 
under  the  name  of  Radix  anatheri.  In  some 
systems  of  classification  the  sorghums  are 
grouped  under  this  genus.  The  specific  name 
Andropogon  sorghum  and  its  variety,  sativus, 
comprises  under  these  classifications  the  saccha- 
rine and  non-saccharine  forms.  Among  the  lat- 
ter are  Durra,  Millo  maize,  Jerusalem  corn, 
Broom  corn,  etc.,  some  of  which  are  valuable  for 
forage  in  diry  countries.     Eight  or  ten  species 


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AND^JAB. 


are  considered  of .  economic  importance  in  Aus- 
tralia. Two  tropical  species  are  widely  known, 
the  Lemon  grass,  Andropogon  schcenanthus,  and 
Andropogon  nardus.  sources  of  lemon  oil  and 
citronella  oil,  both  of  which  are  largely  used  in 
making  perfumery. 

AKa>BOS  (Gk.  'Avdpog).  One  of  the  islands 
of  the  Greek  Archipelago,  the  most  northern  of 
the  Cyclades,  separated  from  Euboea  by  the 
Doro  Channel,  six  miles  broad  (Map:  Greece,  F. 
4).  The  island  is  25  miles  long,  about  nine 
miles  in  its  greatest  breadth,  and  covers  a  total 
area  of  about  160  square  miles.  The  island  is 
traversed  by  several  mountain  chains,  separated 
from  one  another  by  deep  valleys,  which  yield 
grain,  olives,  and  other  southern  fruits,  silk,  and 
common  vegetables.  Domestic  animals  are  raised 
extensively  in  the  northern  part,  which  is  in- 
*  habited  chiefly  by  Albanians.  The  chief  seaports 
are  Gavrion,  Korthion  and  Andros,  the  capital. 
The  last  mentioned  carries  on  a  large  trade,  is 
the  seat  of  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  bishops, 
and  has  a  population  of  about  2000.  The  island 
was  originally  settled  by  pirates  and  subsequent- 
ly by  lonians.  It  was  successively  in  the  hands 
of  the  Athenians,  Macedonians,  and  Romans, 
and,  in  1207,  had  a  prince  of  its  choosing, 
the  Venetian  nobleman  Marino  Dandolo.  In 
1566  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks,  whose 
rule,  however,  was  chiefly  restricted  to  the  levy- 
ing of  an  annual  tribute  of  30,000  piasters.  At 
present  the  island  forms  a  part  of  Greece.  Its 
population  (1806)  was  19,000.  Consult  Kopf, 
Geschichie  der  Insel  Andros  (Vienna,  1855). 

ANDBOS,  Sib  Edmund  (1637-1714).  A 
colonial  governor  in  America,  the  son  of  an  of- 
ficer in  the  English  royal  household.  In  1674 
he  was  sent  to  America  as  governor  of  the  colony 
of  New  York,  and  to  him  Sir  Anthony  Colve,  the 
governor  during  the  temporary  Dutch  supremacy, 
surrendered  without  forcible  opposition.  His 
commission  gave  him  jurisdiction  over  Long  Is- 
land, Pemaquid,  and  the  region  between  the  Con- 
necticut River  and  the  Delaware  River.  He  was 
thus  brought  into  embarrassing  relations  with  the 
proprietary  government  of  East  Jersey,  and  also 
became  engaged  in  controversies  with  the  author- 
ities of  Connecticut.  After  the  charters  of 
the  New  England  provinces  had  been  declared 
forfeited  by  the  English  courts,  the  policy 
of  the  English  administration  in  furtherance 
of  a  strongly  centralized  colonial  system  was 
illustrated  by  the  steps  taken  to  consolidate 
the  lands  of  New  England  into  one  province, 
over  which,  in  1686,  Andros  was  made  Gov- 
ernor-General with  large  powers.  He  was 
to  admit  religious  toleration,  but  could 
suppress  all  printing,  name  and  change  his 
council  at  will,  and,  with  their  consent,  levy 
taxes,  and  control  the  militia.  When  Connecticut 
refused  to  recognize  his  authority,  he  appeared 
in  the  council  chamber  at  Hartford,  in  October, 
1687,  with  an  armed  guard,  and  demanded  the 
surrender  of  the  colony's  charter.  There  long 
survived  a  tradition  of  the  hiding  of  the  char- 
ter in  an  oak  tree.  The  leaders,  both  in  Con- 
necticut and  in  Rhode  Island,  deemed  it  prudent 
to  render  perfunctory  obedience  to  the  one  in 
forcible  control  of  the  political  situation.  In 
1688  New  York  and  New  Jersey  were  attached 
to  New  England,  and  Andres's  rule  was  extended 
over  all  territory  between  the  St.  Croix  and  the 
Delaware.     On  hearing  of  the  revolution  in  Eng- 


land, the  people  of  Boston  imprisoned  Andros  and 
some  of  his  officers,  April  18,  1689,  and  Leisler 
set  up  a  rebel  government  in  New  York.  In  July 
Andros  and  a  committee  of  accusers  were  or- 
dered to  England,  but  the  charges  were  never 
pressed  to  a  formal  trial.  The  accession  of 
William  III.  made  possible  the  undoing  of  the 
work  of  Andros.  The  charters  of  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island  were  recognized  as  in  force.  Jklas- 
sachusetts  received  from  the  King  an  acceptable 
charter,  and  New  Hampshire  was  organized  as  a 
distinct  royal  province.  In  1692  -^dros  came 
back  as  Governor  of  Virginia,  where  he  was 
popular,  retiring  in  1698  and  acting  as  Governor 
of  Guernsey,  1704-06.  In  1691  he  published  an 
account  of  his  proceedings  in  New  England.  The 
Prince  Society  has  published  a  Memoir^  by  Whit- 
more  (Boston,  1868-74),  and  an  extensive  series 
of  the  Andros  Tract s,  3  volumes  (Boston,  1868- 
74). 

AN'DBOSCOGKOIN.  A  river  rising  in  Um- 
bagog  Lake,  which  lies  on  the  State  lines  of 
New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  It  is  167  miles  long, 
and  flows  through  both  States,  emptying  into 
the  estuary  of  the  Kennebec  above  Bath  (Map: 
Maine,  B  7).  Its  value  for  navigation  is  small, 
but  as  the  elevation  of  its  source  at  Lake  Umba- 
gog  is  over  2000  feet,  and  as  the  descent  is  abrupt 
at  many  places,  until  at  Auburn,  Me.,  the  eleva- 
tion is  but  210  feet,  it  affords  extensive  power  to 
the  many  industries  established  on  its  banks. 

ANDB0T7ET  DTJ  CEBCEATJ,  IkTu'dr^t/  di| 
sftr'sy.  A  famous  family  of  French  architects 
of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries, 
founded  by  Jacques  Androuet  (c.  1510-84),  called 
du  Cerceau  from  the  circle  used  as  the  sign  over 
his  workshop.  Jacques  was  one  of  the  leaders  in 
introducing  the  Italian  Renaissance  style  into 
France  through  his  works,  his  writings,  and 
his  numerous  drawings.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
two  sons,  Baptiste  (c.  1544-1602)  and  Jacques  II. 
(died  1614),  who  took  part  in  many  of  the  great 
constructions  of  the  time  in  France,  such  as  the 
Louvre,  the  Tuileries,  the  Pont  Neuf,  St.  Denis 
(chapel)  etc.  The  third  generation  was  repre- 
sented by  Baptiste's  son,  Jean  (c.  1600-16), 
chiefly  noted  for  the  private  palaces  he  built  in 
Paris,  such  as  the  Sully  and  Bellegarde  mansions. 

ANDBYANE,  a^'dr6'ftn^  Alexandre  Phi- 
lippe (1797-1863).  A  French  soldier  noted  for 
his  captivity  in  the  fortress  of  Spielberg.  He  was 
born  in  Paris,  and  after  serving  as  an  artillery 
officer  until  1815,  went  to  Italy  and  attempted 
to  incite  an  insurrection  against  Austria.  He 
was  arrested  and  condemned  to  death,  but  his 
sentence  was  commuted  by  tiie  Emperor  of  Aus- 
tria to  perpetual  imprisonment  in  the  fortress 
of  Spielberg,  where  for  eight  years  he  led  a  life 
of  torture,  vividly  described  in  his  M4moires  d*un 
prisonnier  d'4iat  (Paris,  1837-38).  He  was  par- 
doned in  1832,  and  afterward  served  with  the 
French  army  in  Italy.  After  the  battle  of 
Magenta  he  was  appointed  commissary  general 
by  Napoleon  III.  In  addition  to  the  before 
mentioned  work  he  published,  Sowoenirs  de  Oe- 
n^ve,  compUment  des  m^moires  d*un  prisonnier 
d'etat  (1839). 

ANBtrJAB,  &n-d?R^Hftr.  A  town  of  Anda- 
lusia, Spain,  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  24  miles 
north-northwest  of  Jaen,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Guadalquivir,  at  the  base  of  the  Sierra 
Morena  (Map:  Spain  D  3).  It  stands  on  the 
high  road  at  the  head  of  a  pass  over  the  Sierra 


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ANEMOMETER. 


Morena.  It  is  ouite  a  prosperous,  modern- 
looking  city,  with  fine  churches,  four  nunneries, 
six  monasteries  for  men,  three  hospitals,  and  a 
theatre.  A  fine  promenade  runs  through  the 
town.  There  is  some  trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and 
wine.  Andfljar  is  frequented  for  the  mineral 
springs  in  its  neighborhood.    Pop.,  1900,  16,411. 

ANDVABI,  And-va'rA.  In  Norse  mythol- 
ogy, the  name  of  the  fish-shaped  dwarf  who 
owned  the  ring,  with  the  curse  of  ill-obtained 
gold,  fatal  to  the  possessor.  This  is  the  key-note 
of  the  remarkable  stories  of  Sigurd  Fafnisbane 
and  the  German  legends  presented  in  musical 
form  by  Wagner  in  an  elaborate  tetralogy,  con- 
sisting of  Das  Rheingold  (the  temptation), 
Die  WalkUre  (Fate),  Siegfried  (the  hero),  and 
Die  Gotterdammerung  (the  "Twilight  of  the 
Gods,"  or  end  of  all  things) . 

ANECDOTE  (Gk.  avMoroc,  anckdotos,  un- 
published, from  av,  an  negat.  +  ««,  efc,  out 
+  AMvaiy  to  give).  Procopius  called  his 
secret  history  of  Justinian's  court  Anecdota,  It 
is  applied  also  to  portions  of  ancient  writings 
long  unpublished,  and  a  number  of  such  Anecdota 
have  been  collected  in  volumes  and  printed.  As 
ordinarily  used,  anecdote  now  means  some  iso- 
lated fact,  usually  of  a  personal  nature,  which 
would  interest  a  listener.  There  are  a  great  many 
books  of  anecdotes,  the  most  celebrated  in  Eng- 
lish being  the  Percy  Anecdotes, 

ANEI/IDA  AJSTD  AB^CITE.  A  poem  by 
Chaucer,  called  also  Queen  Anelida  and  False 
Arcite.  Anelida  is  an  Armenian  queen;  Arcite 
a  knight  of  Thebes.  The  work  is  unfinished, 
but  was  printed  by  Caxton.  Parts  of  it  have 
been  recognized  as  taken  from  Statius's  Thehaid 
and  Boccaccio's  Tescide.  Chaucer  himself  ac- 
knowledged obligation  to  Statins  and  Corinna, 
a  Greek  poetess  of  the  fifth  century  B.C.  There 
is  a  modern  version  by  Elizabeth  Barrett  Brown- 
ing. 

ANEM'OOBAPH  (Gk.  &veftoc,  anemos,  wind 
+  ypa^eiv,  graphein,  to  write,  record).  When 
a  wind-vane  is  attached  to  self-recording  ap- 
paratus it  becomes  an  anemograph.  Frequent- 
ly the  anemometer  for  measuring  the  velocity  of 
the  wind  is  also  made  to  register  upon  the  same 
sheet  of  paper  and  the  apparatus  becomes  a  com- 
plete anemograph.  As  the  paper  moves  imi- 
formly  by  clock-work,  every  change  of  the  wind 
as  to  direction  or  velocity  is  registered  at  the 
proper  time.  The  anemograph  is  called  a  wind- 
register  in  the  Weather  Bureau,  but  the  word 
itself  is  retained  in  European  literature. 

AN'EMOM^TEB  (Gk.  iveuoc,  <memos^  wind 
+  fiirpov,  metron,  measure).  An  instrument 
used  to  measure  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  its 
pressure,  or  other  effects  produced  by  it.  The 
first  instrument  of  this  kind  is  commonly  known 
as  Hooke's  Pendulum  Anemometer,  and  is  men- 
tioned as  early  as  1667.  It  is,  however,  likely  to 
have  been  the  common  product  of  the  members 
of  the  first  meteorological  committee  of  the  Roy- 
al Society  of  London,  among  whom  Hooke  and 
Sir  Christopher  Wren  were  prominent  members. 
This  form  of  instrument  was  revived  in  1861  by 
Professor  H.  Wild,  and  is  now  used  in  Switzer- 
land and  Russia,  where  it  is  known  as  Wild's 
Tablet  Anemometer.  In  this  instrument  a  plane 
square  tablet  is  suspended  vertically  from  a 
horizontal  axis  which  is  kept  by  a  wind-vane 
always  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the 


wind;  the  tablet  is  raised  by  the  wind  to  an  in- 
clined position  of  temporary  rest,  and  its  angular 
inclination  to  the  vertical  is  noted  on  a  grad- 
uated    arc;     circular     plates,     and    especially 
spheres,  have  b^en  sometimes  used  instead  of  the 
plate.    About  1724  the  use  of  a  vertical  pressure 
plate,    having   springs   or    weights   at   its  back 
against  which  the  plate  is  pushed  by  the  wind, 
was  introduced  by  Leupold;  at  the  present  time 
the  pressure  plate  anemometer  is  used  at  a  few 
European  observatories  in  the  form  arranged  b? 
Osier  for  the  British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science.      Theoretically,  the  most  per- 
fect modification  of  Leupold's  anemometer  is  that 
devised  by  Jelinek  in  1850,  in  which  the  springs 
behind  the  pressure  plate  are  inclosed  in  a  cylin- 
drical case,  which  eliminates  the  action  of  the 
wind  or  the  partial  vacuum  at  the  back  of  the 
plate.     A   third   class   of   pressure-anemometers 
is   that   of   Lind,    in   which    the    wind-pressure 
acts  on  the  surface  of  a  liquid  in  a  U-shaped 
tube,  raising  it  in  one  leg  of  the  U  and  depress- 
ing it  in  the  other. 

Various  other  forms  of  pressure-anemometers 
.have  occasionally  been  used  by  meteorologists, 
but  at  the  present  time  the  tendency  is  to  aban- 
don all  these  in  favor  of  instruments  that  rotate 
and  give  more  or  less  correctly  the  velocity  of 
the  wind.  This  tendency  is  justified  by  the 
consideration  that  in  meteorology  we  need  only 
the  velocity  of  the  wind,  and  by  the  fact  that,  al- 
though the  engineer  needs  to  know  the  pressure 
of  the  wind  against  engineering  structures,  yet 
he  cannot  obtain  this  with  sufficient  accuracy 
from  the  pressures  recorded  by  the  small  flat 
surfaces  that  are  used  in  ordinary  anemometers. 
In  fact,  the  pressure  of  the  wind*  against  an  ob- 
stacle depends  not  merely  on  the  area  of  the 
transverse  section  of  that  obstacle,  but  on  the 
shape  of  that  section,  and  even  still  more  on  the 
longitudinal  section  in  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
Thus,  the  pressure  of  the  wind  on  wires,  ropes, 
and  rods  is  much  greater  than  on  globes  of  the 
same  transverse  section;  the  pressure  on  a  tri- 
angle is  greater  than  that  on  a  square  or  circle 
of  the  same  area.  In  general,  it  is  more  impor- 
tant to  know  the  velocity  of  the  average  wind 
and  of  its  maximum  gusts  than  to  Imow  its 
pressure  on  some  assum^  arbitrary  solid.  When 
rain  is  driven  with  the  wind,  the  combined  pres- 
sure due  to  both  is  needed  in  engineering  studies. 

Anemometers  for  measuring  wind  velocity 
include  both  the  suction-anemometers  and  the 
rotation-anemometers.  In  the  former  the  open 
end  of  a  long,  vertical  tube  is  freely  exposed 
to  the  wind  in  such  a  way  that  it  blows  as  nearly 
as  may  be  transverse  to  the  axis  of  the  tube.  The 
end  may  be  fitted  into  the  side  of  a  horizontal 
contracted  tube  as  in  Venturi's  instrument;  or 
may  end  conically  in  the  air,  or  squarely,  and 
without  any  adjunct.  The  passage  of  the  wind 
across  the  open  end  of  the  tube  produces  a  dimi- 
nution of  barometric  pressure  within  it,  which 
increases  Tinth  the  velocity.  The  exact  measure- 
ment of  this  depression  gives  the  basis  for  com- 
putation of  the  velocity  of  the  wind.  This  prin- 
ciple was  known  to  the  experimenters  of  the 
American  Academy  of  Arts  and  Sciences  (see 
their  report  for  1847) ,  and  to  those  of  the  Frank- 
lin Institute  (see  their  report  of  1842),  and  is 
that  which  explains  the  draught  up  a  good  chim- 
ney; but  it  was  first  applied  to  the  measure- 
ment of  the  wind  in  England  by  Fletcher  in  1867. 
ll&e    modifications    of    Fletcher's    anemometer 


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ANEMOMETER. 


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ANEMOMETER. 


made  by  Hagemann,  of  Denmark,  and  by  Dines, 
of  England,  appear  to  be  especially  appropriate  to 
the  measurements  of  gusts.  The  combination  of 
suction-anemometer,  pressure-anemometer,  and 
aneroid  barometer  recommended  by  Professor 
Cleveland  Abbe  in  1882,  and  especially  the  ap- 
plication to  the  tube  of  parallel  plates  that  en- 
tirely annul  the  wind  effects  seem  to  be  essential 
if  we  would  determine  the  true  barometric  pres- 
sure with  a  barometer  exposed  to  the  wind,  as, 
for  instance,  on  a  mountain  top. 

Rotation-anemometers  are  those  in  which  the 
wind  sets  in  motion  plane  or  curved  metallic 
blades.  The  earliest  form  resembled  that  of 
Dinglinger,  mentioned  by  Leupold  in  1724,  in  that 
it  used  the  Polish  water-wheel  with  vertical  axis, 
but  differed  essentially  in  that  Dinglinger  pre- 
vented the  rotation  of  the  (Arms  and  measured  the 
pressure  required  to  keep  them  quiet,  whereas 
d'Ons- en-Bray,  in  1734,  allowed  them  to  rotate 
continuously.  Since  that  time  two  essentially 
different  varieties  of  the  rotation-anemometer 
have  been  developed,  namely  (a)  those  of  Scho- 
ber  and  Woltmann,  Combes,  Casella,  Whewell, 
or  Biram,  in  all  which  sets  of  plane  plates  in- 
clined to  an  axis  are  forced  to  revolve  about  it 
by  the  wind  blowing  in  the  direction  of  the  axis. 
This  form  is  much  used  in  studies  on  ventilation 
of  mines  and  buildings.  The  most  important 
meteorological  application  of  this  style  is  that 
manufactured  by  Richard  for  use  at  the  French 

observing  stations, 
(b)  The  Robin- 
son Anemometer, 
brought  out  by  Dr. 
Robinson  in  1846, 
but  suggested  to 
him  by  Edgeworth 
many  years  before. 
This  has  come  into 
very  general  use 
by  English  and 
American  meteoro- 
logical observers 
as  the  Robinson 
Hemispherical  Cup 
Anemometer.  In 
this  instrument  a 
vertical  spindle  car- 
ries at  its  upper  end  four  horizontal  arms  at  right 
angles  to  each  other;  each  arm  carries  at  its  ex- 
tremity a  hollow  hemispherical  cup  of  thin  sheet 
metal  whose  circular  rim  is  in  a  vertical  plane 
passing  through  the  common  vertical  axis  of  ro- 
tation of  the  spindle.  The  wind  rotates  these 
cups  so  that  the  convex  side  of  each  cup  goes  for- 
ward. Numerous  experiments  have  been  made 
to  determine  the  relation  between  the  velocity 
of  the  wind  and  that  of  the  cups.  The  instru- 
ment makers  have  generally  followed  Dr.  Rob- 
inson's conclusion,  that  the  linear  motion  of  the 
centre  of  the  cup  is  one- third  of  that  of  the  wind; 
but  observation  and  experiment,  as  well  as  the- 
ory, show  that  this  cannot  be  true.  The  most 
intelligent  and  satisfactory  investigation  of  this 
important  subject  has  been  carried  out  by  Pro- 
fessor C.  F.  Marvin,  of  the  United  States  Weath- 
er Bureau.  Combining  his  results  with  those 
of  European  students,  we  must  conclude  that  in 
perfectly  uniform  winds  the  general  average  ra- 
tio between  the  velocity  of  the  wind  and  that 
of  the  cups  varies  with  the  length  of  the  arm  and 
the  size  of  the  cups  between  2.5  and  3.5,  so  that 
it  is  necessary  to  determine  the  ratio  by  actual 


BOBnrsoir  AMBXonTER. 


experiment  upon  each  respective  type  of  ane- 
mometer. 

Professor  Marvin  shows,  besides,  that  the  ratio 
varies  according  as  the  anemometer  is  exposed 
to  a  uniform  wind  or  to  one  that  is 
variable  and  gusty.  He  finds  that  in  the  latter 
case  the  ratio  depends  not  merely  upon  the  di- 
mensions of  the  arms  and  cups,  but  especially 
upon  the  moment  of  inertia  of  the  revolving  sys- 
tem ;  that  is  to  say,  on  the  mass  of  the  cups.  For 
gusty  winds,  the  recorded  wind  velocity  is  always 
too  great.  This  is  explained  by  the  fact  that  the 
gusts  give  to  the  revolving  cups  a  great  velocity, 
which  they,  by  reason  of  their  momentum,  retain 
after  the  gust  has  ceased.  It  would  seem,  there- 
fore, that  rotating  anemometers  should  be  stand- 
ardized not  merely  in  quiet  air,  but  also  out  of 
doors  in  ordinary  gusty  winds.  By  such  compari- 
sons Professor  Marvin  has  compiled  a  table,  of 
which  the  following  is  an  abstract,  showing  the 
correct  wind  velocity  for  records  of  anemome- 
ters in  the  ordinary  or  average  gustiness  of  the 
wind  at  Washington.  If  the  observed  wind  ve- 
locities are  indicated  on  dials  constructed  on 
the  assumption  that  the  centres  of  the  cups  move 
with  one-third  the  velocity  of  the  wind,  then  the 
corrected  wind  velocities  are  given  by  the  follow- 
ing table: 


Weather  Bnrean 

Marrin^B    Bqaiva- 

Correepondlng 

Anemometer. 

In- 

lent.   Correct  Ve- 

Pressare in  poundS 

dicated    Velocity. 

locity.    Mileeper 

on  one  square  foot 

Miles  per  hour 

hoar. 

of  area. 

5 

5.1 

0.1 

15 

18.8 

0.8 

85 

21.8 

1.9 

85 

29.0 

3.6 

46 

87.1 

6.6 

66 

44.4 

7.9 

56 

61.0 

10.6 

76 

68.7 

13.6 

85 

66.8 

17.8 

Observations  on  strong  winds  on  the  summit 
of  Mount  Washington  indicate  that  the  velocities 
given  in  this  table  apply  also  to  that  high  ele- 
vation, so  that  there  is  no  evidence  that  the  Rob- 
inson Anemometer  is  appreciably  influenced  by 
changes  in  the  density  of  the  air;  but,  of  course, 
the  wind  pressures  for  a  given  velocity  are 
smaller  in  proportion  to  the  density.  In  order  to 
determine  the  coefficient  for  computing  wind 
pressure  at  high  velocities,  Marvin  conducted 
special  measurements  at  the  summit  of  Mount 
Washington,  usin^  both  large  and  small-pressure 
plates,  and  obtaining  automatic  simultaneous  rec- 
ords on  the  same  sheet  of  paper  for  both  the 
pressure  and  the  velocity.  He  finds  that  when 
the  air  has  the  standard  density  for  32**  F.  and 
30  inches  of  pressure,  the  wind  pressure  on  a 
plane  flat  surface  is  equal  to  0.0040  pounds  to 
the  square  foot  multiplied  by  the  square  of  the 
velocity  of  the  wind  in  miles  per  hour  and 
by  the  area  of  the  plate;  this  formula  gives 
the  pressures  printed  in  the  preceding  &ble. 
(For  further  details,  see  Professor  Marvin's 
paper  on  wind-pressures  and  wind-velocities, 
printed  in  the  annual  report  of  the  chief  sig- 
nal officer  of  the  army  for  1890.)  A  gen- 
eral review  of  the  subject  of  anemometry  is 
given  in  Abbe's  Treatise  on  Meteorological  Ap- 
paratus and  Methods  (Washington,  1887).  The 
Robinson  Anemometer,  as  originally  manufac- 
tured by  James  Green,  of  New  York,  and  reduced 


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AKEICOXETEB. 


550 


AKEBOID. 


by  Professor  Marvin's  table  of  wind  velocities,  is 
that  adopted  at  all  Weather  Bureau  stations.  In 
order  to  obtain  the  general  velocity  of  the  wind, 
free  from  all  local  effects,  these  anemometers  are, 
if  in  a  city,  placed  as  high  as  practicable  above 
the  roofs  of  tall  buildings,  or  if  located  in  the 
country,  on  the  tallest  available  support.  The 
velocities  thus  obtained  are  considerably  higher 
than  the  average  at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  but 
the  winds  at  the  surface  are  much  weakened  by 
resistances,  and  these  higher  locations  are  needed 
in  order  to  give  us  a  clear  idea  of  the  gen- 
eral motion  of  the  air  under  the  action  of  the 
barometric   pressures  indicated  by  the  isobars. 

When  no  anemometer  is  available,  the  pressure 
velocity  or  force  of  the  wind  is  estimated  and 
recorded  on  some  arbitrary  scale,  such  as  that 
which  was  introduced  into  the  British  navy  by 
Admiral  Beaufort  about  1800,  and  is  almost  uni- 
versally used  at  sea.  (See  Beaufort  Scale.) 
The  Weather  Bureau  has  used  various  scales  of 
numbers  and  terms,  but  the  tendency  is  not  to  de- 
part from  the  Beaufort  scale.  The  anemometer 
is  easily  made  to  register  its  own  indications 
on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  thus  becomes  an  anemo- 
graph. This  is  done  mechanically  in  the  Kew 
pattern  used  at  British  stations  of  the  first  order, 
but  is  done  electrically  at  the  Weather  Bureau 
stations. 

ANEHONEy  Lat.  ftn'ft-md'ng;  Engl.  4-n6m'6- 
n*  (Gk.  avcfiCivrj,  the  wind-flower,  from  ivejuog, 
a  nemos,  wind),  or  Wind- Flower.  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  order  Ranunculaceie,  having  an 
involucre  of  three  divided  leaves,  more  or  less 
remote  from  the  flower;  a  petaloid  calyx, 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  corolla,  and 
soft,  woolly  achenia  (see  Achene),  which  in 
some  species  have  tails.  The  name  is  said  to 
be  derived  from  the  fact  that  many  of  the  species 
love  very  exposed  situations.  The  species  num- 
ber about  eighty-five,  and  are  generally  beauti- 
ful. Most  of  them  flower  early  in  spring.  They 
are  natives  of  temperate  and  cold  climates,  chief- 
ly of  the  northern  hemisphere.  One  species, 
Anemone  nemorosa.,  the  Wood  Anemone,  is  a 
common  native  of  all  parts  of  Great  Britain  and 
eastern  North  America,  and  its  white  flowers, 
externally  tinged  with  purple,  are  an  ornament 
of  many  a  woodland  scene  and  mountain  pasture 
in  April  and  May.  Another  species,  Anemone 
Pulsatilla^  or  Pulsatilla  vulgaris,  the  Pasque 
flower,  adorns  chalky  pastures  in  some  parts  of 
England  at  the  same  season.  Its  flowers  are 
purple  and  externally  silky.  Anemone  patens 
nut  t  alia  nay  or  Pulsatilla  hirsutissima,  is  called 
the  American  Pasque  flower,  and  resembles  the 
European  species.  The  Garden  Anemone  is  a 
favorite  florist's  flower;  the  varieties  are  very 
numerous,  and  whole  works  have  been  published 
on  them  and  their  cultivation,  which  is  most  ex- 
tensively carried  on  in  Holland  and  has  pre- 
vailed from  a  very  early  period.  It  is  generally 
supposed  that  all  these  varieties  have  originated 
from  two  species.  Anemone  coronaria  and  Anem- 
one hortensis,  or  stellata.  Both  are  natives  of  the 
Levant;  the  latter  is  found  also  in  Italy  and  the 
south  of  France.  By  cultivation,  the  size  of  the 
flower  is  increased,  its  form  and  colors  are  mod- 
ified, and  many  of  the  stamens  are  often  changed 
into  small  petals  forming  a  doubled  flower.  The 
cultivation  of  the  anemone  requires  great  atten- 
tion, the  plant  preferring  light  soil.  The  root, 
which  consists  of  clustered  tubers,  is  taken  up  af- 
ter flowering.  The  plant  is  propagated  by  parting 


the  roots  or  by  seed.  In  the  latter  way  new  va- 
rieties are  obtained.  Seedling  plants  do  not  flow- 
er till  the  second  or  third  year.  Besides  the 
species  which  have  been  named,  others  oc- 
casionally appear  as  ornaments  of  our  flower- 
gardens.  Anemone  Apennina  and  Anemone  pra- 
tensis  have  beautiful  blue  flowers.  They  are  both 
natives  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Anemone  ja- 
ponica,  a  most  beautiful  species,  has  been  in- 
troduced from  Japan.  A  number  of  speciesi 
are  common  in  the  United  States,  among  them 
Anemone  quinquefolia.  Anemone  caroliniana, 
Anemone  canadensis,  and  Anemone  narcissiflora 
in  mountainous  r^ons.  The  species  of  this 
ffenus  are  characterized  by  the  acridity  prevalent 
in  the  natural  order  to  which  they  belong,  the 
rhizomes  of  Anemone  nemorosa  and  others  hav- 
ing been  recommended  in  cases  of  obstinate  rheu- 
matism and  in  tsnia.    For  illus.  see  Flowers. 

ANEHONE,  Sea.    See  Sea- Anemone. 

AN'EMOPH'ILOTJS  PLANTS  (Gk.  dve. 
fioCt  anemos,  wind  +  ^Uoc,  philos,  loving, 
friend).  Plants  whose  flowers  receive  pollen  by 
means  of  wind,  in  contrast  with  entomophilous 
plants,  whose  agents  of  pollination  are  insects. 
See  Pollination. 

AKEH^OSCOPE  (Gk.  dvcfioc,  anemos,  wind 
+  OKoneiv,  «A:;opetn,  to  look  at,  consider).  A  wind- 
vane  or  other  instrument  which  shows  the  di- 
rection of  the  wind.  In  its  simplest  and  usual 
form  it  is  an  arrow  balanced  nicely  on  an  up- 
right rod  and  free  to  revolve.  The  arrow  may 
be  attached  to  a  spindle  connected  with  an  index 
or  compass  scale,  which  may  be  either  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  vertical  staff  or  at  any  convenient  dis- 
tance. In  the  wind  vane  used  by  the  United 
States  Weather  Bureau  the  arrow  head  consists 
of  a  pointer  or  rod  about  six  feet  in  length  that 
balances  a  tail-piece  which  is  formed  by  two  thin 
boards  ten  inches  wide,  joined  so  as  to  inclose 
an  angle  of  about  ten  degrees.  The  wind-vane 
should  be  set  up  in  a  free  and  open  space  at  a 
sufficient  height  above  surrounding  buildings  to 
enable  it  to  show  the  true  local  wind.  Other 
forms  of  construction  and  the  mechanical  ex- 
planation of  their  action  are  given  in  Abbe'a 
Meteorological  Apparatus  and  Methods  (1887); 
and  in  United  States  Weather  Bureau  Instruc- 
tions to  Observers. 

A^EB.  One  of  the  three  chiefs  making  a 
covenant  with  Abraham  in  Hebron  (Genesis 
xiv  :  13,  24).  Like  Mamre  and  Eschol,  this 
eponym  hero  probably  owes  his  name  to  that  of  a 
locality.  A  hill  near  Hebron  still  bears  the  name 
Ne*r.  There  was  also  a  city  in  Manasseh  named 
Aner  (I.  Chronicles  vi  :  70). 

ANEBIO,  &-na'r«-6,  Fetjce  (1560 — T).  An 
Italian  composer,  thought  to  have  been  a  pupil 
of  Mario  Nanini.  In  1594  he  succeeded  Pale- 
strina  as  composer  of  the  Royal  Chapel.  Ten 
books  of  his  composition  were  published  in 
1585-1622,  but  many  unpublished  manuscripts  re- 
main in  the  archives  of  the  Papal  Chapel.  He 
was  highly  esteemed  among  the  composers  of  the 
Italian  Renaissance.. 

AN^BOID  (containing  no  liquid,  f rom  Gk. 
a,  a,  priv.  -j-  vijpdc,  n&ros,  liquid  +  eMof,  eidos, 
form).  A  barometer  first  made  in  serviceable 
form  by  M.  Vidi,  of  Paris,  in  1848,  in 
which  the  pressure  of  the  air  is  measured  by  the 
change  of  form  undergone  by  an  exhausted  me- 
tallic box  under  the  influence  of  the  atmospheric 
pressure.  In  the  diagram.  Fig.  2,  AA,  is  a  circu- 


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ANEMONE,    ETC. 


1.THE  ARETHUSA   (ArethuM  bulbosa). 
2.  WIND  FLOWER   (Anemone  nemorosa). 
8.  MOORWORT  (Andromeda  pollfolia). 


4.  BETEL  NUT  (Areca  catechu). 

5.  FLAMINQO  FLOWER   (Anthurium  andreanum). 

6.  POPPY  ANEMONE  (Anemone  ooronaria). 


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>2i^^ 


V;'' 


M 


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AKEBOID. 


551 


ANETJBIN. 


lar  metal  box  which  has  been  nearly  exhausted 
of  air  and  then  hermetically  sealed.  The  sides 
are  corrugated  in  concentric  rings,  so  as  to  in- 
crease their  elasticity,  and  one  of  them  is  fixed 
to  the  back  of  the  brass  case  which  contains  the 


FIG.   1.      AKXROID  BAROmTKR. 

whole.  The  amount  of  exhaustion  is  such  that 
if  the  sides  of  the  box  were  allowed  to  take  their 
natural  position  they  would  be  pressed  in  upon 
each  other,  and  to  prevent  this  they  •are  kept  dis- 
tended, to  a  certain  extent,  by  a  strong  spring,  8, 
fixed  to  the  case,  which  acts  upon  the  head  of 
the  pillar,  B,  attached  to  the  side  next  the  face. 
VVhen  the  pressure  of  the  air  increases,  there  be- 
ing little  or  no  air  inside  the  box  to  resist  it^ 
the  corrugated  sides  are 
forced  inward,  and  when  it 
diminishes  again,  their  elas- 
ticity restores  them  to  their 
former  place,  the  box  being 
extremely  sensitive  to  the 
varying  pressure  of  the  ex- 
ternal atmosphere.  Suppos- 
ing the  two  sides  pressed 
inward,  the  end  of  the 
spring,  E,  will  be  drawn 
toward  the  back  of  the  case, 
and  carry  with  it  the  rod, 
EO,  which  is  firmly  fixed 
into  it.  EGy  by  the  link 
OHf  acts  on  the  bent  lever, 
HKLy  which  has  its  axis  at 
Ky  so  that,  while  the  arm, 
KHy  is  pushed  to  the  right, 
LK  is  moved  downward.  By 
this  motion  a  watch-chain, 
O,  attached  at  L,  is  dra\vn 
off  the  little  drum,  Af,  and 
the  index-hand,  PP,  which 
is  fixed  to  it,  would  move 
from  the  position  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  1  to  one 
toward  the  right.  When  the  contrary  motion 
takes  place,  a  hair-spring  moves  tne  drum  and 
the  hand  in  the  opposite  way.  By  this  or  similar 
mechanism  a  very  small  motion  of  the  corrugated 
sides  produces  a  large  deviation  of  the  index- 
hand. 

The    aneroid    is    graduated    to    represent    the 
inches  or  millimetres  of  the  mercurial  barometer. 


Tia.  2.     cRos»-fiEcnoN 

OF  ANEROID. 


It  may  be  made  to  agree  very  closely  with  such 
an  instrument,  but,  owing  to  the  imperfect  elas- 
ticity of  the  box  and  the  steel  spring,  it  is  quite 
apt  to  disagree  after  a  few  months  or  years,  and 
especially  when  exposed  to  rapid  variations  of 
pressure,  being  in  this  respect  quite  analogous 
to  the  ordinary  thermometer,  whose  glass  bulb 
has  also  a  defective  elastic  reaction.  Although 
the  aneroid  is  very  convenient,  very  sensitive, 
and  unaffected  by  variations  in  gravity,  yet  its 
defects  prevent  it  from  becoming  a  very  reliable 
instrument,  and  it  must  be  frequently  compared 
with  the  standard  mercurial.  It  is  often  used 
in  ascertaining  altitude,  especially  by  engineers 
and  surveyors,  where  extreme  accuracy  is  not 
required.  The  holosteric  aneroid  made  by  Naudet 
and  the  box-aneroid  made  by  Goldschmid  bear 
the  highest  reputation. 

The  Bourdon  Aneroid,  or  pressure  gauge,  has 
about  the  same  advantages  and  defects  as  the 
Vidi  Aneroid.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  portion 
of  a  thin  hollow  ring  whose  section  is  a  very 
flat  ellipse.  The  ring,  or  curved  tube,  is  made  of 
elastic  metal,  exhausted  of  air  and  then  hermet- 
ically sealed,  and  is,  therefore,  a  vacuum-cham- 
ber. Changes  of  pressure  alter  the  curvature  of 
this  ring,  whose  changes  of  shape  are  shown  on  a 
magnifi^  scale  by  a  delicate  pointer. 


no.  8.     BABOe&APH,  OB  BSOOBDINe  ANBBOm. 

The  aneroid  barometer  is  also  easily  arranged 
to  be  self-registering,  and  is  then  known  as  a 
barograph.  Instruments  of  this  kind,  made  by 
Richard  &  Son,  of  Paris,  are  especially  applicable 
for  use  at  sea,  and  are  also  widely  used  at  land 
stations.  For  fuller  details  of  the  construction 
and  use  of  the  aneroid,  consult  Abbe's  Treatise 
on  Meteorological  Instruments  (Washington, 
1887),  and  the  works  referred  to  therein,  or  any 
of  the  larger  treatises  on  experimental  physics. 
See  Babometeb. 

AN^TJBIN.  A  Welsh  poet,  who  probably 
lived  c.  603.  According  to  the  received  account, 
he  was  the  son  of  Caw  ab  Geraint,  the  chief  of  the 
Otadini;  while  others  have  identified  him  with 
Gildas,  the  historiap,  and  Mr.  Stephens,  the 
translator  of  his  poem,  makes  him  Gildas's  son. 
He  was  present  at  the  battle  of  Cattraeth  as 
bard  and  taken  prisoner.  After  his  release  he 
returned  to  Llancarvan,  and  later  in  life  lived 
at  Galloway.  He  is  said  to  have,  perished  at 
the  hands  of  Eidyn  ab  Einygan.  His  epic  poem 
Gododin^  which  in  its  present  form  contains 
over  nine  hundred  lines,  tells  of  the  defeat  of 
the  Britons  by  the  Saxons  at  Cattraeth ;  but  the 
obscurity  of  the  language  has  made  it  impossible 
to  gain  from  it  a  clear  account  of  the  defeat, 


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ANETJBIN. 


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ANOEL. 


and  it  has  even  been  maintained  that  the  subject 
of  the  poem  is  the  massacre  of  the  Britons  at 
Stonehenge  (472).  Stephens  connects  the  event 
with  the  battle  of  Dagstan  (603).  The  Gododin 
was  published  with  an  English  version  and  notes 
in  1852,  by  Rev.  J.  Williams  ab  Ithel,  and  the 
text  appears  with  a  translation  in  F.  Skene's 
Four  Ancient  Books  of  Wales  (1866).  The 
Cymmrodorion  Society  published  in  1855  a  new 
edition,  with  translation  by  the  late  Thomas 
Stephens.  Aneurin  is  the  reputed  author  of  one 
other  poem.    See  Welsh  Literature. 

AN^TTBISM  (Gk.  avevpvfffia,  aneurysma,  a 
dilatation,  from  dvd  ana,  up  -|-  evpH,  eurys, 
wide).  A  pulsating  tumor,  consisting  of  a  sac 
or  pouch  into  which  blood  flows  through  an  open- 
ing in  an  artery.  The  sac  of  an  arterial  an- 
eurism may  be  formed  in  the  first  instance  by 
one  or  more  of  the  tunics  of  the  vessel,  generally 
the  outer  one,  the  two  inner  having  given  way. 
Tliis  is  called  a  true  aneurism,  in  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  false.  The  pathological  condition 
underlying  most  aneurisms  is  a  weakening  of  the 
arterial  walls  from  disease.  Thus,  in  the  early 
stages  of  the  disease  of  the  arteries  known  as 
arterio-sclerosis,  the  walls  of  the  vessels  are  weak- 
ened, and  so  less  resistant.  The  changes  in  the 
vessel  walls  being  uniform,  the  resulting  an- 
eurism is  apt  to  consist  of  an  even  dilatation  of 
the  entire  vessel,  making  what  is  called  a 
fusiform  aneurism.  If,  however,  there  is  one 
particularly  weak  point  in  the  coats  of  the  ar- 
tery, the  distention  is  greatest  at  that  point  and 
an  aneurismal  sac  is  formed.  Such  an  aneurism 
is  described  as  a  saccular  aneurism.  An  aneurism 
may  occur  at  a  point  where  an  artery  branches, 
and  be  irregular  in  shape  from  involvement  of 
both  main  trunk  and  one  or  more  of  the  branches, 
cirsoid  aneurism.  Owing  to  injury  to  the  inter- 
nal coat  of  an  artery,  the  blood  may  get  in  be- 
tween the  layers  of  the  vessel  walls  and  work 
its  way  up  or  down  between  them.  This  form  of 
aneurism  is  called  a  dissecting  aneurism.  Some- 
times a  direct  communication  is  found  between 
an  artery  and  a  vein,  in  which  case  the  latter, 
being  exposed  to  unusual  pressure,  is  apt  to  be- 
come distended  and  tortuous.  Such  a  condition 
is  called  aneurismal  varix,  A  false  aneurism  is 
one  in  which  there  is  rupture  of  the  entire  wall 
of  an  artery  and  the  blood  comes  in  direct  con- 
tact with  the  surrounding  tissues.  This  is  some- 
times called  a  diffuse  aneurism.  Aneurisms 
prove  fatal  by  their  pressure  on  some  important 
part,  or  by  bursting  and  allowing  a  sudden  es- 
cape of  blood.  They  are  cured  by  the  deposit, 
within  the  sac,  of  fibrin  from  the  blood,  a  result 
the  surgeon  can  promote  by  obstructing  the 
artery  above  the  aneurism  by  compression  or  by 
ligature,  applying  the  latter  close  to  the  sac  if 
the  aneurism  is  of  the  "false"  variety,  but  at  a 
distance  if  it  is  the  result  of  disease ;  by  inserting 
needles  into  the  tumor ;  or  by  inserting  and  coil- 
ing silver  wire  within  the  sac  and  passing  an 
electric  current  through  it.  Internal  aneurisms 
are  treated  by  those  remedies  which  moderate  the 
heart's  action,  as  digitalis,  rest,  etc. 

ANFOSSI,  &n.f6s's«,  Pasquale  (1729-97). 
An  Italian  composer.  He  was  born  at  Naples, 
was  a  pupil  of  Sacchini  and  Piccini,  and  wrote  Tl 
finto  medico  (presented  in  1764)  as  his  first 
operatic  composition.  He  was  apointed  chapel- 
master  at  Venice  in  1775,  and  directed  the  opera 
at  London  from  1782  to  1787.     Subsequently  he 


was  choirmaster  in  the  church  of  St.  Joho 
Lateran,  Rome.  Of  his  numerous  operas,  which 
are  marked  rather  by  skillful  arrangement  than 
by  much  originality,  the  best  known  were 
L'Avaro,  II  curioso  indiscreto,  and  /  Viaggiatori 
felici.  His  sacred  compositions  are  considered 
less  important. 

AN0ABA,  9n'g&-r&^  A  river  in  Siberia,  the 
most  important  affluent  of  the  Yenisei  on  its 
right  (Map:  Siberia,  J  3).  Properly  speak- 
ing, there  are  two  rivers  by  that  name:  the  Up- 
per Angara,  rising  among  the  ridges  of  the  Olek- 
ma  and  Vitim  Mountains,  in  lat.  57  **  N.  and  long. 
114*  56'  E.,  and  emptying  into  the  northern  end 
of  Lake  Baikal ;  and  the  Lower  Angara,  an  outlet 
of  the  lake,  whence  it  issues  as  a  stream  of  clear, 
transparent  water,  flowing  by  the  city  of  Irkutsk 
toward  the  north,  then  to  the  wes^  for  a  dis- 
tance of  about  1300  miles.  The  river  is  about 
9000  feet  wide  at  its  broadest  part,  and  1600  feet 
at  its  narrowest.  It  is  of  sufficient  depth  for 
navigation,  but  has  numerous  rapids  in  the  mid- 
dle of  its  course.  Works  for  the  improvement  of 
navigation  have  been  started  by  the  combined 
efforts  of  the  Government  and  private  persons. 
It  is  proposed  to  clear  the  stream  of  its  sub- 
merged rocks  and  to  dig  a  canal  about  two  miles 
long  to  circumvent  the  Paduna,  the  most  dan- 
gerous rapids  on  the  stream,  and  a  continuous 
waterway  will  thus  be  formed  between  the  lake 
of  Baikal  and  the  Yanisei  River.  Into  the  An- 
gara fall  numerous  considerable  tributaries— the 
largest  of  which  are  Irkut,  Kitai,  Bielaya,  Oka, 
and  Tassen%  on  the  left,  and  Kunda,  Yanda, 
Him,  and  Tchadobetz  on  the  right.  It  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Cossack  traders  early  in  the  sev- 
enteenth century;  in  1645,  Kolenikoff  ascended  it 
as  far  as  the  lake  of  Baikal.    See  Uffeb  Tu5- 

CUZKA. 


An  antiquated  English  gold  coin, 


AN'OEL. 

varvintr  in  value  from  |l.60  to  $2.50.  It  was  n 
called  from  the  figure  upon  its  obverse  of  the 
Archangel  Michael  piercing  the  dragon.  Angels 
were  coined  from  Edward  IV.  to  Charles  I. 

AK0EL  (Gk.  d/yeAoc,  angelos^  messenger). 
The  English  word  denotes  a  superhuman  being 
intermediate  between  God  and  man.  But  the 
original  meaning  was  simply  that  of  a  ''messen- 
ger," either  human  or  superhuman.  It  is  doubt- 
ful whether  the  word  was  used  at  all  in  pre- 
exilic  times  as  a  designation  of  a  being  greater 
than  man.  In  Genesis  vi  :  2,  the  term  "sons  of 
God"  was  rendered  "angels"  by  the  Greek  ver- 
sion ;  in  earlier  days  they  were  no  doubt  regarded 
as  divine  beings.  The  "angel  of  Yahweh"  is 
thought  by  many  scholars  to  be  a  manifestation 
of  this  deity,  and  it  was  probably  so  understood 
in  antiquity;  but  the  "angel"  is  likely  to  have 
been  brought  into  the  text  as  a  substitute  for 
Yahweh  himself,  appearing  in  the  original  form 
of  the  narrative.  In  Jacob's  vision  the  "angels" 
seem  also  to  have  been  originally  "gods"  or  "sons 
of  gods."  As  long  as  Yahweh  manifested  himself 
in  human  shape,  he  had  no  need  of  a  messenger. 
There  were  beside  him  "gods  many  and  lords 
many"  with  their  habitat  in  the  sky  or  on  the 
earth,  in  trees  and  fountains  and  stones,  by  the 
hearth  and  in  the  tomb;  but  they  were  not  mes- 
sengers. Some  of  them  appear  to  have  been  asso- 
ciated with  Yahweh  as  his  council  or  retinue.  In 
the  story  of  the  Garden  of  Eden,  Yahweh  says: 
"Man  has  become  like  one  of  us."  Possibly  the 
title  "Yahweh  of  hosts"  refers  to  armies  of  such 


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ANGEL. 


553 


AK0EL    FISH. 


spirits.  But  they  were  simply  called  Elohim,  or 
*'sons  of  gods,"  not  "angels." 

It  was  the  growth  of  monotheism  that  forced 
reflection  upon  the  character  of  these  superhuman 
1>eings.  The  second  Isaiah  looked  upon  the  gods 
of  the  nations  as  mere  lifeless  statues.  This  view 
could  not  gain  permanent  ascendency.  It  was  too 
superficial.  Only  the  subordination  of  all  spirits 
to  Yahweh  was  essential.  The  gods  of  the  peoples 
ceased  to  be  independent  rulers  and  became  Yah- 
weh's  servants,  henceforth  to  do  his  bidding  in 
connection  with  the  natural  forces  and  elements 
with  which  they  had  been  previously  associated, 
or  as  guardians  of  the  nations  they  had  once 
governed.  In  Daniel  the  celestial  princes  of 
I*er8ia  and  Greece  are  mentioned.  The  sons  of 
the  gods  have  become  angels  in  the  prologue  to 
Job.  An  increasing  emphasis  on  the  divine  tran- 
scendence caused  a  reluctance  to  ascribe  to  him 
certain  activities.  He  no  longer  reveals  himself 
directly,  but  through  an  angel,  to  his  prophets; 
he  does  not  fight  his  people's  battles,  but  his  chief 
angel  stands  up  for  Israel ;  he  no  longer  tempts 
to  evil  or  inflicts  it  himself,  but  allows  an  angel, 
the  Satan,  to  do  this.  Angels  receive  individual 
names,  Michael,  Gabriel,  Raphael,  Uriel.  Under 
the  influence  of  Persian  thought  the  conception 
of  seven  archangels  is  introduced,  corresponding 
to  the  seven  amesha  apentas,  and  these  angels 
are  spoken  of  as  "watchers."  The  idea  of  a  fall 
of  angels  is  not  found  in  the  Hebrew  Bible,  but 
is  distinctly  taught  in  the  Book  of  Enoch. 

Jesus  in  his  discourses  mentions  angels,  and, 
indeed,  represents  each  human  being  as  having 
a  celestial  patron  (Matthew  xviii  :  10)  ;  pictures 
the  angels  as  rejoicing  over  the  repentance  of 
sinners  (Luke  xv  :  10),  and  states  that  those 
who  are  permitted  to  share  in  the  resurrection 
will  be  like  angels,  having  no  conjugal  relations 
(Matthew  xxii:  30).  The  Evangelists  expected 
his  return  upon  the  clouds  of  heaven  as  the  Mes- 
siah accompanied  by  his  holy  angels.  In  the 
Apocalypse  angels  figure  prominently.  They 
also  occur  frequently  in  Paul's  writings.  Angels 
are  said  to  be  created  (Colossians  i  :  16),  and 
should  not  be  worshiped  (Colossians  ii  :  18)  ; 
they  were  the  agencies  through  which  the  law 
was  given  (Galatians  iii  :  19)  ;  on  account  of 
their  sensibility  to  female  beauty  women  should 
wear  veils  (I.  Corinthians  xi  :  10)  ;  they  are 
powerful  beings,  "thrones"  and  "principalities," 
and  men  should  not  turn  away  from  Christ  to 
these  "elementary  spirits  of  the  world"  (Gala- 
tians iv  :  3). 

In  the  Christian  Church  the  belief  in  angels 
has  continued  until  the  present  time,  though 
g^radually  losing  its  intensity  through  the  acces- 
sion of  martyrs  and  saints  to  the  class  of  inter- 
mediaries between  God  and  man,  and  in  more 
recent  times  through  the  spread  of  rationalistic 
tendencies  of  thought.  An  excellent  summary 
of  our  present  knowledge  of  Jewish  angelology 
is  found  in  Dr.  K.  Kohler's  article  on  this  subject 
in  The  Jewish  Encyclopcedia ;  the  relations  to 
Babylonian  thought  are  well  treated  in  R. 
Sttibe's  Judisch'Bahylonische  Zauhertexte  (Hal- 
le, 1895),  and  the  relations  to  Mazdaism  in 
Nathan  SSderblom's  La  Vie  Future  dans  le  Maz- 
dC'isme  (Paris,  1901). 

The  creation  of  the  angels  was  placed,  by  the 
Platonizing  Church  Fathers,  before  that  of  the 
material  world;  others  assigned  to  it  some  one 
of  the  six  days.     Equally  various  were  the  opin- 


ions as  to  the  nature  of  the  angels.  The  second 
Synod  of  Nice  (787)  assigned  them  a  subtle,  ethe- 
real, or  fire-like  body;  the  scholastics,  on  the 
other  hand,  and  the  Lateran  Council  of  1215, 
maintained  their  immateriality;  while  others, 
owing  to  the  appearing  of  angels,  mentioned  in 
Scripture,  attributed  to  them  the  power  of  assum- 
ing momentarily  the  corporeal  form. 
.  Some  of  the  Fathers  also  spoke  of  good  and 
bad  guardian  angels,  the  former  of  whom  were 
always  ready  to  prompt  to  good  actions,  and  to 
avert  evil,  while  the  latter  were  equally  quick 
in  bringing  about  mischief,  wickedness,  and 
calamity.  From  the  belief  in  the  guardianship 
of  angels,  and  their  participation  in  the  govern- 
ment of  the  world,  arose  naturally  the  practice  of 
invoking  and  worshiping  them.  Many  Chris- 
tian teachers  condemned  it,  appealing  to  Colos- 
sians ii  :  18;  and  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (300) 
called  it  disguised  idolatry.  But  after  the  Coun- 
cil of  Nice  had  conceded  that,  though  angels  were 
not  to  receive  divine  worship,  they  might  receive 
reverential  obeisance,  the  practice  mentioned  be- 
came more  and  more  rooted,  and  continues  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  Churches  to  this  day. 

ANOELy  Benjamin  Franklin  ( 18 16-94 ) .  An 
American  diplomat,  born  at  Burlington,  N.  Y. 
He  studied  law  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar,  and 
served  as  surrogate  in  1838-41  and  1844-47.  He 
was  sent  as  United  States  consul  to  Honolulu  in 
1853.  The  same  year  he  was  special  commis- 
sioner to  China  for  the  settlement  of  difl'erenoes 
between  the  Chinese  Government  and  American 
merchants  with  regard  to  the  levying  of  export 
duties.  He  was  minister  to  Sweden  and  Norway 
in  1857-62. 

AK'OELA  MEBICI,  mA-r6Mi6,  Saint  (1470- 
1540).  Founder  of  the  Roman  Catholic  order  of 
Ursulines  (q.v.).  She  was  born  at  Desenzano. 
near  Brescia,  was  of  the  Franciscan  tertiaries 
when  she  founded  in  Brescia  the  order  in  1535, 
and  died  there,  January  27,  1540.  See  her  life 
by  Sintzel  (Regensburg,  1842),  and  by  J.  A.  At 
(Notre  Dame  d'Alet,  1885). 

AN^OEL  FISH  (Alluding  to  its  large,  wing- 
like fins),  or  Angel  Shark,  or  Monk  Fish.  An 
elasmobranch  {^quaiina  angclus)  very  closely 
related  to  the  shark,  with  a  broad  and  flat- 
tened body  and  with  the  much  enlarged  pectoral 
fins  expanded  laterally  like  wings.  It  attains  a 
size  of  three  to  four  feet,  and  is  harmless.  It 
is  found  in  tropical  seas,  is  common  in  the 
Mediterranean,  and  also  occurs  upon  both  the 
eastern  and  western  shores  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  North  America,  keeping  near  the  bottom  and 
being  nowhere  numerous.  It  is  also  known  to 
American  fisherman  as  "monk  fish." 

Another  angel  fish  in  the  United  States  is  one 
of  the  porgees  {Chcetodipterus  faher).     See  PoB- 

OEG. 

In  Bermuda  the  name  is  applied  to  chaptodonts 
of  the  genus  Holacanthus,  and  especially  to  the 
widely  distributed  emperor  fish  {Holacanthus 
ciliaris).  Goode  says  that  it  attains  a  weight 
of  four  pounds  and  "far  surpasses  all  the  other 
fishes  of  the  region  in  the  delicious  fiavor,  and 
in  its  lovely  hues."  A  second  species  is  the 
black  angel  fish  {Holacanthus  tricolor),  which, 
like  the  other,  is  common  throughout  West  Indi- 
an waters.  See  Coral  Fish,  and  plate  of  Coral 
Fishes. 


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AN0ELI. 


554 


ANGELL. 


ANOELI,  ftn'ge-ll,  Heinrich  vox  (1840—). 
A  painter  of  historical  pictures  and  portraits, 
bom  at  Odenburg,  Hungary.  He  studied  with 
Leutze  at  Dttsseldorf,  where  he  painted  the  famous 
picture,  "Mary  Stuart  at  the  Reading  of  the 
Death  Warrant"  (1857).  In  18G2  he  made  his 
home  in  Vienna,  where  he  soon  won  recognition 
as  a  painter  of  portraits,  particularly  those  of 
the  royalty.  Some  of  the  best  of  his  portraits 
are  those  of  the  Crown  Prince  Frederick  William 
(1874),  Field  Marshal  von  Moltke  (Museum  of 
Breslau,  1884),  "Queen  Victoria  Seated  on  the 
Throne"  (1885),  "Emperor  William  II.  in  the 
Uniform  of  a  General"   (1888). 

ANGEI/ICA  (Lat.  angelic,  i.e.,  plant  or  herb, 
in  allusion  to  its  medicinal  qualities).  A  genus 
of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Umbelli ferae,  by 
some  botanists  divided  into  two,  Angelica  and 
Archangel  ica.  The  species  are  mostly  herbaceous 
and  perennial,  natives  of  the  temperate  and 
colder  regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  They 
have  bipinnate  or  tripinnate  leaves.  Wild  angel- 
ica {Angelica  sylvestria)  is  a  common  plant  in 
moist  meadows,  by  the  sides  of  brooks,  and  in 
woods  throughout  many  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia.  The  root  is  perennial,  short,  ringed,  and 
branched;  it  is  white  within,  and  contains  a 
yellow,  milky  juice.  The  stem  is  hollow,  ly,  to 
6  feet  high,  often  flecked  with  red;  the  umbel  is 
convex.  Garden  angelica  (Archangelica  offlci- 
nalis)  is  a  biennial  plant,  becoming  perennial 
when  not  allowed  to  ripen  its  seeds.  It  has 
greenish  flowers  in  almost  spherical  umbels.  The 
stem  is  as  high  as  a  man.  The  fruit  is  Ions 
and  straw-colored.  The  root  is  long  and  fusi- 
form, an  inch  or  more  in  thickness,  with  thick, 
irregular  rugose  rootlets.  The  whole  plant,  and 
especially  the  root,  is  aromatic  and  bitter,  con- 
taining much  resin  and  essential  oil.  The  root 
has  been  admitted  into  the  pharmacopoeias  as  an 
aromatic  stimulant  and  tonic,  and  used  in  nerv- 
ous ailments,  and  in  indigestion  and  flatulence. 
It  is  very  little  used.  The  root  of  Angelica  syl- 
vestris  is  sometimes  substituted  for  it,  but  is 
much  weaker.  The  Garden  angelica  was  at  one 
time  much  cultivated  for  the  blanched  stalks, 
which  were  used  as  celery  now  is ;  but  its  cultiva- 
tion for  this  purpose  has  been  almost  entirely 
•discontinued.  The  tender  stalks  and  midribs  of 
the  leaves,  candied,  are  still,  however,  a  well- 
known  article  of  confectionery  and  an  agreeable 
stomachic;  the  roots  and  seeds  are  employed  in 
the  preparation  of  gin  and  of  "bitters."  The 
plant  is  a  very  doubtful  native  of  Great  Britain, 
but  is  common  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and 
even  in  Lapland  and  Iceland.  The  Laplanders 
not  only  use  it  as  food,  but  regard  the  stalks 
roasted  in  hot  ashes  as  an  efficacious  remedy  in 
pectoral  disorders.  The  powdered  seeds  of  the 
wild  angelica  are  used  by  the  'country  people 
in  some  parts  of  Europe  to  kill  lice.  Several 
species  of  Angelica  are  natives  of  North  Amer- 
ica, Angelica  hirsuta  and  Angelica  atropurpu- 
rea  being  the  best  known  in  the  eastern  United 
States.  They  are  perhaps  without  any  impor- 
tant economic  value. 

ANGELICA.  (1.)  In  Boiardo's  Orlando  Jn- 
namorafo  and  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso,  a  beau- 
tiful and  faithless  Oriental  princess,  the  mischief- 
maker  who  beguiles  Orlando.  She  is  noted  for 
her  magic  ring,  which  had  the  power  of  making 
its  wearer  invisible.  (2.)  In  Congreve's  Love  for 
Lore,  an  attractive  heiress.    (3.)   A  character  in 


Farquhar's  The  Constant  Couple  and  Sir  Harry 
Wildair.  * 

ANGELICA  TBEE.     See  Aralia. 

ANGEI/IC  DOCTOB,  The  (Lat.  Doctor  An- 
gelicus).  Thomas  Aquinas,  so  called  by  his 
admirers.  He  was  also  known  as  *'The  Angel  of 
the  Schools." 

ANGELIC  HYUN.  Another  name  for  the 
Gloria  in  Excelsia,     See  Gloria. 

ANGEI/ICO,  Fra.  The  name  by  which  Fra 
Giovanni  da  Fiesole  ( 1387-1455) ,  a  gifted  Italian 
painter,  is  best  known.  He  was  born  at  V^cchio. 
His  talents  were  early  recognized,  and  he  might 
have  lived  in  the  world  to  paint  for  fame  and 
fortune,  but  in  his  twenty-first  year  he  entered 
a  convent,  and  henceforth  devoted  his  life 
and  his  art  solely  to  the  glory  of  God.  So 
devout  was  his  spirit  that  he  never  touched  briwh 
to  canvas  without  first  praying  to  be  blessed  in 
his  work,  nor  would  he  paint  for  money  or  at 
the  command  of  any  one  but  his  prior.  Before 
entering  the  convent  he  had  illuminated  missals 
and  choral  books,  but  now  he  portrayed  Madon- 
nas, the  infant  Christ,  and  the  saints  of  all  time. 
His  whole  time  was  given  to  the  contemplation  of 
the  beautiful  and  the  good,  so  that  when  he  at- 
tempted to  portray  Christ's  enemies,  hatred  and 
vindictiveness  li^  beyond  his  powers  of  expres- 
sion, and  the  effect  was  feeble  and  weak.  He 
knew  nothing  of  the  sinfulness  of  life,  nor  of  its 
suffering,  but  purity,  goodness,  saintliness,  and 
beatific  joy  speak  from  his  pictures  and  his  won- 
derful frescoes.  All  his  life  was  passed  in  the 
convent.  He  seldom  left  the  cloister ;  but  he  did 
so  once  at  the  command  of  Pope  Nicholas  V.  that 
he  should  decorate  the  chapel  at  the  Vatican.  The 
beautiful  frescoes  he  there  executed  were  hidden 
from  the  world  for  two  centuries,  during  which 
the  key  of  the  chapel  was  lost.  Few  persons 
were  aware,  until  1769,  that  these  beautiful 
paintings  of  Fra  Angelico  existed.  His  "Corona- 
tion of  the  Virgin,"  painted  originally  for  the 
church  of  St.  Dominico  at  Fiesole,  was  purchased 
in  1812  by  the  French  Government,  and  is  now 
one  of  the  treasures  of  the  Louvre.  Many  of 
his  works  are  in  the  Uffizi.  An  "Enthroned  Ma- 
donna" is  in  the  StJldel  Institute,  Frankfort. 
Fra  Angelico  died  at  Rome  in  1455.  There  is  a 
legend  that  he  was  found  dead  before  one. of  his 
completed  pictures.  Consult:  J.  A.  Symonds, 
Renaissance  in  Italy  (New  York,  1885)  ;  Julia 
Cartwright,  The  Painters  of  Florence  (New  York, 
1901)  ;  A.  Jameson,  Memoirs  of  Italian  Painters 
(Boston,  1887). 

ANGELIC  SALUTATION.  See  Ave  Ma- 
ria. 

AN'GELI^A.  (1.)  In  The  Rival  Ladies,  by 
Dryden,  a  sister  of  Don  Rhodorigo;  she  assumes 
a  man's  attire  and  the  name  Amideo.  (2.)  In 
Goldsmith's  ballad  of  Edtvin  and  Angelina  in 
The  Vicar  of  Wakefield,  the  heroine.  ( 3. )  A  pseu- 
donym used  by  Harriet  Martineau. 

ANGfcilQTJE,  AN'zhA'l^k'.  (1.)  In  Moli^re'* 
Le  Malade  imaginaire  (q.v.),  the  daughter  of 
the  "invalid"  Ar^an.  She  objects  to  her  father's 
choice  for  her,  his  physician's  son,  M.  Diafoirus. 
and  ultimately  is  married  to  the  man  of  her 
preference.  (2.)  In  Moli^re's  Georges  Dandin 
(q.v.),  the  aristocratic  wife  of  the  rich  peasant 
who  is  the  principal  character. 

ANGELLy  ftn^jel,  Ge»roe  Thobndike  (1820—). 
An  American  philanthropist.     He  was  born  at 


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FRA  ANGELICO 

MADONNA    OF   THE    STAR 
IN    THE    CONVENT    OF    SAN    MARCO,  FLORENCE 


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ANQELY. 


SouthbridgG,  Mass.,  and  was  educated  at  Brown 
University  and  at  Dartmouth  College.  In 
1868,  with  several  other  influential  persons,  he 
founded  the  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Pre- 
vention of  Cruelty  to  Animals,  of  which  associa- 
tion he  was  later  elected  president.  In  the  same 
year  he  established  the  publication  entitled  Our 
Dumb  Animals,  the  first  periodical  of  its  kind. 
During  a  visit  to  England  in  1869  he  urged  the 
Royal  Society  to  publish  the  Animal  World,  and 
induced  the  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts  to  organize 
the  Ladies'  Humane  Educational  Committee  of 
England;  and  he  has  been  instrumental  in  the 
formation  of  many  similar  societies  throughout 
the  United  States.  In  1889  he  was  empowered 
by  the  Massachusetts  Legislature  to  incorporate 
the  American  Humane  Education  Society.  Mr. 
Angell  has  also  been  instrumental  in  establishing 
several  public  health  associations,  and  in  promot- 
ing the  movement  directed  against  the -sale  of 
poisonous  and  adulterated  foods.  Many,  of  his 
publications  have  been  translated  into  foreign 
languages.  One  of  his  more  recent  productions 
is  the  entertaining  volume  entitled  Autobiograph- 
ical Sketches  and  Personal  Recollections  (Boston, 
1891). 

ANGELL,  James  Burrill,  LL.D.  (1829—). 
An  American  educator  and  diplomat.  He  was 
born  in  Scituate,  R.  I.,  graduated  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity in  1849,  and  after  travel  in  the  South 
and  in  Europe  became,  in  1863,  professor  of  mod- 
em languages  and  literature  in  Brown  Univer- 
sity. He  was  the  editor  of  the  Providence  Daily 
Journal  from  1860  to  1866,  when  he  was  appoint- 
ed to  the  presidency  of  the  University  of  Ver- 
mont. In  1871  he  became  president  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Michigan,  which  under  his  continued 
administration  has  come  to  be  one  of  the  fore- 
most universities  in  the  country.  He  was  United 
States  minister  to  China  from  1880  to  1881,  at 
the  same  time  acting  as  one  of  three  commission- 
ers to  negotiate  a  new  treaty  with  that  govern- 
ment. Dr.  Angell  was  a  member  of  the  Anglo- 
American  International  Commission  on  Canadian 
Fisheries  in  1887,  and  in  1896  he  was  chairman 
of  the  Canadian- American  Commission  on  a  Deep 
W'aterw'ay  from  the  great  lakes  to  the  sea.  He 
was  appointed  minister  to  Turkey  in  1897,  but 
resigned  in  May,  1898.  In  1887  he  became  a 
regent  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution.  Besides 
numerous  addresses  and  frequent  contributions 
to  magazines,  President  Angell  has  published 
text-bwks,  such  as  Progress  in  International 
Law  (1875),  and  he  wrote  the  article  on  "The  Di- 
plomacy of  the  United  States"  for  the  Narrative 
and  Critical  History  of  America  (1888). 

ANGELL,  Joseph  Kinnicut  (1794-1857).  An 
American  lawyer.  He  was  born  in  Providence, 
R.  I.,  and  graduated  at  Brown  University  in 
1813.  He  published  a  Treatise  on  the  Common 
Law  in  Relation  to  Water  Courses,  with  an  ap- 
pendix (fifth  edition,  Boston,  1850;  A  Practical 
Summary  of  the  Law  of  Assignments  (Boston, 
1835),  and  other  valuable  treatises  on  legal  sub- 
jects, and  edited  the  United  States  Law  Intelli- 
gencer and  Review  ( 1829-31 ) . 

A3TGEL0,  Michael.    See  Michelangelo. 

AN^GELO.  (1.)  In  Shakespeare's  Measure  for 
Measure,  the  duke's  hypocritical  deputy.  The 
duke  frustrates  his  evil  designs,  compelling  him 
to  give  up  Isabella  and  marry  Mariana,  whom 
he  has  deserted.  (2.)  A  character  in  Shake- 
speare's Comedy  of  Errors. 


ANQELOy  Ttean  de  Padoue.  A  drama  in 
prose  by  Victor  Hugo,  produced  by  the  Com^die 
Frangaise,  April  28,  1835.  It  was  produced  later 
in  London  (translated  by  G.  H.  Davidson)  as 
Angela  and  the  Actress  of  Padua.  The  period 
of  the  action  is  the  sixteenth  century. 

ANGEL  OF  THE  CHTJBCH.  The  term  ap- 
plied in  Revelations  to  each  of  the  recipients 
of  the  Saviour's  messages  to  the  Seven  Churches 
of  Asia.  It  is  perhaps  best  to  understand  it  as 
meaning  the  presiding  officer  of  the  Church,  who 
would  naturally  be  the  one  to  whom  a  message 
would  be  sent. 

AN'GEL  OF  THE  SEVEN  CHTJBCH'ES. 
See  Chubches,  Seven. 

AN^GELTJS,  The.  A  well-known  painting  by 
J.  F.  Millet  (1859).  It  represents  two  French 
peasants  stopped  in  their  field  work  for  a  moment 
of  prayer  at  dusk  by  the  Angelus  bell,  which 
the  artist  has  suggested  by  the  church  spire  in 
the  distance.  It  was  sold  by  the  artist  for  a 
small  sum,  but  in  1889  was  bought  by  the  Amer- 
ican Art  Association  for  more  than  580,000 
francs,  and  exhibited  in  this  country.  The  next 
year  M.  Chauchard  bought  it  for  $150,000;  it  is 
understood  that  it  will  ultimately  find  a  place  in 
the  Louvre. 

ANGELTJS  BELL,  The.  A  bell  rung  in  all 
Catholic  countries  morning,  noon,  and  night  to 
invite  the  faithful  to  the  recitation  of  the  angelic 
salutation.  Formerly  the  hour  for  the  ringing 
of  the  Angelus  was  at  sunrise,  noon,  and  sunset, 
but  it  is  now  more  generally  heard  at  the  ap- 
pointed hours  of  noon,  and  six  o'clock  both  morn- 
ing and  evening.  The  bell  receives  its  name 
from  the  title  given  the  prayer  recited  at  this 
time,  Angelus  Domini,  also  called  Ave  Maria 
(q.v.). 

ANGELTJS  DOMINI  (Lat.  The  Angel  of  the 
Lord).  The  name  of  a  brief  prayer  repeated  by 
Boman  Catholics  at  the  sound  of  the  Angelus 
bell,  at  sunrise,  noon,  and  sunset. 

ANGELTJS  SILE^SITJS,  Johann  Schef- 
FLER  (1624-77).  A  German  poet.  He  was  born 
in  Bresiau,  studied  medicine  at  Strassburg  and 
Padua,  and  in  1653  entered  the  Catholic  Church. 
In  1661  he  joined  the  Minorites  and  was  or- 
dained priest.  His  earlier  writings  include  a 
number  of  pronouncedly  mystical  poems,  such 
as  the  Cheruhinischer  Wandersmann  (1657),  a 
profound  and  pantheistic  description  of  the  way 
to  God.  Subsequently  he  became  a  fanatical 
controversialist.  He  wrote  some  stirring  hymns, 
of  which  many  found  their  way  into  Protestant 
hymnals.  There  is  an  edition  of  his  works,  by 
Rosenthal,  in  two  volumes  ( 1862) .  Consult  also : 
Schrader,  Angelus  Silesius  und  seine  Mystik 
(1853)  jKahlert,  Angelus  Silesius:  Fine  litterar- 
histoHsche  Untersuchung  (1853)  ;  and  the  biog- 
raphy by  C.  Seltmann  (Bresiau,  1896). 

ANGEL Y,  aN'zh'lft',  Louis  (e.  1788-1835).  A 
German  actor  and  dramatist.  He  was  born  in 
Berlin,  and  began  his  career  as  an  actor  early  in 
life.  He  was  at  first  a  comedian  at  the  Grerman 
theatre  at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1828  went  to 
Berlin,  where  for  two  years  he  was  an  actor,  and 
afterward  skillfully  adapted  French  plays  to 
German  conditions.  Among  his  best  productions 
are  Paris  in  Pommem,  Die  Hasen  in  der  Hasen- 
heidc,  Wohnungen  zu  vermieten,  Sieben  Mddchen 
in  Uniform  ( very  successful ) ,  Von  Sieben  die 
Hasslichste,  and  Das  Fest  der  Handtcerker.    His 


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plays  have  been  collected  and  published  under 
the  titles  of  Vaudevilles  und  Luatapiele  (4  yol- 
umes,  Berlin,  1828-42),  and  Neuestea  Komischea 
Theatre^  3  volumes   (Hamburg,  1836-41). 

AN^GEB  (Icel.  angr,  grief,  straits;  O.  H.  G. 
anguat ;  Ger.  Angst ,  anxiety;  Lat.  angor,  a  chok- 
ing, strangling,  anguish,  from  the  root  ang,  seen 
in  Lat.  angtistus,  narrow,  close;  Gk.  avxi,  anchi, 
near;  Ger.  eng,  narrow,  close;  A.  S.  ange,  onge,. 
narrow,  strait,  troubled).  An  emotion  (q.v.), 
characterized  by  a  peculiar,  aggressive  attitude 
toward  its  object  (usually  a  person)  and  by  the 
large  number  of  expressive  bodily  movements 
which  accompany  it.  Bain  finds  the  essential 
element  in  anger  to  be  "an  impulse  knowingly  to 
inflict  suffering  upon  another  sentient  being,  and 
to  derive  a  positive  gratification  therefrom." 
This  impulse  is  usually  connected,  at  least  in  the 
experience  of  the  human  adult,  with  a  vivid  con- 
sciousness of  self  and  the  sense  of  injury  to 
person  or  property.  There  are  several  varieties 
of  anger,  differing  in  the  motives  which  introduce 
them,  the  pleasantness  or  unpleasantness  of  the 
motive  consciousness,  and  the  avenues  of  activity 
through  which  the  emotion  works  itself  out. 
Language  bears  witness  to  the  great  number  of 
shades  of  anger  in  the  words  rage,  ire,  fury, 
ivrath,  temper,  gall,  frenzy,  and  in  a  host  of 
descriptive  adjectives,  such  as  hitter,  defiant, 
frantic,  demoniacal,  hot,  indignant,  violent, 
vicious,  furious,  malignant,  raving,  resentful, 
mad,  volcanic. 

The  anger  known  as  "righteous  indignation" 
is  aroused  by  strong  ethical  motives.  The  angry 
individual  is  persuaded  that  a  wrong  has  been 
done  himself,  or  some  object,  or  another  person. 
This  is  a  resentful  anger,  and  includes  a  moral 
judgment  of  condemnation.  The  emotion  is 
pleasant  (except  where  it  is  introduced  by  too 
great  a  shock,  or  where  the  consciousness  of 
moral  obliquity  counteracts  the  pleasantness) 
and  develops  by  an  expansion — ^both  mental  and 
physical— of  the  individual.  As  the  agent  of  jus- 
tice, the  angered  person  acquires  an  amount  of 
self-esteem,  which  is  reflected  in  a  tendency  to 
muscular  activity,  deepened  respiration,  and  ag- 
gressive postures.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
anger  is  complicated  by  the  emotions^  of  fear, 
hatred,  envy,  or  jealousy,  or  when  it  is  baffled, 
it  acquires  a  different  character.  It  then  be- 
comes unpleasantly  toned,  is  accompanied  by 
choking  and  stuffiness,  trembling  and  weakness, 
and  a  loss  of  muscular  force.  But  even  in  anger 
which  is  intrinsically  unpleasant,  a  successful 
termination  of  the  attempt  to  injure  the  object 
of  the  emotion  brings  a  moment  of  satisfaction 
and  pleasure,  as  in  the  humiliation  of  a  rival. 

The  most  common  bodily  accompaniments  of 
anger  are  vaso-motor  disturbances  (most  easily 
seen  in  flushing  and  pallor),  glandular  secretion 
(such  as  tears  and  saliva),  modiflcations  of  res- 
piration, and  involuntary  movements.  Other  more 
or  less  specific  bodily  signs  are  screaming,  cry- 
ing, threatening  articulations,  trembling,  stamp- 
ing, facial  contortions,  scratching,  striking.  The 
coarser  bodily  expressions  of  anger  are  more 
moderate  in  the  adult  and  the  cultured  than  in 
the  child  and  primitive  man.  The  efforts  of 
society  to  secure  justice  and  well-being  for  the 
individual  destroy  many  of  the  sanctions  for 
anger  and  also  control  its  manifestations. 
Doubtless  the  value  of  anger  in  the  history  of 
the  race  has  been  great.  It  has  prevented  the 
encroachments  upon  the  individual  which  tend 


toward    extermination.    Consult    A.    Bain,   7^ 
Emotions  and  the  Will  (London,  1880). 

ANG'EBBO^A.  In  Norse  mythology,  a 
giantess,  mother  of  Fenrir    (q.v.). 

ANGEBMAN-ELF,  ftng'^r-mAn-Slf^  A  river 
in  Sweden,  rising  on  its  western  boundary. 
(Map:  Sweden,  Go).  After  passing  numerous 
lakes,  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  by  a  large 
estuary,  above  Hernosand.  It  is  about  175  miles 
long,  navigable  for  65  miles,  and  celebrated  for 
the  beautiful  scenery  of  its  banks. 

AnGEBICANIiAND  ( Swedish  Angerman- 
land,  pronounced  Ongermanland ) .  A  former  di- 
vision of  Sweden,  now  chiefly  comprised  in  the 
ISn  of  Vesternorrland.  It  extends  along  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia  and  is  watered  by  the  River  Anger- 
mann  ( q.v. )  The  district  exhibits  great  variety 
of  wild  and  beautiful  landscape — ^wood,  mount, 
stream,  and  lake.  It  is  under  a  high  state  of 
cultivation,  producing  barley,  rye,  and  pease, 
and  abounding  in  excellent  pasturage.  The  in- 
habitants are  favorably  known  for  their  sobriety, 
industrious  habits,  and  general  prosperity.  The 
chief  town,  Hernosand,  with  a  population  of 
5800,  stands  on  the  small  island  of  Hemo,  and 
has  weekly  steam  communication  with  Stock- 
holm. It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  has  a  literary 
and  p)*inting  establishment  with  Lappish  type. 

fmblic   baths,   and   graving   docks.      It  export<( 
inen  fabrics,  and  the  Baltic  products  generaUy. 

AkGEBMANN.  a  river  of  Angermanland 
(q.v.),  Sweden,  rising  in  the  mountain  range 
that  separates  Norway  and  Sweden,  in  lat.  65° 
N.  and  long.  15**  £.  After  a  southwesterly 
course  of  250  miles,  the  lower  fifty  of  which  are 
navigable  by  the  largest  ships,  it  broadens  into  a 
lake  shortly  before  dischargi'ng  itself  into  the 
Gulf  of  Bothnia  near  Hernosand. 

ANQEBMttNPE.  A  garrison  town  and  rail- 
way junction,  capital  of  a  circle  of  the  same 
name  in  the  province  of  Brandenburg,  Prussia, 
45  miles  northeast  of  Berlin  by  rail.  It  has 
manufactures  of  woolen  and  linen  goods.  Its 
principal  public  building  is  St.  Mary's  Church, 
a  lofty  Gothic  structure  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury.    Pop.,  1895,  7334;  1900,  7466. 

ANGEBS,  RN'zh&'  (The  ancient  Andes,  capital 
of  a  Gallic  tribe,  known  under  the  Lat.  form 
Andecavi).  Formerly  the  capital  of  the  Duchy 
of  Anjou,  and  now  of  the  French  department  of 
Maine-et-Loire,  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
navigable  river  Mayenne,  not  far  from  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Sarthe  with  it,  and  about  five  miles 
from  its  confiuencc  with  the  Loire  ( Map :  France, 
F  4).  Old  Angers,  "The  Black  City,"  is  fast 
disappearing,  and  a  new,  bright  town  taking  its 
place.  The  ancient  walls  are  changed  into  shady 
boulevards;  new-fashioned  buildings  and  bridges 
are  appearing.  The  cathedral  of  St.  Maurice  is 
one  of  the  oldest  surviving  structures,  and  is  a 
fine  specimen  of  thirteenth  century  Gothic.  The 
castle  of  Philip  Augustus  still  stands,  with  its 
round  towers.  Angers  is  the  see  of  a  bishop. 
It  has  also  a  Catholic  school,  with  faculties  of 
law,  mathematics,  science,  and  philosophy,  a 
school  of  art,  and  theological  seminary,  an  insti- 
tution for  the  deaf  and  dumb,  a  botanical  ^rden, 
a  large  picture  gallery,  and  a  public  library. 
The  ruins  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Angers,  built 
by  St.  Louis  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  are  situated  on  a  projecting  rock  above 
the  river.  Sail-making,  cotton-spinning,  stocking- 


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ANGIOSPEBMS. 


weaving,  etc.,  are  carried  on  to  a  considerable  ex- 
tent, and  a  trade  in  corn,  wine,  brandy,  flax, 
hemp,  honey,  etc.  There  are  slate  quarries  in 
the  neighborhood.  Angers  is  the  birthplace  of 
Ren^  of  Anjou,  the  learned  Manage,  the  publicist 
J.  Bodin,  and  the  sculptor  David,  whose  statue 
was  unveiled  in  the  Place  de  Lorraine,  October 
24,  1880.  Pop.  in  1901,  82,398.  Consult  A.  De- 
bidour.  La  Fronde  angevine;  la  vie  municipale 
au  lie  siScle  (Paris,  1877). 

AN'QEVIN  LINE,  or  DYNASTY.  The 
English  kings  from  Henry  II.  to  John,  since  their 
family,  the  Plantagenets,  came  from  Anjou  in 
France. 

ANGHIEBA,  &n-gy21'r&  or  ANGHEBA, 
fin-gu'r&.    PiETBO  Mabtire.    See  Peteb  Martyr. 

AN'GILBEBT,  Saijxt  (c.  740-814).  A  friend 
and  privy  councillor  of  Charlemagne,  and  the 
most  distinguished  poet  of  his  age.  He  filled 
the  highest  offices,  and  in  790  became  Abbot  of 
Centula  (the  present  St.  Riquier).  In  800  he 
assisted  in  Rome  at  the  coronation  of  the  Empe- 
ror, who  called  him  the  "Homer  of  the  age."  By 
Bertha,  the  daughter  of  Charlemagne,  he  was 
father  of  two  sons,  Hamid,  and  Nithard,  the 
historian. 

ANGI'NA  PEC^OBIS  (Lat.  tightening  of 
the  chest  or  heart),  or  Heart-stboke.  It  is 
characterized  bv  intense  pain  and  sense  of  con- 
striction, which  occur  in  paroxysms  begin- 
ning over  the  region  of  the  heart,  or  deep  in  the 
chest,  and  extending  toward  the  left  shoulder. 
The  attacks  are  apt  to  appear  in  succession,  and 
ultimately  they  kill  the  patient.  As  to  the  true 
pathological  basis  of  angina  pectoris  we  are  still 
uncertain.  Changes  in  the  heart,  aorta,  and 
arteries,  varying  from  extensive  valvular  disease 
to  a  mild  arterio-sderosis,  have  been  described. 
These  changes  are,  however,  not  constant,  and  are 
also  found  in  cases  which  die  with  no  symptoms 
of  angina.  There  is  usually  disease  of  the  coro- 
nary or  heart  arteries,  of  the  nature  of  an  arte- 
rio-sclerosis  or  thickening  of  the  walls.  This 
may  be  especially  marked  at  the  origin  of  the 
vessels,  and  leads  to  a  diminution  in  lumen. 
Various  theories  have  been  advanced  as  to  the 
true  nature  of  angina.  It  has  been  considered 
as  a  neuralgia  of  the  cardiac  nerves,  as  a  cramp 
of  the  heart  muscle,  as  due  to  extreme  dilatation 
of  the  heart — the  tense  muscle  pressing  the  nerve 
endings — and  as  a  temporary  ansemia  of  the 
heart  muscle  due  to  disease  or  spasm  of  the  ves- 
sels supplying  it  with  blood.  It  must  be  admit- 
ted, however,  that  such  suggestions  are  purely 
theoretical,  and  that  a  definite  pathological  basis 
of  angina  is  as  yet  undetermined.  Angina  pec- 
toris is  a  disease  of  adult  life,  occurring  most 
frequently  between  the  ages  of  forty  and  fifty. 
The  paroxysms  may  be  induced  by  any  excess  in 
diet,  by  exervion,  as  walking  uphill  or  against  a 
strong  wind,  or  by  mental  emotions.  It  is  there- 
fore advisable  for  those  who  have  had  an  attack 
of  angina  to  lead  a  quiet,  regular  life;  avoid  ex- 
cesses of  all  kind  and  particularly  refrain  from 
mental  excitement.  During  an  attack  the  physi- 
cian usually  administers  morphine,  nitrite  of 
amyl,  nitro-glycerine,  or  chloroform.  . 

ANGIOLIEBI,  an'jft-lyft'r^,  Cecco  (c.  1260- 
c.  1312) .  An  Italian  humorous  poet  of  Dante's 
time,  born  at  Siena,  not  earlier  than  1250.  He 
sang  of  his  quarrels  with  his  father,  his  misad- 
rentures  in  love,  and  the  poverty  under  which  he 


suffered.  His  verse  is  original  in  form.  No  fewer 
than  three  sonnets  are  devoted  to  Dante,  who,  it 
is  inferred,  charged  him  with  being  a  parasite, 
for  in  the  last  of  these  sonnets,  Cecco  hurls  the 
epithet  back  at  him  with  a  vigor  which  must 
have  severed  their  relations  once  for  all.  Cecco 
himself  figures  in  one  of  the  tales  of  the  Decam- 
eron (IX.  4).  He  is  supposed  to  have  died 
about  1312.  Consult  Gaspary,  Italian  Litera- 
ture, Oelsner's  translation   (London,  1901). 

AN'GIO'HA.     See  Tumob. 

ANGIOSPEBMS,  &n'jI-6-sp9rm2,  (Gk.  ay- 
yeiov,  angeion,  vessel  -f-  airepfia,  aperma,  seed). 
A  name  applied  to  the  greatest  group  of  seed- 
plants,  Spermatophytes,  as  distinguished  from 
the  other  group,  Gymnosperms,  in  which  the 
"seeds  are  naked."  The  two  great  divisions 
of  Angiosperms  are  the  Monocotyledons  and  Di- 
cotyledons, once  called  the  "Endogens"  and  "Ex- 
ogens"  respectively.  The  Monocotyledons  are 
characterized  by  the  single  terminal  seed  leaf 
(cotyledon)  of  the  embryo,  the  scattered  woody 
bundles  of  the  stem,  the  closed  venation  (often 
called  "parallel  veined"),  and  the  three-parted 
fiowers.  To  the  group  belong  such  forms  as  the 
common  pondweeds,  grasses,  palms,  aroids, 
lilies,  and  orchids.  The  Dicotyledons  are  char- 
acterized by  the  lateral  cotyledons,  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  woody  bundles  of  the  stem  into  a  hol- 
low cylinder,  the  open  venation  (often  called 
"net- veined" ) ,  and  the  five  or  four-parted  flow- 
ers. To  this  group  belong  such  forms  as  the 
common  trees  (poplars,  oaks,  elms,  etc.),  but- 
tercups, roses,  peas,  umbellifers,  heaths,  mints, 
composites,  etc.  The  Angiosperms  are  estimated 
to  comprise  over  100,000  species,  and  they  form 
the  most  conspicuous  part  of  the  vegetation  of 
the  earth.  Since  the  Gymnosperms  comprise 
only  about  400  living  species,  it  is  evident  that 
the  Angiosperms  are  the  chief  modern  represent- 
atives of  seed-plants.  It  is  among  Angiosperms 
also  that  the  true  fiowers  are  developed,  with 
elaborate  relations  with  insects  for  securing  pol- 
lination. The  group  is  often  called  "true  fiower- 
ing  plants,"  because  it  is  characterized  by  the 
ordinary  conspicuous  fiower. 

The  members  of  the  group  are  of  every  possible 
variety  of  habit,  from  minute  fioating  forms  to 
gigantic  trees.  The  roots,  stems,  and  leaves  are 
more  elaborately  and  variously  organized  for 
work  than  those  of  any  other  plant  groups,  and 
the  whole  structure  of  the  body  is  the  most  com- 
plex found  in  the  plant  kingdom. 

It  is  among  the  Angiosperms  that  "stamens" 
and  "carpels"  become  definite  and  distinctly  de- 
veloped. The  stamen  of  the  Angiosperm  corre- 
sponds to  a  spore-bearing  leaf  of  the  fern-plants, 
but  shows  no  resemblance  to  an  ordinary  leaf  in 
form.  The  region  devoted  to  producing  the 
spores  is  called  the  "anther."  In  observing  the 
development  of  an  anther  it  is  found  that  four 
sporangia  usually  appear,  and  that  as  these  ap- 
proach maturity  they  fuse  in  pairs,  resulting  in 
the  appearance  of  two  pollen-sacs,  each  of  which 
has  been  derived  from  two  sporangia.  Occasion- 
ally in  Angiosperms  the  four  original  sporangia 
of  the  stamen  remain  distinct. 

The  carpels  of  Angiosperms  give  name  to  the 
group,  for  these  structures  inclose  the  ovules 
that  become  seeds,  the  name  angiosperms  mean- 
ing, as  has  been  said,  "seeds  in  a  case."  In  this 
regard  they  differ  decidedly  from  any  carpels 
which  exist  among  Uie  Gymnosperms,  in  which 


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ANGIOSPEKMS. 


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ANQLK 


group  they  are  flat  and  open,  exposing  the  ovules, 
and  giving  rise  to  the  name,  which  means  "seeds 
naked." 

In  order  to  understand  the  following  state- 
ment of  the  technical  characters  of  Angiosperms, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  read  the  articles  Alterna- 
tion OF  Generations,  and  Heterospory. 

In  its  germination  the  pollen  grain    {micro- 


A  matare  embryo-Bac  («),  showlne  the  three  antipodal 
cells  (a),  the  two  polar  nuclei  fusing  to  form  the  endosperm 
nucleus  (p),  the  two  svnergids  («),  the  egg  (o),  and  the  pollen- 
tube  entering  to  discharge  its  sperm  ^Is.  The  two  integu- 
ments (i)  of  the  ovule  are  also  shown. 

spore)  produces  within  itself  usually  three  cells, 
which  represent  a  very  much  reduced  male 
plant.  One  of  these  cells  later  develops  the 
pollen  tube,  which  penetrates  to  the  egg,  while 


An  embryo  sac  («),  showinff  the  young  embryo  (w)^  en- 
dosperm cells  (z),  and  the  three  disorganizing  antipodal 
cells  (a). 

the  other  two  cells  are  the  sperms.  The  embryo 
sac  within  the  ovule,  which  represents  a  single 
unshed  spore,  produces  within  itself  a  group  of 
cells,  usually  seven  in  number,  which  represent 
a  reduced  female  plant.  In  the  end  of  the  sac 
toward  the  micropyle  (the  opening  left  by  in- 
tegument), the  single  egg  is  situated,  and  asso- 


ciated with  it  are  two  other  cells  called  «ynef- 
gids  (helpers).  This  group  of  three  cells  is 
called  the  egg  apparatus.  At  the  opposite  end  of 
the  sac  is  a  group  of  sterile  cells,  usually  three 
in  number,  and  called  the  antipodal  cells.  More 
centrally  placed  in  the  sac  is  the  seventh  cell, 
that  has  been  formed  by  the  fusing  of  two  cells, 
and,  after  the  fertilization  of  the  egg,  is  to  de- 
velop the  endosperm  (nutritive  tissue  of  the 
seed) .  This  cell  is  called  the  "definitive  nucleus" 
or  "primary  endosperm  nucleus."  Before  fer- 
tilization, the  pollen  grain  containing  the  male 
plant  is  transferred  by  the  wind  or  by  insects  to 
the  stigma  (receptive  region  of  the  pistil),  the 
process  of  transfer  being  called  pollination 
(q.v.).  After  pollination  the  pollen  tube  is  de- 
veloped, which  penetrates  the  pistil  and  finally 
reaches  the  ovule,  carrying  in  its  tip  the  two 
male  cells  or  sperms.  The  tip  of  the  tube  then 
enters  the  micropyle,  crowds  its  way  to  the  egg, 
and  discharges  its  contents.  One  sperm  passes  to 
the  egg  and  fuses  with  it,  this  act  being  called 
fertilization.  The  other  sperm  has  recently  been 
observed  to  pass  on  in  the  sac  and  fuse  with  the 
endosperm  nucleus;  but  it  remains  to  be  seen 
how  general  this  phenomenon,  called  double  fer- 
tilization, may  be  in  the  group. 

ANQLAISE,  fiN'glaz^.  An  English  country 
dance  (contredanse) ,  in  2-4,  3-4,  or  3-8  time. 
It  is  gay,  and  probably  originated  in  the  older 
form  of  the  French  rigandon   (q.v.). 

AN'QLE  (Lat.  angulua,  a  corner,  Gk. 
dvici/h>i,  ankylos,  bent).  One  of  the  common 
geometric  concepts.  If  two  lines  meet,  they  are 
said  to  form  en  angle,  the  lines  being  called 
the  arms,  sides,  or  legs,  and  the  point  of  meet- 
ing the  vertex  of  the  angle.  The  size  of  the 
angle  is  determined  by  the  amount  of  turning 
necessary  to  carry  a  moving  radius  from  one 
arm  to  the  other,  and  hence  is  independent  of 
the  length  of  the  arms. 

If  the  arms  of  an  angle  are  in  the  same 
straight  line  on  opposite  sides  of  the  vertex,  a 


straight  angle  (fig.  1)  is  formed;  half  of  a 
straight  angle  is  called  a  right  angle  (fig.  2); 
two  straight  angles  equal  a  perigon  or  angle  of 
360**  (fig,  3).  Angles  are  also  conceived  exceed- 
ing 360**;  thus  an  angle  of  720**  is  described 
when  a  screw  is  turned  twice  around.  An  angle 
between  0**  and  90°  is  said  to  be  acute  (fig.  4) : 
one  between  90°  and  180°,  obtuse  (fig.  5): 
one  between  180°  and  360°,  reflex  (fig.  6).  An- 
gles are  considered  as  positive  if  generated  by 
a  radius  moving  counter-clockwise,  and  negative 


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ANGLE. 


559 


ANGLESEY. 


if  the  radius  moves  clockwise.  If  the  arms  are 
straight,  the  angle  is  said  to  be  rectilinear; 
if  curved,  curvilinear;  if  arcs  of  great  circles 
on  a  sphere,  spherical.  Curvilinear  angles  have 
the  same  measure  as  the  rectilinear  angles 
formed  by  tangents  to  the  curves  at  the 
vertex.  If  two  planes  meet,  they  are  said 
to  form  a  dihedral  (Gk.  two-seated)  angle;  this 
has  the  same  measure  as  the  rectilinear  angle 
formed  by  two  lines  in  the  planes  that  are  per- 
pendicular to  the  line  of  intersection  of  the 
planes.  If  three  or  more  planes  meet  in  one 
point,  they  are  said  to  form  m  solid  angle,  the 
measiire  of  which  is  the  ratio  of  the  intercepted 
surface  to  the  entire  surface  of  any  sphere  nav- 
ing  the  vertex  of  the  angle  as  its  centre.  A 
solid  angle  is  trihedral,  tetrahedral,  etc.,  accord- 
ing as  it  is  formed  by  3,  4,  etc.,  planes.  For  the 
various  attempts  made  to  define  the  simple  con- 
cept angle,  consult  Schotten,  Inhalt  und  Me- 
ihodes  des  planimetrischen  Unterrichts  (Leipzig, 
1893). 

ANGLE,  Facial.    See  Somatology. 

ANGLE  I^ON.  See  Rolling  Mills,  for  a 
description  of  this  and  other  steel  shapes. 

ANGLE  OF  EL'EV ACTION,  Angle  of  De- 
pabture,  and  other  terms  in  Gunnery.  See  Bal- 
listics, and  Gunnery. 

AN^GLEK  (The  name  alludes  to  its  seeming 
to  "angle"  for  its  prey;  see  below).  A  singu- 
larly ugly  and  voracious  marine  fish  {Lophius 
piscatorius) ,  also  known  as  goose- fish,  monk- fish, 
all-mouth,  and  fishing-frog.  It  is  of  the  order 
Pediculati,  chiefly  characterized  by  the  greatly 
elongated  carpel  bones,  which  form  a  kind  of 
arm  supporting  the  pectoral  fins.  The  angler  is 
a  large  fish,  three  to  five  feet  in  length,  having 
the  large,  flattened  head  with  its  wide  mouth 
and  projecting  lower  jaw,  and  the  anterior  part 
of  the  body,  greatly  out  of  proportion  to  the  pos- 
terior tapering  part.  The  three  anterior  spines 
have  become  widely  separated  from  the  dorsal 
fin,  and  shifted  forward  onto  the  head,  where  the 
most  anterior  is  much  elongated,  barbel-like,  and 
fleshy  at  the  tip.  It  is  by  the  brilliant  color  of 
this  and  other  worm-like  appendages  about  the 
mouth  that  the  fish  is  said  to  attract  smaller 
fishes  and  thus  make  them  easy  prey.  The  name 
goose-fish  refers  to  the  popular  belief  that  it  will 
seize  geese  and  other  swimming  birds.  It  is  a 
very  hardy  fish,  and  does  not  suffer  from  being 
out  of  the  water  as  readily  as  most  fishes.  It 
occurs  on  the  European  shores,  and  on  the  Amer- 
ican coast  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Barbadoes. 
Some  deep-sea  fishes  of  a  closely  related  family 
(Antennariidie)  are  sometimes  included  under 
the  same  name,  and  sipparently  have  similar 
habits.  See  Fboo-fish,  and  plate  of  Anglers 
and  Batfish. 

AN^GLES.  A  Ijow  German  tribe  who  occu- 
pied the  district  of  Angeln  in  Schleswig-Hol- 
stein,  and  ejctended  to  the  west  as  far  as  the 
North  Sea.  With  the  Jutes  and  the  Saxons, 
the  Angles  passed  over  in  great  numbers  to 
Britain  during  the  fifth  century,  and  settled  in 
East  Anglia,  Northumbria,  and  Mercia.  From 
them  England  derives  its  name  (Lat.  Anglia, 
A.  S.,  Engla-land) .  After  these  migrations  from 
Schleswig,  the  Danes  from  the  north  entered 
the  deserted  districts,  and  mingled  with  the 
Angles  who  remained  there.     The  German  lan- 


guage and  manners  were  afterward  introduced 
by  immigrant  nobles  from  Holstein,  and  pre- 
vailed among  the  higher  classes;  but  until  the 
nineteenth  century  the  Danish  was  still  gener- 
ally spoken  by  the  common  people.  During  the 
nineteenth  century  the  (Serman  gained  the  as- 
cendency. The  modern  Angles  are  of  a  more 
passive  disposition  than  the  Frieslanders  and  the 
people  of  Ditmarschen,  and  religious  sentiment 
is  very  strongly  manifested  among  them.  The 
district  called  Angeln  extends  from  the  Schlei  on 
the  south  to  the  Fiensburg  hills  on  the  north, 
contains  about  330  square  miles,  and  a  popula- 
tion of  about  38,000.  Kappeln  is  the  chief 
town.  The  name  has  no  political  or  administra- 
tive significance.  Consult  Erdmann,  t)hcr  die 
Heimat  und  den  Natnen  der  Angeln  (Upsala, 
1891 ) .    See  Europe,  Peoples  of. 

ANGLESEY,  Ao^gl'-se,  or ANGLESEA  (A.  S. 
Angles  €g,  the  Angles  island).  A  county  and 
island  of  Wales,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
the  Menai  Strait  (Map:  Wales,  B  3).  Its. 
length  is  about  20  miles,  breadth  about  17,  coast, 
line  about  80,  area  275  square  miles.  The- 
county  is  divided  into  three  districts,  called  can- 
trefs,  each  subdivided  into  two  cwmwds.  The- 
market  towns  are  Amlwch  (a  fiourishing  little 
seaport  of  6306  inhabitants),  Beaumaris,  the 
county  town  (q.v.),  Holyhead  (q.v.),  Llangefni^ 
and  Llanerchy-medd.  Pop.,  1801,  50,098;  in  1901, 
50,690.  The  surface  is  generally  fiat,  and  the 
soil  of  indifferent  fertility  and  only  partially 
cultivated,  by  far  the  largest  part  being  under 
pasture.  The  principal  products  are  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats,  and  potatoes.  The  mineral  deposits  of 
the  island  are  still  important,  though  not  so  ex- 
tensive as  100  years  ago,  when  the  Parys  and 
Mona  copper  mines  were  considered  the  most  pro- 
ductive in  England.  Among  the  minerals  the- 
most  important  at  present  are  copper,  lead, 
silver,  marble,  limestone,  asbestos,  and  coal.  The 
island  is  connected  with  the  mainland  by  one  sus- 
pension bridge  and  the  Britannia  tubular  bridge 
on  the  route  of  the  Chester  and  Holyhead  Rail- 
way. The  island  is  traversed  by  two  railway 
lines.  There  are  still  to  be  found  some  ancient 
relics  of  Druidism,  which  once  flourished  on  the- 
island.  The  Welsh  language  is  largely  spoken  by 
the  peasantry.  Consult  H.  L.  Jones,  "The  Medi- 
»val  Antiquities  of  Anglesey,"  in  Volume  V., 
Arch<eological  Journal    (London,   1844). 

ANGLESEY,  Henry  William  Paget,  first 
marquis  of  (1768-1854).  A  British  general  and 
statesman.  He  was  educated  at  Oxford  and  en- 
tered Parliament  in  1790.  lie  commanded  a 
volunteer  covps  in  Flanders,  and  acquired  a  high 
reputation  as  a  cavalry  officer  in  the  Peninsu- 
lar War.  At  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  where  he 
commanded  the  British  cavalry,  he  lost  a 
leg.  On  his  return  to  England  he  re- 
ceived a  vote  of  thanks  from  Parliament,  and 
was  made  Marquis  of  Anglesey.  In  1828  he  was 
appointed  Lord-Lieutenant  of  Ireland  at  a  period 
when  that  country  was  greatly  agitated  over  the 
question  of  Catholic  emancipation.  This  he  at 
first  opposed,  but  afterward  advocated  it,  and  in 
consequence  was  recalled  by  Wellington  in  1829. 
He  was  again  appointed  to  the  same  office  under 
Lord  Grey's  administration  in  1830;  but  his  co- 
ercive measures  destroyed  his  popularity,  and  he 
resigned  his  position  in  1833.  He  founded  the 
Irish  Board  of  Education.  In  1846  he  was  pro- 
moted a  field-marshal. 


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ANOLESITE. 


560 


ANQLora. 


ANGLESITE,  &o'gl«-sIt-  A  lead  sulphate 
that  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombic  system,  and 
occurs  in  white,  light-yellow,  gi-een,  and  sometimes 
blue  colors.  It  is  formed  as  a  result  of  the  de- 
composition of  galena,  and  was  originally  found 
in  Anglesea,  England,  whence  its  name;  it  also 
occurs  in  Cornwall,  Derbyshire,  and  Cumberland; 
at  various  localities  in  the  Hartz;  in  Hungary; 
and  in  the  United  States,  at  Phenixville,  Pa.,  at 
various  points  in  the  Missouri  lead  mines,  at 
Rossie,  N.  Y.,  and  elsewhere.  Anglesite  is  use- 
ful as  an  ore  of  lead  (q.v.). 

AN^OLEWOKM'.  An  earthworm,  when  used 
as  fish-bait.     See  Earth -Worm. 

AN^OLIA,  East.  A  kingdom  founded  by  the 
Angles  before  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  central  England,  comprising 
the  modern  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  and 
equivalent  in  extent  to  the  modern  see  of  Nor- 
wich. It  was  somewhat  dependent  on  Kent;  but 
about  654,  Anglia  fell  under  the  sway  of  Mercia, 
and  so  continued  till  Egbert,  King  of  Wessex,  con- 
quered Mercia  and  East  Anglia,  in  825.  Alfred 
the  Great  gave  Anglia  to  the  Danes  under  Guth- 
rum  in  878;  but  Edward,  his  son  and  successor, 
forced  the  Danes  to  acknowledge  him  in  921. 
Anglia  soon  became  a  part  of  the  West  Saxon 
kingdom. 

AN^GLICAN.  Belonging  to  the  Church  of 
England  or  to  the  other  churches  in  communion 
with  it,  in  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  the  United 
States.  The  term  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
High  Church  party.  See  Anglican  Communion, 
and  England,  Church  of. 

ANQLICAN  CHTJBCH.  See  England, 
Church  of. 

ANGLICAN  COMMTJ^NION.  A  term  com- 
ing to  be  recognized  as  the  semi-official  title  of 
the  now  world-wide  body  which  is  in  communion 
with  the  Church  of  England  (q.v.)  as  repre- 
sented in  its  centre  of  unity,  the  see  of  Canter- 
bury. It  is  only  in  comparatively  recent  years 
that  this  body  has  come  to  have  anything  like 
B.  concrete  existence,  which  by  the  logic  of  events 
is  crystallizing  more  and  more,  in  contradiction 
though  it  be  to  the  famous  Branch  Theory  on 
which  the  claims  of  the  body  to  be  considered  a 
part  of  the  Catholic  or  Universal  Church  are 
based.  Its  component  parts  are  the  Episcopal 
Churches  of  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  the 
British  colonies,  and  the  United  States,  with  a 
few  sporadic  organizations  on  similar  lines  in 
the  Latin  countries.  It  coheres  loosely  by  means 
of  general  agreement  in  worship  and  terms  of 
-communion,  and  as  an  integial  body  is  repre- 
sented by  its  bishops  from  all  parts  of  the  world 
in  the  Lambeth  Conference  (q.v.)  at  irregular 
intervals. 

AN'QLIN,  Margaret  (1875—).  An  Ameri- 
can actress,  daughter  of  the  Hon.  T.  W.  Anglin, 
who  at  the  time  of  her  birth,  at  Ottawa,  Can- 
ada, was  Speaker  of  the  Canadian  House  of 
Commons.  After  studying  at  the  Empire 
School  of  Dramatic  Acting  (New  York  City), 
she  made  her  d^but  at  New  York  in  Shen- 
andoah in  1894.  Among  her  rdles  were  Koxane, 
in  Richard  Mansfield's  presentation  of  Cyrano  dc 
Bergerac  {\Hm)  ;  Mimi,in  The  Only  Way  {\S99)  ; 
Mrs.  Dane,  in  Mrs.  Dave's  Defence  (1900)  ;  and 
:Mabel  Vaughn  in  The  Wilderness  (1901).  Con- 
sult Strang,  Famous  Actresses  of  the  Day  in 
America  (Boston,  1899). 


AN'GLING  (A.  S.  angel,  fish-hook,  akin  to 
Engl,  anglcy  a  corner,  bend).  The  term  angling 
has,  by  common  understanding,  become  re- 
stricted to  the  catching  of  fish  as  a  source  of 
recreation,  while  the  word  fishing  expresses  it 
as  a  commercial  enterprise.  The  term  "angle" 
and  its  cognate  words  in  most  languages  are 
limited  to  the  hook;  but  it  is  quite  clear  that  in 
Anglo-Saxon  the  word  includes  as  well  the  line 
and  rod;  a  definition  probably  suggested  by  the 
position  a  rod  and  pendent  line  take  when  being 
used  for  bait  fishing,  at  which  time  they  form 
a  right  angle.  Shakespeare  refers  to  the  angle 
in  the  sense  of  rod,  line,  and  hook  in  Antony  and 
Cleopatra,  and  he  had  good  historic  basis  for 
selecting  angling  as  a  recreation  in  Egypt,  for 
the  mural  paintings  of  the  Egyptians  make  it 
clear  that  angling  was  a  favorite  pastime  of 
their  men  of  rank.  So  accurately  is  the  spa^vn- 
ing  of  fish  described  in  the  BundaJiish,  a  Pahlavi 
work  relating  to  the  creation,  as  to  suggest  the 
existence  of  angler  naturalists  among  the  fol- 
lowers of  Zoroaster.  Both  Greeks  and  Romans 
pursued  angling  for  diversion's  sake.  Many  al- 
lusions in  classical  authors  justify  the  inference 
that  the  idea  expressed  by  our  word  sportsman 
had  defined  shape  in  antiquity.  From  Homer  to 
Oppian  there  were  piscatory  poets,  who  dwelt  on 
the  exciting  delights  of  the  craft.  Oppian's 
Halieuticay  a  poem  of  the  second  century  A.D.. 
treats  of  the  natural  history  of  fishes,  and  of  the 
fishing  methods  of  the  ancients.  The  perfect 
angler  is  herein  defined  as  ''a  well-made,  active 
man,  patient,  vigilant,  enterprising,  courageous, 
and  full  of  exp^ients;"  and  his  outfit  is  sum- 
med up  in  a  couplet — 

"  The  slender  woven  net,  the  oder  creel. 
The  tapering  reed,  the  line,  and  barbdd  sted.** 

The  earliest  mention  of  fly-fishing  occurs  in 
the  Epigrams  of  Martial,  wherein  is  sung  the 
rising  of  the  wrasse  "decoyed  by  fraudful  flies;" 
but  .Sjlian,  the  author  of  a  zoology,  written  about 
200  A.D.,  gives  a  consummate  description  of  this 
method  ot  taking  a  certain  species  of  trout  as 
practiced  by  the  Macedonians.  From  the  angling 
pictures  of  Ausonius  in  the  fourth  oenturv, 
there  is,  with  the  exception  of  a  brief  allusion  in 
Piers  Fulhanif  written  about  the  year  1420,  a 
break  in  the  literature  relating  to  this  subject, 
until  we  reach  the  interesting  w:ork  of  Dame 
Juliana  Berners,  prioress  of  Sopwell  Nunnery — 
A  Treatyse  of  Fysshynge  %cyth  an  Angle,  printed 
in  England  in  1490.  This  treatise  presents  de- 
tailed instructions  for  the  manufacture  of  tackle, 
gives  faultless  directions  for  fly-fishing,  and  de- 
scribes minutely  "xij  flyes  wyth  wyehe  ye  shall 
angle  to  ye  trought  &  grayllying."  The  flies  have 
been  tied*  by  a  modem  expert,  in  accordance  with 
the  directions  given  in  the  treatise,  and  they  do 
credit  to  the  taste  of  the  first  English  authore?^^. 
I-«eonard  Mascall's  A  Booke  of  Fishing  tcith 
Hooke  d  Line  (1590),  the  next  work  of  impor- 
tance in  English,  is  largely  a  reproduction  of  the 
essay  of  the  literary  prioress.  The  Secrets  of 
Angling,  a  delightful  poem  by  John  Dennys 
appeared  in  1613,  and  in  1651,  Thomas  BarkerV 
The  Art  of  Angling,  the  first  work  in  which  the 
reel  is  recognized  as  essential  to  success  in  the 
capture  of  large  fish  with  rod  and  line.  Two 
years  later,  Walton's  The  Compleat  Angler;  or, 
the  Contemplative  Man's  Recreation,  was  given 
to  the  v^orld.    It  was  of  this  book  that  Charles 


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ANGLO-SAXON    ABT. 


Lamb  wrote:  "It  would  sweeten  a  man's  temper 
At  any  time  to  read  it;  it  would  Christianize 
every  discordant,  angry  passion."  Angling  is 
-one  of  the  richest  departments  of  English  letters. 
Westwood  and  Satchel's  Bibliotheca  Piacatoria, 
published  as  long  ago  as  1883,  catalogues  over 
three  thousand  works  more  or  less  concerning 
fish  and  fishing.  Angling  will  be  found  treated 
in  detail  under  three  heads,  viz.:  fly-casting, 
bait- fishing,  and  trolling.  To  such  as  wish  to 
understand  the  natural  history  of  the  objects  of 
their  pursuit  as  well  as  to  master  the  various 
methods  of  capture,  the  following  instructive 
monographs  are  recommended  in  addition  to  the 
volumes  referred  to  in  this  article:  Isaak  Wal- 
ton, Compleat  Angler;  or,  the  Contemplative 
Man's  Recreation  (first  New  York  edition,  1847)  ; 
<5(inther,  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of 
Fishes;  Day,  British  and  Irish  Salmonidw;  G. 
B.  Goode,  American  Fishes  (New  York,  1888)  ; 
Seth  Green,  Home  Fishing  and  Home  Waters 
(New  York,  1888);  Green  and  Rosevelt,  Fish 
Hatching  and  Fish  Catching;  Wright,  Fishes, 
-7'heir  Loves,  Passions,  and  Intellects;  Cholmon- 
■deley-Pennell,  Modem  Improvements  in  Fishing 
Tackle  (London,  1887)  ;  The  Angler  Naturalist, 
and  the  two  volumes  of  the  Badminton  Library 
of  Sports,  entitled  Fishing;  Nobbe,  Art  of  Troll- 
ing, and  J.  J.  Manley,  Literature  of  Sea  and 
River  Fishing  (Ix)ndon,  1883).  See  Fly-Cast- 
ing ;  Bait-Fishing;  Tboujno. 

AN^OLO-IS^BAELITE  THE'OKY.  An 
opinion  as  to  the  origin  of  the  English  people, 
held  quite  extensively  in  both  Britain  and  Ameri- 
ca. It  is  maintained  that  the  English  are  de- 
scended from  the  Israelites,  who  were  made  cap- 
tives by  the  Assyrians  under  Sargon  (c.  722  b.c.), 
— the  so-called  Lost  Ten  Tribes — and  brought 
into  Media,  where  they  are  identified  with  the 
Sacae  or  Scythians,  who  appeared  as  a  conquering 
horde  there  about  the  same  time.  They  next 
swarmed  westward  into  northern  Europe,  and  be- 
came progenitors  in  particular  of  the  Saxon  in- 
vaders of  England.  The  theory  is  destitute  of 
scientific  proof.  The  Ten  Tribes  were  never  lost ; 
they  were  absorbed  in  the  surrounding  popula- 
tion, and  so  disappeared.  But  the  vitality  of  the 
Anglo-Israelite  theory  is  shown  by  the  appear- 
ance of  the  book  by  M.  L.  Streator,  The  Anglo- 
Alliance  in  Prophecy;  or.  The  Promises  to  the 
Fathers  (New  Haven,  Conn.,  1900,  two  volumes). 

AJf'OLOlCA'NLA  (A  hybrid  formation  from 
Anglo,  English  -f-  Gk.  ^avia,  mania,  madness, 
frenzy,  enthusiasm).  A  term  which  designates, 
in  America  and  other  countries,  a  weak  imitation 
of  English  manners,  customs, .  etc.,  or  an  indis- 
criminate admiration  of  English  institutions. 
In  German  literature,  an  Anglomania  was  especi- 
ally prevalent  in  the  eighteenth  century,  when 
translations  of  English  books  became  numerous, 
and  were  read  with  great  admiration.  The  Ger- 
mans have  ascribed  the  sentimental  and  affected 
style  of  some  part^  of  their  literature  to  the  in- 
fluence of  the  English  literature  of  last  century. 
But  the  Anglomania  was  harmless  in  comparison 
with  the  Gallomania,  or  imitation  of  French  lit- 
-erature  and  customs,  which  prevailed  in  the  time 
of  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia,  and  was  developed  in 
the  writings  of  Wieland.  A  remarkable  Anglo- 
mania prevailed  in  France  for  some  time  before 
the  commencement  of  the  Revolution.  It  arose 
■out  of  political  considerations  and  admiration  of 
English  free  institutions,  but  extended  to  trifles 
Vol  I.-« 


even  of  fashions  and  manners,  and  often  became 
very  ridiculous.  Gallomania  was  prevalent  in  the 
United  States  during  the  last  few  years  of  the 
Third  Empire,  from  1864-1870.  The  Empress  Eu- 
genie set  the  fashions  for  American  women,  and 
everything  French  was  admired  and  imitated  by 
the  "smart"  set  in  New  York  and  other  American 
cities.  It  was  at  this  time  that  the  famous  say- 
ing originated  which  declares  that  "when  good 
Americans  die,  they  go  to  Paris."  Since  the 
garish  and  somewhat  vulgar  court  of  the  Third 
Napoleon  has  been  replaced  in  France  by  the 
more  sober  regime  of  the  Republic,  Anglomania 
has  replaced  Gallomania  with  our  fashionable 
set,  and  the  devotion  of  certain  people  to  the 
cult  of  British  manners  has  for  some  time  been 
a  fruitful  theme  of  popular  satire. 

AN'GLO-SAX'ON  ABT.  A  term  used  to 
describe  whatever  works  of  art  were  produced 
in  England  during  the  period  of  about  six  cen- 
turies between  the  time  of  the  conquest  by  the 
Angles,  Saxons,  and  other  Germanic  tribes  and 
the  time  of  the  Norman  conquest  in  the  eleventh 
century.  They  found  a  combination  of  distinct 
Roman  and  Celtic  art  traditions,  and  were  influ- 
enced by  them,  and  subsequently  by  Christian  art 
from  Rome  and  Byzantium.  Their  originality 
was  shown  principally  in  their  jewelry  (especi- 
ally the  cloisonn4)  and  arms,  in  which,  however, 
they  had  borrowed  what  they  knew  from  the 
Goths,  whose  works  of  the  same  kind  were  far 
more  artistic.  In  architecture,  the  Anglo-Saxons 
used  principally  wood,  and  relied  entirely  on 
foreign  workmen  for  their  rare  buildings  in 
stone,  which  were  extremely  plain,  and  this,  which 
can  hardly  be  called  a  "style,"  was  influenced 
and  partly  superseded  by  the  Norman  style  even 
before  the  Conquest.  The  Anglo-Saxons  excelled 
in  the  illuminating  of  MSS.,  and  in  this  they  bor- 
rowed from  the  Irish  Celts,  and  in  their  turn  as- 
sisted the  Irish  monks  in  teaching  the  Carlovin- 
gian  artists;  for  the  great  Anglo-Saxon  monas- 
teries sent  masters  to  those  in  Gaul  before  and 
after  the  time  of  Alcuin. 

Of  the  stone  churches,  hardly  a  single  one  sur- 
vives intact,  all  those  of  any  importance  having 
been  reconstructed  when  the  Norman  or  the 
Gothic  style  was  favored.  The  stone-masons, 
who  were  brought  from  Gaul  and  Rome  in 
the  seventh  century  to  build  the  first  stone 
churches,  erected  for  Benedict  Biscop  the  fa- 
mous monasteries  of  Wearmouth  and  Yarrow; 
small  parts  of  them  remain.  The  little  hall 
church  at  Bradford,  entirely  without  columns,  is 
almost  the  only  complete  structure  remaining 
(705  A.D.).  To  about  the  same  time  belong 
the  crypts  at  Ripon  and  Hexham.  After  these 
early  works,  which  retain  something  of  a  Con- 
tinental and  Roman  style,  the  later  monu- 
ments of  the  ninth,  tenth  and  early  eleventh 
centuries,  show  an  increase  of  Celtic  peculiar- 
ities. The  church  towers  have  sometimes  sur- 
vived where  the  churches  themselves  have  been 
renovated,  and  they  form  the  most  interest- 
ing group  of  Anglo-Saxon  monuments,  from 
such  simple  ones  as  that  of  Barton-on-Humber, 
through  the  more  architectural  examples  at 
Barnack  and  Sompting,  to  the  richer  towers 
of  Earl's  Barton  and  Deerhurst.  They  are  built 
of  crude,  irregular  masonry — a  few  large  blocks 
set  in  the  midst  of  a  mass  of  small  stones.  The 
corners  are  formed  of  long-and-short  work,  the 
high  and  narrow  stones  alternating  with  the  flat, 
long  ones  bonded  into  the  wall.     In  the  mor« 


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ANGLO-SAXON    ABT. 


562 


ANGLO-SAXON    LAW. 


elaborate  examples  the  surface  is  decorated  with 
a  series  of  vertical  lines  of  pilaster  strips  occa- 
sionally joined  by  arched  or  gabled  connecting 
strips,  and  the  few  windows  are*  sometimes 
arched,  sometimes  topped  with  two  slanting 
straight  pieces  forming  gables ;  while  their  jambs, 
or  divisions  (in  two-light  windows),  are  either 
pilasters  or  the  peculiar  baluster  colonettes  not 
found  except  in  this  style.  There  are  very  few 
mouldings  and  very  little  sculpture — none  of  it 
being  figured.  In  fact,  the  style  is  so  rude  as 
hardly  to  rise  to  the  dignity  of  art. 

The  Saxons  were  entirely  without  monumen- 
tal sculpture  or  painting  of  native  growth,  and 
it  is  only  in  their  industrial  arts  that  their 
character  emerges  at  all  clearly.  Even  here  they 
are  inferior  to  the  Goths  in  their  jewelry,  enam- 
eling, and  goldsmith  work,  and  to  the  Irish  in 
their  illuminating  of  manuscripts.  Comparison 
with  the  Book  of  Kells,  the  Gospels  of  Mac- 
Kegol,  and  other  Irish  illuminations  will  prove 
this.  It  is  true  that  the  Gospels  of  Lindisfarne 
(British  Museum)  are  equal  to  these  works,  but 
they  were  executed  by  Saxon  pupils  of  the  Irish 
monks.  Another  remarkably  fine  work  is  the 
Benedictional  of  St.  Athelwold.  In  one  particu- 
lar the  Saxon  works  are  superior — in  the  treat- 
ment of  the  human  figure — ^which  in  Irish  works 
is  a  mere  piece  of  decorative  scroll-work  with- 
out a  trace  of  resemblance  to  the  human  form  or 
real  drapery.  The  influence  of  the  pictures  and 
illuminated  MSS.  brought  to  England  from 
Rome,  and  of  the  Byzantine  MSS.,  gave  the  Sax- 
ons the  advantage  of  good  models  for  subjects  of 
religious  art,  as  is  shown  in  such  works  as  the 
Cuthbert  Gospels  ( British  Museum ) .  There  are 
three  styles  in  Anglo-Saxon  illuminations:  (1) 
stage  of  Roman  influence,  seventh  century,  when 
the  missionaries  from  Rome  and  Benedict  Biscop 
gave  Roman  models  (illustrated  by  the  Golden 
Stockholm  Gospels  and  the  Psalter  of  St.  Augus- 
tine, British  Museum)  ;  (2)  stage  of  Irish  influ- 
ence, with  predominance  of  the  geometric  orna- 
ment of  beautiful  elaborate  designs  taken  from 
textile  fabrics,  metal  work,  and  conventionalized 
animal  forms,  seventh  and  eighth  centuries 
(Durham  Gospels,  Grospels  of  St.  Cuthbert,  Brit- 
ish Museum,  Athelwold's  Book  of  Prayers  at  Cam- 
bridge )  ;  ( 3 )  stage  of  reactive  influence  of  Carlo- 
vingian  (Frankish)  and  Byzantine  art,  with 
re- introduction  of  figured  composition  and  the 
placing  of  ornament  in  the  background.  This  late 
development  was  rapid  under  the  direction  of 
SS.  Athelwold  and  Dunstan,  in  the  ninth  and 
tenth  centuries  (Psalters  of  King  Athelstan, 
British  Museum ;  Missal  of  Leof ric,  Oxford ;  Gos- 
pels and  Psalter  of  Boulogne;  Gospels  called 
"Bib.  Greg."  in  British  Museum;  Csedmon,  Ox- 
ford ;  Cotton  Psalter,  etc. ) .  Certainly  the  pecu- 
liar interest  of  all  the  Saxon  illumination  lies 
in  its  immense  initial  letters  and  full-page 
geometric  ornamentation,  in  which  the  artists 
rivaled  the  Irish  in  a  field  where  neither  Italian 
nor  Byzantine  illuminations  had  preceded  them. 
They  blazed  a  way  which  was  followed  by  all 
subsequent  illuminators  in  varying  degrees;  and 
for  delicacy  and  precision  of  touch,  judicious 
treatment  of  surface,  and  balance  of  composition, 
their  geometric  work  has  never  been  surpassed. 
In  their  good  though  simple  color  scheme,  one 
point  is  remarkable;  that  they  never  used  gold 
leaf.  In  this  they  influenced  Carlovingian  illumi- 
nators in  direct  opposition  to  the  Byzantine  style 
of  profuse  gold  grounds  and  ornaments.    In  so  far 


as  similarities  have  been  noticed  in  Scandinav- 
ian works,  it  is  probably  that  they  are  due  to 
influences  from  Great  Britain  rather  than  vice 
vcrsd.  When  Charlemagne  encouraged  art,  he 
found  the  British  monasteries  a  great  resource. 
The  great  Bible  of  St.  Denis  (British  Museum) 
and  the  Leipzig  psalter  are  examples  of  this  Brit- 
ish influence  on  illumination  among  the  Franks. 
During  the  last  stage,  when  the  geometric  style 
was  abandoned,  extensive  composition  in  pen-and- 
ink  outline  became  a  favorite  method  of  illustra- 
tion. Consult:  Rickman,  An  Attempt  to  dU- 
criminate  the  Styles  of  Architecture  in  England 
(London,  1848) ;  De  Baye,  The  Industrial  Arts 
of  th^  Anglo-Saxons  (London,  1893)  ;  Akerman, 
Remains  of  Saxon  Scuvondom  (London,  1853) ; 
Kemble,  Horae  Perales  (London,  1863);  Parker, 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Gothic  Architecture 
( London,  1847 ) ;  Westwood,  Fax^-similes  of  the 
Miniatures  and  Ornaments  of  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Irish  Manuscripts  (London,  1868)  ;  also  volumes 
of  the  ArchcsoVogia  (London,  1770  foil). 

ANGLO-SAXON  LAN^GITAGE  AND  LTF- 
EBATTJKE.  The  term  Anglo-Saxon  is  employ- 
ed, in  popular  speech  and  to  some  extent  among 
scholars,  to  designate  the  language  of  the  Cier- 
manic  peoples  in  England  before  the  coming  of 
the  Normans  (1066).  Such,  however,  was  not 
the  usage  of  those  who  wrote  in  the  language. 
Alfred,  -lElfric,  and  others  repeatedly  called  it 
Englisc,  i.e.,  English.  True,  the  expressions 
Angli  Saxones  and  Saxones  Angli,  i.e.,  English 
Saxons,  occur  in  medieval  Latin  literature,  but 
they  were  used  to  distinguish  the  Saxons  in  Eng- 
land from  those  on  the  Continent.  It  was  not 
until  the  revival  of  interest  in  England's  earliest 
history  and  literature,  which  dates  from  Camden*s 
Britannia  (1586),  that  the  compound  "Anglo- 
Saxon"  made  its  appearance,  to  denote,  without 
any  reference  to  their  (Continental  kinsmen,  the 
entire  English  people  and  their  language.  This 
designation  was  generally  followed  by  historians 
and  philologists  down  to  1875.  Since  then  an 
increasing  number  of  them  have  adopted  the 
usage  of  King  Alfred.  To  the  earliest  period  in 
the  history  of  the  English  language  they  have 

fiven  the  name  Old  English.  The  term  Anglo- 
axon,  it  is  argued,  is  misleading;  for  it  seems 
to  imply  that  our  lan^age  before  the  Norman 
conquest  was  not  English.  It  is,  of  course,  ad- 
mitted that  the  English  language  underwent 
great  phonetic  and  inflectional  changes  in  the 
twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries;  and  yet  Eng- 
lish has  always  remained  English.  On  this  con- 
tinuity in  the  development  of  our  spe^h,  the 
proper  emphasis  is  laid  by  the  term  Old  English. 
For  this  and  other  reasons,  it  has  seemed  best  to 
treat  the  so-called  Anglo-Saxon  language  and  lit- 
erature under  English  Lanouage,  and  English 
Literature. 

AN'GLO-SAX^ON  LAW.  The  body  of  law 
of  the  Anglo-Saxons.  It  was  not  until  the  close 
of  the  nineteenth  century  that  historical  inves- 
tigation enabled  one  to  form  even  a  tolerably 
clear  conception  of  the  legal  system  that  pre- 
vailed in  England  prior  to  the  Norman  conquest 
The  earliest  written  records  of  that  system  are 
the  Anglo-Saxon  "dooms,"  or  judgments,  which 
go  back  to  the  sixth  century  of  our  era.  From 
the  time  of  Ethelbert  of  Kent  to  that  of  Ed- 
ward the  Confessor  these  records,  though  frag- 
mentary, appear  in  an  almost  unbroken  series, 
supplemented  by  land  charters  and  wills,  collect- 


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ed  through  the  industry  of  modern  scholars. 
These  give  us  a  far  from  complete,  but  yet  a 
fairly  consistent,  idea  of  the  principles  and  pro- 
cedure of  Anglo-Saxon  law.  This  was,  even  at 
the  time  of  the  Conquest,  a  primitive  law,  con- 
cerning itself  mostly  with  the  personal  relations 
of  free  and  unfree  men,  liegemen  and  lordless 
men,  or  outlaws,  with  crimes  of  violence — homi- 
•  c'ide,  wounding,  and  cattle-stealing — and  with  a 
simple  and  slowly  developing  law  of  real  prop- 
erty. Contract  law,  as  we  understand  the  term, 
did  not  exist.  There  was  no  distinction  be- 
tween willful  and  accidental  homicide  or  maim- 
ing, and  all  crimes  were  punished  by  the  inflic- 
tion of  heavy  fines,  which  were  graduated,  not 
according  to  the  atrocity  of  the  deed,  but  accord- 
ing to  the  personal  status  or  dignity  of  the  per- 
son injured.  Indeed,  the  law  of  persons  con- 
sisted almost  entirely  of  a  graded  valuation  of 
the  individual's  life  or  limb,  and  the  terms 
'•twelve-hundred-shilling  man,"  "two-hundred- 
shilling  man,"  were  the  well -understood  equiva- 
lents of  terms  of  rank  or  personal  status. 

Anglo-Saxon  land  law  was  a  composite  of  Teu- 
tonic customary  law  and  the  rules  growing  out 
of  the  personal  and  property  relations  of  lord  and 
vassal,  the  former  probably  predominating. 
Folc-land  (q.v.)  was  the  name  given  to  land 
the  title  of  which  rested  on  the  common,  cus- 
tomary, and  unwritten  law.  Land  derived  by 
grant  from  the  King  was  known  as  Boc-land 
(q.v.),  the  title  resting  on  the  book,  or  written 
instrument,  creating  it.  It  is  in  the  latter  that 
the  elements  of  a  feudal  form  of  tenure  existed; 
but  it  is  probable  that  all  forms  of  tenure  were 
more  or  less  dependent;  though  of  feudal  tenure, 
in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  there  are  only 
a  few  traces  before  the  Conquest.  The  allodial 
ownership,  referred  to  in  the  books,  was  not  the 
"absolute  and  unqualified  property*'  in  land 
which  Blackstone  and  other  later  writers  had  in 
mind  when  they  used  the  term.  Sometimes  it  is 
employed  as  the  equivalent  of  boc-land,  and  more 
often  merely  as  signifying  an  inheritable  estate. 
See  Allodium  ;  Feudal  System  ;  Tenure. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  judicial  system  was  of  the 
loosest  possible  description.  The  public  courts — 
the  hundred  court  and  the  county  court — were 
popular  and  local  in  character,  and  had  no  ef- 
fective process  for  carrying  their  judgments  into 
effect.  There  was  no  supreme  judicial  tribunal, 
no  curia  regis,  such  as  developed  in  the  Norman 
period;  and  when  the  king's  justice  was  invoked 
to  remedy  an  act  of  injustice  committed  by  the 
regular  tribunals,  it  was  an  irregular  and  extra- 
legal, or  at  least  extra-judicial,  power  which  he 
was  called  upon  to  exercise.  Toward  the  close 
of  the  Saxon  period,  a  multiplicity  of  private 
courts  sprung  up,  the  predecessors  of  the  courts- 
baron  of  a  later  date.  See  Manor;  Court- 
IUron  ;  Curia  REq^s ;  King's  Bench.  Consult : 
Pollock  and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law 
(Boston,  1899),  for  a  brief  but  comprehensive 
description  of  Anglo-Saxon  law  and  its  adminis- 
tration; also  Lee,  Historical  Jurisprudence  (New 
York,  1900),  and  Holmes,  The  Common  Law 
(Boston,  1881). 

ANOLO-SAXONS.  The  collective  name  gen- 
erally given  by  historians  to  the  various  Teu- 
tonic or  German  tribes  which  settled  in  England, 
chiefly  in  the  fifth  century,  and  founded  the 
kingdoms  which  were  ultimately  combined  into 
the  English  monarchy  and  nation.  Various 
groups  of  them  were  known  as  Angles,  Saxons, 


and  Jutes.  The  traditional  statement  is,  that 
the  first  of  these  invaders  made  their  appear- 
ance in  Britain  in  449,  having  Hengist  and 
Horsa  as  their  leaders.  But  under  the  more 
searching  scrutiny  of  later  writers,  these  famous 
leaders  have  come  to  be  looked  upon  as  mythical 
heroes  of  romance,  common  to  most  of  the  Ger- 
manic nations;  and  though  the  fact  of  a  great 
Germanic  invasion  in  the  middle  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury is  not  doubted,  it  is  believed  that  this  was 
by  no  means  the  earliest  period  at  which  Ger- 
manic settlements  were  eff'ected  in  England. 
Long  previous  to  this  period,  a  portion  of  the 
coast,  extending  from  Portsmouth  to  Wells  in 
Norfolk,  was  known  as  the  Litus  Saxonicum ;  but 
whether  in  reference  to  Saxons  by  whom  it  was 
settled,  or  to  roving  adventurers  of  that  race 
by  whom  it  was  ravaged,  is  still  a  subject  of 
dispute.  Of  the  three  tribes  mentioned  above, 
the  Jutes  are* stated  to  have  been  the  first 
comers.  Their  earliest  home  was  in  what  is  now 
Schleswig,  North  Germany,  and  the  portions  of 
England  of  which  they  possessed  themselves  were 
Kent,  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  the  opposite  coast 
of  Hampshire.  The  Saxons  settled  chiefiy  in 
the  southern  parts  of  England — in  Sussex,  Es- 
sex, Middlesex,  the  south  of  Hertford,  Surrey, 
the  part  of  Hampshire  not  possessed  by  the 
Jutes;  also  Berkshire,  Wiltshire,  Dorset,  Som- 
erset, Devon,  and  the  portion  of  Cornwall  which 
did  not  remain  in  the  possession  of  its  former 
Celtic  inhabitants.  The  Saxons  who  invaded 
England  probably  belonged  chiefiy  to  the  portion 
of  that  great  nation,  or  confederacy  of  nations, 
whose  territories  lay  on  the  shores  of  the  Bal- 
tic and  about  the  lower  Elbe,  occupying  a  region 
corresponding  to  Holstein,  the  north  of  Hanover, 
and  the  west  of  Mecklenburg.  Of  the  settlements 
of  the  third  tribe  we  have  no  knowledge,  until 
we  find  them  established  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  Britain.  Whether,  as  some  recent  historians 
maintain,  they  were  Enger-Saxons,  from  the 
lower  Weser,  or,  as  most  assert,  Angles  (q.v.) 
from  Schleswig,  a  corner  of  which  is  at  the  pres- 
ent time  call^  Angeln,  it  is  certain  that  they 
made  a  succession  of  descents  on  the  coaste 
of  Suffolk  and  Norfolk,  on  the  country  to  the 
north  of  the  Humber,  and  the  southern  part  of 
Scotland  between  the  Tweed  and  the  Forth. 
From  these  coasts  they  made  their  way  inland, 
and  eventually  obtained  possession  of  the  whole 
of  England,  except  the  portions  already  men- 
tioned; that  is  to  say,  of  all  the  part  to  the 
north  of  the  Avon,  on  the  one  side,  and  the 
Thames  on  the  other,  Essex,  Middlesex,  and 
part  of  Hertford  excepted.  The  union  of  dif- 
ferent bands  of  these  conquerors  among  them- 
selves, with  their  countrymen  who  had  preceded 
them,  and  with  the  Celtic  population  which, 
though  conquered,  there  is  no  reason  to  suppose 
was  exterminated,  gave  rise  to  the  so-called 
Heptarchy  (q.v.),  the  kingdoms  of  Northum- 
bria  (originally  Bernicia  and  Deira),  Kent,  Sus- 
sex, Wessex,  Essex,  East  Anglia,  and  Mercia. 

The  various  independent  States  into  which  Eng- 
land had  till  then  been  divided  were  united  by 
Egbert,  King  of  Wessex,  in  827,  into  one  king- 
dom. The  royal  family  of  Wessex,  which  was 
thus  raised  to  the  kingly  dignity  over  the  whole 
country,  never  again  lost  its  supremacy  till  the 
Norman  Conquest,  except  during  the  periods 
from  878  to  958,  when  the  Danes  ruled  the  king- 
doms north  of  the  Thames,  and  from  1016  to 
1042,  when  Danish  kings  ruled  over  all  of  Eng- 


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ANGLO-SAXONS. 


land.  Indeed,  all  the  later  rulers  of  England, 
except  the  four  kings  of  the  Norman  house,  have 
been  descended  from  the  same  line.  Alfred  the 
Great  (q.v.)  was  the  most  famous  king  during 
the  Saxon  period.  The  whole  ruling  race  even- 
tually came  to  be  known  among  themselves  from 
the  most  numerous  element  in  it,  the  English, 
and  their  land  as  Angle-land,  or  England.  The 
Celtic  races  in  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland, 
however,  have  always  known  them  as  Saxons. 

Christianity  was  introduced  among  the  new- 
comers in  the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century 
by  missionaries  from  the  Christian  Scotch  and 
Irish,  to  the  northward,  and  at  the  same  time  by 
St.  Augustine,  a  missionary  sent  by  Pope  Greg- 
ory I.,  and  by  his  companions  and  successors. 
Augustine  became  the  first  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury; the  Roman  missionary  movement  grad- 
naiiy  superseded  the  Celtic,  and  before  the  close 
of  the  seventh  century,  the  whole  of  England  was 
a  Christian  country  under  one  metropolitan. 
Ethelbert,  King  of  Kent,  was  the  first  sovereign 
who  embraced  the  Christian  religion.  Bringing 
with  them  the  traditions  and  feelings  of  the 
empire,  the  whole  infiuence  of  the  clergy  was 
thrown  into  the  scale  of  monarchy,  and  greatly 
tended  to  its  consolidation.  Their  custom  of  hold- 
ing councils  of  prelates  from  all  over  England, 
and  of  adopting  regulations  for  the  English 
Church  at  large,  also  exercised  a  strong  infiuence 
on  the  growth  of  a  feeling  of  national  unity. 
The  English  clergy  in  general  were  not  very  sub- 
missive to  the  authority  of  the  Popes,  and  the 
connection  with  Rome  was  a  very  tenuous  one 
during  the  whole  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  period.  St. 
Dunstan  (q.v.)  was  probably  the  most  famous 
churchman  of  this  period.  The  early  English 
Church  was  distinguished  for  the  learning  and 
laboriousness  of  its  clergy.  Bede  (q.v.)  is  the 
most  eminent  author  whom  it  produced.  Be- 
tween his  time  and  that  of  Alfred,  a  very  great 
degeneracy  had  taken  place  both  in  the  learning 
and  efliciency  of  the  clergy,  which  that  active 
and  enlightened  sovereign  labored  to  restore,  but 
with  only  partial  success.  St.  Boniface  (q.v.) 
and  many  other  English  and  Scottish  mission- 
aries labored  with  success  in  the  propagation  of 
Christianity  in  Germany. 

The  monastic  system  took  strong  hold  on  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  and  a  number  of  Benedictine  ab- 
beys were  founded  and  endowed  with  exten- 
sive landed  possessions.  Most  of  the  bishoprics 
which  were  to  remain  the  permanent  adminis- 
trative divisions  of  the  English  national  Church 
were  organized,  and  the  primacy  of  the  two 
metropolitan  sees  of  Canterbury  and  York  was 
acknowledged. 

The  political  organization  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
before  they  were  united  under  one  government  is 
almost  unknown,  and  must  have  been  exceed- 
ingly crude,  being  scarcely  developed  beyond 
tribal  conditions.  After  the  union  under  the 
West  Saxon  monarchy,  however,  they  attained 
a  considerable  degree  of  constitutional  develop- 
ment. The  most  marked  characteristic  was  the 
large  amount  of  power  possessed  by  local  as- 
semblies or  mdts.  The  township  existed  as  an 
economic  and  administrative,  but  scarcely  as  a 
political,  body.  The  political  unit  of  the  coun- 
try was  the  hundred.  It  was  a  certain  stretch 
of  country  or  a  certain  body  of  the  population 
whose  members  met  from  time  to  time  for  vari- 
ous public  functions,  principally  judicial.     The 


significance  of  the  numerical  expression  applied 
to  it  is  quite  unknown.  There  was  an  official 
known  as  the  hundred*8  ealdor,  who  seems  to 
have  presided  at  the  hundred-mot  and  exercised 
certain  police  functions.  Just  as  a  group  of 
townships  made  up  the  hundred,  so  a  group  of 
hundreds  made  up  a  shire,  the  later  county.  The 
inhabitants  of  the  shire  also  held  a  meeting,  the 
shire-m5t,  at  which  judicial  cases  were  settled 
as  well  as  at  the  hundred-mot,  but  which  seems 
to  have  existed  more  normally  for  fiscal  and  mili- 
tary purposes.  The  able-bodied  men  of  the  shire 
when  called  out  for  fighting  purposes  were  known 
as  the  fyrd.  The  administrative  and  military 
head  of  the  shire  was  the  ealdormanf  called  later, 
in  imitation  of  the  Danish  term  jarl,  the  earl. 
An  equally  important  if  not  so  exalted  official  of 
the  shire  was  the  shire-reeve  or  sheriff,  the  rep« 
resentative  of  the  King's  power  and  interests  in 
the  shire,  as  the  ealdorman  was  the  representa- 
tive of  local  independence  and  self-government. 

At  the  head  of  the  whole  system  of  govern- 
ment was  the  King,  although  ordinarily  he  took 
no  important  political  action  except  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  witan,  that  is  to  say,  the  great 
men  of  the  country — the  prelates,  the  ealdor- 
men,  members  of  the  royal  family,  and  various 
royal  officials.  The  gatherings  of  these  mag- 
nates to  determine,  along  with  the  King,  on  im- 
portant affairs  of  the  nation,  was  called  the 
witenagemot,  and  was  the  direct  predecessor  of 
the  royal  council  of  the  Norman  period  and  of 
the  House  of  Lords  of  later  times.  The  authority 
of  the  kingship  was  increasing  through  the  whole 
Anglo-Saxon  period,  and  in  the  hands  of  a 
vigorous  king  overrode  all  limitations  by  the 
icitan;  although  in  case  of  inefficiency  or  doubt- 
ful succession,  the  latter  body  exercised  a  real 
power  of  deposition  and  selection.  The  form 
of  election  and  popular  acceptance  was  always 
carried  out. 

In  early  times  a  fundamental  distinction  of 
classes  existed.  The  ceorl  class  were  the  great 
body  of  the  people;  the  eorl  class  were  the  no- 
bility by  blood.  The  term  eorl  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  earl,  mentioned  above,  with  which  it 
has  no  historical  connection.  This  distinction 
of  classes  was  reflected  in  the  amount  of  the 
money-fine  imposed  for  murder  or  other  vio- 
lence, the  payment  to  the  injured  person  or  to 
his  relatives  being  greater  in  case  he  were  of  eorl 
rank  than  if  he  were  ceorl.  Members  of  the 
royal  family  were  known  as  ofthelings.  Below 
all  these  classes  were  the  theotos,  or  slaves.  An- 
other distinction  which  seems  to  have  grown  up 
later  and  superseded  the  division  into  eorl  and 
ceorl,  was  one  dependent  on  military  service  or 
personal  relationship  to  the  king  or  other  great 
man.  A  gesith  or  thegn  was  a  personal  follower 
of  a  powerful  man,  who  usually  obtained  land 
and  privileges  as  a  result  of  service.  Ultimately, 
thegn  seems  to  have  become  a  general  expression 
for  any  member  of  the  class  of  gentry  who  was 
not  known  by  the  higher  title  of  earl,  ealdorman 
or  eetheling. 

BiBLiOGBAPHT.  Green,  The  Making  of  Eng- 
land (London,  1883),  and  The  Conquest  of 
England  (London,  1884);  Ramsay,  The  Foun- 
dations of  England  (London,  1898) ;  Stubbs, 
Constitutional  History  of  England  (Oxford, 
1880)  ;  Taylor,  History  of  the  Anglo-Sawons. 
For  a  full  bibliography  of  the  Anglo-Saxons,  see 
Gross,    Sources  and  Literature  of  English  His- 


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ANOOSTtJ&A  BAKK 


tory    (London,    1900)  ;    Turner,   History  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons    (London,   1799-1806).      See  Eng- 
land. 
ANGLO-SAXON  VEB^ION.     See  Bible. 

ANGK)Ly  An-goK  The  capital  of  a  department 
of  tbe  same  name,  and  of  the  province  of  Mal- 
leco,  Chile,  70  miles  southeast  of  Concepcion.  It 
is  on  a  branch  railway  line  which  extends  45 
miles  southward  to  Traiguen.  Pop.  in  1886, 
G331;  1895,7056. 

ANGOLA,  in-gc/li  (Portug.  for  the  native 
name  Ngola ) .  A  Portuguese  colony  in  West  Af- 
rica, extending  from  6°  to  17°  S.  lat.  and  from 
12*  to  about  25°  E.  long.  (Map:  Africa,  F  6).  It 
is  bounded  by  German  Southwest  Africa  on  the 
south,  British  Central  Africa  on  the  east,  and 
Congo  Free  State  on  the  east  and  north.  Its 
coast  line  on  the  Atlantic  is  about  1000  miles  long, 
and  its  entire  area,  including  the  small  posses- 
sion of  Kabinda,  north  of  the  Congo,  is  nearly 
485,000  square  miles.  The  surface  is  very 
mountainous  in  the  west,  where  some  of  the 
peaks  reach  an  altitude  of  about  8000  feet.  In 
the  interior  there  is  also  an  extended  range  of 
mountains.  The  coast  line  forms  a  great  num- 
ber of  harbors,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
Loanda,  Lobito,  Benguela,  and  Mossamedes.  The 
rivers  are  mostly  short,  and  usually  dry  up  dur- 
ing the  arid  season.  The  two  most  important 
and  only  navigable  rivers  are  the  Kwanza  and 
Kunene,  both  flowing  into  the  Atlantic.  The 
temperature  varies  considerably,  owing  to  the 
uneven  formation  of  the  surface.  The  rain- 
fall is  heavier  in  the  northern  part  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  coast  than  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  colony.  The  agricultural 
products  of  Angola  consist  of  manioc,  coffee, 
bananas,  sugar  cane,  'tobacco,  and  cereals.  The 
land  is  held  mostly  in  very  large  plantations  by 
the  Portuguese,  and  the  condition  of  the  native 
farm  laborers   is  very  close  to  actual   slavery. 

The  trade  is  chiefly  with  Portugal.  The 
chief  articles  exported  are  coffee,  rubber,  ivory, 
wax,  and  fish.  The  imports  consist  mainly  of  food 
products  and  textiles.  The  total  value  of  the  im- 
ports and  exports  for  1899  was  6,314,846  milreis 
($6,820,000)  and  7,035.414  ($7,598,247).  The 
principal  port  is  Loanda,  the  capital  of  the  col- 
ony, with  a  very  considerable  shipping.  There  is 
a  railway  line  about  250  miles  connect- 
ing Loanda  with  Ambaka,  which  is  planned  to 
be  extended  to  Malanje.  Several  lines  are  also 
planned  to  be  constructed  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  country.  The  telegraph  lines  of  Angola 
had  a  total  length  of  over  800  miles  at  the  end 
of  1899.  The  finances  of  the  colony  are  in  a 
rather  strained  condition,  in  spite  of  heavy  tax- 
ation. The  budget  for  1899-1900  gives  the  rev- 
enue as  1,673,111  milreis  ($1,806,959),  expendi- 
tures 2,013,671  ($2,174,764).  For  administra- 
tive purposes  the  colony  is  divided  into  five  dis- 
tricts, which  are  controlled  by  the  Portuguese 
Government,  but  the  greater  part  of  Angola 
is  under  the  rule  of  native  chiefs.  At  the  head 
of  the  colony  is  a  governor,  appointed  by  the 
Portuguese  Government.  The  population  of  An- 
gola can  be  hardly  given  with  any  degree  of  ac- 
curacy, estimates  ranging  all  the  way  from  four 
to  twelve  millions.  The  bulk  of  the  population 
consists  of  Bundus.  The  number  of  Europeans 
is  comparatively  small, only  about  4000;  but  they 
have  exercised  a  great  modifying  influence  on 
the   native    population    inhabiting   the   western 


part  of  the  colony  as  regards  their  customs  and 
economic  condition.  The  aborigines  in  the  in- 
terior have  retained  their  ancient  institutions 
intact.  The  authority  of  Portugal  in  the  west- 
ern part  of  Africa  was  first  established  by  the 
Portuguese  explorer  Diogo  Cam,  who  visited  the 
estuary  of  the  Congo  in  1484.  Very  little,  how- 
ever, was  done  by  flie  Portuguese  Government  to 
extend  its  rule  further  inland,  and  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  sixteenth  century  it  was  almost  en- 
tirely superseded  by  the  Dutch.  Gradually,  by 
definite  treaties,  the  Portuguese  possessions  in 
West  Africa  were  extended  to  their  present  pro- 
portions. The  claim  of  Portugal  to  the  lower 
Congo  was  settled  by  compromise  at  the  Berlin 
Conference  of  1886,  when  she  was  awarded  the 
territory  of  Kabinda  north  of  the  Congo. 

Consult:  J.  de  Vasconcellos,  As  Golonias  Por- 
tuguesas  (Lisbon,  1897);  Chfttelaine,  Angola 
(Washington,  1893). 

ANGO^BA  (ancient  Gk.  'AvKvpa,  Ankyra; 
Lat.  Ancyra;  Turk.  Enguri),  The  capital  of  the 
Turkish  vilayet  of  the  same  name,  in  the  moun- 
tainous interior  of  Asia  Minor,  and  distant  from 
Constantinople  about  220  miles.  The  city  is 
fabled  to  have  been  built  by  Midas,  the  son  of  the 
Phrygian  Gordius.  It  was  a  fiourishing  city 
under  the  Persians;  became  the  capital  city  of 
the  Gallic  Tectosages,  who  settled  in  Asia  Minor 
about  227  B.C.;  was  a  principal  seat  of  eastern 
trade  under  the  Komans,  and  w^as  made  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia  Prima.  It 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  early  churches  of 
Galatia,  and  the  scene  of  two  Christian  councils, 
held  in  314  and  358.  A  decisive  battle  between 
the  Turks  and  Tartars  was  fought  near  Angora  in 
1402,  in  which  Timur  defeated  and  took  prisoner 
the  Sultan  Bajazet  I.  A  temple  of  white  marble 
was  erected  by  the  citizens  of  Ancyra  to  the  Em- 
peror Augustus,  who  had  greatly  beautified  the 
city,  and  his  deeds  were  recorded  in  inscriptions 
upon  a  number  of  tablets  and  the  columns  of  an 
altar.  These  inscriptions,  the  Monumentum  An- 
cyranum,j  discovered  by  Busbecq  in  1553,  are  im- 
portant for  the  elucidation  of  ancient  history. 
They  were  first  printed  in  Schott^s  edition  of  Au- 
relius  Victor  (Antwerp,  1579),  and  have  been 
edited  by  Mommsen  (Berlin,  1883),  and  Willing 
( Halle,  1 897 ) .  The  present  Angora  contains  about 
30,000  inhabitants,  of  whom  one-third  are  Ar- 
menians. The  district  is  famous  for  its  breed  of 
goats,  with  beautiful  silky  hair  eight  inches  long. 
Of  this  goat-hair  a  kind  of  yarn  is  made,  known 
as  Turkish  yarn  or  camel  yarn,  of  which  a  man- 
ufacture of  camlets  is  extensively  carried  on  in 
Angora  itself.  The  Angora  goat  is  bred  for  its 
hair  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in  Victoria, 
and  has  also  been  successfully  introduced  into  the 
United  States.  Of  the  skin  of  the  Angora  goat 
the  fine  oriental  Morocco  leather  is  made.  Many 
of  the  animals  in  this  region  are  characterized  by 
the  length  and  softness  of  their  hair,  especially 
the  dogs,  rabbits,  and  cats.  This  peculiarity 
seems  to  depend  upon  the  climate,  and  soon  dis- 
appears in  Europe. 

ANGOBA  CAT,  GOAT,  etc.  See  Cat;  Goat, 
etc. 

ANGOBNXT,  ftn'gdr-nSo'.     See  Noornu. 

ANGOSTTJKA,  Wg6s-t7S6^rk,  See  Ciudad 
BolIvar. 

ANGOSTUBA  BABK,  or  ANGXTSTXTBA 
BABK,  or  Cusparia  Bark.     The  aromatic  bit- 


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ANGOSTURA  BABK. 


566 


ANGRA  PEQITESTA 


ter  bark  of  certain  trees  of  the  natural  order 
Rubiacese  and  tribe  Cuapariee,  natives  of  Vene- 
zuela and  other  countries  of  South  America. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  town  of  Angostura, 
whence  it  is  exported.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
used  in  Spain  as  early  as  1759.  It  has  been  em- 
ployed as  a  remedy  for  weakness  of  digestion,  di- 
arrhea, dysentery,  and  fevers.  It  is  tonic  and 
stimulant.  The  most  important  of  the  trees  pro- 
ducing it  is  the  Galipea  officinalis,  which  grows 
upon  the  mountains  of  Colombia  and  near  the 
Orinoco.  It  is  a  tree  12  to  20  feet  high  and  3 
to  6  feet  in  diameter,  having  a  gray  bark,  tri- 
foliate leaves,  with  oblong  leaflets  about  10 
inches  long,  which,  when  fresh,  have  the  odor  of 
tobacco,  and  flowers  about  an  inch  long,  in 
racemes,  white,  hairy,  and  fragrant.  The  bark 
contains  a  chemical  substance  called  angoaturin^ 
cusparin,  or  galipein,  to  which  its  medicinal  effi- 
cacy is  ascribed.  It  is  supposed  that  a  variety 
of  angostura  bark  is  produced  by  Galipea  cus- 
paria  (called  by  some  Bonplandia  trifoliata),  a 
majestic  tree  of  60  to  80  feet  in  height,  with 
fragrant  trifoliate  leaves  more  than  2  feet  long. 
Angostura  bark  was  formerly  believed  to  be  one 
of  the  most  valuable  of  febrifuges;  but  its  use 
is  at  present  very  limited,  and  has,  indeed,  in 
some  countries  of  Europe  been  prohibited,  in  con- 
8e(}uence  of  its  frequent  adulteration  with  the 
poisonous  bark  of  the  Strychnos  nux  vomica,  or 
the  substitution  of  that  bark  for  it.  This  poi- 
sonous bark  is  sometimes  called  false  Angostura 
bark.  It  differs  from  the  true  Angostura  bark 
in  having  no  odor,  in  its  much  greater  weight 
and  compactness,  in  its  inner  surface  being  in- 
capable of  separation  into  small  laminse,  and  in 
the  effects  which  are  produced  upon  it  by  acids 
and  other  tests,  particularly  in  its  outer  surface 
being  rendered  dark- green  or  blackish  by  nitric 
acid,  while  that  of  the  true  Angostura  bark  is 
rendered  slightly  orange-red.     See  Liqueub. 

ANGOULtlMEy  ilN'goo'l&m'.  The  capital  of 
the  department  of  Charente  in  France,  and 
formerly  of  the  province  of  Angoumois.  It  is  built 
upon  a  ridge,  down  the  north  slope  of  which 
straggle  the  quaint  houses  and  crooked  streets 
of  the  old  town  (Map:  France,  G  6).  The  new 
town  occupies  the  south  slope.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Charente,  and  among  its  industries  are  a 
number  of  paper  mills  and  manufactures  of  wine, 
brandy,  woolen  stuffs,  linen,  and  earthenware. 
It  possesses  a  royal  college,  a  museum  of  nat- 
ural history,  a  naval  academy,  a  theological  sem- 
inary, and  a  library  of  22,000  volumes.  It  is 
the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  the  cathedral  of  St.  Pe- 
ter dates  from  1101.  The  founding  of  the  see 
took  place  in  379,  and  Clovis  built  the  earliest 
cathedral  in  507.  In  the  centre  of  the  town 
stands  the  remnant  of  the  ancient  castle  of  An- 
goul^me,  in  which  was  born  Margaret  of  Na- 
varre, the  author  of  the  Heptameron  and  other 
works.  Pop.,  1901,  37,650.  Consult:  Castai^e, 
La  Cath4drale  d^AngoulSme  (AngoulSme,  1834)  ; 
Nanglard,  Fouille  historique  du  dioc^e  d'Angou- 
Ume  (Angouieme,  1894-97);  Babinet  de  Ren- 
cogne,  VHiatoire  du  commerce  et  de  VindustHe 
en  Angoumois    (AngoulCme,   1878-79). 

ANGOUL^ICE,  Charles  de  Valois,  Due  d' 
(1573-1650).  The  illegitimate  son  of  Charles 
IX.  of  France  and  Marie  Touehet.  Until  1619, 
he  was  known  as  Comte  d'Auvergne.  He  was  im- 
prisoned in  the  Bastile  from  1605  to  1616  for 
having  plotted  against  Henry  IV.    He  was  then 


released  by  Louis  XIII.  and  restored  to  his  rank 
in  the  army,  which  he  commanded  at  the  siege 
of  La  Kochelle  in  1627.  He  left  some  memoirs 
of  the  reigns  of  Henry  III  and  Henry  IV. 

ANGOUL^HE,  Louis  Antoine  de  Bourbon, 
Duo  D'  (1776-1844).  The  eldest  son  of  Charles 
X.  of  France  and  Dauphin  during  his  father's 
reign.  He  retired  from  France  with  his  father 
(who  was  then  the  Comte  d'Artois)  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  Revolution,  and  spent  some  time 
in  militanr  studies  at  Turin.  In  August,  1792, 
he  entered  Germany  at  the  head  of  a  body  of 
French  ^migrda,  and  soon  after  retired  to  Edin- 
burgh. In  1799  he  married  his  cousin,  Marie 
Th^r^se  Charlotte,  daughter  of  Louis  XVI.,  with 
whom  until  1814  he  lived  in  exile.  On  the  recall 
of  his  uncle,  Louis  XVIII.,  he  was  appointed 
lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom ;  but  he  failed 
in  his  attempt  to  oppose  Napoleon  and  was 
forced  to  capitulate.  After  the  second  restora- 
tion he  was  sent  by  Louis  XVIII.  to  the  southern 
provinces  to  repress  the  political  and  religious 
outbreaks  there,  and  in  1823  he  led  into  Spain 
the  French  army,  which  put  an  end  to  the  consti- 
tution and  restored  Ferdinand  VII.  to  absolute 
power.  He  was  a  man  of  phlegmatic  disposition 
and  mean  abilities.  When  the  Revolution  took 
place  in  July,  1830,  he  signed,  with  his  father, 
an  abdication  in  favor  of  his  nephew,  the  Due  de 
Bordeaux  (Comte  de  Chambord)  ;  and  when  the 
Chambers  declared  the  family  of  Charles  X.  to 
have  forfeited  the  throne,  he  accompanied  him 
into  exile  to  Holyrood,  to  Prague,  and  to  Oorz, 
where  he  died. 

AJl'GK)nL£miy  Marie  Th^£:se  Charlotte. 
DUGHESSE  d'  (1778-1861).  The  daughter  of 
Louis  XVI,  She  was  imprisoned  in  the  Temple 
with  her  parents,  but  in  1795  was  exchanged  for 
some  French  prisoners  in  the  hands  of  the  Aus- 
trians,  and  lived  at  Vienna  till  her  marriage,  in 
1799,  with  her  cousin,  the  Due  d'Angoul6me. 

ANGBA  BO  HEBOISUO,  &o'gr&  dd  a'r^^s'- 
md  ( Portug.  bay  of  heroism ) .  The  capital  of  the 
Azores,  a  seaport  at  the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on 
the  south  coast  of  the  island  of  Terceira,  lat.  38' 
33'  N.,  long.  27*  12' W.(Map:  Portugal,  B5).  It 
is  a  station  for  ships  between  Portugal  and  Bra- 
zil and  the  East  Indies,  but  the  harbor  is  very 
much  exposed.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  Portuguese 
governor-general  of  the  Azores  and  of  the  bishop; 
is  well  built,  but  dirty;  strongly  fortified,  and 
protected  by  a  citadel  at  the  foot  of  the  Monte 
de  Brazil;  contains  a  military  college  and  ar- 
senal, several  scientific  and  literary  societies,  a 
cathedral,  and  numerous  churches.  There  is  a 
considerable  export  of  wine,  cheese,  honey,  and 
flax.  This  city  furnished  an  asylum  for  the 
Portuguese  regency  from  1830  till  the  taking  ot 
Oporto,  in  1833,  by  Dom  Pedro.     Pop.,  11,000. 

ANGRA  PEQUBS^A,  Wgrk  pft-kfi'ny&  (Sp. 
pequena,  little,  small;  see  Anora) .  A  settlement 
and  a  bay  in  German  Southwest  Africa  (q.v.i. 
It  has  the  best  sheltered  harbor  in  the  German 
possessions  in  that  part  of  the  continent  (Map: 
Africa,  F  7).  The  commercial  importance  of 
the  bay  has  almost  entirely  disappeared  on  ac- 
count of  the  lack  of  fresh  water  and  the  general 
barrenness  of  the  surrounding  country.  The  set- 
tlement of  Angra  Pequefia  was  established  by 
the  Bremen  merchant  Lfideritz,  in  1883,  and  it 
was  the  nucleus  of  the  present  German  South- 
west Africa.    It  was  at  Angra  Pequefia  that  the 


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ANGRA  PEQUBlf  A. 


567 


ANHALT. 


German  flag  was  first  planted  on  African  soil, 
in  1884. 

ANOBIy  ftn'gr^.  A  city  in  south  Italy,  four 
miles  east  of  Pompeii  (Map:  Italy,  J  7) .  It  has 
a  castle  and  a  park,  and  silk  and  cotton  factories. 
South  of  the  city,  on  the  ancient  Mons  Lactarius, 
Teja,  the  last  King  of  the  Ostrogoths,  was  de- 
feated by  Narses  in  553.  Pop.,  1881,  7700;  1901 
(commune),  11,219. 

ANGSTBOIC,  ^ng^strem,  Anders  Jons- (1814- 
74 ) .  A  Swedish  physicist.  He  entered  the  Uni- 
versity of  Upsala  in  1833;  became  privat-docent 
in  physics  in  1839,  keeper  of  the  astronomical 
observatory  in  1843,  and  professor  of  physics  in 
1858.  From  1867  till  his  death  he  was  secre- 
tary to  the  Royal  Society  of  Sciences  at  Upsala. 
He  wrote  on  heat,  magnetism,  and  especially  on 
optics.  Among  his  works  were  Recherchea  aur 
le  spectre  aolaire  (1869),  in  which  he  published 
his  determinations  of  the  wave  lengths  of  most 
of  the  dark  lines  of  the  solar  spectrum  known  as 
the  Fraunhofer  lines;  8ur  lea  spectres  des  gas 
simples  (1871).  and  M4moire  sur  la  temperature 
de  la  terrti  M871).  His  best  known  work,  Op- 
tiska  Undersokningnr  (1853),  treats  of  the  prin- 
ciples of  spectrum  analysis. 

ANGUIEB,  ttN'gyft',  FsANgois,  the  elder 
(1604-69).  A  French  sculptor.  He  was  born  at 
Eu,  and  was  a  pupil  of  Simon  Guillain.  After 
a  supplementary  course  of  two  years  in  Italy  he 
was  appointed  by  Louis  XIII.  guardian  of  the 
•cabinet  of  antiques  at  the  Louvre.  Among  his 
sculptures  are  the  following:  "Henri  de  Chabot 
(formerly  at  the  C^lestins,  now  at  Versailles) ; 
*' Jacques  Augustin  de  Thou"  (Louvre),  "Gas- 
parde  de  la  Chatres"  (Versailles),  "Saint  Jac- 
ques de  Souvrfi"  ( Salle  des  Anguier,  Louvre ) . 

ANGUIEB,  Michel  (1614-86).  A  French 
sculptor,  brother  of  Francois  Anguier.  He  was 
bom  at  Eu  and  studied  with  Simon  Guillain, 
after  which  he  took  a  course  of  six  years  at 
Home.  Michel  and  Frangois  were  equally  gifted, 
and  their  works  exhibit  a  remarkable  similarity 
of  feature.  The  masterpiece  of  Michel  is  the 
statue  of  Christ,  executed  in  marble  for  the  Sor- 
bonne  and  now  in  the  church  of  St.  Koche  at 
Paris. 

ANOnHiLAy  fto-gwilla,  or  Little  Snake 
(Sp.  Anguila,  &n-g3^&;  dimin.  of  Lat.  anguis, 
serpent,  snake).  One  of  the  British  West  In- 
dia Islands,  about  150  miles  east  of  Porto  Rico 
(Map  :  West  Indies,  Q  5).  It  is  about  17  miles 
long  and  4  miles  broad,  with  an  area  of  35  square 
miles,  and  a  population  of  (1893)  3838,  mostly 
negroes.  The  industries  are  cattle  raising  and 
the  production  of  salt,  obtained  from  a  lake  in 
the  centre  of  the  island. 


ANQJJBf  un^gt&s,  Eabls  of. 
Family  op. 


See  Douglas, 


ANGUS,  Joseph,  D.D.  (1816—).  A  Baptist 
educator,  bom  at  Bolam,  Northumberland,  Eng- 
land. He  was  educated  at  the  University  of  Ed- 
inburgh, and  became  president  of  the  Baptist  Re- 
gents' Park  College,  in  London,  in  1849.  He  was 
n  member  of  the  Bible  Revision  Committee,  and 
is  well  known  as  the  author  of  the  Bible  Hand- 
look  (London,  1854),  Handbook  of  the  English 
Tongue  (1862),  Handbook  of  English  Literature 
(1868),  Handbook  of  Specimens  of  English  Lit- 
erature (1866),  and  the  commentary  on  Hebrews 
in   Schaff's   International   Commentary    (1883). 


ANOUSSOLA,An-g5o's6-l&,  or  ANGUISCIO- 
I«A,  An-gwe'shd-lA,  Sophonisba  (1533?-1625?). 
A  celebrated  Italian  portrait  painter,  who  was 
born  at  Cremona  in  the  year  1530  or  1533. 
She  was  instructed  in  art  by  Bernardino  Campi, 
and  imparted  her  own  knowledge  to  three  sisters, 
who  also  became  painters,  though  they  never  at- 
tained a  prominence  so  great  as  that  of  Sopho- 
nisba. Augussola's  fame  reached  the  ears  of 
Philip  II.,  who  invited  her  to  Spain,  made  her 
court  painter,  and  liberally  rewarded  her  for  her 
work.  She  painted  portraits  not  only  of  the 
King,  and  of  Queen  Isabella,  but  also  of  many 
persons  of  high  rank.  At  the  death  of  her  first 
husband,  a  Sicilian  nobleman,  she  went  to  Genoa, 
and  here  married  Orazio  Lomenilli.  In  later 
years  she  became  blind,  and  it  was  then  that  Van 
Dyck  visited  her  and  professed  himself  en- 
lightened by  her  conversations  on  art.  A  por- 
trait of  herself  playing  on  a  harpsichord  is  now 
at  Althorpe  in  Northamptonshire.  The  picture  of 
her  sisters  playing  chess  is  also  in  England.  Ex- 
amples of  her  work  may  still  be  seen  at  Florence 
and  Madrid.  She  died  at  Genoa  in  1620  or  1625. 
Consult  C.  E.  Clement,  Painters,  Sculptors,  Ar- 
chitects and  Engravers  (Boston,  1899). 

ANGWANTIBO,  ao'gw&n-tgOjd.  The  slow 
lemur.     See  Lemur.- 

ANHALT,  an'h&lt.  A  duchy  of  the  German 
Empire,  inclosed  within  Prussian  territory 
(provinces  of  Saxony  and  Brandenburg), with  an 
area  of  906  square  miles  ( Map :  Germany,  E  3 ) . 
The  western  part,  adjacent  to  Brunswick,  par- 
takes of  the  mountainous  character  of  the  Hartz 
region,  and  inclines  gradually  toward  the  valley 
of  the  Elbe.  The  latter  traverses  in  a  west- 
ern direction  the  main  part  of  the  Duchy,  and 
receives  the  Saale,  Mulde,  and  a  few  minor 
tributaries.  Anhalt  has  a  fertile  soil  well  culti- 
vated and  mostly  under  tillage.  Rye,  wheat, 
potatoes,  oats,  and  grasses  are  grown  extensively. 
The  forests  occupy  a  considerable  area,  and  be- 
long chiefly  to  the  State.  The  chief  mineral 
product  of  Anhalt  is  salts  of  different  kinds,  which 
are  worked  exclusively  by  the  Government.  The 
output  of  metal  ore  is  very  limited,  while  coal  is 
produced  to  the  amount  of  about  1,300,000  tons 
annually.  The  manufacturing  and  mineral  in- 
dustries give  occupation  to  over  47  per  cent,  of 
the  population.  The  chief  manufactured  prod- 
ucts are  metal  articles,  sugar,  cement,  bricks,  soap 
•and  other  toilet  articles,  leather,  woodenware, 
and  spirits.  Exports  are  chiefly  sugar,  spirits, 
grains,  salt,  carpets,  and  matches.  The  railway 
lines  of  Anhalt  nave  a  total  length  of  about  180 
mileu,  and  belong  chiefly  to  the  State.  The  con- 
stitution of  the  Duchy  vests  the  executive  power 
with  the  Duke,  who  is  assisted  by  the  Diet.  The 
latter  is  composed  of  thirty-six  members,  elected 
indirectly  for  a  period  of  six  years.  The  immedi- 
ate executive  authority  is  vested  in  the  Minister 
of  State.  Anhalt  is  represented  by  one  member 
in  the  Bundesrath  and  two  deputies  in  the 
Reichstag  of  the  German  Empire.  For  purposes 
of  local  administration  it  is  divided  into  six 
circles.  The  budget  for  1900-01  balanced  at 
about  15,500,000  marks  ($3,689,000).  The  rev- 
enue is  derived  from  taxes,  customs,  and  State 
domains,  mostly  salt  works.  The  military  organ- 
ization of  the  Duchy  is  under  the  control  of 
Prussia.  Education,  elementary  as  well  as  sec- 
ondary, is  well  provided  for  by  the  State.  "The 
State  religion  is  Protestant,  but  the  Catholic 


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ANHALT. 


568 


ANHYDRIDE. 


and  Jewish  churches  are  also  subsidized  to  some 
extent.  According  to  the  census  of  1900,  the 
population  of  Anhalt  was  316,027,  showing  an 
increase  of  more  than  16  per  cent,  for  the  decade. 
Over  90  per  cent,  of  the  population  is  Protestant. 
Capital,  Dessau  (q.v.). 

The  reigning  house  of  Anhalt  traces  its  origin 
to  Albert  the  Bear,  Margrave  of  Brandenburg, 
upon  the  death  of  whose  grandson,  Henry  I.,  in 
1252,  the  Anhalt  territories  of  the  family  were 
divided  into  three  parts,  which  gave  rise  to  the 
related  families  of  Bernburg,  Aschersleben,  and 
Zerbat.  The  subsequent  history  of  Anhalt  is  a 
monotonous  succession  of  reunions  and  reparcel- 
ings.  All  the  parts  were  united  between  1570 
and  1586,  and  were  then  broken  up  again  into 
four  parts, Dessau, Bernburg,  Kothen,and  Zerbst. 
By  the  successive  extinction  of  the  last  three 
lines,  Anhalt  was  definitely  reunited  in  1863. 

ANHALT-BEBNBUita,  -berna>virK,  Chhis- 
TTAN,  PiUNCE  of  (1568-1630).  A  German  gen- 
eral, founder  of  the  Anhalt-Bernburg  branch  of 
Anhalt.  In  1608  he  took  a  leading  part  in  the 
formation  of  the  so-called  Union  of  the  Protes- 
tant German  Princes  directed  "against  the  en- 
croachments of  the  Catholics.  After  acting  as 
second  commander  of  the  armv  of  that  league, 
he  entered  the  service  of  King  Frederick  of 
Bohemia,  and  led  the  army,  which  was  defeated 
by  Tilly  at  Prague  (1620) . 

ANHALT  -  DESSATTy  -d^s^ou,  Leopold  I., 
fourth  Prince  of  ( 1696-1747) .  A  Prussian  field- 
marshal.  He  entered  the  Prussian  service  at  the 
age  of  twelve,  and  succeeded  his  father  five  years 
later.  He  distinguished  himself  at  HSchstadt 
or  Blenheim  (1704),  and  in  Prince  Eugene's 
brilliant  campaigns  in  Italy.  After  serving  as 
a  volunteer  at  Malplaquet  (1709),  he  received 
command  of  the  Prussian  forces  in  the  Nether- 
lands, and  aided  Marlborough  in  his  operations 
against  Villars.  In  1712  he  was  made  field- 
marshal  and  military  counselor  to  King  Freder- 
ick T.  Under  Frederick  William  I.  Marshal  Des- 
sau aided  in  the  reorganization  of  the  Prussian 
army.  As  one  of  Frederick  the  Great's  generals, 
he  diistinguished  himself  in  the  War  of  the  Aus- 
trian Succession,  in  which  he  gained  a  bloody 
victory  over  the  Austrians  at  Kesseldorf  in  1745. 
To  his  soldiers  Leopold  of  Anhalt-Dessau  was 
known  as  "Der  Alte  Dessauer"  (Old  Dessau). 
Carlyle,  in  his  Frederick  the  Grea^  speaks  of  him 
as  "a  man  of  vast  dumb  faculty,  dumb  but  fertile, 
deep — no  end  of  imagination — no  end  of  ingenu- 
ities— with  much  mother  wit  as  in  whole  talking 
parliaments."  There  are  numerous  lives  of  him  in 
German;  the  best  ones  are  those  of  Varnhagen 
von  Ense  (Leipzig,  1872)  and  Crousaz  (Berlin, 
1875).  There  is  an  incomplete  autobiography, 
edited  by  Hosaus,  Selhsthiographie  des  Fursten 
Leopold.  Consult  also  Carlyle,  Frederick  the 
a  rent   (I^ndon,  1858). 

AN'HABICON^C  BA'TIO  (Gk.  av,  an,  priv. 
+  dpf^ovia,.  harmoniaf  harmony,  agreement).  An 
important  form  of  ratio  introduced  by  MObius 
under  the  name  Doppelverhaltnisa  (double  ra- 
tio), but  called  by  Chasles  rapport  anharmon- 
ique.  If  a  pencil  of  four  lines  with  vertex  0 
are  cut  by  any  transversal  88  in  points  A,  B, 

C^  D,  ^  is  called  the  anharmonic  ratio  of  the 

points  and  also  of  the  pencil,  and  is  symbolized 
by  ]  O,  ABCD  \ ,   or   simply    ]  ABGD  \ .     Since 


AB'GD 
AD'BG 


sin  AOB  sin  COD 


,  the  anharmonic  ra- 


sinAOD-sinBOG^ 
tio  is  the  same  for  any  transversal,  such  as  ST, 
of  given  pencil,  so  that 


\ 


ABGD 


=  ]  A'B'CD'  I 


The    anharmonic    ratio   i  ABGD  [   admits  of 
certain  interchanges  of  letters  without  altering 


j  ACBD  i=  1  —  A  -j 


the  value  of  the  ratio.  In  fact,  of  the  twenty- 
four  permutations  of  the  letters  only  six  give 
different  anharmonic  ratios,  and  these  six  are 
thus  related:    U    \  ABGD  \  =yi,  then 

ABDC [ =  ^ 

\adbg\='-=^'    Jadcb[  =  ^ 

When  the  segments  are  so  related  that  the 
value  of  the  anharmonic  ratio  is  1,  the  ratio  is 
called  harmonic.  The  subject  of  anharmonic  ra- 
tio plays  an  important  part  in  projective  geom- 
etry. Consult  Cremona,  Elements  of  Projective 
Geometry  (London,  1885).     See  Gboicbtby. 

AN'HIBBOTaCS  (Gk.  av,  an,  priv.  +  IiJpK, 
hidros,  sweat).  Drugs  which  diminish  the  secre- 
tion of  sweat.  They  are  chiefiy  used  in  the  pro- 
fuse night-sweats  of  phthisis.  'The  most  impor- 
tant are:  Atropine,  picrotoxine,  agaricin,  cain- 
phoric  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and  gallic  acid 
(qq.v). 

ANHIMA,  &n^^m&  (Brazilian  name).  The 
horned  screamer,  one  of  the  curious  South  Amer- 
ican birds  of  the  family  Anhimidse.  See  Chaba, 
and  Screamer. 

ANHIN^GA.  A  generic  and  native  name  in 
South  America  of  the  snake-birds,  or  darters 
(family  Anhingidae).  See  Darter,  and  illustra- 
tions on  plate  of  Fishing  Biros  (for  similar 
species ) . 

ANHOLT,  ILn^dlt.  An  island  belonging  to 
the  district  of  Banders,  Denmark,  situated  in 
the  centre  of  the  Kattegat,  about  22  miles  from 
the  peninsula  of  Jutland  and  the  mainland  of 
Sweden.  (Map:  Denmark,  E  2).  Anholt  Island 
has  an  area  of  eight  square  miles,  and  is  nearly 
twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad.  At  the  eastern  end 
is  a  lighthouse  to  mark  the  dangerous  shoals  and 
reefs  of  the  neighborhood. 

ANHY^BIDE  (Gk.  waterless,  from  dv,  o«, 
priv.  -}- W«p,  hyddr,  water).  An  oxide  which 
combines  with  water  to  form  an  acid,  or  an  oxide 
which  combines  with  a  basic  oxide  to  form  a  salt 


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569 


ANILINE. 


Sulphuric  oxide  (SO,)  when  added  to  water 
(HjO),  forms  sulphuric  acid  (H2SO4)  ;  sul- 
phuric oxide  is,  therefore,  termed  the  anhy- 
dride of  sulphuric  acid.  Again,  chromic  oxide 
(CfOb)  combines  with  barium  oxide  (BaO), 
yielding  barium  chromate  (BaCr04)  ;  chromic 
oxide  is,  therefore,  classed  as  an  anhydride. 

AJIHY'DBITE  (Gk.  ay,  on,  priv.  -f  vdw/o, 
hydOr,  water).  An  anhydrous  calcium  sulphate 
that  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhomhic  system.  It 
is  found  crystallized,  fibrous,  finely  granular,  or 
scaly  granular.  A  scaly  granular  variety  from 
Vulpino,  in  Lombardy,  Italy,  takes  a  fine  polish, 
and  has  been  used  for  sculpture.  In  the  United 
States  it  is  found  in  Lockport,  N.  Y.,  near  Nash- 
ville, Tenn.,  and  extensively  in  Nova  Scotia. 

JLlSn,  &^n6  (native  Brazilian  name).  A  bird 
of  the  genus  Crotophaga,  inhabiting  the  warmer 
parts  of  America,  and  related  to  the  cuckoo.  Three 
species  are  known,  the  most  common  of  which 
{Crotophaga  ani)  is  found  in  Florida,  the  West 
Indies,  and  tropical  America,  where  it  is  kno^vn 
as  the  *'black  witch,"  "savannah  blackbird,"  and 
"rain  crow."  The  anis  are  birds  of  medium  size, 
about  one  foot  in  length,  and  having  a  black,  lus- 
trou£  plumage  with  blue  and  violet  reflections. 
The  tail  contains  only  eight  feathers,  the  small- 
est number  credited  to  any  living  bird.  The  bill 
is  exceedingly  compressed,  the  upper  mandible 
forming  a  thin  crest.  The  nests  are  built  in 
bushes,  and  the  eggs  are  greenish  overlaid  with 
a  i^'hite  chalky  substance.  One  species  is  said  to 
be  communistic,  several  individuals  uniting  to 
forna  a  large  nest,  which  they  use  in  common, 
and  the  practice  may  be  common  to  the  tribe. 
A  Costa  Rican  species  {Crotophaga  sulcirostris) 
is  named  "el  garapatero"  because  it  accompa- 
nies cattle  in  the  fields,  settles  on  their  backs, 
and  picks  from  their  hides  the  insect  parasites 
called  garapatos.     For  illustration,  see  Cuckoo. 

.AJenCET-BOUBGEOIS,  a'n6's&'  b^r'zhw^, 
AuousTE  (1806-71).  A  French  dramatist, 
born  in  Paris.  The  splendid  success  of  a  melo- 
drama, OustavCf  ou  le  Napolitain  (Galt^,  1820). 
which  he  wrote  at  the  age  of  nineteen,  induced 
him  to  follow  a  literary  career.  He  soon  became 
a  collaborator  with  some  of  the  leading  authors 
of  France,  such  as  Lockroy,  Decourcelle, 
Labiche,  and  Brisbarre.  Among  the  vaude- 
villes and  comedies  produced  in  this  way 
were:  P^re  et  parrain  (1834),  Paas^  mi- 
nuit  (1839),  Les  rois  Epiciera  (1840),  Le 
prcfnier  coup  de  canif  (1848),  UAvare  en  ganta 
jaunea  (1858),  Lea  mariagea  d*aujourd*hui 
(1861).  In  conjunction  with  Barbier,  Cornu, 
Ixx;kroy,  Masson,  FiSval,  and  others  he  composed 
several  melodramas,  such  as:  Le  Convent  de 
Tonnington  (1830),  PMnet  Leclere  (1832), 
La  Nonne  aanglante  (1835),  Marceau^  ou  lea 
en f ants  de  la  R^puhlique  (1848),  La  dame  de 
la  Halle  (1852),  Uaveugle  (1859),  Le  hoaau 
(1862).  His  independent  works  include:  La 
VHiitienne  (1834,  one  of  his  best  efforts)  ;  La 
paui^re  fiUe  (1838),  and  Stella  (1843).  Anciet- 
Bourgeois  was  a  master  of  dramatic  technique. 
and  was  unsurpassed  in  the  field  of  the  melo- 
drama. He  wrote  in  all  nearly  two  hundred 
pieces,  many  of  which,  however,  were  composed 
in  collaboration  with  others,  such  as  Dumas,  for 
example,  under  whose  name  many  of  Anicet- 
Bourgeois's  productions  are  still  performed. 

ANICETTTS  (M68).  A  bishop  of  Rome 
from  about  157  to  168  a.d.    About  160  a.d.  he 


conferred  with  Polycarp  to  determine  the  proper 
time  tor  celebrating  Easter,  but  they  came  to  no 
agreement.  Although  it  is  not  certain  that  he 
was  a  martyr,  he  is  so  called  in  the  Roman  and 
other  martyrologies.  He  is  commemorated  as  a 
saint  by  the  Roman  Church  on  April  17. 

AN^ILINE  (From  anil,  Ar.  an-nily  for  al, 
the -+-nii,  from  Skr.  nlli,  indigo),  Amido-Ben- 
ZENE,  or  Phenyl-Amine,  CeHsNH,.  A  liquid 
organic  substance  extensively  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  dyes.  Pure  aniline  is  colorless,  has  a 
faint,  somewhat  disagreeable  odor,  and  boils  at 
183**  C.  When  exposed  to  the  action  of  air  and 
light,  it  gradually  turns  dark  red.  It  combines 
with  acids  to  form  salts,  such  as  aniline  hydro- 
chloride, CaHftNHa.HCl.  It  may  be  readily  pre- 
pared by  the  reducing  action  of  nascent  hydro- 
gen on  nitrobenzene,  according  to  the  following 
chemical  equation: 

CcHbNO,    +     6H    =    C.H,NH,    +     2H,0 

Nitrobenzene  Aniline 

On  a  small  scale  the  reduction  is  most  conveni- 
ently effected  by  slowly  adding  strong  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  nitrobenzene  placed  in  a  fiask 
with  granulated  tin ;  the  product  of  the  reaction, 
a  compound  of  aniline  and  chloride  of  tin,  is 
decomposed  with  soda,  and  the  aniline  thus  set 
free  is  separated  from  the  mixture  by  distilling 
with  a  current  of  steam.  On  a  large  industrial 
scale  aniline  is  made  as  follows.  A  small  quan- 
tity of  ground  scrapings  of  soft  iron  castings, 
technically  called  aicarf,  is  introduced,  together 
with  some  water,  into  a  large  cast-iron  still 
furnished  with  powerful  agitators.  Crude  hy- 
drochloric acid  is  then  added,  and  nitrobenzene 
is  allowed  slowly  to  fiow  into  the  still;  at  the 
same  time,  through  another  opening,  the  rest  of 
the  swarf  to  be  employed  in  the  operation  is 
allowed  to  flow  into  the  still  in  a  steady  stream. 
After  the  first  energetic  action  has  subsided, 
the  reacting  mixture  is  heated  with  a  current  of 
steam  introduced  into  the  apparatus  through 
several  pipes.  Six  to  eight  hours  sufiice  to  trans- 
form all  the  nitrobenzene  employed  in  one  opera- 
tion. The  process  may  be  called  continuous, 
since  the  acid  employed  serves  merely  to  start  the 
reaction,  and  might,  theoretically,  be  used  in 
reducing  an  indefinite  quantity  of  nitrobenzene, 
the  reduction  being  effected  by  the  iron  and 
water.  In  reality,  however,  a  portion  of  the 
acid  remains  combined  as  ferrous  chloride,  most 
of  the  iron  being  transformed  into  its  magnetic 
oxide,  FcaO*,  technically  called  black  atuff.  All 
the  aniline  brought  into  commerce  is  made  in 
this  manner.  Aniline  was  first  discovered  in 
1826  by  Unverdorben,  among  the  products  ob- 
tained in  the  destructive  distillation  of  indigo. 
In  1834  Runge  found  it  in  coal-tar;  in  1841 
Zinin  obtained  it  by  reducing  nitrobenzene  with 
sulphuretted  hydrogen,  and  in  1843  Hofmann 
effected  the  same  reduction  with  nascent  hydro- 
gen, by  the  reaction  of  dilute  acid  and  metals. 
The  manufacture  of  aniline  has  been  an  impor- 
tant branch  of  industry  since  1856,  when  the 
discovery  of  mauve  was  perfected  by  Perkin. 

The  qualities  of  commercial  aniline  adapted 
to  certain  purposes,  often  contain,  besides  ani- 
line, large  quantities  of  other  substances.  Thus, 
crude  "aniline  for  red"  contains  only  about  25 
per  cent,  of  aniline,  the  rest  being  ortho-toluidine 
and  para-toluidine,  compounds  chemically  allied 
to  aniline.    The  presence  of  aniline  in  a  sub- 


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ANHJNE. 


570 


ANIMAL. 


stance  submitted  for  analysis  may  be  readily 
detected  by  dissolving  some  of  the  substance  in 
water  and  adding  a  solution  of  bleaching-powder : 
in  the  presence  of  aniline  an  intense  purple  col- 
oration is  produced.  Another  test  for  aniline 
is  afforded  by  the  so-called  carbylamine  reaction : 
a  drop  of  aniline  added  to  a  mixture  of  chloro- 
form and  a  solution  of  caustic  potash  in  ordinary 
alcohol  produces  an  intensely  nauseous  smell, 
due  to  the  formation  of  phenyl-carbylamine 
(penyl  iso-cyanide),  CeHftNC.  For  bibliography, 
«ee  Coal-Tar  Colobs. 

ANILINE  COI/OB43.     See  Coal-Tab  (Colors. 

AN^lCAIi  (Lat.  a  living  being,  from  anima, 
current  of  air,  breath  of  life,  soul,  animtia,  soul, 
mind;  from  the  Skr.  root  an,  to  breathe).  A 
representative  of  one  of  the  two  great  groups 
of  organisms,  the  other  including  plants.  The 
distinction  between  animal  and  plant  is  hard  to 
draw  sharply,  although  the  usual  differences  be- 
tween the  higher  representatives  of  the  two 
groups  are  obvious  enough.  Most  higher  ani- 
mals differ  from  most  higher  plants  in  that  their 
food  is  chiefly  solid  and  organic,  in  their  capacity 
for  locomotion,  in  their  alimentary  tube,  mUscles, 
nervous  system,  and  sense  organs,  in  their  lim- 
ited growth  and  greater  specialization  of  parts. 
This  list  of  differences  is  really  less  formidable 
than  it  appears;  it  resolves  itself  chiefly  into 
a  difference  of  food,  which  demands  that  the 
animal  shall  seek  the  food  and  be  provided  with 
organs  for  locomotion  (muscles,  nervous  syatem, 
and  sense  organs)  and  digestion.  The  difference 
in  general  form  of  body  is  due  to  the  different 
methods  of  getting  the  (dissimilar)  food.  This 
difference  in  food  (solid  and  organic,  as  opposed 
to  fluid  and  inorganic)  serves  in  a  general  way 
to  divide  even  the  lower  animals  from  the  lower 
plants.  But  most  animal  and  plant  parasites  are 
alike  in  requiring  liquid,  organic  food;  even  green 
plants  use  organic  food  (some  in  large  quantities; 
see  Sundew),  and  all  animals  require  inorganic 
food. 

locomotion  is  not  a  distinguishing  characteris- 
tic of  animals,  first,  because  great  groups  of 
animals  are  permanently  attached;  namely, 
among  protozoans,  suctoria,  sponges;  among 
ccelenterates,  most  hydroids  and  corals;  crinoids 
(sea-lilies)  ;  bryozoan^  barnacles,  and  most  as- 
cidians.  Single  cases  ofattached  animals  are  found 
in  other  groups.  Secondly,  bacteria,  diatoms,  oscil- 
laria,  certain  unicellular  green  algae,  and  many 
plant  "swarm-spores"  are  more  or  less  locomo- 
tive. In  respect  to  irritability  there  is  little  fun- 
damental difference  even  between  the  higher  ani- 
mals and  plants,  for  plants  respond  to  the  same 
agents  as  do  animals,  but  less  perfectly.  The 
reproductive  process  is  fundamentally  the  same 
in  the  two  kingdoms.  In  their  chemical  com- 
position the  higher  animals  differ  from  most 
plants;  for  the  former  contain  no  cellulose, 
whereas  the  latter  is  largely  built  up  of  it.  But 
cellulose  is  found  also  among  animals,  especially 
in  the  test  of  the  tunicates.  In  their  cell-struc- 
ture and  cell -physiology  animals  are  almost  in- 
distinguishable from  plants.  The  fundamental 
living  substance,  called  protoplasm,  is  substan- 
tially alike  in  the  two  kingdoms,  and«it  is  prob- 
able that  future  studies  will  make  dimmer  rather 
than  clearer  the  line  separating  them. 

The  principal  functions  of  animals  are  connect- 
ed with  nutrition,  locomotion,  sensation  and  re- 
action, reproduction,  and  relation  to  other  organ- 


isms. Nutrition  involves  first  the  acquisition 
of  food.  Food  is  ( 1 )  inorganic — ^water,  oxygen, 
certain  salts ;  or  ( 2 )  organic — either  vegetable  or 
animal,  either  dead  or  living,  passive  or  active. 
Attached  animals  depend  mostly  on  dead  or  on 
passive  living  organisms,  brought  to  them  in  cur- 
rents of  water.  Those  which  live  on  active  ani- 
mals must  have  the  most  powerful  organs  of 
locomotion  and  sense.  Solid  food  has  to  be  trit- 
urated by  teeth  or  crushing  jaws,  and  digested  in 
a  food-canal.  The  fluids  thus  obtained  pass 
through  the  wall  of  the  food-canal  either  into 
the  general  body  spaces  or  into  blood  vessels, 
which  carry  them  to  the  tissues,  where  they  are 
assimilated  or  burned  for  heat  and  energy.  When 
the  food  is  exclusively  fluid,  it  may  soak  through 
the  body  wall,  as  in  tapeworms,  which  have  no 
alimentary  tract.  The  oxygen  required  passes 
through  the  wall  of  the  body,  is  imbibed  with 
water,  or  enters  through  special  thin  wall-tracts 
of  the  body  surface  known  as  gills  or  lungs. 
The  body  space  or  blood  vessels  carry  the  oxygen 
to  the  tissues,  where  is  is  used  inr  combustion  and 
in  building  up  the  organic  compounds.  The 
waste  products  of  catabolism  in  the  tissues  are 
cast  into  the  body  spaces  (or  blood  vessels)  and 
eliminated,  either  directly  or  by  special  excretory 
organs.  See  Anatomy;  Alimentary  Systek: 
Respibatory  System;  Musculab  System,  and 
similar  articles. 

Locomotion  involves  locomotive  apparatus  of 
divers  kinds,  jets  of  water,  suckers  and  contract- 
ile tubes,  lashes,  tails,  cilia,  paddles,  fins,  wings, 
and  legs.  It  involves  also  muscles  and  a  nervous 
system  to  control  them. 

All  the  protoplasm  of  the  living  body  is  irrita- 
ble, but  parts  of  the  surface  are  told  off  as  areas 
of  special  sense ;  for  contact,  hearing,  taste,  smell, 
sight,  and  temperature.  To  receive  these  impres- 
sions  and  to  set  in  action  appropriate  movements, 
the  central  nervous  system  has  become  special- 
ized. In  the  definite  reactions  which  accompany 
particular  situations  to  the  world  external  to 
the  animal  lie  the  first  evidences  of  a  "psychic 
life."  All  sessile  animals  are  characterized  by 
lack  of  many  sense-organs,  reduction  of  muscular 
and  nervous  systems,  and  reduction  of  instinct?. 

Owing  to  accidents,  the  number  of  individuals 
tends  constantly  to  diminish,  yet  it  must  be 
maintained.  The  single  way  that  organisms 
have  of  making  good  losses  or  increasing  their 
numbers  is  by  dividing;  this  is  the  essence  of 
reproduction  (q.v.).  Of  especial  significance  is 
the  fact  that  in  all  groups  of  animals  the  bits 
which  have  been  constricted  off  (gametes)  from 
time  to  time  unite  in  pairs  to  form  zygotes 
before  going  on  with  their  development.  In  all 
reproduction,  the  dividing  individuals  give  rise  to 
two  incomplete  individuals,  except  in  the  case 
where  the  division  separates  a  "germ  cell"  from 
the  body  that  carried  it.  The  divided  pieces  or 
the  germ  cells  are  imperfect  representatives  of 
the  species :  they  must  "regenerate"  or  "develop" 
to  produce  the  adult  condition.    See  Embrtol- 

OGY;  RePRODITCTION. 

The  relations  of  animals  to  other  organisms 
are  varied.  Many  animals,  especially  in  the 
higher  groups,  care  for  their  young.  Many  pro- 
tect themselves  from  their  enemies  by  conceal- 
ment or  by  flight;  others  are  powerful  for  of- 
fense and  defense.  On  account  of  the  mating 
instincts,  many  higher  animals  have  gained  pe- 
culiar methods  of  appealing  to  the  e^e  or  ear  or 
smell  of  other  members  of  the  speciea. 


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ANIMAIi  CHEMISTBY. 


571 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


ANIICAL  CHEMISTBY.  See  Chemistbt, 
Physiological. 

ANIMAL  COL^OB43.  The  chief  animal  col- 
ors now  in  use  are  cochineal,  kermes,  and  lac 
dye    (qq.v.).    See.  also  Ttrian  Pubfle. 

AN'IDCAI/CITLE  (Dimin.  of  Lat.  animal,  liv- 
ing being).  A  popular  name  originally  applied 
to  any  small  animal,  but  later  restricted  to  micro- 
scopic organisms,  particularly  such  as  are  found 
in  water.  The  term  has  no  scientific  standing, 
and  is  now  little  used  except  in  compound  names, 
such  as  hell-animalcule,  ivheel-animalcule,  hear- 
animalcule,  very  different  sorts  of  animals  else- 
where described. 

ANIMAL  FLOW^B.  A  sea-anemone  or 
similar  polyp,  whose  expanded  colored  tentacles 
resemble  the  petals  of  a  blossom.  For  illustra- 
tion, see  Sea- Anemone. 

ANIMAL  HEAT.  Heat  generated  in  animal 
bodies  by  certain  of  the  changes  constantly  taking 
place  within  them.  A  certain  amount  of  heat 
is  necessary  to  the  proper  performance  of  the 
functions  of  the  body,  and  any  material  increase 
or  decrease  of  it  from  the  standard  endangers 
health.  The  air  and  other  objects  surrounding 
the  body  being  in  almost  all  cases  colder  than  it, 
are  constantly  stealing  part  of  its  warmth;  but 
within  the  system  there  are  processes  constantly 
going  on  which  produce  more  heat.  When  the 
heat  thus  generated  is  not  dissipated  fast  enough, 
so  that  the  body  tends  to  become  warmer  than 
the  due  degree,  perspiration  results,  the  evapora- 
tion of  which  carries  off  the  excess.  The  power 
of  producing  heat  is  in  relation  to  the  climate 
in  which  the  animal  is  accustomed  to  live.  It 
is  weaker  in  warm  climates  than  in  cold,  and 
consequently  when  an  animal  is  removed  from 
a  warm  to  a  cold  climate  it  frequently  pines  and 
dies.  In  most  fish  and  reptiles,  commonly 
termed  "cold-blooded  animals,"  the  temperature 
differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  water  or  air  in 
which  they  live ;  the  same  is  the  case  with  hiber- 
nating animals  during  the  later  part  of  their 
torpid  condition.  It  may  thus  occur  that  the 
degree  of  temperature  of  "cold-blooded"  animals 
may  be  higher  than  that  of  man. 

Man  has  the  power,  to  a  greater  degree  than 
other  warm-blooded  animals,  of  adapting  himself 
to  changes  of  surrounding  temperature.  His 
average  standard  of  heat  is  about  98.6**  F.  (36.8° 
C),  varying  with  circumstances,  being  ♦slightly 
higher  after  exercise  or  a  hearty  meal,  and  at 
noonday  than  at  midnight.  It  differs  slightly  in 
various  parts  of  the  body,  the  interior  bein^  from 
14  *»  ^F.  to  IVi**  F.  higher  than  the  exterior.  It 
also  varies  in  diseased  conditions  of  the  body.  . 
rising  to  106**  F.,  or  even  111**  F.  to  113"  F.,  in 
a  fever  or  sunstroke  or  heatstroke,  and  falling 
as  low  as  90°  F.  in  cholera.  A  temperature  of 
108°  F.,  if  maintained  for  several  hours,  is  al- 
most inevitably  fatal.  But  if  the  body  be  in 
a  healthy  condition,  the  standard  of  heat  is 
maintained,  even  when  the  person  is  exposed  to 
intense  heat,  as  in  the  case  of  men  attending 
furnaces;  one  can  for  a  short  time  be  exposed  to 
350°  F.  of  dry  heat  without  materially  raising 
the  temperature  of  his  own  body,  although  he 
will  lose  weight  by  the  copious  perspiration 
induced. 

Throughout  the  animal  kingdom  the  power  of 
generating  heat  bears  a  close  relation  to  the 
activity  or  sluggishness  of  the  animal.  Thus, 
many  birds  which  are  perpetually  in  action  have 


the  highest  temperature  (100°  F.  to  112°  F.)  ; 
and  the  swallow  and  auick-flighted  birds  higher 
than  the  fowls  which  Keep  to  the  ground.  The 
higher  the  standard  of  animal  heat,  the  less  able 
is  the  animal  to  bear  a  reduction  of  its  tempera- 
ture; if  that  of  a  bird  or  mammal  be  reduced 
30°  F.  the  vital  changes  become  slower,  more 
languid,  and  death  ensues.  Fish  and  frogs,  on 
the  other  hand,  may  be  inclosed  in  ice  and  still 
survive. 

The  sources  of  animal  heat  in  the  living  body 
are  the  chemical  and  physical  changes  contin- 
ually taking  place.  The  chemical  changes  are 
those  occurring  in  respiration,  digestion,  nutri- 
tion, secretion,  and  muscular  and  nervous  action. 
It  has  been  shown  experimentally  that  when 
those  functions  are  performed  there  is  an  in- 
crease of  temperature.  It  is  probable  that  mus- 
cular action  is  the  most  important  item  in  heat 
production.  The  ultimate  sources  of  heat  are 
( 1 )  the  energy  locked  up  in  the  food  consumed ; 
and  (2)  in  the  oxygen  inhaled  in  respiration. 
The  food,  in  the  processes  of  digestion,  is  split 
up  into  its  constituent  parts ;  these  are  absorbed, 
and  may  become  parts  of  the  textures  and  fluids 
of  the  body  for  a  time;  and  these  textures,  in 
the  performance  of  their  functions,  disintegrate, 
become  redissolved,  and  are  then  eliminated  by 
various  channels  from  the  body ;  all  of  these  pro- 
cesses generate  heat. 

ANIMAL  MAG^ETISIC.     See  Hypnotism. 

ANIMAL  PSYCHOI/OGY.  That  depart- 
ment of  psychology  (q.v.)  which  has  for  its  sub- 
ject matter  the  composition  and  functions  of 
mind  as  it  is  found  in  animals  below  man.  As 
regards  its  problem,  one  cannot  question  the 
propriety  of  the  title ;  but  as  regards  the  methods 
which  it  employs,  animal  psychology  has  little 
in  common  with  psychology  proper.  ITie  special 
method  of  normal  psychology  is  the  method  of 
introspection  (q.v.).  Modern  psychology  is  a 
system  of  facts  gleaned  from  the  introspective 
reports  of  trained  observers,  working  under  the 
refinements  of  experimental  conditions.  In  sharp 
contrast  with  this  is  the  position  of  animal  psy- 
chology; for  an  investigator  of  the  animal  mind 
has  no  source  of  first-hand  evidence.  Results 
can  be  obtained  only  by  a  series  of  inferences. 
The  data  at  our  disposal  are  simply  certain  move- 
ments executed  by  the'  animal.  From  these 
movements  we  must  draw  our  conclusion  that 
such  and  such  mental  processes  are  present  or 
absent,  using  the  objective  as  index  or  criterion 
of  the  subjective. 

It  is  clear  that,  under  such  circumstances, 
even  the  most  conscientious  observer  is  liable 
to  error.  And  the  most  obvious  fallacy  is  that 
of  humanizing  the  animal,  of  reading  our  own 
mind  into  his  actions,  and  so  of  endowing  him 
with  all  the  forms  of  mental  experience  that  are 
familiar  to  ourselves.  Wundt,  commenting  on 
this  attitude,  cites  an  instance  from  Romanes's 
Animal  Intelligence.  "I  have  noticed,"  writes 
an  English  clergyman,  "in  one  of  my  formicaria, 
a  subterranean  cemetery  where  I  have  seen  some 
ants  burying  their  dead  by  placing  earth  above 
them.  One  ant  was  evidently  much  affected, 
and  tried  to  exhume  the  bodies;  but  the  united 
exertions  of  the  yellow  sextons  were  more  than 
sufficient  to  neutralize  the  effort  of  the  discon- 
solate mourner."  "How  much,"  asks  Wundt,  "is 
fact,  and  how  much  imagination?  It  is  a  fact 
that  ants  carry  out  of  their  nest,  deposit  near  by, 


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ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


572 


ANIMAL   PSYCHOLOGY. 


and  cover  up  dead  bodies,  just  as  they  do  any- 
thing else  that  is  in  their  way.  They  can  then 
pass  to  and  fro  over  them  without  hindrance. 
In  the  observed  case  they  were  evidently  inter- 
rupted in  this  occupation  by  another  ant,  and 
resisted  it^  interference.  The  cemetery,  the  sex- 
tons, the  feelings  of  the  disconsolate  mourner, 
which  impelled  her  to  exhume  the  body  of  the 
departed — all  this  is  a  fiction  of  the  sympathetic 
imagination  of  the  observer." 

Sometimes,  however,  the  observer's  attitude 
to  the  animal  mind  is  precisely  the  reverse :  there 
is  extreme  underestimation,  in  place  of  extreme 
overestimation.  Descartes  (1596-1650),  the 
founder  of  modern  philosophy,  after  sharply  dis- 
tinguishing between  matter  and  mind,  body  and 
soul,  asserts  that  man  is  a  composite  being,  a 
combination  of  soul  and  body,  but  that  the  ani- 
mals are  mere  automata,  all  their  actions  and 
movements  taking  place  automatically.  It  is 
plain  that  there  can  be  no  "animal  psychology" 
for  the  Cartesians.  There  were,  however,  some 
among  the  earlier  thinkers  who  did  not  deny 
consciousness  to  the  lower  creation.  Aristotle, 
the  "father  of  psychology,"  declared  that  animals 
exercise  the  functions  of  assimilation  and  repro- 
duction, and  possess  a  "faculty  of  feeling,"  to 
which  is  added  in  higher  forms  the  capacity  to 
retain  sense-impressions,  or  memory.  Man  is 
distinguished  from  the  animals  by  his  endowment 
with  the  "faculty  of  knowledge"  or  "reason." 
But,  at  the  best,  animal  psychology  was  never 
recognized  as  a  worthy — or  even  as  a  possible — 
line  of  special  inquiry. 

The  work  of  Darwin  is  admittedly  the  root  of 
our  present  interest  in  animal  intelligence.  From 
the  point  of '  view  of  the  theory  of  evolution, 
which  regards  not  only  the  entire  physical  .struc- 
ture of  the  human  body,  including  the  nervous 
system,  but  also  our  entire  mental  structure, 
which  stands  in  such  intimate  relation  to  the 
nervous  sytem,  as  the  result  of  a  long  period 
of  development  in  the  animal  world,  the  close 
observation  of  the  pre-human  mind  becomes  a 
matter  of  the  utmost  importance.  We  always 
understand  things  better  when  we  know  how 
they  have  grown.  Hence  the  psychologist  has 
turned  his  attention  to  the  problem  of  genesis, 
or  the  growth  of  mind.  The  problem  may  be 
attacked  in  two  ways.  We  may  trace  the  growth 
of  mind  in  the  individual :  this  is  the  application 
of  the  genetic  method  to  child-study,  and  gives 
us  child  psychology  (q.v.).  Or,  since  man  is 
but  a  highly  developed  animal,  we  may  trace 
the  growth  of  mind  in  the  animal  world:  this 
is  the  application  of  the  method  to  mind  at  large, 
and  gives  us  comparative  (or  animal)  psychol- 
ogy- 

The  literature  of  animal  psychology  immedi- 
ately after  Darwin  i«  characterized  by  a  mass 
of  observations  industriously  collected  but  un- 
fortunately not  tempered  by  careful  and  conser- 
vative interpretation.  There  was  a  marked  ten- 
dency to  write  in  anecdotal  vein  of  the  doings 
of  pet  animals,  and  an  equally  marked  tendency 
to  that  overestimation  of  animal  capacity  which 
we  have  mentioned  above.  Romanes  and  Lindsay 
may  be  taken  as  typical  of  this  period.  Recent 
literature  attempts  a  more  rigid  application  of 
experimental  methods.  The  majority  of  present- 
day  investigators  bring  their  animals  into  the 
laboratory,  endeavoring  in  this  way,  even  at  the 
Ti«k  of  artificiality,  to  standardize  conditions 
and  to  secure  the  possibility  of  varying  at  will 


the  environmental  factors  which  control  organic 
life.  This  method  of  procedure  finds  its  most 
obvious  application  in  the  case  of  those  lower 
forms  whose  life  history  can  be  followed  only 
with  difiiculty,  if  at  all,  in  the  natural  state. 

The  reactions  of  micro-organisms,  e.g.,  to  me- 
chanical, chemical,  and  thermal  stimuli,  have 
been  studied  beneath  the  microscope  by  numerous 
observers.  And  the  results  of  investigation  upon 
these  minute  unicellular  forms,  carried  out  by 
Gruber,  Verwom,  MSbius,  Balbiani,  and  others, 
have  had  an  important  bearing  upon  that  inter- 
esting and  fundamental  question  of  animal  psy- 
chology, the  origin  of  mind  at  large.  Binet, 
reviewing  the  work  of  these  authors,  writes  as 
follows:  "If  the  existence  of  psychological  phe- 
nomena in  lower  organisms  is  denied,  'it  will  be 
necessary  to  assume  that  these  phenomena  can 
be  superadded  in  the  course  of  evolution,  in  pro- 
portion as  an  organism  grows  more  perfect  and 
complex.  Nothing  could  be  more  inconsistent 
w^ith  the  teachings  of  general  physiology,  which 
shows  us  that  all  vital  phenomena  are  already 
present  in  undifferentiated  cells.  Furthermore, 
it  is  interesting  to  note  to  what  conclusion  the 
admission  would  lead  .  .  .  that  psychological 
properties  are  wanting  in  beings  of  a  low  order, 
and  appear  at  different  stages  of  zo5logical  evolu- 
tion. Romanes  has  minutely  particularized,  on 
a  large  chart,  the  development  of  the  intellectual 
powers,  but  it  is  done  in  quite  an  arbitrary 
manner.  According  to  his  scheme,  only  proto- 
plasmic movements  and  the  property  of  excitabil- 
ity are  present  in  organisms  of  the  lower  class. 
Memory  begins  with  the  echinodenns;  the  pri- 
mary instincts  with  the  larvie  of  insects  and 
the  annelids ;  the  secondary  instincts  with  insects 
and  spiders ;  and,  finally,  reason  appears  with  the 
higher  crustaceans.  I  do  not  hesitate  to  say 
that  all  this  laborious  classification  is  artificial 
in  the  extreme,  and  perfectly  anomalous."  For 
instance,  "Romanes  assigns  the  first  manifesta- 
tions of  surprise  and  fear  to  the  larvae  of  insects 
and  to  the  annelids.  We  may  reply  upon  this 
point,  that  there  is  not  a  single  infusorian  that 
cannot  be  frightened,  and  that  does  not  show  its 
fear  by  a  rapid  flight  through  the  liquid  of  the 
preparation.  If  a  drop  of  acetic  acid  be  intro- 
duced beneath  the  glass  slide  in  a  preparation 
containing  a  quantity  of  infusoria,  the  animals 
will  be  seen  to  fiy  at  once  and  from  all  directions, 
like  a  flock  of  frightened  sheep." 

Binet's  fundamental  thought  is  probably 
sound ;  his  estimation  of  the  infusorian  conscious- 
ness is  probably  exaggerated.  Jennings,  e.g.,  ar- 
gues from  a  very  careful  study  of  the  Paramecium, 
one  of  the  protozoa,  that  the  organism,  if  we  may 
judge  by  its  reactions,  stands  at  the  very  bottom 
of  the  psychological  scale.  **We  have  in  this 
animal  perhaps  as  near  an  approach  to  the  the- 
oretical reaction  postulated  by  Spencer  and  Bain 
for  a  primitive  organism — namely,  random  move- 
ment in  response  to  any  stimulus — as  is  likely 
to  be  found  in  any  living  organism."  AU  the 
activities  of  the  Paramecium  can  be  accounted  for 
by  "simple  irritability,  or  the  property  of  re- 
sponding to  a  stimulus  by  a  fixed  set  of  move- 
ments." Even  more  interesting,  and  fully  as 
convincing,  are  the  inferences  drawn  by  Bethe 
from  his  study  of  ants  and  bees.  We  are  accus- 
tomed to  rank  these  creatures  very  high  in  the 
mental  scale;  but  all  Bethe's  evidence  goes  to 
show  that  they  are  practically  automata.  Their 
remarkably  complicated  activities  must,  then,  be 


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anhcaii  psychology. 


573 


ANIMA   MXJKBI. 


regarded  as  purely  physiological  and  uncon- 
scious reactions  to  environmental  changes.  A 
typical  experiment  will  illustrate  the  nature  of 
the  evidence  collected,  and  will  serve,  at  the 
same  time,  to  contrast  the  results  of  the  experi- 
mental method  with  the  results  of  simple  obser- 
vation. Huber,  an  enthusiastic  observer  of  the 
habits  of  ants,  noted  that  an  ant  which  is  taken 
from  a  nest  and  returned  to  it  after  an  interval 
of  four  months  is  recognized,  and  received  by  its 
former  companions  with  all  marks  of  friendli- 
ness. Huber  considered  that  this  was  good 
proof  of  the  accuracy  and  permanence  of  the  ant 
memory.  Bethe,  however,  took  an  ant  from  a 
strange  nest,  dipped  it  in  a  mess  of  impounded 
*'home"  ants,  and  found  that  the  disguised 
stranger  was  received  with  every  token  of  recog- 
nition and  hospitality!  The  entire  process  of 
■"recognition"  is  thus  explicable  on  the  ground  of 
a  ehemo-reflex.  We  shall  see  presently  how  this 
and  similar  results  are  to  be  reconciled  with 
those  which  tell  strongly  for  the  existence  of 
mentality  in  the  lowest  forms  of  animal  life. 

Let  us  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  outcome 
of  the  experimental  method  as  applied  to  higher 
forms,  such  as  dogs,  cats,  rats,  and  chicks.  In 
general,  the  animals  are  confined  in  cages,  while 
appeal  is  made  to  their  intelligence,  ingenuity, 
and  memory  through  the  avenue  of  hunger.  The 
results  have  been  such  as  considerably  to  decrease 
our  estimate  of  the  mental  capacity  of  the  ani- 
mals. Thus  Thomdike,  after  tracing  the  forma- 
tion of  associations  in  the  animal  consciousness, 
remarks  that  his  work  "has  rejected  reason, 
comparison  or  inference,  perception  of  similarity, 
and  imitation.  It  has  denied  the  existence  in 
animal  consciousness  of  any  important  stock 
of  free  ideas  or  impulses,  and  so  has  denied  that 
animal  association  is  homologous  with  the  asso- 
ciation of  human  psychology."  A  vigorous  pro- 
test against  this  mode  of  interpretation  has,  it 
is  true,  been  entered  by  Mills,  who  contends  that 
confinement  in  cages  is  essentially  an  artificial 
and  abnormal  condition,  that  hunger  is  not  the 
strongest  possible  means  of  appeal  to  animal 
intelligence,  and  that  "it  seems  more  probable 
that  the  mental  processes  of  the  highest  animals 
are  not  radically  different  from  those  of  man, 
so  far  as  they  go,  but  that  the  human  mind  has 
capacities  in  the  realms  both  of  feeling  and 
intellection  to  which  animals  cannot  attain." 
The  general  trend  of  opinion  is,  apparently,  for 
Thorndike  and  against  Mills ;  but,  in  face  of  the 
divergence  of  expert  judgments,  the  layman  will 
do  well  to  hold  himself  in  suspense,  until  such 
time  as  community  of  investigation  has  brought 
about  a  substantial  agreement  on  the  main 
points  at  issue.  The  recent  publication  (Kline) 
of  a  laboratory  course  in  comparative  psychology 
is  a  hopeful  sign. 

To  return  to  the  main  problem:  we  have  to 
show  how  the  reflex  and,  to  all  appearances, 
wholly  unconscious  reactions  of  such  forms  as  ants 
and  bees  are  to  be  squared  w^ith  the  evidence  of 
mentality  in  the  protozoa,  evidence  which  makes 
mind  coeval  with  life.  It  seems  reasonable  to 
adopt  the  view  which  sees  in  impulse  (the  con- 
sciousness accompanying  action  upon  presenta- 
tion: see  Actios)  the  original  and  primitive  type 
of  consciousness.  Now,  the  impulse  has  varied 
in  two  directions.  In  the  first  place,  by  the  grad- 
ual effacement  of  its  distinctively  mental  fea- 
tures, the  primitive  type  of  action  has  come  to 
take  the  form  of  the  reflex,  a  relatively  simple 


mechanical  answer  to  stimulation.  Here,  in  the 
light  of  Jennings's  observations,  we  must  place 
Paramecium.  In  the  second  place,  the  impulsive 
action  has,  in  certain  forms  of  organic  life, 
broadened  out  into  selective  and  volitional  action. 
Mentality  has  grown  more  complex,  as  in  the 
other  direction  it  has  died  out.  In  this  line  of 
development  stand  the  higher  animals,  including 
man.  I^astly,  the  most  developed  forms  of  action 
exhibit  a  constant  tendency  to  become  automatic ; 
so,  e.g.,  piano  playing,  bicycle  riding.  In  other 
words,  there  is  a  tendency  for  certain  phases  of 
complex  psycho-physiological  activity  to  degen- 
erate into  activity  which  is  simply  physiological. 
The  final  outcome  is,  therefore,  the  formation  of 
a  system  of  reflexes  wlych,  in  view  of  their  cir- 
cuitous development,  we  may  term  secondary 
reflexes.  Ants  and  bees,  as  they  appear  in 
Bethe's  pages,  would  then  be  types  in  w^hich 
practically  every  vestige  of  a  once  fairly  compli- 
cated mental  structure  has  disappeared,  to  make 
way  for  an  elaborate  series  of  secondary  reflexes. 
Thorndike  has  even  argued,  in  similar  vein,  that 
the  present  anthropoid  apes  may  be  mentally 
degenerate;  that  their  chattering  is  possibly  "a 
relic  of  something  like  language,"  and  not  a 
first  attempt  at  language-making. 

Bibliography.  Binet,  The  Psychic  Life  of 
Micro-Organisms  (New  York,  1894)  ;  Darwin, 
Origin  of  Species  (London,  1859;  New  York, 
1901);  Descent  of  Man  (London,  1871;  New 
York,  1901 )  ;  Lubbock,  AntSy  Bees,  and  Wa^ps 
(New  York,  1882)  ;  Morgan,  Animal  Life  and 
Intelligence  (Boston,  1891)  ;  id..  Habit  and  In- 
stinct (London,  1896)  ;  Romanes,  Animal  Intel- 
ligence (New  York,  1883)  ;  id.,  Alental  Evolu- 
tion in  Animals  (London,  1883)  ;  Wundt,  Human 
and  Animal  Psychology,  translated  by  Creighton 
and  Titchener   (New  York,  1896). 

ANIMALS,  Cruelty  to.  See  Cruelty  to 
Animals. 

ANIMAL  WOB^SHIF.  See  Man,  paragraph 
Sophiology. 

ANOMA  MUKO)!  (Lat.  the  soul  of  the 
world).  The  view  that  all  the  changes  in  phe- 
nomena are  due  to  the  operation  of  conscious 
beings,  conceived  on  the  analogy  of  human  con- 
sciousness, was  the  result  of  one  of  the  most 
primitive  and  most  naTve  attempts  to  solve  the 
problems  presented  by  chance  and  change  to  ex- 
perience. (See  Mythology.)  When  the  step  was 
taken  from  a  belief  in  a  multiplicity  of  presiding 
genii  to  a  single  ordering  consciousness,  which 
stands  in  the  same  relation  to  the  world  as  a 
whole,  as  the  human  mind  stands  to  the  human 
body,  the  doctrine  of  the  anima  mundi  was 
reached.  It  has  been  held  in  various  forms,  and 
has  survived  to  quite  recent  times.  Anaxagoras 
(q.v.),  who  believed  in  a  universal  reason  that 
gave  form  to  the  universe,  was  one  of  the  first 
Occidental  philosophers  who  held  this  doctrine. 
Aristotle  (q.v.)  escaped  animism  (i.e.,  the  doc- 
trine of  an  anima  mUfidi)  by  holding  that  al- 
though Nature  is  a  being  in  itself  alive,  Goii  is 
separated  from  nature  as  a  transcendent  spirit. 
In  the  system  of  the  Stoics  the  anima  mundi  was 
conceived  to  be  the  sole  vital  force  in  the  uni- 
verse; it  usurped  the  office  of  pure  spirit,  and 
the  doctrine  became  indistinguishable  from  pan- 
theism. In  modern  times  Agrippa  of  Netteshoim 
(1486-1536)  revived  the  doctrine  with  a  changed 
terminology,  substituting  spiritus  mmidi  for 
anima     mundi.     Bruno,     Paracelsus,     Sebastian 


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ANIHA   MTTNDI. 


574 


ANJOn. 


Franck,  Boehme,  Van  Helmont,  More,  and  Cud- 
worth  (see  articles  under  these  titles)  have  advo- 
cated similar  views  with  varying  terminology. 
See  Pantheism. 

AJSrnSE,  &'n^mft^  (of  disputed  origin).  A 
variety  of  copal;  a  mineral  resin  soluble  in  al- 
cohol and  used,  to  some  extent,  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  sealing-wax  and  of  varnishes.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  originate  from  the  Icica  icicariba,  a 
tree  indigenous  to  Brazil  and  the  West  Indies, 
and  is  brought  into  the  market  in  the  form  of 
white,  brittle  sticks.  In  England  the  name  anime 
is  applied  to  the  soft  copal  resins  in  general. 
See  Copal. 

AN^IMISM.  See  Man,  paragraph  Sophiol- 
ogy,  and  Superstition. 

ANIDCUCCIA,  a'n^mSS'chA,  Giovanni  (c. 
1500-71).  An  Italian  musician  sometimes  called 
the  "Father  of  the  Oratorio."  He  became  Maes- 
tro di  Capella  of  the  Vatican  in  1556.  For  the 
congregation  of  the  Oratory,  one  of  whose  objects 
it  was  to  render  religious  services  attractive  to 
young  people,  Animuccia  composed  the  Laudi, 
which  were  to  be  sung  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
regular  office,  and  from  which  the  oratorio  is  said 
to  have  developed.  Several  of  his  masses,  mag- 
nificats, motets,  and  madrigals,  etc.,  have  been 
published,  and  among  these  the  following  are  a 
few  of  the  most  noteworthy:  II  primo  lihro  di 
madrigali,  etc.  (Rome,  1595)  ;  Joannis  Animuc- 
cicB  Magistri  Capellcs  Sacroaanctai  BaMlicw  Vati- 
cafun  Miasarum  Lihri  (Rome,  1567)  ;  Magnificat 
ad  Omnes  Modoa  (Rome,  1568)  ;  II  aecondo  lihro 
delle  laudi  ove  si  contengono  motetti,  etc.  (Rome, 
1570). 

ANnrCJCCIA,  Paolo  (T-1563).  An  Italian 
musician,  brother  of  Giovanni  Animuccia.  He 
was  one  of  the  ablest  contrapuntists  of  his  time 
and  occupied  the  position  of  Maestro  di  Capella 
at  the  church  of  San  Giovanni  in  Laterano. 
Many  of  his  motets  and  madrigals  were  popular. 

AKIO,  ft^n^O,  modem  ANIENS,  ^n^a^ft,  or 
Tevebone.  a  river  in  central  Italy,  69  miles  long, 
which  rises  44  miles  east  of  Rome  in  the  Sabine 
Mountains,  forms  famous  waterfalls  at  Tivoli 
(q.v.),  and  then  flows  freely  through  the  Cam- 
pagna  into  the  Tiber  two  miles  above  Rome. 
An  aqueduct  was  built  in  265  B.C.,  with  the 
proceeds  of  booty  taken  during  the  war  with 
Pyrrhus,  to  carry  water  from  Tivoli  to  Rome. 
The  water  power  of  the  Anio  is  now  converted 
into  electric  energy,  which  is  transmitted  to  Tiv- 
oli and  Rome.    See  Aqueduct. 

ANIONS.     See  Anode;  Electro-Chemistbt. 

AN^SE  (Lat.  anisum,  anethum,  Gk.  Avfvl- 
TfOov,  an[n]ethon,  anise,  dill),  {PimpineUa 
anisnm).  An  annual  plant  of  the  natural  order 
UmbelliferiB.  The  genus  PimpineUa,  which  em- 
braces about  75  species,  found  in  nearly  all  lands 
but  Australia,  has  compound  umbels  usually 
without  involucres.  Two  species  are  natives  of 
Great  Britain;  one  of  which,  PimpineUa  sax- 
ifraga,  is  commonly  known  by  the  name  of  burnet 
saxifrage,  and  has  no  properties  of  importance. 
Anise  is  a  native  of  Egypt  and  other  Mediterra- 
nean regions.  It  is  an  annual  plant;  the  stem  is 
li/^  to  2  feet  high,  dividing  into  several  slender 
branches;  the  lower  leaves  roundish,  heart- 
shaped,  divided  into  three  lobes,  and  deeply  cut ; 
those  of  the  stem  pinnate,  with  wedge-shaped 
leaflets.  The  umbels  are  large  and  loose,  with 
yellowish-white  flowers.     It  is  much  cultivated 


in  southern  Europe,  Germany,  especially  in  the 
district  around  Erfurt,  where  a  large  quantity  of 
the  seed  is  annually  produced.  South  America, 
India,  etc.  Attempts  were  made  more  than  20G 
years  ago  to  cultivate  it  in  England,  but  the  sum- 
mers are  seldom  warm  enough  to  bring  it  to  per- 
fection. It  is  occasionally  sown  in  gardens  for 
a  garnish  or  for  seasoning.  Anise-seed  is  used  as 
a  condiment  and  in  the  preparation  of  liqueurs; 
also  in  medicine,  as  a  stimulant  stomachic,  to  re- 
lieve flatulence,  etc.,  particularly  in  infants;  and 
it  has  been  used  in  pulmonary  affections.  It  has 
an  aromatic,  agreeable  smell  and  a  warm,  sweet- 
ish taste.  It  contains  a  volatile  oil,  called  oil 
of  anise,  which  is  nearly  colorless,  has  the  odor 
and  taste  of  the  seed,  and  is  employed  for  similar 
purposes.  One  hundredweight  of  seed  yields 
about  two  pounds  of  oil,  which  is  obtained  by  dis- 
tillation ;  but  at  Erfurt  the  oil  is  made  from  the 
stems  and  leaves.  Anise-water — ^water  flavored 
with  the  oil  and  sugared — ^is  much  used  in  Italy 
as  a  cooling  drink. 

Star  anise  or  (Chinese  Anise,  is  the  fruit  of 
Illicium  verum,  a  small  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Magnoliacese.    See  iLLiciuii. 

ANISOPHTLLY.  (Gk.  ov  an,  neg.  +  cirof 
isos,  equal  -f  ^XXov,  phyllony  leaf).  Plants  whose 
leaves  differ  in  form  and  size  .when  they  appear 
on  opposite  sides  of  horissontal  or  oblique  stems 
are  said  to  exhibit  anisophylly.  Commonly  the 
leaves  on  the  upper  side  are  smallest,  as  in  Selag- 
inella.     See  Leaf. 

ANJEB^  An'y^r,  or  ANJIEB,  Sn'yAr.  A 
fortified  seaport  of  Java,  on  the  Straits  of  Sunda, 
60  miles  west  of  Batavia  (Map:  E^t  India  Is- 
lands, C.  6).  It  is  the  landing  place  for  passen- 
gers and  mails  for  Batavia,  and  is  frequented 
by  steamers  for  a  supply  of  fresh  water  and  food. 
It  was  completely  destroyed  by  a  volcanic  erup- 
tion in  1883,  but  has  been  rebuilt  since  then.  Its 
population  is  estimated  at  3000. 

ANJOIT.  Engl.  an'jSo;  Fr.  ftN'zhSo'  (fromin- 
decavi,  Andegavi,  a  Gallic  tribe).  A  former  prov- 
ince in  the  northwest  of  France,  now  forming  the 
department  of  Maine-et-Loire,  and  small  parts 
of  the  departments  of  Indre-et-Loire,  Mayenne, 
and  Sarthe.  It  was  inhabited  in  ancient  times 
by  the  Andecavi,  whose  ancient  capital  still  exists 
bearing  the  modern  name  of  Angers.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  counts  of  Anjou  was  Geoffrey 
v.,  called  Plantagenet,  whose  son  by  Matilda, 
daughter  of  Henry  I.  of  England,  ascended  the 
English  throne  in  1154  as  Henry  II.  Anjou  re- 
mained in  the  possession  of  the  English  till  1204, 
when  it  was  seized  by  Philip  Augustus.  Some 
forty  years  later  it  was  bestowed  as  a  fief  upon 
Charles,  the  son  of  Louis  VIII.,  who  became  by 
conquest  in  1266  the  founder  of  the  Angevin  line 
of  kings  in  Naples  and  Sicily.  At  this  time  for 
nearly  half  a  century  it  was  united  with  Pro- 
vence. From  1328  to  the  year  1360,  in  which 
it  was  made  a  duchy,  it  was  held  by  the 
French  crown  as  a  part  of  the  dowry  brought  by 
^largaret  of  Anjou  to  Charles  of  Valois,  father 
of  Philip  VI.  It  was  reunited  with  Provence  un- 
der the  rule  of  the  kings  of  Naples  in  1382.  In 
1480,  upon  the  death  of  Ren6  the  Good,  it  was 
permanently  annexed  to  the  royal  dominions  by 
Louis  XI.  The  last  who  bore  the  title  of  Duke 
of  Anjou  was  the  grandson  of  Louis  XIV..  who 
became  Philip  V.  of  Spain.  Consult  Marchegay 
and  Salmon,  Chronigues  cT  Anjou  (Paris,  1856- 
1871). 


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ANKABSTBblL  575 

ANKABSTB&IC,  ilD^ar-strem,  Johan  Jakob. 
See  Anckarstr5m. 

ANKTiAM,  9.n^l&m.  A  town  of  Prussia  in 
the  province  of  Pomerania,  44  miles  northwest  of 
Stettin,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Peene,  and  four 
miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Kleine  Haff  (Map: 
Prussia,  E  2 ) .  The  river  is  navigable  to  Anklam, 
which  has  long  been  a  place  of  commercial  im- 
portance. It  was  at  one  time  an  important 
fortress,  but  in  1762  its  fortifications  were  dis- 
mantled. Many  of  its  private  houses  are  excel- 
lent samples  of  German  mediaeval  architecture. 
It  has  manufactures  of  linens  and  woolens;  it 
has  also  several  breweries,  soap  works,  and  tan- 
neries, and  ship-building  is  actively  prosecuted. 
Anklam  was  settled  by  Germans  in  the  twelfth 
century,  and  joined  the  Hanseatic  League  in  1244. 
During  the  wars  of  the  seventeenth  and  eight- 
eenth centuries  it  was  repeatedly  sacked.  In 
1720  it  was  acquired  by  Prussia.  Pop.,  1890, 
13,000;   1900,  14,600. 

AKKOBAB,  an-ko'^er,  or  ANKOBEB.  A 
town  in  eastern  Africa,  the  capital  of  the  former 
Abyssinian  kingdom  of  Shoa,  situated  at  an 
altitude  of  over  8000  feet,  in  lat.  9°  34' 
X.  and  long.  39'  53'  E.  (Map:  Africa, 
J  4).  The  climate  is  very  healthful.  The  town 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall  and  contains  a  royal 
palace.  Its  population  is  estimated  at  from  7000 
to  10,000. 

ANXOLE.    See  Ankori. 

ANKO'BI  or  AKKOOiE.  A  plateau  of  the 
Uganda  Protectorate,  British  Ekst  Africa,  lying 
between  lakes  Albert  Edward  and  Victoria.  Its 
plains  range  in  elevation  from  3000  to  7000 
feet. 

AKKYIiOSIS,  &o'kI-ld'sIs,  (Gk.  ayKy?MaLi, 
ankylosis f  a  stitfening  of  the  joints,  from  ayKv?.rf, 
ankyU,  the  bend  of  an  arm,  a  joint  bent  and  stiff- 
ened by  disease).  A  term  used  in  surgery  to 
aenote  a  stiffness  in  joints,  which  is  not  depend- 
ent upon  muscular  rigidity.  It  is  usually  the 
result  of  disease  which  has  caused  the  formation 
of  fibrous  adhesions  or  deposit  of  osseous  materi- 
al. Osseous  union  may  render  the  joint  perfectly 
rigid,  or  union  may  continue  membranous,  allow- 
ing of  a  certain  amount  of  motion.  Some  joints, 
especially  the  elbow,  are  very  apt  to  become  anky- 
losed;  and  in  the  knee  or  hip-joints  this  os- 
seous ankylosis  is  reckoned  the  most  favorable 
termination  to  disease,  as  the  limb  can  then 
afford  a  rigid  support  for  the  trunk.  Joints  stiff 
through  a  membranous  ankylosis  may  be  forcibly 
bent,  and  the  bond  of  union  ruptured,  so  as  to  re- 
store mobility,  or  allow  of  their  being  placed  in 
a  convenient  position.  Ankylosis  of  the  joints 
between  the  ribs  and  the  vertebrie  is  common  in 
advanced  age ;  and  there  are  some  cases  on  record 
of  universal  ankylosis  of  all  the  joints.  Ankyl- 
osis is  caused  by  injury,  tuberculosis,  gout,  rheu- 
matism, and  s>T)hilis.  Passive  motion,  friction, 
massage,  douches,  and  forcible  motion  under  an 
anaesthetic  are  methods  of  treatment. 

AN'KA  (Hind.  dna).  An  East  Indian  coin, 
a  sixteenth  of  a  rupee,  or  about  one  and  a  quar- 
ter d.  sterling,  or  three  cents  of  United  States 
money.  It  is  money  of  account  only.  In  Bengal 
accounts  are  kept  in  pice,  twelve  to  an  anna,  and 
sixteen  annas  to  the  rupee. 

ANNA,  Hn'nA,  Donna.  In  Mozart's  opera. 
Don  Giovanni,  the  lady  whose  favor  Don  Giovanni 
and  Don  Ottavio  both  desire. 


ANNA  COMNENA. 


ANON'A)  Saint.  According  to  tradition,  the 
daughter  of  Mathan,  priest  of  Bethelehem,  and 
the  wife  of  St.  Joachim.  After  twenty-one  years 
of  barrenness,  she  is  said  to  have  given  birth  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  the  mother  of  the  Saviour. 
Nothing  positive  is  known  about  her  life;  her 
name  does  not  occur  in  the  Scriptures,  nor  even 
in  the  writings  of  the  Fathers  during  the  first 
three  centuries.  The  first  to  mention  her  is  St. 
Epiphanius,  in  the  fourth  century;  but  toward 
the  eighth,  she  was  all  but  universally  invoked. 
Her  body  was  believed  to  have  been  transferred 
from  Palestine  to  Constantinople  in  710  a.d., 
and  her  head  to  Chartres,  by  Louis  de  Blois, 
about  1210  A.D.  The  inhabitants  of  DUren,  in  the 
Prussian  Rhine  Province,  also  pretend  to 
have  a  head  of  St.  Anna ;  and  a  third  is  believed 
to  be  in  possession  of  the  church  at  Ursitz,  in 
the  diocese  of  Wtirzburg,  although  numerous 
other  churches  claim  to  be  equally  favored.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  has  a  festival  in  her 
honor  on  July  26th,  established  in  1584;  the  Greeks 
on  December"  9th.  In  Austria,  Bavaria,  and  other 
Catholic  countries,  this  festival  is  one  of  great 
importance.  In  honor  of  St.  Anna  the  fraternity 
of  St.  Anna  was  instituted  in  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. After  the  Reformation  it  was  organized 
anew  by  the  Jesuits,  and  in  modern  times  has 
manifested  some  vitality  in  Bavaria  and  Cath- 
olic Switzerland.  She  is  the  patron  saint  of 
child-bearers  and  also  of  miners,  and  it  was 
upon  her  that  Luther  called  for  protection  when 
in  the  storm,  and  to  her  he  vowed  to  become  a 
monk  if  rescued   (1505). 

ANNABEL.  In  Dryden's  Absalom  and 
Achitophel  (q.v.),  the  wife  of  Absalom.  She 
stands  for  the  Duchess  of  Monmouth,  who  was 
Anne  Scott  before  marriage. 

AN'NABEI/LA,  Queen.  In  Scott's  romance 
of  The  Fair  Maid  of  Perth  (q.v.),  the  queen  of 
King  Robert  III.  of  Scotland. 

ANNABEBG,  Sn^nA-berK.  A  town  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Saxony,  in  the  district  of  Zwickau^ 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sehma,  18  miles  south  of 
Chemnitz  ( Map :  Germany,  E  3 ) .  It  is  situated 
1800  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  has 
extensive  manufactures  of  lace  and  of  silk  rib- 
bon. The  ribbon  manufacture  was  introduced 
here  by  Protestant  refugees  from  Belgium  who 
fled  from  the  persecution  carried  on  by  the  Duke 
of  Alva.     Pop.,  1890,  about  15,000;  1900,  16,000. 

ANNA  BOLENA,  »n^n&  b6-l&^n&.  An  Italian 
opera,  the  music  of  which  is  by  Donizetti,  text 
by  F.  Romani,  produced  at  Milan  in  1831. 

ANNA  COMNE'NA  (1083-1148?).  Author  of 
one  of  the  most  valuable  works  in  the  collection 
of  the  Byzantine  Historians.  She  was  the  daugh- 
ter of  the  Emperor  Alexius  I.  (Comnenus),  and 
was  born  on  December  1,  1083.  She  received 
the  best  education  that  Constantinople  could 
give,  and  was  betrothed  to  the  son  of  Michael 
VII.  After  the  death  of  her  fianc^,  she  married 
Nicephorus  Briennius.  During  the  last  illness 
of  her  father,  she  entered  into  a  scheme,  which 
her  mother,  the  Empress  Irene,  also  favored,  to 
induce  him  to  disinherit  his  eldest  surviving  son, 
John,  and  to  bestow  the  diadem  on  her  husband. 
As  a  punishment,  Anna,  with  her  mother,  was 
shut  up  in  a  convent,  where  she  remained  until 
the  death  of  her  brother  in  1143.  The  date  of 
her  death  is  unknown,  but  she  was  still  at  work 
on  her  history  in  1148.     She  entitled  this  work 


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ANNA  GOKNENA. 


576 


ANNAX. 


the  Alexiad.  The  first  two  books  treat  of  the 
history  of  the  Empire  from  the  time  of  Isaac 
Comnenus:  the  remaining  thirteen  books  are 
devoted  to  the  reign  of  Alexius.  Chronologically, 
Anna  is  sometimes  at  fault,  and  she  omits  pur- 
posely many  events;  but  as  a  whole  her  work 
has  great  merit.  The  best  edition  is  that  of 
Sehopen  and  Reifferscheid,  2  volumes  (Bonn, 
1839-78).  Consult:  Chalandon,  R^gne  d' Alexis 
I.  (Paris,  1900)  ;  and  Oster,  Anna  Komnena 
(Rastatt,  1868-71). 

ANNA  rVANOVNA,an'nA  ^va'n6v-nA  ( 1693- 
1740).  Empress  of  Russia.  She  was  the  second 
daughter  of  Ivan,  the  elder  brother  of  Peter  the 
Great.  She  was  married  in  1710  to  the  Duke  of 
Courland,  the  last  of  his  race,  who  died  in  the 
following  year.  The  throne  of  Russia  was  of- 
fered to  her  by  the  Supreme  Council  on  the  death 
of  Peter  II.  in  1730,  on  conditions  which  greatly 
limited  the  power  of  the  monarchy,  terms  which 
she  soon  broke.  Her  elevation  was  greatly  due 
to  the  intrigues  of  the  chancellor,  Ostermann, 
who  had  had  the  charge  of  her  education,  but 
who  was  disappointed  in  finding  her  not  so  grate- 
ful and  tractable,  as  he  had  expected.  For  some 
years,  however,  her  rule  was  tolerable.  Abroad, 
Russia  fought  successfully  in  the  War  of  the 
Polish  Succession.  Internally  the  army  was  re- 
formed, greater  liberty  was  allowed  to  the  landed 
gentry,  and  government  debts  were  paid,  though 
to  do  so  the  peasants  were  crushed  down  with 
taxes.  But  her  paramour,  Biron,  a  German  of 
low  extraction,  for  whom  she  had  obtained  the 
Duchy  of  Courland,  having  determined  to  govern 
the  nation  as  well  as  the  Empress,  a  sudden  and 
deplorable  change  ensued.  This  man,  a  blood- 
thirsty and  avaricious  wretch,  established  some- 
thing like  a  reign  of  terror  through  the  land. 
He  is  said  to  have  banished  not  less  than  20,000 
persons  to  Siberia;  numbers  were  knouted,  had 
their  tongues  cut  out,  or  were  broken  alive  on 
the  wheel.  Eleven  thousand  perished  in  this 
way.  Prince  Basil  Dolgoruki  and  others  of  his 
family  suffered  the  ignominy  of  the  scaffold. 
At  length  the  health  of  the  Empress  gave  way. 
She  died  on  October  28,  1740,  and  left  the  throne 
to  her  grand-nephew  Ivan,  with  Biron  as  regent. 
See  Russia,  and  Biron. 

ANNA  KABENINA,  Hn^nk  kk-TSi'ny^nk. 
One  of  Count  Tolstoi's  novels,  which  first  ap- 
peared serially  in  a  Moscow  publication,  from 
1875  to  1878.  It  is  a  powerful  study  of  the 
effects  of  passion  upon  human  life,  and  is  by 
many  considered  the  author's  greatest  work. 

ANNA  KABLOVNA,  iln^n&  kilr^dv-n&,  or 
frequently,  Anna  Loepoldovna  (1718-46).  Re- 
gent of  Russia  during  the  minority  of  her  son 
Ivan.  She  was  the  daughter  of  Charles  Leopold, 
Duke  of  Mecklenburg,  and  of  Catharine,  sister 
of  the  Russian  empress,  Anna  Ivanovna  (q.v.). 
In  1739  she  married  Anthony  Ulric,  Duke  of 
Brunswick- Wolf enbdttel.  Her  son,  Ivan,  born, 
August  24,  1740,  was  appointed  by  the  Empress 
Anna  Ivanovna  as  her  successor.  The  Empress 
died  in  October,  1740,  and  Biron,  whom  she  had 
made  regent,  was  overthrowTi  within  a  month. 
Anna  Karlovna  now  proclaimed  herself  Grand 
Duchess  and  Regent  of  Russia;  but  she  showed 
no  capacity  for  managing  the  affairs  of  a  great 
country,  spent  her  time  in  indolent  enjoyments, 
and  resigned  herself  very  much  to  the  guidance  of 
one  of  the  ladies  of  her  court,  Julia  von  Mengden. 
A  conspiracy  was  formed  by  a  party  desirous  of 


raising  to  the  throne  Elizabeth, daughter  of  Peter 
the  Great  and  Catherine,  and  this  was  accom- 
plished on  December  6, 1741.  The  infant  Ivan  was 
sent  to  the  castle  of  SchlUsselburg,  where  he  was 
afterward  murdered ;  Anna  and  her  liusband  were 
condemned  to  prison  for  life  and  conveyed  to 
Kholmogory,  on  the  White  Sea,  where  she  died 
in  childbed.  Her  husband  remained  a  prisoner 
for  thirty-nine  years,  and  died  in  1780. 

ANON'ALS  (Lat.  annates,  from  annus,  year). 
In  the  original  sense,  records  of  public  events 
arranged  year  by  year.  In  the  early  days  of 
Rome,  such  records  were  kept  by  the  priests,  and 
known  as  the  annales  pontificum,  or  annates  fnax- 
imi,  because  prepared  by  the  pontifejf  masimus. 
In  later  times,  public  men  interested  in  histoir 
wrote  crude  chronicles  of  events,  also  known  as 
annales;  such  annalists  were  Fabius  Pictor  and 
Cincius  Alimentus.  When  Ennius  (q.v.),  the 
"father  of  Roman  poetry,"  wrote  the  deeds  of 
Rome  in  heroic  verse,  he  called  his  poem  Annales; 
and  finally  Tacitus  (q.v.)  thus  designated  his 
story  of  Rome  from  Tiberius  to  Nero. 

ANNALS  OF  A  QUI^T  NEIQH'BOS- 
HOOD.  The  title  of  a  novel  by  George  Mac- 
Donald  (1866). 

ANNALS*  OF  THE  FAB^SH.  The  tiUe  of 
a  novel  by  the  Scottish  writer  John  Gait  (1821i. 

ANNAMy  ftn-ntlm^  {Nhan-nam,  Peace  of  the 
South).  The  central  division  of  French  Indo- 
China  and  formerly  the  designation  of  an  inde- 
pendent empire,  which  included  the  provinces  of 
Annam,  Tongking  and  Cochin  China.  It  em- 
braces the  greater  part  of  the  east  coast  of  Indo- 
China  (washed  by  the  South  China  Sea),  and 
stretches  from  Cochin  China  on  the  south  to 
Tongking  on  the  north,  its  southernmost  point 
being  about  lat.  10°  SO*  N.  and  its  northern 
extremity  about  lat.  20°  30*,  at  the  delta  of  the 
Song-koi"or  Red  River.  On  the  west  it  is  bound- 
ed by  the  country  of  the  Laos,  Siam  and  Cam- 
bodia. The  area  is  about  50,000  square  miles. 
The  much  larger  figures  until  recently  current 
for  the  area  have  been  curtailed  by  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  French  Laos  country.  The  coast 
about  750  miles  long,  is  deeply  indented  and 
fringed  with  many  islets. 

Annam  is  traversed  throughout  its  entire 
length  from  north  to  south  by  a  mountain 
chain  which  slopes  precipitously  toward  the  sea- 
but  declines  gently  toward  the  Mekong  valley  in 
the  interior.  It  reaches  in  the  peak  of  Pu-san  an 
elevation  of  about  9000  feet.  Pu-atuat  is  about 
1000  feet  lower.  The  country  has  two  hydro- 
graphic  zones.  On  the  west  is  the  basin  of  the 
Mekong;  on  the  east  are  numerous  coast  river>. 
shallow  and  nearly  impracticable  for  navigation. 
The  Mekong  River  rises  in  Tibet,  flows  throu*^ 
the  extreme  south  of  China,  traverses  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula  with  a  rapid  current,  gather- 
ing many  tributaries  on  its  way,  and  forms  the 
boundary  between  Annam  and  Siam.  It  is  navi- 
gated by  steamboats  along  the  Annam  frontier. 
The  largest  city  and  the  capital  of  Annam  i* 
Hu^.  The  productions  of  Annam  include  rioe 
and  other  cereals,  cinnamon,  sugar-cane,  coffee, 
tobacco,  tea,  and  cotton.  A  considerable  quan- 
tity of  silk  is  produced,  and  the  forests  yield 
valuable  woods.  The  buffalo  is  domesticated  and 
used  in  tillage.  The  Chinese  hog  is  reared  in 
large  numbers.  The  large  game  characteristic 
of  the  wilds  of  India  abounds  in  Annam.    One  of 


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ANNAPOLIS. 


the  results  following  on  French  occupation  of  the 
Laos  country  has  been  to  divert  trade  from  Bang- 
kok in  Siam  to  the  Mekong  valley  and  the  sea 
coast.  The  first  commercial  caravan  coming  from 
Laos  arrived  at  Hu6  in  February,  1895.  The 
principal  imports  are  cotton  goods,  Chinese 
paper,  machinery,  metals,  Chinese  drugs,  petro- 
leum, and  tea.  The  exports  consist  of  sugar, 
cinnamon,  horn,  ivory,  skins,  raw  silk,  wood,  etc. 
In  1897  the  imports  amounted  to  4,719.349 
francs  and  the  exports  to  2,552,919  francs.  The 
principal  ports  oif  Annam  are  Tourane,  Fai-fu, 
Qui-nhon  and  Xuan-dai. 

The  government  is  in  theory  a  monarchy.  The 
king  is  assisted  by  a  council  of  six  members, 
though  everything  is  in  reality  subject  to  the 
French  resident  superior  at  Hu6,  who  has  a 
staff  of  assistants  and  a  military  guard.  The 
country  is  divided  into  twelve  provinces,  each 
of  which  is  subdivided  into  fu  (departments) 
and  huje  (districts).  Most  of  the  actual  ad- 
ministration of  justice  and  tax  collection  is 
under  the  native  officials.  Service  in  the  native 
army,  of  10,000  men,  who  are  under  French 
officers  is  compulsory.  The  population  of  An- 
nam is  estimated  at  about  5,000,000;  by  some  as 
high  as  6,000,000. 

The  Annamese  comprise  at  least  two  different 
stocks — the  rather  primitive  Mois  of  the  moun- 
tainous interior,  and  the  Annamese  proper,  both 
of  whom  exhibit  quite  uniform  physical  types, 
notwithstanding  intermixture  with  other  peoples 
(Khmers,  Malays,  Chinese,  etc.)  in  prehistoric 
and  in  recent  times.  The  foreign-born  popula- 
tion, living  chiefly  in  the  towns,  comprises  5000 
Chinese  and  400  Europeans.  The  Annamese 
proper  are  short,  rather  slenderly  built,  brachy- 
cephalic,  and  although  belonging,  by  reason  of 
their  monosyllabic  speech,  to  the  great  group  of 
mankind  of  which  the  Chinese  are  the  best  known 
representatives,  possess  a  certain  physical  indi- 
viduality of  their  own.  They  have  a  swaggering 
stride  or  gait,  arising  from  a  peculiar  structure 
of  the  pelvis  and  femur  and  a  notable  separation 
of  the  big  toe,  or  "foot-thumb,"  from  the  other 
toes.  Like  most  of  the  peoples  of  this  region, 
they  possess  strains  of  Aryan,  and,  possibly, 
negroid  blood.  Annamese  culture  and  folk-lore 
are  largely  reflections  of  Chinese.  From  China 
came  also  their  alphabet,  literature,  and  the 
form  of  Buddhism  and  Confucianism  professed 
by  the  more  enlightened  classes.  The  Annamese 
are  essentially  democratic  in  disposition,  and 
live  in  patriarchal  style,  the  father  having  al- 
most absolute  authority  in  his  family.  About 
400,000  of  the  inhabitants  are  Catholics.  Among 
the  principal  towns  are  Hu6,  the  capital,  Bin- 
dinh  Vinh,  Than-hoa,  and  Tourane. 

Subjected  to  China,  together  with  Tongking, 
in  the  third  century  B.C.  by  She  Twang  Ti,  An- 
nam became  autonomous  under  Chinese  su- 
zerainty in  1428  A.D.  after  long  and  sanguinary 
wars.  In  1789  the  ruler  of  Annam  was  able,  with 
French  aid,  to  free  himself  from  subjection  to 
China  and  to  join  Tongking  and  Cochin  China  to 
his  empire.  This  became  a  field  of  French  in- 
fluence. Under  Napoleon  III.,  France  began  the 
establishment  of  her  dominion  in  Indo-China,  by 
engaging  in  hostilities  with  Annam  in  1858.  In 
1862  the  King  was  compelled  to  cede  the  principal 
part  of  Cochin-China  to  the  French,  and  the 
rest  of  that  territory  was  added  in  1867.  The 
French  continued  to  encroach,  entered  in  1882 
upon  the  conquest  of  Tongking  (of  which  they. 
Vol.  I.-«7 


became  masters  in  1885),  and  the  treaty  of  June 
6,  1884,  ratified  at  Hu«,  February  23,  1886,  estab- 
lished a  French  protectorate  over  Annam.  French 
troops  occupy  the  citadel  of  Hu6,  and  France 
controls  the  finances.  Prince  Bun-Lan,  who  was 
proclaimed  king  in  1889,  under  the  name  of 
Than-ThaT,  attained  his  majority  in  1897. 

BiBLiooRAPiiY.  Leraye,  L* Empire  d' Annam  et 
le  peuple  annamite  (1889)  ;  Jammes,  Au  Pays 
annamite  (Paris,  1898)  ;  Barral,  La  Colonisation 
francaiae  au  Tonkin  et  en  Annam  (Paris,  1899)  ; 
Norman,  Peoples  and  Politics  of  the  Far  East 
(London,  1895)  :  Fournereau,  Le  Siam  ancien 
(Paris,  1895)  ;  Dumontier,  Les  Symholcs  chez  les 
Annamites  (Paris,  1890)  ;  and  Hannah,  Brief 
History  of  Eastern  Asia  (New  York,  1900). 

AN^A  MATU/DA.  A  pseudonym  under 
which  Hannah  Parkhouse  Cowley  maintained  a 
poetical  correspondence  with  Robert  Merry 
("Delia  Crusca"),  the  leader  of  the  so-called 
English  "Delia  Cruscans,"  in  the  World,  ending 
about  1789,  when  the  correspondents  first  met 
personally.  Their  interchange  of  verses  gained 
an  added  notoriety  from  Gifford*s  satire  Baviad 
and  Mceviady  which  held  it  up  to  ridicule.  "Anna 
Matilda"  has  come  to  be  a  type  of  writer  of  taste- 
less sentimentalism. 

AN^AN.  A  seaport  and  parliamentary 
burgh  in  the  county  of  Dumfries,  Scotland,  on 
the  river  of  the  same  name,  near  its  entrance 
into  the  Sol  way  Firth  (Map:  Scotland,  E  4) .  It 
is  neat  and  well  built ;  among  the  chief  indifstries 
are  tanning,  cotton-spinning,  and  rope- weaving. 
The  river  is  navigable  for  large  vessels  half  a 
mile  below  the  towTi.  There  is  regular  commu- 
nication by  steamers  with  Liverpool  and  White- 
haven, and  railways  connect  the  town  with  Ed- 
inburgh, Glasgow,  and  Carlisle.  The  burgh  unites 
with  Dumfries,  etc.,  in  returning  one  member  to 
Parliament.  Pop.,  royal  parliamentary  and  mu- 
nicipal burgh,  1901,  5804. 

AK^ANDAIiE.  The  valley  of  the  river  An- 
nan, in  Dumfriesshire,  Scotlana. 

ANNANDALE,  Charles  (1843—).  An  Eng- 
lish author.  •  He  was  born  in  Kincardineshire,  and 
was  educated  at  Aberdeen  University.  He  has 
edited  such  important  works  of  reference  as  the 
Imperial  Dictionary  (London,  1882)  ;  Blackie's 
Modem  Cyclopcedia  (ib.,  1890)  ;  and  Student* s 
Dictionary  (ib.,  1895). 

ANNANBALE,  Thomas  (1838—).  An  Eng- 
lish surgeon.  He  was  born  at  Newcastle,  and 
was  educated  at  Edinburgh  University,  where  he 
subsequently  was  appointed  assistant  to  Pro- 
fessor Syme.  He  was  for  some  time  demonstrator 
of  anatomy  under  Professor  Goodsir  at  the  same 
university,  and  in  1877  was  made  regius  pro- 
fessor of  clinical  surgery  there.  He  has  pub- 
lished Diseases  and  Injuries  of  Fingers  and  Toes 
(1865),  Abstracts  of  Surgical  Principles  (1868- 
70),  and  other  important  works. 

ANNAP'OLIS.  A  seaport  of  Nova  Scotia. 
Originally  Port  Royal,  the  oldest  European  set- 
tlement in  British  America.  It  is  100  miles  west 
of  Halifax,  in  lat.  44°  40'  N.,  on  a  river  of  the 
same  name  that  runs  into  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Us 
harbor  is  excellent,  though  somewhat  difficult 
of  access;  it  has  a  trade  in  fruit,  and  is  a  favor- 
ite summer  resort.  The  United  States  is  repre- 
sented by  a  consular  agent.  Established  in  1604 
by  the  French  as  the  capital  of  Acadia,  it  was 
conquered  by  the  English  in  1710  and  ceded  by 


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ANNAPOLIS. 


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ANNATTO. 


the  French  in  1713,  when  Port  Royal  changed  its 
name  in  honor  of  Queen  Anne,  continuing  to  be 
the  seat  of  government  till,  in  1750,  it  was  su- 
perseded by  Halifax.  Since  then  Annapolis  has 
lost  much  of  its  former  prestige,  and  owes  what- 
ever importance  it  has  still  retained  to  its  river, 
which  is  navigable  for  nearly  the  whole  of  its 
course  of  seventy  miles.    Pop.,  1901,  1019. 

ANNAPOLIS.  The  capital  of  Maryland,  port 
of  entry,  and  county  seat  of  Anne  Arundel  Coun- 
ty, on  the  Severn  River,  about  2  miles  from  Ches- 
apeake Bay,  20  miles  south  by  east  of  Baltimore 
and  37  miles  by  rail  from  Washington,  D.  C. 
It  is  on  the  Annapolis  and  Baltimore  Short  Line, 
and  the  Annapolis,  Washington  and  Baltimore 
Railroad,  and  is  connected  by  boat  with  Balti- 
more and  other  points  on  the  bay  (Map: 
Maryland,  M  8).  Among  the  more  prominent 
points  of  interest  are  the  Governor's  House,  a 
nne  State  House,  the  county  buildings,  the 
United  States  Naval  Academy  (q.v.),  St.  John's 
College,  founded  in  1789,  and  statues  of  Chief 
Justice  Taney  and  General  De  Kalb.  The  city 
has  a  fine  harbor,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive 
oyster-canning  industry,  the  product  being  large- 
ly exported.      Pop.,  1890,  7604;  1900,  8525. 

In  1608  Captain  John  Smith  visited  the  site 
of  Annapolis,  but  no  settlement  was  made  until 
1649,  when  a  company  of  Puritans  from  Virginia 
established  here  the  town  of  "Providence"  (later 
changed  successively  to  "Proctor's,"  "The  Town," 
"Anne-Arundel  Town,"  and,  finally,  in  honor  of 
Queen  Anne,  to  "The  Town  of  Annapolis").  In 
1694  the  capital  of  the  province  was  moved 
hither  from  St.  Mary's,  and  in  1708  (August  16), 
Annapolis  was  erected  into  a  city.  Early  in  the 
eighteenth  century  one  of  the  first  free  schools 
on  the  continent  was  organized  here.  Out  of  this 
St.  John's  College  (cj.v.)  later  developed.  On 
May  25,  1774,  the  citizens  passed  resolutions  of 
sympathy  for  Boston,  whose  port  had  recently 
been  closed,  and  on  October  18,  the  brig  Peggy 
Siewarty  laden  with  tea,  was  publicly  burnei. 
On  December  23,  1783,  Washington  surrendered 
to  Congress,  sitting  temporarily  at  Annapolis, 
his  commission  as  commander-in-chief.  In  1845 
the  United  States  Naval  Academy  was  estab- 
lished here.  Consult:  Ridgely,  Annals  of  An- 
napolis to  J 81 2  (Baltimore,  1841)  ;  and  a  sketch 
in  Powell's  Historic  Toicns  of  the  Southern  States 
(New  York,  1900). 

ANNAPOLIS  CONVEN^nON,  The.  A  con- 
vention held  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  September  11, 
1786,  to  consider  the  question  of  intercolonial 
commerce  and  discuss  some  proposed  alterations 
in  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  Commissioners 
from  only  five  States,  Virginia,  Delaware,  Penn- 
sylvania, New  Jersey,  and  New  York,  were  pres- 
ent (though  New  Hampshire,  Massachusetts, 
Rhode  Island,  and  North  Carolina  had  appointed 
delegates,  who  did  not  attend)  ;  and  the  Conven- 
tion accordingly  adjourned  after  recommending 
that  a  convention  of  all  the  States  be  called  for 
the  purpose  of  rendering  "the  Constitution  of  the 
Federal  Government  adequate  to  the  exigencies 
of  the  Union."  This  led  to  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1787. 

ANN  AB/BOB.  A  city  and  county  seat  of 
Washtenaw  Co.,  Mich.,  38  miles  west  of  De- 
troit, on  the  Huron  River,  and  on  the  Michigan 
Central  and  the  Ann  Arbor  railroads  (Map: 
Michigan,  K  6).  It  has  a  fine  situation  amid 
picturesque  scenery,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  Uni- 


versity of  Michigan.  (See  Michigan,  Univer- 
stTY  UF.)  Its  high  school  is  well  known  among 
secondary  institutions  of  learning,  and  occupies 
a  building  which,  with  the  court  house  and  post- 
office  buildings,  the  Homeopathic  Hc»pital  and 
the  Michigan  Central  Depot,  is  among  the  prom- 
inent features  of  the  city.  Ann  Arbor  is  the  cen- 
tre of  a  fertile  agricultural  district,  and  ha» 
important  manufactures  of  furniture,  agricul- 
tural implements,  pumps,  engines,  boilers,  lum- 
ber products,  organs  and  pianos,  flour,  carriages, 
etc.  The  government,  under  a  revised  charter  of 
1895,  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  biennially  elected,  a 
city  council,  and  administrative  officials,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  af'e  appointed  by  the  mayor, 
either  absolutely  or  with  the  consent  of  the  coun- 
cil. Ann  Arbor  was  settled  in  1824,  and  was 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1851.  Pop.,  1890,  9431 ; 
1900,  14,509. 

ANNABB^,  or  ONABB^.  In  Norse  mythol- 
ogy, the  husband  of  N6tt  (night),  and  father  of 
Jord   (the  earth). 

ANO^AS  (Heb.  merciful).  A  Jewish  high- 
priest,  appointed  by  Quirinius  in  6  A.O.,  and  de- 
posed by  Valerius  Gratus  in  15  a.d.  He,  no 
doubt,  continued  to  exercise  great  influence,  as 
the  office  was  held  by  five  of  his  sons,  Eleazar, 
Jonathan,  Theophilus,  Ayan,  and  Matthias,  and 
by  his  son-in-law,  Joseph,  sumamed  Caiaphas, 
between  18  a.d.  and  36  a.d.  The  wealth  of  "the 
house  of  Annas"  was  to  some  extent  derived 
from  the  booths,  where  they  provided  all  kinds 
of  materials  for  sacrifice.  By  this  monopoly 
they  made  the  temple  "a  den  of  robbers,"  and 
drew  down  upon  themselves  the  curses  of  the 
Pharisees  as  well  as  the  indignation  of  Jesus. 
The  influential  position  of  Annas  may  have  led 
to  the  erroneous  statement  of  Luke,  that  there 
were  two  high-priests,  Annas  and  Caiaphas  (iii: 
2),  and  the  consequent  Johannine  account  of  a 
separate  trial  of  Jesus,  before  Annas  (xviii  :  13- 
27 ) .  A  son  of  Annas,  by  the  same  name,  was  ap- 
pointed high-priest  by  Agrippa  II.  in  62  aj>. 
He  is  said  to  have  put  to  death  James,  the 
brother  of  Jesus;  but  the  passage  of  Josephus 
{Ant.  XX  :  9)  which  relates  this  is  probably  a 
Christian  interpolation. 

ANNATES,  &n^n&ts,  or  First  Fbuits.  In 
ecclesiastical  law,  the  value  of  every  spiritual 
living  for  a  whole  year  (hence  the  name  from 
the  Lat.  annus,  a  year), which  the  Pope, claiming 
the  disposition  of  every  spiritual  benefice  within 
Christendom,  reserved  out  of  every  living.  This 
impost  w^as  at  first  only  levied  from  persons  ap- 
pointed to  bishoprics;  but  it  was  afterward  ex- 
tended to  the  inferior  clergy.  The  value  of  these 
annates  was  calculated  according  to  a  rate  made 
under  the  direction  of  Pope  Innocent  IV.  (1253 
A.D.),  but  which  was  afterward  increased  by 
Pope  Nicholas  III.  (1292  aj>,).  The  valuation 
of  Pope  Nicholas  is  still  preserved  in  the  ex- 
chequer. This  Papal  exaction  was  abolished  by 
the  Act  25  Henry  VIII.  c  20,  and  by  an  act 
passed  in  the  following  year  of  the  same  reign 
(26  Henry  VIII.  c.  3),  the  right  to  annates,  or 
first  fruits,  was  annexed  to  the  crown.  The  vari- 
ous stetutes  subsequently  passed  on  this  sub- 
ject have  all  been  consolidated  by  an  act  (1 
Vict.  c.  20)  regulating  the  collection  of  the 
moneys  so  levied.  S^  First  Fruits;  Qudew 
Anne's  Bounty. 

ANNATTO,  &n-nat^t6.    See  Asiroria 


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ANNE  (ftn)  OF  Austria  (1601-66).  The 
daughter  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain,  who  in  1616  be- 
came the  wife  of  Louis  XIII.  of  France.  The 
marriage  was  so  far  from  being  a  happy  one 
that  the  royal  pair  lived  for  twenty-three  years 
in  a  state  of  virtual  separation — a  result  due 
chiefly  to  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
whose  fixed  determination  to  humble  the  house 
of  Austria  led  him  to  spare  no  means  for  alien- 
ating the  affection  of  Louis  from  his  queen,  by 
representing  her  as  ever  involved  in  the  most 
dangerous  conspiracies  against  his  authority. 
Her  imprudent  conduct,  however,  lent  much 
force  to  Richelieu's  accusations,  for  she  certainly 
was  concerned,  in  some  degree,  in  the  conspiracies 
of  Chalais  (1628)  and  Cinq  Mars  (1642).  On 
the  death  of  the  King,  in  1643,  Anne  became 
Queen  Regent  for  her  son  Louis  XIV.,  and 
evinced  her  discernment  by  choosing  as  her 
minister  Cardinal  Mazarin,  whom  she  is  said 
to  have  married  secretly,  and  by  whose  able 
management  the  young  king  (Louis  XIV.)  came 
into  possession  of  a  throne  firmly  established 
on  the  ruins  of  contending  parties.  (See 
Fronde.)  The  character  of  Anne  was  in  many 
ways  anomalous.  Her  stately  coldness,  which 
failed  to  attract  her  husband,  often  gave  way 
to  fits  of  reckless  gayety  which  repelled  him. 
Without  being  actually  treasonable,  she  often 
engaged  in  intrigue.  Proud  of  her  royal  state, 
she  made  an  Italian  parvenu  her  favorite,  and, 
as  some  say,  her  husband.  There  was  in  her 
always  a  great  confiict  between  the  woman  and 
the  queen.  Consult:  Freer,  Married  Life  of 
Anne  of  Austria  (London,  1865)  ;  Regency  of 
Anne  of  Austria  (London,  1866). 

ANNE  OF  Brit'tany  (1476-1514),  Queen 
of  France.  She  was  the  daughter  and  heiress  of 
Francis  II.,  Duke  of  Brittany.  By  her  marriage 
to  Charles  VIII.,  December  6,  1491,  Brittany  be- 
came incorporated  with  France.  Anne  had  been 
affianced  to  Maximilian  of  Austria,  but  the 
French  king  took  care  not  to  let  slip  so  rich  a 
prize.  During  Charles  VIII.'s  campaigns  in  Italy 
she  governed  France  well.  After  her  husband's 
death  she  married  his  successor,  Louis  XIL,  over 
whom  she  had  great  influence.  She  was  a  woman 
of  great  beauty  and  intelligence. 

ANNE  OF  Cleves,  klevz  (1517-57).  The  daugh- 
ter of  John,  Duke  of  Cleves,  and  fourth 
queen  of  Henry  VIII.  of  England,  who  reluctant- 
ly married  her  on  January  6,  1540,  to  conciliate 
the  German  Protestant  princes,  but  divorced  her 
on  July  9th,  of  the  same  year  on  no  other  ap- 
parent grounds  than  her  plain  looks  and  alleged 
incompatibility.  She  died  at  Chelsea,  July  16, 
1557.  Consult  Field,  "Anna  of  Cleves,"  in  the 
frtfitleman's  Magazine j  Volume  CCXC.  (London, 
1901). 

ANNE  OF  DENOffAitK  (1574-1612).  The 
wife  of  James  I.  of  England  (q.v.),  to  whom  she 
was  married  at  Opslo,  Norway,  November  23, 
1589.  She  was  born  at  Skanderborg,  Jutland. 
Her  marriage  dowry  was  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Islands.  She  was  exceedingly  fond  of  dis- 
play, her  principal  aim  being  to  outshine  the 
other  women  of  the  court.  She  is  said  to  have 
favored  Catholicism,  but  she  did  not  openly 
identify  herself  with  that  Church. 

ANNE  OF  Geierstein,  ^'er-stln.  The 
title  of  a  novel  by  Scott  (1829),  based  upon 
events  connected  with  the  victory  of  the  Swiss 
over  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 


ANNE,  ftn,  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land (1665-1714).  The  last  British  sovereign 
of  the  house  of  Stuart.  She  was  bom  at  St. 
James's  Palace,  London,  February  6, 1 666,  and  was 
the  second  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  York,  after- 
ward James  TI.,  by  his  first  wife,  Anne  Hyde, 
the  daughter  of  the  Earl  of  Clarendon.  When 
she  was  about  seven  years  of  age,  her  mother 
died,  and  her  father  soon  after  professed  him- 
self a  member  of  the  Church  of  Rome;  but  he 
permitted  his  daughters  to  be  educated  in  the 
principles  of  the  Church  of  England,  for  which 
Anne  always  retained  an  ardent  if  not  a  very 
enlightened  attachment.  To  advance  his  own 
popularity,  her  father  gave  her  in  marriage,  in 
1683,  to  Prince  George  of  Denmark,  brother  of 
Christian  V.,  an  indolent  and  good-natured 
man,  who  concerned  himself  little  about  public 
affairs,  and  was  endowed  with  no  capacity  for 
taking  part  in  them.  Anne's  own  weakness  of 
character  and  that  of  her  husband  gave  oppor- 
tunity to  Lady  Churchill,  afterward  Duchess 
of  Marlborough,  her  early  playfellow,  to  acquire 
an  influence  over  her  which,  during  many  years, 
was  almost  supreme.  During  the  reign  of  her 
father,  Anne  lived  in  retirement,  taking  no  part 
in  politics.  On  the  landing  of  the  Prince  of 
Orange,  she  seems  at  first  to  have  hesitated, 
and  even  to  have  been  inclined  to  adhere  to  the 
cause  of  her  father,  whose  favorite  daughter  she 
was;  but  Churchill  had  made  up  his  mind  to  an 
opposite  course,  and  his  wife  induced  the  Prin- 
cess to  adopt  it.  She  consented  to  the  act  by 
which  the  throne  was  secured  to  the  Prince  of 
Orange  in  the  event  of  his  surviving  her  sister 
Mary;  but  quarreled  with  her  sister  about  ques- 
tions of  etiquette,  and  was  afterward  drawn 
into  intrigues,  in  which  the  Churchills  were  en- 
gaged, for  the  restoration  of  her  father,  or  to 
secure  the  succession  of  the  throne  to  his  son. 
Although  she  had  borne  seventeen  children,  only 
one,  the  Duke  of  Gloucester,  survived  infancy, 
to  die  in  1700,  in  his  eleventh  year;  and  Anne 
was  without  a  direct  heir  when  she  ascended  the 
throne  on  March  10,  1702.  The  infiuence  of 
Marlborough  and  his  wife  was  powerfully 
felt  in  all  public  affairs  during  the  greater  part 
of  her  reign.  The  strife  of  parties  was  violent, 
and  political  complications  were  increased  by  the 
Queen's  anxiety  to  secure  the  succession  to  her 
brother.  In  so  far  as  she  had  any  political  prin- 
ciples, they  were  opposed  to  that  constitutional 
liberty  of  which  her  own  occupancy  of  the  throne 
was  a  sort  of  symbol,  and  were  favorable  to  ab- 
solute government  and  the  assertion  of  royal  pre- 
rogative according  to  the  traditions  of  her 
family.  These  principles,  and  her  family  attach- 
ment, tended  to  alienate  her  from  the  Marl- 
boroughs,  whose  policy,  from  the  time  of  her  ac- 
cession, had  become  adverse  to  Jacobitism,  and 
who  now,  along  with  Godolphin,  were  at  the  head 
of  the  Whig  party.  The  Duchess  also  offended 
the  Queen  by  presuming  too  boldly  and  haught- 
ily upon  the  power  which  she  had  so  long  pos- 
sessed. 

Anne  found  a  new  favorite  in  Mrs.  Masham, 
a  relative  of  the  Duchess,  who  had  introduced 
her  into  the  royal  household.  To  Mrs.  Masham's 
influence  the  change  of  government  in  1710  was 
in  a  great  measure  owing,  when  the  Whigs  were 
cast  out,  and  the  Tories  came  into  office,  Harley 
(afterward  Earl  of  Oxford)  and  St.  John 
(Lord  Bolingbroke)  becoming  the  leaders  of  the 
ministry.  But  although  they  concurred  more  or 
less  in  the  Queen's  design  to  secure  the  succession 


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ANNEAUNa. 


of  the  throne  to  her  brother,  the  new  ministers 
had  quarrels  among  themselves  which  prevented 
its  successful  prosecution;  their  plans  and  in- 
trigues became  sufficiently  known  to  alarm  the 
nation,  and  to  alienate  many  political  supporters 
of  the  Government  party.  A  dispute  between  Ox- 
ford and  Mrs.  Masham,  carried  on  for  hours  in 
the  Queen's  presence  and  terminating  in  her  de- 
mand for  his  instant  resignation,  seems  to  have 
brought  on  the  attack  of  apoplexy  of  which  she 
died,  August  1,  1714.  The  Elector  of  Hanover 
succeeded  her  as  George  I.  The  principal  event 
of  her  reign,  the  union  of  England  and  Scotland, 
in  1707,  may  be  mentioned  in  its  personal  re- 
lation to  herself,  as  she  was  the  last  sovereign 
who  reigned  over  these  as  separate  kingdoms, 
and  the  first  sovereign  styled  "of  Great  Britain." 
Another  important  event  was  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Succession,  in  which  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough won  brilliant  victories  over  the  armies 
of  Louis  XIV.  of  France.  Queen  Anne  was  of 
middle  size  and  comely,  though  not  beautiful. 
She  was  virtuous,  conscientious,  and  affectionate, 
more  worthy  of  esteem  as  a  woman  than  of  ad- 
miration as  a  queen.  Her  reign  is  often  mention- 
ed as  a  period  rendered  illustrious  by  some  of  the 
greatest  names,  both  in  literature  and  science, 
which  her  country  has  ever  produced;  but  litera- 
ture and  science  owed  little  to  her  active  en- 
couragement. Consult:  Burton,  Reign  of  Queen 
Anne  (J^ndon,  1880)  :  Oldmixon,  Life  of  Queen 
Anne  (London,  1716):  Ash  ton.  Social  Life  in 
the  Reign  of  Queen  Anne  (London,  1882)  ;  and 
Morris,  The  Age  of  Anne  (New  York,  1887). 

ANNE,  SisTEK.  In  the  story  of  Bluebeard 
(q.v.),  the  sister  of  Fatima.  While  Fatima  is 
awaiting  the  penalty  of  her  disobedience,  Anne, 
on  the  top  of  the  tower,  watches  for  the  coming 
of  their  brothers  to  save  them. 

ANNEAI/ING  (From  M.  Engl,  anelen,  O.  F. 
neeler,  Fr.  nieller,  to  enamel,  from  I-At.  nigeU 
lu8y  blackish).  The  process  by  which  glass 
and  certain  metals  are  heated  and  then  slowly 
cooled  to  make  them  more  tenacious  and  less 
brittle.  The  rationale  of  annealing  has  been 
most  studied,  perhaps,  in  connection  with  steel 
manufacturing.  Important  steel  castings  are 
nearly  always  annealed,  and  it  is  a  common  re- 
quirement for  steel  forgings.  In  drawing  steel 
wire,  annealing  is  necessary  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, and  it  is  a  common  practice  to  anneal  steel 
plates  for  the  best  marine  boiler  work.  The 
hardening  and  tempering  of  steel  are  analogous 
processes  to  annealing,  there  being  a  close  inter- 
relation between  the  three  phenomena.  Steel  is 
hardened  by  sudden  cooling  from  a  high  tem- 
perature, usually  at  or  above  red  heat,  by 
plunging  it  into  oil,  water,  etc.  To  temper  steel 
means  in  its  specific  sense  to  mitigate,  or  to  mod- 
erate, the  effects  of  previous  hardening.  It  is 
usually  performed  by  gently  reheating  the  pre- 
viously hardened  steel  to  a  much  lower  tempera- 
ture than  red  heat  and  then  cooling  it,  generally 
suddenly,  but  sometimes  slowly.  While  temper- 
ing somewhat  moderates  the  effects  of  previous 
hardening,  annealing  aims  nearly  completely  to 
eliminate  them.  Annealing  of  steel  is  usually 
effected  by  slow  cooling  from  a  temperature  at 
or  above  red  heat.  Thus  steel  is  in  its  hardest 
and  most  brittle  state  when  hardened;  in  its 
softest  and  toughest  when  annealed;  and  in  an 
intermediate  condition  when  tempered. 

In  hardening,  the  steel  articles,  if  small,  are 


heated  in  boxes  or  pans  filled  with  charcoal  dust, 
and  placed  in  reverberatory  furnaces.  Larger  ar- 
ticles are  heated  in  the  furnace  proper,  which  is 
often  made  of  a  special  shape  to  fit  the  form  of 
the  article  such,  for  instance,  as  a  long  gun 
tube.  In  general,  the  more  rapid  the  cooling, 
the  harder  and  more  brittle  is  the  steel.  Mer- 
cury is  the  most  rapid  cooling  agent,  and  water, 
rapeseed  oil,  tallow,  and  coal-tar  follow  next 
in  the  order  named.  Steel  castings  and  forgings 
for  guns,  marine  engine-shafts,  and  armor-plate, 
where  strength  is  more  important  than  hard- 
ness, are  usually  cooled  in  oil;  while  steel  for 
cutting-tools,  where  extreme  hardness  is  the  im- 
portant thing,  is  ordinarily  hardened  in  water. 

In  tempering  hardened  steel  articles,  they  are 
slowly  heated  by  contact  with  hot  iron  bars, 
plates  or  rings,  on  the  surface  of  melted  lead  or 
other  fusible  metal,  in  hot  sand,  in  burning  char- 
coal, or  in  special  furnaces,  to  a  temperature  of 
from  428*  F.  to  600^  F.  The  temperature  re- 
quired for  razors  is  from  446**  F.  to  469*"  F.; 
for  shears  and  scissors,  491°  F. ;  for  woodwork- 
ing tools,  531**  F.;  for  swords  and  coiled  springs, 
550°  F. ;  for  handsaws,  600°  F.  The  heated  ar- 
ticle is  cooled  by  plunging  it  into  a  bath  of  water 
or  oil. 

In  annealing,  the  article  is  heated  imiformly 
in  a  furnace,  without  direct  contact  with  the 
flames,  to  the  temperature  generally  of  bright 
cherry  red.  The  common  method  of  cooling  is 
to  withdraw  the  fire  from  the  furnace  and  to 
close  all  apertiu-es,  allowing  the  furnace  slowly 
to  cool  down.  Cooling  is  sometimes  accomplish- 
ed by  burying  the  heated  article  in  &shes,  lime, 
or  other  slow  conductors  of  heat,  and  allowing  it 
to  become  cool  by  the  radiation  of  its  heat. 
Boiler  and  ship  plates  are  often  cooled  by  sim- 
ply withdrawing  them  from  the  furnace  and 
throwing  them  on  the  mill  fioor  to  cool  by  ra- 
diation. W^hen  medals  are  repeatedly  struck  by 
the  die-stamper,  the  gold  or  other  metal,  by  the 
concussion,  becomes  brittle,  and  requires  to  be 
heated  and  annealed  at  intervals.  Annealing  is 
necessary  in  gold-beating  and  in  rolling,  ham- 
mering, and  stamping  sheet-metals  generally.  Ar- 
ticles of  tin,  lead,  and  zinc,  which  are  metals  with 
a  low  melting  temperature,  are  annealed  in  boil- 
ing water,  which  is  allowed  to  cool  with  the  ar- 
ticle immersed.  Malleable  iron  is  cast-iron  an- 
nealed by  being  covered  with  powdered  hematite 
ore  and  heated  and  then  slowly  cooled. 

In  the  making  of  glass  vessels  by  the  glass- 
blower  (see  Glass),  they  are  of  course  quickly 
reduced  in  temperature  while  the  fused  glass  is 
being  molded  into  the  desired  shape.  The  atoms 
of  the  glass  thus  rapidly  compelled  to  assume  a 
permanent  position  do  not  seem  to  be  properly 
and  firmly  arranged  together,  and  the  vessel  is 
very  liable  to  be  broken,  either  by  a  slight  but 
smart  blow,  or  a  sudden  increase  or  decrease  in 
temperature.  This  brittleness  is  very  ob- 
servable in  the  ktcrimce  viU-ete,  or  glass  tears, 
known  as  Prince  Rupert's  drops,  obtained  by  al- 
lowing molten  glass  to  fall  into  water,  when  the 
glass  forms  pear-shaped  drops,  which  are  so  brit- 
tle that  if  they  be  scratched  with  a  file  or  the  end 
be  broken  off  the  whole  bursts  asunder  and  falls 
down  into  a  fine  powder  of  glass.  The  same 
brittleness  is  exhibited  in  Bologna  jars,  or  vials, 
which  are  small  and  very  thick,  and  yet,  if  a 
minute  angular  fragment  of  any  hard  substance 
be  dropped  into  the  jar,  the  latter  flies  to  pieces. 

In  the  annealing  of  glass  vessels,  they  are  ar- 


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ranged  in  iron  trays,  and  placed  in  a  long  oven, 
where  they  are  gradually  raised  in  temperature 
to  near  their  fusing  point  by  the  trays  being 
drawn  along  to  the  hottest  part  of  the  oven ;  and 
thereafter,  the  trays,  with  their  contents,  are 
very  slowly  drawn  into  a  cooler  and  cooler  part, 
till  they  become  cold.  The  annealing  operation 
generally  takes  twelve  hours  for  small  articles, 
such  as  wine  glasses;  but  days,  and  even  a  week 
or  two,  are  required  completely  to  anneal  large 
vessels.  Many  articles  of  glass,  such  as  tubes  for 
steam-gauges,  lamp-glasses,  etc.,  are  annealed  by 
being  immersed  in  cold  water,  which  is  very 
gradually  raised  to  its  boiling  point,  and  there- 
after cooled. 

The  theory  of  annealing  is  one  of  considerable 
technical  intricacy,  and  scientists  are  not  alto- 
gether in  agreement  as  regards  many  of  its  fea- 
tures. For  a  full  discussion  of  the  theory  and 
practice  of  the  hardening,  tempering,  and  anneal- 
ing of  steel,  consult  Howe,  Metallurgy  of  Steel 
(New  York,  1892). 

ANNECY,  An's^.  A  town  of  the  department 
of  Haute-Savoie,  France  (Map:  France,  N  6), 
in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  country  at  the  north- 
western extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Annecy,  and  22 
miles  south  of  Geneva.  The  Lake  of  Annecy  is 
1426  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  by 
magnificent  mountain  scenery.  It  is  about  9 
miles  long  and  2  miles  broad.  Its  waters  flow  by 
the  Fieran  to  the  Rhone.  It  has  manufactures 
of  linens,  cotton-yarn,  paper,  straw  goods,  iron, 
and  steel-wares.  Its  linen  bleachfields  have  ex- 
isted since  1650.  The  town  is  clean,  and  has  an 
air  of  respectable  antiquity.  The  shops  in  many 
of  the  streets  are  under  arcades.  The  most  re- 
markable buildings  are  the  chateau,  once  the 
residence  of  the  family  of  Genevois-Nemours, 
the  old  and  new  bishops'  palaces,  the  cathedral, 
and  the  modern  church  of  St.  Francis,  the  latter 
of  which  boasts  of  possessing  the  relics  of  St. 
Francis  of  Sales  and  St.  Jane  Frances  Chantal. 
Annecy  has  a  scientific  and  archseological  mu- 
seum.    Pop.,  1901,  13,611. 

In  the  twelfth  century,  Annecy  was  called  An- 
neciacum  Novum,  to  distinguish  it  from  Old  An- 
necy, Anneciacum  Vetus,  which  occupied  the 
slopes  of  a  neighboring  hill,  and  was  a  place  of 
some  consequence  in  the  times  of  the  Romans. 
In  the  earlier  part  of  the  Middle  Ages,  Annecy 
belonged  to  the  counts  of  Geneva,  and  on  the  ex- 
tinction of  that  house,  it  passed  to  the  house  of 
Savoy,  in  whose  possession  it  remained,  except 
for  a  brief  period  under  the  French  Empire,  until 
the  transference  of  Savoy  to  France  in  1860. 

ANNE^IiIDA.     See  Annulata. 

ANNENX0F7,  U^nyfin-kAf,  Mikhail  Nik- 
OLAYEVITCH  (1836-99).  A  Russian  soldier  and 
engineer,  born  in  St.  Petersburg.  He  was  edu- 
cated as  a  member  of  the  corps  of  pages,  took 
part  in  crushing  the  Polish  insurrection  of  1863, 
and  was  connected  with  the  administration  of 
affairs  in  Poland  until  1806.  He  was  promoted 
to  be  colonel,  and  during  the  Franco-Prussian 
War  accompanied  the  German  army.  In  the 
Ru$<so-Turkish  War  of  1877-78  he  directed  the 
military  transportation.  He  became  a  lieuten- 
ant-general in  1878  and  served  in  the  campaign 
against  the  Tekke-Turkomans  in  1880-81.  He 
directed  the  construction  of  the  railway  from 
the  Caspian  Sea  to  Samarkand,  1881-89,  and  in 
1892  began  the  construction  of  the  line  from 
Samarkand  to  Tashkent.     He  was  also  known  as 


a  chief  promoter  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway, 
and  published  Observations  and  Views  of  a  Rus- 
sian Officer   (1871). 

ANNENXOFF,  Nikolai  Ivanovitch  (1819- 
89).  A  Russian  botanist.  He  studied  at  Mos- 
cow, and  in  1853  became  a  director  of  the  School 
of  Agriculture.  This  position  he  occupied  until 
1875,  when  he  was  appointed  director  of  the 
School  of  Horticulture  at  Uman.  His  works 
include  a  dictionary  of  botany,  in  which  the 
names  of  plants  are  given  in  Russian,  French, 
German,  English,  and  other  languages. 

AN'NEXA^ION  (Lat.  annexus,  a  tying  or 
binding  to,  from  ad,  to  -|-  nectere,  to  tie) .  The 
acquisition  by  a  State  of  territory  previously  in- 
dependent or  in  the  possession  of  another  power. 
Though  strictly  applicable,  perhaps,  only  to 
the  extension  of  a  State's  sovereignty  over  ad- 
joining territory  ( as  in  the  annexation  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine  to  (Jermany  as  the  result  of  the 
Franco- Prussian  War,  and  of  California  and 
adjacent  territory  to  the  United  Suites  as  the 
result  of  the  war  with  Mexico)  the  term  is  ap- 
plied to  any  territorial  acquisition,  near  or  re- 
mote, as  in  the  cession  of  Porto  Rico  and  the 
adjacent  territory  to  the  United  States,  and  the 
forcible  annexation  of  the  Boer  republics  in  South 
Africa  to  the  British  Empire.  Mere  cession  of 
a  territory  does  not  nullify  the  existing  laws, 
until  othen^'ise  ordained,  and,  until  possession 
is  taken,  the  prior  authorities  retain  their  police 
functions,  although,  technically  speaking,  sover- 
eignty ceases  upon  completion  of  cession.  There- 
upon the  inhabitants  of  the  annexed  terri- 
tory are  absolved  from  their  allegiance  to  their 
former  sovereign  and  their  legal  relation  to  him 
IS  dissolved,  but  not  their  relations  to  each  other. 
Titles  to  property  are  not  affected  by  cession,  ex- 
cepting in  the  substitution  of  the  new  sovereign 
for  the  old  as  lord  paramount.     See  Tenure.    * 

As  annexation  is  a  legal  fact,  resulting  in  the 
virtual  incorporation  of  foreign  territory  in  the 
annexing  State,  it  is  not  affected  by  such  extra- 
legal or  informal  acts  as  discovery,  occupation, 
or  military  conquest,  but  requires  for  its  comple- 
tion the  official  and  legal  action  of  the  State,  by 
treaty  duly  made  and  ratified,  by  proclamation 
of  the  sovereign,  or  by  legislative  act.  Thus, 
it  has  been  recently  decided  by  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States,  in  the  so-called  In- 
sular cases  (1901),  that  Porto  Rico  remained 
foreign  territory,  notwithstanding  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Spanish  sovereignty  and  gov- 
ernment and  the  occupation  of  the  island 
by  the  military  forces  of  the  United  States 
until  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  of  peace 
with  Spain  in  1898,  and  that  it  was  this 
act  which  extended  the  sovereignty  of  the 
United  States  over  that  island.  Where  the 
transfer  of  title  is  not  acquiesced  in  by  the  for- 
mer sovereign,  there  must  be  an  effective  occupa- 
tion and  a  virtually  complete  destruction  of  the 
previously  existing  authority.  But  the  annex- 
ation may  be  complete  notwithstanding  the 
active  or  passive  opposition  of  the  inhabitants 
of  the  territory  affected,  as  in  the  case,  previ- 
ously referred  to,  of  the  Boers  in  South  Africa 
and  the  native  population  in  the  Philippine 
Islands.  See  Alleoiaxce;  Colonization:  Con- 
quest, and  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 

AN'NIE  LAURIE.  A  Scottish  song  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  by  William  Douglas,  of  Eng- 
land, to  Annie,  daughter  of  Sir  Robert  Laurie,  of 


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ANNIE   liATJBIE. 


582 


ANNTTAIiS. 


the  Maxwelton  family.  It  was  set  to  music  by 
Lady  Jane  Scott. 

ANNI'HILA^IONISH  (from  Lat.  ad,  to  + 
nihil,  nothing) .  The  theory  of  the  utter  extinc- 
tion of  man's  being,  both  bodily  and  spiritual, 
either  at  aeath  or  at  some  later  period.  Little  was 
heard  of  the  doctrine  until  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  when  Taylor,  of  Norwich,  England,  Mc- 
Knight,  and  a  few  others  wrote  upon  it.  Among 
later  supporters  perhaps  Archbishop  Whately 
may  be  counted ;  for  in  his  View  of  the  Scripture 
Revelations  Concerning  a  Future  State,  he  says 
that  in  the  passages  in  which  "death,"  "destruc- 
tion," "eternal  death,"  are  spoken  of,  the  words 
may  be  taken  aa  signifying  literal  death,  real  de- 
struction, the  utter  end  of  things;  that  "un- 
quenchable fire"  may  mean  a  fire  that  quite  con- 
sumes what  it  feeds  upon,  and  the  "worm  that 
dieth  not"  may  be  that  which  entirely  devours 
its  prey.  In  the  United  States,  the  question  was 
revived  by  Siw  Sermons  on  the  Question :  Are  the 
Wicked  Immortal f  by  George  Storrs  (Philadel- 
phia, 1848).  James  H.  McCulloh  in  his  Ana- 
lytical Investigations  Concerning  the  Scriptures 
(Baltimore,  1852)  maintained  that  after  the 
final  decisions  at  the  judgment  the  wicked  will 
be  utterly  destroyed  by  the  visitation  of  God 
in  wrath.  C.  F.  Hudson,  in  Debt  and  Grace, 
as  Related  to  the  Doctrine  of  a  Future  State 
(Boston,  1857),  denies  that  the  natural  im- 
mortality of  the  soul  is  even  implied  in 
tiie  Bible;  on  the  contrary,  life  and  immor- 
tality are  brought  to  the  redeemed  alone,  all 
others  being  not  only  naturally  mortal,  soul  and 
body,  at  death,  but  after  that  mortal  suspension 
of  positive  existence,  all  are  raised  at  the  final 
resurrection  and  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire  at  the 
second  death.  He  denies  that  endless  con- 
scious sufi'ering  is  ever  afiirmed  to  be  the  nature 
of  future  penalty,  but  afiirms  that  the  penalty 
consists  in  privation,  and  that  in  the  perpetuity 
of  this  privation  consists  the  eternity  of  future 
punishment.  The  Scripture  terms,  from  which 
eternal  misery  is  usually  understood,  such  terms 
as  "condemnation,"  "destruction,"  "perdition," 
"damnation,"  etc.,  he  thinks  express  the  painful 
and  penal  consignment  of  the  entire  nature  to 
disorganization  and  to  the  complete  non-exist- 
ence from  which  it  originally  came.  R.  W. 
Landis  replied  to  Hudson,  in  his  treatise  On  the 
Immortality  of  the  Soul  and  the  Final  Condition 
of  the  Wicked  (New  York,  1859),  and  many 
other  writers  discussed  the  subject,  especially  in 
religious  reviews  and  magazines. 

The  discussion  then  broadened  out,  and  was 
participated  in  by  members  of  all  communions. 
The  general  motive  was  to  gain  some  relief  from 
the  thought  of  the  eternal  suffering  of  vfest  mul- 
titudes of  human  souls.  It  has  accordingly  been 
argued  that  sin  is  corrupting  in  its  nature,  that 
it  leads  necessarily  to  degeneration  and  decay, 
and  that  a  sinning  soul,  embarked  upon  a 
course  of  rebellion  against  God,  must  finally 
wear  its  life-forces  out  and  cease  to  be.  But 
this  position  has  no  support  in  the  Bible  and 
little  in  reason.  There  is  no  evidence  from  the  ex- 
perience of  sinners  in  this  world,  that  sin,  however 
much  it  may  otherwise  affect  the  nature,  sub- 
stantially diminishes  the  power  of  life.  The  ten- 
dency among  thinkers,  who  have  sought  relief  in 
this  direction  has  therefore  been  rather  to  the 
doctrine  of  "conditional  immortality,"  so-called, 
that  the  soul  of  man  is  not  by  nature  immortal, 
but  becomes  s6  by  the  special  gift  of  Christ  upon 


the  exercise  of  a  genuine  faith  in  him.  Apart 
from  this  faith  man  would  eventually,  and 
probably  at  death,  cease  to  be.  Against  the  ob- 
jection that  thus  multitudes  of  souls  would  seem 
to  have  been  created  to  no  purpose,  the  analogies 
of  evolution  are  brought  by  some,  by  which  mul- 
titudes of  forms  are  everywhere  produced  that 
a  few  select  ones  may  survive.  The  soul  itself 
thus  enters  into  the  "struggle  for  existence,"  and 
'the  "fittest"  souls  survive;  that  is,  those  who 
have  risen  by  Christian  faith  to  the  higher  plane 
of  life.  The  best  advocate  of  the  view  is  Rev. 
Edward  White,  Life  of  Christ  (London,  1875), 
A  modification  of  this  view  is  to  be  found  in 
S.  D.  McConneU's  Evolution  of  Immortality 
(New  York,  1901). 

AN^ISTON.  A  city  and  the  county  seat  of 
Calhoun  Co.,  Ala.,  63  miles  east  by  north  of 
Birmingham;  on  the  Southern,  the  Louisville 
and  Nashville,  and  other  railroads.  (Map:  Ala- 
bama, D  2).  It  has  a  fine  location  among  the 
mountains  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  contains  a 
park,  fair  grounds,  the  handsome  church  of  St 
Michael  and  All  Angels,  the  Anniston  College 
for  Young  Ladies,  the  Noble  Institute  (co-edu- 
cational), and  the  Barber  Memorial  Seminarr 
for  colored  girls.  The  city  is  in  a  remarkably 
productive  coal  and  iron,  timber,  and  cotton  re- 
gion, and  is  the  seat  of  an  important  cotton 
trade.  There  are  extensive  furnaces,  foundries 
and  machine  shops,  rolling  mills,  iron  pipe  and 
freight  car  works,  locomotive  and  boiler  works; 
several  cotton  manufacturing  establishments 
producing  a  variety  of  goods;  and  manufactures 
of  lumber  products,  lime,  brick  and  tile,  car- 
riages, etc.  Anniston  was  founded  in  1873  by 
the  Woodstock  Iron  Co., headed  by  Samuel  Noble, 
but  was  not  thrown  open  to  the  general  public 
until  ten  years  later.  Pop.  in  1890,  9998;  in 
1900,  9695. 

ANNOBON,  gn-n6-b6n^  An  island  in  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  about  1%^  south  of  the  equator, 
belonging  to  Spain  (Map:  Africa,  E  5).  It  has 
an  area  of  a  little  over  six  square  miles,  and 
is  highly  mountainous.  Inhabitants  number  3000, 
mostly  black,  and  some  of  them  converted  to 
Christianity.  It  was  discovered  bjr  the  Portu- 
guese in  1471,  and  ceded  to  Spain  m  1778. 

ANNONAY,  ftn'nd'nft'  (  anciently  Lat  An- 
noncum),  A  picturesque  town  of  France,  in 
the  department  of  Ard^he,  situated  at  the 
junction  of  two  little  rivers,  37  miles  south 
of  Lyons  (Map:  France,  L  6).  It  has  a 
rugged  beauty  of  its  own,  the  houses  and  jut- 
ting rocks  interspersed  along  steep  and  nar- 
row streets.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
Gothic  church,  built  in  1614,  the  college,  the 
museum,  and  library  containing  more  than  20.- 
000  volumes.  It  carries  on  an  active  trade  and 
industry,  the  chief  article^  of  manufacture  being 
paper,  of  which  nearly  half  a  million  reams  are 
produced  annually,  glove  leather  from  kid  skins, 
silk  and  cotton  twist,  and  woolen  cloth.  A  great 
quantity  of  silk  is  produced  in  the  neighboring 
villages.  The  paper  mills  of  Annonay  were  es- 
tablished by  the  father  of  the  celebrated  aero- 
nauts Montgolfier,  who  were  born  here,  and  of 
whom  there  is  a  statue  in  the  Grande  Place. 
Pop.,  1901,  17,490. 

AN^NTJALS.  A  class  of  handsomely  illus- 
trated collections  of  prose  and  verse,  imitating 
the  gift-books  of  the  Germans,  and  intended  for 
Christmas,  New  Year's,  and  birthday  presents. 


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ANNUALS. 


583 


ANNTTITY. 


The  first,  the  Forget -me-noty  was  published  in 
Liondon,  in  1823,  and  was  followed  by  the  Liter- 
ary Souvenir;  the  Kecpaakey  edited  by  Lady 
Wortley,  and  subsequently  by  the  Countess  of 
Blessington;  the  Book  of  Beauty;  the  Mtisical 
Bijou;  the  Comic  Annu<ilf  begun  by  Thomas 
Hood  and  others,  and  in  the  United  States  by 
the  Gift  and  the  Token,  to  mention  a  few  of  the 
many.  Liarge  sums  were  spent  on  these  publi- 
cations and  large  profits  were  realized ;  but  while 
many  authors  of  distinction,  as  Tennyson,  were 
induced  to  contribute  to  them,  the  articles,  as  a 
rule,  were  of  an  inferior  and  highfy  sentimental 
nature,  and  after  1840  the  demand  for  annuals 
declined.  The  Forget-me-not  had  ag  unparal- 
leled life  of  twenty-two  years;  but  the  Book  of 
Beauty  and  the  Keepsake  survived  it,  the  last 
named  ceasing  to  exist  in  1856.  The  tradition 
of  the  old  annuals  survives  in  the  special  Christ- 
mas numbers  of  many  magazines. 

ANNUALS,  or  MON'OCYCLIC  PLANTS. 

Plants  whose  life  cycle  is  completed  within  a 
single  vegetative  period.  They  are  most  char- 
acteristic of  dry  and  waste  places.  See  Dura- 
tion; and  Stems. 

ANNUITY  (from  Lat.  annua,  year).  A  sum 
of  money  paid  annually.  If  perpetual,  the  right 
to  receive  the  payment  passes  from  the  annui- 
tant to  his  heirs.  Such  perpetual  annuities  are 
less  frequent  than  life  annuities,  which  may  as- 
sume the  most  varied  forms.  In  the  simplest 
•  phase  of  the  matter  the  annuitant  receives  a 
fixed  annual  payment  during  his  life,  the  annuity 
being  extinguished  by  his  death.  If  upon  the 
lives  of  several  persons,  the  aggregate  amount  of 
the  annuity  only  is  fixed.  On  the  death  of  one  of 
the  recipients,  his  share  is  distributed  among  the 
survivors,  the  last  person  receiving  the  whole 
amount  which  was  formerly  distributed.  The 
annuity  may  begin  immediately  and  stop  upon 
the  happening  of  some  contingency,  as  marriage; 
or  again,  the  annuity  may  not  begin  until  a  later 
date,  in  which  case  it  is  designated  as  deferred. 
Many  other  combinations  can  be  and  actually  are 
devised.  Such  annuities  arise  either  from  testa- 
mentary dispositions  or  from  contract.  In  the 
former  "case  it  is  the  desire  of  the  testator  to  in- 
sure to  the  recipient  an  income  fixed  in  amount 
either  for  life  or  for  a  lesser  period.  Thus,  a 
father  may  provide  an  annuity  for  his  daughter, 
to  be  terminated  upon  marriage.  In  case  of  an 
annuity  resting  upon  contract,  the  annuitant  or 
some  one  for  him,  surrenders  the  use  of  a  sum 
of  money  to  another  person  who  agrees  to  make 
fixed  annual  payments  to  the  annuitant  during 
the  life  of  the  latter.  The  annuity  may  be  pur- 
chased by  a  single  payment  or  a  series  of  pay- 
ments extending  over  a  number  of  years.  The 
latter  is  particularly  applied  to  old  age  insur- 
ance, the  object  of  which  is  to  secure  a  fixed  an- 
nual income  after  reaching  a  certain  age.  Such 
a  contract  between  two  individuals  would  be 
little  more  than  a  wager.  No  one  can  tell  how 
long  an  individual  may  live,  and  one  of  the  par- 
ties to  the  contract  must  gain  at  the  expense  of 
the  other.  When,  however,  the  business  is  con- 
centrated so  that  the  party  paying  the  annuities 
deals  with  a  large  number  of  persons,  the  same 
laws  that  make  life  insurance  possible  make  this 
a  calculable  and  legitimate  enterprise.  The 
relations  of  life  insurance  and  annuities  are 
obvious.  They  are  reciprocals  of  one  another. 
In  life  insurance  a  series  of  annual  payments  ob- 


tains for  the  insured  certain  capital  at  death, 
while  in  annuities  the  surrender  of  a  certain 
capital  insures  a  series  of  annual  payments  dur- 
ing life.  Annuities  are,  in  fact,  older  than  life 
insurance,  and  the  latter  is  an  offshoot  of  the 
former. 

The  elements  in  the  calculation  of  the  rates  ot 
annuities  are  the  same  as  in  life  insurance, 
though  the  calculation  is  a  different  one.  The 
first  element  is  the  probability  of  human  life,  as 
determined  by  vital  statistics.  Upon  the  length 
of  human  life  depends  the  number  of  payments, 
and  for  a  given  capital,  therefore,  the  amount  ot 
such  payments.  It  is  obvious  that  the  sum  of 
$1000  would  purchase  a  larger  annuity  for  a 
man  of  fifty  than  for  one  of  twenty-five.  It  is 
equally  clear  that  for  a  series  of  contracts  onco 
entered  upon,  a  lengthening  of  the  average  period 
of  human  life  would  cause  pecuniary  loss  to  those 
paying  the  annuities,  while  a  shortening  of  hu- 
man life  would  cause  a  profit.  Like  results 
have  frequently  followed  from  undertaking  annu- 
ity contracts  upon  an  erroneous  statistical  basis. 
The  second  element  in  the  case  is  the  interest 
upon  money.  If  the  money  surrendered  at  the 
outset  were  locked  up  in  a  strong  box,  the  cal- 
culation of  the  payment  for  a  fixed  number  of 
years  would  be  simplicity  itself.  In  that  case 
an  annuity  of  $1  for  ten  years  could  not  be  pur- 
chased for  less  than  $10.  But  the  purchase 
money  is,  in  fact,  placed  at  interest,  and  under 
the  terms  of  the  contract  above  noted,  the  seller 
of  the  annuity  would  enjoy  the  interest  on  $10 
for  one  year,  on  $9  for  the  second  year,  and  so 
on.  The  purchaser,  however,  will  not  surrender 
his  entire  claim  to  interest,  but  will  at  least 
share  it  with  the  seller.  It  follows,  therefore, 
that  an -annuity  of  $1  for  ten  years  should  be 
purchased  for  something  less  than  $10.  How 
much  less,  will  depend  upon  the  rate  of  interest. 
If  interest  were  six  per  cent.,  the  annuity  could 
be  purchased  more  cheaply  than  if  it  were  only 
three  per  cent.  Changes  in  the  rate  of  interest 
complicate  the  practical  problem  of  executing 
annuity  contracts. 

Such  contractual  annuities  as  have  been  de- 
scribed are  more  frequent  in  Europe  than  in  the 
United  States.  In  Europe,  the  earliest  public 
debts  were  in  the  form  of  life  annuities.  The  ill 
success  of  these  ventures  was  one  of  the  earliest 
stimulants  to  a  scientific  study  of  the  laws  of 
mortality.  In  European  countries  the  issue  of 
annuities  is  still  carried  on  by  the  Grovernment 
as  well  as  by  private  companies.  The  greater 
familiarity  with  annuities  which  prevails  in 
England,  for  instance,  explains  the  frequent  al- 
lusions to  the  interest  on  the  public  debt  as  a 
multitude  of  perpetual  annuities.  The  repay- 
ment of  the  principal  not  being  contemplated,  the 
investor  in  the  funds  acquires  the  right  to  re- 
ceive a  certain  annual  income,  and  this  right  is 
transferable  to  his  heirs.  Annuities  are  assum- 
ing new  importance  in  the  United  States,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  most  life  insurance  companies  are 
beginning  to  issue  new  and  attractive  forms 
of  annuity  policies. 

The  mathematical  treatment  of  the  subject  is 
extensive,  involving  the  preparation  of  mortality 
and  investment  tables.  The  formation  of  these 
tables  is  discussed  in  the  Aaaurance  Magazine, 
a  journal  of  the  Institute  of  Actuaries  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

The  annuity  may  be  chargeable  only  to  the 
person  of  the  "grantor,  or  it  may  be  a  charge  on 


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AKNTTIiATA. 


specific  personal  or  real  estate.  In  either  case. 
if  given  with  words  of  inheritance,  it  will  de- 
scend as  real  property,  but  for  all  other  purposes 
it  will  be  treated  as  personal  property.  In  this 
respect  it  differs  from  a  rent  charge  (q.v.),  with 
which  it  is  often  confused,  but  which  is  always 
charged  on  specific  real  estate  and,  whether  in- 
heritable or  not,  is  always  treated  as  real  prop- 
erty. Annuities  are  classed  by  Blackstone 
Commentaries f  Book  ii.,  p.  40)  with  rents,  fran- 
chises, etc.,  as  incorporeal  hereditaments  (q.v.). 
Like  other  species  of  property,  they  are  generally 
alienable,  except  in  jurisdictions  vmere  by 
statute  beneficiaries  of  trusts  for  the  payment  of 
annuities  are  not  allowed  to  alienate  their  inter- 
ests under  the  trust. 

Consult:  Blackstone,  Commentaries  on  the 
Laws  of  England;  Kent,  Commentaries  on  Amer- 
ican LaWy  and  the  authorities  referred  to  under 
the  title  Life  Insurance. 

AK^ULAB  ECLIPSE.     See  Ecupss. 

AN'NTJLA^IA  (Lat.  annulus,  a  small 
ring ) .  A  genus  of  fossil  plants  found  in  rocks  of  De- 
vonian,  Carboniferous,  and  Permian  ages,  allied 
to  the  modern  Equisetace®,  or  Scouring-rushes, 
and  consisting  of  fluted  annulated  stems  bear- 
ing numerous  narrow  leaves  arranged  in  whorls 
at  the  ring-like  joints.  Annularis,  for  so  long 
a  time  considered  to  be  plants  of  a  distinct 
genus,  are  now  known  to  be,  together  with  the 
genera  Asterophyllites  and  Sphenophyllum, 
merely  heteromorphous  leaves  of  the  Calamites 
(q.v.). 

AN'KIJLA^A,  or  ANNELia>A  (Lat.  aneU 
lusy  a  little  ring) .  A  phylum  of  animals,  the  an- 
nelids, comprising  a  large  group  of  segmented, 
worm-like  forms,  mostly  included  by  Linnaeus 
in  his  class  vermes.  They  have  a  more  or 
less  elongated  body,  which  is  always  composed 
of  numerous  segments.  The  first  of  these  as- 
sumes, in  many,  the  character  of  a  head,  but 
in  some  the  head  is  not  clearly  set  off  from 
the  trunk.  They  have  no  jointed  appendages, 
but  most  of  them  are  provided  with  bristles 
and  hairs,  called  setce,  often  in  numerous  bun- 
dles, which  are  of  use  to  them  in  locomotion; 
some,  which  want  these,  are  furnished  with  suck- 
ers at  the  extremities,  and  employ  them  for  this 
purpose;  some  remain  fixed  in  one  place.  Their 
bodies  are  always  soft,  and  without  external  or 
internal  skeleton;  but  some  of  them  form  for 
themselves  a  calcareous  covering  by  exudation; 
others  form  coverings  partly  by  exudation  and 
partly  by  agglutination.  Their  blood  is  gener- 
ally red,  but  not  from  red  corpuscles,  as  in 
vertebrates;  sometimes  it  is  greenish  or  yellow- 
ish. The  circulatory  system  is  well-developed 
in  most  annelids,  though  a  few  aberrant  forms 
have  it  greatly  reduced  or  even  entirely  wanting. 
It  is  generally  what  is  called  a  closed  system; 
that  is,  the  vessels  of  which  it  is  composed  are 
entirely  shut  off  from  communication  with  the 
body  cavity.  But  in  the  leeches  there  is  no 
sharp  distinction  between  blood-vessels  and  body 
cavity.  There  are  always  longitudinal  vessels, 
usually  two,  sometimes  four,  the  dorsal  or  lat- 
eral of  which  pulsate  more  or  less.  These  longi- 
tudinal vessels  are  connected  by  a  large  number 
of  transverse  vessels.  Some  of  these  near  the 
anterior  end  of  the  body  are  occasionally  larger 
than  the  rest,  and  are  called  "hearts,"  but  there 
is  no  true  heart.  See  Alimentary  System; 
CiPcuLATORY  System. 


The  nervous  system  consists  of  a  pair  of  gang- 
lia  lying  above   the  oesophagus,  known  as  the 
brain,  from  which  the  nerve  trunks  arise.    Usual- 
ly there  are  two  such  trunks,  which  pass  down- 
ward and  backward  around  the  (esophagus,  meet- 
ing in  the  mid-ventral  line  and  running  backward 
to  the  rear  of  the  body  as  a  double  cord.    On  this 
there  are  ganglia  in  each  segment.     The  sense 
of  touch   is   usually  acute  in  annelids,  and  is 
often  localized  in  tentacles  and  papille.    Many 
species  have  eyes  more  or  less  highly  organized; 
some  have  sensory  pits,  supposed  to  be  smelling 
organs;  some»have  sensory  papillae,  which  from 
their  occurrence  around  the  mouth  are  supposed 
to  be  organs  of  taste;  and  a  very  few  have  oto- 
cysts,  or  positional  organs.    In  all  annelids,  ex- 
cept a  few  aberrant  forms,  excretion  takes  place 
by  means  of  nephridia,  and  these  are  usually  ar- 
ranged a  pair  in  each  segment.     These  nephridia 
are  coiled  tubes,  one  end  widened  to  form  a  fun- 
nel and  opening  in  the  body  cavity,  and  the  other 
opening  to  the  exterior.     See  Nervous  System. 

Respiration  is  either  by  gills,  which  are  of 
very  various  structure  and  appearance,  or 
through  the  surface  of  the  body  or  some  part  of 
the  alimentary  canal.  The  latter  varies  greatly 
with  the  habits  of  the  worms,  but  the  anal  open- 
ing is  always  at  the  posterior  end  of  the  body. 
The  muscular  system  is  usually  well  developed, 
for  many  of  these  worms  are  very  active  ani- 
mals. The  sexes  are  generally  separate,  but 
many  annelids  are  hermaphrodites.  Nearly  all 
lay  eggs,  and  these  are  sometimes  provided  with 
a  shell.  See  Respiratoby  System;  Gills;  Mus- 
cular System. 

Annelids  are  widely  distributed  over  the 
world;  while  the  majority  are  marine,  a  large 
number  is  found  in  fresh  water  or  in  the  earth. 
Many  are  carnivorous,  but  some  are  almost  whol- 
ly vegetable  feeders.  Some  are  sluggish,  but 
the  majority  are  active,  and  some  move  with 
remarkable  rapidity.  They  vary  greatly  in  siae. 
some  being  almost  microscopic,  while  others 
are  several  feet  long.  They  are  usually  dull- 
colored,  but  some,  especially  tropical  species,  are 
gorgeously  arrayed.  Aside  from  the  part  they 
play  in  the  economy  of  nature  as  soil  producers 
and  scavengers,  they  are  of  little  use  to  man. 
Leeches  were  formerly  (and  are  still  sometimes) 
used  in  medicine  for  blood-letting,  and  a  few 
species  are  used  as  food  by  savages,  notably  the 
palolo-womi    ( q.v. ) . 

The  classification  of  the  annelids  has  always 
been  a  matter  of  great  difficulty,  as  there  are 
several  other  groups  to  which  tliey  seem  to  be 
related  or  which  they  superficially  resemble. 
The  matter  is  not  definitely  settled,  but  it  seems 
best  now  to  regard  them  as  a  phylum,  or  type,  co- 
ordinate w^ith  Mollusca  Arthropoda,  etc.,  and 
containing  two  well-marked  classes,  and  two 
others  whose  relationships  are  very  obscure.  The 
largest  and  most  important  of  these  classes  is 
that  of  the  Chcetopoday  in  which  the  blood  system 
is  closed  and  the  external  rings  of  the  body  cor- 
respond to  the  internal  segments.  They  have  loco- 
motive organs  in  the  form  of  setce,  or  appendages 
provided  with  them.  The  class  includes  a  very 
great  number  of  species  of  widely  different  struc- 
ture and  appearance,  and  the  most  convenient, 
though  possibly  not  the  most  natural  way  to  di- 
vide it  is  into  three  groups,  Polychaeta,  Oligocha- 
ta,  and  Myzostomida.  The  last  named  are  a 
very  small  group  of  curious,  degenerate  annelids 
which  live  parasitically  on  crinoids.     The  body 


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ANNUNZIO. 


is  flat  and  unsegmented,  and  has  neither  circula- 
tory nor  excretory  system.  The  second  class  is 
Oephyrea,  containing  marine  Annulata  "devoid 
of  any  trace  of  segmentation  in  the  adult  con- 
dition, without  parapodia,  and  either  without 
set«,  or  with  only  a  limited  number."  It  in- 
cludes Sipunculus,  Echiurus,  and  a  few  closely 
related  forms.  The  third  class  is  Archi-anneliday 
minute  marine  worms,  faintly  segmented,  and 
represented  by  only  two  families — the  Histrio- 
drilidfe,  parasitic  on  lobsters,  and  the  Polygor- 
diidse;  the  larvae  of  both  are  trochospheres.  The 
fourth  class  is  Hiruditiea,  the  leeches,  which 
have  the  blood  system  communicating  with  the 
body  cavity,  and  the  external  rings  are  four  or 
five  times  as  numerous  as  the  inner  segments. 
They  have  no  seta  and  are  provided  with 
suckers.  Consult  Parker  and  Haswell,  Zoology 
(New  York,  1897).  See  Earthworm;  Leech; 
Neueis;  Serpula;  Worms;  Fossil. 

ANinJI<ET  (Lat.  annulus,  dimin.  of  annua, 
a  ring).  (1 )  A  term  in  architecture  for  a  small 
fillet  or  band  in  relief.  The  annulet  is  several 
times  repeated  in  the  moulding  at  the  base  of 
the  capital  of  a  Doric  column  under  the  ovolo. 
(For  illustration,  see  CJolumn.)  (2)  Annulet, 
a  ring,  a  charge  in  heraldry  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. 

ANNTTlirCIADE,  ftn-nfln'shl-ad,  or  ANTJN- 
CIADA,  &-n^n'thA-H^D&  (Sp.  Anunciada,  annun- 
ciation). The  name  of  several  religious  or- 
ders. (1)  The  religious  Order  of  the  Heavenly 
Annunciation,  or  of  the  Nuns  of  the  Annuncia- 
tion of  Mary*,  was  instituted  by  Maria  Victoria 
Fornari  at  Genoa  in  1602,  after  a  very  strict 
rule.  The  convents  of  the  order  at  one  time  num- 
bered fifty  in  France,  Germany,  and  the  Nether- 
lands, but  they  have  disappeared  since  the 
French  Revolution,  except  the  one  in  Genoa.  (2) 
Another  Order  of  the  Annunciation,  or  of  nuns  of 
Mary's  Announcement,  or  the  Ten  Virtues,  was 
organized  by  Joanna,  the  daughter  of  Louis  XL, 
in  1501,  after  her  separation  from  Louis  XII. 
It  extended  to  fifty  convents  for  the  reception  of 
poor  gentlewomen,  but  was  broken  up  at  the 
Revolution.  (3)  The  order  of  Knights  of  the  An- 
nunciation in  Savoy,  Ordine  Suprema  delV  An- 
nunciata,  now  the  first  Italian  Order,  known  orig- 
inally as  the  Order  of  the  Neck  Chain  or  Collar, 
was  instituted  in  1360  by  Amadeus  VI.,  Duke 
of  Savoy.  It  received  statutes  from  Amadeus 
VI IT.,  as  Anti-Pope  Felix  V.,  in  1409,  was  re- 
newed in  1518  under  the  name  of  the  Holy  An- 
nunciation, and  in  1720  was  raised  by  Victor 
Amadeus  to  be  the  first  order  of  the  kingdom  of 
Savoy.  The  King  is  always  grand  master.  The 
knights,  who  since  1720  are  not  limited  in  num- 
ber, must  be  of  high  rank,  and  already  admitted 
to  the  Orders  of  St.  Mauritius  and  St.  Lazarus. 
They  compose  only  one  class.  The  decoration  is 
JL  gold  medal,  on  which  is  represented  the  An- 
nunciation, surrounded  by  love-knots.  It  is 
usually  worn  suspended  by  a  simple  gold  chain, 
but  the  proper  collar  or  chain  of  the  Order  is  com- 
posed alternately  of  love-knots  and  roses.  On  the 
roses  are  engraved  the  letters  F.  E.  R.  T.,  which 
some  interpret  Fortitudo  ejus  Rhodum  tenuit,  in 
allusion  to  the  defense  of  Rhodes  by  Amadeus 
v.,  and  which  others  hold  to  signify  Frappes,  en- 
ires,  rompea  toua.  Since  1680  the  knights  wear 
on  the  left  breast  a  star  embroidered  in  gold. 
The  four  officers  of  the  Order — the  Chancellor 
(always  a  bishop  or  archbishop),  the  secretary 


(usually  the  minister  of  foreign  affairs),  the  al- 
moner (usually  the  King's  first  almoner),  and 
the  treasurer — ^wear  the  decoration  round  the 
neck,  suspended  by  a  sky-blue  ribbon,  accompa- 
nied by  a  star  on  the  left  breast.  For  details  of 
costumes,  etc.,  see  Burke's  Book  of  Order sf  of 
Knighthood,  p.  250,  et  aeq,  (4)  A  brotherhood 
of  the  Annunciation  was  established  in  Rome  by 
Cardinal  Turrecremata  in  1460.  Its  primary 
object  was  to  provide  dowries  for  twelve  poor 
girls,  but  it  now  supports  four  hundred  girls,  to 
whom  it  gives  twenty- five  scudi  apiece  if  they 
marry,  or  fifty  scudi  apiece  if  they  enter  a  con- 
vent. Pope  Urban  VlII.  (died  1644)  left  his 
entire  private  fortune  (30,000  scudi)  to  the 
brotherhood. 

ANNUN'CIA'TION,  The  (Lat.  ad,  to  + 
nuntiua,  messenger,  newsbearer).  The  announce- 
ment by  the  angel  to  the  Virgin  Mary  of  the  in- 
carnation of  Christ  ( Luke  i  :  26-38 ) .  The  fes- 
tival of  the  Annunciation  is  kept  on  March  25, 
which  was  for  a  long  period  the  beginning  of 
the  legal  year  in  England.  The  earliest  evidence 
of  the  celebration  of  this  feast  is  in  a  canon  of 
the  Council  of  Toledo,  held  in  656.  With  a 
view  to  natural  fitness,  the  framers  of  the  Church 
calendar  placed  the  festival  of  Christ's  nativity 
nine  months  after  the  Annunciation. 

AlOnXKCIATION,  The.  A  subject  fre- 
quently treated  by  religious  painters.  The  Virgin 
is  commonly  represented  with  needlework,  or  with 
a  book,  according  to  the  legends,  while  the  arch- 
angel appears  bearing  a  sceptre  or,  more  com- 
monly, a  lily  or  an  olive  branch.  Among  well- 
known  pictures  with  this  title  are  paintings  by 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  in  the  Pitti  Gallery,  Florence; 
Fra  Angelico,  a  fresco,  in  the  cloisters  attached 
to  the  church  of  San  Marco,  at  Florence,  a  par- 
ticularly delicate  and  characteristic  treatment 
of  the  theme;  al.so  by  the  same,  a  work  now  in 
the  museum  at  Madrid,  painted  for  the  San  Dom- 
enico  at  Fiesole;  Luca  Signorelli,  at  Volterra, 
Italy,  in  a  chapel  of  the  Duomo;  Titian,  in  the 
Scuola  di  San  Rocco,  at  Venice;  D.  G.  Rossetti, 
in  the  National  Gallery,  London,  a  noteworthy- 
example  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  school,  in  which 
the  Virgin  is  a  portrait  of  Christina  Rossetti. 

ANNUNZIO,  An-no5n'ts^d,  Gabkiele  d*" 
(1864-^).  An  Italian  novelist  and  poet,  more 
widely  discussed,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  than 
any  other  writer  of  his  country.  He  was 
born  at  Francavilla  al  Mare,  near  Pescara.  In  his- 
fifteenth  year,  while  a  student  at  Prato,  he  pub- 
lished his  first  collection  of  verse,  Primo  Vere, 
followed  at  intervals  by  Tn  Mcmoriam  (1880), 
Canto  novo  (1882),  Intermezzo  di  rime  (1883) 
Isaotta  Ouitadduro  (1886),  and  Ulsntteo  e  la 
Chimera  (1890).  From  the  appearance  of  his 
first  volume  he  was  hailed  as  a  poet  of  excep- 
tional promise,  although  the  frankly  licentious 
tone  of  many  of  his  earlier  poems  provoked  much 
censure.  His  first  novel,  //  Piacere  (translated 
under  the  title  The  Child  of  Pleasure)  appeared 
in  1 889,  and  was  evidently  written  under  the  dom- 
inating influence  of  Maupassant  and  Bourget. 
In  the  main,  it  is  a  psychological  study  of  a 
thorough-going  egotist  whose  affections  are 
divided  between  two  women,  and  who  in  the  end 
ruins  the  life  of  one  of  them  as  well  as  his  o^vn. 
His  next  volumes,  UJnnocente  {The  Intruder^ 
1891).  and  Giovanni  Episcopo  (1892)  are  both 
powerful  but  gruesome  stories,  showing  strongly 
the  influence  of  the  Russian  school,  and  especi- 


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ANOIKTIKG. 


ally  that  of  Tolstoi's  Kreutzer  Sonata,  II  trionfo 
deUa  Morte  {The  Triumph  of  Death)  appeared 
in  1894,  and  confirmed  his  reputation  as  a 
searching  psychological  writer,  although  its  au- 
dacity has  made  it  impossible  to  translate  the 
volume  in  its  entirety.  About  this  time  some 
of  his  volumes  were  translated  into  French  by 
M.  Herelle,  and  shortly  after  their  appearance 
M.  Vogll6  wrote  a  highly  eulogistic  appreciation 
of  d'Annunzio  for  the  Revue  des  Deux  Mondes, 
under  the  caption  "La  Renaissance  latine,"  with 
the  result  that  the  young  author  suddenly  awoke 
to  an  international  reputation,  and  his  works 
were  speedily  translated  into  French,  German, 
and  English. 

During  the  last  few  years,  d'Annunzio's  liter- 
ary ideals  seem  to  have  undergone  an  interesting 
evolution.  Grouping  together  his  earlier  novels, 
II  Piacere,  L'Innocente,  and  II  Trionfo,  as  the 
Romances  of  the  Rose,  he  conceived  the  idea  of 
a  triple  trilogy,  the  second  and  third  groups  to 
be  respectively  known  as  the  Romances  of  the 
Lily  and  Romances  of  the  Pomegranate.  The 
first  "Romance  of  the  Lily,"  Le  Vergini  delle 
rocce  ("Virgins  of  the  Rocks")  appeared 
in  1896.  The  scheme  of  the  story  is  sym- 
bolic to  the  last  degree,  and  the  fiuent  and 
rhythmic  prose  in  which  it  is  couched  shows  the 
extreme  development  of  the  author's  application 
of  the  Wagnerian  leitmotiv  to  literature.  His 
long-promised  Fuoco  ("Flame  of  Life"),  the  first 
of  the  "Pomegranate"  series  appeared  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1900.  It  is  an  apotheosis  of  poetry, 
physical  beauty,  and  sensual  love,  and  incident- 
ally excited  much  comment  because  many  readers 
chose  to  identify  the  heroine  with  the  well-known 
actress,  Eleanora  Duse.  Recently,  d'Annunzio 
has  turned  his  attention  to  the  drama,  which 
it  is  his  ambition  to  restore  to  the  grandeur  and 
unity  of  the  classic  Greek  tragedy.  His  plays 
include:  II  sogno  d^un  mattino  di  primavera 
(1897),  II  sogno  d*un  tramonto  d'autunno 
(1898),  La  cittd  morta  (1898),  La  Qiooonda 
( 1898),  which  has  won  considerable  success  upon 
the  stage,  and  Francesca  da  Rimini  (1901). 
There  is  no  question  that  d'Annunzio  is  ex- 
erting a  marked  influence  upon  Italian  letters, 
whether  for  good  or  for  ill  it  is  still  too  early  to 
determine.  He  is  a  firm  believer  in  a  new  Renais- 
sance— a  Renaissance  which  will  begin  by  "rees- 
tablishing the  worship  of  Man,"  and  which  will 
■"exalt  and  glorify  above  all  things  the  beauty  and 
power  of  man,  the  conqueror." 

AN^NUS  ICIBABOLIS  (Lat.  wonderful 
year ;  the  year  of  wonders ) ;  The  title  of  a  poem 
by  Dryden  (1667)  on  England's  naval  successes 
in  the 'war  with  Holland  (1666)  and  on  the  great 
fire  of  London. 

ANN^ILLE.  An  unincorporated  village  in 
Lebanon  Co.,  Pa.,  five  miles  west  of  Lebanon, 
the  county  seat;  on  the  Philadelphia  and  Reading 
Railroad  (Map:  Pennsylvania,  E  3).  It  is 
the  seat  of  Lebanon  Valley  College  (United 
Brethren  in  Christ),  opened  in  1866,  and  has 
manufactures  of  shoes,  hosiery,  etc.  Ann vi lie 
was  laid  out  in  1762,  and  originally  was  called 
Millerstown,  in  honor  of  its  founder.  Pop., 
1890,  1283;  1900,  about  2000. 

ANO^A  (native  name) .  A  genus  of  buffaloes, 
connecting  them  with  the  antelopes,  and  repre- 
sented by  the  sapi-utan  of  Celebes  {Anoa  depres- 
^comis),  a  small  black  wild  cow  of  the  High- 


lands, having  low  straight  horns,  wide  at  the 
base.     See  plate  of  Buffaloes. 

AN'ODE,  (Gk.  ttvodofy  anodos,  a  way  up, 
from  dvd,  ana,  up  -f  666c,  hodos,  way) .  A  tenn 
first  used  by  Faraday  to  designate  the  positive 
terminal  or  conductor  by  which  the  current  of  a 
voltaic  battery  enters  a  substance,  undergoing 
decomposition  by  electrolysis.  The  negative  pole, 
or  conductor,  by  which  the  current  leaves  the 
electrolyte,  is  called  in  the  same  nomenclature 
the  cathode  {kata,  downward,  and  hodos). 
Electrode  is  the  general  term  applied  to  either  of 
these.  The  products  of  electrolysis  are  called  ions 
{i6n,  going).  Such  as  go  to  the  anode  receive  the 
name  of  actions,  and  those  passing  to  the  cathode, 
cations.  Thus,  in  the  decomposition  of  water  by 
the  passage  through  it  of  an  electric  current  be- 
tween two  platinum  plates,  the  water  is  the  eloe- 
trolyte;  the  platinum  plate  connected  with  the 
copper  or  carbon  of  the  battery  is  the  anode: 
and  the  one  connected  with  the  zinc  plate,  the 
cathode.  The  oxygen  and  hydrogen  .which  are 
disengaged,  are  the  ions;  the  oxygen  separating 
at  the  anode  forming  the  anions ;  and  the  hydro- 
gen at  the  cathode,  the  cations.  See  £lec- 
TRiciTY  for  a  discussion  of  electrolysis. 

AN'ODON^A.  A  subdivision  of  freshwater 
mussels  of  the  family  Unionid^e,  characterized  by 
having  light,  thin,  smooth  shells  without  hinge- 
teeth.  They  are  abundant  in  both  ponds  and 
streams  in  America  and  most  other  countries. 
See  plate  of  Abaix)ne,  etc. 

AK^ODYNE  (Gk.  av.  an,  priv.  +  Wt»i, 
odyne,  pain) .  A  remedy  given  to  a^uage.  Prop 
erly,  the  term  is  applied  to  medicines,  such  as 
opium,  which  act  on  the  nervous  system,  so  as  to 
diminish  pain.  Anodynes  may  induce  sleep.  See 
Hypnotic;  Anesthetic. 

AKOINTINa  (Lat.  inunctio,  from  in,  in  -r 
unguere,  to  smear,  anoint) .  The  custom  of  pour- 
ing oil  on  the  head,  or  of  applying  unguents  to 
one's  body.  Anointing  was  widespread  in  the 
ancient  Orient  for  secular  as  well  as  for  religious 
purposes.  In  the  Old  Testament,  where  the 
custom  is  frequently  referred  to,  the  unguent 
used  was  olive  oil,  to  which  frequently  aro- 
matic spices  were  added.  As  a  part  of  the 
regular  toilet,  anointing  was  associated 
with  washing  (e.g.  Ezekiel  xvi  :  9),  but  in 
days  of  mourning,  anointing,  which  was  regard- 
ed as  a  symbol  of  joy  and  gladness  (e.g. 
Psalms  xxiii  :  5),  was  omitted.  Head,  face,  and 
feet  were  the  parts  of  the  body  to  which  the  un- 
guents were  applied.  The  Hebrews  in  thus  using 
aromatic  unguents  no  doubt  simply  followed  gen- 
eral customs,  and  similarly  the  religious  and 
ceremonial  use  of  unguents  was  common  to  the 
ancient  Orient.  It  was  general  to  anoint  kings  as 
a  symbol  of  initiation,  and  likewise  priests  and 
sacred  objects  were  anointed.  An  interesting  de- 
velopment growing  out  of  the  custom  among  the 
Hebrews  was  the  use  of  the  word  meshiach,  which 
means  anointed,  or  "the  one  set  aside  as  devoted" 
and  sacred;  and  in  the  extension  of  this  idea. 
Meshiach  or  Messias  comes  to  be  applied  to  the 
Hebrews  as  the  people  set  aside  by  Jehovah,  to 
(jod  himself  as  the  Messiah  of  his  people,  and  to 
Jesus  Christ  as  set  aside  by  God  for  the  redemp- 
tion of  mankind. 

As  to  the  original  significance  of  anointing  as 
a  religious  rite,  scholars  hold  difl'erent  views. 
Some  regard  the  oil  as  a  substitute  for  blood, 
others  look  upon  it  as  itself  symbolizing  life,  fat 


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AKOKYMOTJS. 


being,  according  to  ancient  ideas,  one  of  the  seats 
of  life.  In  either  case,  the  idea  expressed  by  the 
religious  ana  ceremonial  anointing  is  that  of 
establishing  a  covenant  between  the  individual 
and  the  Deity,  perhaps  as  the  source  of  life  of 
which  the  oil  serves  in  some  way  or  the  other  as 
representative.  It  was  the  actual  rubbing  of 
the  unguent  over  the  head,  face  or  feet  whereby 
direct  communion  between  the  individual  and  the 
unguent  was  brought  about  that  constituted  the 
essential  part  of  the  ceremony,  and  not  the  mere 
act  of  pouring  it  over  the  head  of  a  person.  In 
the  course  of  time,  however,  as  the  custom  be- 
came more  and  more  merely  a  mark  of  honor, 
the  pouring  over  the  head  became  the  customary 
form  of  anointing.  In  the-  New  Testament,  an- 
ointing is  merely  referred  to  in  the  case  of  the 
sick;  but  the  rite  was  adopted  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  and  the  various  Oriental  churches,  and 
survives  in  the  anointing  of  kings  in  England, 
Spain,  and  Russia.  See  also  Chrism;  Cobona- 
TiON,  and  Extreme  Unction;  and  for  annoint- 
ing  of  the  dead,  see  Embalming. 

ANOEA,  &-ndOc&.  A  city,  the  county  seat  of 
Anoka  Co.,  Minn.,  on  the  Rum  River,  at  its 
confluence  with  the  Mississippi,  15  miles  north- 
northwest  of  Minneapolis  (Map:  Minnesota, 
E  5).  Anoka  has  a  public  library,  fine  schools, 
and  manufactures  of  lumber  in  various  forms, 
flour,  machinery,  etc.  Under  a  charter  of  1889, 
the  mayor  is  elected  yearly,  and  the  city  council 
consists  of  six  members.  Pop.,  1890,  4252;  1900, 
3769. 

ANCKLIS  (in  the  Antilles,  anoli,  anoalli,  a 
lizard).  A  genus  and  family  (Anolidae)  of 
small,  fine-scaled,  metachroistic,  iguanid  lizards, 
numerous  in  the  warmer  parts  of  America,  and 
represented  in  the  United  States  by  one  species. 
See  Chameleon.    For  illustration,  see  Lizard. 

ANOM'ALIS^nC  YEAB.  The  interval  that 
elapses  between  two  successive  passages  of  the 
earth  through  its  perihelion,  or  point  of  nearest 
approach  to  the  sun.  If  the  earth's  orbit  had  a 
fixed  position  in  space,  this  period  would  corre- 
spond with  that  of  a  sidereal  revolution,  or  the 
time  the  earth  would  take  after  leaving  any 
point  of  the  heavens  to  return  to  it  again,  as 
seen  from  the  sun;  but  the  disturbing  influence 
of  the  other  planets  causes  the  perihelion  to 
advance  slowly  (IT'.S  annually)  in  the  direction 
of  the  earth's  motion,  so  that  the  anomalistic 
year  is  longer  (4  minutes  39  seconds)  than  the 
sidereal.  This  will  be  better  understood  from 
the  accompanying  diagram,  in  which  A'BB'  rep- 
resents the  elliptical  orbit  of  the  earth;  £f,  the 


BLLtPTICAL  ORBIT. 


sun;  A,  the  perihelion;  and  AB,  the  longer  axis. 
When  the  earth,  after  leaving  A,  comes  back  to 


it  again  after  having  completed  a  sidereal  revo- 
lution, it  finds  the  longer  axis  AB,  and  with  it 
the  whole  ellipse,  advanced  to  A'B',  and  it  has 
still  to  describe  an  arc  of  IT'.S  before  it  reaches 
its  second  perihelion,  A'.  The  length  of  the 
anomalistic  year  is  365  days,  6  hours,  13  min- 
utes, 48  seconds.  It  receives  its  name  from  the 
anomaly    (q.v.). 

ANOM'ALISTS  AND  ANAI/OGISTS  (for 
derivation,  see  below).  Under  this  name  were 
known  in  antiquity  the  representatives  of  the 
two  opposing  views  of  the  origin  of  language. 
The  science  of  grammar  was  developed  in  the  Al- 
exandrian Age,  although  some  beginning  had  been 
made  in  the  earlier  period,  notably  by  Aristotle. 
The  Stoics  concerned  themselves  with  questions 
as  to  the  origin  of  language,  and  maintained  that 
it  was  a  natural  growth,  while  the  grammarians 
maintained  that  it  was  thi;  product  of  conven- 
tion. Chrysippus  (q.v.)  went  further  and 
taught  that  language  was  based  on  difTerence, 
irregularity  ( avL>fiakia,  anotnalia )  ;  the  Alexan- 
drians, Aristophanes  and  Aristarchus,  contended 
that  regularity,  analogy  {avaXoyia,  analogia), 
was  the  rule,  and  that  all  departure  from  reg- 
ularity is  to  be  explained  as  an  exception  to  the 
general  law.  The  Pergamene  School  of  gram- 
marians, under  the  leadership  of  Crates  of  Mal- 
los,  adopted  the  anomalistic  doctrine  against  the 
analogiatic  teaching  of  the  Alexandrians.  When 
Crates  was  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Rome  iii  the 
middle  of  the  second  century  B.C.  he  transplanted 
his  doctrine  to  that  city.  The  Alexandrians' 
views  gained  currency  there  somewhat  later,  and 
the  contest  between  the  two  doctrines  lasted  a 
long  time.  iElius  Stilo,  the  teacher  of  Cicero 
and  Varro,  favored  analog^';  Caesar  wrote  two 
books,  De  Analogia,  now  lost;  and  Varro  de- 
voted Books  VIII.-X.,  still  extant,  of  his  De  Lin- 
gua Latina  to  a  discussion  of  the  two  views.  The 
analogistic  view  finally  prevailed. 

Consult:  Wheeler,  ** Analogy  and  the  Scope  of 
Its  Application  in  Language,"  Oomell  Classical 
Studies  (Ithaca,  1887)  ;  Henry,  Etude  sur  Vana- 
logie  (Paris,  1883)  ;  Paul,  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  the  Histoi-y  of  Language,  translated  and 
edited  by  Strong  (London, -1888)  ;  and  Strong, 
Logeman  and  Wheeler,  Introduction  to  the  Study 
of  the  History  of  Language  (London,  1891), 
which  is  founded  upon  Paul's  work.  See  Philol- 
ogy. 

ANOM'ALOTJS  DISPEK'SIOK.  This  phe- 
nomenon will  be  found  discussed  in  the  article 
Light,  particularly  in  the  section  dealing  with 
ether  and  matter. 

ANOM'ALU^TJS.     See  Flying-squirbel. 

ANOM'ALY  (Gk.  avufia^ia,  anOmalia,  irreg- 
ularity, from  av,  an,  negat.  -+-  bfiaXS^,  homalos, 
even,  equal).  The  angle  measured  at  the  sun's 
centre  between  a  planet  in  any  point  of  its  orbit 
and  the  last  perihelion.  In  the  figure  in  the 
article  Anomalistic  Year,  if  P  be  a  planet, 
A'BB'  its  orbit,  S  the  sun,  and  A  the  perihelion, 
the  angle  ASP  is  the  anomaly.  It  is  so  called 
because  it  was  in  it  that  the  first  irregularities 
of  planetary  motion  were  discovered. 

ANO^A.     See  Custard-apple. 

ANON'YMOTJS  (Gk.   av,  an,  negat.  +  6wfia, 
onyma,  ^ol.  and  Dor.  for  dvofia,  onoma,  name). 
A  term  applied  to  a  book  the  author  of  which 
does  not  give  his  name;  when  an  assumed  name    ' 
is  given,  the  term  pseudonymous  is  used.    Works 


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▲KONYHOTTS. 


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ANSABIES. 


of  this  class  constitute  one  of  the  ^eatest  diffi- 
culties of  bibliography.  French  literature  pos- 
sesses an  excellent  Dictionnaire  des  ouoragea 
anonymes  et  pseudonymesy  4  volumes  (third  edi- 
tion, Paris,  1872-79),  by  Barbier,  embracing  the 
titles  of  about  24,000  works.  The  best  works  in 
English  are:  Gushing,  Anonyms  (Cambridge, 
1890) ,  and  Initials  and  Pseudonyms  (first  series, 
New  York,  1885 ;  second  series.  New  York,  1888)  ; 
Halkett  and  Laing,  Dictionary  of  Anonymous  and 
Pseudonymous  Literature,  4  volumes  (New  York, 
1882-88)  ;  Olphar  Hamst,  Handbook  of  Fictitious 
Names  (London,  1868). 

In  France  and  Germany,  literary  criticism, 
when  it  extends  beyond  a  brief  notice,  usually 
bears  the  author's  name.  In  Great  Britain  and 
the  United  States,  there  is  no  uniform  practice, 
though  reviews  are  more  commonly  unsigned. 

ANON^YMTJS  CUS'PINIA'NI.  The  Latin 
designation  of  an  important  anonymous  manu- 
script, so  called  from  the  name  of  Joseph  Cuspin- 
ianus,  the  scholar  who  brought  it  to  notice  about 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century.  It  is 
an  historical  account  of  the  quarter-century  pre- 
ceding the  fall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire. 
The  manuscript  is  in  the  Imperial  Library  at 
Vienna. 

AKOPH^ELES  (Gk.  dvu^eX^Ct  anopheUs,  use- 
less, harmful ;  from  av,  an^  priv.  -f-  Cn^^ia, 
dpheleia,  help,  use).  A  genus  of  mosquitoes 
which  form  the  secondary  hosts  of  malarial  para- 
sites, and  communicate  disease.     See  Mosquito. 

AN'OPLOTHE'RIXTM  (Gk.  ivonXogy  anoplos, 
unarmed  -f  ^vpl^^^*  th^rion,  wild  beast).  A  genus 
containing  several  species  of  artiodactyl  mam- 
mals that  lived  during  late  Eocene  and  early 
Oligocene  time  in  France  and  the  British  Islands, 
and  that  soon  became  extinct  without  leaving 
descendants.  The  remains  of  one  species,  Ano- 
ploteherium  commune,  of  the  size  of  a  deer,  occur 
in  such  abundance  in  the  early  Tertiary  beds  of 
the  Paris  Basin  as  to  justify  the  conclusion  that 
these  animals  ranged  the  forests  of  Tertiary  time 
in  immense  herds  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
do  the  deer  of  the  present  day.  The  feet  were 
provided  with  three  digits,  two  of  which  were  of 
equal  size  and  of  some  length,  while  the  third  was 
in  the  form  of  a  reduced  dew-claw.  Anoplothe- 
riura  is  by  some  authors  placed  in  close  relation 
to  the  Oreodonts,  by  others  to  the  Hippopotami. 
See  Tertiary. 

ANOB/THITE  (Gk.  Av,  an,  priv.  +  ^P^6^, 
orthos,  straight;  i.e.,  without  right  angles).  An 
aluminum  calcium  silicate  of  the  feldspar  group 
of  minerals.  It  crystallizes  in  the  triclinic  sys- 
tem, and  is  found  in  prismatic  crystals  in  many 
rocks;  it  has  also  been  recognized  as  a  constitu- 
ent of  certain  meteorites. 

ANOB/THOSITE  (Fr.  anorthose,  triclinic 
feldspar ;  see  Anorthite)  .  A  rock  of  the  gabbro 
family  composed  largely  of  that  variety  of  feld- 
spar, rich  in  lime,  known  as  labradorite.  Anor- 
thosite  has  a  granitoid  but  generally  also  a 
parallel  structure,  and  in  addition  to  labradorite 
feldspar  contains  often  augite,  hypersthene,  horn- 
blende, etc.  It  contains  on  an  average  about 
55%  of  silica,  28%  of  alumina,  10%  of  calcium, 
6%  of  soda,  and  1%  of  potash.  Under  the  obso- 
lete name  of  labradorite  rock,  anorthosite  has 
•  been  described  from  the  Adirondack  Mountains 
of  New  York,  and  from  southwestern  Norway. 


It  occurs  also  about  Lake  Superior.  See  Gabbbo; 
Labradorite. 

AKOS^IA  (Gk.  av,  an,  priv.  +  6ff/i9,  osme, 
smell ) .  A  medical  term,  denoting  a  loss  of  the 
sense  of  smell.  It  may  be  due  to  causes  acting 
either  on  the  terminals  of  the  olfactory  nerve, 
peripheral,  or  on  that  part  of  the  nerve  which 
is  within  the  brain,  central. 

ANQUETIIi,  RNk'tAK,  Louis  Pierre  (1723- 
1806).  A  French  historian.  At  the  age  of  sev- 
enteen he  joined  the  congr^ation  of  St.  Gene 
vi$ve;  was  director  of  the  Seminary  of  Rheims, 
and  afterward  director  of  the  College  of  Senlis. 
In  the  Reign  of  Terror  he  was  imprisoned  in  St 
Lazare.  He  was  an  early  member  of  the  Insti- 
tute, and  secured  a  place  as  archivist  in  the  de- 
partment of  foreign  affairs  under  Napoleon.  His 
best  work  was  his  Eistoire  de  Reims  1756-57). 
He  also  wrote  several  volumes  of  memoirs,  such 
as  Louis  XIV.,  sa  cour  et  le  regent  ( 1789) ,  and  an 
incomplete  Histoire  de  France  depuis  les  Oaukt 
jusqu^d  la  fin  de  la  monarchic  (1805). 

ANQUETIL  DTJPESBON,  dy'p&'rdN  ,  Abba- 
ham  Hyacinthe  (1731-1805).  A  French  Orien- 
talist, born  in  Paris.  He  studied  theology  and 
Oriental  languages,  and  in  1754  enlisted  as  s 
private  soldier  for  India.  There,  after  securing 
the  support  of  the  French  Government,  he  passed 
seven  years  in  the  collection  and  collation  of 
manuscripts,  and  studied  the  language  and  doc- 
trines of  the  sacred  books  of  the  Parsees.  He  re- 
turned to  France  in  1762,  was  elected  a  member 
of  the  Academy  of  Inscriptions  in  1763,  and  in 
1771  published  Zend-Avesta,  ouvrage  de  Zoroas- 
tre,  3  volumes,  the  first  translation  of  Parsee  re- 
ligious works  ever  made  into  a  European  lan- 
guage. His  further  publications  include  Ulnde 
en  rapport  avec  V Europe  (1790),  and  OupneWhat 
(1804),  a  Latin  translation  of  a  Persian  render- 
ing of  the  Sanskrit  Upaniskads,  noteworthy  as 
the  source  of  Schopenhauer's  knowledge  of  the 
Indian  philosophy,  by  which  his  own  system  was 
not  slightly  influenced. 

AK'SABIES,  or  ANSA^SIANS,  but  more 
properly  Nosairians.  An  Arab  sect  living  is 
the  mountains  between  the  northern  part  of  Leb- 
anon and  Antioch;  found  also  in  Antioch  and 
in  various  places  along  the  Syrian  coast  and  in 
the  interior.  The  origin  of  the  sect  is  involved 
in  obscurity,  though  it  appears  probable  that  it 
was  founded  by  a  certain  Mohammed  ibn  Nosair 
at  the  close  of  the  ninth  century.  The  sect  be- 
longs to  the  so-called  Shiitic  branch  of  Islam 
(q.v.),  and  may  be  described  as  the  result  of 
the  accommodation  of  Islam  to  the  old  Syriac 
heathenism.  Their  tenets  are  therefore  a  mix- 
ture of  paganism  and  Mohammedanism,  with 
some  faint  suggestions  from  Christianity,  partic- 
ularly in  the  form  of  Gnosticism.  While  their 
doctrines  bear  a  resemblance  to  those  of  the 
Ismail itic  sect,  and  they  are  clearly  influenced 
by  this  sect,  still  they  manifest  an  independent 
development  of  their  beliefs.  They  divide  time 
into  seven  cycles^  each  corresponding  to  an  ap- 
pearance of  the  divine  spirit  in  some  personality. 
Divine  honors  are  paid  to  Ali  and  his  sons,  who 
became  the  representatives  of  the  ancient  deities 
of  Syria  and  Phoenicia.  Ali  is  practically  the 
personification  of  the  sun,  and  the  standing 
formula  of  the  religion  is,  "I  bear  witness  that 
there  is  no  god  but  Ali."  They  also  set  up  a 
kind  of  trinity,  associating  with  Ali,  Mohammed 
and  Salman-al-Farisi.   The  latter  two  are  emana- 


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ANSABIES. 


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AKSDELL. 


tions  of  A]i,  Mohammed  being  created  by  Ali, 
and  Salman  by  Mohammed.  Ali  is  designated  as 
the  "lord,"  Mohammed  as  the  "veil,"  and  Salman 
as  the  '"gate."  The  symbol  of  Ali  is  mana,  '*the 
meaning/'  and  the  symbol  of  Mohammed  is  ism, 
*'the  name/'  This  trinity  is  eternal,  and  despite 
the  superficial  resemblance  of  this  belief  to  the 
Christian  doctrine,  it  appears  rather  to  be  due  to 
the  transformation  of  the  ancient  local  cults  in 
Syria  and  Phoenicia.  Salman-al-Farisi  in  turn 
created  five  persons,  known  as  "the  incomparable 
ones,"  who  are  the  real  creators  of  the  world. 
The  mystical  character  of  their  doctrines  is  fur- 
ther increased  by  the  assumption  of  two  worlds, 
an  upper  and  a  lower  one,  and  corresponding  to 
seven  divine  manifestations  in  each,  there  are 
seven  adversaries,  one  appearing  with  each  mani- 
festation, which,  moreover,  consists  in  each  case 
of  a  mana,  "meaning"  (representing  Ali),  and 
an  ism,  "name"  (representing  Mohammed). 
Leaving  aside  the  seven — or,  rather,  fourteen — 
divine  manifestations  in  the  upper  world,  we  have 
for  the  lower  world  as  the  seven  manifestations 
of  mana,  Abel,  Seth,  Joseph,  Joshua,  Asaf, 
Peter,  and  Ali,  and  as  seven  manifestations  of 
ism,  Adam,  Noah,  Jacob,  Moses,  Solomon,  Jesus, 
and  Mohammed. 

Among  the  populace  great  veneration  is  paid 
also  to  Khodr,  a  mythical  personage  correspond- 
ing to  St.  George,  who  delivered  the  country  of 
a  great  monster,  and  in  return  for  this  and 
other  feats  the  Nosairians  dedicate  their  daugh- 
ters to  Khodr.  Before  giving  them  in  marriage 
they  proceed  to  the  convent  of  Mar  Jorjis  (St. 
George),  near  Beirut,  and  there  pay  ransom 
money  to  the  monks  of  the  convent,  the  amount 
varying,  according  to  the  vow,  from  a  third  to 
the  entire  sum  of  the  dowry. 

The  Nosairians  believe  in  migration  of  souls, 
which  for  the  faithful  will  be  a  progress  in  seven 
stages  from  pure  to  more  pure,  until  they  become 
stars,  as  they  originally  were ;  but  sinners  will  be 
transformed  into  Jews,  Christians,  camels,  mules, 
asses,  dogs,  and  sheep.  They  practice  circumcis- 
ion and  ablution,  and  pray  in  the  open  air  three 
times  a  day.  Their  chief  festivals  are  (1)  Al- 
Gadir,  falling  on  the  eighteenth  day  of  the  month 
of  pilgrimage,  commemorating  the  supposed  proc- 
lamation by  Mohammed  of  Ali  as  his  successor; 
(2)  Fitr,  "breaking  of  the  fast,"  sacred  to  Mo- 
hammed, and  the  first  of  the  festivals  of  the 
year;  (3)  the  festival  of  sacrifices,  sacred  to 
Ismail,  the  founder  of  the  Ismailitic  sect,  on 
the  tenth  day  of  the  pilgrimage  month;  (4) 
Ashura',  the  tenth  day  of  the  month  of  Mahar- 
ram,  commemorating  the  murder  of  Hussein,  the 
son  of  Ali;  (5)  al-Gadir  the  second,  on  the  ninth 
day  of  the  first  month  of  Rabi',  commemorating 
Mohammed*s  recognition  of  the  mission  of  the 
sons  of  Ali,  Hassan  and  Hussein ;  ( 6 )  Christmas, 
known  as  "the  festival  of  the  birth,"  on  the 
night  of  the  twenty-fourth  of  December,  in  mem- 
ory of  the  birth  of  the  Messiah,  by  the  wife  of 
Lazarus,  daughter  of  Annai,  according  to  the 
statement  in  the  Koran.  Besides  these  there  are 
a  large  number  of  minor  festivals,  betraying  Per- 
sian as  well  as  Christian  and  old  Syriac  infiu- 
ences. 

The  charges  of  immoral  practices  indulged  in 
on  the  occasion  of  their  festivals  are  pure  fabri- 
cations, due  in  part  to  the  mystical  character 
of  some  of  their  rites,  particularly  of  those  prac- 
ticed at  the  initiation  of  members  of  the  sect. 
Their   religion   inculcates   benevolence,   honesty, 


and  patience.  While  split  up  into  various  divis- 
ions, the  sub-sects  differ  only  in  matters  of  minor 
importance.  Each  community  is  governed  by  a 
chief,  who  is  almost  entirely  independent. 
Consult  Dossard,  VHisioire  et  la  religion  des 
Rosaries  (Paris,  1900). 

AKSBACH,  ans^&o,  or  AKSFACH  (origi- 
nally Onolzbach ) .  A  town  of  Bavaria,  capital  of 
the  circle  of  Middle  Franconia  {Mittelfranken) , 
on  the  Rezat,  25  miles  southwest  of  Nuremberg. 
(Map:  Germany,  D  4).  Its  only  notable  build- 
ings are  the  churches  of  St.  Gumbert  and  St. 
John,  and  the  castle,  once  the  residence  of  the 
margraves  of  Ansbach,  now  used  as  a  library 
and  picture  gallery.  The  town  has  several 
schools,  a  theatre,  and  a  public  slaughter  house. 
It  has  manufactures  of  cotton  and  half-silken 
fabrics,  tobacco,  earthenware,  playing  cards,  cut- 
lery, and  white  lead;  also  a  considerable  trade  in 
wool,  fiax,  and  corn.  Ansbach  sprang  up  around 
a  Benedictine  monastery  founded  by  St.  Gumbert 
in  the  eighth  century.  It  was  the  capital  of  the 
principality  of  Ansbach,  which  from  the  close  of 
the  Middle  Ages  was  for  three  centuries  ruled  by 
margraves  of  the  Franconian  branch  of  the  House 
of  Hohenzollern  (of  Brandenburg,  later  of  Prus- 
sia) .  After  belonging  for  a  short  time  to  Prus- 
sia, Ansbach  and  its  territory,  together  with  the 
Old  principality  of  Bayreuth,  which  had  also  been 
ruled  liy  margraves  of  the  Hohenzollern  line  and 
had  shared  the  fortunes  of  Ansbach,  were  trans- 
ferred by  Napoleon  I.  to  Bavaria.  Pop.,  1890, 
14,200;  1900,  17,555. 

ANSCHTTTZ,  ftn^shyts,  Heinbich  ( 1785-1865 ) . 
A  German  actor.  He  was  born  at  Luckau,  and 
studied  at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  in  which 
city  he  saw  the  performances  of  Ifiland,  Esslair, 
and  other  distinguished  actors  who  occasionally 
played  there.  He  began  his  career  as  an  actor 
at  Nuremberg  in  1807,  and  finally  became  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Hofburgtheater  in  Vienna.  He  played 
both  heroic  and  character  parts,  and  was  for 
many  years  the  central  figure  at  the  famous  play- 
house with  which  he  was  so  long  identified.  He 
published  an  autobiography  under  the  title  of 
Heinrich  Anschiltz,  Erinnerungen  au8  dessen 
Lehen  und  Wirken  (Vienna,  1866). 

ANSGHttTZ,  Kabl  (1815-70).  A  German 
musician.  He  was  born  in  Coblentz,  and  in  1857 
settled  in  New  York,  where  he  became  well  known 
chiefly  as  a  conductor  of  opera  and  as  a  pioneer 
manager  of  German  opera.  He  was  also  conduc- 
tor of  the  Arion  Society  (1860-62). 

ANSCHttTZy  Ottomar  (1846 — ).  A  German 
photographer,  born  at  Lissa,  in  Posen.  He  de- 
voted himself  to  instantaneous  photography,  and 
to  reproducing  the  movements  of  men  and  ani- 
mals with  the  aid  of  a  "tachyscope"  of  his  own 
invention.  (See  Stroboscope.)  Anschfitz's  in- 
vention has  been  applied  to  useful  purposes  in 
physiology. 

ANSa)ELLy  Richard  ( 1815-85) .  An  English 
painter  of  genre  and  animal  pictures,  born  at 
Liverpool.  He  enjoyed  a  high  repute  both  at 
home  and  abroad.  The  following  are  some  of 
his  more  popular  works:  "Death  of  Sir  William 
Lambton  at  Marston  Moor"  (1842),  "Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  Returning  from  the  Chase" 
(1844),  "Spanish  Shepherd"  (1858),  "'Buy  a 
Dog,  Ma'am?'  "  ( 1860) ,  "Treading  Out  the  Corn" 
(1865),  "Feeding  the  Goats  in  the  Alhambra" 
( 1871 ) ,  "Home  of  the  Red  Deer"  ( 1877 ) ,  "Lucky 


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ANSDELL. 


590 


ANSON. 


Dogs"    (1879),   ^'Returning    from    the    Fair   at 
Seville"  (1882).    • 

ANSE  DE  PANIEB,  fiNs^  de  p&'ny&^  (Fr. 
handle  of  a  basket).  The  equivalent  of  basket 
handle  arch.  An  architectural  term  for  three- 
centred  arches. 

AN'SELLy  Mabt.  An  English  actress,  who 
after  two  years  of  theatrical  experience  made 
a  success  in  1893  as  Nannie  O'Brien  in  Walker, 
London,  The  next  year  she  retired  from  the 
stage  to  marry  the  author  of  the  play,  J.  M. 
Barrie,  the  novelist,  at  Kerriemuir  (July,  1894). 

AN^SELM  OF  CAN^EKBUBY,  St.  (1033- 
1109).  A  scholastic  philosopher,  born  at  Aosta, 
in  Piedmont.  He  led  at  first  a  dissipated  life, 
and,  like  Ab^lard,  wandered  through  France, 
after  the  fashion  of  the  scholars  of  those  days, 
disputing  wherever  he  could  find  an  adversary. 
Attracted  by  the  reputation  of  Lanfranc,  he  went, 
in  1060,  to  study  at  the  monastery  of  Bee,  in 
Normandy.  Three  years  later,  he  became  prior, 
and  in  1078,  abbot  of  this  monastery,  which 
under  him  became  famous  as  a  seat  of  learning. 
Lanfranc,  who  in  the  meantime  had  gone  to  Eng- 
land, and  become  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  died 
in  1089 ;  and  the  archdiocese  remained  four  years 
without  a  successor,  till,  in  1093,  Anselm  was  ap- 
pointed. He  was  distinguished  as  both  a  church- 
man and  philosopher.  His  numerous  embroil- 
ments with  William  Rufus  and  Henry  I.,  and  the 
unbending  spirit  which  he  displayed  in  these,  even 
when  subjected  to  banishment,  indicate  the  vigor 
and  resoluteness  of  his  character,  as  much  as  his 
writings  exhibit  the  depth  and  acuteness  of  his 
intellect.  In  1720  Clement  XI.  expressly  placed 
him  in  the  list  of  Church  authorities.  Anselm 
was  a  second  Augustine,  superior  to  all  his  con- 
temporaries in  sagacity  and  dialectical  skill, 
and  equal  to  the  most  eminent  in  virtue  and 
piety.  Embracing  without  question  the  doctrines 
of  the  Church,  mostly  as  stated  by  Augustine, 
and  holding  that  belief  must  precede  knowledge, 
and  must  be  implicit  and  undoubting,  he  yet  felt 
the  necessity  of  a  religious  philosophy,  urged  the 
duty  of  proceeding  from  belief  to  knowledge,  and 
sought  to  reduce  the  truths  of  religion  into  the 
form  of  a  connected  series  of  reasonings.  It  was 
for  this  purpose  he  wrote  his  Monologium  sive 
Exemplum  Meditandi  de  Ratione  Fidei.  In  his 
Proslogium,  otherwise  entitled  Fides  Qucerens 
Intellectum  (faith  seeking  intellect),  he  strove 
to  demonstrate  the  existence  of  God  from  the 
conception  of  a  perfect  being.  This  ontological 
proof,  however,  has  never  been  held  satisfactory. 
His  writings,  Cur  Deua  Homo,  and  De  Concordia 
PrceffcienticB  et  PrcBdestinationia,  made  an  epoch 
in  Christian  philosophy.  Anselm  may  justly  be 
reckoned  the  earliest  of  the  schoolmen,  although 
Alexander  of  Hales  (q.v.)  was  the  first  who 
completely  systematized  in  the  scholastic  manner 
the  doctrines  of  the  Catholic  Church.  He  died 
in  Canterbury,  April  21,  1109,  and  was  buried 
there.  The  day  of  his  death  is  observed  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  His  works  are  in 
Migne,  P.  L.  158,  159,  and  a  few  pieces  since  dis- 
covered in  Mai,  Nov.  Bihh  I.  For  his  life  and 
teachings,  consult:  F.  R.  Hasse  (Leipzig,  1843- 
62)  ;  De  R^musat  (Paris,  1858)  ;  R.  W.  Church 
(London,  1870)  ;  M.  Rule  (London,  1883),  who 
also  edited  two  lives  of  Anselm  by  Eadmer  for  the 
Rolls  Series  (London,  1884)  :  J.  M.  Rigg  (Lon- 
don, 1890);  A.  C.  Welch  (London,  1900).  In 
English  are  his  Book  of  Meditations  and  Prayers 


(London,  1872)  ;  Cur  Deus  Homo,  with  selectbns 
from  his  letters  and  life  (London,  1889). 

ANSELM  OF  LTJC^CA.  See  Alexanbeb  II. 
(Pope). 

AN'SEBES  (Lat.  nom.  plur.  of  anser,  goose). 
An  order  of  birds,  including  the  ducks,  geese, 
and  swans  (q.v.),  and,  by  some  systematists,  the 
screamers,  and  characterized  mainly  by  the  fact 
that  the  edges  of  both  mandibles  are  provided 
with  a  series  of  tooth-like  projections,  those 
of  the  upper  alternating  with  those  of  the  lower 
mandible.  The  Anseres  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  and  about  two  hundred  species  are 
known,  mostly  of  large  size.  With  few  excep- 
tions, they  are  essentially  swimming  birds,  and 
are  never  found  far  from  water.  They  breed 
near  the  water,  lay  numerous  eggs,  and  the 
young  are  able  to  care  for  themselves  almost  as 
soon  as  they  are  hatched. 

ANSGABy  ans'g&r  (Anskab,  or  Axschabius) 
( 801-8G5 ) .  A  French  prelate,  styled  "the  Apostle 
of  the  North,"  on  account  of  his  labors  to  intro- 
duce Christianity  into  Denmark,  Sweden,  and 
northern  Germany.  He  was  born  near  the  mon- 
astery of  Corbie,  in  the  vicinity  of  Amiens, 
France.  In  this  monastery  and  that  of  Korvei, 
in  Westphalia,  an  offshoot  of  the  former,  he 
was  educated,  and  in  the  latter  he  subsequently 
became  preacher.  His  family  belonged  to  the 
Frankish  nobility,  and  under  the  patronage  of 
Louis  le  D^bonnaire  he  went,  with  his  colleague 
Autbert,  to  preach  the  doctrines  of  Christianity 
among  the  heathen  Northmen  of  Schleswig; 
where  he  suffered  many  persecutions,  but  hai 
nevertheless,  such  success  that  in  831  the  Pope 
established  an  archbishopric  in  Hamburg,  and 
Ansgar  was  appointed  the  first  archbishop. 
Here  he  passed  through  many  difficulties,  being 
compelled  to  save  his  life  by  flight  in  845, 
when  the  Northmen  and  Danes  under  "Eric  I. 
plundered  Hamburg.  He  afterward  made  several 
missionary  tours  in  Denmark  and  Sweden,  and 
died  February  3,  865,  at  Bremen,  where  a  church 
was  named  after  him.  The  Roman  Catholic 
Church  has  canonized  him.  For  his  life,  consult: 
G.  H.  Klippel  (Bremen,  1845);  Tappehom 
(Manster,  1863). 

AN^SON,  George,  Lord  (1697-1762).  An 
English  admiral  and  famous  circumnavigator. 
He  was  born  at  Shugborough,  Staffordshire, April 
23,  1697.  From  an  early  period  he  manifested 
a  predilection  for  a  sea-life,  and  entered  the  navy 
at  the  age  of  fifteen.  In  1716  he  served  as 
second  lieutenant  under  Norris ;  next  under  Byng 
in  1718,  against  the  Spaniards;  and  was  made  & 
captain  in  1723.  In  1739,  when  war  with  Spain 
broke  out,  he  was  recalled  from  the  Carolina 
station,  on  which  he  had  been  placed  since  1724, 
and  received  the  command  of  the  fleet  in  the 
South  Sea.  He  sailed  from  England  in  Septem- 
ber, 1740,  with  instructions  to  inflict  whatever 
injury  he  could  on  the  Spanish  commerce  and 
colonies.  The  preparations  for  this  cruise  had 
been  made  in  the  most  slovenly  manner.  Both 
vessels  and  stores  were  bad  and  the  sailors  were 
old  Chelsea  pensioners;  yet  Anson,  in  spite  of 
these  disadvantages,  achieved  a  brilliant  reputa- 
tion by  the  heroism,  prudence,  diligence,  and 
humanity  he  displayed.  After  his  little  fleet  of 
seven  vessels  had  been  s^cattered  bv  a  storm  in 
doubling  Gape  Horn,  he  landed  at  Juan  Fernan- 
dez, where  he  was  soon  joined  by  three  of  his 
ships,  which  arrived  in  a  dismantled  condition. 


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ANSOK. 


591 


ANSWER. 


While  be  remained  on  this  island,  he  exhibited 
his  native  tenderness  of  character  by  the  assidu- 
ity with  which  he  cared  for  the  sick.  Under  great 
disadvantages,  he  took  several  prizes,  including 
a  valuable  Spanish  galleon  from  Acapulco.  Fi- 
nally, with  only  one  vessel  left,  he  crossed  the 
South  Sea,  doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
favored  by  good  fortune,  was  hidden  by  a  thick 
fog  as  he  passed  through  the  French  fleet  and 
entered  the  English  Channel.  He  arrived  at 
Spithead,  June  15,  1744,  and  his  accumulated 
treasure,  amounting  to  £500,000,  was  landed  at 
Portsmouth,  sent  up  to  London,  and  triumphant- 
ly paraded  through  the  city  in  32  wagons.  He  had 
circumnavigated  the  globe  in  three  years  and 
nine  months,  and  his  perilous  cruise  greatly  ex- 
tended the  knowledge  of  navigation  and  geog- 
raphy. It  has  been  described  in  his  Voyage 
Round  the  World  (editors  Walter  and  Robins, 
1748;  new  edition,  1853).  As  a  reward  for  his 
services,  Anson  was  made  Rear-admiral  of  the 
Blue  (1744),  and  in  1747,  having  defeated  the 
French  Admiral  Jonqui&re,  at  Cape  Finisterre, 
he  was  created  Baron  Soberton,  and  four  years 
later  first  lord  of  the  admiralty.  In  1761  he 
was  made  admiral  of  the  fleet.  He  died  suddenly 
at  Moor  Park,  Hertfordshire,  June  6, 1762.  Con- 
sult J,  Barrow,  Life  of  Oeorge,  Lord  Anson, 
(London,  1839). 

ANSON,  G.  W.  (1847—).  An  English  actor, 
bom  at  Montrose,  N.  B.  He  began  his  career  at 
the  Theatre  Royal,  Edinburgh,  in  1865.  After 
touring  in  the  provincial  towns  and  in  America, 
he  made  in  1873  his  London  d^but,  in  Sour 
OrapeSy  at  the  Olympic  Theatre,  where  he  was 
engaged  for  several  years.  In  1880,  he  played 
Gaston  Ricux,  in  Hcarfaease,  with  Madame  Mod- 
jeska  at  the  Court  Theatre  and  continued  in 
London  in  various  comedy  parts  till  1885,  when 
he  went  to  Australia  for  an  extended  stay.  In 
1892,  he  appeared  in  The  Lucky  Dog  at  Terry's 
Theatre,  London.  Among  his  subsequent  rdles 
have  been  those  of  Schwarz,  in  A  Bunch  of  Vio- 
lets, at  the  Haymarket  (1804)  ;  Hilarius,  in  La 
Poupie,  with  Anna  Held,  at  the  Lyric  Theatre 
(1887),  and  Nero,  in  Quo  Vadis,  at  the  Adelphi 
(1900). 

ANSCXNIA.  A  city  in  New  Haven  Co., 
Conn.,  12  miles  west  by  north  of  New  Haven,  on 
the  Naiigatuck  Kiver,  and  on  the  Berkshire  and 
Naugatuck  divisions  of  the  New  York,  New 
Haven  and  Hartford  Railroad  (Map:  Connecti- 
cut. C  4).  Among  the  more  prominent  features 
of  the  city  are  the  public  library,  the  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  Building,  the  Opera 
House,  and  Burton  and  Recreation  Parks.  An- 
sonia  is  noted  as  a  manufacturing  centre,  the 
products  including  heavy  machinery,  rollers  for 
paper-making  and  wheat-milling,  copper,  brass, 
and  wire  goods,  electrical  appliances,  clocks,  etc. 
The  government,  under  a  charter  of  1901,  is  vest- 
ed in  a  mayor  elected  every  two  years,  a  munici- 
pal council,  and  administrative  oflicials,  the  ma- 
jority of  whom  are  appointed  by  the  mayor  with 
the  consent  of  the  council.  Settled  in  1840, 
Ansonia  was  set  off  from  Derby  in  1899,  and  was 
chartered  as  a  city  in  1893.  It  was  named  in 
honor  of  Anson  G.  Phelps  (q.v.).  A  prolonged 
strike  in  this  city,  bitterly  fought  on  both  sides, 
led  to  the  election  in  1901  of  the  labor  candidates 
for  mayor  and  all  the  other  important  offices. 
Pop.,  1890.  10,342;  1900,  12,681. 

ANSFAGH,  an'spiio.     See  Ansbach. 


ANSFAGH,  or  ANSBACH,  Elizabeth 
Berkeley,  Mabgravine  of  (1750-1828).  An 
English  dramatic  writer.  She  was  a  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  Berkeley,  and  was  married  m  1767 
to  Mr.,  afterward  Lord,  Craven,  but  separated 
from  him  thirteen  years  later.  In  1791,  she  be- 
came the  wife  of  the  Margrave  of  Anspach,  with 
whom  she  had  been  some  time  intimately  associ- 
ated at  his  court.  She  and  her  husband  were 
not  received,  when  they  came  to  England,  either 
by  her  family  or  by  royalty,  even  after  she  had 
been  created  a  countess  of  the  Empire  by  the 
German  Emperor,  Francis  II.  Her  wanderings, 
after  the  Margrave's  death,  in  1806,  finally  ended 
at  Naples,  where  she  spent  her  last  years.  Her 
literary  work  included  poetry,  travels,  and  the 
plays:  Somnamhule  (1778),  The  Silver  Tank- 
ard, a  musical  farce  (Haymarket,  1781);  The 
Princess  of  Georgia  (Covent  Garden,  1799),  and 
Love  in  a  Convent  (1805),  in  which  she  herself 
took  part.  She  also  wrote  the  curious  Memoirs 
of  the  Margravine  of  Anspach  (London,  1825). 

AN^STED,  David  Thomas  (1814-80).  An 
English  geologist  and  mining  engineer.  He  was> 
born  in  London,  and  received  his  education  at 
Cambridge.  In  1840  he  was  made  professor  of 
geology  at  King's  College  in  London,  and  after- 
ward occupied  a  similar  position  at  the  College- 
of  Civil  Engineering.  His  works  include:  Geol- 
ogy, Introductory,  Descriptive,  and  Practical 
(two  volumes,  London,  1844) ;  Chldseeker's 
Manual  (London,  1849)  ;  The  Applications  of 
Geology  to  the  Arts  and  Manufactures  (London, 
1866)  ;  The  World  We  Live  In  (London,  1870)  ; 
the  fifth  edition  of  his  Physical  Geography  (edi- 
tion 1,  London,  1867)  appeared  in  1871. 

AN'STEK,  John  ( 1793-1867 ) .  An  Irish  edu- 
cator  and  poet.  He  was  born  in  Cork  County, 
Ireland,  and  was  educated  at  Trinity  College, 
Dublin,  where  he  was  regius  professor  of  civil  law 
(1850-67).  He  published  Poems  and  Transla- 
tions from  the  German  (1819)  ;  a  translation  of 
the  first  part  of  Goethe's  Faust  (1835)  ;  Faus- 
tus,  the  Second  Part,  from  the  German  of  Goethe^ 
(1864);  and  contributions  to  several  literary 
periodicals. 

AN'STEY,  ftn'sti,  F.  See  Guthrie,  Thomas- 
Anstey. 

AN^SWEB  (A.  8.  and-,  Ger.  ant-  in  Antwort, 
answer,  Gk.  dvri,  anti,  against  -|-  stverian,  Uh 
speak,  swear).  In  law,  technically  the  pleading 
interposed  by  the  defendant  to  the  plaintiff's 
bill  in  an  action  brought  in  a  Court  of  Chancery. 
In  his  answer  the  defendant  may  set  up  any 
matter  of  defense  to  the  plaintiff's  claim,  but  in 
addition  he  is  required  to  state  fully  under  oath 
his  knowledge  or,  if  he  has  no  knowledge,  his 
information  and  belief  as  to  all  relevant  matters- 
alleged  or  inquired  of  in  the  plaintiff's  bill.  The 
method  of  pleading  is  technically  known  as  giving 
discovery,  and  the  information  thus  obtained 
may  be  used  as  evidence  in  the  plaintiff's  favor 
at  the  trial.  It  is  subject,  however,  to  the  rule 
of  chancery  practice,  that  if  unfavorable  to  the 
plaintiff  it  is  conclusive  unless  overcome  by  two 
witnesses  or  by  one  witness  and  corroborative 
circumstances.  The  plaintiff,  however,  may 
avoid  this  consequence  by  expressly  waiving  an 
answer  under  oath  in  his  bill.  At  law,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  equity,  the  defendant's  pleading 
is  technically  known  as  the  plea;  but  under  the 
modern  statutory  system  of  pleading,  the  term 
answer  is  applied  indiscriminately  to  the  def end- 


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ant's  plea  in  either  law  or  equity.  I^ee  Plea; 
Pleading,  and  the  authorities  there  referred  to. 
AKT  (A.  S.  opmete;  Ger.  Ameise;  from  O.  H. 
O.  meizan,  to  cut,  the  original  meaning  thus 
being  "cut  in**;  as  in  Gk.  iiTo/ioc,  entomoa,  Lrfit. 
inseotum).  A  small  hymenopterous  insect  of  the 
family  Formicidae,  closely  related  to  the  wasps 
and  bees,  not  only  in  structure,  but  in  instincts 
and  socialistic  economy.  "Emmet"  is  an  older 
form  of  the  word  "ant"  still  in  use,  and  "pis- 
mire" is  a  common  word 
^  ^  occasionally  heard.   Ants 

/    /    f     f         are  easily  recognized  by 
'r!~^J^^^^Tr\    ^^^  well-known  form  of 
^^y^^\.,Jj^    the  body.     The  dema  rea- 
lty tion  between   head,  tho- 
rax, and  abdomen  is  very 
^^'^  or  jjx  AifT.  noticeable    in    these    in- 

J.tBWhSv.;iTd°iig«';  ««^t8.  From  the  termites 
<,  Peduncle ;  /,  Abdomen.  and  velvet  ants,  which 
*  most  resemble  them,  true 

ants  can  readily  be  distinguished  by  the  peculiar 
form  of  the  abdomen,  the  first  or  first  two  seg- 
ments of  which  are  constricted  off,  to  form  a 
separately  jointed  small  knob  or  scale,  which 
greatly  increases  the  fiexibility  of  the  body. 

Classification.  The  ants,  according  to  the 
best  authorities,  form  a  single  family,  Formi- 
cidfie,  divided  into  six  subfamilies.  The  subfami- 
lies are  founded  mainly  on  the  condition  of  the 
peduncle  or  part  constricted  off  from  the  abdo- 
men (whether  composed  of  one  or  two  portions), 
and  on  the  presence  or  absence  of  a  sting. 

Polymorphism  and  Division  of  Labob.  As 
in  other  Hymenoptera,  there  is,  first  of  all,  a  di- 
morphism of  the  female  sex.  But  among  ants 
complexity  of  form  goes  further  than  this,  on  ac- 
count of  the  complexity  of  the  social  organiza- 
tion. For  the  ant  colony  frequently  contains 
enslaved  individuals  belonging  to  another  species. 
The  different  forms  of  ants  are  the  results  of 
division  of  labor  among  the  members  of  the  col- 
ony. Of  the  infertile  females  or  workers,  some 
are  gatherers  of  food,  some  are  nurses  for  the 
young,  while  others,  of  a  larger  size,  act  as  sol- 
diers to  protect  the  ranks  of  foraging  workers.  In 
certain  species  certain  workers  serve  as  living 
storehouses.  ( See  Honey-making- Ants.  )  Each  of 
these  differences  in  labor  is  associated  with  a  dif- 
ference in  form.  Even  among  individuals  of  the 
same  sex  and  cast,  considerable  variability  oc- 
curs. Although  the  workers  are  usually  wingless, 
certain  ones  have  been  observed  with  short  wings. 
A  part  or  all  of  the  fertile  females  may  be  wing- 
less. Occasionally  wingless  males  may  exist  to- 
gether with  the  winged,  while  the  wingless  pre- 
vail in  a  few  species. 

The  Origin  and  Maintenance  of  Colonies. 
Upon  the  appearance  of  the  winged  males  and 
females  in  the  ant  colony,  both  are  guarded  by 
the  workers  until  a  suitable  time  for  flight. 
Finally,  they  are  let  out  on  warm  days  in  sum- 
mer and  autumn  to  appear  in  the  air  in  myriads. 
jNIating  is  supposed  to  take  place  while  on  the 
wing.  Soon  after  mating,  the  males  die  and  those 
females  that  escape  enemies  and  inclement  weath- 
er settle  down  to  the  ground,  tear  off  their 
wings,  and  make  excavations  in  materials  suit- 
able to  the  construction  of  their  nest.  The  eggs 
are  then  laid,  and  upon  hatching  the  larvae  are 
fed  on  some  substance  already  stored  up  within 
the  body  of  the  queen,  since  she  never  goes  out 
for  food.    When  the  workers  of  the  first  set, 


which  are  of  small  size,  appear,  the  care  of  the 
larvfie  and  pupse  devolve  upon  them,  and  there- 
after the  queen  devotes  herself  exclusively  to 
egg-laying.  Thus  a  new  colony  is  established. 
Frequently  one  or  more  young  queens  are  found 
by  workers  and  conveyed  to  colonies  already  es- 
tablished, which  they  continue  to  maintain  should 
the  former  queen  be  old.  Thus  more  than  one 
queen-ant  may,  without  quarrels,  live  in  a  single 
colony.  The  workers  feed  the  queen,  and  follow 
her  on  her  wanderings  throughout  the  passages 
and  chambers.  As  she  lets  fall  the  ^gs,  the 
workers  carry  them  to  suitable  locations.  In  the 
queen's  presence  they  not  infrequently  perform 
those  same  peculiar  antics  and  capers  which  they 
employ  to  express  their  emotions  upon  the  re- 
turn of  a  lost  comrade.  The  legless  larve  and 
the  pupse  are  carried  to  the  surface  layers  by  day, 
for  the  sake  of  the  sun's  warmth,  and'at  night,  or 
during  rain,  to  deeper  and  drier  chambers.  The 
larve  are  fed  by  the  nurses  on  regurgitated,  half- 
digested  food,  or  on  a  substance  elaborated  by 
them.  They  are  carefully  licked  and  rubbed  by 
the  nurses  to  keep  them  clean,  and  when  the  time 
arrives  for  the  pupse  to  emerge  from  their  silken 
or  naked  sheaths,  the  workers  are  at  hand  to  help 
them  out  and  to  unfold  and  dry  their  wings  and 
legs. 

Food.  As  is  the  case  with  all  the  other  labors 
of  the  colony,  getting  the  food  depends  upon  the 
workers.  All  sorts  of  available  matter,  both  dead 
and  freshly  killed,  serve  them  for  food.  They 
are  fond  of  sweets,  too,  both  animal  and  vege- 
table. The  nectar  of  flowers  and  the  sweet  saps 
and  juices  of  plants  and  fruits  are  sought.  Sugar 
is  ever  a  temptation  to  them.  The  honey-dew  ex- 
creted by  plant-lice,  the  milch-cows  of  ants,  is 
especially  prized.  To  secure  it  ants  will  climb 
even  high  trees.  They  follow  the  aphids  about  so 
as  to  catch  the  sweet  excretion,  and  even  stroke 
them  to  hasten  its  expulsion.  When  the  sap 
supply  for  the  aphids  fails,  the  ants  carry  their 
"cows"  to  new  food-plants,  and  when  winter 
comes  on,  both  the  adult  plant-lice  and  the  eggs 
are  carried  out  of  reach  of  frost  into  the  ant 
caverns  and  carefully  attended  until  spring,  when 
they  are  again  placed  on  the  swelling  plant-buds. 
In  warm  lands  several  kinds  of  ants,  such  as  the 
agricultural  ant  of  Texas  (q.v.),  rear,  har\-est, 
and  store  grain.  The  Texan  species  is  Pogomyr- 
mex  barbatus.  Some  ants,  studied  by  Belt  in  Nic- 
aragua and  by  Bates  in  Brazil,  accumulate  bits 
of  leaves  within  their  caverns  or  line  the  walls 
with  them.  On  the  leaf-bits  a  fungus  grows,  or 
is  planted,  which  serves  the  ants  as  food.  While 
often  very  destructive  to  crops  and  stored  8U|>- 
plies,  ants  such  as  the  hunting-ants  of  South 
America,  or  the  driver-ants  of  Africa,  are  useful 
scavengers;  for  not  a  bedbug,  booklouse,  moth, 
cockroach,  mouse  or  rat  is  overlooked  by  their 
myriad  numbers.  See  Driver  Ant;  Foraglng 
Ant  ;  Leaf-cutting  Ant,  and  SAtJBA. 

Nests  and  Nest  Building.  In  their  nest 
building  ants  diflfer  from  all  other  social  Hymen- 
optera. The  nests  or  combs  of  bees  are  dinded 
into  even  compartments  or  cells,  whose  walls  are 
made  of  wax,  while  those  of  social  wasps  arc 
built  of  a  papery  pulp,  derived  from  masticated 
weather-worn  wood.  In  each  cell  one  egg  is  laid 
and  one  individual  is  reared.  The  young  of  anU. 
on  the  other  hand,  are  kept  in  heaps  and  moved 
about  from  one  part  of  the  nest  to  the  other  a? 
conditions  of  temperature  and  moisture  demand. 


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1.  COLONY-NEST  OF  THE   BLACK  ANT  (Laslus  niger) .  5-6.  PUP>€  OF   BLACK  ANT. 

2.  LARVA    OF    BLACK    ANT,  front  and   rear  view   (en-  7.  WORKER   OF  THE  SMALLER   KIND. 

larged).  8.  LARGER   WORKER   OR   "  SOLDIER." 

8.  WINGED  MALE  OF  BLACK  ANT.  9.  HONEY   ANT,  distended  with  stored  honey.   ^  t 

4.  FEMALE   (QUEEN)  OF   BLACK  ANT  10.  CELLS  OF   BLACK  ANT'S   ^EST,  ^nla^ggd^^^^^TjlQQ  j^^ 


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ANT. 


The  nests  are  composed  of  a  variable  number  of 
chambers,  of  irregular  shape,  connected  by  gal- 
leries. They  are  excavated  in  the  ground,  often 
under  the  shelter  of  a  stone,  or  in  rotting  or  liv- 
ing trees,  shrubs  or  herbs.  Those  chambers  and 
galleries  excavated  in  the  earth  extend  a  consid- 
erable distance  down  to  the  region  of  constant 
moisture.  iSome  of  the  satlba  or  saUva  ants  of 
South  America  can  cross  wide  rivers  by  tunneling 
under  the  river-beds.  Not  infrequently  the  nests 
are  carried  above  the  level  of  the  ground  by 
means  of  earth  heaped  up  and  often  cemented  to- 
gether. Some  ant-hills  are  thatched  by  bits  of 
herbage.  In  South  America  ant-hills  often  ex- 
ceed the  height  of  man.  Some  ants  tunnel  out 
homes  in  the  trunks  of  trees,  others  burrow  in  the 
thorns  or  petioles  of  leaves.  Certain  ants  make 
homes  by  bending  leaves  in  circles.  The  adult 
ants  cannot  produce  cement,  so  the  larvae  nearly 
ready  for  the  cocoon  stage  are  utilized.  Some  of 
the  workers  hold  the  bent  edges  of  the  leaves  in 
place,  while  others  bring  up  the  larvce,  whose 
heads  they  dab  back  and  forth  over  the  edges  of 
the  leaves  so  as  to  bind  them  together  with  silk. 

Symbiosis.  Although  certain  ants  are  very 
destructive  to  vegetation,  the  relationship  be- 
tween ants  and  certain  plants  is  sometimes  one  of 
mutual  advantage,  a  symbiotic  one.  Thus,  in 
South  America,  there  is  a  small  acacia  known  as 
the  bulVs-horn  thorn,  on  account  of  the  p^^ired, 
horn-shaped  thorns  borne  on  the  tree*  ..While  the 
thorns  are  still  young  the  ant  pierces  a  hble  in 
the  tip  of  one  of  them  and  then  makes  its  way 
through  the  thorn  to  the  base,  where  it  tunnels 
into  the  other  thorn.  Within  the  thorns  there  is 
a  sweet  pulp  eaten  by  the  ants.  Those  thorns 
that  are  not  entered  by  the  ants  shrivel  and  fall 
off.  At  the  base  of  each  young  bipinnate  leaflet 
on  this  same  tree  there  is  a  honey-secreting  gland, 
and  at  the  tip  a  minute,  pear-shaped  fruit.  Tlie 
fruit  does  not  all  ripen  at  the  same  time ;  hence 
the  ants  (Pseudomyrma)  are  kept  continually 
running  over  the  tender  foliage  in  search  of  edi- 
ble stages.  When  the  tree  is  disturbed,  the  ants 
swarm  out  of  their  nests  in  the  thorns,  and  by 
their  severe  sting  drive  off  intruders,  such  as 
caterpillars  and  even  vertebrates.  But  they  are 
most  valuable  to  the  tree  in  warding  off  the  leaf- 
cutting  ants  that  in  a  few  hours  can  defoliate  a 
tree.  In  the  leaf  petioles  of  another  plant  (Mel- 
astoma)  there  are  two  pouches.  In  these  ants 
find  homes,  and,  in  return,  they  keep  off  the  leaf- 
cutting  ants  and  foliage-eating  foes.  The  young, 
tender  leaves  of  certain  orchids  and  passion-flow- 
ers have  honey-glands  visited  by  ants  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  all  marauders. 

Relations  of  Diffeuent  Species  to  One  An- 
OTiiEB.  Almost  all  kinds  of  ants  carry  off  the 
larv'fie  and  pupa;  of  other  kinds  of  ants  for  food. 
At  times,  doubtless,  more  are  taken  than  can  be 
consumed;  hence  some  of  the  captors  come  to 
maturity  in  the  foreign  nest.  Perhaps  in  some 
such  way  as  this,  out  of  the  instinct  of  the  rob- 
ber ant  arose  that  of  the  slave-making  ant. 
Slave-making  ants,  which  are  lighter  in  color 
than  their  captors,  go  forth  in  armies,  attack  the 
nests  of  the  black  ants,  and  carry  away  the  larvae 
and  pupae.  These  they  bring  up  to  act  as  ser- 
vants or  slaves.  In  some  cases  the  warriors  are 
structurally  unable  to  take  food,  and  hence  are 
-wholly  dependent  on  their  faithful  domestics, 
who  collect  the  food  and  actually  put  it  in  the 
mouths  of  their  captors.  Other  small  ants  ( Sol- 
enopsis)  live  the  lives  of  thieves,  secreted  in 
Vol.  1.-88 


small  chambers  excavated  in  the  interspaces  be- 
tween the  chambers  of  large  ants.  The  small 
entrances  to  the  small  chambers  will  not  admit 
the  large  ants.  Hence  the  small  thieves  retreat 
in  safety  to  their  homes  with  the  young  of  the 
large  ant,  which  they  take  for  food.  With  the 
formica  rufa  a  small  ant  lives,  apparently,  in 
perfect  harmony,  perhaps  as  a  domestic  pet. 
When  the  formieae  are  obliged  to  move,  the  small 
forms  go,  too,  tapping  antennae  with  them,  or 
even  riding  on  the  backs  of  their  hosts.  Many 
mites  (gammasids)  and  other  little  creatures  are 
usually  present  in  ants'  nests,  and  seemingly  on 
terms  of  friendship. 

Intelligence  of  Ants.  Ants  are  sensitive  to 
sound-waves,  even  outside  of  human  range;  they 
are  also  keenly  sensitive  to  changes  in  moisture 
and  temperature.  When  a  captive  colony  was 
placed  by  an  experimenter  near  the  fire,  the  heat 
was  so  grateful  to  its  members,  says  he,  that 
"They  embraced  each  other,  and  skipped  and 
danced  like  •  playful  lambs  or  kittens."  Many 
cases  of  ants  indulging  in  what  seems  to  us  to 
be  sportive  exercise  or  play  are  recorded.  Their 
care  for  the  cleanliness  of  the  growing  young  and 
the  promptness  with  which  they  remove  the  dead 
and  bury  them  shows  a  sanitary  instinct.  The 
complete  and  apparently  willing  suppression  of 
the  individual  for  the  good  of  the  colony  almost 
surpasses  man's  comprehension  of  self-abnegation. 
The  law  of  division  of  labor  rules  among  ants. 
Certain  groups  of  individuals  periform  only  cer- 
tain labors.  Labor-saving  devices  are  known  to 
ants,  for  groups  of  workers  will  procure  and  drop 
food  or  building  stuffs  to  waiting  companions  be- 
low and  thus  save  much  labor  of  transportation. 
They  show  ingenuity  in  building  bridges,  and  may 
even  span  gaps  by  means  of  a  rope  made  up  of 
their  own  living  bodies  linked  together.  More- 
over, there  is  little  doubt  in  the  minds  of  ant- 
observers  that  ants  communicate  with  their  fel- 
lows. The  imparting  of  information  seems  to  be 
done  by  means  of  the  antennae,  which  they  cross 
and  rub  together.  They  show  great  solicitude  for 
injured  and  helpless  companions.  Information 
relative  to  the  plight  of  unfortunate  members  is 
in  some  way  communicated  by  the  discoverer  to 
others,  and  a  rush  is  made  to  the  rescue.  Fallen 
debris  is  removed  from  the  partially  buried  one, 
or  the  wayfarer  is  lifted  out  of  pitfalls.  Ants 
are  able  to  recognize  the  myriads  of  members  of 
their  own  colony,  including  their  slaves,  and  even 
those  that  have  been  taken  away  in  infancy.  All 
these  facts  and  many  others  convince  us  that  ants 
in  some  manner  communicate  with  their  com- 
panions. Otherwise,  how  are  the  discovery  and 
the  whereabouts  of  food  too  large  for  removal  by 
one  made  known  to  the  others;  how  is  the  intel- 
ligence of  a  mishap  to  a  luckless  companion  and 
the  necessity  for  aid  communicated  by  the  discov- 
erer to  others ;  or  how  nre  cannibalistic  and  slave- 
making  wars  so  managed  that  the  whole  fighting 
community  is  ready  to  go  out  simultaneously? 

Geological  Antiquity.  Geologically,  ants  are 
among  the  earliest  Hymenoptera.  In  Tertiary 
times  they  were,  perhaps,  the  most  abundant  of 
all  the  insects,  and  thousands  of  ancient  speci- 
mens have  been  found  in  amber. 

Bibliography.  Mayr,  "Die  Formiciden  der 
.  .  .  Nordamerika,"  Verhandlung  Zooloffischen 
Botanischen  Gesellschaft  (Vienna,  1886,  pp.  419- 
464)  ;  Emery,  "Nordamerikanisch  Ameisen- 
fauna."  Zoologisches  t/a^rftiicfe, Volume  VII.,  pp. 
633-82;  Volume  VIII.,  pp.  257-360  (Jena,  1894- 


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95).  Consult:  Lubbock,  Ants,  Bees  and  Waspa 
(New  York,  1894)  ;  White,  Anta  and  Their  Ways 
(London,  1883).  For  ants  of  the  tropics,  Wallace, 
Tropical  Nature  (London,  1878)  ;  Bates,  A  Natu- 
ralist on  the  Amazon  (New  York,  1880)  ;  Belt, 
A  Naturalist  in  Nicaragua  (London,  1888)  ;  Mc- 
Cook,  The  Agricultural  Ant  of  Texas  (Philadel- 
phia, 1879).  See  Insects;  Aphids;  Instinct, 
and  the  names  of  various  ants.  Compare  Ter- 
mite. 

ANTACIDSy  &nt-&s^dz  {ant  or  anti  +  acid). 
Drugs  which  are  employed  to  diminish  or  correct 
abnormal  acidity  in  the  digestive  tract  or  the 
various  secretions  of  other  organs.  Those  which 
unite  directly  with  free  acid  in  the  stomach  or 
intestines  are  known  as  direct  antacids.  Ex- 
amples of  this  class  arc  ammonia  and  its  carbon- 
ate. Remote  antacids,  such  as  the  acetates,  cit- 
rates, and  tartrates  of  the  alkalies,  act  by  being 
changed  into  carbonates,  and  thus  increasing  the 
alkalinity  of  the  blood,  which  in  turn  diminishes 
the  acidity  of  the  urine.  Some  drugs,  for  ex- 
ample, the  carbonates  or  bicarbonates  of  sodium, 
potassium,  calcium,  magnesium^  and  lithium  act 
as  direct  and  also  as  remote  antacids.  The  direct 
antacids  are  given  after  meals  to  neutralize  an 
excess  of  the  natural  lactic  acid  of  the  stomach 
and  other  acids  resulting  from  fermentation  of 
food.  Given  before  meals,  they  cause  an  increase 
of  the  acidity  of  the  stomach  contents  by  increas- 
ing the  secretion  of  gastric  juice.  The  remote 
antacids  are  largely  employed  in  the  treatment 
of  rheumatism  and  gout. 

AN^M.    See  Pilaster. 

ANT-fflOTS  (Gk.  'Avroiof,  Antaios),  A  fig- 
ure in  legends  of  the  Greek  colonies  in  Africa,  at 
first  located  near  Cyrene,  finally  in  Mauretania. 
His  story  is  largely  made  up  of  borrowings  from 
earlier  legends.  In  the  popular  version  he  was 
a  giant,  son  of  Poseidon  and  Ge,  who  compelled 
all  strangers  to  wrestle.  When  he  was  thrown, 
ho  received  fresh  strength  from  touching  his 
mother.  Earth.  With  the  skulls  of  those  he  con- 
quered, he  built  a  temple  to  his  father.  He 
was  invincible  until  Heracles  discovered  the 
source  of  his  power  and  killed  him  by  lifting  him 
into  the  air  and  strangling  him.  Later  Greek 
writers  attempted  to  localize  the  myth  in  a  city 
of  Upper  Egypt  called  Antceopolis  (Egyptian 
name,  Du-kau;  Coptic,  Than). 

ANTASX7EH,  Sn'tA-kS'ya.    See  Antioch. 

ANTAL'CIDAB  (Gk.  'AvraTiKlM.Antalkidas), 
A  Spartan  statesman,  son  of  Leon.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  year  393  B.O.,  he  was  sent  by  his  gov- 
ernment to  Tiribazus,  the  Persian  satrap  at  Sar- 
dia,  to  break  up  the  understanding  which  then 
existed  between  Athens  and  Persia.  He  succeed- 
ed by  agreeing  to  the  Persian  demand  that  Sparta 
should  recognize  the  Persian  supremacy  over  the 
Grecian  cities  in  Asia  Minor.  This  arrangement 
did  not  meet  with  the  approval  of  King  Arta- 
xerxes,  and  the  satrap  was  accordingly  recalled. 
Shortly  after,  however,  in  388  B.C.,  the  King  re- 
stored Tiribazus,  and  thereby  gave  evidence  of 
his  inclination  toward  the  Spartans.  Antalcidas 
was  once  more  sent  to  Asia  to  treat  with  the 
Persian  power,  this  time  as  admiral  of  the 
Spartan  fleet.  He  accompanied  the  satrap  to  the 
Persian  court,  was  well  received,  and  succeeded 
in  coming  to  an  understanding  with  the  King  on 
the  basis  of  the  terms  previously  agreed  upon. 
Antalcidas  returned  to  nis  fleet,  freed  it  from 


the  blockade  of  the  Athenians,  and  shut  out  the 
Athenians  in  their  turn  from  the  .'Egean  Sea, 
He  was  now  in  a  position  to  compel  the  accept- 
ance  of   terms.     The   peace   that  followed  was 
called  "The  Peace  of  Antalcidas."    In  the  winter 
of   387-386    B.C.,    representatives   of   the  Greek 
states  assembled  at  Sardis,  where  the  terms  of 
the  peace  were  read.     The  final  ratification  took 
place  at  Sparta  in  386  b.c.     The  terms  of  the 
peace  were  as  follows:    (1)   That  all  the  Greek 
towns  on  the  mainland  of  Asia  Minor,  together 
with  the  islands  Clazomeme  and  Cyprus,  should 
remain  under  the  protection  of  the  Persian  Kin^. 
( 2 )  That  all  other  Greek  towns,  large  and  small, 
should  be  independent;  but  that  the  islands  of 
Lemnos,  Imbros,  and  Scyros  should,  as  of  old, 
belong  to  Athens.     (3)   That  war  should  be  de- 
clared against  any  State  that  refused  to  accept 
these  terms.     In  370-369  b.c.,  we  find  Antalcidas 
Ephor  at  Sparta.     In  372  B.C.,  he  went  for  the 
third  time  to  treat  with  the  Persians,  but  after 
the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371  B.C.),  he  lost  favor  in 
that  quarter,  and  is  said  to  have  starved  himself 
to  death  as  a  result  of  his  chagrin. 

ANT'ANACLA^IS  (Gk.  avri  anti,  against 
-\- avanXdv^  anaklan,  to  bend  back).  In  rhetoric, 
a  figure  in  which  a  word  is  repeated  in  a  sense 
different  from  its  first  use,  to  give  additional 
force  to  the  expression;  as  the  remark  of  Ben* 
jamin  Franklin  when  he  was  about  to  sign  the 
declaration  of  American  independence:  "We  must 
all  hang  together  or  we  shall  assuredly  all  hang 
separately." 

ANTANANARIVO,  ftn'tA-na'nA-re'vfi,  or 
TANANABIVO.  The  capital  of  Madagascar, 
and  favorably  situated  in  the  centre  of  the 
island,  at  an  elevation  of  over  4000  feet 
(Map:  Africa,  J  6).  It  is  built  chiefly  of  wood, 
with  irregular  streets,  and  the  most  prominent 
building  is  the  royal  palace,  situated  on  the  sum- 
mit of  a  hill.  Its  commerce,  owing  to  its  inland 
position  and  the  inadequate  transportation  facil- 
ities, is  not  very  extensive,  but  it  has  a  consid- 
erable number  of  industrial  establishments.  The 
population,  including  the  suburbs,  is  estimated 
at  100,000,  of  which  only  about  200  are  Euro- 
peans, chiefiy  French.  The  natives  show  in  their 
manners,  as  well  as  in  their  mode  of  life,  the 
influence  of  European  civilization. 

ANTAB,  an'tfir,  or  ANTABA,  Hn'tft-rfi,  tbx 
Shaddad  al-Absi.  a  celebrated  Arabic  hero  of 
the  seventh  century,  and  one  of  the  famous  pre- 
Islamic  poets  of  Arabia.  His  mother  was  a  black 
slave,  Seliba,  and  as  the  son  of  a  slave  he  was 
also  regarded  as  a  slave,  and  obliged  to  render 
menial  services  to  the  members  of  his  tribe. 
Through  his  warlike'  exploits,  however,  he  se- 
cured not  only  his  freedom,  but  a  prominent 
position  in  his  tribe.  He  died  as  a  hero  in 
battle.  While  neither  the  date  of  his  birth  nor 
of  his  death  is  known,  he  appears  to  have  died 
shortly  before  the  appearance  of  Mohammed,  in 
the  early  part  of  the  seventh  century.  He  gained 
equal  fame  among  the  Arabs  as  a  poet  and  as 
a  hero.  Of  his  poetical  achievements,  however, 
only  one  specimen  has  come  down  to  us,  which 
recounts  his  deeds,  and  sings  of  his  love  for  Abla, 
whom  he  married.  This  poem  is  generally  in- 
cluded in  the  collection  of  the  choicest  seven 
Arabic  poems,  known  as  the  Moallakat — a 
name  which  describes  those  poems  as  "the  exalted 
ones."  A  recent  edition  of  the  Arabic  text  is  by 
L.  Ab^l,  Worterverzeichnisse  zur  aXtarahischen 


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ANTAB. 


595 


ANTARCTIC  BEGION. 


Poesie  I.  (Berlin,  1891)  ;  an  English  translation 
by  Johnson  in  Seven  Arabic  Poems  (London, 
1897).  Such  was  Antar's  renown  as  a  warrior 
that  he  becomes  the  prototype  of  the  hero  in  the 
romantic  literature  of  the  Arabs.  He  is  the 
central  figure  in  the  most  famous  of  Arab  ro- 
nmnc-es,  which  bears  the  name  Antar  and  is 
commonly  ascribed  to  Al-Asmai,  who  lived  in 
the  eighth  century.  The  romance  of  Antar, 
however,  as  known  to  us,  is  a  compilation  which 
has  passed  through  various  hands,  and  has  grad- 
ually grown  to  huge  proportions.  It  gives  an 
attractive  and  faithful  picture  of  Bedouin  life, 
and  is  rich  in  epic  interest,  although  too  monot- 
onous to  satisfy  the  taste  of  the  European  read- 
er. In  the  East,  however,  it  still  supplies  the 
favorite  themes  of  the  professional  story-tellers 
who  haunt  the  cofTee-houses.  A  poetical  transla- 
tion of  a  portion  of  it  into  English  was  made 
by  Hamilton  in  1820,  (Antar:  A  Bedouin  Ro- 
mance, 4  volumes,  London).  The  memory  of 
Antar  is  also  preserved  in  various  places  of  the 
East  which  bears  his  name.  Consult  Goldziher, 
Globus  Ixiv.,  65,  «7. 

ANTABCrriC  CXJB^ENT,  Lands;  Ocean. 
See  Antarctic  Region. 

ANTARCTIC  RE'GION  (Gk.  avW.  anti, 
against,  opposite  -f-  apicrof,  arktos,  bear,  Ursa 
Major,  the  north).  The  name  applied  to  that 
portion  of  our  earth's  surface  which  encircles  the 
South  Pole.  Technically  and  astronomically  it 
is  bounded  by  the  Antarctic  Circle,  and  although 
the  Antarctic  land  masses  do  not  extend  much 
farther  equatorward  than  this,  yet  the  Antarctic 
influences  extend  to  very  much  lower  latitudes, 
the  solid  ice  fields  drifting  on  nearly  all  sides 
belo>^  lat.  60**  S.,  and  between  the  southern  ex- 
tremities of  Africa  and  South  America  even 
below  lat.  60**  S.  The  limit  of  this  drift  ice 
may  be  taken  as  the  limit  of  the  Antarctic 
region,  although  the  drifting  icebergs  descend 
more  than  10**  of  latitude  lower.  Thus,  the  Ant- 
arctic region  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  Pacific, 
and  Indian  oceans.  The  so-called  Antarctic  con- 
tinent lies,  however,  in  the  region  of  the  Antarc- 
tic circle.  It  is  included  in  the  triangle  indi- 
cated by  Wilkes  Land  (Victoria  Land),  and 
Enderby  Land,  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  and 
Graham  Land  in  the  Western  Hemisphere. 
That  all  this  area  is  filled  in  with  land  is  by  no 
means  certain:  only  sections  of  coast  line  have 
been  seen;  no  explorer  has  penetrated  into  the 
interior.  That  these  three  bits  of  coast  may  be 
parts  of  large  isolated  islands  or  archipelagoes 
is  possible.  Some  of  the  evidence  which  has  led 
explorers  to  believe  that  a  continent  exists  will 
be  found  below.  Of  these  lands  the  most  exten- 
sive are  Wilkes  Land  and  Graham  Land.  The 
outer  edge  of  the  former  lies  just  below  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  to  the  southward  of  Australia, 
and  extends  along  over  70**  of  longitude;  but  on 
its  eastern  end,  between  long.  160**  and 
170**,  the  coast  line,  which  to  the  west  of  it  has 
been  nearly  east  and  west,  makes  a  bend  at  right 
angles  toward  the  south.  This  reentering  stretch 
of  coast  has  been  explored  to  almost  lat.  80**  S., 
and  given  the  name  of  Victoria  Land.  It  is  on 
this  land  that  the  south  magnetic  Pole  is  located. 

From  about  long.  170**  E.  to  about  long.  120** 
W.  there  is  a  deep  embayment  in  the  continental 
land,  and  it  is  within  this  ice-bound  water  region 
that  the  highest  southern  latitude  has  been  at- 
tained.    There  is  perhaps — but  this  is  doubted 


by  certain  authorities — an  extensive  land  area  at 
about  long.  110**  W.  Between  long.  75**  and 
65**  W.  (in  lat.  65**  to  68**  S.),  the  second  great 
known  area  of  Antarctic  land,  Graham  Land,  is 
found.  Between  these  areas,  and  on  the  border 
of  the  ice  pack,  islands  of  considerable  size  have 
been  discovered,  and  north  of  Graham  Land  suc- 
cessive groups  of  islands  extend  almost  to  the  six- 
tieth parallel.  Between  Graham  Land  and  En- 
derby  Land,  the  ocean  again  penetrates  deep  into 
the  triangle.  Vessels  have  in  two  instances  pen- 
etrated the  region  to  the  east  of  Graham  Land, 
in  one  case  beyond  the  seventy-fourth  parallel. 
The  remoteness  of  the  Antarctic  from  the  en- 
lightened nations  of  the  northern  hemisphere  has 
prevented  its  exploration  to  the  same  extent  as 
the  north  polar  regions.  Cooke  ( 1773-76) ,  Bellings- 
hausen (1821),  Weddell  (1823),  Ross  (1842), 
Wilkes  (1840),  d'Urville  (1840),  the  Challenfjer 
expedition  (1874),  de  Gerlache  (1897-98),  and 
Borchgrevinck  (1899-1900)  have  been  the  chief 
explorers  of  this  region,  but  it  has  also  been  visit- 
ed by  many  whalers.  Ross  reached  a  latitude  of, 
approximately,  78**  10'  S.  in  1842,  and  Borchgre- 
vinck by  a  "dash"  over  the  "ice-barrier"  in  1900 
reached  78**  50'.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  new 
century,  German,  British,  Swedish,  Norwegian, 
and  Belgian  exploring  expeditions  have  been  fur- 
ther investigating  both  the  Antarctic  lands  and 
the  waters  in  a  more  systematic  manner  than 
had  been  previously  undertaken. 

Antarctic  Lands.  The  islands  and  continent 
surrounding  the  South  Pole  of  the. earth.  Re- 
ports of  recent  explorations  in  the  Antarctic 
region  have  served  as  foundations  for  an  hy- 
pothesis that  there  must  be  a  considerable  con- 
tinent about  the  South  Pole.  The  outer  edges  of 
this  land  have  been  found  accessible  at  a  few 
points,  and  it  seems  to  be  bordered  by  numerous 
low  island  masses.  Of  the  topography,  little  is 
known.  Ross  in  1842  found  that  Victoria  Land 
was  crossed  by  mountain  ranges,  which  included 
volcanic  peaks  from  7000  to  15,000  feet  in  height, 
and  Mount  Erebus  was  even  then  in  active  erup- 
tion. Other  active  volcanoes  to  the  south  of 
Cape  Horn  were  found  and  visited  by  Larsen  in 
1895.  Fragments  of  continental  rocks,  such  as 
granite,  gneiss,  schist,  and  sandstones,  dredged 
up  by  various  expeditions,  the  discovery  by  Lar- 
sen of  fossil  coniferous  wood  on  Seymour  Island, 
and  molluscan  shells  closely  resembling  lower 
Tertiary  forms  that  occur  in  Patagonia,  as  also 
the  characteristic  form  and  structure  of  the  Ant- 
arctic icebergs  and  the  general  slope  of  the 
oceanic  floor — all  indicate  the  existence  of  ex- 
tensive land  areas  around  the  South  Pole.  These 
lands,  however,  are  buried  beneath  ice  sheets  of 
great  thickness.  Long  stretches  of  the  coast  are 
bordered  by  the  fronts  of  glaciers,  and  great 
tongues  of  ice  are  projected,  sometimes  for  many 
miles,  into  the  sea.  Ross  sailed  for  about  four 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  along  a  wall  of  ice  more 
than  two  hundred  feet  high;  either  the  side  or 
the  face  of  a  glacier.  Where  the  lands  are  bor^ 
dered  by  high  mountains,  the  front  of  the  ice 
cover  is  only  10  to  20  feet  high,  and  in  many 
places  no  land  ice  comes  down  to  the  shore;  at 
Cape  Adare,  for  example,  a  pebbly  beach  was 
found,  and  the  Belgian  expedition  (1898)  made 
twenty  landings  on  bare  rocks.  The  area  of  this 
Antarctic  continent,  supposing  it  to  include  Vic- 
toria Land,  Wilkes  Land,  Kemp  Land,  Enderby 
Land,  Graham  Land,  and  Alexander  I.  Land,  has 
been  roughly  estimated  at  nearly  4,000,000  square 


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ANTABCTIC  KEOION. 


596 


ANT-EATEB. 


miles,  an  area  greater  than  that  of  Australia. 
On  the  Antarctic  lands  mosses  and  lichens  were 
found,  but  the  only  flower-bearing  plant  was  a 
grass  of  the  genus  Aira.  A  small  form  of  fly, 
a  Podurella,  and  three  or  four  species  of  mites, 
represent  the  land  fauna.  Racovitza  inclines  to 
the  opinion  that  the  former  Antarctic  land  fauna 
was  destroyed  during  the  great  glacial  period. 

Antarctic  Ocean.  The  name  Antarctic  Ocean 
is  given  to  the  sea  waters  lying  within  the  Ant- 
arctic regions,  and  since  the  great  continents 
do  not  extend  so  far  south  as  the  assumed  limits 
of  the  Antarctic  regions,  this  ocean  has  no  out- 
side  continental  land  boundaries,  and  its  waters 
merely  mingle  with  those  of  the  Pacific,  the 
Indian,  and  Atlantic  oceans  without  any  signifi- 
cant lines  of  separation.  Between  the  latitude 
of  Cape  Horn  and  the  Antarctic  lands  the  whole 
circumference  of  the  globe  presents  an  unbroken 
expanse  of  waters,  save  for  a  few  islands  here 
and  there.  The  floor  of  the  Antarctic  gradually 
shoals  from  the  middle  latitude  depths  toward 
the  South  Pole.  There  are  some  embayments 
running  toward  the  Pole  which  show  depths  of 
two  to  three  thousand  fathoms,  which  equal 
the  depths  on  the  outer  boundary;  but  the 
results  of  soundings  by  the  Belgica  expedition 
in  1898  and  of  a  study  of  the  currents  seem 
to  show  that  the  various  land  areas  now  grouped 
together  and  called  the  outer  edge  of  the  Ant- 
arctic continent  rise  up  from  broad  shallows  or 
elevated  plateaus  about  two  to  five  hundred  feet 
below  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  In  general,  at 
lat.  60**  S.,  the  waters  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean 
have  an  average  annual  temperature  at  the  sur- 
face of  29 '.8  F.,  which  is  warmer  than  the  aver- 
age temperature  of  the  air  in  the  same  latitude 
(28**.7  F.).  At  great  depths  and  near  the  ocean 
floor  the  water  temperature  is  between  32"  F. 
and  36**  F.,  but  between  these  depths  and  the 
surface  there  is  usually  found  a  wedge-shaped 
layer  of  water  with  a  temperature  varying  from 
28°  F.  to  32**  F. 

The  Antarctic  drift  is  mainly  from  the  west 
on  the  outer  border  and  from  the  southwest  and 
south  at  the  interior  of  the  Antarctic  region. 
There  are  two  great  Antarctic  currents:  one 
crosses  the  Antarctic  circle  toward  the  north, 
between  long.  120**  and  long.  140**  W.,  but 
swerves  toward  the  east  in  lat.  60**,  and  near 
the  South  American  continent  separates,  part 
going  northward  past  Peru,  and  part  preserving 
its  eastward  movement  past  Cape  Horn,  whence 
it  returns  to  the  Antarctic  between  long.  60**  E. 
and  80**  E.;  the  other  current  crosses  the 
Antarctic  Circle,  going  north  between  long.  80** 
and  long.  100**  E.,  and  swerves  to  the  eastward, 
forming  the  west  Australian  current.  The  floor 
deposits  of  the  ocean  are,  in  the  outer  region, 
globigerina  ooze,  along  and  for  some  distance 
within  the  Antarctic  Circle  terrigenous  deposits 
of  blue  mud,  etc.,  and  in  the  interior  region 
immediately  surrounding  the  land,  but  extending 
from  10**  to  20**  from  it,  pteropod  ooze. 

The  waters  are  full  of  life  at  all  depths.  Algte 
are  abundant,  but  pteropods  and  foraminifera 
decrease  in  numbers  as  the  Pole  is  approached. 
The  deep  sea  fauna  is  richer  than  that  of  any 
other  region  visited  by  the  Challenger  in  its 
voyage  of  exploration.  A  small  whalebone  whale, 
the  grampus,  the  pilot  whale,  seal,  penguins, 
skua,  and  teal  all  live  in  the  Antarctic  or  on  its 
shores.  Fish  have  not  been  found  in  large  num- 
bers, but  must  be  somewhat  abundant,  as  their 


remains  are  found  in  the  stomachs  of  the  pen- 
guins and  seals.  No  traces  of  land  mamnuda 
have  ever  been  found  on  the  Antarctic  shores. 

The  winds  at  the  interior  of  the  Antarctic 
region  are  probably  directed  spirally  outward 
from  the  polar  centre,  so  that  they  blow  as  south- 
east winds;  but  on  the  outer  border  winds  are 
generally  from  the  west,  perhaps  mostly  from  the 
northwest,  rather  than  from  the  southwest  The 
annual  precipitation  immediately  around  the 
South  Pole  is  probably  leas  than  10  inches,  hut 
this  increases  to  about  25  inches  on  the  outer 
boundary  of  the  Antarctic  continental  lands,  from 
whence  there  is  probably  a  poleward  decrease. 
The  average  summer  temperatures  are  below  30' 
F.  within  most  of  the  Antarctic  Circle:  this  is 
the  lowest  summer  temperature  observed  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe.  It  may  be  that  the  Antarc- 
tic winters  are  not  so  cold  as  the  Arctic  winters, 
on  account  of  the  great  expanse  of  water  encir- 
cling the  Antarctic  land-masses,  but  it  is  more 
likely  that  there  is  little  difference  in  the  winter 
temperatures  near  the  two  poles.  The  lowest  win- 
ter temperature  observed  in  lat.  70**  S.  was  about 
—46**  F.  During  a  year  in  lat  70**  and  lower,  the 
Belgica  experienced  257  days  with  snowfall  and 
14  days  of  rain. 

BiRLTOOKAPHT.  Murray,  "Antarctic  Research," 
Oeographical  Journal,  Volume  III.  (London, 
1894)  ;  Fricker,  The  Antarctic  Regions  (London, 
1900)  ;  Cook,  Through  the  First  Antarctic  yight 
(New  York,  1900).  For  history  of  Antarctic 
exploration  and  map  of  Antarctic  regions,  see 
PoLAB  Research. 

ANTABES,  ftn-ta'r§z  (Gk.  'Avrdpifc,  Antarfs, 
like  Ares,  or  Mars;  from  avrt,  anti,  against,  op- 
posite, compared  with  +  'Api/c,  Ar€s,  Mars).  A 
red  star,  thought  by  the  ancients  to  resemble 
Mars  (q.v.).  It  is  a  double  star,  and  the  most 
conspicuous  in  the  constellation  Scorpio.  Anta- 
res  is  often  of  use  to  navigators  in  finding  lon- 
gitude. 

ANT^-BEAB'.     The  great  ant-eater. 

ANT-BIBD,  Ant-Catcher,  Ant-Thrush,  etc. 
See  Ant  Shrike. 

ANT'-EAT'EB.  Any  of  various  ant-eating 
mammals,  especially  those  of  the  South  Ameri- 
can Edentate  family  Myrmecophagidie.  The 
head  in  this  family  is  remarkably  elongated,  with 
a  slender,  tubular  muzzle,  and  a  small,  toothless 
mouth,  with  a  long,  vermiform,  protrusile  tongue. 
The  eyes  and  ears  are  very  small.  The  legs  are 
massive,  and  the  toes  united  as  far  as  the  base  of 
the  claws,  which  are  very  large  and  strong,  and 
are  turned  under  the  fore-feet  as  the  animal 
walks.  The  great  ant-eater,  tamanoir,  or  ant- 
bear  (Myrmecophaga  juhata) ,  a  native  of  the 
tropical  forests  of  South  America,  is  about  2 
feet  high  and  4  feet  long  without  the  tail,  which 
is  2%  feet  long.  The  compressed  body  is  covered 
with  long  hair,  gray,  strikingly  marked  by  a 
black  breast-band,  which  narrows  back  to  the 
top  of  the  shoulders,  while  the  fore-legs  and 
feet  are  white.  The  hair  is  especially  long  upon 
the  back  and  tail,  which  can  be  curled  over  the 
back,  and  is  said  to  be  held  there  as  a  shield 
during  rain.  The  animal  dwells  in  the  dense 
forest,  but  is  wholly  terrestrial  and  does  not  bur- 
row. It  is  timid,  slow,  and  inoffensive,  but  at 
bay  is  able  to  defend  itself  effectively  by  means 
of  its  long  fore-claws,  with  which  it  hugs  and 
tears  its  enemy.  These  powerful  claws  are  of 
service  in  tearing  down  the  hills  of  the  termites 


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ANT-EATERS    AND    ARMADILLOS 


1.  GREAT   ANT-EATER   (Myrmecophaga  Jubata).  4-5.  THREE-BANDED  ARMADILLO   (Tolypautas  triclnc- 

2.  LESSER  ANT-EATER   (Tamandua  tatradactyla).  tus);    walking  and  rolled  up. 

3.  TWO-TOED  ANT-EATER    (Cycloturus  didactylus).  6.  PICHICIAQO   (Chlamydophorus  tnincatus) 

7.  AARD-VARK  (Orycteropus  afra). 


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ANT-EATEB. 


597 


ANTELOPE. 


and  ants,  upon  which  it  principally  subsists. 
These  are  taken  by  means  of  the  long  tongue, 
which  is  covered  with  a  sticky  secretion  from 
great  salivary  glands;  this  tongue  is  thrust 
among  the  disturbed  ants  or  laid  in  their  path, 
and,  when  a  number  have  adhered  to  it,  is  drawn 
into  the  mouth. 

Only  one  young  one  is  said  to  be  produced  annu- 
ally, so  that  the  creature  is  nowhere  numerous; 
nor  is  this  to  be  regretted,  for  it  has  few,  if  any, 
qualities  to  recommend  it  to  man's  attention. 
Another  species,  the  tamandua  ( Tamandua  tetra- 
dactyla)y  is  much  smaller,  has  a  shorter  head  and 
short,  bristly  hair,  and  a  slender,  prehensile  tail ; 
its  body  is  black,  while  the  head,  neck, 
fore-limbs,  and  hind-quarters  are  yellowish -white 
— a  strange  dress,  varying  a  good  deal  among 
individuals.  It  also  dwells  in  the  equatorial  for- 
est of  America,  but  is  wholly  arboreal,  seeking 
its  insect  food  and  making  its  home  in  trees.  A 
third  species,  the  little,  or  two- toed,  ant-eater 
( Cycloturas  didactylus) ,  is  not  larger  than  a  rat, 
is  clothed  in  silky  fur,  and  dwells  altogether  in 
trees,  for  which  its  long,  prehensile  tail  and 
curious  feet  have  become  especially  modified;  an- 
other species  inhabits  Costa  Kica.  For  portraits 
of  the  three  species  mentioned  above,  see  plate  of 
x\  NT- Eaters. 

Other  animals  called  ant-eaters  are:  (1)  The 
manids,  or  scaly  ant-eaters.  (See  Pangolin.) 
(2)  The  aark-vark  (q.v.)  (3)  The  porcupine 
ant-eaters,  or  Echidnje.  (See  Echidna.)  (4^)  The 
Australian  insectivorous  marsupials  of  the  genus 
Myrmecobius,  as  Myrmccohiua  fasciatiis,  of  West 
Australia,  about  as  large  as  a  squirrel,  chestnut 
red,  with  white  and  dark  stripes  on  the  back.  It 
has  a  long,  slender  tongue,  like  a  true  ant-eater, 
but  it  has  more  teeth  than  any  other  living  mam- 
mal. It  scratches  open  ant-hills  for  its  food. 
(See  plate  of  Phalangebs.)  (5)  Any  of  various 
ant-eating  birds. 

AN'TEDELU'VIAN  (Lat.  ante,  before  +  di- 
luviunif  flood).  A  word  used  to  denote  whatever 
existed  before  the  Flood.  The  antediluvian  ages 
are  those  which  elapsed  before  the  Flood ;  and  in 
theological  language,  the  antediluvian  religion 
means  the  religion  of  the  patriarchs  from  Adam 
to  Noah.  In  geology,  the  antediluvian  period 
had  no  reference  to  the  Deluge  recorded  in  the 
Mosaic  narrative,  but  signified  only  the  final 
transformation  of  the  earth  by  means  of  water. 
The  term  is  not  in  current  use  at  the  present 
time. 

ANTEDON.    See  Crinoid. 

ANTEPIX  (Lat.  neut.  pi.  antefixa,  from 
ante,  before -\' fixus,  fastened,  fixed).  A  terra- 
cotta or  marble  dectoration  along  the  edge  of  the 


roof  of  classic  buildings,  covering  the  end  of  the 
low  of  semi-circular  tiles  placed  over  the  joints 


of  the  flat  tiles  on  the  roof.  They  were  upright 
slabs,  usually  decorated  with  a  single  head  or  an 
anthemion,  although  sometimes  they  were  com- 
posed of  entire  figures  or  even  groups.  The 
Etruscans  developed  this  form  of  roof  ornament 
even  more  than  the  Greeks. 

ANTETiAMI,  ftn'tA-la'm^,  Benedetto.  A 
north  Italian  architect  and  sculptor  of  the 
twelfth  century;  one  of  the  most  notable  artists 
preceding  Nicola  Pisano.  His  masterpiece  is 
the  baptistery  at  Parma  with  its  numerous  and 
important  sculptures. 

ANTELOPE  (Gk.  av^d^iorlf,  antholops,  a 
horned  animal).  Any  of  many  hollow-horned 
ruminants  forming  a  group  (formerly  esteemed 
the  family  Antilopidie)  within  the  family  Bo- 
vidae,  and  usually  classified  between  the  cattle 
and  goats.  The  English  word,  in  its  widest  pop- 
ular use,  often  includes  on  the  one  hand  a  group 
represented  by  the  chamois  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain goat,  preferably  designated  goat-antelopes; 
and  on  tlie  other  the  American  antelope  or  prong- 
horn  (q.v.),  which  belongs  to  a  quite  difTerent 
family.  Scientifically,  as  now  restricted  by  R. 
Lydekker  and  recent  students,  the  term  excludes 
these  forms.  The  group  cannot  be  demarked 
from  other  bovines  by  definite  characters,  yet 
as  a  whole  it  is  easily  recognized  by  the  graceful 
build  of  its  members  (exhibited  in  the  accom- 
panying illustrations),  their  short  hair,  lively 
colors,  manner  of  carrying  the  head  uplifted,  and 
the  absence  of  a  goat-like  beard.  "The  horns, 
which  may  or  may  not  be  present  in  the  females, 
are  generally  long,  more  or  less  cylindrical,  and 
often  lyrate  in  shape;  while  they  are  frequently 
marked  with  prominent  rings  and  have  an  up- 
right direction.  Their  bony  internal  cores,  in- 
stead of  being  honeycombed,  as  in  the  oxen,  sheep 
and  goats,  are  nearly  solid  throughout.  These 
animals  generally  have  a  gland  beneath  the  eye, 
by  which  they  are  distinguished  from  the  oxen 
and  goats." — (Lydekker).  In  size  they  vary  from 
a  foot  in  height  to  the  bigness  of  a  large  horse, 
^most  all  are  timid,  peaceable  animals,  with 
small  means  of  defense,  and  trusting  for  safety 
to  the  agility  and  fleetness  in  which  they  excel. 
Most  of  them  inhabit  plains,  and  these  are  highly 
gregarious ;  a  few  are  found  only  in  mountainous 
regions,  while  others  dwell  in  pairs  or  small 
bands  in  jungles  and  deep  forests.  Paleontolo- 
gists inform  us  that  antelopes  are  the  most 
generalized  members  of  the  Bovidse  now  existing, 
and  "since  they  are  also  its  oldest  known  repre- 
sentatives, it  IS  probable  that  from  them  have 
been  derived  the  more  specialized  types,"— oxen, 
sheep,  goats,  etc. 

Though  now  wholly  restricted  to  Asia  and 
Africa,  the  antelopes  had  formerly  a  wide  dis- 
tribution in  Europe  and  Asia  alone.  Their  dis- 
appearance from  Europe  and  spread  into  Africa 
within  recent  times  (geologically  speaking),  and 
their  enormous  multiplication  there,  form  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  incidents  in  the  history  of 
the  mammalia.  When  South  Africa  was  first 
penetrated  by  Europeans,  many  species  were 
found  ranging  its  grassy  plains  in  enormous 
herds,  which  formed  the  principal  resource  for 
animal  food  of  the  natives  and  a  great  number 
of  carnivorous  animals.  This  continued  until 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  when  the 
rapid  spread  of  English  and  Dutch  colonization 
swept  them  away.  Vast  numbers  w^ere  wasted 
by  sportsmen  and  reckless  colonists,  or  were 
killed  for  the  sake  of  their  flesh  and  hides,  until 


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ANTELOPE. 


598 


ANTEQUEBA. 


now  the  great  herds  have  disappeared  from  the 
remotest  veldts,  many  species  a  few  years  ago 
numbered  by  tens  of  thousands  are  reduced  to 
scattered  bands,  and  others  have  become  wholly 
extinct.  The  wide  and  rapid  destruction  of 
these  abundant,  valuable,  and  beautiful  animals 
can  be  paralleled  elsewhere  only  by  the  swift 
extermination  of  the  American  bison.  Several 
species  are  represented  only  by  small  bands  pre- 
served upon  private  estates. 

Antelopes  fall  into  certain  groups  having  a 
common  resemblance.  These  will  be  outlined 
here,  leaving  the  reader  to  consult  for  details 
the  separate  articles  upon  individual  species,  the 
most  important  of  which  will  be  found  described 
in  their  alphabetical  places.  One  collocation  is 
that  of  the  antelopine  gazelles,  including  a  large 
number  of  species  elegantly  shaped  and  colored, 
as  a  rule  not  exceeding  30  inches  in  height,  with 
hairy  muzzles  and  teeth  resembling  those  of 
goats,  and  with  ringed  and  usually  lyrate  or 
spiral  horns ;  they  inhabit  deserts  from  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  to  India.  Here  among  le^s  note- 
worthy kinds,  fall  the  familiar  ariel  and  other 
gazelles,  the  black-buck  of  India,  the  saiga, 
chiru,  springbok,  impalla,  and  the  like.  Another 
gi'oup  {cervicaprine)  is  represented  by  the  small 
African  reed-bucks,  the  larger  water-bucks,  cobus, 
ete.,  the  smaller  rehboks  and  klipspringer,  and 
the  diminutive  steinboks.  A  third  {cephaloph- 
ine)  group  is  composed  of  the  duikerboks  and 
other  forest-ranging  species  of  Africa,  among 
which  are  the  smallest  known  ruminants,  the 
least  (see  GuEVi)  being  only  13  inches  tall.  Only 
the  males  of  these  are  provided  with  horns,  and 
one  species  (sec  Chousinga)  has  four  horns. 
These  pygmies  are  connected  with  the  cattle  by 
the  alcephaline  antelopes,  all  large  African 
species  characterized  by  their  much  greater 
height  at  the  withers  than  at  the  rump,  and  by 
having  horns  in  both  sexes,  the  cores  of  which  are 
cellular  as  in  oxen;  prominent  examples  are  the 
hartbeests,  blesbok,  bontebok,  and  gnus.  Diverg- 
ing oppositely  from  the  typical  gazelles  toward 
the  goats,  the  hippotragine  section  has  been  made 
to  include  very  large  African  antelopes  having 
long,  stout,  ringed  horns  in  both  sexes,  such  as 
the  sable  and  roan  antelopes,  the  extinct  blanbok, 
addax,  gemsbok  and  allied  species.  Another  set 
of  large  species  is  the  tragelaphinCy  represented 
in  India  by  the  nilgai,  and  in  Africa  by  the  bush- 
buck,  koodoo,  eland,  ete.  They  are  the  largest, 
most  valuable,  and  handsomest  of  all,  their 
ground  colors  being  bright  and  often  ornamented 
or  "harnessed"  with  conspicuous  stripes,  while 
their  faces  are  beautifully  marked.  Consult: 
For  former  abundance  in  Africa,  Harris,  Game 
Animals  of  Africa  (liondon,  1840),  with  colored 
folio  plates;  Lichtstein,  Saiigethiere  und  Vo- 
gel  au8  dem  Kaffemlande  (Berlin,  1842) ;  and 
the  narratives  of  Livingstone,  Gordon  Gumming, 
Andersson,  Drummond,  Baker,  Schweinfurth, 
Selons,  and  similar  explorers  and  sportsmen. 
For  more  modern  conditions,  Millais,  A  Breath 
from  the  Veldt  (London,  1895)  ;  and  Bryden, 
Nature  and  Sport  in  South  Africa  (London, 
1897).  For  Asiatic  species.  Baker,  Wild  Beasts 
and  their  Wat/s(  London,  1890)  ;  Blanford,  Fauna 
of  British  India:  ^fammals  (London,  1888).  For 
zo5logy,  Sclater  and  Thomas,  The  Book  of  the  An- 
telopes (London,  1896)  Brooke,  Proceedings  of 
the  Zoological  Society  of  London   (1871-73). 

For  the  so-called  antelope  of  western  North 
America,  see  Prong UORN. 


AN'TENA'TI  (Lat.  nom.  plur.  of  antenatus, 
from  ante,  before -\' nutus,  bom).  In  law  and 
history  persons  born  before  a  certain  time  or 
event,  especially  with  reference  to  the  existence 
of  righte  which  are  claimed.  The  term  is  spe- 
cifically applied:  (a)  To  children  born  before 
the  marriage  of  their  parente.  By  the  common 
law  of  England  such  children  are  held  to  be 
bastards  and  do  not  become  legitimate  upon  the 
subsequent  marriage  of  their  parents,  whereas  in 
the  civil  and  canon  law  antenati  are  legitimate 
and  capable  of  inheriting  the  real  property  of  the 
father  as  if  born  after  marriage.  The  common- 
law  rule  prevails  in  the  United  States  excepting 
where  it  has  been  changed  by  statute.  ( See  Bas- 
tard; Heib;  liBGiTiicAcr.)  (b)  In  English  histo- 
ry, to  those  natives  of  Scotland  who  were  born 
before  the  accession  of  the  Scotch  King  James  VI. 
to  the  throne  of  England  as  James  I.,  and  whof^ 
status  as  English  citizens  was  therefore  disputed, 
(c)  In  American  history,  to  Americans  born  in 
this  country  before  the  Declaration  of  Independ-  . 
ence;  and,  also,  to  those  citizens  of  the  colony 
of  New  York  who  were  born  during  the  period 
of  Duteh  sovereignty  and  who  survived  the  trans- 
fer of  the  territory  and  government  to  the  Eng- 
lish crown.  The  property  rights  of  the  antenati. 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  benefits  of  the  Dutch 
law  were  expressly  preserved  to  them  by  the  ar- 
ticles of  capitulation,  1664.  C!onsult  the  his- 
torical introduction  to  the  Grolier  Club,  Facftim- 
He  of  Bradford's  Laws  of  New  York,  1694  (New 
York.  1894).     See  the  articles  Aujeqiajxce;  Ax- 

NEXATION. 

ANTEN^iE.     See  Insect. 

AN'TENNA^A  (Lat.  antenna,  sail-yard, 
Neo-T-iat.  a  feeder;  born  of  an  insect) .  A  class  of 
Arthropoda  characterized  by  the  possession  of  one 
pair  of  preoral  feelers,  three  parts  of  oral  limbs 
and  head  distinctly  marked  off  from  the  trunk; 
respiration  by  tubular  trachese,  opening  exter- 
nally by  segmentally  arranged  openings  called 
stigmata.  The  class  is  divided  into  two  sub- 
classes :  Myriapoda,  or  centipedes,  ete.,  and  Hex- 
apoda,  or  insects  (qq.v.). 

ANTEOrOB  (Gk.  'Avrifvup,  Antendr).  The 
wise  Trojan  who  advised  his  fellow-citizens  to 
send  Helen  back  to  her  husband.  In  return  for 
his  friendliness  to  the  Greeks,  his  house  was 
spared  during  the  sack  of  Troy.  A  later  version 
represents  him  as  betraying  the  city.  Legends 
differ  about  him:  one  is  that  he  built  a  city  on 
the  site  of  Troy;  others  make  him  the  founder 
of  various  cities  in  northern  Italy,  or  Cyrene. 

ANTENOB  i'AvTt/viip).  An  Athenian  sculp- 
tor of  the  sixth  century  B.C.  He  made  the 
original  statues  of  Harmodius  and  Aristogiton, 
which  were  carried  to  Susa  by  Xerxes  (480 
B.C.).  After  the  conquest  of  Persia,  they  were 
restored  by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  were  set  up 
in  the  Geramicus,  where  they  were  placed  origin- 
ally. 

ANTEPEN'DITTM  (Lat.  ante,  before  -f  pen- 
dere,  to  hang) .  A  hanging  in  front  of  the  altar. 
As  the  earliest  Christian  altars  were  usually 
tables  of  wood  or  marble,  it  was  customary  dur- 
ing service  to  hang  or  set  in  front  of  them  a 
richly  decorated  piece  of  stuff  or  metal  relief. 
See  Altar. 

ANTEQUEBA,  Sln'tA-kAfrA  (anciently  Anti- 
guaria).  An  important  manufacturing  town  in 
the  province  of  Malaga,  Spain,  situated  in  a  fer- 


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ANTELOPES 


1.BUBAUNE  ANTELOPE   (Bubalis   muritania);   type  of        5.  BRINDLED  GNU  OR  BLUE  WILDEBEEST  (Connooho- 

Hartebaesta.  etes  taurlna). 

2.  NILQAI    (Boaephalua  tragocamalus).  6.  SINQ-SINQ   (Cobus  defassa);  typa  of  Watarbucks. 

8.  ROAN    ANTELOPE   (Hlppotragua  aquinua).  7.  SABLE   ANTELOPE   (HIppotragus  nigar).  . 

4.  BEI8A   (Oryx  balaa);  typa  of  Qemsboka.  8.  ELAND   (Orlaa  canna).  Digitized  by ' 


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ANTEQUEBA. 


599 


ANTHEB. 


tile  plain  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  de  Antequera, 
on  the  Guadalhoree,  45  miles  west  of  Granada 
(Map :  Spain,  0  4).  It  has  a  Moorish  castle  and 
is  the  seat  of  a  number  of  hidalgos.  There  are 
some  stately  houses  and  a  fine  church  of  the  Vir- 
gin. It  is  active  in  the  manufacture  of  woolen 
goods,  paper,  soap,  and  silk.  There  is  consid- 
erable trade  in  fruit,  oil,  and  wine;  and  marble 
is  quarried  in  the  neighborhood.  Pop.,  1900, 
31,665. 

AN'TEBOS  (Gk.  *Avrf/>wf,  from  avrt,  anti, 
against  H-  ipuc^  eras,  love).  In  the  mythology  of 
the  Greeks,  the  brother  of  Eros,  and  god  of  unre- 
quited love. 

AKTEBOB,  or  ANTEBXJB.  Pope,  or  rather 
bishop  of  Rome, -from  November  21,  235,  till  his 
death,  January  3,  236.  He  comes  between  Pon- 
tianus  and  Fabianus. 

AN'THEa)ON  (Gk.  *Av^v^<^)'  A  town  of 
pHBotia,  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Messapion, 
on  the  strait  of  Euboea.  The  site,  near  the  mod- 
ern Lukisi,  was  described  by  Leake,  Travels  in 
Northern  Greece  II,  In  1889,  excavations  were 
conducted  by  the  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  at  Athens,  which  brought  to  light  a  com- 
plex of  foundations  near  the  harbor,  and  what 
seems  to  have  been  a  small  temple  on  a  hill  out- 
side the  city.  The  course  of  the  walls  was  also 
traced,  and  a  number  of  bronze  implements  and 
sixty-four  inscriptions  found.  The  latter  are 
chiefly  gravestones,  'but  give  some  idea  of  the 
local  alphabet  and  dialect.  ' 

ANTHE^IA  (Gk.  avrl,  anti,  against  .+*. 
j^Xco^,  helios,  the  sun).  Luminous  rings  op-;\,, 
posite  to  the  sun,  seen  when  the  observer  looks' 
toward  his  own  shadow  cast  upon  a  cloud  or 
bank  of  fog  or  on  the  dewdrops  on  the  grass. 
The  shadow  is  seen  to  be  encircled  by  a  glory 
consisting  of  one  or  several  concentric  rings, 
having  their  common  centre  at  the  anti-solar 
point.  The  rings  are  usually  colored,  red  inside 
and  blue  outside,  but  these  are  not  pure  colors, 
because  formed  by  many  overlappings  of  ele- 
mentary rings.  The  outside  rings  have  but  lit- 
tle color  and  fade  off  into  white.  The  radius  of 
the  rings  increases  with  the  smallness  of  the 
globules  that  make  up  the  fog  or  cloud.  The 
largest  ring  ever  observed  is  the  "white  rain- 
bow," which  has  an  angular  radius  of  about  40 
degrees.  It  is  almost  pure  white,  and  is  gen- 
erally known  by  the  name  of  the  first  observer, 
as  Ulloa's  ring.  These  rings  are  formed  by  the 
interference  o|  rays  of  sunlight  reflected  from 
minute  drops  very  much  as  in  the  case  of  the 
rings  or  glories  seen  close  around  the  sun  and 
moon.  All  these  plienomena  were  imperfectly 
explained  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  as  due  to  the  dis- 
persion of  light  refracted  through  drops  of  fog 
or  rain;  but  the  only  satisfactory  explanation  is 
that  first  given  by  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  and  more 
fully  developed  recently  by  Dr.  Pernter,  which 
attributes  them  to  diffraction  or  interference 
phenomena.  Consult  Pernter,  Meteorologische 
Optik   (Vienna,  1901).     See  Light. 

AN'THELMIN^IC  (Gk.  avri,  anti,  against 
-f  i?.fuv^,  helmins,  a  worm ) .  Any  medicine  hos- 
tile to  intestinal  parasites.  Anthelmintics  which 
destroy  are  vermicides;  those  which  expel,  ver- 
mifuges. They  act  in  one  of  three  ways:  (1) 
mechanically;  (2)  by  some  intoxicating  in- 
fluence; (3)  by  an  actual  poisonous  effect. 
Among  the  remedies  employed  for  the  Oxyuria 


vermicularis,  "seat-worm,""  or  "thread-worm," 
are  enemata  of  salt  and  water,  or  of  in- 
fusion of  quassia.  For  the  Ascaris  lumbricoides, 
or  round  worm,  santonin  (q.v.)  and  spigelia,  or 
pink-root,  are  most  frequently  used.  The  drugs 
given  to  expel  tsenise,  or  tape- worms,  are:  as- 
pidium,  or  male  fern;  pumpkin  seeds,  and  bark 
of  the  pomegranate.  Kamala  (q.v.)  is  fairly  ef- 
ficient; cusso,  or  kousso,  is  of  doubtful  value. 
See  AscARis;  Wobm. 

ANTHEM  (M.  Engl,  antempne,  earlier  an- 
tefne,  M.  Lat.  antiphonay  from  Gk.  avri,  anti, 
against  -f  ^wi*^,  phOn^,  voice,  sound).  A  piece 
sung  in  alternate  parts.  A  species  of  musical  com- 
position introduced  into  the  service  of  the  Eng- 
lish Church  after  the  Reformation,  and  appointed 
to  be  sung  daily,  at  morning  and  evening  service, 
after  the  third  collect.  The  words  of  the  an- 
them are  taken  from  the  Psalms,  or  other  suit- 
able parts  of  the  Scriptures,  and  the  music  is 
either  for  solo  or  chorus,  or  a  mixture  of  solo 
and  chorus.  It  is  rendered  with  or  without  in- 
strumental accompaniment.  In  its  origin,  musi- 
cal construction,  and  use,  the  anthem  is  similar 
to  the  motet  of  the  Roman  Church  and  the  Kan- 
tat  e  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  See  Motet;  also 
Antiphony. 

AMT'THEOMCION  (Gk.  av^k^iLw,  blossom,  flow- 
er). A  decorative  motive  in  ancient.  Oriental, 
and  Greek  art.  It  was  frequently  used,  and  on 
account  of  its  graceful  effect  is  often  reproduced 
in  modern  times.  It  is  sometimes  called  the  hon- 
eysuckle ornament,  and  is  closely  connected  with 
the  conventionalized  Egyptian  lotus  and  the  As- 
•syrian  palmette  ornament.  It  takes  the  form 
of  radiating  clusters  of  flowers  or  leaves,  and 
was  used  in  architecture,  in  carving,  in  vase  or- 
nament, and  in  pictorial  decoration.  See  Good- 
year, A  Orammar  of  the  Lotus  (New  York, 
1892). 

AN^HEMIS.     See  Chamomile. 

ANTHE^MIUS  (Gk.  'kv^ifiiog,  Anthemios) 
(  ? — 534  A.D. ) .  A  Greek  architeijt,  mathema- 
tician, and  engineer;  born  at  Tralles,  in  Asia 
Minor.  With  the  assistance  of  his  colleague, 
Isidore  of  Miletus,  he  planned  and  built  for  the 
Emperor  Justinian  the  church  of  St.  Sophia  in 
Constantinople  (532-37),  one  of  the  greatest 
buildings  in  architectural  history,  and  so  may  be 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  the  developed  Byzan- 
tine style.  He  wrote,  among  other  mathematical 
treatises,  a  work  on  the  subject  of  burning- 
glasses.  Some  fragments  of  his  writings  have 
been  found.  He  continued  the  Greek  tradition 
of  uniting  architecture  and  theoretical  mathe- 
matics, which  the  Romans  had  discouraged,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  greatest  architects  of  all  ages. 

ANTHEmUB.  An  emperor  of  the  West 
(467-472),  and  son-in-law  of  the  Eastern  Em- 
peror Marcian.  He  was  appointed  to  the  West- 
ern throne  by  the  Emperor  Leo,  at  the  instance 
of  Ricimer,  who  afterward  married  Anthemius's 
daughter.  A  quarrel  arose  between  them,  and 
Ricimer  proclaimed  Olybrius  Emperor  of  the 
West  in  472,  and  marched  on  Rome,  which  he 
took  by  assault.  Anthemius  perished  in  the  bat- 
tle. His  character  is  highly  praised  in  a  pane- 
gyric of  Sidonius  Apollinaris. 

ANOTHER  (Gk.  avi^tfpdg,  anth^os,  flowery, 
blooming) .  That  part  of  a  stamen  which  produces 
pollen.  An  anther  consists  of  two  small  sacs, 
between  which  there  occurs  a  certain  amount  of 


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sterile  tissue  (the  "connective"),  which  is  often 
nothing  more  than  the  top  of  the  axis  of  the 
stamen.     See  Floweb. 

AN'THEBIDITJM  (a  diminutive  after  the 
Greek  fashion  from  anther;  see  Anther).  The* 
male  organ  of  plants ;  that  is,  the  organ  in  which 
the  sperms  are  developed.  Among  the  algae  and 
fungi  an  antheridium  is  usually  a  single  cell,  and 
in  the  simplest  forms  in  which  antheridia  appear 
,this  single  cell  is  merely  a  nutritive  cell  which 
is  used  for  the  purpose  of  producing  sperms.  In 
most  algae  and  fungi,  however,  the  antheridium 
is  a  distinctly  differentiated  cell  set  apart  from 
the  very  first  for  the  production  of  sperms.  Among 
the  mosses  and  ferns,  the  antheridium  is  a 
many-celled  organ  of  varying  shape.  The  moss 
antheridium  is  a  free  or^n  and  more  or  less 
club-shaped,  a  section  showing  that  the  wall  con- 
sists of  a  single  layer  of  sterile  cells,  and  that 
the  rest  of  the  structure  is  a  compact  mass  of 
very  small  cells,  within  each  one  of  which  a  sin- 
gle sperm  is  organized.  The  antheridium  springs 
open  or  bursts  open  in  the  presence  of 
moisture  and  discharges  its  mass  of  cells  and 
sperms,  the  latter  of  which  free  themselves  by 
their  movements  and  are  ready  to  swim  to  the 
female  organs.  Among  the  ordinary  ferns  the 
antheridium  is  an  imbedded  organ,  which  dis- 
charges its  sperms  in  one  way  or  another  at  the 
surface  of  the  prothallium. 


▲NTHERIDIA  OF  A  X088  (d),  A  FSBN  (&),  AND  A 
LIVBRWORT  (C). 

With  the  introduction  of  heterospory  (q.v.), 
which  involves  certain  of  the  fern-plants  and  all 
of  the  seed-plants,  the  male  plant  is  very  much 
reduced  in  size,  being  entirely  contained  within 
the  spore  that  produces  it,  which  in  the  seed- 
plants  is  called  the  pollen  grain.  With  this 
reduction  of  the  male  plant,  the  antheridium 
is  correspondingly  modified,  so  that  it  is  a  matter 
of  discussion  in  such  cases  as  to  just  what  cell 
or  cells  may  represent  an  antheridium.  The  or- 
gan, therefore,  in  the  seed-plants  does  not  stand 
out  with  the  distinctness  that  it  presents  in  the 
three  lower  groups,  but  it  is  none  the  less  repre- 
sented. 

The  name  is  an  unfortunate  one,  since  it  means 
"anther-like,"  having  been  given  under  the  im- 
pression that  the  anther  of  seed-plants  is  a  male 


organ.  It  would  be  very  desirable  to  change  the 
name  if  such  a  thing  were  possible,  and  *'spenn- 
ary"  has  been  proposed  as  a  substitute. 

AN^THESTEOIT A ■     See  Greek  Festi\als. 

ANTHEUNIS,  ftN't^'n^,  Gentil  Theodoor 
(1840 — ).  A  Flemish  poet.  He  was  bom  at 
Oudenarde,  and  removed  to  Brussels.  He  is  one 
of  the  best  lyric  poets  of  Belgium.  His  verse* 
are  distinguished  by  depth  of  sentiment  and 
euphony.  Among  his  most  popular  songs  are: 
Lefitcliedy  Ih  Ken  cen  Liedf  Vergeefs,  and  Ce- 
iroume  lAefde.  Collections  of  his  poems  have 
been  published  under  the  title:  Uit  ket  Hart 
(Levden,  1875)  ;  Leven,  Lieven,  Zingen  (The 
Hague,  1879). 

AN'THOCY^AN  (Gk.  dn^of,  anihoSy  flower 
+  K^avoc,  kyanos,  a  dark-blue  substance).  The 
blue,  purple,  or  red  coloring  matter  found  dis- 
solved in  the  cell  sap  of  flowers,  fruits,  young 
leaves  and  stems,  dying  leaves  in  autumn,  etc. 
The  term  "erythrophyll"  was  formerly  used  in 
this  sense.  The  chemistry  of  anthocyan  is  imper- 
fectly known,  but  the  substance  appears  to  be  one 
of  the  tannins  or  phenol  compounds.  Its  color 
depends  upon  the  character  of  the  solution  in 
which  it  is  present;  if  acid,  it  is  blue;  if  alka- 
line, it  is  red.  Therefore,  many  blue  flowers  be- 
couip  reddish  as  they  fade.  The  function  of  an- 
thocyan in  the  living  plant  is  not  positively 
known,  although  numerous  attempts  have  been 
made  to  explain  its  presence  and  distribution. 
(See  Color.)  (1)  It  has  been  held  to  be  a  pro- 
tection to  the  green  coloring  matter  of  youn^ 
leaves  against  too  much  light,  which  promotes 
its  decomposition  (see  Chlorophyll),  especially 
when  it  is  formed  slowly  on  account  of  low  tem- 
perature. (2)  It  is  alleged  to  be  of  advantage 
to  young  leaves  and  shoots  by  increasing  the  ab- 
sorption of  the  sun's  energy,  and  thus  raising 
their  temperature.  (3)  By  its  action  on  light 
it  probably  facilitates  the  formation  and  action 
of  a  digestive  substance  (diastase)  in  leaves 
and  so  perhaps  promotes  translocation  of  food. 

ANTHOLOGY  { Gk.  dvdoXoyia,  antkologia,^ 
flower-gathering,  from  ai*doc^  anthoSy  flower  -f 
Ai)ctv,  legein,  to  pick  out).  The  title  usually 
given  to  a  book  consisting  of  an  unconnected  se- 
ries of  choice  thoughts,  whether  in  prose  or  in 
verse,  but  generally  in  the  latter.  In  ancient 
times,  collections  of  this  kind  consisted  largely  of 
epigrams.  ( 1 )  The  earliest  Greek  anthology  was 
compiled  by  Meleager,  of  Gadara,  in  Syria,  about 
80  B.C.  It  was  named  The  Onrland  (<Tr^*ow>fr 
Stephanos ) ,  and  contained  one  hundred  and  thirty 
of  Meleager's  own  epigrams,  and  selections  from 
forty-seven  other  poets,  including  Alceus,  Ana- 
creon,  Archilochus,  Sappho,  and  Simonides. 
Something  more  than  one  hundred  years  later. 
Philip  of  Thessalonica  gathered  the  best  epigrams 
of  the  preceding  century  into  a  collection,  which 
he  published  in  the  reign  of  Caligula,  and  which 
at  an  early  date  seems  to  have  been  combined 
with  Meleager's  Garland.  A  third  collection  was 
made  by  Straton,  of  Sardis,  in  the  second  cen- 
tury A.D. ;  and  a  fourth  by  Diogenianus  Hera- 
cleota.  The  latter  seems  to  have  been  the  first 
to  adopt  the  name  "anthology^*  (avBoXdyiov  er«- 
ypafifiuTuVy  anthologion  epigrammatdn) .  The 
writing  of  epigrams  then  languished,  but  it  was 
revived  again  during  the  sixth  century  in  Con- 
stantinople; and  the  productions  there  of  Julianus, 
Christodorus,  Leontius,  Paulus  Silentiarius,  and 
others  gave  occasion  for  a  new  anthology,  made 


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under  Justinian  by  Agathias  of  Myrina  and 
called  by  him  The  Cycle  (KiTr^of,  kyklos).  Ap- 
parently, the  combined  anthology  of  Meleager 
and  Philip  was  current  for  a  long  time 
beside  the  Cycle  of  Agathias.  In  the  tenth 
century  small  anthologies,  the  so-called  Syllogc 
Euphemiana  and  the  Sylloge  Parisina,  were 
made.  Better  known  is  the  large  compilation  of 
Constantius  Cephalas  in  fifteen  books,  which 
dates  from  the  early  part  of  the  same  century. 
Four  centuries  later,  the  monk,  Maximus  Plam- 
ides,  made  a  careless  selection  from  Cepha- 
las's  compilation  in  seven  books.  This  latter  was 
the  only  anthology  known  to  western  Europe 
until  the  seventeenth  century.  It  is  preserved 
at  Venice  in  the  single  manuscript  from  which  it 
was  first  published  by  Lascaris  (Florence,  1404). 
It  has  been  frequently  reedited,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  Latin  by  Grotius. 

In  1607,  however,  Salmasius  discovered,  and 
copied  in  the  Palatine  Library  at  Heidelberg  the 
single  manuscript  of  Cephalas's  larger  compila- 
tion, now  kno>vn  as  the  Palatine  Anthology. 
Salmasius's  copy  was  published  first  by  Brunck 
in  his  Analecta  (1776)  ;  this  edition  was  super- 
seded by  Jacobs's  Anthologia  Orceca  (1704-1803; 
improved  edition,  1813-17),  and  was  again  re^ 
edited  with  the  addition  of  epigrams  from  in- 
scriptions by  Dfibner  (2  volumes,  1864;  third  vol- 
ume by  Cougny,  1890)  ;  Stadtmttller's  critical 
edition  of  it  is  not  yet  completed  (Volume  I., 
1894;  II.,  1,  1899).  In  all,  over  three  hundred 
poets,  from  pre-classical  to  Byzantine  times, 
are  represented  in  this  Anthology ;  the  collection 
is  invaluable  as  a  mirror  of  Greek  civilization 
and  thought,  and  the  epigrams  express  the 
entire  range  of  human  feeling  with  a  brilliancy 
and  cleverness  that  tra'nslation  cannot  repro- 
duce. Translations  have  been  made  into 
English  by  Wrangham,  John  Sterling,  Meri- 
vale,  Gamett,  Symonds,  and  others.  Consult: 
Syroonds,  Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets  (London, 
1893)  ;  Butler,  Amaranth  and  Asphodel  (Lon- 
don, 1881);  Alackail,  Select  Epigrams  (London, 
1891).  On  the  smaller  collections,  consult  Dil- 
they,  De  Epigrammatum  Syllogis  Quibtisdam 
Minoribus  (1887). 

2.  Latin  Anthologies.  In  1573,  Scaliger  pub- 
lished at  Leyden,  in  imitation  of  the  Greek  an- 
thology, a  Latin  anthology,  under  the  title  Cata- 
lecta  Yeterum  Poetarumy  and  Pitthous  one  at 
Paris,  1590.  A  larger  collection  was  issued  at 
Amsterdam  (1759  and  1773)  by  Peter  Burmann 
the  younger,  under  the  title  Anthologia  Veterum 
Latxnorum  Epigrammatum  et  Poematum,  In  the 
nineteenth  century  a  more  careful  anthology  was 
undertaken  by  Riese  (1869-70),  a  second  edition 
of  which  is  in  course  of  publication  (Leipzig, 
1894). 

Asiatic  literature  is  extremely  rich  in  antholo- 
gies, which  consist  sometimes  of  extracts  from 
the  best  poets,  arranged  according  to  the  subject, 
and  sometimes  of  "beauties"  of  their  best  poets, 
with  biographical  notices,  which  are  either  placed 
in  chronological  order  or  according  to  the  coun- 
tries in  which  the  authors  lived. 

3.  Arabic  Anthologies.  The  oldest  Arabic 
anthology  is  the  Moallakat  (see  Antar),  consist- 
ing of  the  seven  most  celebrated  pre-Islaraic 
poems.  A  much  larger  collection  was  made  by 
Abu-Temftm  (died  846),  who  published  seleo- 
tions  from  the  old  Arabic  songs  composed 
previous  to  the  time  of  Mohammed,  arranged 
them    in    ten    books,    and    named    the    entire 


collection  after  the  first  book,  which  consisted 
of  war  songs,  Al  Hamdsa.  A  German  translation 
by  ROckert  was  published  in  1846,  under  the  ti- 
tle Hamasa,  Another  famous  anthology  is  the 
Divan  of  the  Hudhailites  (an  Arabic  tribe),  a 
partial  edition  of  which  was  published  by  Kose- 
garten,  and  a  German  translation  by  Abicht 
(1879).  Wellhausen  completed  the  edition  (Ar- 
abic and  German)  in  1887,  as  Part  I.  of  Skizzen 
und  Vorarheiten,  published  by  him.  Abul-Faradj 
of  Ispahan  (died  967)  gathered  together  in  his 
Kitdb  al-Aghdni  (Book  of  Songs)  all  the  ancient 
Arabic  songs  down  to  the  first  centuries  of  the 
caliphate.  It  was  published  by  Kosegarten  in 
1840;  but  the  complete  work,  in  twenty  volumes, 
was  not  issued  till  quite  recently  by  the  Arabic 
press  of  Bulak,  to  which  Brttnnow  added  the 
twenty-first  volume  in  1888.  An  Index  to  this 
anthology  is  now  being  prepared  by  a  group  of 
scholars  under  the  editorship  of  I.  Guidi.  Abu'l- 
Faradj  accompanied  this  work  with  a  minute 
commentary,  which  makes  it  one  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  the  old  Arabic  literature.  But  the 
richest  and  most  complete  anthology  of  the  later 
Arabic  poetry  is  Yatimat  al-Dahr  (The  Pearl  of 
the  World) ,  by  Taalabi,  in  which  the  writers  are 
arranged  according  to  the  provinces  in  which  they 
lived.  It  has  been  continued  and  enlarged  since 
the  period  of  the  original  compiler.  Besides 
these  and  similar  national  anthologies,  collec- 
tions have  been  made  in  almost  every  province 
where  the  Arabic  culture  and  speech  prevailed. 
Such,  for  example,  are  the  numerous  Arabico- 
Spanish  anthologies,  though  these  are  but  little 
known. 

4.  Turkish  Anthologies.  The  number  of  an- 
thologies in  the  West  Turkish,  or,  as  it  is  gen- 
erally called  the  Turkish  language,  is  very 
large.  The  most  famous  are:  Hesht  Behesht 
(The  Eight  Paradises),  by  Sehi  of  Adri- 
anople  (died  1548)  ;  Taskarat  ash-Shuara  (Lives^ 
of  the  Poets),  by  Latifi  (died  1582),  and,  un- 
der the  same  title,  a  similar  work  of  Ashik  Che- 
lebi  (died  1571)  ;  and  the  great  collection,  8ub- 
dat  al-AshUlr  (The  Blossoms  of  Poetry),  by 
Kassade  (died  1621).  The  substance  of  these 
anthologies  is  to  be  found  in  Hammer  Purgs tail's 
Geschichte  der  osmanischen  Dichtkunst  (Pesth, 
1836). 

5.  Persian  Anthologies.  The  Persian  litera- 
ture has  many  anthologies,  which  are  called  safl- 
nah  (ship)  majmai  (collection)  bayad  (album), 
intikhdb,  or  muntakhab  (selection),  and  the 
like.  Among  these  anthologies  may  be  named  the 
Muntakhab  ul-ash'Ar  (Selection  of  Poems), 
composed  in  1748;  and  the  Daqd'iq  ul-ash*Ar 
(Subleties  of  Poems), composed  in  the  eighteenth 
century,  which  deals,  as  its  name  implies,  especi- 
ally with  the  more  artificial  styles  of  Persian 
poetry.  The  numerous  biographical  dictionaries 
of  poets,  called  Tadhkiratf  or  memoirs,  contain 
many  verses  from  the  poets  whose  lives  are  re- 
corded in  those  works.  One  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  these  is  the  Tadhkirat  ash-shu^hra,  writ- 
ten by  Daulat-Shah  in  1847.  Special  mention 
must  also  be  made  of  the  Farhanghi  ash-shu'ara 
(Dictionary  of  Poets),  which  contains  an  an- 
thology of  about  22,450  distichs  in  Persian,  and 
which  was  abridged  and  freely  imitated  by  Ham- 
mer Purgstall  in  his  Duftkorner  aus  pcrsischen 
Dichtern  gesammelt,  reMited  by  Bodenstedt 
(Stuttpart,  1860). 

6.  Indian  Anthologies.  The  literature  of 
the    Mohammedan    population    of    Hindustan, 


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which  is  a  mere  copy  of  Persian  literature,  has 
also  several  anthologies.  The  most  important 
are:  Gulzdri  Ibrahim  (Rose  Garden  of  Ibra- 
him) by  'All  Ibrfthfm,  containing  biographical 
notices  of  three  hundred  Hindustani  poets,  with 
specimens  of  their  writings;  the  collection 
called  Diwilni  Jih&n  (Divftn  of  the  World),  by 
Benl-Narayan ;  Gulsh&ni  Hind  (Garden  of  In- 
dia), by  Mirzft  'All  Lutf;  OuldastaH  Nishat 
(Garland  of  Pleasure),  by  ManQ  Lai  (Calcutta, 
1836),  and  OuldastaH  Nazninan  (Garland  of 
Delights ) ,  by  Karim-ad-Din  ( Calcutta,  1845 ) .  The 
substance  of  these  works  is  to  be  found  in  Garcin 
de  Tassy's  Histoire  de  la  litt&rature  hindotte  et 
hindoustanic  (second  edition,  Paris,  1839-47), 
which,  under  the  title  of  TahakAli  ShurAi  Hindi, 
was  translated  into  Hindustani  by  Kar!m-ad- 
Dln  (Delhi,  1848).  In  the  pure  Hindu  we  have 
a  rich  collection  of  songs,  the  Rdgsdgar  (Ocean 
of  Musical  Verse),  by  Krishnananda  (Calcutta, 
1845). 

7.  Sanskrit  Anthologies.  The  Sanskrit  lit- 
erature is  not  so  rich  in  anthologies  as  are  other 
Oriental  literatures.  But  the  collections,  com- 
prising a  hundred  strophes  each  {^atakas),  and 
attributed  to  many  poets,  may  almost  be  termed 
anthologies.  True  Sanskrit  anthologies  are  the 
Saduktikarndmftay  or  "ear-nectar  of  good  say- 
ings," by  Haradasa  (about  1205  a.d.),  the  8&rn- 
gadharapaddhati,  or  Anthology  of  Sarngad- 
hara,  and  Vallabhadeva's  Subhdshitdvali  (Se- 
ries of  Good  Words).  Bohtlingk,  Indiache 
Bpriiche,  3  volumes  (St.  Petersburg,  1870-73), 
contains  an  anthology  of  7613  Sanskrit  strophes, 
with  a  literal  German  translation. 

8.  Chinese  Anthologies.  The  oldest  an- 
thology in  the  world  is  that  which  Confu- 
cius has  handed  down  under  the  name  of  the 
Shi-King,  or  Book  of  Songs,  forming  one  of  the 
five  great  canonical  books,  or  sacred  classics  of 
the  Chinese.  Chinese  authors  assert  that  about 
3000  other  poems  were  known  in  the  time  of 
Confucius.  The  Shi-King  consists  of  311  pieces, 
which  picture  vividly  the  manners  and  customs, 
the  state  of  knowledge  and  art,  and  the  aspects 
of  nature  in  the  states  which  afterward  became 
China.  The  best  translation  with  critical  appa- 
ratus is  by  James  Legge,  London,  1876.  There 
is  also  a  version  in  Latin  by  Lacharme  (Stutt- 
gart, 1830),  and  one  in  German  by  RUckert  (Al- 
tona,  1833).  The  poems  of  the  Liang  Dynasty 
(502-557  A.D.),  and  of  the  Tang  Dynasty  (618- 
905),  have  also  been  collected,  but  are  only  in 
part  translated. 

9.  Japanese  Anthologies.  The  Japanese 
abound  in  anthologies,  since  they  consider  poetry 
more  as  the  production  of  an  epoch  than  of  an 
individual.  The  oldest  and  largest  anthology, 
compiled  in  the  eighth  century,  is  called  Manyo- 
shu,  or  Collection  of  Ten  Thousand  Leaves.  It 
contains  4506  songs,  mostly  in  31-sylIable  poems. 
The  Kokinshu,  or  Songs  Ancieiit  and  Modem, 
numbering  1099,  was  finished  about  922.  An- 
other anthology  of  the  same  century,  Ooaen 
Wakashu,  contains  1356  short  poems.  Other 
collections  were  made  by  order  of  the  Mikados 
in  the  succeeding  centuries,  ending  with  the  fif- 
teenth, and  these,  with  Songs  Ancient  and  Mod- 
em, are  known  under  the  general  name  of  the  An- 
thologies of  the  One  and  Twenty  Reigns.  All  of 
these  books  have  had  abundant  commentary,  and 
are  valuable  to  the  student  and  historian.  There 
are  innumerable  other  collections  made  by  im- 
perial or  private  order,  besides  many  selections 


of  one  hundred  songs  each,  the  most  famous  of 
the  latter  being  the  Hiaku-nin-is-shiu  (one  hun- 
dred poets,  one  verse) ,  which  has  been  translated 
into  English  with  notes  by  F.  V.  Dickens  (Lon- 
don, 1866).  Consult  also,  Anthologie  japonnai^e, 
by  Leon  de  Rosny,  Paris,  1870,  and  B.  H.  Cham- 
berlain, Classical  Poetry  of  the  Japanese  (Lon- 
don, 1880). 

ANTHOM",  Charles,  LL.D.  (1797-1867).  An 
American  classical  scholar  and  teacher.  He  wd.> 
born  in  New  York  City,  graduated  at  Columbia 
College  in  1815,  studied  law  and  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1810,  but  never  practiced.  The 
next  year  he  became  adjunct  professor  of  Greek 
and  Latin  at  Columbia,  and  after  fifteen  years, 
became  full  professor.  From  1830  to  1867  he 
was  also  head  master  of  the  grammar  school  of 
Columbia  College.  He  was  exceedingly  efficient 
as  a  teacher,  and  won  considerable  reputation  by 
his  annotated  editions  of  a  large  number  (»f 
classical  authors,  prepared  as  school  and  college 
text-books.  Besides  nearly  fifty  such  work*,  he 
published  a  new  edition  of  Lem*pri&re*8  Classiml 
Dictionary  (1822),  a  new  Classical  Dictionan- 
(1841),  a  dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  an- 
tiquities (1843),  and  a  number  of  other  manuaK 
which  were  long  and  extensively  used  by  clas- 
sical students,  both  in  this  country  and  in  Eng- 
land. 

ANTHONT,  ftn't6-nl.  A  city  and  county 
seat  of  Harper  Co.,  Kan.,  70  miles  southwes^t 
of  Wichita;  on  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Franeisc-o, 
the  Kansas  Southwestern,  and  other  railroads 
(Map  :  Kansas,  £  4) .  It  controls  a  trade  in  the 
products  of  the  surrounding  agricultural  and 
stock  raising  region,  and  has  some  manufacture^ 
Pop.,  1890,  1806;  1900,  1179. 

ANTHONYy  Clemens  Theodob  (IToV 
1836) .  King  of  Saxony.  Upon  the  death  of  his 
brother  Frederick  Augustus  I.,  on  May  5, 1827. he 
succeeded  to  the  throne.  After  the  disturbance* 
of  1830  he  appointed  his  nephew.  Prince  Fried- 
rich  August,  co-regent,  and  on  September  4  of 
the  following  year  he  gave  his  sanction  to  a 
constitutionsLi  government  for  the  kingdom. 

ANTHONY,  Henry  Bowen  (1815-84).  An 
American  journalist  and  legislator.  He  was 
born  at  Coventry,  R,  I.,  and  graduated  at  Brown 
University  in  1833.  He  became  editor  of  the 
Providence  Journal  in  1838,  and  continued  an 
such  for  more  than  twenty  years.  In  1849,  and 
again  in  1850,  he  was  elected  Governor  of  Rhode 
Island,  on  the  Whig  ticket.  He  was  a  Repub- 
lican member  of  the  United  States  Senate  from 
1859  until  his  death,  and  served  twice  (1863  and 
1871)  as  president  pro  teni.  A  collection  of  hi* 
historical  and  memorial  addresses  was  printeil 
for  private  circulation  in  1875.  He  bequeatht-d 
to  Brown  University  the  Harris  collection  c»f 
American  poetry,  containing  about  6000  vol- 
umes. See  the  Anthony  Memorial  (1886),  a 
catalogue  of  the  collection,  with  a  sketch  of  the 
donor. 

AKTHONT,  John  Gould  (1804-77).  .Vn 
American  conchologist.  He  was  born  at  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  and  for  many  years  was  in  com- 
merce, but  his  studies  in  natural  history  resulte*! 
in  his  being  invited  by  Professor  I^uis  Agafivit 
in  1863,  to  the  directorship  of  the  conchologioal 
department  of  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zo- 
ology at  Harvard  University.  In  1865  he  ac- 
companied Professor  Agassiz  on  the  Thayer  ex- 


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ANTHONY. 


603 


ANTHRACITE. 


pedition  to  Brazil.  He  was  an  acknowledged  au- 
thority in  his  field  of  research,  and  published 
A  New  Trilohite:  Ceratocephala  Ceralepta 
(1838),  Descriptions  of  Three  New  Species  of 
Shells  (1839),  Descriptions  of  New  Species  of 
American  Fluviate  Qasteropods  (1861),  Descrip- 
iians  of  New  American  Fresh-Water  Shells 
(1866),  and  other  works. 

ANTHONY  DE  DOM^INIS.     See  DoMiias. 

ANTHONY,  St.    See  Antony,  St. 

ANTHONY,  St.,  Cross  of,  or  the  Tau  Cross. 
A  cross,  shaped  like  the  letter  T.  In  heraldry  the 
name  denotes  an  ordinary  cross  consisting  of  two 
stripes,  one  horizontal,  the  other  vertical,  cross- 
ing each  other  in  the  centre  of  the  escutcheon. 

ANTHONY,  St., Fire  of.  The  Rev.  Alban  But- 
ler, in  his  Lives  of  the  Saints,  gives  the  follow- 
ing account  of  the  origin  of  this  name:  "In  1089, 
a  pestilential  erysipelatous  distemper,  called  the 
sacred  fire,  swept  off  great  numbers  in  most 
provinces  of  France;  public  prayers  and  pro- 
cessions were  ordered  against  this  scourge.  At 
length,  it  pleased  God  to  grant  to  many  miracu- 
lous cures  of  the  dreadful  distemper  to  those 
who  implored  his  mercy  through  the  intercession 
of  St.  Anthony,  especially  before  his  relics;  the 
church  (of  La  Motte  St.  Didier,  neai^  Vienne,  in 
Dauphine)  in  which  they  were  deposited  was  re- 
sorted to  by  great  numbers  of  pilgrims,  and  his 
patronage  was  implored  over  the  whole  king- 
dom against  this  disease."  The  "order  of  ca- 
nons regular  of  St.  Anthony,"  a  religious  fra- 
ternity, founded  about  1090,  for  the  relief  of 
persons  afflicted  with  the  fire  of  St.  Anthony, 
survived  in  France  till  1790. 

ANTHONY,  Susan  Brownell  (1820 — ).  An 
American  reformer.  She  was  born  in  Adams, 
Mass.,  the  daughter  of  a  Quaker.  She  taught 
school  from  the  age  of  fifteen  to  thirty;  was  ac- 
tive in  the  total  abstinence  and  anti-slavery 
movements,  and  since  the  Civil  War  has  devoted 
herself  entirely  to  the  woman  suffrage  move- 
ment. She  founded  (1868)  and  for  three  years 
published  The  Revolution,  a  woman's  rights 
paper.  She  was  arrested,  tried,  and  fined  for  vot- 
ing at  the  election  of  1872.  She  is  an  eloquent 
speaker,  has  lectured  extensively  in  England  and 
throughout  the  United  States,  has  taken  part  in 
many  State  campaigns,  and  appeared  before 
many  Congressional  committees.  She  has  con- 
tributed to  lea^Alng  magazines  and  (with  Mrs. 
Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton  and  Mrs.  Matilda  Jos- 
lyn  Gage)  published  an  extensive  History  of 
Woman  Suffrage  (3  volumes,  New  York,  1881- 
87).  For  her  life,  consult  Harper,  Life  and 
Work  of  Susan  B,  Anthony  (2  volumes,  Indian- 
apolis, 1898). 

ANTHONY,  William  Arnold  (1836—).  An 
American  physicist.  He  was  bom  at  Coventry, 
K.  I.,  graduated  at  the  Sheffield  Scientific  School 
of  Yale  University,  and  was  professor  of  physics 
and  chemistry  in  Antioch  College  (Ohio)  from 
1867  to  1869.  From  1869  to  1872  he  was  pro- 
tessor  of  physics  at  the  Iowa  Agricultural  Col- 
lege, and  from  1872  to  1887  professor  of  physics 
at  Cornell  University.  In  1887  he  became  a 
consulting  electrician.  He  has  contributed  a 
chapter  to  E.  A.  Thompson's  Roentgen  Rays  and 
Phenomena  of  the  Anode  and  Cathode  (New 
York,  1896),  and  (with  C.  F.  Brackett)  has 
written  a  Manual  of  Physics. 


ANTHONY  OF  BOUB'BON.  See  Antoine 
DE  Bourbon. 

ANTHONY'S  NOSE.  A  projecting  bluff  on 
the  Hudson  south  of  West  Point,  said  to  have 
been  named  after  a  trumpeter  of  Governor  Stuy- 
vesant's. 

ANTHOPHnnEjLITE.  A  magnesium  iron 
silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the  orthorhombic  sys- 
tem, and  is  included  in  the  amphibole  group  of 
minerals.  It  has  a  vitreous  lustre,  and  occurs 
in  various  shades  of  brown  and  green.  This  min- 
eral is  found  in  Norway,  Moravia,  and  near 
i?'rank]in,  N.  C,  in  the  United  States.  It  is 
named  from  anthophyllum,  signifying  clove,  in 
allusion  to  the  brown  color  of  the  original 
variety  described. 

AN'THOXAN^THUM.  See  Sweet  Vernal 
Gbass. 

AN'THOZO'A  (Gk.  &v^<k,  anthos,  flower -f 
C^oi;,  z6on,  animal),  or  Actinozoa.  An  order 
ot  coelenterates,  characterized  by  their  polyp-like 
form.  It  contains  the  sea-anemones  and  all  the 
corals  except  millepores.  See  Cgelenterata  ; 
Corals,  and  Sea- Anemones. 

ANTHRACENE  (Gk.  &v^pa^,  anthrax, 
coal).  An  organic  substance  composed  of  car- 
bon and  hydrogen,  and  obtained  from  coal-tar. 
The  production  of  anthracene  has  been  of  great 
commercial  importance  since  the  discovery  of  the 
processes  by  which  it  is  converted  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  valuable  alizarin  dyes.  (See  Ali- 
zarin.) The  portion  of  coal-tar  passing,  dur- 
ing its  distillation,  above  270 "*  C,  contains  a 
considerable  amount  of  anthracene;  when  this 
portion  is  cooled,  a  mass  of  crystals  is  deposited, 
which  is  separated  from  the  liquid  oil  by  pres- 
sure and  purified  by  digesting  with  the  naphtha 
obtained  from  another  fraction  of  the  coal-tar, 
namely,  the  so-called  light  oil,  which  passes  be- 
low 170"  C.  The  product  somewhat  purified  in 
this  manner  is  brought  into  commerce  under  the 
name  of  "50  per  cent,  anthracene,"  and  is  employ- 
ed in  the  manufacture  of  alizarin.  To  isolate  pure 
anthracene  from  this  product,  it  is  distilled  with 
potash,  and  the  distillate  is  treated  with  carbon 
disulphide,  in  which  anthracene  is  nearly  in- 
soluble; the  remaining  traces  of  impurities  may 
then  be  eliminated  by  recrystallization  from  hot 
benzene.  Pure  anthracene  is  a .  colorless  crys- 
talline substance  melting  at  213°  C.  and  boiling 
at  SOO**  C;  it  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  but 
sparingly  soluble  in  alcohol.  Graebe  and  Lieb- 
ermann  obtained  it  from  the  coloring  matter  of 
madder,  and  then,  by  reversing  the  process,  ar- 
tificially prepared  that  coloring  matter  (aliz- 
arin) from  anthracene.  The  chemical  constitu- 
tion of  anthracene  is  represented  by  the  formula : 

H     H     H 

/C\  /C\  XC\ 

HC     C     C     CH 

HC     C     C     CH 

\C/  \C/  \C/ 

H     H     H 

Consult      Gnehm's      Die      Anthracenfarhstoffe 
(Brunswick,  1897). 

ANTHRACITE  (Gk.  dv^paKirii^.anthrakit^s, 
from  dv^pa^,  anthraw,  coal).  A  term  used  to 
designate  the  highest  grade  of  coal,  or  that  hav- 
ing the  highest  percentage  of  fixed  carbon,  and 


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ANTHBACITE. 


604 


AlITHRACITE. 


lowest  volatile  contents  of  all  the  coals.  It  has 
been  produced  from  bituminous  coal  by  alter- 
ation throu«^h  the  action  of  pressure  and  heat. 
Thene  conditions  are  produced  when  rock-masses 
are  folded  up  into  mountains,  or  when  beds  of  bi- 
tuminous coal  are  approached  or  penetrated  by 
an  intrusion  of  igneous  rock.  In  passing  from 
the  horizontal  coal  measures  of  Western  Penn- 
sylvania and  Ohio  to  the  greatly  folded  beds  of 
Kastern 'Pennsylvania,  the  coal  changes  from  bi- 
tuminous to  anthracite.  At  Crested  Butte,  Col- 
orado, beds  of  bituminous  coal  are  found  to 
change  to  anthracite  in  those  portions  of  the 
mass  which  are  in  close  proximity  to  basaltic 
rocks  that  have  been  intruded  into  the  beds  un- 
derlying the  coal  in  that  region. 

Anthracite  has  great  heating  power;  it  burns 
slowly,  giving  off  but  little  smoke,  and  is  con- 
sequently very  clean.  The  average  chemical  com- 
position of  anthracite  coal  from  different  locali- 
ties is  as  follows: 


Vola- 
^*'*^°  Matter 


Fixed 


Bol- 
phur 


Mammoth  vein,  Pa. 
Anthracite,    Col. . . . 

Madrid,  N.  Mex 

Shan-si,  China 


86.38  3.08  4.12  5.92  .60 

82.33  9.96     .81  6.90  1.06 

93.02  1.04     .16  6.78  .117 

82.74  6.56  1.66  10.16  .26 


Anthracite  is  found  at  a  number  of  widely  sep- 
arated localities;  but  the  areas  underlain  by  it 
are  seldom  large  because  its  formation  is  depend- 
ent on  local  conditions.  In  the  United  States 
it  is  found  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania,  where  it 
forms  several  detached  areas  aggregating  about 
470  square  miles.  These  fields  are  known  as  the 
Southern  or  Schuylkill  field  ( 140  square  miles )  ; 
Western  Middle  field  (90  square  miles)  ;  Eastern 
Middle  field  (40  square  miles)  ;  Northern  or 
Wyoming  (200  square  miles)  ;  Loyalsock  or 
W'estern  Northern.  The  coals  all  belong  to  the 
Middle  Carboniferous  or  Pennsylvanian  Series, 
at  the  base  of  which  is  a  hard  bed  known 
as  the  Pottsville  conglomerate.  After  beds  of 
the  Coal-measures  had  been  folded  into  basins, 
the  presence  of  the  outcropping  ledges  of  con- 
glomerate along  the  crests  of  the  ridges  pro- 
tected the  coal  beds  to  a  large  extent  and  have 
kept  them  from  being  entirely  worn  away  by 
weathering  and  erosion.  The  total  number  of 
workable  anthracite  seams  is  about  15,  but  sever- 
al others  are  also  known.  The  aggregate  thickness 
of  the  beds  increases  from  west  to  east;  the  best 
known  is  the  Mammoth  Bed,  which  in  places  may 
exceed  100  feet  in  thickness,  while  elsewhere  it 
may  split  up  into  several  beds  separated  by  lay- 
ers of  shale.  W'ilkos-Barre,  Scranton,  Hazelton 
and  Pottsville  are  important  mining  towns  in  the 
region.  At  Crested  Butte  in  Colorado,  and  near 
Madrid,  New  Mexico,  anthracite  is  found  in  beds 
of  Upper  Cretaceous  age,  the  formation  of  the 
anthracite  in  each  case  being  due  to  igneous  in- 
trusions. Indeed,  at  the  latter  locality,  the 
change  from  bituminous  to  anthracite  coal  takes 
place  within  a  distance  of  2000  feet.  In  Europe 
anthracite  coal  is  found  in  the  Carboniferous  of 
South  Wales.  It  is  also  known  in  France  and 
Belgium.  What  are  probably  the  largest  de- 
posits in  the  world  are  those  around  Tse-Chow 
in  the  province  of  Shan-si,  Ch'ua.  Baron  von 
Richthofen  estimated  that  the  unmined  anthra- 
cite coal  in  Shan-si  amounted  to  630,000,000,000 
tons,  and  that  the  area  was  greater  than  that  of 
Pennsylvania. 


Anthracite  coal,  after  mining,  goes  through  a 
crushing  and  sorting  process  in  coal-breakers,  in 
which  the  machinery  consists  of  crushing-rolU 
and  screens.  In  this  treatment  the  coal  is  sep- 
arated into  the  diflferent  sizes  given  below,  and 
particles  of  slate  are  eliminated.  Much  of  the 
latter  is  separated  by  screens  having  the  bars  set 
at  an  angle,  so  that  when  a  mixture  of  coal  and 
slate  passes  over  them  the  slate  particles,  o\(ing 
to  their  thinness,  slip  througK,  while  the  (»al 
passes  by.  Pieces  of  mixed  coal  and  slate  are 
known  as  hone-coal,  and  are  picked  out  by  boys 
when  the  smaller  sizes  of  coal  come  down  the 
shutes  from  the  screens.  Recently,  wet  methods 
of  separation  of  slate  and  coal,  by  means  of  jigs 
(q.v.)  have  been  adopted  with  great  success. 
The  capacity  of  some  breakers  is  very  large,  be- 
ing as  much  as  2000  to  3000  tons  of  marketable 
coal  per  day  of  ten  hours. 

The  following  sizes  are  shipped  from  the 
breaker : 

Broken,  or  Grate  coal,  which  passes  through 
4-inch  mesh,  but  not  through  2.5-inch  mesh. 

Egg  coal,  which  passes  through  2.6-inch  mesh, 
but  not  through  1.76-inch  mesh. 

Stove  coal,  which  passes  through  1.75-inch 
mesh,  but  not  through  1.25- inch  mesh. 

Chestnut  coal,  which  passes  through  1.25-ineh 
mesh,  but  not  through  .75-inch  mesh. 

Pea  coal,  which  passes  through  .75-inch  mesh, 
but  not  through  .50- inch  mesh. 

Buckwheat  coal,  which  passes  through  .50-inch 
mesh,  but  not  through  .25-inch  mesh. 

Very  coarse  lumps  are  known  as  "steamboat 
coal,"  and  some  finer  sizes  are  at  times  separated 
into  two  kinds,  which  are  known  as  rice  and  flax- 
seed. The  finest  refuse  from  the  breakers  and 
mines  is  known  as  "culm,"  and  has  been  a  source 
of  much  concern  since,  through  being  considered 
as  waste,  it  has  been  allowed  to  collect  in  enor- 
mous heaps,  forming  a  marked  topographic  fea- 
ture of  the  anthracite  regions.  Owing  to  the  fine- 
ness of  this  material,  it  was  for  some  years  found 
difficult  to  burn  it  in  grates,  as  it  packed  and  hin- 
dered the  entrance  of  air.  In  recent  years  meth- 
ods of  utilization  for  culm  have  been  found,  and 
many  of  the  banks  have  been  worked  over  and  the 
coarser  particles  washed  out  and  sized.  It  can 
be  burned  in  specially  constructed  grates,  or 
can  be  mixed  with  tar  and  pressed  into  briquettes 
for  use  with  the  ordinary  grate.  Another  impor- 
tant use  is  for  filling  in  abandoned  or  partially 
worked-out  mines,  which  is  done  by  washing  the 
culm  down  through  a  pipe  into  the  mine,  where 
it  settles  into  a  compact  mass. 

In  the  trade,  anthracite  is  sometimes  classed 
as  follows:  Free  burning,  white  ash,  hard 
white  ash,  Wyoming  red  ash,  Lehigh  red  ash. 
Shamokin,  Lykens  Valley  red  ash,  Schuylkill  red 
ash,  Trevorton,  Lorberry  red  ash,  and  Bemice 
white  ash.  The  hard  white  ash  commands  the 
best  price. 

The  production  of  anthracite  coal  in  Pennsyl- 
vania from  1895  to  1900  was  as  follows: 


Year 

Total 
prodnct 

Value  at 
Mines 

Average 
per  ton 

No, 
emplojed 

No.days 
worked 

18ft5 
1896 

im 

1896 
1899 
1900 

61,786,198 
48,528,887 
46,974,715 
47,6fl8,07« 
5.S,M4,647 
51,821.853 

$88,019,278 
8,178,861 
79,801,964 
76,414,687 
88,142,180 
85,767,851 

$1.72 
1.86 
1.86 
1.76 
1.80 
1.66 

148,917 
148,991 
149,567 
14S.1&4 
189,808 
1^,808 

19fi 
174 
1.W 
1,V» 
178 
166 

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ANTHRACITE. 


605 


ANTHBAX. 


It  is  also  of  interest  to  note  the  increase  in 
shipments  since  the  beginning  of  the  industry: 

Anthbacitx  Coal  Shifmbnts,  1880  to  1899. 


1800 
1H25 

865  long  tons 
84,893 

1860 

8,618428  long  tons 

1880 

174,784        " 

1870 

18,182,191 

18:j6 

660,758         " 

1880 

28,487,242 

1(^10 

8M,879         " 

1890 

86,615.450 

1815 

2,013,018 

1890 

47,665,204 

The  shipments  in  1899  went  to  forty  different 
States  and  Territories,  while  1,707,796^  long  tons 
were  exported. 

The  annual  production  of  anthracite  in  Colo- 
rado and  New  Mexico  combined  amounted  to 
98,404  short  tons  in  1900.  Various  estimates  of 
the  amounts  of  anthracite  remaining  in  the  Penn- 
sylvania fields  have  been  made,  and  all  agree  in 
the  conclusion  that  the  deposits  will  last  at  the 
present  rate  of  production  for  move  than  one 
hundred  years.     For  illustration,  see  Coal. 

BiBLiOGRAPiiY.  For  Statistics  of  production, 
consult  volumes  on  Mineral  Resources,  issued  an- 
nually by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey; 
various  reports  of  the  Second  Geological  Survey 
of  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Annual  Reports  of  the 
Bureau  of  Mines,  Pennsylvania.  Consult  also: 
J.  J.  Stevenson,  "Origin  of  Pennsylvania  Anthra- 
cite," Bulletin  of  the  Geological  Society  of  Amer- 
ica, Volume  v.,  page  39  (Rochester,  1894)  ;  J.  J. 
Stevenson,  "The  Cerrillos  Coal  Field,"  Tranaac 
tions  of  the  'New  York  Academy  of  Sciences,  Vol- 
ume XV.,  page  106  (New  York,  1896)  ;  N.  F. 
Drake,  "Coal  Fields  Around  Tse  Chau,  China," 
Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Min^ 
ing  Engineers,  Volume  XXX.  (New  York,  1898) 
See  also  Coal,  and  Pennsylvania. 

ANTHBAC^OSE  (Gk.  avdpa^,  anthrax,  car 
buncle  +  v6aoq^  nosos,  disease).  A  group  of 
fungus  diseases  of  plants,  in  which  the  fruits, 
stems,  and  leaves  of  the  host  plant  are  attacked 
with  serious  injury.  Some  of  the  more  common 
forms  are  found  upon  beans,  blackberries,  rasp- 
berries, cucumbers,  egg-plants,  grapes,  cotton, 
peppers,  and  spinach.  Species  of  the  fungi  Col- 
letotrichum  and  Glwsoporium  cause  most  of  these 
diseases.  In  fruit  that  is  attacked  definite  round 
discolored  spots  or  pits  may  be  observed,  in 
which  the  usually  light  colored  centre  is  sur- 
rounded by  darker  zones.  The  principal  diseases 
of  this  nature  are  noticed  in  this  Encyclopaedia 
under  Grape  Anthracnose;  Bean  Anthrac- 
NOSE,  and  similar  titles. 

AN'THBAPXTB^XTBIN.     See  Purpurin. 

AK^HBAX  (Gk.  &v^pa^,  coal,  carbuncle, 
malignant  pustule;  Fr.  charhon).  A  specific,  in- 
fectious disease  produced  by  a  pathogenic  micro- 
organism. Bacillus  anthracis.  The  disease  is 
also  known  in  different  countries  as  charbon,  in- 
flammation of  milt;  milzbrand,  carhonchio, 
mjelthrant,  miltbrand,  and  Siberian  plague.  In 
man,  it  is  also  called  malignant  pustule,  or  car- 
buncle. It  is,  further,  often  referred  to  as  splen- 
ic fever  and  wool-sorter's  disease,  and,  in- 
correctly, as  malignant  cedema. 

Anthrax  was  the  first  disease  in  which  the 
causative  relation  of  pathogenic  bacteria  was 
demonstrated.  Bacillus  anthracis  is  found  in  the 
blood  and  the  tissues  of  affected  animals.  The 
disease  is  most  prevalent  among  herbivorous  ani- 
mals. Its  relative  frequency  in  cattle,  horses, 
sheep,  and  goats  varies  considerably,  according 


to  the  region.  The  camel  and  various  members 
of  the  deer  family  are  frequently  affected.  The 
disease  is  rare  in  swine,  and  only  occasionally 
met  with  in  the  carnivora,  such  as  the  dog,  cat, 
panther,  lion,  tiger,  and  bear.  Anthrax  is  fre- 
quently transmitted  to  man,  especially  through 
abrasions  of  the  skin  of  the  hands. 

Enzootic  outbreaks  of  anthrax  have  been 
known  from  time  immemorial,  and  in  all  parts 
of  the  globe.  In  cattle,  veterinarians  distinguish 
three  forms  of  anthrax:  apoplectic,  acute,  and 
sub-acute.  In  the  first  type,  the  animal  sud- 
denly drops  to  the  ground  as  in  apoplexy,  and 
dies  in  convulsions  after  a  few  hours.  The  acute 
form  without  external  swellings  is  the  one  most 
frequently  observed  in  cattle.  The  temperature 
is  increased  from  41°  to  42**  C.  Muscular  trem- 
bling, general  prostration,  and  labored  breathing 
are  prominent  symptoms.  Death  supervenes, 
with  signs  of  asphyxia,  in  from  ten  to  twenty- 
four  hours.  In  the  sub-acute  form,  which  is  rare, 
the  symptoms  are  essentially  the  same  as  in  the 
acute  form,  but  less  pronounced. 

In  both  horses  and  cattle  an  external  form  of 
anthrax  occurs,  during  which  tumors  or  carbun- 
cles develop  under  the  skin.  These  tumors  are 
distinguished  from  those  of  black-leg  by  the  fact 
that  they  do  not  emit  a  crackling  sound  on  be- 
ing stroked.  Before  death  the  discharges  of  the 
bc5y  may  become  mucous,  or  even  bloody.  In 
animals  which  die  of  anthrax,  blood-clots  are 
found  on  nearly  all  the  vital  organs,  and  the 
spleen  is  enlarged  to  from  two  to  five  times  its 
normal  size.  The  symptoms  of  anthrax  are  usu- 
ally characterisctic,  but  a  definite  diagnosis  may 
always  be  made  by  an  examination  of  the  blood 
for  the  presence  of  the  anthrax  bacillus. 

In  countries  subject  to  the  ravages  of  anthrax, 
the  disease  is  usually  restricted  to  well-defined 
areas,  which  seem  to  be  permanently  infected. 
Anthrax  is  most  common  in  localities  subject  to 
inundation.  Ponds  of  stagnant  water  and 
streams  polluted  with  the  waste  from  tanneries 
and  morocco  factories  may  serve  as  sources  of 
infection.  Perhaps  the  most  common  means  for 
the  spread  of  anthrax  infection  is  found  in  the 
bodies  of  animals  dead  of  the  disease.  The  an- 
thrax bacillus  may  gain  entrance  to  the  body  of 
an  animal  in  the  inspired  air,  in  food  or  water, 
and  in  wounds  of  the  skin.  The  rapidity  with 
which  the  different  symptoms  of  anthrax  develop 
depends  largely  upon  the  relative  resisting  power 
of  the  animal.  The  virulence  of  the  anthrax  ba- 
cillus is  only  slowly  affected  by  dessication. 

The  bacillus  in  blood  drawn  from  affected  ani- 
mals and  dried  is  destroyed  by  exposure  to  di- 
rect sunlight  for  a  period  of  eight  hours.  An- 
thrax spores  may  retain  their  vitality  in  the  soil 
for  an  almost  indefinite  period,  especially  if  sit- 
uated at  some  depth,  where  they  are  protected 
from  the  action  of  light  and  oxygen.  Putrefac- 
tion destroys  the  vegetative  form  of  the  bacillus, 
but  does  not  affect  the  spores.  In  the  fila- 
mentous form  the  bacillus  is  killed  by  a  few  min- 
utes* exposure  to  a  temperature  of  55°  to  58°  C. 
The  spores  are  very  resistant  to  dry  heat,  a  tem- 
perature of  120°  to  140°  C.  for  three  hours  being 
required  to  kill  them.  In  1880,  Pasteur,  Cham- 
berland,  and  Roux  tried  numerous  experiments 
in  attenuating  the  ^nrus  of  anthrax  by  exposure 
to  the  air.  The  oxygen  of  the  air  was  found 
to  have  the  effect  of  rendering  the  bacillus  less 
pathogenic,  especially  when  cultures  were  spread 
out  in  a  thin  layer.     Toussaint  was  the  first  to 


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ANTHBAZ. 


606 


ANTHBOPOLOQY. 


obtain  an  attenuated  anthrax  virus  by  exposure 
to  heat.  Pasteur  and  others  demonstrated  that 
repeated  passage  through  more  and  more  refrac- 
tory organisms  increases  the  virulence  of  the  an- 
thrax bacillus.    • 

Three  methods  for  immunizing  animals  against 
anthrax  have  been  devised:  inoculation  with  at- 
tenuated virus,  with  toxins,  and  with  antitoxic 
serums.  Grood  results  have  been  obtained  by 
each  of  these  methods.  Medical  treatment  of 
anthrax  is  of  no  avail  except  in  the  sub-acute 
form  in  cattle  and  horses.  In  such  cases  the  ex- 
ternal tumors  may  be  cauterized  and  subse- 
quently treated  with  injections  of  tincture  of 
iodine.  The  affected  animals  should  also  be 
given  diffusible  stimulants  by  the  mouth.  In  the 
prevention  of  anthrax,  the  main  reliance  of  the 
stockman  is  to  be  placed  in  vaccination.  An- 
thrax vaccine  may  now  be  purchased  of  whole- 
sale druggists,  and  has  proved  very  efficient  in 
the  prevention  of  the  disease.  The  most  impor- 
tant sanitary  measure  to  be  adopted  in  case  of 
an  outbreak  of  anthrax  is  the  immediate  and 
complete  destruction  of  animal  carcases.  This 
is  best  accomplished  by  burning.  If  anthrax 
carcases  are  not  destroyed,  the  contagion  may  be 
spread  in  the  soil  and  water,  and  may  also  be 
carried  by  flies,  buzzards,  dogs,  and  other  car- 
nivorous animals.  The  thorough  sterilization  of 
hair,  wool,  and  animal  skins  by  steam,  dry  heat, 
or  otherwise,  will  prevent  the  infection  of  man 
from  handling  these  products. 

Bibliography.  ''Special  report  on  miscellane- 
ous investigations  concerning  infectious  and  par- 
asitic diseases  of  Domesticated  Animals,"  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Divi^on 
of  Animal  Industry,  Bulletin  III.  (Washington, 
1893)  ;  "Ueber  die  physiologischen  Bedingungen 
der  endogenen  Sporenbildungen,"  in  the  Ccntral- 
blatt  fiir  Bakteriologie  und  Parasitenkunde  (Jena 
1896)  ;  "An  Outbreak  of  Anthrax  in  Horses," 
The  Veterinarian  (London,  1895)  ;  "Anthrax  in 
the  Lower  Mississippi  Valley,"  Report  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bur 
reau  of  Animal  Industry  (Washington,  1897)  ; 
A.  J.  Murray  and  others,  "Special  Report  on 
Diseases  of  Cattle  and  Cattle  Feeding,"  Report 
of  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
(Washington,  1892)  ;  J.  Law,  The  Farmers*  Vet- 
erinary Adviser  (Ithaca,  1892). 

ANTHBOPO-  (From  Gk.dn^/jcjTrof, anffcropos, 
man,  human  being).  A  combining  form  occur- 
ring at  the  beginning  of  many  English  words, 
especially  scientific  terms,  and  denoting  that  the 
word  has  something  to  do  with  man  or  mankind; 
e.g.,  an(/iropo-geography,  the  geographical  distri- 
bution of  mankind;  an^?iropology,  the  science 
of  man ;  a»(/iropophagy,  man-eating,  or  cannibal- 
ism, etc. 

AN'THBOPO-GEOCKKAPHY  ( Gk.  Jvi^pu^rof , 
anthrdpos,  man  -f-  yeoypa^ia,  geOgraphia,  geog- 
raphy). A  division  of  bio-geography  which  de- 
scribes the  distribution  of  the  varieties  of  man- 
kind, and  depends  upon  anthropology  as  the  sci- 
ence from  which  it  derives  its  facts  regarding 
the  types  of  men.  As  a  division  of  bio-geography 
it  is  concerned  only  with  organic  phenomena, 
forming  a  higher  kind  of  natural  history  in 
which  man,' as  an  animal  in  relation  to  his  phys- 
ical environment,  is  subjected  to  the  same  kind 
of  investigation  ns  plants  and  the  brute  creation. 
Both  in  Germany  and  France  the  literature  on 
the  subject  is  assuming  considerable  dimensions. 


Professor  Friedrich  Ratzel  was  appointed  to  the 
chair  of  anthropo-geography  at  Leipzig,  in  1866. 
His  Anthropo-gcographie  (Stuttgart,  1899)  h  a 
type  of  this  division  of  geography.  A.  J.  and 
F.  D.  Herbertson,  Man  and  His  Works  (London, 
1899),  gives  in  a  popular  form  the  principles  of 
anthropo-geography.  See  Economic  Geogrjipht; 
Anthbopolooy. 

AN^HBOPOID  APES.    See  Afe. 

AN'THBOPOI/ATBrY  (Gk.  av^povoi,  an- 
thropos,  man  -|-  Tiarpeia,  latreia,  worship).  A 
term  signifying,  according  to  its  derivation,  the 
worship  of  man,  and  always  employed  in  re- 
proach. Thus,  the  early  Christians  accused  the 
heathen  of  anthropolatry  because  in  their  my- 
thology men  were  represented  as  exalted  amon*; 
the  gods,  although  an  apotheosis  (q.v.)  was  in 
these  cases  alleg^  by  their  worshipers;  and  the 
heathen  retorted  the  charge  of  the  worship  of 
Christ,  the  reply  to  which  was  the  assertion  of 
his  divinity.*  But  the  term  is  chiefly  known  in 
ecclesiastical  history  in  connection  with  the  em- 
ployment of  it  by  the  Apollinarians  against  the 
orthodox  Christians  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  cen- 
turies, who  in  worshiping  Christ  worshiped,  as 
was  affirmed,  only  a  man  in  whom  God  dwelt. 
See  ApoLLiNAjtis. 

ANTHBOPOI/OGT  (Gk.  &i^pc»rroc,  anthn- 
pos,  man  +  ^y<K,  logos,  discourse,  science).  The 
science  of  man.  Anthropology  is  the  youngest 
of  the  sciences  and  borrows  methods  from  all, 
though  the  object  matter — ^the  human  geniis— i* 
so  far  distinct  as  to  require  special  treatment. 
This  may  be  illustrated  by  noting  the  relations 
among  the  older  sciences  determined  by  their  re- 
spective phenomena  or  object  matter.  In  astron- 
omy the  objects  of  study  are  stellar  and  plan- 
etary bodies  arranged  in  systems  controlled  by 
gravity;  in  chemistry,  the  objects  are  substances 
affected  by  gravity  and  also  by  affinity;  in  phy- 
tology,  or  botany,  the  same  factors  remain  and 
vitality  is  added ;  in  zoOlogy,  the  objects  are  sub- 
ject to  the  laws  of  gravity,  affinity,  and  vitality, 
while  motility  is  added ;  and  in  anthropology,  all 
the  simple  factors  remain,  yet  they  are  subordi- 
nate to  the  special  factor  of  mentality  which 
gives  character  to  the  science.  In  view  of  this 
relation  it  becomes  clear  that  the  course  of  de- 
velopment of  the  sciences  from  astronomy  to 
anthropology  is  the  normal  one  of  passage  from 
the  simple  to  the  complex.  The  same  relation 
indicates  that  interdependence  of  the  science* 
which  makes  anthropology  the  debtor  of  the  old- 
er branches  of  knowledge  for  methods  of  weijrh- 
ing  and  measuring,  and  of  locating  and  tracing, 
yet  leaves  each  older  science  practically  inde- 
pendent of  those  younger,  and  all  measurably 
free  of  the  youngest  science  except  in  so  far  as  it 
reveals  the  laws  of  thought,  on  which  all  knowl- 
edge is  founded.  Accordingly,  the  older  science* 
have  cooperated  to  define  and  establish  certain 
laws  which  may  be  styled  the  cardinal  principles 
viz.:  the  indestructibility  of  matter,  the  persist 
ence  of  motion,  the  development  of  species,  and 
the  uniformity  of  nature;  but  it  remained  for 
anthropology  (despite  a  definite  suggestion  by 
Bacon)  to  establish  the  complementary  principle 
of  the  responsivity  of  mind. 

At  the  outset  anthropology  was  little  more 
than  an  extension  o.f  zoSlogy  to  a  distinct  genus 
and  the  methods  were  shaped  accordingly.  As 
the  study  of  structures  was  pursued,  coniparati\  e 
anatomy  made  useful  progress,  and  many  homol 


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ANTHBOPOLOGY. 


6or 


ANTHBOPOMETBY. 


ogies  between  the  genus  homo  and  both  simian 
and  pithecoid  genera  were  discovered;  later  the 
methods  and  objects  of  measurement  were  extend- 
ed, and  anthropometry  became  prominent  in  sci- 
entific thought  and  literature;  and  during  recent 
^  years  the  study  of  structures  and  functions  of  the 
human  body  has  taken  definite  form  under  the 
term  somatology  (q.v.).  Concurrently  the  study 
of  functions,  especially  those  of  neural  and  cere- 
bral character,  has  made  great  progress  under  the 
designation  of  experimental  psychology.  Mean- 
time certain  observers  of  men  and  tribes  became 
impressed  with  the  collective  characteristics  of 
the  genus,  characteristics  so  striking  as  to  lead  to 
the  recognition  of  the  group,  rather  than  the  in- 
dividual, as  the  true  unit  of  anthropology.  This 
collective  unit  is  called  the  sociua  by  Giddings, 
and  the  ethnos  or  demos  (according  to  the  de- 
gree of  development)  by  other  investigators.  The 
recognition  of  collective  units  was  soon  followed 
by  recognition  of  collective  functions*  i.e.,  of  the 
fact  that  what  men  do  is  of  incomparably  greater 
moment  than  what  they  merely  are ;  and  this  led 
to  the  definition,  largely  by  Powell,  of  the  sci- 
ence of  demology,  or  the  science  of  qoI- 
lective  human  activity.  The  activities  them- 
selves have  been  classified  as  those  pertain- 
ing respectively  to  arts,  industries,  laws,  lan- 
guages, and  philosophies;  and  corresponding 
subsciences  have  been  defined  as  esthetology, 
technology,  sociology,  philology,  and  sophiology. 
In  this  arrangement  of  the  subdivisions  of  an- 
thropology prehistoric  technology  becomes  prac- 
tically equivalent  to  the  branch  of  knowledge 
long  pursued  as  archaeology,  while  sophiology 
embraces  folk-lore  and  the  study  of  primitive 
faiths  or  mythology;  and  when  the  activities  are 
classified  with  a  view  to  the  definition  of  races 
and  peoples,  the  product  is  ethnology.  The  gen- 
eral subject  of  anthropology  is  treated  under  the 
designation  of  the  object  matter  of  the  science, 
Man,  and  the  subdivisions  of  the  science  are 
entered  under  their  proper  heads. 

ANTHBOPOLOGY,    Criminal.     See   Cwmi- 

NOIX>OY. 

ANTHBOPOLOGY,  Theological.  A  theo- 
logical system  which  considers  man  as  being  the 
subject  of  sin  and  grace.  It  consequently  con- 
siders his  natural  powers,  so  far  as  these  relate 
to  moral  action  and  states — the  moral  intuitions, 
conscience,  the  affections,  the  will,  habit — the 
original  sin  of  Adam  and  its  effects  upon  himself 
and  upon  his  posterity,  the  corruption  of  nature, 
technically  called  "original  sin,"  and  the  fall, 
heredity,  the  bondage  of  the  will,  and  imputation. 
To  these  topics  certain  others  are  often  added, 
such  as  the  origin  and  antiquity  of  man,  the 
origin  of  the  soul  (whether  by  creationism  or 
tradueianism),  and  the  unity  of  the  human  race. 
See  these  various  heads  for  discussion  of  the 
topic. 

AN'THBOPOM^ETBY(Gk.  Sv^pano^,  anthrO- 
pos,  man  +  fiirpov,  metron,  measure).  A  method 
of  measurement  pursued  in  anthropology.  The 
primary  measurements  are  those  of  the  normal 
body  at  rest,  and  include  stature,  weight,  cir- 
cumference of  head,  reach  (or  span  of  extended 
arms*),  circumference  and  expansion  of  chest, 
length  of  arm  and  leg,  sitting  height,  circum- 
ference of  waist,  limbs,  hips,  and  shoulders, 
length  of  forearm  and  thigh,  size  of  foot,  length 
of  fingers,  size  and  position  of  ear,  facial  angle 
ri.e.,  degree  of  prognathism),  shape  of  head,  size 


and  form  of  nose,  position  and  attitude  of  eyes, 
etc.  Of  these  elements  of  the  human  body,  only 
a  few  are  commonly  regarded  as  of  ethnic  sig- 
nificance, or  of  use  in  describing  and  comparing 
peoples  or  races  considered  collectively;  the  ele- 
ments commonly  so  employed  comprise  stature, 
size  and  shape  of  head,  facial  angle,  relative 
length  of  limb,  attitude  of  eyes,  etc.  Some  or 
all  of  the  other  elements  receive  special  consid- 
eration in  studies  and  comparisons  of  selected 
classes  of  population,  e.g.,  school-children  of 
various  ages  or  grades;  and  certain  of  the  ele- 
ments are  customarily  recognized  in  the  study 
of  individuals,  such  as  athletes,  criminals,  etc. 
With  these  definitely  quantitative  measurements, 
other  individual  or  typical  attributes  of  the  hu- 
man body  are  commonly  correlated;  chief  among 
these  are  color  (of  skin,  hair,  eyes,  mucous 
membrane,  nails,  etc.) ,  character  of  pelage  (scalp 
hair,  beard,  axillary  and  pubic  hair,  body  hair), 
local  and  general  texture  of  integument,  form 
and  mobility  of  features,  etc.  Other  measure- 
ments of  common  use  in  anthropologic  studies 
are  those  of  the  skeleton,  particularly  the  skull, 
jaws,  and  long  bones.  Various  anthropologists, 
like  Manouvrier  and  Deniker,  have  devised  for- 
mulas for  determining  stature  from  the  length 
of  femur,  tibia,  humerus,  and  other  long  bones; 
and  the  relative  dimensions  of  the  dififerent  bones 
of  the  skeleton  are  commonly  regarded  as  ethnic 
indications.  The  forms  of  certain  bones  are  also 
deemed  ethnic  criteria;  the  flattening  of  the 
tibia  (platycnemism)  and  the  perforation  of  the 
humerus  in  the  olecranon  fossa  have  received 
especial  consideration  in  this  connection.  The 
measurement  of  the  skull  has  been  developed  into 
a  system  known  as  Craniometry  (q.v.),  which  in 
some  schools  has  been  held  to  constitute  a  large 
if  not  controlling  part  of  anthropology,  although 
others  regard  the  cranial  measurements  as  ex- 
pressing little  more  than  individual  variations 
of  trifling  value  in  ethnology  and  general  anthro- 
pology. A.  leading  feature  in  this  aspect  of  an- 
thropometry is  the  cranial  index,  i.e.,  the  breadth 
of  the  skull  in  proportion  to  its  length  as  viewed 
from  above  (in  the  norma  verticalis)  ;  and  three 
types  are  commonly  defined  as  dolichocephalic  or 
long-head,  mesocephalic  or  round-head,  and  bra- 
chycephalic  or  broad-head  varieties  of  the  genus 
homo,  the  ratios  of  breadth  to  length  being  about 
70  :  100,  80  :  100,  and  85  :  100,  respectively. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  system  is 
the  capacity  of  the  brain-case,  measured  by  means 
of  liquid  or  fragmental  substances  (water,  glycer- 
ine, sand,  fine  shot,  or  small  seeds),  poured  into 
the  cavity  and  afterward  weighed  or  gauged,  or 
by  aid  of  a  thin,  elastic,  and  impervious  bag 
inserted  through  the  foramen  magnum  and  after- 
ward filled  with  liquid ;  and  connected  w^ith  such 
determinations  is  the  direct  weighing  or  meas- 
urement of  the  brain  itself.  Still  another  fea- 
ture is  the  facial  angle,  i.e.,  the  angle  subtended 
by  the  bones  of  face  and  forehead  with  the  base 
of  the  cranium,  viewed  from  the  side  {norma 
lateralis),  or  in  vertical  antro-posterior  section 
( norma  mediana ) .  There  are  several  modes  of 
defining  this  angle,  those  of  Camper,  Cloquet, 
Jacquart,  and  Cuvier  being  best  known :  and  the 
progressively  increasing  angle  from  the  lower 
animals  to  the  anthropoids,  and  thence  from 
the  lowest  races  to  the  highest  type  of  humanity 
is  among  the  striking  facts  brought  out  by  scien- 
tific inquiry.  The  facial  index  is  another  feature 
of  modern  anthropometry,  and  affords  arbitrary 


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ANTICHIiOB. 


but  Ujicful  means  of  comparing  crania  of  difTerent 
types,  while  craniometric  specialists  have  devised 
a  series  of  points,  lines,  and  angles  serving  to 
define  cranial  forms  and  types  in  great  detail. 
Among  the  applications  of  anthropometry,  in 
what  may  be  called  the  static  aspect,  are  those 
involved  in  the  Bertillon  svstem  (q.v.)  and  relat- 
•ed  methods  of  bodily  description  for  identification 
or  other  purposes,  and  among  these  that  of  iden- 
tification by  finger-prints  (i.e.,  by  the  patterns 
of  the  papillaceous  ridges  which  are  peculiar  to 
each  individual),  which  was  brought  out  in 
America  by  Gilbert  Thompson  and  in  England  by 
Francis  Oalton,  is  of  much  interest. 

During  recent  decades,  what  may  be  called  the 
dynamic  aspect  of  anthropometry  has  attained 
prominence,  and  the  measurement  of  structures 
nas  been  supplemented  by  measurement  of  func- 
tions, both  periodic  and  special.  Among  the 
former  are  rates  of  respiration  and  pulsation, 
which  vary  with  sex,  age,  and  race  as  well  as 
with  individual  characteristics  and  conditions; 
and  various  devices  (including  the  plethysmo- 
graph,  with  its  variants  and  improvements)  have 
been  devised  to  measure  the  interrelations  be- 
tween the  periodic  and  special  functions  of  the 
human  body.  The  latter  functions  are  too  nu- 
merous and  variable  for  ready  treatment,  though 
athletic  records,  the  military  step  in  various 
armies,  the  hours  of  labor  in  different  countries 
and  classes,  the  variation  of  faculty  with  race 
and  culture,  and  other  relevant  material  are  grad- 
ually assuming  systematic  form.  Among  the 
most  fruitful  lines  of  measurement  of  human 
function  are  those  of  experimental  psychology, 
pursued  in  America  by  Cattell,  Royce,  Baldwin, 
Scripture,  MacDonald,  Witmer,  and  others  for 
these  open  new  vistas  of  relationship  between 
structures  and  functions,  between  body  and  mind, 
and  between  the  processes  and  the  products  of 
organic  development  in  the  human  genus.  The 
data  obtained  through  anthropometry  may  be 
summarized  under  somatology  (q.v.). 

AN'THBOPOMOB^HISM  (Gk.  dvepijirog, 
anthrdposj  msin -\-  fiop^rj,  morphe,  iorm) .  The 
application  to  God  of  terms  which  properly  be- 
long only  to  human  beings.  This  may  be  done 
literally,  teaching  that  God  really  has  a  body, 
as  some  (see  AuDiEANS)  have  been  accused  of 
doing,  with  doubtful  truth.  Some  philosophers 
(Hobbes,  Forster,  Priestley)  have  ascribed  to 
God  a  sort  of  subtle  body.  Figuratively,  anthro- 
pomorphism is  employed  in  the  Scriptures,  as 
when  God  is  said  to  have  eye  or  arm.  Anthro- 
popathism  ascribes  to  God  human  affections  and 
passions,  and  is  the  more  common  form  of  anthro- 
pomorphism. The  whole  tendency  arises  from 
the  dilTiculty  of  conceiving  of  God  as  he  is  in 
himself,  and  from  the  teachings  of  Christianity, 
which  seeks  to  reveal  God  to  men,  and  employs 
terms  which  are  capable  of  being  understood. 
While  it  is  susceptible  of  abuse,  it  has  a  funda- 
mental justification  in  the  fact  that  if  there  is  to 
be  any  knowledge  of  God  at  all,  man  must  be 
assumed  to  possess  a  like  nature  with  God.  We 
are  made  "in  his  image."  The  extreme  of  recoil 
from  anthropomorphism  is  found  in  those  philos- 
ophers (e.g.,  Fichte  and  his  school)  who  reject 
the  personality  of  God  as  anthropomorphic. 
Schleiermacher,  following  Spinoza,  thought  that 
there  was  something  in  God  far  higher  than  per- 
sonality, which  he  regarded  as  a  human  limita- 
tion. Another  term  used  to  express  the  same  as 
above  is  Anthropopathism. 


AN'THBOPOPH'AGT  (Gk.  avdp«^of.  on- 
thrdpos,  man  -}-  ^ym*.  phagcin^  to  eat).  Canni- 
balism; the  eating  of  human  flesh.  See  Ixdiaxs; 
Man. 

ANTHTJ^SIUIC     See  Arum. 

ANTHYI/LIS.     See  Kidney  Vetch. 

ANTI,  or  Campa.  An  important  and  war- 
like tribe  of  Arawakan  stock,  occupying  the  for- 
ests at  the  head  waters  of  the  Ucayali  River,  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  Andes,  in  southern  Peru. 
The  eastern  division  of  the  Inca  empire  took  its 
name  of  Antisuyu  from  them.  They  are  of  good 
physique  and  ])leasant  countenance,  and  wear 
their  hair  long  and  flowing,  with  a  poncho  belted 
around  the  waist  as  their  principal  garment. 
The  women  are  skillful  weavers  of  wild  cotton, 
and  the  men  are  good  metal  workers.  They  cul- 
tivate the  ground  to  some  extent,  and  delight  in 
taming  animals  from  the  forest. 

AN'TIA'BIA  AND  ANT'JAB.       See  Upas. 

ANTIBE8,  ilN't^y.  A  fortified  seaport  in  the 
department  of  Alpes-Maritimes,  in  the  south- 
east of  Provence,  France,  and  the  general  port  of 
communication  with  Corsica.  It  stands  on  the 
east  side  of  a  small  neck  of  land  called  La 
Garoupe,  lying  west  of  the  mouth  of  the  Var, 
in  a  fertile  district  (Map:  France,  0  8).  The 
harbor  is  only  serviceable,  however,  for  small 
craft.  It  pos-sesses  a  naval  school,  and  has  con- 
siderable trade  in  olives,  dried  fruits,  salt  fish, 
oil,  perfumery,  etc.  The  anchovies  prepared  at 
Antibes  are  held  in  high  esteem.  The  en- 
virons of  the  town  are  bright  with  vineyards  and 
orchards,  while  its  gardens  of  roses  and  jasmine 
furnish  material  for  the  extensive  perfume  manu- 
factories of  the  town.  Pop.  in  189G,  4956;  com- 
mune, 9329 ;  in  1901,  5512 ;  commune,  10,947. 

Antibes  is  a  very  old  place,  having  been  found- 
ed under  the  name  of  Antipolis  by  a  colony  of 
Greeks  from  Massilia  (Marseilles),  of  which  it 
became  a  dependency.  In  the  time  of  Augustus 
it  was  elevated  to  the  rank  of  a  municipiumy 
and  must  have  attained  a  high  degree  of  pros- 
perity, if  we  are  to  judge  from  the  ruins  of 
theatres  and  aqueducts  that  still  exist.  After 
the  disintegration  of  the  Roman  Empire,  Antibes 
shared  the  fate  of  all  cities  in  that  region,  becom- 
ing subject  to  successive  tribes  of  barbarians 
from  the  North.  In  the  ninth  century  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Saracens;  in  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury it  was  fortified  by  Francis  I.  and  Heniy  IV.: 
during  the  War  of  the  Austrian  Succession,  it 
sustained  a  siege  of  three  months  (1746);  and 
in  recent  times  gained  some  celebrity  from  hay- 
ing closed  its  gates  against  Napoleon  on  hi* 
return  from  Elba.  Consult  Vinson,  "Le  port  et 
le  quartier  maritime  d'Antibes,"  in  Revue  Mar- 
t/iwe.  Volume  CXLVL     (Paris,  1900). 

AN'TIBXTBGHOBB.     See  Burgher. 

AK^ICANT,  Dr.  Pessimist.  An  appella- 
tion of  Thomas  Carlyle  (q.v.). 

ANTICHLOB  {anti -^  chlorine) ,  Any  one 
of  several  substances  (e.g..  sodium  sulphite,  sodi- 
um bi-sulphite,  sodium  hyposulphite,  or  calcium 
sulphide)  used  by  manufacturers  of  linen  and 
cotton  fibre  and  paper  pulp  to  remove  the  last 
traces  of  free  chlorine  that  had  been  generated 
from  the  hypochlorite  used  in  bleaching  the  mate- 
rials mentioned. .  Free  chlorine  has  a  tendency 
slowly  to  disintegrate  the  material  unless  re- 
moved. 


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AirriCHBIST. 


AN^nCHBIST  ( Gk.' AvTixpitTTog,  Aniichriatos; 
from  a»Ti,  anti,  against  -|-  XpurrSi,  Chriato8, 
Christ).  A  name  which  occurs  only  in  the 
Epistles  of  John,  but  which,  in  all  likelihood, 
designates  the  final  New  Testament  form  of  a 
popular  belief,  whose  rise  is  to  be  found  in  later 
Judaism  and  which  was  appropriated  with  vari- 
ous modifications  by  biblical  writers. 

Its  source  is  a  question  of  some  debate.  Most 
probably,  however,  it  lay  in  the  popular  convic- 
tions aroused  by  the  constant  announcement  of 
the  divine  purpose  to  punish  Israel's  sin  by 
giving  her  into  the  hands  of  heathen  nations, 
but  to  recover  her  by  force  from  their  power  when 
her  spiritual  discipline  had  been  accomplished. 
The  repeated  carrying  out  of  this  policy,  even  in 
earlier  Jewish  history,  evidently  impressed  the 
popular  mind  with  the  idea  of  an  essential  oppo- 
sition between  the  heathen  nations  and  the  people 
of  God,  the  final  outcome  of  which  was  yet 
in  the  future,  but  must  be  in  favor  of  the  chosen 
people.  Such  an  impression  may  have  been  aided 
\yj  the  instinctive  natural  beliefs  in  the  struggle 
of  darkness  with  light  and  chaos  with  order 
(Bossuet)  ;  but,  in  view  of  the  above  unique  line 
of  revelation  and  experience  peculiar  to  the  Jew- 
ish people,  it  is  quite  gratuitous  to  make  such 
general  beliefs  the  definite  source  of  such  a  dis- 
tinctive popular  conviction. 

As  the  later  revelation  emphasized  the  element 
of  punishment  to  be  administered  to  the  heathen 
nations  by  announcing  that  God  would  not  only 
recover  his  people  when  their  discipline  was 
finished,  but  would  chastise  the  nations  for  any 
attempt  on  their  part  to  overreach  the  discipli- 
nary mission  given  them,  the  popular  idet^  of  the 
hostility  of  the  nations  to  the  people  of  God 
was  naturally  increased.  The  primary  form  of 
this  popular  conception  is  evidently  used  by 
Ezekiel  as  a  basis  for  his  prophecy  concerning 
the  consummation  of  Israel's  restoration,  in 
which  he  describes  the  nations  of  the  world  as 
assembled  under  the  leadership  of  "Gog  of  the 
land  of  Magoff"  for  final  battle  against  Israel 
(Ezekiel  xxxviii,  xxxix;  see  also  Zechariah  xii 
to  xiv,  where  the  prophet  foretells  the  gathering 
together  of  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  to  fight 
against  Jerusalem,  and  the  Lord's  going  forth 
in  turn  to  fight  against  them). 

In  the  experience  of  the  Jews  under  Antiochus 
Epiphanes,  however,  the  popular  conception  of 
this  struggle  made  a  distinct  advance,  in  which 
the  opposition  was  concentrated  in  a  single  per- 
sonage, and  all  idea  of  disciplinary  mission  to- 
ward Israel  was  lost  sight  of  in  the  conviction 
of  an  inherent  enmity  against  the  people  of  God. 
This  secondary  form  appeal's  in  the  eschatological 
prophecies  of  the  Maccabean  Book  of  Daniel 
(Daniel  vii  to  ix,  xi,  xii,  in  which  are  given  the 
vision  of  the  beast  with  the  ten  horns,  triumphed 
over  by  the  "Ancient  of  Days,"  and  the  vision  of 
the  goat  with  the  horn  between  the  eyes  who 
warred  against  the  holy  city  but  was  finally  him- 
self destroyed). 

Naturally,  as  the  idea  of  a  personal  Messiah 
increased  in  definiteness,  this  popular  belief  in 
a  personal  adversary  would  grow  stronger,  es- 
pecially when  we  consider  the  long-continued 
influence  on  Jewish  thought  of  the  Daniel  proph- 
ecies. We  can  believe,  therefore,  though  the 
Jewish  apocryphal  literature  antedating  the 
Christian  era  does  not  distinctly  show  it,  that  the 
conception  of  an  Antimessiah  was  more  or  less 
current  in  Judaism  before  the  rise  of  Christian- 
Vol.  I.— 89 


ity.  This  Antiroessianic  conception  is  appro- 
priated by  New  Testament  writers,  with 
modifications  due  to  the  newer  revelations 
of  truth  in  the  Gospel  and  apostolic  times, 
particularly  those  which  substituted  the  spir- 
itual for  the  national  idea  of  the  kmg- 
dom  of  God,  and  so  emphasized  the  signifi- 
cant distinction  between  righteousness  and  sin. 
So  we  see  Paul's  statement  concerning  the  advent 
and  mission  of  the  Man  of  Sin  and  his  final  de- 
struction by  Christ  (II.  Thessalonians  ii  :  1-12: 
"For  the  day  of  the  Lord  will  not  come,  except 
.  .  .  the  Man  of  Sin  be  revealed,  .  .  .  who  oppos- 
eth  and  exalteth  himself  against  all  that  is  called 
God  .  .  .  whom  the  Lord  Jesus  shall  slay  with 
the  breath  of  his  mouth  .  .  ,  whose  coming  is 
according  to  the  working  of  Satan  with  all  power 
and  signs  and  lying  wonders  .  .  .  and  deceit  of 
unrighteousness") ,  where,  however,  in  the  deceiv- 
ing character  of  his  mission,  there  is  brought  out 
a  new  idea — an  idea  which  is  frequently  applied 
by  Paul  to  those  who  opposed  him  and  his  gos- 
pel (Acts  XX  :  30;  II.  Corinthians  xi  :  13;  I. 
Timothy  4  :  1,  2).  So  also  we  see  the  various 
forms  of  statement  in  the  Book  of  Revelation 
regarding  the  Beast  and  the  Dragon  (compare 
Revelation  xi  to  xiii,  xvi,  xix,  xx,  in  which  we 
are  told  of  "the  beast  that  cometh  up  out  of  the 
abyss,"  who  overcomes  "the  two  witnesses,"  and 
of  the  "red  dragon  having  seven  heads  and  ten 
horns,"  warring  against  the  woman  and  her 
child  and  destroyed  by  Michael  and  his  angels; 
also  of  the  "beast  coming  up  out  of  the  sea, 
having  ten  horns  and  seven  heads,"  ministered 
to  by  the  "beast  coming  out  of  the  earth,"  with 
*'two  horns  like  unto  a  lamb,"  and  finding  his 
identification  in  the  mystical  number  "six  hun- 
dred and  sixty  and  six").  The  idea  of  the 
deceiving  mission  of  the  adversary,  however,  is 
in  this  book  specifically  pictured  in  the  separate 
figure  of  the  False  Prophet,  "who  wrought  signs 
wherewith  he  deceived  them  that  had  received 
the  mark  of  the  beast"  (Revelation  xvi  :  13, 
xix  :  20,  XX  :  10,  though  compare  also  xii  :  9  and 
xiii  :  14  for  the  same  characteristics  in  the 
Dragon  and  the  Beast) .  In  this  figure  there  is  a 
return  to  the  earlier  personal  idea  of  the  Anti- 
messiah, and,  at  the  same  time,  an  advance  to 
the  final  New  Testament  form  found  in  the 
Johannine  Epistles,  where  the  teaching  of  false 
doctrines  is  personified  in  the  term  Antichrist 
(I.  John  ii  :  18,  22;  iv  :  1-3:  "Many  false  proph- 
ets are  gone  out  into  the  world  .  .  .  Every 
spirit  which  confesseth  not  Jesus  .  .  .  this  is 
the  spirit  of  Antichrist;"  II.  John  7:  "This  is 
the  deceiver  and  the  Antichrist"). 

This  Antimessianic  conception  is  clearly  appro- 
priated by  Jesus  as  a  form  for  his  eschatological 
statements .  regarding  those  who  shall  appear  in 
opposition  to  his  cause  (Mark  xiii  :  6,  6:  "Many 
shall  come  in  my  name,  saying,  'I  am  he:'  and 
shall  lead  many  astray;"  see  also  verses  21,  22: 
"There  shall  arise  false  Christs  and  false  proph- 
ets, and  shall  shew  signs  and  wonders,  that  they 
may  lead  astray,  if  possible,  the  elect") .  In  these 
statements  Jesus  seems,  in  the  term  "false,"  to 
have  distinctly  introduced  a  new  idea,  which  does 
not  appear  to  have  been  present  in  the  popular 
beliefs.  This  would,  however,  have  been  quickly 
intelligible  to  those  of  his  hearers  who  recalled 
the  false  prophets  of  Jewish  history,  whose  abil- 
ity to  deceive  the  false  Christs  were  to  reproduce. 
From  the  traditior  of  Jesus's  words  may  have 
come  the  idea  of  falseness  in  Paul's  statement 


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ANTICHBIST. 


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ANTIDOTK 


regarding  the  Man  of  Sin  and  his  own  gospel 
opponents;  from  its  definite  form  in  the  written 
gospel  is  quite  certain  to  have  come  John's  state- 
ment regarding  the  false  prophet^  if  not  his  use 
of  the  term  itself. 

The  idea  of  Antichrist  persisted  into  the  post- 
apostolic  times,  in  both  Jewish  and  Christian 
circles.  In  the  former  it  returned  to  its  earlier 
national  form;  in  the  latter  it  carried  forward 
the  final  New  Testament  form  of  the  teaching. 
Consult:  Discuasiona ;  H.  Gunkel,  Schopfung  urui 
Chaos  (Gottingen,  1895)  ;  W.  Bousset,  The  Anti- 
christ Legend,  English  translation  (London, 
1890)  ;  M.  Friedlttnder,  Der  Antichrist  in  den 
rorchristlichen  fiidischen  Quellen  (GOttingen, 
1901). 

AH'TICXI^XAZ  (Gk.  avri,.  anti,  against + 
Mfia^,  klimax,  a  ladder,  climax).  In  rhetoric  an 
abrupt  declension  by  a  writer  or  speaker  from 
the  dignity  to  which  his  idea  has  attained. 
Though  the  anticlimax  is  to  be  avoided  in  serious 
discourse,  where  it  leads  to  bathos,  it  is  employed 
with  fine  effect  in  ridicule  and  satire.  Pope, 
Addison,  and  Fielding  were  masters  in  this  art 
of  unexpected  descent.  Pope,  for  example,  thus 
writes  of  Queen  Anne  at  Hampton  Court : 

'*  Here  thon«  great  Anna!  whom  three  realms  obey. 
Dost  eometimes  counael  take— and  eometimea  tea." 

AN'TICLI^AL  AZaS.     See  Anticline. 

ANTICLINE  (Gk.  avrl,  anti,  against,  oppo- 
site -f-  KXivetv,  klinein,  to  incline) .  In  geology, 
a  term  applied  to  that  form  of  rock-folding  in 
which  the  opposite  sides  or  limbs  of  the  fold 
slope  downward  and  away  from  the  crest  of  the 
fold.  Anticlinal  axis  is  the  axis  or  crest  of  such 
a  fold.  The  anticline  may  be  compared  to  the 
ordinary  gable-roof — the  axis  corresponding  to 
the  ridge  of  the  roof,  while  the  limbs  of  the  anti- 
cline correspond  to  the  slopes  of  the  roof.  When 
the  anticlinal  axis  lies  in  a  horizontal  plane, 
wfcich,  however,  is  seldom  the  case,  the  layers 
composing  the  limbs  of  the  fold  are,  after  ero- 
sion, exposed  in  parallel  rows  on  either  side  of 
the  axis;  those  layers  of  earlier  age,  and  conse- 
quently of  lower  stratigraphic  position,  occupy- 
ing posjtions  nearer  to  the  axis,  and  viccversA, 
Thus,  in  an  anticlinal  ridge  the  crest  of  the 
ridge  is  occupied  by  rocks  of  a  geologic  age 
earlier  than  that  of  the  rocks  forming  the  flanks 
of  the  ridge.  This  condition  is  due  largely  to 
the  fact  that  the  rocks  near  the  axis  have  suf- 
fered greater  compression  and  are  consequently 
harder  than  are  those  of  the  flanks. 

The  supplementary  condition  to  that  of  the 
anticline,  or  up-fold,  is  observed  in  the  synclinCf 
or  down-fold,  and  indeed  these  two  types  of 
folds  are  usually  found  in  close  association;  the 
features  of  anticlines  being,  however,  reversed  in 
synclines.  When  anticlinal  and  synclinal  axes 
aVe  tilted  and  eroded,  the  component  layers  out- 
crop in  alternating  convergent  and  divergent 
series  to  form  zigzag  ridges  with  intervening 
**canoe-valley8,"  a  type  of  structure  which  is 
well  developed  in  Pennsylvania.  The  term  anti- 
clinorium  is  applied  to  a  compound  anticline, 
and  the  term  synclinorium  to  a  compound  syn- 
cline.  Anticlines  are  intimately  associated  with 
the  occurrence  of  natural  gas,  it  having  been  dem- 
onstrated that  the  gas  occurs  at  those  portions 
of  the  gas-bearing  stratum  that  have  been  thrust 
upward  to  form  an  anticlinal  axis  or  dome.  See 
DiASTBOPHiSM ;  GEOLoaY;  and  for  illustration, 
see  plate  Diastbopuic  Features. 


AN'TI-COBN'-LAW  LEAGUE.  An  organi- 
zation in  Great  Britain  which  had  much  U)  do 
with  the  ultimate  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws.  The 
League,  in  which  Richard  Cobden  was  the  leading 
spirit,  was  formed  at  Manchester, March  20, 1839. 
With  the  aid  of  Mr.  Cobden  and  Mr.  Bright,  as 
well  as  many  others,  the  League  undertook  what 
in  our  day  would  be  termed  a  campaign  of  educa- 
tion. Meetings  were  held  in  all  comers  of  the 
kingdom,  and  vast  quantities  of  tracts  and  other 
literature  bearing  upon  the  Corn  Laws  were  dis- 
tributed broadcast.  So  thorough  was  the  work 
and  so  timely,  that  a  few  years  sufficed  to  accom- 
plish the  purpose  of  the  League.  It  was  through 
the  discussions  of  this  organization  rather  than 
the  debates  of  Parliament  that  the  nation  was 
prepared  for  the  change  of  policy  which  took 
place  in  1 846.  See  articles  Corn  Laws;  Fbee 
Trade:  Tariff. 

AN'TICOSTI  (N.  Amer.  Ind.  Naticotek).  A 
barren  island  in  the  province  of  Quebec,  Can- 
ada, dividing  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  into 
two  channels,  and  situated  between  lat.  49'' 
and  60°  N.  and  long.  61  •  40'  and  64*  ZV  W., 
forty  miles  north  of  Cape  Gasp^  (Map:  Can- 
ada, M  2).  It  is  135  miles  long,  with  a 
maximum  width  of  40  miles ;  has  an  area  of  2500 
square  miles.  It  is  almost  destitute  of  harbors, 
the  north  shore  being  mountainous,  and  the 
south  low  and  beset  with  shoals,  while  the  neigh- 
boring currents  are  capricious.  Ellis  Bay,  to  the 
west,  and  Fox  Bay,  in  the  northwest,  are  the  only 
safe  harbors.  The  climate  is  severe,  while  the 
surface  is  an  alternation  of  rocks  and  swamps. 
The  principal  inhabitants  are  the  keepers  of 
the  lighthouses  situated  at  different  parts  of  the 
coast.  Pop.,  250.  Near  the  island  there  are 
considerable  salmon,  trout,  cod,  and  herring  fish- 
eries. It  is  a  favorite  resort  for  seal  and  bear 
hunting,  and  in  1896  was  acquired  as  a  game 
preserve  by  M.  Menier,  a  Parisian  manufacturer. 
The  most  extensive  peat  deposits  in  the  Domin- 
ion are  found  in  Anticosti.  Marl  also  exists  in 
most  of  the  small  lakes  and  ponds  along  the 
coast.  In  1873,  divided  into  twenty  counties  by 
a  land  company,  Anticosti  was  the  scene  of  a 
disastrous  colonization  scheme.  The  colonists 
who  were  attracted  by  specious  promises,  had  to 
be  removed  to  the  mainland,  after  suffering 
severe  privations.  The  rocks  of  Anticosti  are  of 
great  interest  to  the  geologist,  as  they  comprise 
a  series  of  shale  and  limestone  beds  that  consti- 
tute an  uninterrupted  transition  formation  be- 
tween the  Ordovician  and  Silurian  systems  such 
as  is  known  in  few  other  localities.  Consult: 
Logan,  Geological  Survey  of  Canada^  Re- 
port of  Progress  from  its  Commencement 
to  1863,  with  atlas  (Montreal,  1863-65);  Bil- 
lings, "Catalogue  of  the  Silurian  Fossils  of  Anti- 
costi," OeologicaX  Survey  of  Canada  (Montreal, 
1866. )      See  Silurian. 

AN'TICY^CLONE.     See  Metisorologt. 

ANTICYBA,  ftn-tls'l-rA.  A  city  of  Phocis. 
on  the  Corinthian  Gulf,  famous  for  the  hellebore 
which  grew  in  the  neighborhood.  The  modern 
town  is  Aspra  Spitia.  There  were  two  other 
towns  called  Anticyra,  one  in  Iiocris  and  one  in 
Malls. 

AN'TIDOTE.  (Gk.  avrtdoroc,  antidotos,  given 
against,  from  avri^  anti,  against  -+-  SiSovai,  dido- 
naif  to  give).  A  term  applied  in  medicine  to 
any  substance  capable  of  neutralizing  the  action 
of  a  poison,  or,  in  general,  of  any  other  substance. 


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ANTIDOTE. 


611 


ANTI-EMETIC. 


The  action  of  antidotes  may  be  due  either  to 
their  chemical  properties,  or  to  their  having 
physiological  effects  that  are  the  opposite  of 
those  which  they  are  intended  to  counteract. 
As  an  example  of  chemical  antidotes  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  acids  antidote  alkalies.  As  an 
example  of  physiological  "antagonism"  may  be 
mentioned  the  case  of  morphine  and  atropine. 
In  cases  of  poisoning  in  which  no  true  antidote 
is  known,  the  treatment  resorted  to  is  necessarily 
of  a  mechanical  nature.  Such  cases,  it  must  be 
observed,  are  in  the  majority;  so  that  the  stom- 
ach pump,  emetics,  and  purgatives,  play  an  im- 
portant rOle  in  the  treatment  of  most  cases  of 
poisoning.  The  following  is  a  list  of  ordinary 
poisons,  with  their  antidotes  and  other  factors 
employed  in  counteracting  them. 

Arsenic f  Paris  Cfreen, — ^A  tablespoonful  of 
"dialyzed  iron"  (sold  in  all  drug  stores)  should 
be  given  to  the  patient  every  half  hour  for  four 
doses.  This  should  be  followed  by  a  dose  of 
castor  oil. 

Phosphorus,  Matches,  "Rough -on- Rats.*^  — 
Emetics,  a  large  amount  of  mucilage  of  gum 
arabic,  and  a  purgative  dose  of  Epsom  salts, 
should  be  administered.  Oils  or  fats  should  be 
avoided. 

Caustic  Potash  (Lye),  Washing  Soda,  or  Am- 
monia.— The  action  of  these  may  be  counteracted 
by  diluted  lemon  juice,  or  by  a  mixture  of  two 
parts  of  vinegar  with  one  of  water.  The  acid 
should  be  follow^ed  by  large  amounts  of  sweet  oil. 

Oxalic  A(^. — Give  the  patient  water  contain- 
ing such  alkaline  substances  as  chalk,  whiting, 
or  whitewash  scraped  from  the  wall.  Then  give 
a  dose  of  castor  oil  or  of  Epsom  salts. 

Carbolic  Acid. — A  good  chemical  antidote  for 
this  is  Epsom  salts  (magnesium  sulphate),  or 
any  other  soluble  sulphate;  for,  on  entering  the 
blood,  these  form  with  carbolic  acid  harmless 
chemical  compounds.  Give  the  patient  also  large 
amounts  of  sweet  oil,  white  of  egg,  and  stimu- 
lants. 

Carbonic  Add  Oas,  Carbonic  Omde,  Coal  Oas. 
— Fresh  air  should  be  supplied;  artificial  res- 
piration should  be  employed,  thirty  drops  of 
aromatic  spirits  of  ammonia  should  be  given 
every  half  hour  for  three  doses,  and  then  one 
ounce  of  well  diluted  whisky  every  three  hours, 
for  three  doses. 

Nicotine. — ^The  patient  should  be  placed  flat  on 
the  back  and  emetics,  tea,  and  stimulants  should 
be  administered.  A  hypodermic  injection  of 
one- fortieth  of  a  grain  of  nitrate  of  strychnine 
has  a  very  good  effect. 

Alcohol. — ^The  stomach  pump  may  be  used 
early  by  the  attending  physician.  Thirty  grains 
of  powdered  ipecac  should  be  given  to  the  patient 
as  an  emetic,  then  thirty  drops  of  aromatic  spir- 
its of  ammonia  every  half  hour  until  the  pulse 
has  become  full  and  rapid.  Then  cold  should  be 
applied  to  the  head  and  heat  to  the  extremities. 

Chloral,  "Knock-out-drops." — ^Thirty  grains  of 
ipecac  in  water  should  be  given  to  the  patient  as 
an  emetic,  and  a  hypodermic  injection  of  one- 
twentieth  of  a  grain  of  strychnine.  Friction  of 
the  surface,  application  of  warmth,  and  artificial 
respiration  are  effective. 

Corrosit^e  Sublimate  (Bichloride  of  Mercury), 
Bed  Bug  Poison,  White  Precipitate. — Thirty 
grains  of  powdered  ipecac  in  warm  water  should 
be  jfiven  to  the  patient  as  an  emetic,  then  the 
whites  of  a  dozen  eggs,  and  a  hypodermic  injec- 
tion of  morphine. 


Sulfonal. — The  stomach*  pump  and  artificial 
respiration  should  be  employed,  and  plenty  of 
hot  coffee  should  be  given  to  the  patient. 

Opium,  Morphine. — ^An  emetic  or  the  stomach 
pump  should  be  employed  first  of  all;  then  the 
patient  should  be  made  to  inhale  ammonia  and 
half  a  grain  of  permanganate  of  potash  should 
be  given  every  hour.  Artificial  respiration 
should  be  emjjloyed,  two  ounces  of  hot  black  cof- 
fee should  be  injected  into  the  rectum,  and  treat- 
ment should  be  employed  with  a  view  to  keeping 
the  patient  awake — which  may  be  effected  by 
shaking,  walking,  flagellation  of  the  calves,  etc. 
A  subcutaneous  injection  of  atropine,  or  thirty 
drops  of  tincture  of  belladonna  repeatedly  given 
by  the  mouth,  will  have  a  powerfully  counter- 
acting effect  by  stimulating  the  respiratory  cen- 
tre. 

Strychnitie. — The  stomach  pump  should  be  em- 
ployed as  early  as  possible,  and  twenty  grains  of 
zinc  sulphate  should  be  given,  or  thirty  grains 
of  powdered  ipecac,  in  warm  water,  as  an  emetic. 
Then  twenty  grains  of  chloral  and  thirty  grains 
of  bromide  of  sodium,  dissolved  together  in  two 
ounces  of  hot  water,  should  be  injected  into  the 
rectum.  In  case  convulsions  occur,  anaesthesia 
may  be  produced  by  the  use  of  chloroform. 
Chloral,  which  is  in  a  sense  antagonistic  to 
strychnine,  is  considered  a  valuable  antidote. 
In  any  case,  twenty  grains  of  sodium  bromide 
should  be  given  by  the  mouth  every  hour. 

Cocaine. — ^The  patient  should  be  placed  flat 
on  the  back,  and  whisky  and  hypodermic  injec- 
tions of  strychnine— one-fortieth  of  a  grain  each 
— should  be  given. 

Phenacetin. — ^Whisky  and  digitalis  should  be 
given. 

Turpentine. — ^An  emetic,  mucilage  of  gum  ara- 
bic, Epsom  salts,  and  a  hypodermic  injection  of 
morphine,  should  be  given  to  the  patient. 

Tansy. — Thirty  grains  of  powdered  ipecac  jn 
warm  water  as  an  emetic,  and  a  dose  of  castor 
oil,  should  be  given  to  the  patient. 

In  the  case  of  unknown  poisons,  it  is  advisable 
to  give  two  teaspoonfuls  of  chalk  mixed  with 
water,  four  eggs  beaten  up  with  a  glass  of  milk, 
and  some  whisky.  The  stomach  pump,  too,  may 
be  useful,  and  in  case  these  measures  give  no 
relief,  artificial  respiration  should  be  employed. 
Of  course,  the  physician  should  endeavor  to  as- 
certain the  nature  of  the  poison  and  direct  the 
treatment  accordingly.     See  Poison. 

AN'TI-EMETIC  (Gk.  ivH,  anti,  against -f 
kfielv,  emein,  to  vomit) .  Any  remedy  which  tends 
to  arrest  nausea  and  vomiting.  No  class  of  drugs 
is  more  unreliable  in  action,  and  rest  and  quiet 
are  at  times  much  more  efficient  than  the  admin- 
istration of  an  anti-emetic.  Drugs  may  act  upon 
the  vomiting  centre,  as  morphine  or  hydrocyanic 
acid,  or  on  the  nervous  system,  or  locally  on  the 
stomach.  Of  the  local  remedies,  external  appli- 
cations of  counterirritants  or  of  cold  may  suc- 
ceed. Emetics  act  by  removing  the  cause  for 
continued  vomiting;  lavage,  or  washing  the 
stomach,  in  the  same  way.  Cold  carbonated 
waters,  alcohol,  especially  dry  champagne,  chlo- 
roform, opium,  bromides,  chloral  hydrate,  and 
arsenic  are  at  times  used  successfully.  Ipecac, 
dilute  hydrocyanic  acid,  small  doses  of  calomel, 
cerium  oxalate,  cocaine,  carbolic  acid,  nux  vom- 
ica, and  the  alkalies  are  among  the  most 
reliable  anti-emetics.  Many  drugs  at  times  suc- 
ceed where  others  fail.  In  any  case,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  cause  of  vomiting  before  it 


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ANTI-EXBTIO. 


612 


ANn-JTEDEBAIiISTS. 


18  possible  to  select  a  proper  anti-emetic.  For  ex- 
ample, the  gastric  disturbance  may  result  from  ex- 
cessive acidity  of  the  stomach  contents,  when  an 
alkali  or  simple  dilution  with  water  may  give  re- 
lief; or  it  may  be  of  cerebral  origin,  in  which  case 
such  drugs  as  the  bromides  or  opium  may  be  re- 
quired. If  due  to  gastric  irritation,  a  local  an- 
esthetic  may  be  efficacious ;  if  to  chronic  alcohol- 
ism, some  form  of  astringent,  bitter,  or  stimulant, 
in  some  cases,  may  relieve  the  vomiting.  See 
Emetio. 

AHTIETAKy  &n-te^tam.  Battle  of,  some- 
times called  The  Battle  of  Sharpsbubg.  A 
sanguinary  conflict  fought  on  September  16  and 
17,  1862,  between  Si  Federal  force  of  about  75,000 
under  General  McClellan  and  a  Confederate  force 
of  about  40,000  under  General  Lee.  After  having 
driven  McClellan  from  the  Peninsula  and  Pope 
from  the  Rappahannock  back  upon  Washington, 
Lee  took  the  offensive  and  crossed  the  Potomac, 
with  the  intention  of  invading  Pennsylvania,  and 
with  hopes  of  inducing  Maryland  to  join  the 
Confederate  cause,  and  possibly  of  forcing  a  sat- 
isfactory peace  upon  the  Federal  Government. 
Dividing  his  army,  he  sent  Jackson  against 
Harper's  Ferry  (q.v.),  which  surrendered  with 
12,500  men  on  September  15th.  Meanwhile,  on 
McClellan's  advance  from  Washington,  Lee  took 


up  a  strong  position  at  Sharpsburg,  on  the  west 
aide  of  Antietam  Creek,  and  fortified  the  passes 
of  South  Mountain.  These  McClellan  forced  on 
the  14th  (see  South  Mountain,  Battle  of),  and, 
on  the  15th,  the  two  armies  stood  facing  each 
other  across  the  Antietam.  McClellan  de- 
layed his  attack,  and  a  part  of  Jackson's  forces 
rejoined  Lee;  but  on  the  afternoon  of  the  16th, 
the  Federal  commander  ordered  Hooker  across 
the  creek,  where  the  latter  skirmished  until  dark. 
On  the  morning  of  the  17th,  the  Federal  right 
and  centre,  under  generals  Hooker,  Mansfield, 
and  Sumner,  though  their  attacks  were  badly 


concerted,  forced  back  the  Confederate  left  under 
Jackson,  who  had  arrived  from  Harper's  Ferry 
during  the  night  of  the  16th;  while  the  Federal 
left,  under  Burnside,  which  had  been  unable  to 
cross  the  creek  until  1  p.h.  owing  to  the  stub- 
born opposition  of  the  Confederates  at  *' Bum- 
side's  Bridge,"  attacked  at  3  p.m.  the  Confeder- 
ate right  under  General  A.  P.  Hill,  and  fought 
stubbornly  until  dark  without  obtaining  any 
decisive  advantage.  McClellan  decided  not  to 
renew  the  battle  on  the  following  day,  though 
the  Confederate  right  made  several  assaults  upon 
Bumside's  position,  and  during  the  night  of  the 
18th  General  Lee  retreated  unmolested  across  the 
Potomac.  The  Federals  lost  in  killed,  wounded, 
and  missing  about  12,500,  and  the  Confederates 
about  11,000.  It  w^as  one  of  the  bloodiest  battles 
of  the  Civil  War,  more  men  being  killed  on 
September  17  than  on  any  other  one  day  between 
1861  and  1865.  Tactically,  it  was  a  drawn  battle, 
though  military  critics  are  almort  unanimous  in 
the  verdict  that  McClellan,  who  brought  only 
a  part  of  his  force  into  action,  made  many  grave 
blunders,  while  the  generalship  of  Lee,  who 
utilized  nearly  every  man,  was  almost  faultless. 
Strategically,  however,  it  was  an  important  Fed- 
eral victory,  since  it  forced  Lee  to  abandon  his 
aggressive  campaign  and  retreat  into  Virginia. 
"Without  McClellan's  victory,"  says  Rhodes, 
"the  emancipation  proclamation  would  haTe 
been  postponed  and  might  never  have  been 
issued."  Consult:  BattUs  and  Leaders  of  ik€ 
Civil  War,  4  volumes  (New  York,  1884) ;  Ropes, 
Story  of  the  Civil  War,  2  volumes  (New  York, 
1894-1898)  ;  Palfrey,  The  Antietam  and  Freder- 
icksburg (New  York,  1882)  and  Michie,  General 
McClellan  (New  York,  1901),  in  the  "Great 
Commanders  Series." 

AN'TI-FEIVEBALISTS.  The  name  given  to 
a  certain  political  faction  and  party  in  the 
United  States  as  a  means  of  conveniently 
distinguishing  those  in  opposition  to  the  so- 
called  Federalist  party.  As  a  matter  of  the- 
ory and  analysis,  the  Federalists  believed  in 
a  national  system  of  government,  while  the  Anti- 
Federalists  believed  in  a  decentralized  and 
strictly  federal  system  of  government.  The  Fed- 
eralists had  the  advantages  of  possessing  a  posi- 
tive programme,  and  of  gaining  the  first  two 
points  in  the  conflict  when  the  national  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  and  when  they  committed  the 
national  government  to  the  exercise  of  such  ex- 
tensive powers  as  the  creation  of  a  national  bank. 
The  Anti-Federalists  were  thus  merely  a  party  ot 
political  opposition  to  the  party  in  power. 
When,  however,  the  Federalists,  in  the  Alien  and 
Sedition  Acts  (q.v.)  seemed  to  encroach  both 
upon  the  liberty  of  the  individual  and  upon  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  States,  the  opposition  of  the 
Anti-Federalists  became  acute  and  their  funda- 
mental propositions  were  stated  in  the  Virginia 
and  Kentucky  Resolutions  (q.v.).  This  crisis 
resulted  in  the  triumph  of  the  Anti-Federalists 
under  the  leadership  of  Jefferson  in  the  elec- 
tion of  1800;  but  soon  thereafter  the  lead- 
ers of  the  party  began  to  abandon  its  orig- 
inal creed  of  the  strict  interpretation  of  the  Con- 
stitution and  the  narrow  limitation  of  the  pow- 
ers of  the  national  government.  The  first  step 
in  this  direction  was  the  purchase  of  Louisiana; 
and  when  finally  the  Federalist  party  was  driven 
entirely  out  of  existence,  its  characteristic 
principles  remained  effective  as  the  chief  prin- 
cipals of  the  Anti-Federalist  party.    The  party 


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ANTI-FEDEBAIiISTS. 


613 


ANTiaUA. 


soon  received  the  name  Republican  party,  then 
Democratic-Kepublican  party,  and  finally  Demo- 
cratic party.  See  Democratic  Party;  Federal- 
ists; Republican;  Party  Names;  United 
States. 

AN^TIGO.  A  city  and  county  seat  of  Lang- 
lade Co.,  Wis.,  207  miles  northwest  of  Mil- 
waukee; on  the  Spring  Brook  River,  and  on  the 
Chicago  and  Northwestern  Railroad.  (Map:  Wis- 
consin, D  3).  It  is  in  a  productive  agricultural 
and  timber  region,  of  which  it  is  the  commercial 
centre,  and  has  extensive  manufactures  of  various 
kinds  of  woodenware,  besides  flour  mills,  brewer- 
ies, foundries,  and  railroad  shops.  Settled  about 
1878,  Antigo  was  incorporated  in  1884.  The 
government  is  administered  under  a  general 
State  law,  which  provides  for  a  mayor,  biennially 
elected,  and  a  municipal  council.  Pop.,  1890, 
4424;  1900,  5145. 

ANTIGKONE  (Gk.    'kvrtySvn).      (1)     In    the 
Theban  legend,  daughter  of  (Edipus  by  his  mother 
Jocasta,  and  sister  of  Eteocles,  Polynices,  and  Is- 
mene.   Her  story  existed  in  various  forms.     The 
Athenian  dramatists  represented  her  as  accompa- 
nying her  blind  father  (Edipus  (q.v.) ,  in  his  exile, 
until  his  mysterious  death  at  Colonus  in  Attica. 
W^hen  her  brother  Polynices  led  the  Seven  against 
Thebes,  she  was  in  the  city,  and  after  the  mortal 
duel  between  Eteocles  (q.v.)   and  Polynices,  she 
disregarded  the  decree  of  Creon,  that  the  latter 
should  be  left  unburied.     Caught  in  the  act  of 
burying  her  brother,  she  was  condemned  to  be 
immured  in  a  tomb,  where  she  hanged  herself. 
Thereupon  her  betrothed,  Hiemon,  son  of  Creon, 
committed  suicide.    Antigone's  filial  and  sisterly 
devotion    are    depicted    by    Sophocles    in    the 
CEdipus  at  Volonua,  and  Antigone.  She  appears  in 
_458chylus*s  Seven  Against  Thehes  and  Euripides's 
PhofnisacB.    She  was  also    the  subject  of  a  lost 
play   of  Euripides,   seemingly  endmg  with   her 
marriage  to  Heemon.    ( 2 )   Antigone,  daughter  of 
Eurytius,  and  wife  of  Peleus,  who  hanged  herself 
upon  hearing  a   false   report  of  her   husband's 
marriage  to  Sterope,  daughter  of  Acastus.     (3) 
Antigone,  daughter  of  Laomedon,  and  sister  of 
Priam,  who  offended  Hera  by  comparing  her  own 
beauty  to  that  of  the  goddess.     Hera  turned  her 
hair  into  snakes,  which  so  tormented  her  that 
the  gods,  in  compassion,  changed  her  into  a  stork. 
AKTIG^ONITS     (Gk.    'Avriyovog,    Antigonos) , 
called  the  "One-Eyed"   (c.  380-301,  or  300  B.C.). 
One  of  Alexander  the  Great's  generals,  and  a  mem- 
ber of  a  distinguished  Macedonian  family.     His 
father's  name  was  Philip,  though  whether  this 
was    Philip  of  Elymiotis,   is  uncertain.     When 
Alexander   died   and   his   Empire   was   divided, 
Antigonus    received    the    provinces    of  Greater 
Phrygia,  Lycia,  and  Pamphylia.     Being  accused 
of    disobedience   by    Perdiccas,    who    was    aim- 
ing    at    sole    control    of    the    lands     left    by 
Alexander,    he    entered    into    an    alliance  with 
Craterus,    Antipater,    and    Ptolemy,  and  made 
war    on    Perdiccas.      Perdiccas    soon    died,    but 
the  war  was  prosecuted  against  Eumenes  and  the 
party  of  Perdiccas.    After  the  death  of  Antipater, 
in   3*19  B.C.,  Antigonus  began  to  carry  out  his 
plans  for  obtaining  sole  sovereignty  of  Asia.    The 
war   was   continued  with   varying  success,   and 
many  alliances  were  made  and  broken.     At  one 
time  during  the  long  struggle,  Antigonus  was 
supreme  in  Asia  and  assumed  the  name  of  king. 
He  himself  invaded  Egjrpt,  and  his  son  Demetrius 
Poliorcetes  carried  the  war  into  Greece,  but  both 


were  compelled  to  withdraw  again  to  Asia.  In 
301  or  300  B.C.  the  army  of  Antigonus  and  De- 
metrius Poliorcetes  was  overwnelmed  by  Lysima- 
chus  and  Seleucus  at  Ipsus,  in  Phrygia.  Antig- 
onus himself  fell  in  the  battle,  at  the  age  of  about 
eighty-two. 

ANTIOOinTS  (Gk.  'Avr/ywoc,  Antigonos), 
A  king  of  the  Jews,  the  last  of  the  Hasmonean 
dynasty,  which  came  to  an  end  in  40  b.c.  The 
deposed  Herod  fled  to  Rome,  whence,  with  the  aid 
of  Octavius  and  Antony,  he  returned  to  capture 
Jerusalem  and  regain  the  throne.  At  the  request 
of  Herod,  Antigonus  was  put  to  death  at  Antioch 
in  B.C.  37. 

AKTIOOtnrS  DCrSON,  (?-220b.c.).  A  king 
of  Macedonia,  from  229  to  220  B.C.,  called  Doson 
(Gk.  Auaov,  about  to  give),  it  is  said,  because  he 
was  "always  about  to  give,  and  never  did."  He 
was  the  grandson  of  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  and 
on  the  death  of  Demetrius  II.  of  Macedonia  be- 
came guardian  of  the  latter's  son  Philip.  He 
himself,  however,  married  the  widow  of  Deme- 
trius and  became  king.  He  sided  with  the  Achsan 
League  against  the  Spartans,  whom,  under  King 
Cleomenes,  he  defeated  at  Sellasia  in  221. 

ANTIGONUS  OONA^AS  (319-239  B.C.). 
A  son  of  King  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  of  Mace- 
donia, and  grandson  of  the  great  Antigonus.  On 
his  father's  death,  B.c.  283,  he  took  the  title  of 
king,  but  did  not  secure  the  full  power  until  276 
B,c.  There  were  various  claimants  to  the  throne, 
and  he  was  twice  expelled  from  his  dominions  by 
a  hostile  force  from  Epirus.     He  died  in  239 

B.C. 

ANTIOONITS  OF  CABYSTTOS.  A  Greek 
author.  He  lived  at  Athens  and  Pergamum 
about  the  middle  of  the  third  century  b.c  Be- 
sides several  biographies  of  celebrated  contem- 
porary philosophers,  he  wrote  a  number  of 
stories.  See  Westermann's  Scriptores  Rerum 
Mirabilium  Orwci  (Brunswick,  1839),  and  the 
first  volume  of  Keller's  Rerum  Naturalium  Scrip- 
tores  Orwci  Minores  (Leipzig,  1877). 

ANTIGONTJS  OF  SO^O.  According  to  the 
Mishna,  a  scholar  and  the  disciple  of  Simon  the 
Just.  As  it  is  probable  that  the  latter  is  the  sec- 
ond high-priest  of  the  name  and  lived  in  the  first 
part  of  the  second  century  B.C.,  the  approximate 
date  of  Antigonus  is  probably  180  B.C.  The 
following  sentiment  of  his  has  been  preserved: 
"Be  not  like  slaves -who  serve  their  master  for 
their  daily  food;  be  like  those  w^ho  serve  their 
master  without  considering  the  reward,  and  let 
the  fear  of  God  be  with  you."  Pirqe  Aboth  i.  3. 
It  is  not  impossible  that  Antigonus  was  influ- 
enced by  Greek  thought.  But  the  noble  motto 
represents  a  legitimate  development  of  prophetic 
teaching  not  infrequently  met  with  in  later  Jew- 
ish thought. 

ANTiaXTAy  &n-te^gwA.  One  of  the  British 
West  Indian  Islands,  the  most  important  of  the 
Leeward  group,  situated  in  lat.  17**  6'  N  and 
long.  61"  45'  W.  (Map:  West  Indies,  R  6).  It 
covers  an  area  of  108  square  miles  and  has 
a  population  of  (1901)  34,971,  chiefly  negroes, 
with  only  5000  whites.  The  surface  is  rugged, 
and  the  coasts  are  highly  indented  and  sur- 
rounded with  rocks  and  shoals.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  especially  in  the  interior;  but  there 
is  a  scarcity  of  water  on  the  island,  which  neces- 
sitates the  construction  of  reservoirs  and  irriga- 
tion works.    The  chief  products  of  the  island  are 


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ANTiaXTA. 


614 


AXTTI-MASONS. 


sugar  and  pineapples.  The  capital,  St.  John,  with 
a  population  of  10,000  and  a  spacious  harbor,  is 
the  seat  of  the  Grovernor-Greneral  of  the  Leeward 
group.  The  best  port  is  English  Harbor,  on  the 
southern  coast.  The  island  of  Antigua,  together 
with  its  two  dependencies,  Barbuda  and  Redonda, 
forms  one  of  the  five  presidencies  of  the  Lee- 
ward Islands,  and  elects  four  members  of  the  Fed- 
eral Legislative  Council.  The  commerce  of  the 
island  is  on  the  decline,  owing  to  the  competition 
of  countries  paying  a  bounty  on  sugar.  The 
value  of  imports  in  1898  was  £106,103;  in  1899, 
£115,908;  1900,  £125,304.  Exports  1898,  £79,- 
178;  1899,  £128,095;  1900,  £111,849.  The  island 
suffered  severely  from  the  hurricane  of  August, 
1899.  Antigua  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1493  and  settled  by  the  British  in  1632.  Slavery 
was  abolished  on.  the  island  in  1834.  Consult 
V.  L.  Oliver,  History  of  Antigua  (London,  1894- 
99). 

AN'TI-JACOBIN,  or  WEEK^LY  EXAM^- 
INEBy  TiiE.  An  English  paper  published  from 
November  20,  1797,  to  July  9,  1798.  It  was 
founded  by  George  Canning  and  his  friends  to 
express  their  opposition  to  the  principles  of  the 
French  Revolution.  Its  editor  was  William  Gif- 
ford,  who  had  already  made  a  reputation  as  a 
political  satirist,  among  its  contributors,  besides 
Canning,  being  John  Hookham,  Frere,  and  GJeorge 
Ellis. 

ANTI-JACOBIN  BEVTEW^,  The.  An  Eng- 
lish periodical  founded  by  John  Gilford  in  1798 
after  the  discontinuance  of  the  foregoing,  i.e. 
Anti-Jacohin,  or  Weekly  Examiner,  with  which, 
however,  it  had  nothing  to  do.  Its  full  title  was 
The  Anti-Jacobin  Review  and  Magazine,  or 
Monthly  Political  and  Literary  Censor,  It 
oeased  to  appear  in  1821. 

AN'TILEOOM^NA  (Gk.  spoken  against, 
from  avri,  anti,  against  -f-  Ae/ftv,  legevn, to  speak) . 
A  term  applied  by  Eusebius  in  his  Ecclesiastical 
History,  III.,  26,  to  certain  New  Testament  books 
which  were  not,  in  his  day,  homologoumena 
{dfioXoyovfieva),  i.e.,  everywhere  acknowledged 
as  authentic  and  authoritative.  There  were 
seven  such  books :  viz.,  James,  II.  Peter,  Jude,  II. 
and  III.  John,  Hebrews,  and  the  Revelation  of 
John. 

AN'TI-LIB'ANirS,  or  AN'TI-LEB'ANON, 
(Gk.  'Avr/A,t/?ayoc,  Antilihanos,  Counter  Leba- 
non). A  mountain  ridge  in  Palestine  and  Syria, 
about  ninety  miles  long,  separated  from  the  Leb- 
anon range  on  the  west  by  the  valley  of  Ccele- 
Syria  (Map:  Palestine,  B  1).  It  is  generally 
inferior  to  the  Lebanon,  its  highest  peak,  Mount 
Hermon,  on  the  southeast,  being  only  a  little  over 
9000  feet  in  height.  This  mountain  is  covered 
with  perpetual  snow,  and  gives  rise  to  the  River 
Jordan.  The  Antilibanus  is  composed  of  creta- 
ceous strata,  and  is  almost  devoid  of  cedars.  Be- 
sides Mount  Hermon  the  highest  peaks  are  Tala- 
at-Musa  (8721  feet),  Halimat-Kabu  (8257  feet), 
and  Abul-Hin    (8330  feet). 

ANTILLES,  Engl.  ftn-tlKlgz;  Fr.  ftn't^F.  A 
name  applied  to  the  West  India  Islands  exclusive 
of  the  Bahamas  (Map:  West  Indies,  C  and  F  3). 
The  total  area  is  about  90,000  square  miles. 
The  Antilles  are  generally  divided  into  the  Great- 
er and  Lesser  Antilles.  The  former  comprise  the 
four  largest  islands,  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Haiti,  and 
Porto  Rico.  The  lesser  Antilles  are  composed  of 
the  Leeward  and  Windward  groups,  including  all 


the  small  islands  along  the  northern  coast  of 
Venezuela.  Some  authorities  exclude  the  Virgin 
Islands  from  the  Leeward  group,  thereby  making 
four  divisions  instead  of  three.  For  detailed 
information,  see  articles  on  the  groups  and  sepa- 
rate islands. 

ANTILOCA^RA  {antelope  +  Lat.  copra, 
a  she-goat).  The  type  genus  of  the  North 
American  ruminant  family  Antilocapride,  repre- 
sented by  the  pronghorn,  characterized  by  the 
absence  of  lateral  hoofs,  and  especially  by  the 
fact  that  the  horns,  compressed  at  the  base,  are 
branched  and  deciduous.     See  Pbonghobn. 

AN'TLLOCKAJtlTHM.     See  Logarithm. 

ANTI-MACCBIAVEL,  ftn'tl-mftk^-i-v^l.  A 
treatise  written  by  Frederick  the  Great  before 
he  came  to  the  throne;  published  by  Voltaire  in 
1740.  It  is  a  reply  to  Macchiavelli's  Prince,  and 
sets  forth  the  obligations  of  rulers. 

ANTIH^ACHTJS  (Gk.  'AvrifiaxtK,  Antim- 
achos),  A  Greek  poet  and  critic  of  Colophon, 
who  lived  about  410  b.g.  He  was  a  contempor- 
ary of  Plato  and  a  forerunner  of  the  poets  of  the 
Alexandrine  School.  His  works  were  more  re- 
markable for  learning  than  genius.  His  chief 
productions  were  Lyde,  a  cycle  of  elegies;  an 
epic  poem,  Thehais,  which  the  Alexandrine  critics 
thought  worthy  to  be  compared  with  Homer's 
Iliad,  and  a  recension  of  the  text  of  the  Homeric 
poems.  In  the  few  extant  fragments  of  his 
works,  his  style,  though  learned,  is  rigid  and 
artificial.  Consult:  Kinkel's  edition  of  the 
Thehais,  in  the  Epicorum  Orcscorum  Fragment  a 
(Volume  I.,  Leipzig,  1877),  and  Bergk's  edition 
of  Lyde,  in  Poetm  Lyrici  Greed  (fourth  edition, 
Leipzig,  1882). 

AN'TI-MA'SONS.  The  name  of  a  political 
party  in  New  York  and  other  States,  organized 
in  1827-28,  chiefly  as  the  result  of  excitement 
over  the  fate  of  William  Morgan,  of  Batavia, 
N.  Y.,  who  was  said  to  be  about  to  publish,  or 
betray,  the  secrets  of  the  Masonic  order,  of  which 
he  was  a  member.  He  disappeared  suddenly  in 
1826,  and  his  fate  has  never  been  satisfactorily 
determined.  The  opponents  of  Freemasonry  de- 
clared that  he  had  been  murdered  and  his  body 
sunk  in  the  river  or  lake  at  Niagara.  Legal  in- 
quiries followed,  but  proved  nothing.  At  or  about 
that  time  the  governor  of  the  State  was  a  Ma^on 
of  the  most  advanced  degrees,  and  probably  a  ma- 
jority of  all  public  officers  were  members  of  the 
order.  Widespread  excitement  pervaded  western 
New  York,  and  the  Anti-Masonic  party  was 
formed,  casting  33,000  votes  in  1828,  about  70,- 
000  in  1829,  and  120,000  in  1830,  though  many  in 
the  latter  year  were  anti- Jackson  men,  without 
reference  to  Masonry.  The  party  attempted  to 
organize  on  national  lines  in  1830,  and  especially 
in  connection  with  its  National  Convention  of 
1831 J  and  in  1832  it  supported  William  Wirt  for 
President,  but  carried  only  one  State,  Vermont. 
The  party  was  also  able,  through  the  disorganiza- 
tion of  the  Democrats,  to  control  temporarily 
Pennsylvania,  and  it  was  strong  in  Ohio  and 
Massachusetts;  but  after  1835  it  disappeared  as 
rapidly  as  it  had  arisen.  Many  who  were  con- 
spicuous later  in  the  two  chief  parties,  such  as 
Thurlow  Weed  (q.v.)  and  Seward  (q.v.),  were 
members  of  this  party  for  a  brief  time ;  but  upon 
the  coalescence  and  harmonizing  of  each  of  the 
dominant  parties,  the  life  of  a  third  national 
party  became  an  impossibility, especially  upon  the 


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OOPYRIQHT,  1M2,  BY  DOD0,IIEAD  A  COMPANY. 


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ANTI-MASONS. 


615 


ANTINOMY. 


subsidence  of  the  excitement  out  of  which  it  had 
arisen.  Consult:  Uammond,  Political  History, 
(Cooperstown,  1846) ;  Hopkins,  Political  Parties 
(New  York,  1900). 

ANTIMONAn,  fin't^-md-nUn^  A  seaport 
town  of  Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Tayabas  (Map:  Luzon,  J  11).  It  is  situ- 
ated on  the  eastern  coast,  opposite  the  Alabat 
Island,  19  miles  east  of  Tayabat.  Pop.  about 
10,000. 

AN'TIMO'NIAL  WINE.  See  Tabtab 
Emetic. 

AN'TI-MONOF'OLY  PAB^Y,  The.  A  po- 
litical party  organized  at  Chicago  on  May  14, 
1884,  when  it  nominated  Benjamin  F.  Butler, 
of  IVIassachusetts,  for  the  Presidency,  on  a  plat- 
form which  demanded  an  Inter-State  Commerce 
law,  a  direct  vote  for  United  States  Senators,  a 
graduated  income  tax,  the  establishment  of  labor 
unions,  the  repeal  of  all  tariffs,  and  the  pro- 
hibition of  grants  of  land  to  corporations.  In 
the  ensuing  election,  the  party  united  with  the 
<3reenback  Labor  party  to  form  the  People's 
party,  which  polled  130,000  votes. 

AN'TIMONY  (Low  Lat.  antimonium,  of  dis- 
puted origin).  A  metallic  element  that  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  but  was  first  isolated  in 
1450.  It  is  found  native  in  small  quantities, 
sometimes  associated  with  silver,  iron,  or  arsenic. 
Its  chief  commercial  source  is  the  gray  antimony 
■ore  or  stibnite,  which  is  found  in  France,  Spain, 
Portugal,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy,  in  Eu- 
rope ;  in  New  South  Wales,  Australia ;  in  Japan, 
tind  in  this  country  in  Arkansas,  Nevada,  Califor- 
nia, and  Montana.  The  usual  process  for  the 
reduction  of  the  ore  is  by  roasting  the  sulphide 
with  charcoal  at  a  gentle  heat,  the  antimonious 
oxide  thus  driven  off  being  collected  in  flues.  The 
residue,  "antimony  ash,"  consisting  largely  of 
antimony  tetroxide,  is  mixed  with  reducing 
agents  and  fused  in  a  crucible  at  a  low  red  heat. 
The  slag,  which  is  called  crocus  of  antimony,  rises 
above  the  metal,  while  the  latter  collects  at  the 
bottom  of  the  crucible. 

Antimony  (symbol,  Sb.,  at.  wgt.  120.43)  is  a 
brittle,  hard,  silver-white  metal,  easily  crystal- 
lized, with  a  specific  gravity  of  6.71  to  6.86.  It 
melts  at  450**  C,  and  boils  at  a  white  heat. 
Metallic  antimony  is  chiefly  used  as  a  constitu- 
ent of  alloys;  with  lead  and  tin,  it  forms  type 
metal,  stereotype  metal,  and  pewter;  with  tin 
and  copper,  it  forms  britannia  metal  and  anti- 
friction metal;  also,  in  small  quantities  with 
copper,  bell  metal.  Antimony  combines  with 
acid  radicals,  forming  two  classes  of  salts:  those 
in  which  it  is  combined  as  a  triad,  yielding  anti- 
monious compounds,  and  those  in  which  it  acts 
as  a  pentad  element,  forming  antimonic  com- 
pounds. The  more  important  commercial  com- 
pounds of  antimony  are  the  trisulphide,  used 
in  refining  gold  and  silver  from  copper,  in  the 
preparation  of  safety  matches,  in  percussion  caps, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  fireworks;  the  tri- 
chloride, called  butter  of  antimony,  used  as  a 
bronzing  solution  for  gun  barrels;  the  trioxide, 
employed  in  the  preparation  of  tartar  emetic, 
which  is  a  tartrate  of  potassium  and  antimony, 
used  in  medicine  and  as  a  mordant  in  dyeing  and 
calico  printing.  The  sulphides  of  antimony  have 
long  been  used  in  medicine,  and  are  also  constitu- 
ents of  the  pi^ents  Merimee's  yellow  and  Naples 
yellow.  During  1900,  there  were  produced  in  the 
United  States,  chiefly  from  imported  ores,  1760 


short  tons  of  metallic  antimony,  valued  at  $346,- 
980. 

AN'TINO^MIANISM  (Gk.  am.  an^i,  against 
-f  vdfwc,  nomoa,  law).    The  doctrine  or  opinion 
that  Christians  are  freed  from  obligation  to  keep 
the  law  of  God.     It  is  generally  regarded  by  the 
advocates  of  the  doctrine  of  justification  by  faith 
as  a  monstrous  abuse  and  perversion  of  that 
doctrine,  upon  which  it  usually  professes  to  be 
based.     From  several  passages  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, as  Romans  vi  and  II.  Peter  ii  ;  18,  19,  it 
would  seem  that  a  tendency  to  antinomianism 
had  manifested  itself  even  in  the  apostolic  age; 
and  many  of  the  Gnostic  sects  were  realty  anti- 
nomian,  as  were  probably  also  some  of  the  heret- 
ical sects  of  the  Middle  Ages;  but  the  term  was 
first  used  at  the  time  of  the  Reformation,  when 
it  was  applied  by  Luther  to  the  opini(»is  advo- 
cated by  John  Agricola.    Agricola  had  adopted 
the  principles  of  the  Reformation;  but  in  1627 
he  found  fault  with  Melanchthon  for  recommend- 
ing the  use  of  the  law,  and  particularly  of  the 
Ten  Commandments,  in  order  to  produce  convic- 
tion and  repentance,  which  he  deemed  inconsist- 
ent with  the  Gospel.     Ten  years  after,  he  main- 
tained, in  a  disputation  at  Wittenberg,  that  as 
men  are  justified  simply  by  the  gospel,  the  law  is 
in   no  way  necessary  for  justification   nor   for 
sanctification.    The    ^'Antinomian   Controversy" 
of  this  time,  in  which  Luther  took  a  very  active 
part,  terminated  in   1640  in  a  retractation  by 
Agricola;  but  views  more  extreme  than  his  were 
afterward  advocated  by  some  of  the  English  sec- 
taries of  the  period  of  the  Commonwealth;  and, 
without  being  formally  professed  by  a  distinct 
sect,  antinomianism  has  been  from  time  to  time 
reproduced  with  various  modifications.    It  ought, 
however,   to  be  borne  in  mind   that   the   term 
antinomianism  has  no  reference  to  the  conduct, 
but  only  to  the  opinions  of  men;  so  that  men 
who  practically  disregard  and  violate  the  known 
law  of  God,  are  not  therefore  antinomians ;  and  it 
is  certain  enough  that  men  really  holding  opin- 
ions more  or  less  antinomian  have  in  many  cases 
been  men  of  moral  life.     It  is  also  to  be  observed 
that  the  term  antinomianism  has  been  applied 
to  opinions  differing  very  much  from  each  other. 
In  its  most  extreme  sense  it  denotes  the  rejection 
of  the  moral  law  as  no  longer  binding  upon  Chris- 
tians, and  a  power  or  privilege  is  asserted  for 
the  saints  to  do  what  they  please  without  preju- 
dice to  their  sanctity,  it  being  maintained  that 
to  them  nothing  is  sinful ;  and  this  is  represented 
as  the  perfection  of  Chris^an  liberty.     But  be- 
sides this  extreme  antinomianism,  than  which 
nothing  can  be  more  repugnant  to  Christianity, 
there  is  also  sometimes  designated  by  this  term 
the  opinion  of  those  who  refuse  to  seek  or  to  see 
in   the   Bible  any  positive  laws   binding   upon 
Christians,  and  regard  them  as  left  to  the  guid- 
ance of  gospel  principles  and  the  constraint  of 
Christian  love;  an  opinion  which,  whatever  may 
be  thought  of  its  tendency,  is  certainly  not  to  be 
deemed  of  the  same  character  with  the  other. 
Probably  the  antinomianism  that  does  not  arise 
out  of  a  dislike  of  morality  usually  originates 
in  mistaken  notions  of  Christian  liberty,  or  in 
confusion  of  views  as  to  the  relation  between 
the  moral  law  and  the  Jewish  law  of  ceremonial 
ordinances. 

ANTIN'OMY  (Gk.  avrivofiia,  antinomia,  op- 
position of  laws ;  from  avW,  anti,  against  +'  vdfio^, 
nornos,  law) .     A  word  used  by  Kant  to  mark  the 


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AKTINOMT. 


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AKTIOCH. 


"conflict  between  two  propositions,  each  of  which 
seems  to  be  true,  but  neither  of  which  has  any 
more  claim  to  our  assent  than  the  other."  Kant 
uae^  the  term  antithetic  in  the  same  sense.  Such 
a  conflict  arises  when  our  reason  "ventures  to  go 
beyond  the  limits  of  our  experience."  There  are 
four  of  these  antinomies;  the  first  two  being 
called  mathematical,  the  last  two  dynamic.  In 
each  case  the  positive  assertion  is  called  the 
thesis,  its  negation  is  called  the  antithesis. 
Briefly,  his  theses  are :  The  world  ( 1 )  is  limited 
in  space  and  time,  (2)  consists  of  parts  that  are 
simple,  (3)  admits  of  causality  through  freedom, 
(4)  implies  the  existence  of  an  absolutely  neces- 
sary being.  Over  against  these  stand  the  anti- 
theses :  The  world  ( 1 )  is  without  limits  in  space 
or  time,  (2)  consists  of  parts  always  composite, 
(3)  admits  of  no  causality  but  that  of  natural 
law,  (4)  implies  the  existence  of  no  absolutely 
necessary  being.  Kant  overcomes  these  antin- 
omies by  showing  that  the  contradiction  is  not 
real  if  critically  considered  with  due  discrimina- 
tion between  noumena  and  phenomena.     See  Cat- 

EGOBY;  Kant. 

ANTINOBI,  &n't^n</r«,  Mabciiese  Obazio 
( 181 1-82 ) .  An  Italian  zoologist  and  African  ex- 
plorer, born  at  Perugia.  He  went  to  Egypt  in 
1859,  and  with  Carlo  Poggia  explored  the  Upper 
Nile  country.  In  the  Bulletin  of  the  Italian 
Geographical  Society,  of  which  he  became  one  of 
the  founders  in  1867,  he  gives  an  interesting 
account  of  his  travels  through  Nubia.  He  made 
a  tour  through  Bogoland,  north  of  Abyssinia, 
after  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal,  and  in  1875 
went  to  Tunis  to  investigate  the  practicability 
of  Roudalre's  plan  for  flooding  a  portion  of  the 
Sahara  Desert  in  order  to  establish  communi- 
cation with  the  Mediterranean.  He  headed  an 
important  expedition  to  Shoa  in  1876,  and  gave 
the  first  definite  information  concerning  the  zo- 
ology of  that  country. 

AKTIN^OttS  (Gk.  *Avrivooi,  Antinooa).  A 
beautiful  youth  of  Claudiopolis,  in  Bithynia.  He 
was  page  to  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  and  the  object 
of  his  extravagant  affection,  accompanying  him 
in  all  his  travels,  but  was  either  drowned  acciden- 
tally in  the  river  Nile,  or,  as  some  suppose,  com- 
mitted suicide  from  a  loathing  of  the  life  he  led, 
in  122  A.D.  His  memory  and  the  grief  of  the 
Emperor  were  perpetuated  by  many  beautiful 
statues  and  bas-reliefs,  of  which  several  have 
been  found  in  the  villa  of  Hadrian  near  Tivoli 
(Tibur).  "In  all  the  figures  of  Antinoils,"  says 
Winckelmann,  "the  f^e  has  a  rather  melancholy 
expression ;  the  eyes  are  large,  with  fine  outlines ; 
the  profile  is  gently  sloped  downward;  and  the 
mouth  and  chin  are  especially  beautiful."  The 
city  of  Besa,  in  the  Thebals,  near  which  Antinofis 
was  drowned,  was  also  rebuilt  by  Hadrian,  and 
the  name  of  Antino6polis  conferred  upon  it,  in 
memory  of  his  favorite.  Antinofis  was  further 
enrolled  among  the  gods,  and  temples  erected  to 
him  in  Egypt  and  Greece.  Antinofis  is  a  charac- 
ter in  twohistorical  romances,  Antinoiia,  by  Tay- 
lor, translated  from  the  German  by  Safford  (New 
York,  1882),  and  The  Emperor  {Der  Kaiser),  by 
Ebers  (Stuttgart,  1880),  done  into  English  by 
Clara  Bell. 

AN'TIOCH  {Gk.  * AvTtSxeia,  Antiocheia ;  Lat. 
Antiochea,  or  Antiochia) .  The  ancient  capital 
of  the  Hellenistic  kings  of  Syria,  on  the  Orontes, 
and  the  most  magnificent  of  the  sixteen  cities  of 
that  name  built  by  Seleucus  Nicator,  and  named 


for  his  father,  Antiochus.     Its  situation  was  ad- 
mirably chosen.    The  river  Orontes,  issuing  froiL 
the  mountains  of  Lebanon,  flow^s  north  as  far  as 
the  thirty-sixth   parallel  of  latitude,  and  then 
southwest  into  the  Mediterranean.     On  the  left 
bank  of  the  river,  and  at  a  distance  of  twenty 
miles  from  the  sea,  lay  the  famous  city,  in  the 
midst  of  a  fertile  and  beautiful  plain,  ten  miles 
long  by  five  broad.     By  its  harbor,  Seleucia.  it 
had  communication  with  all  the  maritime  cities 
of  the  West,  while  it  became,  on  the  other  hand, 
an  emporium  for  the  merchandise  of  the  East. 
Behind  it  lay  the  vast  Syrian  desert,  across  which 
traveled   the   caravans   from   Mesopotamia  and 
Arabia.    On  the  north,  the  plain  of  Antioch  is 
bounded  by  the  mountain  chain  of  Amanus,  con- 
nected with  the  southeastern  extremity  of  Mount 
Taurus;  and  on  the  south,  which  is  more  rocky, 
by  the  broken  declivities  of  Mount  Casius,  from 
which  the  ancient  town  was  distant  less  than 
two  miles.     In  early  times,  a  part  of  the  citj 
stood  upon  an  island,  which  has  now  disappeared. 
The   rest   was   built   partly   on   the   plain,  and 
partly  on  the  rugged  ascenttoward  Mount  Casing 
The   slopes   above   the  city   were   covered   with 
vineyards,  while  the  banks  of  the  river  displayed, 
as  they  do  even  at  the  present  day,  a  gorgeous 
profusion  of  eastern   fruit-trees.    The  ancients 
called  it"Antioch  the  BeauUful/'and  the  "Crown 
of  the  East."     It  was  a  favorite  residence  of  ihe 
Seleucid  princes  and  of  the  wealthy  Romans,  and 
was  famed  throughout  the  world  for  its  luxury. 
It  received  from  Strabo  the  name  of  Tetrapoli«, 
on  account  of  three  new  sites  having  been  suc- 
cessively built  upon,  and  each  surrounded  with  a 
wall.     Founded  by  Seleucus  Nicator  about  30»> 
B.C.,  it  received  its  first  addition  from  him;  it* 
second  from  Seleucus  Callinicus  (246-226  b.cJ: 
and  its  third  from  Antiochus  Epiphanes    (175- 
164  B.O.).     Its  public  edifices  were  magnificent. 
The  principal  were  the  palace,  the  senate  hou>e, 
the  temple  of  Jupiter,  burnished  with  gold,  the 
theatre,  amphitheatre,  and  Csesarium.    It  had  an 
aqueduct,  a  public  promenade,  and  innumerable 
baths.     After  the  founding  of  Constantinople  it 
ceased  to  be  the  first  city  of  the  East,  but  it  rov 
to  new  dignity  as  a  Christian  city,  for  Antioch 
was  in  fact  the  mother  church  of  Gentile  Chri** 
tianity,  the  home  of  the  first  ministry  of  Paul. 
the  spot  from  which  he  set  out  on  his  missionarr 
journeys  through  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  and 
the  scene  of  the  first  confiict  between  Jewish  and 
Gentile  Christianity,  the  result  of  which  was  the 
Apostolic  Council  in  Jerusalem  about  51  a.d.  Ten 
councils  were  held  at  Antioch.     Churches  sprang 
up,  exhibiting  a  new  style  of  architecture,  whicb 
soon  became   prevalent;    and   even   Constantine 
himself  spent  a  considerable  time  here,  adorning 
the  town  and  strengthening  its  harbor,  Seleucia. 
The  Antiochians  themselves,  howevei,  brought 
about  the  ruin  of  their  beautiful  city.    They  wert 
famous,  above  all  other  p>eople  in  ancient  time|«. 
for  their  biting  and  scurrilous  wit,  and  for  their 
ingenuity  in  devising  nicknames.     WTien  the  Per- 
sians, under  ChosroSs,  invaded  Syria  in  538  a.p.. 
the  inhabitants  could  not  refrain  from  jesting  at 
them.     The  Persians  took  ample  revenge  by  tht 
total   destruction   of   the   city,  which,  however 
was  rebuilt  by  Justinian.     The  next  imporUnt 
event  in  its  history  was  its  conquest  by  the  Sard- 
cens  in  the  seventh  century.     In  the  ninth  cen- 
tury it  was  recovered  by  the  Greeks  under  Ni'.^- 
phorus  Phocas,  but  in  1084  it  again  fell  into  th. 
hands  of  the  Mohammedans.     The  Crusaders  b.- 


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ANTIOCH. 


617 


ANTIOCHTTS. 


sieged  and  took  it  in  1098,  and  it  was  held  by  the 
Christians  until  1268.  (SeeANTiocH,  Principal- 
ity OF.)  Since  then  Antioch  has  undergone  a 
variety  of  vicissitudes.  Its  population  at  the 
height  of  its  grandeur  is  estimated  to  have  been 
400,000.  Probably  no  great  city  in  the  world 
has  suffered  so  frightfully  from  earthquakes  as 
Antioch.  It  was  destroyed  by  one  in  526  A.D. 
A  destructive  visitation  occurred  in  1872. 

The  modem  town  of  Antakiyeh,  in  the  vilayet 
of  Aleppo,  is  situated  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Antioch  (q.v.)  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  G  4).  It 
is  poorly  built,  and  presents  a  striking  contrast 
to  the  magnificent  walls  of  the  old  city,  which 
are  still  partly  preserved.  It  takes  up  only  a 
small  portion  of  the  ancient  city,  the  remainder 
being  covered  with  olive  trees  and  date  palms. 
The  inhabitants  carry  on  some  trade  in  olives, 
silk,  and  grain.  The  population  is  'variously 
estimated  at  from  18,000  to  28,000,  including 
only  a  few  Christians. 

AKnOCH,  Principality  of.  A  principality 
founded  by  the  Norman  crusader  Bohemond 
(q.v.)  in  1099.  For  about  30  years  it  was  the 
most  important  and  most  wealthy  portion  of  the 
Christian  possessions  in  Syria.  Gradually  it 
declined  in  political  importance;  but  the  city 
remained  a  stronghold  of  Christendom  in  the 
East  until  1268,  when  it  was  captured  by  Bibars, 
Sultan  of  Egypt  and  Syria.  Consult  Rey, 
"R^sum^  chronologique  de  I'histoire  des  princes 
d'Antioch,"  in  the  Revue  de  VOrient  Latin, 
Volume  IV.   (Paris,  1896). 

ANTIOCH  COI/LEGE.  An  American  col- 
lege, situated  at  Yellow  Springs,  O.  It  opened  in 
1853,  with  Horace  Mann  as  its  first  president. 
It  claims  to  have  been  the  first  college  in  the 
world  to  admit  both  sexes  of  all  races  to  equal 
privileges.  It  is  Christian,  but  unsectarian. 
Endowment,  1901,  over  $100,000;  value  of  build- 
ings and  grounds,  $250,000;  library,  7000  vol- 
umes; faculty,  16;  attendance,  117. 

AN'TKXCHIAK  SCHOOL.  The  rival  of  the 
Alexandrian  School.  It  held  to  the  grammatical 
interpretation  of  Scripture,  instead  of  to  the 
allegorical  or  mystical.  It  dates  from  the  mar- 
tyr Lucian  (died  311),  and  in  its  later  form 
from  Diodones  of  Tarsus  (died  394).  Its  chief 
representations  are  Chrysostom  and  Theodore  of 
Mopsuestia.  In  theology,  while  in  the  main 
orthodox  according  to  the  Nicene  type,  it  leaned 
toward  asserting  rather  the  conjunction  than 
union  of  the  iwo  natures  in  Christ. 

ANTI^OCHUS  (Gk.  'AvrioxtK,  Antiochoa),  A 
common  Greek  name,  borne  by  thirteen  kings  of 
Syria,  four  kings  of  Commagene  (a  small  country 
between  the  Euphrates  and  Mount  Taurus ) ,  and 
many  other  persons  of  note.  See  the  following 
articles. 

ANTIOCHTTS  I.  SO^TEB  (Gk.  'Avrioxoc 
'SuT^p,  Antiochoa  86tir,  savior,  deliverer). 
King  of  Syria,  280-261  B.C.  The  son  of  Seleucus 
I.  Nicator  and  Apamea.  He  was  born  in  324 
B.C.,  fought  at  Ipsus  in  301  against  Antigonus 
and  Demetrius  Polioreetes,  was  associated  with 
his  father  as  ruler  from  293,  and  became  his 
successor  after  the  murder  of  Seleucus  by  Ptol- 
emy Ceraunus  in  280.  Stratonice,  his  father's 
wife,  became  his  own  consort,  Seleucus  giving 
her  to  him  in  view  of  their  mutual  affection. 
She  was  still  living  in  268.  Whether  he  sub- 
sequently married  a  sister,  daughter  of  Seleu- 


cus and  Stratonice,  or  Stratonice  is  referred  to 
as  his  "sister,"  according  to  the  Egyptian  cus- 
tom, is  uncertain.  In  275  he  gained  a  decisive 
victory  over  the  Gauls,  who  had  invaded  Asia 
Minor.  But  Appian  is  wrong  in  maintaining 
that  he  was  given  the  surname  Soter  on  this  oc- 
casion. This  seems  to  have  been  done  only  after 
his  death.  A  cuneiform  inscription  of  the  year 
269  enumerates  all  his  titles,  but  does  not  give 
this  one.  At  the  instigation  of  Magas  of  Cyrene, 
Antiochus  declared  war  against  Ptolemy  II.  Phil- 
adclphus.  He  found  an  ally  in  Antigonus  Gona- 
tas.  King  of  Macedonia  and  Greece,  but  the  war 
led  to  no  decisive  issue.  He  maintained  with 
difficulty  the  integrity  of  the  great  empire  his 
father  had  left  him.  Antioch,  with  its  suburb 
Daphnae,  Seleucia  with  Ctesiphon,  and  Sardis 
were  the  three  capitals  of  the  kin^om.  Antio- 
chus was  not  slain  by  a  Gaul.  This  frequently 
occurring  statement  depends  on  a  confusion  with 
Antiochus  Hierax. 

AKTIOCHUS  n.  THE^OS  (Gk.  Oed^,  a 
god.)  King  of  Syria,  261-246  b.c.  Son  of  An- 
tiochus I.  Soter  and  Stratonice;  succeeded 
his  father.  His  eight  years  war  with  Ptol- 
emy II.  Philadelphus  cost  him  many  pro- 
vinces and  cities  in  Phoenicia  and  Asia 
Minor.  Only  the  expulsion  of  the  tyrant 
Timarchus  from  Miletus  in  250  B.C.  can  be 
counted  as  a  real  success.  He  is  said  to  have  re- 
ceived the  title  "Theos"  from  the  grateful  Mil- 
etians;  but  this  is  doubtful.  Theodotus  seems 
to  have  established  an  independent  kingdom  in 
Bactria  in  250  B.o.y  and  the  Parthian  chief  Ar- 
saces,  or  his  successor,  Arsaces  II.  Tiridates,  took 
possession  of  Parthia  and  made  himself  prac- 
tically independent  in  248  B.C.  Probably  as 
early  as  250  B.C.  a  reconciliation  was  efl'ected  be- 
tween Antiochus  and  Ptolemy.  The  agreement 
was  that  the  former  should  divorce  his  wife, 
Laodice,  and  marry  the  latter's  daughter,  Ber- 
enice. Upon  the  death  of  Ptolemy  II.  in  247 
B.C.,  Antiochus  abandoned  Berenice  and  her  child, 
and  went  to  Ephesus,  where  he  took  back  Laodice 
and  her  sons.  She,  however,  seems  to  have 
avenged  herself  by  poisoning  him  in  246  n.c. 
Laodice  then  proclaimed  her  oldest  son,  Seleucus, 
king;  and  her  servants  by  false  promises  lured 
Berenice  and  her  son  from  Daphnae,  where  they 
were  strongly  intrenched,  and  slew  them  both. 
Laodice's  younger  son  was  Antiochus  Hierax. 

ANTIOCHTTS  HI.  THE  GBEAT.  King  of 
Syria,  223-187  B.C.  Son  of  Seleucus  II.  Cal- 
linicus  (246-226)  and  Laodice,  a  cousin  of 
Andromachus,  ascended  the  throne  at  the  age 
of  fifteen,  after  the  murder  of  his  brother, 
Seleucus  III.  Ceraunus  (226-223.)  His  first 
expedition  was  against  Ptolemy  IV.  Philo- 
pator  (221-204),  who  had  taken  possession 
of  C€ele-Syria  and  Phoenicia.  But  the  revolts 
of  Molon,  Governor  of  Media,  and  his  brother, 
Alexander,  Governor  of  Persia,  forced  him  to 
lead  an  army  against  them.  He  succeeded  in 
defeating  them,  and  also  in  subduing  Artaba- 
zanes,  King  of  Atropatene,  220  B.C.  While  he  was 
occupied  in  these  parts,  however,  Achseus,  Gov- 
ernor of  Asia  Minor,  assumed  the  royal  diadem. 
Antiochus  returned  to  Syria,  suffered  a  severe 
defeat  at  the  hands  of  Ptolemy  IV.  at  Raphia, 
217  B.C.,  but  still  possessed  sufficient  strength  to 
attack  Achteus.  After  two  years*  siege,  Sardis 
was  captured  in  214  B.C.,  and  this  dangerous  re- 
volt   was    at    an    end.      Soon    after    Antiochus 


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ANTIOCHUS. 


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AimOCHTJS. 


marched  against  Xerxes  of  Armenia,  besieged 
Arsamosata  and  received  a  tribute  of  300  talents 
(212  B.C.)*  He  then  continued  his  march  into 
Susiana  and  Media  (210-209),  and  took  4000 
talents  of  gold  and  silver  from  the  temple 
of  AnaTtis  in  Ecbatana.  Arsaces  III.  Artabanus 
'was  defeated,  and  the  Parthian  capital  Hecatom- 
pylus  captured.  Finally,  Arsaces  III.  sued  for 
peace  and  promised  tribute,  209  B.C.  In  208  An- 
tiochus  made  an  attack  upon  Euthydemos  of 
Bactria,  and  in  206  this  king  indicated  his  will- 
ingness to  recognize  the  suzerainty  of  Syria.  He 
furnished  elephants  and  provisions  for  the 
expedition  against  Sophagasenus  of  Kophen 
( Kabul ) .  From  here  Antiochus  returned  through 
Arachosia,  Drangiana,  Carmania,  and  Babylonia 
to  Syria  in  204  B.C.  He  now  united  with  Philip 
of  Macedonia  against  Ptolemy  V.  Epiphanes. 
The  battle  of  Paneas,  in  198  B.C.,  in  which  An- 
tiochus defeated  tiie  Egyptian  general,  Scopas, 
determined  the  fate  of  Palestine.  But  the  Ro- 
mans were  not  willing  to  allow  further  encroach- 
ments. In  196  B.C.  they  ordered  him  to  return 
all  places  taken  from  Egypt  and  deprived  him  of 
the  Thracian  Chersonese  that  had  been  given  to 
Seleucus  by  Lysimachus.  Against  the  counsels 
-of  Hannibal,  who  urged  him  to  attack  Italy  it- 
self, Antiochus  went  with  his  army  to  Greece, 
where  he  was  defeated  at  Thermopylae,  191  B.C. 
Still  more  crushing  was  his  defeat  at  Magnesia 
in  190  B.C.  In  the  treaty  of  188  B.C.  he  was 
forced  to  abandon  Asia  Minor  beyond  the  Taurus, 
to  pay  15,000  talents,  and  to  give  twenty  hos- 
tages, among  them  his  son.  To  raise  the  money 
he  pillaged  a  temple  of  Bel  in  Elymais,  and  was 
probably  murdered  by  the  outraged  people  in 
187  B.C. 

AKTIOCHirS  IV.  EPIFH^ANES  (Gk. 
'Emt^v^C,  Epiphan^,  illustrious).  King  of 
Syria,  175-164  B.C.  Son  of  Antiochus  III.,  suc- 
ceeded his  brother,  Seleucus  IV.,  Philo- 
pator  (187-175).  In  188  he  had  been  sent 
to  Home  as  hostage,  and  he  had  been 
educated  there;  in  176  Seleucus  had  sent  his 
own  son  Demetrius  to  take  his  place.  Antiochus 
was  on  his  way  home,  when  the  news  reached 
liim  that  his  brother  had  been  murdered  by 
Heliodorus.  He  took  possession  of  the  throne 
that  by  right  of  succession  belonged  to  Deme- 
trius. Suspicious  of  the  young  son  of  Seleucus, 
he  seems  to  have  used  Andronicus  to  remove  him, 
after  which  Andronicus  himself  was  executed. 
In  173  Cleopatra  died,  and  hostilities  with  Egypt 
began.  His  first  Egyptian  campaign,  however, 
did  not  occur  before  170.  He  captured  Pelusium, 
entered  Egypt,  and  led  Ptolemy  VII.  Philometor 
as  king  into  Memphis,  sought  in  vain  to  storm 
Alexandria,  but  defeated  Ptolemy  IX.  Physcon 
in  a  naval  battle  before  he  was  obliged  by 
troubles  in  Syria  to  return.  In  Judeea,  Onias  III. 
had  been  removed  from  the  high-priesthood,  and 
his  brother,  Jason,  who  was  a  mere  tool  of  the 
ambitious  family  of  the  Tobiadfie,  put  into  his 
place  in  173.  Immediately  before  the  Egyptian 
expedition,  the  Tobiad  Menelatis  secured  from 
Antiochus  the  high-priestly  office.  When  a  ru- 
mor spread  in  Jerusalem  that  Antiochus  had 
perished,  Jason  returned,  but  his  brother,  Onias 
III.,  was  preferred  by  the  people.  Jason  fell  and 
Onias  was  made  high-priest.  Menelatis  and 
other  Tobiadse  fled  to  Antiocn.  On  his  way 
back,  Antiochus  went  to  Jerusalem  to  reinstate 
Menelatis.  Onias  III.  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he 
was  granted  the  privilege  of  building  a  temple 


at  Leontopolis  by  Ptolemy  VII.  Philometor.    An- 
tiochus  entered   the   temple   in  Jerusalem  and 
took  many  of  its  treasures,  among   them    the 
golden  altar,  the  candelabra,  and  the  table  of 
incense.     He  does  not  seem  to  have  shed  any 
blood.     In   168   he  undertook   his   second  cam- 
paign against  Egypt,    where     Philometor     and 
Physcon  were  now  united  against  him.    His  pro^r- 
ress  was  checked  by  the  Roman  legate,  Popilias 
Lsnas,  who  demanded  immediate  obedience  to 
the  demands  of  the  Senate.     Returning  to  Syria, 
he  found  many  of  the  Jews  embittered  by  the  in- 
dignities heaped  upon  them,  rebellious  against 
the  illegitimate  high-priest,  and  scarcely  conceal- 
ing their  joy  over  his  humiliation.     He,  there- 
fore, ordered  the  walls  to  be  razed,  fortified  the 
Acra,  put  in  a  strong  garrison,  destroyed  in  part 
the  temple,  erected  on  the  top  of  the  old  altar 
a  new  one  to  Zeus  Olympius  (ShikJcuz  Shamen, 
"abomination  of  desolation;"  for  Baal  ShameK. 
"lord  of  heaven,"  Dan.   xi  :  31),  abolished  the 
sacred  seasons,  forbade  circumcision,  and  burned 
sacred   books,    168   B.c.     This  course   of  action 
may,  in  part,  have  been  due  to  a  genuine  zeal  for 
the  god  of  Hellas,  for  whom  he  must  have  longnl 
during  his  Roman  days,  and  on  whose  sanctu- 
aries at  Athens,  Olympia,  and  elsewhere  he  later 
lavished  his  gifts.    On  the  other  hand,  reasons 
of  state  may  have  led  liim  to  build  a  temple  to 
Jupiter  Capitolinus  in  Antioch.     That  he  should 
have  forsaken  the  gods  of  his  fathers  to  wor- 
ship  this   strange   "god   of   fortresses,"   seemed 
to  the  author  of  Daniel   a   particular  sign  of 
his  wickedness   (xi   :  38).     His  stringent  meas- 
ures for  the  Hellenization  of  Judiea  caused  the 
Maccabiean   revolt.      Mattathias   began   the  re- 
bellion.    After  his  death  in  166,  his  son,  Juda». 
defeated  Apoleonius,  Seron,  Gorgias,  and  fi nalk 
Lysias   himself;    took   possession   of  Jerusaleni. 
except  the  Acra,  and  restored  and  rededicated  the 
temple   in  December,   165  B.c.     Meanwhile  An 
tiochus  had  gone  with  an  army,  first  again<%t  Ar- 
menia and  Sophene,  166  b.c.,  then  against  Me<^ 
sene  on  the  Persian  Gulf,  165  B.C.,  and  finally  into 
Susiana,  gaining  many  victories  everywhere.   He 
attempted  to  plunder  the  temple  of  Nan^a  in 
Elymais,   but  the   people   defended   successfnllj 
their  sanctuary,  and  he  was  forced  to  retire  to 
Babylon.     In   Persis  he  received  the  sad   news 
from  Judsea,  and  died  in  TabaB,  164  B.c. 

ANTIOCHUS  V.  ETT^ATOB  ( Gk.  ErirarG*^. 
Eupatdr,  bom  of  a  noble  father).  King  of  Syria. 
164-162  B.C.  Son  of  Antiochus  IV.,  was  only  nine 
years  old  when  his  father  died.  Lysais  became  hi* 
guardian  and  regent  of  the  Empire.  Accom- 
panied by  the  young  king,  Lysias  marched 
against  Judsea  to  quell  the  Maccabtean  revolt 
At  Beth  Zechariah  Judas  was  defeated,  Bethzur 
was  taken,  and  the  temple  mountain  was  be- 
sieged. The  Jews  were  obliged  to  negotiate  f*»r 
peace.  They  must  recognize  the  Seleucid  au- 
thority, raze  the  fortifications  of  the  temple,  and 
accept  the  garrison  in  the  Acra ;  but  on  the  other 
hand  were  allowed  religious  freedom.  Ly:«ia- 
was  quite  able  to  cope  with  Philip;  but  both  h*^ 
and  his  royal  ward  succumbed  to  Demetrius,  son 
of  Seleucus  IV.,  in  162  b.c. 

ANTIOCHUS  VI.  THI/OS  (Gk.  e«5f,  god> 
King  of  Syria,  145-142  B.C.  Son  of  Alexander 
Balas  and  Cleopatra,  was  proclaimed  king  while 
still  a  minor,  living  at  the  court  of  Imalcue.  i>r 
Yamliku,King  of  Chalcis,byDiodotus,  called  Trv- 
phon,  one  of  Alexander's  generals.     Tiyphon  wa-« 


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ANTIOCHirS. 


619 


AKTIOGHirS  OF  ASKALOK. 


supported  by  Jonathan  in  his  struggle  against 
•  Demetrius,  but  became  apprehensive  of  the  grow- 
ing power  of  the  Jewish  high-priest  and  ordered 
him  to  be  executed  in  Baskama,  143  B.C.  In  142, 
Antiochus,  who  had  been  only  a  tool,  was  re- 
moved, and  Tryphon  ascended  the  throne. 

ANTIOCHTJS  Vn.  SIDE^ES  (Gk.  lidvrviy 
Bidets,  native  of  Side).  King  of  Syria,  137-128 
B.C.  Son  of  Demetrius  I.,  born  at  Side  in  Pam- 
phylia.  He  resided  in  Rhodes  when  he  learned 
that  Demetrius  II.  Nicator  had  beeen  taken  pris- 
oner by  the  Parthians.  He  went  to  Antioch,  and 
was  recognized  as  king.  One  of  his  first  acts  was 
to  write  to  Simon,  the  Jewish  high-priest,  con- 
firming him  in  his  position  and  granting  him  the 
right  of  coining  money.  Having  overthrown 
Diodotus,  however,  he  demanded  of  Simon  Joppa, 
Gazara,  and  the  citadel  of  Jerusalem.  This  Si- 
mon refused  to  give,  and  when  Antiochus  sent  his 
general,  Cendebaeus,  against  him,  Simon's  sons 
Judas  and  John  Hyrcanus,  gained  a  victory,  137 
B.C.  In  ]  34  B.c,  Antiochus  marched  against  Jeru- 
salem, hiving  devastated  Jud«a,  captured  the 
city  after  a  long  siege,  and  imposed  very  severe 
conditions  upon  the  country.  John  Hyrcanus  was 
forced  to  pay  a  tribute  of  500  talents,  to  give 
hostages,  and  to  send  troops  for  the  Parthian  war. 
Having  restored  order  in  Syria,  Antiochus  at- 
tacked Phraates  130  B.C.,  defeated  him  in  three 
battles,  and  secured  the  freedom  of  his  brother. 
But  his  demands  were  so  exorbitant  that  the  ne- 
gotiations led  to  no  treaty  of  peace,  and  a  reversal 
of  fortunes  caused  Antiochus  to  lose  all  that  he 
had  gained.  Not  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  liis 
enemies,  he  hurled  himself  from  a  rock,  128  B.c. 

ANTIOCHUS  VIII.,  GBY^irS  {G\i.ypwr6q, 
grypos,  hook-nosed) .  King  of  Syria,  125-113  and 
111-96  B.C.  Son  of  Demetrius  II.  Nicator  and 
Cleopatra;  succeeded  his  father  in  125.  He  con- 
tinued the  struggle  that  Demetrius  had  had  with 
Alexander,  called  Zabina,  "the  purchased  one," 
and  finally  vanquished  him  in  121.  Cleopatra, 
who  found  him  too  independent,  wished  to  get  rid 
of  him,  but  he  forced  her  to  drink  the  poisoned 
cup  she  had  prepared  for  him.  For  eight  years  he 
reigned  peacefully,  until  in  113  Antiochus  IX. 
Cyzicenus  aroused  his  suspicions.  This  son  of 
Sidetes  had  just  married  Cleopatra,  daughter  of 
Ptolemy  IX.  Physcon.  With  the  aid  of  the  Egyp- 
tian king  he  raised  an  army  and  captured  An- 
tioch. Antiochus  Grypus  recaptured  the  city, 
and  his  wife,  Tryphaena,  put  her  sister  Cleopa- 
tra to  death  in  a  cruel  manner.  Soon  after  Cyzi- 
cenus defeated  Grypus  and  avenged  his  wife  on 
Tryphaena.  A  reconciliation  was  efl'ected  between 
the  two  brothers  in  111,  and  they  continued  to 
reign  over  difl'erent  parts  of  northern  Syria.  An- 
tiochus VIII.  was  slain  by  Heracleon  in  96  B.C. 

ANTIOCHirS  IX.  CYZICENUS  (Gk.  Kvf 
iK7fv6Ct  Kyzikenoa,  native  of  Cyzicus).  King  of 
Syria,  113-95  b.c.  Son  of  Antiochus  VII.  Sidetes 
and  Cleopatra,  was  sole  ruler  of  Syria  between 
113  and  111,  and  from  that  time  to  his  death  held 
a  part  of  Syria,  adjoining  Palestine.  He  aided 
the  Samaritans  against  John  Hyrcanus  (110-107 
B.C.)  without  success,  and  a  second  attempt  to 
subdue  Judsea  with  the  aid  of  Ptolemy  XI.  La- 
thyrus  likewise  failed.  Having  been  defeated  in 
a  decisive  battle  with  Seleucus  VI.,  he  took  his 
own  life  in  95  B.C. 

ANTIOCHirS  X.  ETJ^SEBES  (Gk.  Eto/9i7C. 
Eu8oh^,  pious) .  King  of  Syria,  95-92  B.C.  Son  of 
Antiochus  IX.  Cyzicenus.    He  continued  the  war 


against  Seleucus  VI.  and  forced  him  to  retire  to 
Mopsuestia,  where  he  was  murdered  by  the  pop- 
ulace in  95  B.C.  He  also  defeated  Antiochus  XI. 
and  Philip  in  93  B.C.,  but  was  himself  vanquished 
by  Philip  and  Demetrius  III.  in  92  B.C.  and 
obliged  to  flee  to  the  Parthians.  He  is  supposed 
to  have  died  in  75  b.c,  leaving  two  sons,  Anti- 
ochus XIII.  and  Seleucus  Cybiosactes.  His  wid- 
ow, Selene,  was  given  a  few  towns  in  Syria  by 
Tigranes  of  Armenia,  who  in  92  B.C.  took  posses- 
sion of  Antioch. 

AKTIOCHTJS  XI.  EPIPH^ANES  (Gk. 
'E^f^i^f,  ^ptpfcan^s, illustrious).  King  of  Syria, 
95-93  B.C.,  son  of  Antiochus  VIII.  Grypus;  upon 
the  death  of  Seleucus  VI.,  in  96  b.c,  he  assumed 
the  royal  diadem ;  together  with  his  brother  Phil- 
ip he  took  vengeance  upon  the  people  of  Mopsues- 
tia, who  had  murdered  Seleucus  VI.  But  on  his 
return  to  Syria  he  was  defeated  by  Antiochus 
X.,  and  was  arowned  in  the  Orontes  in  93  b.c 

ANTIOCHUS  XH.  DIONY'SirS  (Gk.  Az6- 
waoc,  Dionysus,  Bacchus).  King  of  Syria,  85 
B.C.,  son  of  Antiochus  VIII.  He  took  the  crown 
when  he  learned  that  his  brother  Demetrius  III. 
had  been  made  a  prisoner  by  the  Parthians,  and 
intrenched  himself  in  Demetrius's  capital,  Da- 
mascus. He  was  at  first  victorious  in  his  cam- 
paign against  the  Nabataeans,  but  was  defeated  in 
a  second  battle,  and  lost  his  life  in  85  b.c 

ANTIOCHUS  Xm.  A'SIATaCUS  (Gk. 
'AffiauKdg,  Asiatikos,  Asiatic.)  King  of  Syria, 
69-64  B.C.,  son  of  Antiochus  X.  He  was  sent  by 
his  mother,  Selene,  to  Rome,  together  with  his 
brother  Seleucus  Cybiosactes,  in  74  B.C.,  to  pre- 
sent his  claims  to  the  throne  of  Egypt,  but  re- 
turned to  Syria  in  71,  having  been  kept  for  a  ran- 
som by  Verres  in  Sicily,  as  Cicero  informs  us. 
After  his  victory  over  Tigranes,  in  69  B.C.,  Lu- 
cullus  gave  to  Antiochus  a  large  part  of  Syria, 
which  he  retained  until  Pompey  made  it  a  Roman 
province,  in  64  B.c. 

ANTIOCHUS  HI^BAX  (Gk.  *Ippa(,  hieraw, 
hawk) .  Son  of  Antiochus  II.  and  Loadice.  He  was 
made  King  of  Cilicia  by  Ptolemy  III,  Euergetes 
in  243  B.C.  Ostensibly  for  the  purpose  ol  assist- 
ing Seleucus  II.  Callinicus  (246-226)  to  recover 
certain  provinces  that  the  Egyptian  king  had 
taken  from  him,  but  really  to  deprive  him  of  all 
that  he  had  left,  Antiochus  sent  an  army  to  Sy- 
ria. Ptolemy  came  to  an  agreement  with  Seleu- 
cus, but  the  war  between  the  two  brothers  con- 
tinued. With  the  aid  of  the  Gauls,  Antiochus 
won  a  decided  victory  near  Ancyra  in  242.  Se- 
leucus was  supposed  to  have  been  slain,  and  An- 
tiochus mourned  him.  He  then  turned  his  arms 
against  Demetrius  of  Macedonia,  and  subsequent- 
ly against  Attains  of  Pergamus.  The  war  with 
Seleucus  was  renewed,  and  Eumenes  used  the  op- 
portunity to  take  possession  of  a  large  part  of 
Asia  Minor.  After  a  signal  defeat  at  the  hands 
of  Seleucus,  Antiochus  fled  first  to  Cappadocia 
and  then  to  Armenia.  Suspecting  foul  play,  he 
left  for  Egypt.  Ptolemy  III.  made  him  a  pris- 
oner. He  escaped,  however,  and  ended  his  stormy 
career  at  the  hands  of  brigands  in  Thrace,  225 

B.C 

ANTIOCHUS  OF  AS^KALON  (  ?  c.  68  B.C.) . 
A  Greek  philosopher.  He  succeeded  Philos  as 
head  of  the  celebrated  Academy  near  Athens, 
Abandoning  the  more  recent  traditions  of  the 
Skeptic  system,  he  introduced  into  the  academy 
the    philosophy    of    Stoicism,    the    fundamental 


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620 


AKTIPATE&. 


tenets  of  which  he  believed  to  have  originated  in 
the  Old  Academy  of  Plato. 

AimOPE,  ftn-tl'd-p^.    See  Amphion. 

ANTIOQTJIA,  ftn't«-(/k«-&.  A  department  of 
Colombia,  South  America,  bounded  by  the  de- 
partment of  Bolivar  on  the  north,  Santander  on 
the  east,  Tolima  on  the  south,  and  Cauca  on  the 
west.  Its  area  is  22,316  8<}uare  miles.  Situated 
in  the  region  of  the  Cordilleras,  Antioquia  has 
a  very  mountainous  surface.  The  mineral  wealth 
of  the  department  is  considerable,  and  the  chief 
occupation  is  mining.  The  population  is  about 
600,000.     CapiUl,  Medellin. 

AN'TIP-ffi'DO-BAPTISTS.  Those  who  op- 
pose infant  baptism.    See  Baptism. 

AN'TIPAB^ALLEIiS  { ant %-{- parallel) .  If 
a  pencil  of  two  lines,  O  —  XY,  is  cut  by  two 


parallel  lines,  AB,  MN,  and  if  MN  revolves 
through  a  straight  angle  about  the  bisector  of 
<  XOY  as  an  axis  falling  in  the'  po- 
sition AiBx,  then  AB  and  A,B,  are  said 
to  be  an  ti  parallel  to  each  other.  OA 
and  OAi  are  called  corresponding  segments 
of  the  pencil,  as  arc  also  OB  and  OBi.  A 
and  Ai  are  called  corresponding  points,  as  are 
also  B  and  B^,  The  concept  of  antiparallels  ma- 
terially simplifies  the  treatment  of  a  number  of 
propositions  of  elementary  geometry;  e.g.,  in  the 
above  figure  it  is  easily  seen  that  OA:OJf  = 
OB  'ON,  whence  OA  •  OB,  =  OB  •  0 Aj.  In  the  fol- 
lowing figures,  since  AB  and  A^B^  are  antiparai- 


Fie.2. 

lels,  we  have  at  once  the  proof  of  the  important 
proposition  that  wherever  the  point  O  be  taken 
OAOB  =  OB'OAx. 

ANTIF^ABOS  (Gk.  'kvrinapoq^  opposite 
Paros).  Anciently  called  Olearos  or  Olia- 
ros.  One  of  the  Cyclades  Islands,  cele- 
brated for  a  stalactitic  cave.  It  is  separated  from 
Paros  by  a  narrow  strait.  It  contains  about 
800  inhabitants,  and  forms  a  part  of  the 
eparchy  of  Naxos.  Antiparos  is  seven  miles  long 
by  about  three  wide;  it  is  scantily  supplied 
with  water,  but  the  flats  in  the  north  and  west 
are  tolerably  fertile.  Corn  and  wine  are  culti- 
vated, and  there  is  pasturage  for  large  flocks  of 
goats.  The  principal  occupation  of  the  inhab- 
itants is  fishing.  From  Kastron,  the  only  village 
on  the  island,  the  distance  to  the  grotto  is  about 
an  hour  and  a  half's  ride.  This  wonderful  cave 
is  not  mentioned  by  any  Greek  or  Roman  writer 
whose  works  are  extant,  but  must  have  been  vis- 
ited by  the  curiosity-hunters  of  antiquity,  for  the 
names  of  ancient  tourists  are  inscribed  about  the 
entrance.  It  may  well  have  been  a  place  of  wor- 
ship.   The  entrance  is  near  the  top  of  a  mountain 


on  the  southern  coast.  From  a  small  chamber 
a  long  and  somewhat  dangerous  descent  leads  to 
the  great  cavern,  80  feet  high,  more  than  300  feet 
long,  and  100  feet  broad,  which  contains  remark- 
able specimens  of  stalactitic  formation.  The  cave 
was  first  made  known  to  the  modem  world  by  M. 
de  Nointel,  French  ambassador  to  the  Porte,  who, 
in  1673,  spent  three  days  in  it  and  caused  the 
Christmas  mass  to  be  celebrated  on  a  natural 
altar.  Views  of  the  entrance  and  exterior  are 
published  in  the  Bulletin  de  giographie  hUioriqw: 
et  descriptive  (Paris,  1887-97).  Excavations 
by  Messrs.  Bent  and  Tsountas  have  brought 
to  light  a  number  of  graves  belonging  to 
an  early  period  in  the  **Island"  civilization. 
Since  1872,  profitable  lead  mines  have  been 
worked  on  the  island.  Consult  Bent,  The  Cy- 
clades  (London,  1885). 

AKTIFAa    See  Hebod. 

AKTIP^ATEB  ( Gk.  'kvrtvarpoq,  Antipatroi). 
(c.  400-319  B.C.).  (1)  The  son  of  lollas,  and  one 
of  the  most  distinguished  generals  of  Philip  of 
Macedon  and  Alexander  the  Great.  It  was  es- 
pecially through  the  loyal  services  of  Antipater 
and  Parmenion  that  Alexander  was  enabled  to 
establish  his  kingdom  on  a  firm  basis.  When 
Alexander  led  his  troops  into  Asia,  he  left  An- 
tipater in  sole  charge  of  affairs  in  Macedonia. 
The  latter  discharged  the  duties  of  his  office  with 
great  ability,  suppressing  insurrections  in  Thraee 
and  Sparta  and  supporting  Alexander  with  fresh 
troops  from  home.  But  he  was  on  the  point  of 
being  superseded  by  Craterus,  through  the  infla- 
ence  of  Olympias,  the  mother  of  Alexander,  when 
Alexander  died.  The  government  of  Macedonia, 
was  assigned  to  Antipater  anew,  and  he  was  soon 
after  called  upon  to  defend  himself  against  an 
alliance  of  the  Grecian  States.  He  at  first  met 
with  reverses,  but  with  the  assistance  of  Cra- 
terus,  who  was  also  his  son-in-law,  and  Leonna- 
tus,  he  finally  brought  the  allies  into  subjection 
in  322  B.C.  This  war  is  usually  called  the  Lam- 
ian  War,  from  Lamia,  where  Antipater  was  be- 
sieged in  323  B.C.  Everywhere  oligarchies  were 
established,  and  Athens  was  obliged  to  deliver  np 
Demosthenes  and  Hyperides  and  receive  a  gar- 
rison in  Munychia.  This  war  was  followed  by 
another  with  Perdiccas,  Antipater's  son-in-law, 
and  Antipater  was  again  successful. 

After  the  murder  of  Perdiccas,  in  321  B.C., 
Antipater  was  appointed  to  the  supreme  regencr 
of  ^Macedonia  and  the  guardianship  of  Alexan- 
der's children.  He  made  a  new  division  of  the 
kingdom,  but  died  shortly  after,  in  318  b.c.,  leav- 
ing the  regency  to  Polysperchon  and  a  subordi- 
nate position  only  to  his  own  son,  Cassander.  ( 2 ) 
Son  of  Cassander  and  King  of  Macedonia.  His 
reign  followed  that  of  his  brother  Philip,  who 
had  followed  Cassander  in  297  b.c.  He  was 
killed,  287  B.C.,  by  order  of  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes.  (3)  Father  of  Herod  the  Great.  His  first 
appearance  is  in  the  reign  of  Aristobulus  II. 
(69-63  B.C.),  as  a  man  of  great  wealth  and  im- 
portant connections.  He  supported  Hyrcanns 
II.  against  the  power  of  Aristobulus,  and  after. 
Hyrcanus,  in  63  B.C.,  opened  the  gates  of  Jerusa- 
lem to  Pompey,  the  influence  of  Antipater  grew 
apace.  In  47  B.C.  he  was  appointed  procurator 
of  Judsea.  In  the  struggle  between  Pompey  and 
Caesar  he  supported  the  former ;  but  after  the  de- 
feat of  Pompey,  made  his  peace  with  Cesar,  and 
continued  thereafter  his  firm  adherent.  Cesar 
showed  him  many  marks  of  favor.     Antipater 


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AKTIFHOK. 


was  poisoned  in  43  B.c.  (4)  Son  of  Herod  the 
Great  by  his  first  wife  Doris ;  a  worthless  prince, 
who  was  perpetually  conspiring  against  the  life 
of  his  brothers.  He  was  finally  tried  before 
Quintilius  Varus,  and  executed  in  prison  five 
days  before  Herod  died. 

ANTEP'ATHY  (Gk.  ivW,  anti,  against  + 
irai^of,  pathoSf  sufTering,  affection,  emotion,  feel- 
ing). By  derivation,  the  opposite  of  sympathy 
(q.v.).  It  may  be  defined  as  a  permanent 
aversion  to,  or  settled  incompatibility  with, 
some  object  or  some  quality  of  an  object.  We 
may  distinguish  between  formal  or  logical  an- 
tipathy and  concrete  or  actual  antipathies.  The 
choleric  temperament  is,  formally,  antipathetic 
to  the  phlegmatic,  and  the  sanguine  to  the  mel- 
ancholy. (See  Temperament.)  The  term  is, 
however,  more  usually  restricted  to  such  definite 
oases  of  individual  aversion  as  the  dislike  shown 
by  many  persons  to  certain  animals — snakes, 
mice,  toads,  cats.  Some  of  these  antipathies, 
doubtless,  have  their  root  in  a  cultivated  affecta- 
tion, or  in  the  unconsidered  encouragement  of  a 
prejudice  imbibed  in  childhood;  others  date  from 
a  particular  oc<^asion  of  fright,  or  are  due  to 
the  chance  association  of  the  object  with  an  un- 
pleasant incident.  If,  e.g.,  a  house  swarms 
with  mice  during  a  period  of  great  mourn- 
ing, it  is  probable  that  the  mourners  will  hence- 
forth show  a  marked  antipathy  to  these  animals. 
But  there  are  cases  which  require  a  different 
principle  of  explanation.  The  aversion  to  snakes, 
e.g.,  which  often  prevails  among  those  who  have 
never  come  into  contact  with  the  reptiles,  and 
who  have  nothing  to  fear  from  those  that  they 
may  happen  to  meet,  is,  perhaps,  a  phylogenetic 
s3rmptom.  The  snake  is  the  chief  enemy  of  the 
monkeys,  as  readers  of  Kipling's  Jungle  Book 
will  remember;  and  the  liability  to  fear  of  snakes 
may  be  a  heritage  from  our  pre-human  ancestry. 
Some  persons,  &^in>  cannot  enter  a  room  which 
contains  a  cat.  The  explanation  may  be  that  the 
valerianic  odor  peculiar  to  the  animal  is  auto- 
matically associated  in  certain  constitutions  to 
organic  sensations  of  nausea  or  shuddering,  just 
as  there  are  persons  who  are  subject  to  shivering 
and  gooseflesh  when  a  slate  pencil  squeaks  upon 
a  slate.  At  any  rate,  the  mammals  that  excite 
antipathy  (mouse,  cat,  fox,  hare,  pig)  have  one 
and  all  a  marked  and  peculiar  scent;  and  we 
know  from  animal  psychology  that  a  smell-stim- 
ulus may  set  up  a  well-marked  chemo-refiex.  The 
aversion  to  mice  may  be  derived  in  part  from 
the  uncanny  and  snake-like  character  of  their 
locomotion,  and  in  part  from  the  ubiquity  which 
their  small  size  makes  possible.  The  aversion 
to  toads  (apart  from  superstitious  belief  in  their 
poisonous  properties)  may  be  due  to  the  clammy 
cold  of  their  skin;  we  all  know  the  horrible 
feeling  that  arises  if,  being  in  the  pantry  in  the 
dark,  we  lay  our  hand  by  chance  upon  a  piece  of 
cold  potato.  Many  historical  cases  of  antipathy 
cannot  now  be  explained,  simply  because  we  have 
only  the  record  of  the  bare  fact,  with  no  mention 
of  the  conditions  under  which  the  antipathy  took 
shape. 

Bibliography.  A.  Mosso,  Fear  (New  York, 
1896)  ;  W.  James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New 
York,  1890).  On  reflex  sensations,  see  W. 
Wundt,  OrundzUge  der  physiologischen  Psycholo- 
gie  (I^eipzig,  1893).     See  Common  Sensation. 

ANTIF^ATBIS.  A  city  of  Palestine,  built 
by  Herod  the  Great  (37-34  B.C.)  in  honor  of  his 


father,  Antipater.  It  was  situated  in  the  Plain 
of  Sharon,  about  11  miles  east-northeast  of  Jop- 
pa.  In  Roman  times  it  was  of  importance  as  the 
junction  of  several  military  roads  leading  from 
the  south  and  east  to  Csesarea,  the  Roman  cap- 
ital of  Palestine.  By  the  Jews  it  was  considered 
the  northwest  limit  of  strictly  Jewish  territory. 
It  is  frequently  mentioned  in  Josephus.  Paul 
was  escorted  as  far  as  Antipatris  by  Roman  sol- 
diers when  he  was  taken  from  Jerusalem  to  Cse- 
sarea  (Acts  xxiii  :  31-32). 

ANTIPH'ANES  (Gk.  'kvn^avnq).  A  Greek 
comic  poet  of  the  fourth  century  B.c.  He 
was  one  of  the  chief  representatives  of  the  Mid- 
dle Comedy.  Many  fragments  of  his  works — 
which  numbered,  according  to  some  estimates, 
365,  and  to  others  260 — ^are  preserved.  He  is 
praised  by  Athenseus  for  his  polished  diction. 
Consult  Meineke,  Poetarum  Comicorum  ChrcBco- 
rum  Fragmenta,  Volume  III.   (Berlin,  1839-67). 

ANTIPHOIiTTS  (Gk.  *AvTi^iAog^  Antiphilos). 
A  Greek  painter  of  Egyptian  birth,  who  lived 
at  the  court  of  the  first  Ptolemy,  about  330  b.c. 
He  was  a  contemporary  and  rival  of  Apelles. 
Quintilian,  who  classes  him  among  the  greatest 
painters  of  the  age  of  Philip  and  Alexander 
(xii.  10,  paragraph  6),  says  he  excelled  in  the 
lightness  and  facility  with  which  he  handled  sub- 
jects of  high  art,  as  well  as  of  daily  life.  His 
most  celebrated  works  were  portraits  of  Philip 
and  Alexander. 

ANrriPHON.  A  notable  part  of  the  bre- 
viary offices  in  all  Western  uses.  The  recitation 
of  the  Psalter  forming  the  staple  of  the  office, 
antiphons  or  short  texts  (generally  from  Holy 
Scripture),  having  special  reference  to  the  feast 
or  season  celebrated,  T^ere  sung  in  connection 
with  the  psalms  and  evangelical  canticles  to  give 
color  and  appropriateness  to  the  invariable  parts 
of  the  service.  On  the  greater  festivals  (hence 
called  "double  feasts"),  the  antiphons  are  sung 
entire  before  and  after  the  psalms:  at  other 
times  only  the  first  two  or  three  words  were 
sung  before  and  the  entire  antiphon  after.  Pope 
Gregory  I.  in  690  prepared  the  first  regular 
antiphonarium,  a  service  book  so  called  from 
being  largely  made  up  of  the  proper  music  for 
the  antiphons. 

Ain?IFHON  (Gk.  *Am06)v),  (480-411  B.C.). 
The  earliest  of  the  Ten  Attic  Orators  in 
the  Alexandrian  Canon.  He  was  the  son  of 
Sophilus  the  Sophist,  and  was  born  at  Rhamnus, 
in  Attica.  Although  Antiphon  was  undoubtedly 
influenced  by  the  teachings  of  Grorgias,  he  never 
developed  so  rhetorical  a  style  as  some  of  the 
later  orators.  He  labored  to  make  his  argu- 
ments clear,  solid,  and  convincing,  so  that  it 
might  be  impossible  for  the  judgest  who  listened 
to  the  speeches  he  wrote  to  refuse  their  assent 
to  his  propositions.  His  success  was  unmistak- 
able. Although  he  never  made  a  public  appear- 
ance as  a  pleader  in  the  courts  of  justice,  but 
contented  himself  with  writing  speeches  for  oth- 
ers to  deliver,  he  acquired  great  influence,  which 
he  did  not  fail  to  exert  for  the  furtherance  of  his 
political  principles.  To  him  must  be  attributed 
the  overthrow  of  the  Athenian  democracy  (411 
B.C.)  and  the  establishment  of  the  oligarchical 
government  of  the  Four  Hundred;  for  although 
Pisander  figured  prominently  before  the  people 
in  this  revolution,  the  whole  affair,  according  to 
Thucydides,  was  secretly  planned  by  Antiphon. 
The  oligarchical  government  fell  within  the  year. 


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AKTIPHOir. 


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AKTIPOFE. 


and  Antiphon  was  brought  to  trial  for  treason 
for  having  attempted  to  negotiate  peace  with 
Sparta.  Thucydides  affirms  that  an  abler  de- 
fense was  never  made  by  any  man  in  a  similar 
position.  He  was  condemned  to  death,  his  prop- 
erty w^as  confiscated,  his  house  razed  to  the 
ground,  his  remains  forbidden  interment  in  At- 
tica, and  his  children  forever  declared  incapable 
of  enjoying  civic  privileges.  Of  the  sixty  ora- 
tions which  the  ancients  possessed,  only  fifteen 
have  come  down  to  us.  Three  of  these  are  writ- 
ten for  others,  and  are  admired  for  their  clear- 
ness, purity,  and  vigor  of  expression;  the  re- 
maining twelve  appear  to  have  been  intended  as 
specimens  of  school  rhetoric  for  his  pupils.  Ed- 
ited by  Blass  (Leipzig,  1881).  Consult  also: 
li\siSSj  At tische  BcrrdHamkeit  (Leipzig,  1887-98); 
and  Jebb,  Attic  Orators  (London,  1876-80). 

ANTIPHOIf  (Gk.  *AvTi(f>€iv,  Antiphdn)  and 
BBY'^SON.  Gr^k  niathematicians  of  the  fifth 
century  B.C.,  who  are*  credited  with  having  intro- 
duced the  process  of  exhaustion  for  the  purposes 
of  the  quadrature  problem.    See  Quadrature. 

AKTIPH^OKT  (Gk.  avW,  anti,  against  + 
^tjv^,  ph6n^,  sound,  voice).  A  name  given  by 
the  ancient  Greeks  to  a  species  of  musical  ac- 
companiment in  the  octave,  by  instruments  or 
voices,  in  opposition  to  that  executed  in  unison, 
which  they  called  homophony.  Antiphony  is  also 
the  name  of  a  species  of  sacred  song  sung  by  two 
parties,  each  responding  to  the  other,  a  practice 
which  was  cultivated  in  the  early  ages  by  the 
Hebrews,  Greeks,  and  Romans.  Many  of  the 
psalms  of  David  show  that  anti phonal  singing 
was  then  in  use.  Its  introduction  into  the  Greek 
Church  is  ascribed  either  to  Ignatius,  Bishop  of 
Antioch,  in  the  second  century,  or  to  St.  Chrysos- 
tom,  about  400  A.D.;  and  Ambrosius,  Bishop  of 
Milan,  is  said  to  have  introduced  it  into  the 
Western  Church  in  the  fourth  century.  The  di- 
viding of  the  antiphonies  into  verses,  with  rules 
regarding  the  same,  is  attributed  to  Pope  Caeles- 
tin  in  432.  The  reformed  Christian  churches  of 
Germany  and  England  have  still  retained  a  cer- 
tain degree  of  antiphonal  singing,  and  there  are 
several  antiphonal  choirs  in  America,  notably 
that  in  the  church  of  the  Paulist  Fathers  in  New 
York.  The  chanting  of  the  psalms  in  the  Eng- 
lish cathedral  service  is  an  imitation  of  the 
ancient  antiphony. 

ANTIPH'BASIS  (Gk.  apnt^pacic,  from 
opW,  anti,  against,  contrary  +  ^pateiv,  phrazein, 
to  point  out,  declare,  tell).  A  technical  term 
used  by  the  ancient  rhetoricians  and  gram- 
marians signifying,  etymologically,  "contrary- 
speaking."  Properly,  it  denoted  the  process  of 
expressing  an  idea,  generally  an  unpleasant  idea, 
by  using  a  word  or  expression  of  opposite  mean- 
ing to  the  natural  one.  Thus,  the  Furies  were 
called  the  hJutnenides  (the  kindly  minded  ones), 
and  the  Black  Sea,  thouffh  inhospitable 
{uUivoc,  axeinos),  was  named  Ponton  Euxeinoa 
(the  Hospitable  Sea).  The  word  antiphrasis 
was  used  also  in  a  broader  sense  of  the  process 
of  expressing  one  idea  by  negativing  the  oppo- 
site; e.g.,  not  unmindful,  meaning  emphatically 
mindful.  This  figure  is,  however,  called  dis- 
tinctively Litotes. 

ANTIPODES,  ftn-tlp'A-dez  (Gk.  plur.  d.vTino- 
cJcf.  from  avW,  anti,  against  -}-  irtrbq^  pous, 
foot).  Literally,  those  who  have  their  feet  over 
against  each  other.  As  applied  to  geography, 
the  term  means  the  inhabitants  of  any  two  oppo- 


site points  of  the  globe,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
dwellers  at  the  opposite  extremities  of  any  di- 
ameter of  the  earth.  From  this  primary  rela- 
tion there  necessarily  arise  many  secondary  rela- 
tions. Antipodes  must  be  on  one  and  the  same 
meridian  of  longitude,  separated  from  each  other 
by  half  the  circumference.  Being  so  situated  on 
one  and  in  the  same  meridional  circle,  they  mu'jt 
differ  in  longitude  exactly  180**,  with  the" excep- 
tion of  the  poles  themselves,  which  have  an  inde- 
terminate longitude;  and  being  separated  from 
each  other  by  half  the  circumference,  they  must 
be  equi-distant  from  the  equator  in  opposite  di- 
rections. Take  Edinburgh  as  an  example,  is 
lat.  55^*  67'  N.  and  long.  3**  11'  W.,  its  antipodes 
must  be  in  lat.  55**  57'  S.  and  in  long.  176**  4^  E.. 
which  is  merely  an  undistinguishable  spot  in  the 
Antarctic  or  Southern  Ocean.  Take  as  another 
example  London,  in  lat.  51°  30'  N.  and  long.  0'  5' 
W.  Its  antipodes  must  be  in  lat.  61*  30*  S.  and 
in  long.  179**  55'  E.,  coinciding  pretty  nearly  with 
a  small  island  to  the  southeast  of  New  Z^land. 
This  small  island,  in  honor  rather  of  London 
than  of  itself,  has  appropriated  the  peculiar 
name  Antipodes  Island. 

Between  antipodes  in  general  there  neces- 
sarily exist  also  other  secondary  relation.^. 
With  reference  to  the  earth's  daily  rotation,  noon 
of  the  one  side  must  be  midnight  t>f  the  other; 
while  with  regard  to  its  annual  revolution,  sum- 
mer and  autumn  of  the  one  side  must  be  winter 
and  spring  of  the  other.  With  respect,  however, 
to  the  former  contrast,  some  explanation  may  be 
required.  Tf  this,  for  instance,  is  Wednesday 
in  London,  was  last  midnight  in  that  city  the 
noon  of  Tuesday  or  of  Wednesday  at  Antipodes 
Island  ?  The  answer  to  this  question  depends  npon 
a  conventional  usage,  according  to  which  (with 
a  few  exceptions,  dictated  by  practical  considera- 
tions) the  time  of  all  places  east  of  Greenwich  is 
said  to  be  later  than  that  at  Greenwich,  and  the 
time  of  all  places  west  of  Greenwich  is  said  to  be 
earlier  than  that  at  Greenwich.  To  avoid  con- 
fusion it  has  been  agreed,  further,  to  tiiink  of 
Antipodes  Island  as  situated  east  of  Greenwich. 
With  this  in  view,  it  is  clear  that  the  midnight 
in  question  at  London  corresponded  to  Wedne> 
day  noon  at  Antipodes  Island.  See  Inter5a- 
TioNAL  Date-line. 

ANTIPODES  ISOJLNB.  A  small  bland 
southeast  of  New  Zealand,  in  49**  48'  S.  lat  and 
178**  20'  E.  long.,  so  called  because  it  is  nearly 
the  antipode  of  London  (Map:  World,  Western 
Hemisphere,  0  3).  It  is  uninhabited,  and  has 
an  area  of  only  about  11  square  miles.  See  An- 
tipodes. 

ANTIPOPE.  A  pontiff  elected  in  opposition 
to  one  canonically  chosen.  The  regular  Pope^ 
of  Rome  were  occasionally  out  of  favor  with  a 
faction  which  chose  its  own  bishop  (e.g.,  Hip- 
polytus,  218-223;  Felix  II.,  365-356),  but  the 
first  Antipope  is  reputed  to  be  Laurentius,  elect- 
ed in  498,  in  opposition  to  Symmachus.  Sev- 
eral emperors  of  Germany  set  up  Popes  again-^t 
those  whom  the  Romans  had  elected  without  con- 
sulting them.  Otho  the  Great  displaced  successive- 
ly two  Popes  of  Rome;  and  when  the  Antipope 
Sylvester  III.  had  expelled  Pope  Benedict  IX-, 
Conrad  II.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  brought  back 
this  ecclesiastic,  who  transferred  his  dignity  to 
Gregory  VI.  (1044).  There  were  now,  con- 
sequently, three  Popes,  and  their  number  was 
increased  to  four   by  the  election   of  Clement 


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ANTIPYBIKE. 


II.  in  1046.  Shortly  after,  Alexander  II.  found 
a  rival  in  Honorius  II.  (1061),  and  in  1080 
the  same  unseemly  spectacle  was  witnessed 
when  Henry  IV.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  elevated 
to  the  papal  chair  Guibert  of  Ravenna,  under  the 
title  of  Clement  III.,  in  opposition  to  his  im- 
placable adversary,  Gregory  VII.  But  after  the 
death  of  Gregory,  Clement  was  himself  opposed 
successively  by  Victor  III.  and  Urban  II.,  and  at 
last  died  at  a  distance  from  Rome,  having  just 
beheld  the  exaltation  of  Pascal  II.  as  the  suc- 
cessor of  Urban.  During  the  twelfth  century 
several  Antipopes  flourished,  such  as  Gregory 
VIII.  and  Honorius  III.  On  the  death  of  the 
latter,  France  began  to  intermeddle  in  these  dis- 
graceful strifes,  and  upheld  the  cause  of  Inno- 
cent II.  against  Anacletu8,while  the  kings  of  Sic- 
ily, on  the  other  hand,  more  than  once  set  up  a 
pontiff  of  their  own  against  the  choice  of  the 
emperors.  Between  1169  and  1378  there  were 
four  Antipopes;  but  the  most  remarkable  epoch 
is  "the  great  schism  of  the  West"  produced  by 
these  unedifying  rivalries  in  1378  —  a  schism 
which  divided  the  Church  for  fifty  years.  It 
broke  out  after  the  death  of  Gregory  XI.  at  the 
election  of  Urban  VI.,  whom  the  voice  of  the 
Roman  people,  demanding  an  Italian  Pope  and 
not  one  who  should  fix  his  pontificate,  like  sev- 
eral of  his '  predecessors,  at  a  distance  from 
Rome,  had  elevated  to  the  papal  throne.  The 
French  cardinals  objected,  withdrew  to  Provence 
and  elected  a  new  Pope,  under  the  name  of  Clem- 
ent VII.,  who  was  recognized  by  France,  Spain, 
Savoy,  and  Scotland,  while  Italy,  Germany,  Eng- 
land, and  the  whole  north  of  Europe  supported 
Urban  VI.  These  two  Popes  excommunicated  each 
other ;  nor  did  they  even  fear  to  compromise  their 
sacred  character  by  their  strife.  The  schism  con- 
tinued after  their  death,  when  three  Popes  were 
elected  by  different  parties,  all  of  whom  were  de- 
posed by  the  Council  of  Constance,  in  1415,  and 
Cardinal  Colonna  elected  in  their  place,  under 
the  title  of  Martin  V.  The  last  Antipope  was 
Felix  V.  (1439-49).  These  divisions  are  often 
alleged  as  an  argument  against  the  doctrine  of 
papal  infallibility;  but  Catholics  consistently  af- 
firm that  the  privilege  of  infallibility  is  only 
claimed  in  matters  of  doctrine,  and  has  no  rela- 
tion to  questions  of  fact,  such  as  disputed  suc- 
cession or  canonicity  of  election. 

AN'TIPYBETOiC  (Gk.  avri,  anti,  against 
-I-  wperdc,  pyretoSy  burning  heat,  fever).  Any 
drug  which  lowers  febrile  temperature  by  action 
upon  the  blood,  the  circulation,  or  the  secretion  of 
sweat,  or  by  changes  in  heat  production  and  dis- 
sipation through  the  nervous  system.  The  most 
important  are  antipyrin,  acetanilid,  phenacetin, 
quinine,  salicylic  acid  (qq.v.)  and  its  derivatives, 
and  others  of  the  benzene  series.  Less  impor- 
tance than  formerly  is  attached  to  the  action 
of  such  drugs  in  diminishing  temperature,  as 
fever  is  now  regarded  as  a  symptom  of  some 
disturbance,  a  symptom  which  is  in  many  cases 
best  relieved  by  removing  its  cause.  If  the  tem- 
perature is  so  high  as  to  appear  .to  be  injurious 
in  itself,  or  if  it  causes  discomfort,  these  reme- 
dies may  be  of  value.  Many  of  them  are  effi- 
cacious also  in  relieving  pain ;  e.g.,  salicylic  acid 
in  acute  rheumatism;  antipyrin,  antifebrin,  or 
phenacetin  in  any  painful  febrile  condition.  Qui- 
nine is  used  in  malarial  fever,  not  for  its 
antipyretic  effect,  but  to  overcome  the  malarial 
organism.  (See  Malaria.)  Cold  baths,  sponges, 
packs,  etc.,  are  frequently  employed  to  reduce 


temperature.  The  antipyretic  action  of  drugs 
is  usually  accompanied  by  more  or  less  depression 
of  the  heart.  See  Cinchona;  Salicylic  Acid. 
AK'TIFY^BINE  (derivation  same  as  of  an- 
tipyretics). An  artificial  alkaloid,  having  the 
composition  CnHjsNsO.  It  is  a  white,  crystalline 
powder,  freely  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol,  and 
having  a  slightly  bitter  taste.  It  diminishes  the 
force  and  frequency  of  the  heart's  action  and  low- 
ers  the  arterial  tension;  reduces  the  frequency 
of  respiration  and  the  amount  of  carbonic  acid 
given  off,  and  diminishes  the  amount  of  urine,  of 
urea,  and  of  uric  acid.  The  temperature  of  the 
body  is  diminished,  partly  on  account  of  per- 
spiration, but  also  from  increased  radiation  of 
heat  on  account  of  dilatation  of  the  superficial 
blood  vessels,  and  perhaps  also  from  lessened 
heat  production.  Antipyrine  tends  to  allay 
nervous  irritability  and  to  relieve  pain.  It  some- 
times forms  niet-h(emoglobulin  in  the  blood. 

1.  As  an  antipyretic,  it  is  prompt,  and,  as  a- 
rule,  very  efficient.  The  fall  of  temperature  be- 
gins in  half  an  hour,  usually  reaches  its  lowest 
point  in  from  two  to  five  hours,  and  lasts  from 
five  to  eight  hours.  The  fall  is  usually  through 
several  degrees,  and  sometimes  below  normal.  It 
is  generally  accompanied  by  sweating,  and  occa- 
sionally by  signs  of  heart  failure. 

2.  As  an  analgesic,  it  is  prompt  and  efficacious. 
It  has  proved  of  great  value  in  all  varieties  of 
neuralgia,  both  superficial  and  visceral;  in  all 
forms  of  headache,  and  in  dysmenorrhoea.  It  is,, 
of  course,  more  serviceable  when  these  conditions 
are  of  functional  origin  and  not  organic. 

3.  As  an  antiperiodic,  it  is  of  no  value. 

4.  For  rheumatism,  it  is  frequently  very  use- 
ful, resembling  in  its  action  salicylic  acid.  It 
lessens  the  severity  of  an  attack  by  relieving  pain 
and  reducing  temperature,  but  seems  to  have  no- 
influence  in  diminishing  the  liability  to  heart 
complications,  and  is  probably  not  curative. 

5.  As  a  nervoiM  sedative,  it  is  of  some  value  in 
epilepsy,  but  of  doubtful  utility  in  chorea.  In 
whooping  cough  it  often  abates  the  frequency  and 
severity  of  the  paroxysms,  but  does  not  seem  to 
shorten  the  course  of  the  disease. 

6.  As  an  hypnotic,  it  seems  to  be  of  some  use,, 
inducing  sleep  by  removing  the  pain  or  fever 
which  prevents  it. 

7.  As  a  haemostatic,  it  is  efficient  locally  in 
powder  or  solution. 

8.  For  the  morphine  hahit,  it  is  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  morphine,  by  mouth  or  hypodermi- 
cally,  but  is  of  doubtful  value. 

Antipyrine  frequently  produces  untoward 
sjnnptoms.  These  may  be  grouped  under:  (1.) 
Circulatory.  (I!yanosis,  frequent  and  feeble  heart 
action,  dyspnoea,  sometimes  collapse,  occur  not 
uncommonly.  Serious  symptoms  have  been  pro- 
duced by  ten  or  fifteen  grains,  and  even  death  has 
been  caused.  This  must  be  remembered  especially 
in  cases  where  the  natural  tendency  of  the  disease 
is  toward  heart  weakness.  In  these  cases  it  is  very 
advisable  to  give  some  stimulant  with  the  anti- 
pyrine. If  it  has  to  be  given  frequently,  great 
care  must  be  used,  as  a  cumulative  action  has 
been  noticed  in  several  cases.  The  dose  which 
is  at  first  safe  may  become  poisonous  if  repented 
several  times  in  a  day.  Individual  susceptibility 
varies  greatly.  (2.)  Cutaneous.  Among  the 
rashes  noticed  are  some  which  resemble  measles, 
scarlatina,  urticaria,  erythema,  and  purpura. 
These  are  unpleasant,  but  not  serious.  (3.) 
yervous.    These    include    various    paroesthesise^ 


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ANTIFYBINB. 


624 


ANTISABBATASIANS. 


vesical  spasms  and  cramps,  but  are  usually  not 
serious. 

It  may  be  given  by  mouth  in  powder,  or  dis- 
solved in  water  or  an  alcoholic  beverage.  The 
dose  depends  upon  individual  susceptibility.  It 
is  also  administered  hypodermatically.    See  Agb- 

TANILU);   PhENACETIN. 

AH'TIQTJA^IAH  BOCTETIEB.  Organiza- 
tions in  Europe,  England,  and  America  for  the 
promotion  of  the  study  of  antiquities.  The  Lon- 
don Society  of  Antiquaries  was  antedated  by  a 
society  established  in  1672,  and  dissolved  by 
James  I.  about  1604.  The  present  London  soci- 
ety began  to  meet  about  1707,  and  received  its 
charter  in  1751.  The  Scottish  Society  of  Antiq- 
uities was  founded  in  1780,  the  French  society 
in  1814,  and  the  American  Antiquarian  Society 
(see  Antiquarian  Societt,  Ameeucan)  in  1812. 

ANTIQT7ASIAN  SOCIETT,  American. 
A  society  founded  in  1812,  which  has  its  head- 
quarters at  Worcester,  ^lass.  It  owns  a  li- 
brary of  more  than  100,000  volumes,  which  is 
especially  rich  in  manuscripts,  newspapers,  po- 
litical pamphlets,  and  early  American  publica- 
tions. The  proceedings  have  been  published 
semi-annually  since  1849.  Several  volumes  of 
the  Archceologia  Americana  have  been  issued, 
containing  reprints  of  rare  books  and  manu- 
scripts and  special  papers  on  antiquarian  and 
historical  topics.  The  society  has  an  important 
museum,  and  maintains  a  fund  aggregating  over 
$100,000  for  the  support  of  various  departments 
of  its  work.     See  Antiquarian  Societies. 

ANTIQTIABY,  The.  One  of  Scott's  Waver- 
ley  Novels  (1810),  and  its  chief  character. 

AKTIQITE'  (Lat.  antiquuSf  old).  As  the 
term  "ancients"  is  commonly  applied  to  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  the  word  antique  is  used 
with  reference  to  their  works  of  art,  especially 
their  incomparable  sculptures.  The  antique  style 
in  works  of  art  is  distinguished  by  critics  from 
the  romantic  or  medi«eval,and  also  from  the  mod- 
ern. The  sculpture  of  the  Greeks  is  character- 
ized by  freshness,  originality,  and  ideality;  and 
the  phases  it  underwent  have  their  parallels  in 
the  development  of  the  literature  and  general 
culture  of  that  people.  In  the  earliest  times, 
the  statues  had  a  rigid,  formal  character,  and 
looked  more  like  the  idols  of  barbarous  nations 
than  deities  in  human  form;  then  came  stern. 
Titan-like  forms,  corresponding  with  the  Pro- 
metheus of  ^^schylus;  next,  the  sculptures  of 
Phidias,  Polycletus,  and  Polygnotus,  like  the 
characters  in  the  dramas  of  Sophocles,  present 
to  us  humanity  in  its  purest  and  noblest  ideal 
forms.  Then,  as  Euripides  in  poetry  left  the 
old  domain  of  destiny,  and  derived  motives  and 
action  from  ordinary  human  passions,  so  stat- 
uary descended  from  the  ideal  to  a  closer  re- 
semblance to  the  forms  of  actual  life,  as  we  see 
in  the  works  of  Praxiteles  and  Lysippus.  After- 
ward, when  Aristophanes  introduced  comedy, 
forms  of  every-day  life  began  to  appear  in  sculp- 
ture; and  thus  a  gradual  transition  was  made 
from  the  art  of  the  Greeks,  which  was  ideal  in 
the  true  sense  of  the  word,  to  that  of  the  Romans, 
which  was  real,  monumental,  and  portrait-like. 
The  Romans  were  the  realists  of  the  ancient 
world ;  their  indigenous  philosophy  was  of  a  pop- 
iilar  kind;  their  poetry,  so  far  as  it  was  national, 
was  satiric  and  dramatic ;  and  their  works  of  art 
may  be  regarded  as  monuments  and  portraitures 
of  Veal  life,  quite  suitable  for  a  nation  of  sol- 


diers, lawyers,  and  politicians,  but  vastly  inferior 
to  the  ideal  beauty  displayed  in  the  b^t  period 
of  Grecian  art. 

AHTIQ^  U 1T1E8.    See  Abchjeologt. 

AN'TI-BEKT^SM.  A  movement,  partly  po- 
litical, extending  over  the  years  183^7,  among 
the  leaseholders  in  Albany,  0)lumbia,  Delaware, 
Montgomery,  Rensselaer,  and  other  counties  in 
New  York  State.  These  leaseholders  held  their 
land  under  a  sort  of  feudal  tenure,  in  spite  of 
the  virtual  abolition  in  1775  of  many  of  the  old 
manorial  and  patroonship  rights  (see  Pa- 
TROONS),  the  various  farms  being  leased,  for  the 
most  part,  either  in  perpetuity  or  for  a  period  of 
two  or  three  lives,  while  the  ground-rents  were 
generally  paid  in  kind  and  certain  feudal  services 
were  not  infrequently  exacted.  As  the  popula- 
tion increased,  such  an  arrangement  grew  exceed- 
ingly irksome  to  the  tenants,  who  were  nominal 
but  not  real  owners,  and  who  could  not,  as  a 
rule,  transfer  their  titles  without  paying  to  the 
landlords  a  portion  (usually  a  quarter)  of  the 
amount  received.  The  crisis  came  in  1839,  when 
Stephen  Van  Rensselaer  ( q. v. ) ,  one  of  the  largest 
landholders,  died.  He  had  been  remiss  in  col- 
lecting his  rents,  and  his  heirs  served  writs  of 
ejectment  on  tenants  in  Albany  County.  The 
tenants  thereupon  resisted,  and  on  several  occa- 
sions the  resulting  disturbances  were  so  serious 
that  the  militia  had  to  be  called  out.  By  1842  the 
trouble  had  spread  to  other  manors.  Anti-rent 
associations  were  formed  over  most  of  the  lea^^e- 
hold  districts,  rents  were  withheld,  and  evictioas 
resisted,  while  the  grievances  of  the  tenants  were 
aired  in  newspapers  devoted  to  their  interests 
and  in  memorials  to  the  Legislature. 

The  question  became  political  and  was  fo- 
mented oy  agitators  for  their  own  special  pur- 
poses, the  anti-rent  party  ultimately  controlling 
the  legislative  delegations  of  eleven  counties. 
Lawlessness  became  prevalent,  and  bands  of  men, 
absurdly  disguised  as  "Indians,"  assaulted, 
tarred  and  feathered,  and,  in  several  instances, 
murdered,  deputy  sheriffs  and  their  assistants. 
A  law  passed  by  the  Legislature  against  men 
appearing  in  public  in  disguise  proved  *  ineffec- 
tual, and  on  August  7,  1845,  O.  N.  Steele,  a  dep- 
uty sheriff  of  Delaware  County,  was  surrounded 
and  shot  down  by  disguised  men  while  serving  a 
process.  Governor  Wright  forthwith  put  the 
county  under  martial  law,  and  arrested  over  one 
hundred  men,  of  whom  fifty  were  convicted. 
twenty  being  sent  to  the  State  prison  and  two 
being  sentenced  to  death.  The  death  penaltr 
was  commuted  by  Grovernor  Wright  for  Ufe  im- 
prisonment, and'  eventually,  in  January,  1847, 
all  of  the  prisoners  were  pardoned  by  Governor 
Young.  The  repressive  measures  broke  up  the 
unlawful  resistance,  though  they  caused  the  de- 
feat of  Governor  Wright  by  John  Young,  the  ami- 
rent  candidate,  at  the  next  election.  In  1846. 
moreover,  an  article  was  inserted  in  the  new 
State  Constitution  definitely  abolishing  all  feudal 
tenures  and  forbidding  future  leases  of  agricul- 
tural land  for  a  period  longer  than  twelve  years. 
Consult:  Cheyney,  The  Anti-Rent  Agitation 
(Philadelphia,  1887),  and  Murray,  The  Anti- 
Rent  Epi«)de  in  Neto  York,  in  the  "Report  of  the 
American  Historical  Association  for  1896.** 

ANTIBBHIOrDlC    See  Snapdragon. 

AN'TISAB3ATA0GtIANS  (an^»  +  6k.  ca^ 
Parov,  Sahhaton,  Sabbath).  Those  who  recognize 
no  obligation  to  observe  either  the  Jewish  Sab- 


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AKTI8ABBATASIAN8. 


625 


AKTISLAVEBY  SOCIETY. 


bath  or  the  Christian  Lord's  Day,  deeming  any 
one  day  as  sacred  as  another. 

ANTISANA,  ftn't^sft^nft.  A  volcanic  peak 
of  the  Andes  in  Ecuador,  45  miles  southeast  of 
Quito,  and  over  19,000  feet  high  (Map:  Ecuador, 
B  3).  Some  signs  of  volcanic  activity  were 
manifested  in  1803  during  the  eruption  of  Goto- 
paxi,  but  there  have  been  no  eruptions  since. 
Tambo  de  Antisana,  one  of  the  highest  settle- 
ments on  the  globe  (over  13,000  feet),  is  situated 
on  the  slope  of  the  Antisana. 

AN'TISCOBBUTICa    See  Soubvy. 

AN'TI  -  SEMOITISM  ( anti  +  Semites,  i.e., 
Jews).  A  movement  based  on  race  hatred  of 
the  Jew,  due  to  social  and  economic  causes,  in 
Germany,  Austria  and  France,  and  partly  also  to 
political  causes  in  Russia.  The  movement  has 
crystallized  in  some  countries  into  an  anti-Semi- 
tic political  party.  A  political  party  organized 
in  Berlin  in  1879  sought  to  place  Jews  under  po- 
litical disabilities.  '  The  leaders  of  the  party 
were  Stocker,  court  preacher  of  Prussia  and  a 
so-called  Christian  Socialist;  Professor  Treit- 
schke,  of  the  University  of  Berlin,  an  historian 
and  deputy  in  the  Reichstag;  and  Dr.  Diihring, 
author  of  treatises  on  history  and  philosophy. 
Throughout  1879  and  1880  these  men,  through 
the  press,  in  speeches,  and  in  various  ways,  de- 
plored the  presence  in  Germany  of  an  active, 
wealthy,  and  powerful  people,  incapable  of  as- 
similation, who  are  opposed  to  Christian  civiliza- 
tion in  all  its  phrases.  The  matter  was  brought 
to  a  vote  in  the  Reichstag  in  1880;  but  that  body 
declared  itself  in  favor  of  economic  and  religious 
liberty  by  a  decisive  vote.  The  Anti-Semitic 
Party  became  a  strong  one  in  the  Reichstag,  how- 
ever, in  the  early  nineties.  In  France  the  Anti- 
Semitic  propaganda  was  begun  by  Edward  Dru- 
mont,  editor  of  La  Libre  Parole,  about  1882,  and 
was  carried  on  until  the  movement  reached  a 
climax  in  the  affaire  Dreyfus.     See  Dreyfus. 

Since  its  organization  in  Germany  the  Anti- 
Semitic  Party  has  been  organized  in  Russia, 
Austria,  Greece,  and  Holland.  As  the  Jews  in 
Russia  are  to  a  great  extent  kept  out  of  the  ordi- 
nary trades,  many  of  them  have  resorted  to  the 
lousiness  of  money  lending,  and  by  means  of  mort- 
^ges  placed  to  secure  loans  they  have  obtained 
control  of  small  landed  properties.  This  fact, 
coupled  with  religious  prejudice,  caused  the 
Anti-Semitic  movement  in  Russia,  about  twenty 
jears  aso,  to  assume  a  most  violent  form.  Laws 
preventing  them  from  entering  professions  and 
from  living  in  places  other  than  towns  and  ham- 
lets were  vigorously  enforced.  In  some  cities, 
where  a  majority  of  the  people  were  Jews,  they 
were  expelled  without  warning.  The  fierce  per- 
secution to  which  the  Jews  have  been  subjected 
in  Russia  and  Roumania  has  caused  an  emigra- 
tion on  a  vast  scale  to  the  United  States. 

AN'TISEP'TIC  (onfi  +  Gk.  aifireiv,  s^ein, 
to  make  rotten,  to  cause  decay) .  In  the  arts,  any 
substance  which  arrests  fermentation  and  decay; 
in  medicine,  any  agent  which  arrests  the  de- 
velopment and  growth  of  micro-organisms.  A 
germicide  is  a  substance  or  agency  which  destroys 
these  micro-organisms.  A  disinfectant  destroys 
the  organisms,  and  at  the  same  time  removes  the 
noxious  products  of  fermentation  and  putrefac- 
tion. The  conditions  which  favor  putrefactive 
change  are  a  moderate  degree  of  warmth,  air, 
and  the  presence  of  moisture  and  micro-organ- 
isms. Measures  which  tend  to  limit  the  action 
Vol.  I.— «) 


of  any  of  these  agencies  are  antiseptic  in  char-" 
acter.  Cold  acts  as  an  antiseptic,  by  bringing  the 
article  to  be  preserved  to  a  temperature  at  which 
the  putrefactive  bacteria  can  no  longer  act.  In 
the  preservation  of  canned  goods  another  princi- 
ple is  employed,  that  of  exclusion  of  air.  The 
cans,  with  their  contents,  4re  heated,  and  when 
all  air  has  been  expelled  the  tops  are  soldered 
on.  The  principle  of  excluding  moisture  is  em- 
ployed in  the  processes  of  drying  meats,  fruits, 
and  vegetables.  The  action  of  micro-organisms 
is  often  combated  directly  by  the  introduction 
into  preserved  foodstuffs  of  such  antiseptic  sub- 
stances as  boric  and  salicylic  acids  and  formal- 
dehyde. They  are  considered  injurious,  however, 
and  their  use  is  forbidden  by  law  in  many  States. 
Besides  the  antiseptics  proper,  a  number  of  the 
more  common  substances,  such  as  common  salt, 
sugar,  alcohol,  and  saltpetre,  are  used  in  food 
preservation.  On  the  other  hand,  antiseptics 
are  used  for  other  purposes  besides  the  preserva- 
tion of  foodstuffs.  Thus  the  preservation  of 
sizes  used  in  paper-making  is  effected  by  the 
addition  of  sulphurous  acid,  and  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  commercial  gums  and  pastes  by  such 
antiseptics  as  carbolic  acid  and  oil  of  winter- 
green.  The  preservation  of  wood  from  decav 
by  impregnation  with  tar,  creosote,  carbolic  acid, 
and  corrosive  sublimate  is  also  practiced  to  a 
considerable  extent. 

In  scientific  laboratories  antiseptics  like  alco- 
hol and  formaldehyde  are  largely  employed  in 
the  preservation  of  anatomical  and  biological 
specimens.  In  surgery,  the  application  of  anti- 
septics, first  introduced  by  Sir  Joseph  Lister,  is 
a  matter  of  greatest  moment.  It  is  an  under- 
standing of  the  use  of  antiseptic  and  germicidal 
agencies  that  has  brought  about  the  remarkable 
advances  made  by  this  branch  of  the  healing  art 
since  1880.  The  condition  that  is  sought  for  in 
every  surgical  operation  to-day  is  asepsis,  or 
surgical  cleanliness.  When  a  substance  is  aseptic 
it  is  free  from  all  septic  micro-organisms.  Such 
a  state  is  made  possible  by  the  use  of  antiseptics 
and  germicides.  Instruments  are  generally  ren- 
dered aseptic  or  sterile  by  boiling  in  water,  by 
dry  heat,  by  steam,  or  by  washing  with  the  chem- 
ical antiseptics,  or  by  exposing  them  to  moist 
formaldehyde  vapors;  dressings,  by  dry  heat  or 
by  steam  at  ordinary  atmospheres  or  under  pres- 
sure; ligatures,  by  prolonged  immersion  in  alco- 
hol or  other  antiseptic  solutions;  and  the  skin 
of  the  patient  at  the  site  of  the  operation,  by 
application,  after  mechanical  cleansing,  of  a  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid  or  of  corrosive  sublimate. 
The  chemical  substances  most  commonly  em- 
ployed as  antiseptics  in  medicine  are  carbolic 
acid,  the  bichloride  and  the  biniodide  of  mercury, 
formaldehyde,  free  chlorine,  iodine,  potassium 
permanganate,  iodoform,  and  boric  acid,  and  to  a 
lesser  extent  the  vegetable  substances  thymol, 
menthol,  and  eucalyptol.  Further  consideration 
of  antiseptics  may  be  found  in  The  Rules  of  Asep' 
tic  and  Antiseptic  Surgery  (New  York,  1888),  by 
Gerster;  and  in  the  article  "Antiseptics,"  in 
Wood^s  Reference  Handbook  of  the  Medical  Sci- 
ences. See  Bacteria;  Microbe;  Koch;  Pas- 
teur; Wound. 

AN'TISLAVEBY  SOCI'ETY,  The  Ameri- 
can. An  association  organized  in  Philadelphia, 
December,  183.3,  by  delegates  from  the  few  State 
or  city  societies  in  the  United  States.  The  first 
Antislavery  Society  was  formally  o'^ganized  at 
Boston  in  January,  1832,  William  Lloyd  Garri- 


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AHTISLAVEBY  SOCIETY. 


626 


AimrxM. 


son  being  the  leader  of  the  movement.  The 
American  Antislavery  Society  took  the  boldest 
ground  in  favor  of  the  immediate  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  its  work  was  for  many  years  looked 
upon  as  fanatical,  or  at  least  hopelessly  imprac- 
ticable, its  members  were  denounced,  its  meet- 
ings broken  up,  and  rewards  offered  in  the  South 
for  its  leaders  alive  or  dead.  Divergence  of  opin- 
ion on  the  question  of  political  action  caused  a 
split  in  the  society  in  1840.  The  non- voters  un- 
der Garrison,  although  but  a  small  portion  of  the 
Abolitionists,  gained  eontrol  of  the  old  society. 
The  others  formed  the  American  and  Foreign  An- 
tislavery Society,  but  the  movement  had  out- 
grown a  society  formation  and  found  a  better  and 
more  conservative  expression  in  the  Liberty  Par- 
ty (q.v.)  and  its  successors.  Among  the  prom- 
inent Abolitionists  were  William  Lloyd  Garrison, 
Wendell  Phillips,  Samuel  J.  May,  Lucretia  Mott, 
Lydia  Maria  Child,  Arthur  Tappan,  James  G. 
Birney,  John  G.  Whittier,  William  Goodell,  Ger- 
rit  Smith,  and  William  Jay.  The  parent  society 
continued  to  exist  until  after  the  adoption  of  the 
fifteenth  amendment,  in  1870,  remaining  small  in 
numbers  but  largely  influential  in  its  propagan- 
dist work.  .For  a  partial  bibliography  of  the 
movement  see  the  biographical  sketches  of  the 
leaders  here  mentioned.  See  Abolitionists; 
Slavery. 

AN'TISPASMOiyiC  ( anii  +  Gk.  airaafidc, 
8p€t8mo8,  convulsion,  spasm).  Any  drug  that 
has  a  sedative  effect  upon  the  nervous  system, 
either  by  depressing  the  brain  or  spinal  cord  or 
by  stimulating  inhibitory  centres,  and  so  regu- 
lating the  production  of  nerve  force.  The  former 
class  includes  the  bromides  and  chloral.  The 
stimulating  antispasmodics  are  asafetida,  bella- 
donna, camphor,  Hoffman's  anodyne,  hops, 
musk,  and  valerian.  As  a  class,  they  are  em- 
ployed in  conditions  of  nervous  excitation,  par- 
ticularly of  a  hysterical  nature,  in  asthma,  alco- 
holism, and  in  convulsions  from  epilepsy  and 
other  causes. 

AHTIS^THENES  OF  ATH^ENS  (born  about 
4t4  B.C.).  The  founder  of  the  Cynic  School  of 
Greek  philosophy.  He  studied  under  the  soph- 
ist Gorgias,  and  was  a  disciple  and  ardent  fol- 
lower of  Socrates.  He  wrote  a  large  number  of 
philosophical  works,  and  for  many  years  taught 
elocution  and  philosophy.  Antistlienes  regarded 
freedom  and  happiness  as  attainable  only 
through  virtue;  but  the  meaning  of  his  doctrine 
is  ambiguous  until  the  definition  of  virtue  is 
given.  In  this  Antisthenes  followed  Socrates* 
eudiemonistic  principles.  For  Antisthenes,  how- 
ever, virtue  was  not  in  doing  good  for  its  own 
sake;  the  object  of  virtue  was  to  render  man  as 
independent  as  possible  of  the  events  of  life,  and 
this  freedom  was  attainable  by  reducing  the 
wants  of  life  to  what  is  absolutely  inevitable,  viz., 
the  wants  of  hunger  and  love.  Customary  moral- 
ity and  the  demands  of  decency,  as  well  as  the 
pleasures  of  life,  both  material  and  intellectual, 
were  ridiculed  by  Antisthenes  and  his  followers 
and  denounced  as  depriving  man  of  his  freedom, 
aiid  hence,  as  leading  to  nothing  but  unhappi-  . 
ness.  Nevertheless,  the  Cynic  was  not  inconsist- 
ent when  he  advocated  a  philosophic  culture; 
but  this  culture  was  to  be  looked  upon  as  a 
means,  and  not  as  an  end;  it  was  desirable  not 
for  its  own  sake,  nor  for  the  sake  of  the  intel- 
lectual  pleasiu-e  which   it  could  afford,  but  as 


leading  our  intelligence  to  avoid  consistently  the 
artificial  enjoyments  of  civilized  life. 

ANTIS^BOPHE  ( anii  +  Gk.  arpof^,  strtypKi^ 
a  turning,  strophe,  stanza).  A  stanza  or  por- 
tion of  a  poem  following  the  strophe,  and  re- 
sponding to  it.  Or  when  the  same  word  or 
pnrase  is  used  at  both  the  .beginning  and  the  end 
of  a  clause  or  sentence;  as, 

*'  Fkre  thee  well ;  and  if  forever, 
Still  foreyer  fan  thee  weU." 

ANTITH^Sia     See  Rhetoric,  Fiqxjbes  or. 

AK'TITOX^IN  (an«  -f  toxin ;Gk,Toiucav,tox- 
ifcon, poison  for  the  arrow, from r6|o>^,  toxonj  bow). 
During  the  course  of  diseases  caused  by  bacterial 
infection,  certain  poisons  (toxins)  are  developed 
in  the  blood  by  the  bacteria,  or  exist  in  the 
bodies  of  the  bacteria.  Nature,  in  combating  the 
disease,  produces  certain  principles  in  the  serum 
of  the  blood  of  the  patient,  called  antitoxins, 
which  antagonize  the  action  of  the  toxins.  These 
principles  have  not  been  isolated,  but  they  are 
used  to  combat  disease  artificially  by  injecting 
blood  serum  which  contains  them  into  the  tissues 
of  a  person  suffering  with  a  bacterial  disease,  to 
aid  him  in  neutralizing  the  toxins  resulting  dur- 
ing that  disease.  Antitoxins  combating  the  poi- 
sons of  snake-bite,  pneumonia,  tuberculosis,  yel- 
low fever,  bubonic  plague,  cholera,  and  oUier 
ailments  have  been  prepared  and  used.  The  one 
most  often  emploved  is  the  diphtheria  antitoxin, 
which  is  frequently  called  simply  antitoxin.  See 
Bacteria;  Diphtheria;  Serum  Therapy. 

AKTI-TBADE'  WINDS.     See  Winds. 

AN'TITBINITA^IAN  {anti  +  triniiarian, 
from  Lat.  trinitas,  triad,  trinity).  One  who  de 
nies  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  An  Antitrini- 
tarian  differs  from  a  Unitarian  only  in  this 
respect,  that  his  objection  to  the  doctrine  in 
question  is  made  on  philosophical,  while  that  of 
the  latter  is  made  on  theological,  grounds. 

AN'TITYPE  {anti-\-  type;  Gk.  rwrof.  typos, 
an  impression,  model,  pattern).  The  fulfillment 
of  the  type.  Thus,  David  is  often  regarded  as 
a  type  of  Christ,  who  is,  therefore,  the  antitype. 
The  sacrificial  offerings  of  the  Old  Testament 
were  types  of  Christ  as  the  one  perfect  sacrifice, 
and  he  is  their  antitype.     See  Type. 

ANTIXTK,  &n^shl-&m,  (now  Anzio,  formerly 
Porto  d'Anzio).  One  of  the  most  ancient  cities 
of  Latium.  It  stood  on  the  coast,  about  thirtv- 
four  miles  from  Rome,  and,  being  ifavorably  situ- 
ated for  commerce  and  piracy,  it  was  under  the 
Volscians,  into  whose  hands  it  had  fallen,  one  of 
the  most  powerful  enemies  of  rising  Rome,  until 
finally  subdued  (338  B.C.).  It  became  a  favorite 
resort  of  the  wealthy  Romans,  and  some  of  the 
most  famous  remains  of  ancient  art  have  been 
discovered  among  the  ruins  of  their  villas  and 
palaces,  such  as  the  "Apollo  Belvidere"  in  the 
Vatican,  and  the  "Borghese  Gladiator"  in  the 
Louvre.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the  emperors 
Caligula  and  Nero,  and  the  latter  constructed  a 
splendid  port  by  means  of  two  moles  enclosing  a 
basin  two  miles  in  circumference.  Remains  of 
the  moles  still  exist,  although  the  basin  is  mostly 
filled  up  with  sand.  The  modern  little  town  of 
Anzio  (Porto  d'Anzio)  is  a  fishing  place  and  a 
favorite  bathing  resort  of  the  Romans,  and  con- 
tains some  charming  vUlas.  It  has  a  population 
of  over  2000. 


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ANTLEBS. 


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ANTOFAOASTA. 


ANT'LEBS  (O.  E.  auntlere,  O.  F.  antoiller, 
from  Lat.  ante,  before  -+-  oculus,  eye) .  The  horns 
of  (male)  deers.  For  their  structure,  etc.,  see 
I  Deer.  In  the  language  of  British  stag-hunting, 
leach  part  of  the  horn  and  each  stage  of  growth 
'receives  a  name,  and  many  of  these  names  serve 
to  designate  a  deer  of  a  certain  age  or  fitness. 
These  names  are  derived  from  and  specifically 
apply  to  the  European  red  deer  {Cervua  ele- 
phas),  now  preserved  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
for  the  sport  of  stag-hunting;  and  they  have  de- 
scended from  ancient  terms,  mostly  French,  orig- 
inating on  the  continent  in  mediseval  times.  The 
following  is  a  summary  given  by  Professor  A.  H. 
Gar  rod  in  CasaelVa  Natural  History ,  Volume  III. 

"In  the  common  red  deer,  in  the  spring  of  the 
year  following  its  birth,  the  antlers  are  nothing 


weighed  seventy-four  pounds.  It  should  be  said, 
however,  that  this  excessive  number  of  points 
is  the  result  of  injury  or  disease  when  the  horn 
was  growing,  so  that  a  large,  syihmetric  pair 
with  more  nearly  the  normal  number  of  tines  is  a 
really  better  example. 

The  material  of  antlers  is  highly  durable,  and 
enters  extensively  into  the  arts  for  making  han- 
dles of  knives,  umbrellas,  etc.,  and  various  orna- 
mental articles. 

ANiy-LrON.  The  larvae  of  any  insect  be- 
longing to  the  neuropterous  family  Myrmelonidse. 
The  kinds  commonly  referred  to  are  only  those 
which  form  pitfalls,  and  not  the  members  of  the 
family  in  general,  all  of  which  do  not  possess 
this  habit.     The  conical  pitfalls  which  are  used 


♦  »«^'.vs^^'J^*''  "*  -"•'•»'>*^*»-  ■ 


TTPEB  OF  ANTLERS. 


a,RuBiDe.  &,  Normal  racerrine.  c,  Intermediate  nioervine. 
d^  Kztreme  racervine.  «,  Sab-elaphine.  /,  Elaphlne.  1,  Brow- 
tjne.    S,  Tres-^ne.    8,  Royal-tynee. 

more  than  straight,  conical,  and  unbranched 
'beams,'  the  animal  being  then  known  as  a 
'brocket.'  In  the  following  spring  the  antler 
has,  besides  the  'beam,'  a  small  branch  from  its 
base,  directed  forward,  known  as  the  'brow  ant- 
ler;' it  is  then  termed  'spayad.'  In  the  third 
year  an  extra  front  branch  is  formed,  known  as 
the  'tres,'  and  the  whole  antler  is  larger.  The 
tres  is  sometimes  seen  in  the  smaller  antler  of 
the  spayad.  In  the  fourth  year  the  brow  antler 
is  doubled  to  form  the  'brow'  and  'bez-tyne,' 
at  the  same  time  that  the  top  of  the  main  beam 
divides  into  the  'sur-royals'  of  the  'staggard,' 
or  four-year-old  male.  In  the  fifth  year  the  sur- 
royals  become  more  numerous,  the  whole  antler 
of  the  'stag*  being  heavier  than  previously,  only 
to  be  exceeded  in  weight  by  those  of  the  fully 
adult  'great  hart'  with  ten  or  more  'points,'  each 
being  larger  and  longer  than  the  year  before." 

In  Scotland  a  deer  with  twelve  points  is  known 
as  a  "royal  stag;"  but  this  number  is  sometimes 
exceeded.  The  finest  heads  are  no  longer  seen 
in  Great  Britain,  where  the  habit  of  shooting  the 
best  is  leading  to  deterioration,  and  fossil  antlers 
from  British  caves  and  peat-beds  are  larger  than 
those  of  any  living  individuals,  rivaling  those  of 
the  wapiti  in  size.  Great  heads  have  been  ob- 
tained within  recent  years  on  the  vast  wild  es- 
tates of  eastern  Europe.  In  many  of  the  old  Ger- 
man castles  superb  heads  of  sixty  or  more  points 
are  preserved;  and  Lydekker  mentions  one  shot 
in  Transylvania  which  had  forty-five  points  and 


Adult  Insect,  Larva,  Eggs,  and  Pit  with  Larva  waiting  for 
Prey. 

to  aid  in  the  capture  of  ants  and  other  small 
ground  insects  are  excavated  in  sand,  dust,  and 
the  powdered  remains  of  decayed  logs.  Their 
size  varies  with  that  of  the  ant-lion,  but  they  are 
commonly  about  one  and  one-half  inches  across 
the  top.  There  are  two  methods  used  in  the 
formation  of  these  traps.  The  simplest  trap  is 
excavated  by  powerful  upward  tossings  of  the 
head  after  the  larva  has  buried  itself  below  the 
surface ;  thus,  a  funnel-shaped  pit  is  formed.  The 
second  method  is  by  crawling  backward  in  a 
spiral  direction  just  beneath  the  surface,  and  by 
means  of  the  head  tossing  the  sand  to  the  out- 
side. In  the  bottom  of  these  conical  pits  the 
larvae  bury  their  whole  body  except  their  mandi- 
bles, which  are  spread  ready  for  their  prey.  An 
ant,  for  example,  strolling  about  and  stepping 
on  the  margin  of  the  pit  starts  a  miniature  land- 
slide on  account  of  the  looseness  of  the  material 
in  which  the  pit  is  excavated.  This  arouses  the 
ant-lion,  which  begins  actively  to  throw  material 
from  the  bottom  of  the  pit,  thus  accelerating  the 
landslide  and  bringing  the  ant  within  reach  of 
the  jaws,  which  seize  it  and  relax  only  after  ex- 
tracting the  juices  from  the  body.  The  scissors- 
like  jaws  are  grooved  on  their  inner  side,  and 
thus  by  opposition  a  tube  is  formed  through 
which  the  juices  are  sucked.  The  carcass,  ex- 
tracted of  its  juices,  is  tossed  outside  of  the  pit. 
The  posterior  part  of  the  intestine  of  the  ant- 
lion  is  remarkable  for  being  modified  to  form 
a  spinning  gland  or  organ.  The  adult  ant-lion 
spins  a  cocoon  by  the  aid  of  sand,  etc.,  in  which 
it  transforms  to  the  imago  state.  The  "flies" 
have  four  expanded  net- veined  wings,  which  are 
folded  over  the  abdomen  when  at  rest.  In  most 
of  the  species  the  wings  are  transparent.  About 
fifty  species  are  found  in  the  United  States, 
most  frequently  in  sandy  or  semi-arid  regions. 
ANTOFAGASTA,  an't6-f&-gas'tA.  A  port 
and  the  capital  of  the  Chilean  province  of  the 
same  name  (Map:  Chile,  D  8).  Founded  in 
1870,  it  increased  rapidly  in  importance,  despite 


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ANTOFAOASTA. 


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ANTONELLL 


its  poor  harbor,  owing  to  the  saltpetre  deposits 
in  the  neighborhood  and  to  the  rich  silver  mines 
of  Caracoles,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail- 
way.    Pop.,  1885,  7600;   1»00,  19,482. 

ANTOFAGASTA.  A  northern  province  of 
Chile,  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  province  of 
Tarapacft,  on  the  east  by  the  republic  of  Argen- 
tina, on  the  south  by  the  province  of  Atacama, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  has  an 
area  of  over  47,932  square  miles.  Taking  in  a 
large  part  of  the  Atacama  Desert,  the  surface  is 
mostly  mountainous  and  barren,  and  interspersed 
with  salt  lagoons  and  marshes.  It  contains  a 
number  of  volcanoes,  and  has  large  deposits  of 
silver,  borax,  guano,  and  saltpetre.  Notwith- 
standing  the  phenomenal  increase  in  the  popula- 
tion  of  the  province  between  1885  and  1895  ( from 
21,213  to  44,085),  on  account  of  new  mineral 
discoveries,  Antofagasta  is  still  the  most  sparsely 
populated  province  of  Chile,  its  density  being 
less  than  one  to  the  square  mile.  This  territory 
was  ceded  to  Chile  by  Bolivia  as  a  result  of  the 
war  ending  in  1882.  The  capital  and  chief  sea- 
port is  Antofagasta  (q.v.). 

AKTOIKEy  HN'twan',  Jules  .  DoifiNiQUE 
(1845 — ).  Chief  representative  of  the  party  of 
the  opposition  in  Lorraine.  He  was  born  at 
Metz,  and  served  in  the  Franco-German  War  as 
officer  of  the  Chirde  Mobile,  After  the  war  he 
became  prominent  in  his  native  town  as  an  ex- 
ponent of  the  Anti-German  sentiment  in  the  Mu- 
nicipal Council  and  the  local  diet.  In  1882  he 
was  elected  representative  to  the  Reichstag,  but 
after  a  fruitless  attempt  to  deliver  an  address  in 
French  before  that  body,  abstained  almost  alto- 
gether from  attending  the  sessions.  He  was  re- 
jected by  his  constituents  in  1884,  and  again  in 
1887.  In  consequence  of  his  incessant  agitation 
he  was  tried  for  treason  and  sentenced  to  perma- 
nent exile  (1889).  He  then  became  a  natural- 
ized citizen  of  France,  and  in  1893  was  appointed 
paymaster  general. 

ANTOIKE  DE  BOUB^ON,  ^N'tw&nMe  b^r" 
box'  (1518-62),  King  of  Navabbe.  He  was 
born  in  Picardy,  the  son  of  Charles  of  Bourbon. 
In  1548,  Antoine,  then  Duke  of  VendOme,  mar- 
ried Jeanne  d'Albret,  the  heiress  of  Navarre,  and 
through  her  became  King  of  Navarre  and  Lord 
of  B^arn  (1555).  He  was  feeble  and  irresolute, 
and  fluctuated  between  the  two  religious  parties 
in  France.  At  the  beginning,  he  sided  with  his 
brother  Louis,  Prince  of  Cond6,  and  was  involved 
in  the  conspiracy  of  Amboise,  but,  in  1561,  he 
was  made  Lieutenant-General  of  France,  and, 
embracing  Catholicism,  soon  formed  a  coalition 
with  the  Duke  of  Guise,  and  the  Constable  of 
Montmorency.  He  received  command  of  the 
royal  army  besieging  Rouen,  and  there  met  his 
death  in  an  assault  on  the  city  (November  17, 
1562).  Antoine  de  Bourbon  is  best  known  as 
the  father  of  Henry  of  Navarre,  who  became 
Henry  IV.  of  France.    See  Bourbon,  House  of. 

ANTOKOLSKI,  &n't6-k6Ksk6,  Mask  Mat- 
VEYEViTCH  (1842 — ).  A  Russian  sculptor.  He 
was  born  at  Vilna  of  poor  Jewish  parents,  and 
at  the  age  of  twenty-two  attracted  the  attention 
of  Professor  Pimenoff,  who  admitted  him  as  a 
"free  listener"  (special  student)  to  the  Academy 
of  Fine  Arts  at  St.  Petersburg.  At  the  aca- 
demic exhibition  of  1864  he  received  the  second 
silver  medal  for  the  wood-carving  entitled  "The 
Jewish  Tailor."  In  the  following  year  his  pro- 
duction, "The  Miser"  (executed  in  ivory),  secured 


for  him  the  large  silver  medal  of  the  Academy 
and  a  stipend  from  the  Emperor.  These  creations 
were  followed  by  "The  Judas  Kiss"  and  a  group 
modeled  in  clay,  "The  Descent  of  the  Inquisition 
upon  a  Jewish  Family  at  the  Feast  of  Passover.'* 
In  1871  he  completed  his  famous  statue,  "Ivan 
the  Terrible,"  for  which  he  was  appointed  an 
academician  by  the  Emperor  Alexander  II.,  who 
bought  the  statue  and  ordered  a  bronze  casting 
of  it  for  the  Hermitage  at  St  Petersburg.  Among 
the  other  great  sculptures  of  the  artist 
may  be  mentioned:  "Peter  the  Great"  (1872,  a 
colossal  figure)  :  "Christ  Bound  Before  the  Peo- 
ple" (1874),  "The  Death  of  Socrates"  (1876), 
"The  Last  Sigh"  (1878),  "Mephistopheles" 
(1881),  "Spinoza"  (1882),  "Yermak"  (the  Cos- 
sack conqueror  of  Siberia),  "The  Sleeping  Beau- 
ty" (1900).  At  the  Paris  International  Exposi 
tion  of  1878  Antokolski  was  awarded  the  fir>t 
prize  for  sculpture,  and  two  years  afterward  he 
settled  permanently  in  Paris.  He  is  a  Chevalier 
of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 

ANTOMHTATICHI,  &n'tdm-m&r^6,  Fba:vces- 
00  (1780-1838).  The  physician  of  Napoleon 
at  St.  Helena.  He  was  born  in  Corsica,  studied 
medicine  at  Pisa,  and  afterward  practiced  in  the 
Santa  Maria  Hospital  at  Florence.  At  the  re 
quest  of  Napoleon's  mother,  he  was  induced  bj' 
Cardinal  Fesch  to  succeed  Dr.  O'Meara  as  the 
attendant  physician  of  the  Emperor  at  St  Helena. 
At  first  there  was  little  cordiality  betweoi 
the  two ;  but  subsequently  Napoleon  conceived  a 
high  regard  for  his  countiryman  and  at  his  death 
left  him  100,000  francs.  He  afterward  declared 
that  the  death  of  Napoleon  had  not  been  caused 
by  cancer  of  the  stomach,  but  by  a  malignant  fe- 
ver peculiar  to  the  island,  and  he  refused  to  sign 
the  post-mortem  certificate.  In  1830  Antommarchi 
displayed  what  he  represented  to  be  a  death  mask 
of  Napoleon.  The  likeness  was  considered  a^ 
curate  by  many,  but  the  phrenologists  found 
fault  with  the  contour  of  the  cranium,  and  doubt 
was  cast  upon  the  genuineness  of  the  mask.  Nev- 
ertheless, it  forms  the  model  from  which  many 
busts  of  Napoleon  have  been  made.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  Polish  revolution,  in  1830,  Antom- 
marchi went  to  Warsaw,  an4  soon  afterward  re- 
turned  to  France,  whence,  in  1836,  he  proceeded 
to  America.  He  died  at  San  Ant<niio,  Cuba.  He 
published  Les  Demifirs  momenta  de  NapoUon 
(Paris,  1823). 

ANTONELLI,  &'td-n«n6,  6iACx>ifo  (1808-76). 
An  Italian  cardinal  and  statesman,  bom  at  Son- 
nino.  At  the  Seminary  in  Rome  he  became  con- 
spicuous for  his  intellectual  capacity,  and  Pope 
Gregory,  recognizing  his  ability,  attached  him 
to  his  suite.  He  became  under-secretary  in  the 
Ministry  of  Interior  in  1841,  and  in  1845,  Minis- 
ter of  Finance.  At  the  accession  of  Pius  IX.  he 
joined  the  Pope's  reformatory  schemes  and  gained 
great  influence,  becoming  cardinal  in  1847  and 
a  member  of  the  Ministerial  Council  through 
which  Pius  undertook  to  establish  his  refonn!«. 
In  1848,  when  the  ministry  of  priests  and  laymen 
was  established,  Antonelli  became  prime  minis- 
ter. After  the  Pope's  pronouncement  against 
the  war  with  Austria  ( 1848) ,  Antonelli  resigned, 
but  afterward,  when  he  had  perceived  the  Pope'* 
motive,  he  abandoned  his  national  policy  and 
associated  himself  entirely  with  the  conservative 
element.  Upon  the  re^stablishment  of  the  Papal 
power  through  the  intervention  of  France,  An- 
tonelli returned  to  Rome  with  the  Pope  (1850) 


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ANTONINUS. 


and  reorganized  the  administration  along 
strictly  absolutistic  lines.  He  rejected  all  ad- 
vances of  the  Powers  recommending  opportun- 
istic reforms,  and  would  not  yield  to  the  nation- 
alistic aspirations  of  the  Italians.  He  raised 
vain  protests  against  the  aggrandizement  of  the 
royal  territories  at  the  expense  of  the  Papal 
States.  During  the  closing  years  of  his  life  he 
lost  his  influence  with  the  Pope,  who  yielded 
more  and  more  to  the  Jesuit  element.  At  his 
death  he  was  prime  minister  to  the  Pope.  He 
left  his  property,  amounting  to  about  $8,000,000, 
to  his  three  brothers,  and  his  alleged  daughter, 
the  Countess  Lambertini,  vainly  sued  for  a  share. 

ANTONEIiIiO  DA  MESSINA,  ftn'td-ngHd 
da  m$s-8e'nA  (c.  1414-93).  An  Italian  painter, 
who  was  born  on  the  island  of  Sicily.  He  was  a 
man  of  ability  and  enterprise,  who  left  the  evi- 
dences of  his  genius  as  a  painter  in  many  Ital- 
ian cities.  He  studied  at  Rome,  and  settled  for 
a  time  in  Palermo  before  returning  with  a  well- 
earned  reputation  to  Messina.  While  on  a  visit 
to  Naples  he  saw  in  the  possession  of  King  Al- 
fonso a  painting  that  had  been  executed  by  Jan 
van  Eyck,  who  had  discovered  a  way  of  mixing 
pigments  with  oil  that  insured  richer  coloring 
and  more  enduring  qualities  to  a  work  of  art 
than  had  yet  been  attained.  Antonello  was  so 
delighted  with  this  picture  that  he  journeyed  to 
Flanders,  where  Van  Eyck,  now  an  old  man,  was 
living,  and  so  ingratiated  himself  with  the  paint- 
er that  the  latter  imparted  to  him  the  knowl- 
edge he  desired.  Antonello  returned  to  Venice 
and  executed  many  paintings  by  this  new  method. 
The  church  of  San  Cassiano  and  many  pri- 
vate dwellings  were  enriched  by  his  works.  Three 
of  his  best  pictures  are  in  the  Berlin  gallery,  a 
"Crucifixion"  is  at  Antwerp,  "A  Bust  of  Christ" 
in  the  London  gallery,  and  "A  Head"  in  a  salon 
at  the  Louvre.    Antonello  died  at  Venice. 

Consult:  Radcliffe,  Schools  and  Masters  of 
Painting  (New  York,  1898)  ;  Vasari,  Lives  of 
the  PainterSy  Volume  II.  (translation,  London, 
1887). 

ANT<yNIA  KA^OB  (b.c.  39—?).  The 
elder  of  the  two  daughters  of  Mark  Antony  and 
Octavia,  and  grandmother  of  the  Emperor  Nero. 
Her  son,  C.  !Domitius,  was  Nero's  father.  Her 
husband  was  L.  Domitius  Ahenobarbus. 

ANTCKNIA  MI^OB  (c.  36  B.C.— 38  a.d.). 
Sister  of  Antonia  Maior,  mother  of  the  Emperor 
Claudius,  and  grandmother  of  Caligula.  Her 
husband  was  Drusus,  brother  of  the  Emperor 
Tiberias.  Caligula  at  first  treated  her  with  re- 
spect, but  afterward  subjected  her  to  indignities. 

ANTONIBES,  An-te/n^dfts,  Joannes  (1647- 
84 ) .  A  Dutch  poet.  He  was  born  in  Goes,  and 
was  educated  at  the  expense  of  one  of  the  chiefs  of 
the  admiralty  at  Amsterdam.  He  was  the  fore- 
most pupil  of  Vondel,  whom  he  resembled  in  po- 
etical ability,  although  his  works  are  marred  by 
turgidness  and  monotony.  He  is  best  known  by 
his  poems,  and  a  tragedy  written  at  the  age  of 
nineteen,  called  Trazil  of  overrompelt  8ina  ("The 
Conquest  of  China").  His  fame  was  fully  es- 
tablished by  the  publication,  in  1671,  of  Tstroom, 
an  epic  on  the  River  Y. 

AN'TONI'NA  (449-C.565).  The  wife  of  the 
Byzantine  general  Belisarius.  Though  the 
daughter  of  a  circus-rider,  she  was  a  favorite  of 
Theodora,  the  wife  of  Justinian,  and  through  the 
influence  of  the  Empress  reduced  Belisarius  to  a 


state  of  servile  submissiveness  and  impelled  him 
to  manv  acts  of  injustice.  In  connection  with 
his  public  career,  however,  she  frequently  showed 
great  foresight  and  diplomacy.     See  Belisarius. 

AN^ONINE  GOI/XTMN.  The  column  of  Mar- 
cus Aurelius  in  Rome.  It  was  erected  in  176  a.d. 
to  commemorate  that  emperor's  victories  in  his 
German  and  Sarmatian  wars.  The  column  stood 
in  a  square  surrounded  by  a  portico,  and  was 
part  of  a  superb  group  of  monuments  to  com- 
memorate the  Antonine  dynasty,  similar  to  the 
column  of  Trajan,  which  it  imitated,  having  the 
same  height  (100  feet),  and  reliefs  similarly  ar- 
ranged in  ascending  spirals,  giving  the  history  of 
the  campaigns.  It  now  adorns  the  Piazza  Co- 
lonna. 

AN^ONINESy  Age  of  the.  The  period  in 
Roman  history  marked  by  the  reigns  of  Antoni- 
nus Pius  and  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  (a.d. 
138-180).  It  was  noted  for  its  peace  and  pros- 
perity. 

AN'TONI'NUS,  Marcus  Aurelius.  See  Au- 
relius, Marcus  Antoninus. 

ANTONINUS,  Saint  (1389-1459).  Anarch- 
bishop  of  Florence.  His  real  name  was  Antonia 
Pierozzi,  and  he  is  also  known  by  the  name  of 
De'  Foreiglioni.  At  first  prior  to  several  monas- 
teries, he  was,  in  1446,  appointed  to  the  archbish- 
opric of  Florence,  where  his  noble  efforts  tended 
greatly  to  alleviate  the  sufferings  attendant  upon 
the  pestilence,  famine,  and  earthquake  of  the  pe- 
riod 1448-53.  He  was  canonized  by  I'ope  Adrian 
VI.  in  1523.  The  2d  of  May  'is  consecrated 
to  his  memory  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  most  important  of  his  writings  are :  8umma 
Theologica,  a  compilation  of  ethical  precepts, 
after  Thomas  Aquinas;  Summa  Confessionalis ; 
8umma  Historialis,  a  chronicle;  and  Lettere 
(Florence,  1859).  A  monument  to  him  was 
erected  in  Florence,  and  his  cell  in  the  monastery 
of  St.  Mark's  is  still  pointed  out. 

ANTONINUS,  Itinerary  of  (Lat.  Antonini 
Itinerarium) ,  A  valuable  geographical  work, 
containing  the  names  of  all  the  places  and  sta- 
tions on  the  principal  and  cross-roads  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  with  their  distances  from  each 
other  in  Roman  miles.  It  has  been  usually  at- 
tributed to  the  Emperor  M.  Aurelius  Antoninus 
(Caracalla),  whence  its  name.  The  testimony 
however,  of  the  Greek  geographer  iEthicus, 
author  of  the  Cosmographia,  assures  us  that  a 
general  survey  of  the  Roman  Empire  was  com- 
menced 44  B.G.,  in  the  consulship  of  Julius  Cie- 
sar  and  M.  Antonius,  and  completed  in  the  reign 
of  Augustus,  when  the  results  of  the  survey  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  the  State.  These  results, 
it  is  with  some  probability  inferred,  are  embod- 
ied in  this  Itinerary^  which,  it  is  further; 
supposed,  received  additions  and  amendments  in 
the  time  of  the  Antonines.  Subsequent  improve- 
ments went  down  to  the  reign  of  Diocletian. 
The  best  editions  are  those  of  Wesseling  (Am- 
sterdam, 1735)  and  Parthey  (Berlin,  1848). 
Consult  D'Urban,  Recueil  des  itin4raires  an- 
dens,  with  ten  maps  (Paris,  1845). 

ANTONINUS.  The  name  of  several  Roman 
emperors,  who  are  to-day  generally  distinguished 
by  their  titles  or  nicknames.  See  Antoninus 
Pius;  Aurelius ;  Caracalla;  Elagabalus. 

ANTONINUS,  Wall  op  (Lat.  Antonini  val- 
lum).    See  Roman  Wall. 


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ANTONIUS. 


ANTONINUS  and  FAUSTINA,  Temple 
OF.  A  prostyle  temple  in  Rome,  on  the  Sacred 
Way  facing  the  Forum,  voted  by  the  Senate  in 
141  A.D.,  in  commemoration  of  the  elder  Faus- 
tina, wife  of  Antoninus  Pius,  whose  name  was 
added  to  that  of  his  wife  on  his  death  in  161  a.d. 
The  temple  has  six  columns  in  front  and  three 
on  the  sides.  The  frieze  is  richly  sculptured. 
In  the  seventh  or  eighth  century  the  temple  was 
dedicated  to  St.  Laurence  under  the  title  of  San 
Lorenzo  in  Miranda.  Urban  V.  used  much  of  its 
material  in  the  reconstruction  of  the  Lateran. 

ANTONINUS  LIB'EBA^IS.  A  Greek  wri1> 
er  on  mythology,  who  lived  about  150  A.D.y 
and  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  f reedman  of  An- 
toninus Pius.  He  wrote  iiiTafiop^uaeuv  awayuyi^ 
{Metamorph68€6n  8ynag6ge),  a  collection  of 
forty-one  myths  dealing  with  transformations. 
Most  of  these  are  derived  from  ancient  sources, 
now  lost,  so  that  the  work  is  valuable. 

ANTONINUS  PI'US,  Trrus  Aure'uxjs  Ful- 
vus  BoioNius  Abbiub  (80-161  A.D.).  A  Roman 
emperor  (138-161  a.d.),  who  was  bom  at  Iauu- 
yium  in  the  reign  of  Domitian.  The  family  of 
Antoninus  Pius  was  originally  from  Nemausus, 
now  Nimes,  in  Gaul.  Antoninus  Pius  inherited 
great  wealth,  and  early  gave  proof  of  excellent 
qualities.  In  120  he  was  made  consul;  after- 
ward he  was  sent  b^  Hadrian  as  pro-consul  into 
Asia,  where  the  wisdom  and  gentleness  of  his 
rule  won  for  him  a  higher  reputation  than  had 
been  enjoyed  by  any  of  his  predecessors.  By  his 
wife,  Faustina,  he  had  four  children,  of  whom 
three  died,  leaving  a  daughter,  Faustina,  after- 
ward wife  of  Marcus  Aurelius.  In  138  he  was 
adopted  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian,  in  consequence 
of  merit  alone,  and  came  to  the  throne  in  the 
same  year.  The  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  was 
peaceful  and  happy.  In  his  private  character 
he  was  simple,  temperate,  and  benevolent,  while 
in  public  affairs  he  acted  as  the  father  of  his 
people.  The  persecution  of  the  Christians,  which 
was  continued  during  his  reign,  was  partly 
stayed  by  his  mild  measures.  He  was  little  en- 
gaged in  war,  excepting  in  Britain,  where  he 
extended  the  power  of  Rome  and  built  a  wall 
between  the  Forth  and  the  Clyde,  as  a  defense 
against  invasions  by  the  predatory  inhabitants 
of  the  north.  The  reign  of  Antoninus  Pius  illus- 
trates the  saying,  "Happy  the  nation  which  has 
no  history,"  for  by  the  justice,  wisdom,  kindli- 
ness, and  courtesy  of  the  Emperor  his  vast 
empire  was  preserved  from  the  crimes,  conspira- 
cies, insurrections,  and  bloodshed,  the  recording 
of  which  formed  the  largest  part  of  the  his- 
torian's work  in  the  dark  centuries  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  It  is  said  that  only  one  senator  was 
impeached  during  the  life- time  of  Aptoninus  Pius. 
Literature  received  great  encouragement;  the 
laws  were  improved,  commerce  extended;  the 
means  of  communication  were  facilitated  by  the 
repair  of  roads,  bridges,  etc.;  new  sanitary  reg- 
ulations were  introduced,  and  a  taste  for  archi- 
tecture fostered  in  the  citizens.  The  epithet 
Pius,  "dutiful,"  was  conferred  on  him  on  account 
of  his  conduct  in  defending  the  memory  of  his 
predecessor,  Hadrian,  against  certain  dishonor- 
ing changes  brought  forward  by  the  Senate.  The 
column  raised  to  his  memory  by  his  adopted  son 
and  successor,  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus  (q.v.) 
was  discovered  in  1709,  but  exists  only  in  frag- 
ments. The  so-called  Column  of  Antoninus,  now 
in  the  Piazza  Colonna  at  Rome,  is  that  raised  by 


the  Senate  in  honor  of  Marcus  Aurelius  after  his 
victory  over  the  Marcomanni. 

ANTO'NIO.  (1)  The  Changeling  in  Middle- 
ton's  play  of  the  same  name.  (2)  The  steward 
in  Webster's  Duchess  of  Malfi,  (3)  The  Duke  of 
Milan  in  Shakespeare's  Tempest.  (4)  The  Mer- 
chant of  Venice  in  Shakespeare's  play  of  the 
same  name,  who,  unable  to  repay  money  bor- 
rowed of  the  Jew  Shylock,  becomes  liable  for  the 
stipulated  forfeit,  a  pound  of  flesh. 

ANTONIO,  an-td'n^o,  Nicolas  (1617-84).  A 
Spanish  bibliographer  and  critic.  In  1659,  Philip 
IV.  made  him  his  general  agent  at  the  court  of 
Rome,  where  he  remained  nearly  twenty  years, 
and  employed  most  of  his  time  on  his  great  work, 
which  was  a  complete  list  of  Spanish  authors  and 
a  catalogue  of  their  writings.  He  published  part 
of  it  in  1672,  under  the  title,  New  Sjfanish  Libra- 
ry, and  in  1696  the  Old  Library  appeared. 
About  1677,  he  was  fiscal  for  the  Royal  Council 
in  Madrid.  His  Bihliotheca  Hispanica  is  consid- 
ered by  some  critics  the  most  comprehensive 
work  on  Spanish  literature.  He  also  wrote  a 
critique  on  fabulous  histories. 

ANTONIO  BE  SEDTT«TiA,  d&  sA-deHvi 
(c.1730-1829).  A  Spanish  missionary  priest,  bet- 
ter known  as  "Pfere  Antoine."  In  1779  he  was 
sent  to  New  Orleans  to  reinaugurate  the  Inquisi- 
tion there,  but  was  immediately  sent  back  bj 
(jrovernor  Miro,  who  felt  that  the  enforcement  of 
Spain's  rigid  laws  against  heretics  would  pre- 
cipitate a  revolution.  P^re  Antoine  returned 
to  New  Orleans  in  1783  as  priest  of  the  St.  Loois 
cathedral,  and  by  his  kindness  and  his  numerous 
charities  earned  the  love  of  the  residents,  espe- 
cially of  the  French  element.  Until  1886,  a 
palm  tree  planted  by  him  was  a  landmark  in  Xev 
Orleans,  and  about  it  clustered  many  picturesque 
traditions,  some  of  which  are  given  in  Gayarrt, 
History  of  Louisiana,  3  volumes  (New  York. 
1846-63).  Consult  also  T.  B.  Aldrich's  story, 
Pere  Antoine' s  Date  Palm. 

ANTO'NnrS,  Gaius,  surnamed  Htbbida.  A 
Roman  consul,  son  of  Marcus  Antonius  the  ora- 
tor, and  uncle  of  Mark  Antony.  He  was  Cioero's 
colleague  in  both  the  prsetorship  (G5  B.C.)  and 
the  consulship  (63) .  Though  at  first  one  of  Cati- 
line's conspirators,  he  was  induced  to  desert  him 
by  Cicero,  who  secured  for  him  the  province  of 
Macedonia.  On  his  return  to  Rome  (59),  he 
was  accused  of  having  taken  part  in  Catiline's 
conspiracy  and  of  extortion  in  his  province,  and. 
though  defended  by  Cicero,  was  condemned  oq 
both  charges.  He  then  retired  to  the  island  of 
Cephallenia,  but  was  recalled,  probably  by  C»- 
sar,  and  was  in  Rome  at  the  beginning  of  44  b.c. 

ANTONniSy  Mabcus  (143-87  B.C.).  One  of 
the  most  eloquent  of  Roman  lawyers  and  speak- 
ers, commonly  called  "the  Orator."  He  was  the 
grandfather  of  Mark  Antony,  the  triumvir.  He 
was  praetor  in  104  B.C.,  and  the  following  year 
governor  {legatus  pro  prcetore)  of  Cilicia;  in  99 
he  held  the  consulship.  He  favored  the  aristo- 
cratic party,  and  was  an  adherent  of  Sulla  in  the 
Civil  War  against  Marius,  by  whose  order  Anto- 
nius was  assassinated.  In  the  judgment  of 
Cicero,  Antonius  and  L.  Crassus  were  the  first 
Roman  orators  who  equaled  the  great  speakers 
of  Greece. 

ANTONITTSy  Mabcus  (83-30  b.c.).  A  Roman 
triumvir,  commonly  known  as  Mark  Antony,  a 
descendant  of  one  of  the  oldest  patrician  fami- 


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ANTONOHASIA. 


lies.  He  was  the  son  of  the  prsetor,  M.  Antonius 
Creticus,  and  on  the  side  of  his  mother,  Julia, 
was  related  to  Julius  Csesar.  His  youth  was 
wasted  in  dissipation,  and,  finding  himself 
pressed  by  numerous  impatient  creditors,  he  es- 
caped to  Greece  in  68  B.G.,  where,  for  a  short 
time,  he  listened  to  the  teaching  of  Athenian  phi- 
losophers and  orators.  His  studies  here  were 
soon  interrupted  by  the  pro-consul  Gabinius,  who 
appointed  him  leader  of  his  cavalry.  In 
the  campaign  against  Aristobulus  in  Palestine 
and  in  Egypt,  Antonius  distinguished  himself  by 
his  courage  and  activity,  and  ingratiated  himself 
with  the  soldiers.  After  assisting  Csesar  in 
Oaul,  he  went  to  Rome,  in  50  B.C.,  to  advance  the 
interests  of  the  former,  who  stood  in  ereat  danger 
from  the  hostility  of  the  oligarchical  party,  and 
was  appointed  an  augur,  and  chosen  one  of  the 
tribunes  of  the  people.  In  the  following  year, 
on  account  of  his  adherence  to  the  party  of  Ce- 
sar, he  was  expelled  from  the  curia  and  fled  to 
Ciesar,  who  made  use  of  this  event  as  a  pretext 
for  his  war  against  Pompey.  At  the  outbreak 
of  this  war  Antonius  received  the  appointment 
of  commander-in-chief  in  Italy.  |n  the  battle 
of  Pharsalia  he  commanded  the  left  wing  of  Ce- 
sar's army.  In  47,  he  was  made  master  of  the 
horse  by  Cesar,  who  left  him  to  govern  Italy 
during  his  absence  in  Africa.  Antony,  as  usual, 
disgraced  himself;  was  perpetually  drunk;  di- 
vorced his  wife  and  married  an  actress,  with 
whom  he  paraded  himself  ofifensively  through  the 
chief  towns  of  the  peninsula.  In  44  B.c.  he  mar- 
ried Fulvia,  the  widow  of  Clodius;  was  made 
consul,  and  vainly  endeavored  to  prevail  on  the 
Komans  to  recognize  Ciesar  as  emperor.  After 
the  assassination  of  Cesar,  he  played  the  part  so 
well  described  by  Shakespeare,  and  by  his  funeral 
oration  and  the  well-timed  display  of  Cesar's 
bloody  robe  so  wrought  upon  the  passions  of  the 
people  that  the  conspirators  were  compelled  to 
escape  from  Rome,  leaving  the  successful  orator 
for  a  while  in  possession  of  almost  absolute  pow- 
er. A  formidable  rival  to  Antonius  now  ap- 
peared in  the  person  of  the  young  Octavianus 
(the  future  Augustus),  whom  Cesar  had  desig- 
nated as  his  heir,  and  a  contest  for  the  ascend- 
ency ensued.  The  eloquence  of  Cicero,  who  de- 
nounced Antonius  as  an  enemy  of  the  State, 
secured  the  triumph  of  Octavianus  in  the  Senate, 
Antonius,  who  had  been  besieging  Decimus  Bru- 
tus in  Mutina  (Modena),  in  order  to  obtain  pos- 
session of  Cisalpine  Gaul,  was  finally  overthrown 
by  the  forces  of  the  Senate  in  43  B.c.  He  es- 
caped beyond  the  Alps,  visited  the  camp  of  Lepi- 
dus,  who  commanded  in  Gaul,  and  gained  the 
favor  of  the  army,  of  which  he  took  command. 
Plancus  and  Pollio  joined  him  with  their  troops, 
and  Antonius,  who  so  recently  had  escaped  as  a 
helpless  fugitive  from  Italy,  returned  to  Rome  at 
the  head  of  seventeen  legions  and  ten  thousand 
•cavalry.  Octavianus,  who  had  pretended  to  main- 
tain republican  principles,  now  threw  off  the 
mask  and  held  a  consultation  with  Antonius  and 
Ijepidus  near  Bologna,  when  it  was  determined 
that  as  triumvirs  they  should  share  the  whole 
Roman  world  among  themselves.  To  secure  their 
spoil,  they  returned  to  Rome  and  began  their 
course  of  murder  and  robbery  throughout  Italy. 
Among  their  first  victims  fell  Cicero,  the  orator, 
-whose  eloquence  they  dreaded.  According  to  Ap- 
pian,  no  fewer  than  three  hundred  senators  and 
two  thousand  knights  were  put  to  death  in  the 
proscriptions  of  the  triumvirs. 


After  making  Italy  safe  for  themselves  and 
raising  an  enormous  sum  of  money  to  carry  on 
their  war  abroad,  Antonius  and  Octavianus  led 
their  troops  into  Macedonia  against  Brutus  and 
Cassius,  and  defeated  the  republican  forces  at 
Philippi  (42  B.C.).  Antonius  next  paid  a  visit 
to  Athens,  and  then  went  into  Asia  to  arrange 
his  dispute  with  Cleopatra,  Queen  of  Egypt, 
whose  conduct  had  offended  the  triumvirs.  The 
queen  herself  appeared  to  answer  his  challenge, 
and  captivated  Antonius  by  her  beauty  and  ad- 
dress. The  general  who  had  overcome  Brutus  and 
Cassius  was  now  made  a  prisoner,  though  not  of 
war.  He  followed  Cleopatra  into  Egypt,  and 
lived  with  her  in  idleness  and  luxury,  until  he 
was  aroused  by  tidings  of  the  quarrel  which  had 
taken  place  in  Italy  between  nis  own  relatives 
and  Octavianus.  This  dispute  gave  rise  to  a 
short  war,  which  came  to  an  end  before  Antonius 
arrived  in  Italy.  A  new  division  of  the  Roman 
world  now  took  place  between  the  triumvirs,  and 
was  soon  quietly  arranged  at  Brundusium.  An- 
tonius took  the  East,  and  Octavianus  took  the 
West;  while  the  ambition  of  the  feeble  Lepidus 
was  appeased  by  his  having  the  whole  of  Africa 
for  his  portion.  Even  this  shadow  of  dominion 
was  taken  from  him  in  36  B.c.  Meanwhile,  An- 
tonius had  confirmed  his  friendship  with  Octavi- 
anus by  a  marriage  with  Octa,via,  his  sister.  He 
now  returned  to  Cleopatra,  resumed  his  former 
voluptuous  mode  of  life,  squandered  the  wealth 
of  Rome  in  gifts  to  his  royal  mistress,  and  be- 
came guilty  of  gross  acts  of  injustice.  Octavi- 
anus made  use  of  these  facts  to  excite  the  indig- 
nation of  the  Roman  people  against  Antonius, 
and  a  war  between  the  rivals  became  unavoidable. 
Antonius,  in  his  idleness,  tried  to  postpone  the 
trial  of  strength  which  he  saw  inevitably  ap- 
proaching, and  filled  the  island  of  Samos  (where 
his  troops  were  quartered)  with  musicians,  jug- 
glers, and  buffoons.  Meanwhile,  at  Rome,  he  was 
lomially  deprived  of  his  power,  and  war  was 
proclaimed  against  Cleopatra.  Each  party  col- 
lected its  forces,  and  in  the  naval  engagement 
which  took  place  (31  B.c.)  near  Actium  (q.v.) 
Antonius  and  Cleopatra  were  utterly  defeated. 
His  subsequent  hope  of  finding  troops  still 
faithful  to  him  in  Libya  was  disappointed. 
He  returned  to  Egypt,  where,  with  Cleopatra,  he 
once  more  forgot  political  cares  and  vexations, 
until  his  amusements  were  suddenly  interrupted 
by  the  arrival  of  Octavianus  at  Alexandria.  An- 
tonius now  roused  himself,  made  a  charge  with^ 
his  cavalry,  and  repelled  the  enemy;  but  the  ad- 
vantage was  only  momentary.  Deserted  by  the 
Egyptian  fieet,  as  by  his  own  army,  and  suspect- 
ing that  even  Cleopatra  had  conspired  against 
him,  he  went  to  her  palace,  from  which  the  Queen 
had  escaped.  Deceived  by  a  false  message  in- 
forming him  of  the  death  of  Cleopatra,  Antonius 
committed  suicide  by  falling  upon  his  sword,  in 
the  year  30  b.c.  He  died  m  the  arms  of  Cleo- 
patra, who  immediately  after  put  an  end  to  her 
life. 

AirrONTD'Sy  St.    See  Awtony  of  Padua. 

AN'TONOMA^SIA  (Gk.  avrovofiaaia,  from  avri, 
anti  -f  dvofw^eiVf  onomazein,  to  name).  In 
rhetoric,  the  substitution  of  any  epithet  or 
phrase  for  a  proper  name;  as  "The  Stagyrite" 
for  Aristotle,  "The  Little  Corporal"  for  Napoleon, 
"The  Man  on  Horseback"  for  Grant,  "The  Man 
from  Nowhere"  for  Kipling,  etc.  Sometimes  the 
process  is  reversed;  as,  calling  a  good  orator  a 


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ANT0N0KA8IA. 


632 


ANT  PI.ANTS. 


''Cicero."    In  either  case  the  figure  is  akin  to 
metonymy. 

ANTON  ULBIG,  an'tAn  vl'rik  (171480). 
The  second  son  of  Duke  Ferdinand  Albert  of 
Brunswick- WolfenbUttel  (till  1735  Brunswick- 
Bevern,  the  title  by  which  the  Prince  was  first 
known  in  Russia).  He  married  Anna  Karlovna 
(q.v.),  niece  of  Anna  Ivanovna,  Empress  of  Rus- 
sia, in  1730.  In  1740  the  Empress  fell  danger- 
ously ill  and  appointed  Ivan,  the  infant  son  of 
Anton,  her  successor,  with  Biron  as  regent.  Af- 
ter her  death  Anton  Ulric  made  some  feeble  at- 
tempts to  reverse  this  appointment,  which  only 
led  to  the  punishment  of  those  supposed  to  have 
instigated  them,  and  to  his  ow^n  military  degra- 
dation. Biron's  conduct  toward  the  parents  of 
the  infant  Prince  became  unbearably  insolent,  and 
Anna  appealed  in  despair  to  General  MUnnich, 
who  put  a  sudden  end  to  Biron*s  sway  and  de- 
clared the  Grand  Duchess  and  her  husband  re- 
gents. After  a  few  months  Anna  ungratefully 
overthrew  MUnnich.  After  his  fall, as  little  unity 
prevailed  among  the  ministers  as  between  her- 
self and  her  husband,  and  the  Government  was 
looked  upon  as  both  a  foreign  and  a  contemptible 
one.  Then  came  the  revolution  of  December  5, 
1741,  which  raised  Elizabeth  Petrovna  (q.v.)  to 
the  throne.  Anton  Ulric  and  his  consort  were 
exiled,  and  lived  long  at  Kholmogory,  in  the  gov- 
ernment of  Archangel.  Anna  died  in  1746. 
Catharine  II.  offer^  Ulric  his  freedom,  but 
he  declined  it.  Ultimately  he  grew  blind. 
Catharine  gave  his  children  comfortable  homes 
in  Jutland.  Consult  BrUckner,  Die  Familie 
Braunschweig  in  Russland  (St.  Petersburg, 
1876). 

ANTONY,  St.,  op  Thebes  (251-356).  The 
father  of  monastic  asceticism;  known  as  the 
Great.  He  was  born  about  the  year  251  a.d.,  at 
Koma,  near  Heraklea,  in  Upper  Egypt.  His  par- 
ents were  both  wealthy  and  pious,  and  be- 
stowed on  him  a  religious  education.  Having,  in 
obedience  to  what  he  believed  to  be  a  divine  in- 
junction, sold  his  possessions  and  distributed  the 
proceeds  among  the  poor,  he  withdrew  into  the 
wilderness,  ivhere  he  disciplined  himself  in  all 
those  austerities  which  have  hallowed  his  mem- 
ory in  the  Catholic  Church  and  formed  the  model 
of  the  monastic  life.  When  thirty  years  of  age, 
however,  desirous  of  obtaining  a  deeper  repose 
than  his  situation  afforded,  he  penetrated  further 
into  the  desert  and  took  up  his  abode  in  an  old 
ruin  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  where  he  spent  tw^enty 
years  in  the  most  rigorous  seclusion;  but  in  305 
he  was  persuaded  to  leave  this  retreat  by  the 
prayers  of  numerous  anchorites  who  wished  to 
live  under  his  direction.  He  now  founded  the 
monastery  of  Fayum,  which  w^as  at  first  only  a 
group  of  separate  and  scattered  cells  near  Mem- 
phis and  Arsinog,  but  which,  nevertheless,  may 
bo  considered  the  origin  of  cenobite  life.  He 
declined,  however,  to  preside  over  a  monastery. 
The  persecution  of  the  Christians  by  Maximian, 
in  311  A.D.,  induced  St.  Antony  to  leave  his  cell 
and  proceed  to  Alexandria  to  comfort  the  mar- 
tyrs; but  in  the  course  of  a  year  he  returned 
to  his  solitude,  which,  however,  he  soon  left 
and  plunged  yet  deeper  into  the  desert.  At  length 
he  found  a  lodgment  on  a  hill,  about  a  day's 
journey  from  the  Red  Sea ;  but  his  disciples,  dis- 
covering his  retreat,  •so  pressed  him  with  their 
affectionate  importunities  that  he  ventured  to 
accompany  them  back.      After  many  pious  ex- 


hortations, he  once  more  left  them,  and  soon  be- 
came the  mighty  oracle  of  the  whole  valley  of 
the  Nile.  In  335  the  venerable  hermit  made  a 
journey  to  Alexandria,  at  the  request  of  Atha- 
nasius,  to  dispute  with  the  Arians.  He  had  in- 
terviews w^ith  Athanasius  and  other  distinguished 
persons,  but  soon  retired  to  his  desert  home, 
where  he  died,  356  a.d. 

Athanasius  states,  in  his  Life  of  8t.  Antony, 
that  the  saint  wore  only  a  coarse  shirt  of  hair, 
and  never  washed  his  body,  which  is  more  cred- 
ible than  the  stories  he  relates  of  his  encounters 
with  the  devil  or  his  miracles.  His  whole  con- 
duct indicates  the  predominance  of  a  glowing  and 
yet  gloomy  fancy,  which  is  the  proper  condition 
of  religious  asceticism.  Although  the  father  of 
monachism,  St.  Antony  is  not  the  author  of  any 
monastic  "rules;"  those  which  the  monks  of  the 
Eastern  schismatic  sects  attribute  to  him  are  the 
production  of  St.  Basil.  He  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
popular  saint  in  the  Catholic  Church.  Accounts 
of  his  life  and  miracles  are  given  in  the  Acta 
Sanctorum  of  the  Bollandists,  under  the  date  of 
the  17th  of  January,  on  which  day  his  festival 
was  kept. 

ANTONY,  St.,  of  Padua  (1195-1231).  A 
famous  saint.  He  was  born  at  Lisbon,  Por- 
tugal, August  15,  1195,  baptized  as  Ferdinand, 
but  took  the  name  Aiitony  when  he  entered 
the  order  of  St.  Francis,  in  1220,  after 
being  a  canon  of  St.  Vincent's  in  Lisbon,  and 
already  noted  for  biblical  and  jMitristie  learn- 
ing. In  1221  he  attended  a  meeting  of  the  order 
at  Assisi  and  made  a  poor  impression,  but  soon 
after  produced  great  astonishment  and  delight 
at  a  meeting  with  the  Dominicans,  and  was  sent 
by  St.  Francis  as  revival  preacher  to  northern 
Italy,  where  he  met  with  tremendous  success. 
In  1223,  after  studying  at  St.  Francis's  direc- 
tion mystical  theology  for  five  months,  he  was 
appointed  the  first  theological  tutor  in  the  order, 
and  taught  in  northern  Italy  and  France.  In 
1227  he  became  provincial  of  northern  Italy;  in 
November  of  that  year  he  entered  Padua  for  the 
first  time.  In  1230  he  went  to  Rome  as  del^ate 
to  get  the  papal  decision  upon  the  binding  nature 
of  certain  points  in  the  Franciscan  rule — not,  as 
frequently  asserted,  to  secure  the  deposition  of 
the  general  of  the  order.  He  died  at  Padua, 
June  13,  1231.  He  was  canonized  by  Pope 
Gregory  IX.  in  1232.  His  great  repute  as  a 
preacher  gave  rise  to  legends  of  miraculous  pow- 
ers. He  is  the  patron  saint  of  animals.  Once 
he  preached  to  the  fishes,  it  is  said,  and  they 
listened  to  him  with  rapt  attention.  Joseph  Addi^ 
son  gave  an  abstract  of  it  in  his  Remarks  on 
Italy.  For  the  classic  biography  of  Antony,  con- 
sult Emmanuel  de  Azevedo  of  Coimbra,  Vita  del 
Taumalurgo  .  .  .  8ant*  Antonio  di  Padova  (lat- 
est edition,  Padua,  1829)  ;  consult  also:  De 
Ch^rance,  Antony  of  Padua  (London,  1895) ;  I- 
Beale  (1897),  Mrs.  Arthur  Bell  (1901).  in 
French  by  A.  Lepltre  (Paris,  1901).  His  works 
were  published  by  Horoy  in  his  Medii  ^vi  Bib- 
liothcca  Patristica  (Pans,  1885). 

ANTONY  AND  CLE'OPATBA.  A  tragedy 
by  Shakespeare  (1607).  It  was  based  upon  the 
life  of  Antony  in  North's  Plutarch,  and  is  ad- 
mired for  the  vigor  with  which  the  author  deals 
with  a  difficult  theme.  The  play  is  to  some  ex- 
tent imitated  in  both  Dryden's  All  For  Love,  and 
Fletcher  and  Massinger's  The  False  One. 

ANT  PLANTS,    See  Mtrmecophilt. 


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ANTBAIOUES. 


AKTBAIOTJES,  &N'tr&g^  Eiianuel  Louis 
Henri  de  Launay,  Comte  d'  (1755-1812).  A 
French  publicist  and  diplomat.  He  was  born  at 
Villeneuve,  department  of  Ardfeche.  His  talents 
were  first  displayed  in  his  M&tnoirea  aur  lea  itata- 
g4n6raux,  leura  droita  et  la  mani^re  de  lea  con- 
roquer  (1788),  in  which  he  predicted  the  down- 
fall of  absolute  monarchy  realized  in  the  French 
Revolution.  In  1789,  when  he  was  chosen  a  dep- 
uty, he  defended,  however,  the  privileges  of  the 
hereditary  aristocracy.  In  1790  ne  was  employed 
in  a  diplomatic  mission  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
Vienna,  where  he  upheld  the  cause  of  the  Bour- 
bons. He  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Bonaparte, 
but  fled  from  France  in  1798.  In  1803  Alex- 
ander of  Russia  sent  him  on  an  embassy  to  Dres- 
den, where  he  wrote  a  brochure  against  Napoleon, 
entitled  Fragment  du  XVIII,  livre  de  Polyhe 
trouv^  aur  le  mont  Athoa.  He  was  murdered, 
with  his  wife,  at  his  residence  near  London  by  an 
Italian  servant. 

AN^THIM.  A  maritime  county  in  the  north- 
east of  Ireland,  in  the  province  of  Ulster.  It  is 
bounded,  north,  by  the  Atlantic;  west,  by  the 
north  part  of  the  River  Bann,  dividing  it  from 
Londonderry,  and  by  Lough  Neagh;  south,  by 
Lagan  River,  separating  it  from  the  county  of 
Down;  southeast,  by  Belfast  Lough;  and  north- 
east, by  the  North  Channel  (Map:  Ireland,  E  2) . 
Its  greatest  length  is  56  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  20  miles;  its  extent  of  sea  coast,  90 
miles.  Area,  1237  square  miles.  About  two- 
thirds  of  this  is  arable;  a  fourth,  barren;  and  a 
small  fraction  in  woods.  Mines  of  fine  salt 
occur  at  Duncrue  and  Carrickfergus,  and  small 
coal  fields  near  Ballycastle  and  in  the  interior. 
Rich  beds  of  iron  ore  of  fine  quality  are  worked 
at  Glen  ravel,  and  a  large  export  is  carried  on 
from  Gushendall  and  Carnlough.  The  soil  of 
Antrim  is  mostly  light,  and  uie  chief  crop  is 
oats.  The  land  is  much  subdivided,  and  the 
rearing  of  flax,  and  the  various  branches  of  the 
linen,  cotton,  and  coarse  woolen  manufacture 
employ  a  great  portion  of  the  people.  There  are 
important  salmon  and  other  fisheries  on  the 
coast.  The  principal  towns  are  Belfast,  the  capi- 
tal; Lisburn,  Ballymcna,  Ballymoney,  Carrick- 
fergus, Larne,  and  Antrim.  It  is  one  of  the 
three  counties  that  shows  an  increase  of  popula- 
tion since  1841.  Pop.,  1841,  355,400;  1851,  352,- 
900;  1801,  430,865;  1901,  461,250. 

ANT-SHBIKE,  ANT-THBUSH,  and  ANT- 
WBEN.  Names  applied  to  groups  within  the 
large  South  American  family  of  non-oscine  pas- 
seres  named  Formicariidee,  all  of  which  subsist 
largely  upon  ants.  Bates  and  others  describe  how 
these  birds  follow  and  prey  upon  the  columns  of 
inarching  ecitons  and  other  ferocious  tropical 
ants,  and  that  their  twittering  is  a  warning  all 
the  natives  are  quick  to  heed.  They  are  small, 
long-billed  birds,  clothed  in  soft  and  pleasing  col- 
ors, as  a  rule,  and  some  have  loud  and  melodious 
voices,  notwithstanding  their  lack  of  proper  os- 
cine  or  "singing"  organs.  The  ant-shrikes  con- 
stitute the  subfamily  Thamnophilinse,  or  "bush- 
shrikes,"  some  of  which  also  inhabit  the  Antilles ; 
ant-wTens  are  prettily  marked,  active,  wren-like 
members  of  the  subfamily  Formicivorinee ;  while 
the  ant-thrushes  belong  to  the  typical  subfamily 
FormicariidsB,  to  a  Guiana  species,  of  which 
{Rhopotrope  torquata)  Buff  on  first  gave  the 
name  fourmilier  (ant-eater).  The  term  ant- 
thrush  is  also  improperly  applied  to  the  pittas — 


633  ANTWERP. 

brilliantly  colored,  ground-keeping,  insect-eating 
birds  of  eastern  Asia  and  the  Malay  Archipelago. 
See  Pitta;  and  for  illustration,  see  Lyre  Bird, 
etc. 

ANTWERP  (Fr.  Anvera).  A  former  mar- 
graviate,  and  now  a  province,  of  Belgium,  sit- 
uated south  of  the  Netherlands,  and  occupying 
an  area  of  1093  square  miles  (Map:  Belgium, 
C  3).  The  surface  is  generally  flat,  and  even 
marshy  along  the  Scheldt,  which,  together  with 
its  tributary,  the  Rupel,  forms  the  chief  water 
course  of  the  province.  The  soil  is  fertile  and 
yields  large  quantities  of  grain.  Cattle  and 
other  domestic  animals  are  also  raised.  The 
chief  manufactures  of  the  province  are  laces, 
sugar,  wool,  cotton  fabrics,  and  liquors. 
Capital,  Antwerp.     Population,  in  1900,  837,976. 

ANT'WEBP  (Fr.  Anvera,  anciently  Andover- 
pum,  from  Ana  de  Werp,  "at  the  wharf,  har- 
bor"). A  city  of  Belgium,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Scheldt,  in  lat.  50*»  13'  N.,  long. 
4*^  23'  E.  (Map:  Belgium,  C  3).  It  ranks  first 
in  commercial  importance  and  second  in  popula- 
tion among  the  cities  of  Belgium,  and  its  harbor 
is  considered  one  of  the  best  in  Europe.  Antwerp 
is  situated  in  a  fruitful  and  well-cultivated 
region.  The  larger  part  of  the  city  lies  within 
the  walls,  which  have  been  continually  extended 
and  improved,  and  at  present  have  a  total  length 
of  eight  miles.  In  point  of  architectural  beauty 
and  artistic  achievements,  Antwerp  has  but  few 
rivals  among  European  cities. 

The  most  noteworthy  edifice  is  the  Cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame,  the  noblest  and  largest  specimen 
of  Gothic  architecture  in  the  Netherlands,  cov- 
ering an  area  of  70,060  square  feet.  It  was  be- 
gun in  1352  and  continued  at  various  periods 
during  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries. 
The  roof  is  supported  by  125  pillars,  and  the 
lofty  tower,  whose  exquisite  beauty  Charles  V,. 
was  wont  to  compare  to  Mechlin  lace,  is  a  mar- 
vel of  gracefulness.  The  highly  ornamented  por- 
tal and  the  fine  tracery  of  the  window  above  it 
are  particularly  worth  seeing.  The  impressive 
interior,  the  unusual  seven-aisled  division  of 
which  is  to  be  noted,  contains  three  celebrated 
works  by  Rubens,  "The  Descent  from  the  Cross,**" 
"The  Elevation  of  the  Cross,"  and  adorning  the 
high  altar  in  the  choir,  "The  Assumption;"  the- 
first-named  being  the  most  magnificent,  and  gen- 
erally considered  his  masterpiece.  The  church 
of  St.  Jacques,  begun  in  the  late  Gothic  style,  in 
1491,  and  completed  in  1656,  outranks  the  cathe- 
dral in  the  splendor  of  its  decorations  and  monu- 
ments. Among  the  many  altars,  private  chapels,, 
and  burial  vaults,  belonging  to  the  most  distin- 
guished families  of  Antwerp,  that  of  the  Rubens 
familjr  is  the  most  interesting.  Of  the  secular 
buildings,  the  H(itel  de  Ville,in  the  Grande  Place, 
a  fine  structure  in  the  Renaissance  style,  dating^ 
from  1561-65,  and  rising  to  a  height  of  180  feet, 
and  the  Bourse,  a  stately  edifice  in  the  late 
Gothic  style,  deserve  especial  attention.  The 
museum,  erected  in  1879-90,  from  plans  by  Win- 
ders and  Van  Dyck,  is  an  imposing  rectangular 
structure,  inclosing  six  inner  courts.  Its  pic- 
ture gallery  boasts  of  an  unusually  fine  collec- 
tion of  paintings  by  the  old  masters,  including 
about  800  canvases,  especially  of  the  Flemish 
school,  among  which  are  rare  specimens  by  Jan 
van  Eyck,  Memling,  Matsys,  Rubens,  Van  Dyck, 
etc.;  "The  Entombment  of  Christ,"  the  master- 


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piece  of  Quentin  Matsys,  and  the  "Christ  Cruci- 
fied," bv  Kubens,  a  work  of  great  dramatic  effect, 
being  the  most  remarkable.  Worthy  of  mention 
are  also  the  Mus^  Plantin-Moretus,  famous  for 
its  collection  of  everything  pertaining  to  the 
«arly  history  of  printing,  the  Guild  Hall  of  the 
Archers,  the  Vieille  Boucherie  or  old  meat  mar- 
ket, and  the  Steen,  part  of  the  old  castle  dating 
from  the  Tenth  Century,  once  the  seat  of  the 
Inquisition,  and  now  containing  an  archielogical 
museum. 

Antwerp  is  administered  by  a  burgomaster, 
assisted  by  five  assessors  and  a  municipal  coun- 
cil. The  burgomaster  is  nominated  by  the  Kinff 
for  a  period  of  eight  years, and  is  also  the  head  of 
the  police.  The  assessors  are  chosen  by  the  munici- 
pal council  for  the  same  period.  The  municipal 
council  numbers  39  members,  including  8  mem- 
bers from  the  labor  council,  who  are  elected  by 
all  voting  citizens  for  8  years.  The  city  is  di- 
vided into  9  districts,  administered  by  commis- 
sioners. Water,  as  well  as  gas,  is  supplied  by 
private  companies.  With  the  exception  of  the 
railway  stations  and  the  harbor,  which  have  elec- 
tric lights,  the  city  is  lighted  by  gas.  Of  its 
annual  budget  of  over  $7,500,000,  the  city  ex- 
pends only  about  9  per  cent,  on  administration, 
police,  and  street  cleaning,  about  8  per  cent,  on 
education,  and  about  15  per  cent,  on  the  service 
of  the  debt,  which  amounts  to  about  $60,000,000 
at  2%  per  cent,  repayable  by  1977. 

Among  the  educational  institutions  of  the  citv 
the  most  noteworthy  are  the  commercial  school, 
established  in  1852,  the  Ath^nte  Royal,  the  Acad- 
emy of  Fine  Arts,  dating  from  1665,  and  attended 
by  over  160  students,  and  the  Royal  Conserva- 
tory of  Music,  with  an  attendance  of  about  1350. 
Some  of  the  higher  schools  are  managed  by  Jesu- 
its, and  the  German  School  is  supported  by  the 
German  Government.  Besides  numerous  scientific 
associations,  Antwerp  has  many  societies  for  the 
advancement  of  art,  and  its  triennial  exhibition 
of  paintings  is  regarded  as  an  important  event  in 
the  world  of  art.  The  city  has  two  theatres  and 
two  municipal  libraries.  Of  the  16  daily  newspa- 
pers published  in  Antwerp  6  are  in  French  and 
10  in  Flemish.  Of  charitable  and  benevolent 
instiiuiionSf  Antwerp  has  its  full  share.  Besides 
two  hospitals  with  900  beds,  an  insane  asylum, 
and  asylums  for  orphans  and  aged  people,  there 
are  a  considerable  number  of  minor  charitable  in- 
stitutions maintained  by  private  societies.  The 
Industrial  establishments  of  Antwerp  include  dis- 
tilleries and  breweries,  textile  mills,  diamond-cut- 
ting works,  sugar  refineries,  cigar  factories,  etc. 
Owing  to  its  advantageous  position  on  the  west- 
em  coast  of  Europe,  and  its  proximity  to  Lon- 
don, Antwerp  is  inferior  to  few  European 
cities  in  the  volume  of  its  commerce,  and  is  con- 
sidered one  of  the  greatest  centres  of  the  grain 
import  trade.  Its  commerce  is  chiefly  ^vith  the 
Balkan  countries,  Russia,  the  United  States,  and 
South  America.  The  total  annual  value  of  the 
commerce,  of  which  a  large  portion  is  transit, 
exceeds  $1,200,000,000,  of  which  slightly  more 
than  one-half  represents  imports.  Antwerp  has 
magnificent  harbor  advantages.  The  quays  have 
a  total  length  of  3^  miles  and  are  provided  with 
gigantic  cranes  for  the  loading  and  unloading  of 
vessels.  There  are  eight  large  basins  and  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  ones  connected  by  sluices  with  the 
Scheldt.  In  1899,  5613  vessels  representing  a 
tonnage  of  6,872,848  cleared  the  port.     In  1891 


the  figures  were  respectively  4461  and  4,603,238. 
Antwerp  is  the  chief  arsenal  of  Belgium  and 
is  fortified  by  strong  ramparts  and  numer- 
ous citadels  and  forts  surrounding  the  city.  It 
has  also  devices  for  the  flooding  of  the  sur- 
rounding country  and  contains  a  garrison  of 
about  10,000  men.  Antwerp  has  consular  rep- 
resentatives from  all  the  important  coimtries  of 
the  world.  The  population  is  (1900)  285,600, 
not  including  the  suburbs,  with  a  population  of 
over  50,000.  In  1830  the  total  population  was 
only  73,500,  while  in  1891  it  numbered  232,732. 
The  average  annual  temperature  of  the  city  is 
about  50**,  or  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  New 
York. 

Antwerp  appears  in  history  as  early  as  the 
Seventh  Century,  is  spoken  of  as  a  market  iovra 
some  hundred  years  later,  and  by  the  middle  of 
the  twelfth  century  seems  to  have  attained 
considerable  prosperity  as  a  trading  town. 
Steadily  extending  its  commercial  operations 
under  the  rule  of  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  it  be- 
came in  the  second  half  of  the  Fifteenth  Century, 
the  world-mart  of  Europe,  supplanting  the  other 
great  Flemish  cities,  Bruges  and  Ghent.  It  was 
the  entrepdt  for  the  trade  between  England  and 
the  Continent,  and  in  its  harbor  vessels  from 
the  north  and  the  south  of  Europe  met  to  ex- 
change their  cargoes.  In  the  first  half  of  the 
Sixt^nth  Century,  under  the  rule  of  Charles  V., 
the  city  was  at  the  height  of  its  splendor  and 
prosperity.  It  was  the  principal  station  of  the 
Hanseatic  League  and  the  centre  of  the  money 
exchanges  of  Europe,  while  its  manufacturing 
industry  was  on  a  level  with  its  vast  shipping. 
Material  prosperity  was  accompanied  by  intel- 
lectual progress,  and  the  great  scnools  of  Flemish 
painters  made  Antwerp  their  principal  home. 
The  events  of  the  Reformation  brought  about  a 
sudden  decline.  The  reign  of  terror  instituted 
by  the  Duke  of  Alva,  and  the  siege  of  14  months 
b^  the  Duke  of  Parma  (1584-85),  to  whom  the 
city  offered  a  heroic  but  ineffectual  resistance, 
sapped  the  prosperity  of  Antwerp.  Its  popula- 
tion at  the  end  of  the  Sixteenth  Century  had 
dwindled  to  55,000,  or  less  than  half  of  what 
it  had  been  at  the  beginning  of  the  century.  Its 
ruin  was  completed  by  the  Treaty  of  Westpha- 
lia, which  closed  the  navigation  of  the  Scheldt 
It  received  new  life  from  the  French,  who  took 
the  city  in  1794,  and  declared  the  Scheldt  open 
once  more.  Later  Napoleon  attempted  to  set  it 
up  as  a  rival  to  London.  During  the  Belgian 
Revolution  of  1830,  the  Dutch  general,  Chassf, 
held  the  citadel  for  two  years  against  the  citi- 
zens, until  he  was  forced  to  surrender  by  a 
French  army  under  Gerard.  After  the  revolu- 
tion, the  growth  of  the  city  was  rapid.  Consult: 
J.  P.  Van  Mol,  Guide  to  Anttcerp  (Antwerp, 
1886)  ;  E.  Rowland,  "Le  Port  d'Anvers,"  in 
L'Economiste  FranQais,  Vol.  II.  (Paris,  1890): 
"The  Great  Fire  at  Antwerp,  and  its  Effects,"  in 
The  Builder,  Vol.  LXXX  (London,  1901). 

ANTYI/LUS  (Gk.  'Arrt/XXw,  AntyUos).  A 
Greek  physician  and  surgeon  who  is  supposed 
to  have  lived  in  the  Third  or  Fourth  Century, aa 
He  is  said  to  have  been  a  voluminous  writer, 
but  only  the  fragments  of  his  works  quoted  by 
Oribasius  are  extant.  Of  these  extracts,  the  most 
interesting  describe  his  method  of  operating  on 
aneurisms.  Antyllus  is  the  earliest  writer  whose 
directions,  for  performing  tracheotomy  are  ex- 
tant. 


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ANTT^IS  (6k.  "Avov/Sis,  Anoii&M,  hieroglyph- 
ic Anupu).  An  Egyptian  deity.  His  original 
seat  of  worship  is  not  known  with  certainty,  but 
there  is  some  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  near 
Memphis.  As  his  sacred  animal,  the  jackal, 
haunts  the  desert  valleys  used  as  burial  places, 
Anubis  became  the  god  of  the  necropolis,  and 
was  supposed  to  conduct  the  souls  of  the  dead 
down  to  the  lower  world,  Amenthes,  like  the 
Greek  Hermes  Psychopompos.  Hence  the  late 
Oreek  combination  Hermanubis.  Anubis  was  also 
the  assistant  of  Osiris  at  the  final  judgment,  and 
weighed  in  the  scales  the  heart  of  the  deceased 
against  the  feather,  symbolic  of  truth  and  right. 
As  the  balance  was  found  level  or  the  reverse 
the  fate  of  the  deceased  was  determined.  When 
a  more  elaborate  mythological  system  was  formed, 
Anubis  was  made  the  son  of  Osiris  by  his  sister 
Nephthys.  The  god  is  usually  represented  in 
human  form,  with  the  head  of  a  jackal,  which  the 
<rreeks  changed  into  that  of  a  dog  and  called 
the  cities  sacred  to  Anubis,  Kynospolis  (Dog 
City ) .  Of  these  cities,  the  best  known  is  that  in 
Middle  Kgypt.  In  Roman  times,  when  the  Egyp- 
tian worship  had  spread  to  Italy,  Hermes,  who 
was  identified  with  Anubis,  sometimes  had  the 
dog's  head  among  his  insignia.  For  illustration 
see  Egypt. 

ANTT^XIS  (Egyptian  A  nHqet).  An  Egyptian 
goddess  worshiped  in  the  district  around  the 
first  cataract  of  the  Nile.  She  usually  accom- 
panies the  god  Chnum  and  is  represented  in  hu- 
man form,  with  a  red  crown  of  feathers  on  her 
head.  For  some  reason  now  unknown  she  was 
identified  by  the  Greeks  with  Hestia  (Latin 
Vesta).    For  illustration  see  Egypt, 

ANU^BA  (Gk.  dif,  an,  priv.  -f  otpd,  oura, 
tail),  or  Salientia  (Lat.,  from  aalire,  to  hop, 
jump).  An  order  of  Amphibia  including  those 
that  have  no  tail  when  adult.  It  is  subdivided 
by  Cope  into  three  sub-orders:  Aglossa,  African 
and  tropical  American  (Pipa)  toads,  and  fossil 
forms;  Firmiatemia,  frogs;  Arcifera,  toads. 

A'NTJS  (liat),  The  external  termination  of 
the  rectum.  The  anus  is  kept  firmly  closed 
by  the  external  and  internal  sphincter  muscles, 
the  former  of  which  contracts  the  integument 
around  the  opening,  and,  by  its  attachment 
to  the  coccyx  behind  and  to  a  tendinous  cen- 
tre in  front,  helps  the  levator  ani  muscle  in 
supporting  the  aperture  during  the  expulsive 
efforts  that  are  made  in  the  passage  of  the 
f »ces  or  intestinal  evacuations ;  while  the  latter, 
or  internal  sphincter,  is  an  aggregation  of  the 
circular  muscular  fibres  of  the  lowest  part  of  the 
rectum,  and  acts  in  contracting  the  extremity  of 
the  tube.  The  main  function  of  the  levator-ani 
muscle  is  expressed  in  its  name.  It  supports  the 
rectum  and  pelvic  structures,  and  during  the  act 
of  defecation  lifts  the  lower  end  of  the  gut  up 
from  the  mass  of  extruded  fieces.  The  integu- 
ment around  the  anus  lies  in  radiating  folds, 
which  allow  of  its  stretching  without  pain  dur- 
ing the  passage  of  the  fspces;  and  the  margin  is 
provided  with  a  number  of  sebaceous  glands, 
which,  in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  secrete 
strongly  odorous  matters.  (See  Scent  (Elands.) 
Infants  are  occasionally  bom  with  an  imperfo- 
rate anus,  or  congenital  closure  of  the  rectum. 
In  the  simplest  form  of  this  affection,  the  anus 
is  merely  closed  by  thin  skin,  which  soon  becomes 
distended  with  the  meconium  (q.v.).  More  com- 
plicated cases  are  those  ( 1 )  in  which  the  gut  ter- 


minates some  distance  above  the  seat  of  the  anus 
in  a  blind  sac  or  pouch,  (2)  where  the  rectum 
terminates  in  the  bladder,  etc.  Fortunately,  the 
closure  by  a  layer  of  skin  is  far  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  imperforate  anus,  and  the  condition 
is  readily  relieved  by  a  simple  surgical  opera- 
tion. The  complicated  cases  require  opening  of 
the  abdominal  cavity  and  the  insertion  of  an 
artificial  anus  through  the  lower  part  of  the  ab- 
dominal wall.  If  the  condition  of  imperforate 
anus  is  neglected,  the  child  dies  in  a  few  days  as 
a  result  of  intestinal  obstruction. 

Spasm  of  the  sphincter  ani  is  by  no  means  a 
rare  affection ;  it  is  characterized  by  violent  pain 
of  the  anus,  with  difficulty  in  passing  the  fspces. 
On  attempting  an  examination,  the  muscle  feels 
hard,  and  resists  the  introduction  of  the  finger. 
It  usually  occurs  in  sudden  paroxysms,  which 
soon  subside,  but  sometimes  it  is  of  a  more  per- 
sistent character.  Spasm  of  the  sphincter  may 
be  regarded  as  a  symptom  of  fissure,  ulcer,  or 
some  other  form  of  anal  or  rectal  irritation. 
Suppositories  containing  opium  or  belladonna, 
introduced  during  the  period  of  relaxation,  are 
sometimes  of  use,  and  if  there  are  ulcers  or  fis- 
sures they  must  be  specially  treated.  Ulceration 
occurring  as  a  breach  of  surface  at  one  or  more 
points  around  the  anus,  but  not  extending  within 
the  orifice,  is  by  no  means  uncommon  in  persons 
who  are  not  attentive  to  cleanliness,  and  espe- 
cially in  women  with  vaginal  discharges.  The 
treatment  consists  in  strict  attention  to  cleanli- 
ness, and  perhaps  one  or  two  applications  of  the 
silver  nitrate  stick  or  of  pure  carbolic  acid.  If 
the  ulcer  is  seated  partly  without  the  anus  and 
partly  within  the  rectum,  the  distress  is  much 
more  severe,  and  the  treatment  often  requires 
excision,  where  local  applications  have  failed  to 
give  relief.  Fissure  of  the  anus  is  a  term  applied 
tx>  an  affection  consisting  in  one  or  more  cracks, 
excoriations,  or  superficial  Ulcerations,  situated 
between  the  folds  of  the  skin  and  mucous  mem- 
brane at  the  verge  of  the. anus,  and  only  slightly 
involving  the  rectum.  They  give  rise  to  intense 
pain  during  the  passage  of  the  evacuations,  and 
for  some  hours  afterward  to  great  discomfort, 
smarting,  and  itching.  The  treatment  to  be 
adopted  is  to  endeavor  to  procure  regular  and 
somewhat  soft  evacuations,  and  to  sponge  with 
warm  water  immediately  afterward,  the  parts 
being  dried  with  a  soft  cloth.  One  or  two  appli- 
cations of  solid  nitrate  of  silver  will  sometimes 
cure  the  disease,  and  an  ointment  of  oxide  of 
zinc,  or  one  containing  cocaine,  wnll  sometimes 
serve  to  allay  the  irritation  and  heal  the  parts. 
If  these  measures  do  not  afford  relief,  the  sphinc- 
ter muscle  must  be  dilated,  the  base  of  the  fis- 
sure incised^  and  its  surface  scraped  with  a 
sharp  spoon.  Pruritus  ani,  which  simply  means 
intense  itching  and  irritation  of  this  part,  is  to 
be  regarded  as  a  symptom  of  certain  morbid 
changes  rather  than  as  a  special  disorder ;  but  as 
it  is  a  very  common  affection,  and  is  productive 
of  much  suffering,  it  must  not  be  passed  over.  It 
is  often  associated  with  an  unhealthy  state  of 
the  intestinal  secretions,  or  with  simple  consti- 
pation; with  a  congested  state  of  the  mucous 
membrane;  with  uterine  and  ovarian  diseases; 
kidney  disease;  diabetes;  neurasthenia;  tea,  al- 
cohol, tobacco,  and  opium  habits;  the  presence  of 
thread- worms  in  the  rectum ;  eczema,  etc. ;  and  it 
is  peculiarly  common  in  persons  whose  occupa- 
tions are  sedentary.    Tlie  affection  is  often  much 


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aggravated  bj  the  patient's  being  unable  to  re- 
frain from  scratching  the  parts,  which  tends  to 
excoriations,  ulcerations,  thickening  of  the  skin, 
etc.  The  symptoms  are  usually  most  severe  when 
the  suflferer  begins  to  get  warm  in  bed.  The 
treatment  in  every  case  must  aim  to  remove  the 
cause,  whether  general  or  local.  If  the  affection 
arine  from  worms,  or  a  loaded  state  of  the  large 
intestines,  enemata  and  purgatives  will  give  im- 
mediate relief.  If  unhealthy  excretions  exist, 
attention  must  be  paid  to  the  diet,  the  bowels 
must  be  kept  freely  open,  and  strict  local  cleanli- 
ness observed.  If  there  are  any  cracks  or  ulcers, 
nitrate  of  silver  must  be  applied  until  they  heal. 
In  all  cavses  of  pniritis  which  have  persisted  for 
any  length  of  time,  the  skin  is  found  thickened 
and  the  redundant  layers  of  epidermis  must  be 
removed  and  kept  from  reaccumulating  by  the 
repeated  applications  of  ointments  containing 
such  substances  as  carbolic  acid,  calomel,  and 
corrosive  sublimate.  The  other  principal  affec- 
tions of  the  anus  are  fiatuUif  piles,  and  prolapsus, 
which  are  discussed  in  special  articles. 

AK^ABI.  A  Persian  poet  famed  for  his 
panegyrics  and  for  his  veise  in  satiric  vein.  His 
full  name  was  Auad-uddin  Ali  Anvari.  He 
was  born  in  the  first  part  of  the  Twelfth  Cen- 
tury, in  the  province  of  Khorassan.  He  first 
wrote  under  the  title  of  Khavaran,  from  his  na- 
tive district;  but  he  aftern-ard  adopted  Anvari 
as  his  poetic  epithet,  and  by  this  he  is  known  to 
fame.  He  was  educated  at  the  collegiate  insti- 
tute at  Tus  (see  Firdausi)  and  he  devoted  his 
attention  especially  to  astronomy;  but  finding 
more  opportunity  for  prefermeVit  at  court  in  lit- 
erature, he  composed  a  panegyric  in  honor  of 
San  jar,  the  ruler  of  Khorassan.  This  by  its 
artistic  grace  immediately  won  him  the  royal 
favor,  and  he  continued  to  enjoy  the  patronage 
of  Sanjar*s  two  successors  as  well.  But  Anvari's 
latter  days  were  attended  by  ill  luck.  Employing 
his  astronomical  knowledge,  he  prophesied  that  a 
certain  conjunction  of  the  stars  in  October,  1185, 
would  be  accompanied  by  a  frightful  storm  and 
dire  disasters.  The  utter  failure  of  the  evil  por- 
tents which  were  predicted  drove  him  practically 
into  banishment,  and  he  withdrew  to  Nishapur, 
and  later  retired  to  Balkh^  where  he  died  about 
1100.  Anvari's  verses,  as  shown  by  his  Divan, 
or  poetical  collection,  are  masterpieces  of  artis- 
tic form.  With  the  consummate  skill  of  a  ro- 
mantic panegyrist  he  combined,  in  high  degree, 
the  subtle  force  of  a  keen  satirist  of  the  foibles 
and  follies  of  his  time.  There  is  a  lithographed 
edition  of  the  Divan  (Lucknow,  1880).  For  other 
details  consult  Eth6,  in  the  Grundriss  der  iran- 
ischen  Philologie,  Vol.  II.  (Strassburg,  1891). 

AN^IL  (ME.  anrelt,  AS.  anfiltc,  of  uncer- 
tain origin).  An  iron  or  steel  block,  with  a 
smooth,  flat  face  or  top,  on  which  malleable  met- 
als are  hammered  and  shaped.  Anvils  vary  in 
size  from  the  tiny  articles  used  by  jewelers  to 
the  enormous  anvil  blocks  of  power  hammers, 
which  weigh  several  tons.  (See  Hammers.)  Black- 
smiths* anvils  have  a  cone  or  horn  at  one  end  of 
the  flat  face  and  a  socket  for  a  chisel  in  the  other 
end.  They  are  commonly  made  of  cast  iron  faced 
with  steel,  the  steel  face  being  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  mold  and  the  iron  poured  upon  it. 

AKVTIiLE,  Hn'vM',  Jean  Baptiste  Bour- 
GUIGNON  d'  (1697-1782).  A  French  geographer, 
who  raised  that  branch  of  knowledge  to  the  rank 
of  a  science.    He  was  born  at  Paris  and  devoted 


himself  to  geographical  and  mathematical  studies 
with  such  success  that  at  the  age  of  twenty-two 
he  became  royal  geographer.  He  read  the  Greek 
and  Latin  historians  and  philosophers,  as  well  as 
poets,  noting  the  names  and  positions  of  cities 
and  nations.  He  advanced  the  science  of  geog- 
raphy, not  only  by  the  number  of  maps  (211) 
which  he  published,  but  also  by  publication  of  78 
memoirs  full  of  erudition  and  of  historic  and 
critical  details.  Most  of  these  are  included  in  the 
Hccueil  des  m^moires  de  VAcad&mie  des  Inscrip- 
tions et  Belles-lettres,  His  great  map  of  Africa 
was  the  most  complete  published  up  to  his  time. 
Among  the  most  important  of  his  works  are: 
Atlas  g&ii4ral  (1737-80)  ;  Atlas  Antiquus  Major, 
with  the  O^ographie  ancienne  dbrig^  (3  vols., 
3769). 

ANZENOBUBEBy  ftn'tscn-grTio^^r,  Lmwio 
(1839-89).  An  Austrian  dramatist  and  novel- 
ist, bom  at  Vienna.  He  left  school  early,  and 
after  spending  some  years  in  business  pursuits 
became  a  strolling  actor  at  the  age  of  nineteen. 
While  leading  this  life  (1860-67),  he  wrote  a 
number  of  plays,  none  of  which  met  with  success, 
then  turned  to  journalism,  and  finally  accepted  a 
clerical  position  in  the  police  department  of  his 
native  city.  While  thus  employed  he  produced, 
in  1870,  his  *Tfarrer  von  Kirchfield,"  an  anti- 
clerical drama,  which  caused  a  sensation  and 
made  him  famous.  He  now  decided  to  devote 
himself  exclusively  to  literature.  In  the  follow- 
ing year  was  performed  the  "Meineidbauer,"  a 
powerful  drama  of  peasant-life,  by  many  consid- 
ered his  masterpiece.  Even  more  popular  proved 
the  "Kreuzelschreiber"  (1872),  whose  subject 
is  less  sombre.  All  these  plays  were  performed 
in  the  popular  Theater  .an  der  W^ien.  A  drama 
written  for  the  more  exacting  audiences  of  the 
Burgtheater  was  unsuccessful,  but  when  Anzen- 
gruber  returned  to  the  scenes  and  characters 
of  the  peasant-life  he  knew  so  w^ell,  he  achieved 
uniform  success,  as  with  his  "Gwissenswurm" 
(1874),  and  many  other  plays.  He  showed 
the  same  power  of  character-drawing  in  his  nov- 
els Der  Schandfleck  (1876),  and  Der  Stemstein- 
kof  (1883-84).  Anzengruber  is  a  realist  in 
the  best  sense  of  the  word,  and  his  pathos  and 
humor  are  ^ually  genuine.  Although  many 
of  the  characters  in  his  plays  and  novels  speak 
the  dialect  of  Upper  Austria  and  Styria,  his 
works  have  won  a  conspicuous  place  in  German 
literature,  and  several  of  his  plays  hold  the  Ger- 
man stage,  no  less  than  that  of  Austria,  at  the 
present  day.  His  collected  works  appeared  in 
1896-99.  See  the  biography,  by  Bet telheim  (Dres- 
den, 1891),  and  Rosner,  Erinnerungen  an  An^ 
zengruher  (I^ipzig,  1891). 

ANZIN,  liN'filN^.  A  town  in  the  Department 
of  Nord,  France,  on  the  Scheldt,  near  Valen- 
ciennes, in  the  centre  of  a  most  productive  coal- 
mining district  (Map:  France,  K  1).  Anzin 
has  iron  foundries,  glass-works,  breweries,  sugar- 
refineries  and  distilleries.    Pop.  1901,  14,444. 

AKZIO,  tln^z^5.  A  Mediterranean  seaport  in 
the  Province  of  Rome,  Italy,  33  miles  southeast 
of  Rome  by  rail.  It  has  fishing  industries  and, 
with  Xettuno  (population  1900),  1%  miles  east- 
ward, is  a  favorite  summer  bathing  resort  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Rome.  It  occupies  the  site  of  An- 
tium  (q.v.),  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Volsci. 
The  modem  town  dates  from  the  restoration  o! 
the  harbor  in  1698,  by  Pope  Innocent  XII.  There 
are  several  palatial  villas  in  the  suburbs.    Popu- 


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ANZIO. 


687 


AOSTA. 


lation,  in  1901,  3561.    Consult  Sofredini,  8toria 
di  Anzio  (Rome,  1879). 

AONAOBI,  a'-6nA-(/r^,  or  AWOHOBI, 
a'wA-mo'r^.  A  town  of  Japan,  capital  of  the 
prefecture  of  the  same  name,  situated  at  the 
northern  end  of  Honshiu,  on  the  Aomari  Bay 
(Map:  Japan,  G  3).  It  is  a  station  on  the 
Northern  Railway  and  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  with  Hakodate.  In  appearance  it  differs 
from  most  Japanese  towns,  its  streets  being  wide 
and  straight.     Pop.  1898,  28,000. 

AOOHA  (Gk.  'Aopla).  A  part  of  Boeotia,  so 
called  from  the  Aones,  an  old  barbaric  tribe  who 
settled  in  this  region.  The  Muses,  as  dwelling  on 
Mount  Helicon,  in  Aonia,  were  called  Aonides, 

A^OBIST  (Gk.  ddpurroty  aoristos,  without 
boundaries,  indefinite,  from  d,  a,  priv.  -|-  6pli^ip, 
horizeirij  to  divide,  to  bound ) .  A  form  of  the 
Greek  verb  by  which  an  action  is  expressed  as 
taking  place  in  an  indefinite  past  time.  In  dis- 
tinction from  the  imperfect,  the  aorist  expresses 
only  the  occurrence  of  an  action  or  the  entrance 
into  a  state  or  condition,  while  the  imperfect 
represents  an  action  or  state  as  going  on  or  re- 
peated in  past  time. 


AORTA 
Ap  aacendlnfc  arch  of  aorta;  88.  coronary  arteries;  b', 
Innomlnata  artery ;  b,  right  Hubclarian ;  c,  right  carotid ; 
d,  left  carotid :  e,  left  subclavian ;  f,  thoracic  aorta ;  gg, 
diaphragm ;  hh,  phrenic  arteries;  I.  cffiliac  axis;  k,  coron- 
ary or  gastric:  t,  splenic;  m,  hepatic;  ii,  superior  mesen- 
teric; oo,  renal  arteries;  p,  spermatic;  q,  common  iliac; 
r,  middle  sacral. 

AOBTA  (Gk.  dopT-fj,  aorU,  from  (Ufpctv, 
aeirein,  to  lift,  raise).  The  great  arterial  trunk 
which,  rising  from  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart, 
sends  its  branches  ramifying  through  the  w^hole 
body.  The  aorta  in  man  is  subdivided  by  anato- 
mists into  the  arch,  the  thoracic  aorta,  and  the 
abdominal  aorta.  The  arch  is  a  loop  with  the 
convexity  directed  upward,  forward,  and  to  the 


right  side,  reaching  at  its  highest  part  to  a  level 
with  the  second  piece  of  the  breast-bone,  and 
then  descending  to  the  left  side  of  the  fourth 
dorsal  vertebra.  Five  arteries  arise  from  the 
arch — viz.,  two  coronaries,  for  the  supply  of  the 
muscular  tissue  of  the  heart  itself;  the  innomi- 
nate, and  the  left  carotid  and  left  subclavian 
arteries.  At  the  commencement  of  the  arch  are 
three  small  swellings  or  pouches,  the  aortic  si- 
nuses, below  which  are  the  three  semilunar  valves 
or  folds  of  the  lining  membrane,  which  prevent 
regurgitation  of  the  blood  into  the  heart.  The 
thoracic  aorta  extends  from  the  fourth  dorsal  ver- 
tebra to  the  diaphragm,  gradually  occupying  the 
mid  line  of  the  spine.  The  thoracic  aorta  gives 
off  the  bronchial  arteries  (two  or  three)  to  sup- 
ply the  tissue  of  the  lungs;  and-  some  small 
branches  (three  or  four)  to  the  oesophagus,  and 
intercostal  arteries,  to  supply  the  walls  of  the 
chest  ( ten  on  left,  and  nine  on  right  side ) .  The 
abdominal  aorta  passes  from  the  diaphragm  to 
the  fourth  lumbar  vertebra,  opposite  the  lower 
margin  of  which  it  divides  into  the  two  common 
iliac  trunks.  Tlie  abdominal  aorta  gives  off  the 
two  phrenic  arteries  to  the  diaphragm;  the 
coeliac  axis,  which  divides  into  three  large 
branches  for  the  stomach,  liver,  and  spleen;  the 
superior  mesenteric  for  the  small,  and  part  of 
the  large  intestine;  the  renals  (two)  ;  the  supra- 
renale {two) ,  one  for  each  kidney;  the  sper 
matic;'the  inferior  mesenteric,  for  the  part  of 
the  large  intestine  not  supplied  by  the  superior 
mesenteric;  and  four  or  five  lumbar  arteries, 
which  supply  the  lower  part  of  the  abdominal 
walls  (the  loins).  Where  the  aorta  bifurcates, 
a  small  artery,  the  sacramedia,  or  caudal  artery, 
arises,  and  passes  along  in  the  mid  line;  in  fish 
and  in  animals  with  large  tails,  this  branch  is  a 
continuation  of  the  aorta. 

The  above  is  the  usual  arrangement;  but 
occasionally  it  varies,  especially  in  the  number 
of  arteries  springing  from  the  arch.  The  aorta 
has  the  same  coats  as  one  of  the  large  arteries — 
consisting  of  an  inner  coat,  the  intima,  a  middle 
coat,  the  media,  and  an  outer  coat,  the  adven- 
titia.  The  aorta  differs  from  an  ordinary  artery 
in  the  absence  of  a  distinct  elastic  membrane 
limiting  the  intima,  and  in  the  very  large 
amount  of  elastic  tissue  intermingled  with  the 
smooth  muscle  of  the  media.  ( See  A^btebt  ;  Cutcu- 
LATION.)  During  foetal  life,  there  is  a  communi- 
cation between  the  arch  of  the  aorta  and  the 
pulmonary  artery  called  the  ductus  arteriosus, 
the  04inal  of  which  becomes  obliterated  after  birth. 
The  velocity  of  the  blood  current  in  the  carotid 
artery  has  been  estimated  at  300  to  500  milli- 
metres per  second.  In  the  aorta  the  velocity 
must  be  considerably  greater.  The  pressure  of 
the  blood  in  the  aorta  of  a  dog  has  been  found  to 
be  121  millimetres  of  mercury.  In  man  the 
pressure  must  be  at  least  as  great.  For  diseases 
to  which  the  aorta  is  subject,  see  Artery  and 
Abterio-scijibosis. 

AOSTA,  &-?^s^t&  (anciently  La t,  A t/^iisfa).  A 
towTi  in  northern  Italy,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dora  Baltea,  49  miles  northwest  of  Turin  (Map: 
Italy,  B  2).  Originally  the  capital  of  the  ancient 
Salassi,  it  was  converted  into  a  Roman  colony  by 
Augustus,  as  a  punishment  for  the  depredations 
of  its  former  inhabitants.  Monuments  of  the 
ancient  city  are  a  well-preserved  arch,  two  gate- 
ways, the  ruins  of  an  amphitheatre,  and  a  bridge. 
The  cathedral  was  built  in  the  Sixth  Century, 


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AOSTA. 


638 


APAIiACHIGOIiA. 


and  rebuilt  in  the  Fourteenth.  Also  worthy  of 
notice  are  the  column  commemoratinff  the  flight 
of  Calvin  from  Aosta  in  1541,  the  ruins  of  Bra- 
mafame  Castle,  in  which  the  Count  of  Challant, 
through  jealousy,  starved  his  wife  to  death,  and 
the  Leper's  Tower^  immortalized  by  Xavier  de 
Maistre.  The  chief  trade  is  in  leather,  cheese, 
and  wine.  The  province  is  rich  in  iron,  copper, 
and  lead,  and  in  mineral  springs,  of  which  the 
most  famous  are  those  of  Courmayeur,  Pr&-Saint- 
Didier,  and  Saint  Vincent.  Population,  in  1881, 
7437;   in   1901,  7875. 

AOSTAy  Duke  of.  A  title  of  the  House  of 
Savoy,  borne  by  Amadeus,  a  former  King  of 
Spain,  and  now  by  his  son,  Emmanuel  Filibert. 

AOXTDAD,  U'STT-dSd  (Moorish  name).  The 
wild  sheep  of  the  mountains  of  northern  Africa 
(Ovis  tragelaphus) ,  It  is  somewhat  goatlike  in 
form,  three  feet  in  height,  and  light  brown  in 
color,  with  very  long  whitish  hair  growing  from 
the  throaty  chest,  and  about  the  forelegs.  Its 
horns  resemble  those  of  the  bharal,  and  do  not  ex- 
ceed twenty-four  inches  in  length.  This  animal  is 
common  in  the  high  Atlas  ranges,  where  it  wan- 
ders over  the  more  precipitous  regions  of  their 
arid  southern  slopes  from  the  Atlantic  to  Tunis, 
keeping  within  sight  of  the  Desert,  and  hiding 
among  the  fantastically  decomposed  and  bushy 
rocks  of  those  limestone  mountains,  with  singular 
skill.  The  animal  has  many  names.  In  menag- 
eries, where  it  breeds  and  lives  well,  it  is  often 
labeled  "ruffed  moufflon''  or  '^bearded  argali"; 
the  Moors  of  Algeria  call  it  "aoudad,"  but  the 
natives  there  know  it  as  "artli";  it  is  the 
"kebsh"  of  the  Egyptians,  and  the  "tidal"  or 
"teybel"  or  "beden'^  of  Nubia.  See  plate  of  Wild 
Goats,  etc.  For  habits  and  methods  of  chase, 
consult:  E.  N.  Buxton,  Proceedings  Zoological 
Society  of  London  ( 1890)  ;  and  id.  Short  Talks 
(I^ndon,  1898). 

APACHE,  &-p&^ch&.  An  important  and  war- 
like Indian  tribe  of  Athapascan  stock,  formerly 
roving  in  small  bands  over  an  extensive  territory 
in  southeastern  Arizona  and  southwestern  New 
Mexico,  and  -  extending  their  forays  far  down 
into  Mexico.  The  name  by  which  they  are  com- 
monly known  is  from  the  Pima  language,  and 
signifies  'enemies.'  Although  essentially  pred- 
atory in  habit  and  carrying  on  constant  raids 
against  the  Mexican  settlements,  they  remained 
on  friendly  terms  with  the  Americans  until  pro- 
voked by  outrages  about  the  time  of  the  annexa- 
tion of  their  country  by  the  United  States,  after 
which  their  condition  was  one  of  chronic  hostility 
toward  the  citizens  of  both  Governments  until 
finally  subdued  and  confined  to  their  present 
reservation  at  San  Carlos,  Ariz.  Upon  the  sur- 
render of  the  last  hostile  band,  the  Chiricahuas, 
in  1886,  such  energetic  protest  against  their 
continued  presence  in  the  Territory  was  made 
by  the  people  of  Arizona,  that  the  whole  Chir- 
icahua  band  was  deported  to  the  East,  and  after 
some  years  of  military  confinement  in  Florida 
and  Alabama,  was  settled  at  Fort  Sill,  Okla., 
on  the  Kiowa  Reservation.  In  1900  the  Apache 
tribe,  including  300  Chiricahuas  at  Fort  Sill, 
numbered  5200  souls.  The  Jicarillas  and  Mes- 
calerus  of  New  Mexico,  and  the  Lipans,  formerly 
of  Mexico,  although  frequently  spoken  of  as 
Apaches  on  account  of  their  linguistic  affinity, 
are  in  reality  distinct  tribes,  and  hostile  to  the 
Apaches  proper.  

APACHE  TIM^OTHT.     See  Canaby  Grass. 


APAFI,  d^p6-fl,  or  ABAFI,  d^bdff,  Michael 
I.  (1632-90),  Prince  of  Transylvania.  He  ac- 
companied Prince  George  II.  in  an  expedition 
against  the  Poles  in  1656,  was  taken  prisoner 
by  the  Tartars^  and  after  his  release  returned 
to  his  estate.  In  1661  he  was  chosen  Prince  of 
Transylvania,  through  the  support  of  Ali  Pasha, 

feneralissimo  of  the  Turkish  forces  under  Sultan 
lohammed  IV.  During  the  peace  concluded  with 
Austria  after  the  battle  of  Saint  Gothard  ( 1664) , 
he  reigned  peaceably  under  the  protection  of 
the  Porte.  He  remained  faithful  to  the  Otto- 
man power  till  after  the  siege  of  Vienna  in 
1683.  Fortune  then  changed.  The  Imperial 
troops  invaded  the  country ;  and  in  August,  1687, 
Apafi  made  a  treaty  with  tne  Emperor  by  which 
Transylvania  was  declared  to  be  freed  from 
Turkish  suzerainty,  and  placed  under  Austrian 
protection.  At  Fogaras  the  Transylvanian  depu- 
ties, assembled  at  the  National  Diet,  took  the  oath 
of  fealty  to  the  Hapsburgs  as  legitimate  monarchs 
of  Hungary.  Ever  since  the  death  of  his  wife^ 
Anna  Boniemitza,  in  1688,  Apafi  had  been  sorely 
afflicted  both  in  body  and  mind,  and  died  (April 
15,  1690)  on  the  eve  of  a  fierce  retributive  war, 
commenced  by  his  old  allies,  tl^e  Turks,  who 
considered  themselves  ill-used  by  his  desertion  of 
them.  His  son,  Michael  II.  (died  1713)  suc- 
ceeded to  the  throne  and  its  perils.  The  Turks, 
under  the  vizier  Kiuprili,  overthrew  the  Imperial 
army,  but  the  internal  troubles  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire  hindered  them,  or  rather  Count  Tokoli 
(q.v.),  whom  they  were  supporting,  from  reap- 
ing the  fruits  of  their  successes.  The  Imperial 
troops  subsequently  regained  everything.  By  the 
Treaty  of  Carlowitz,  1699,  Transylvania  was  in- 
corporated with  Hunp.ry,  and  the  young  Tran- 
sylvanian prince  was  inveigled  to  Vienna,  and  ca- 
joled into  giving  up  his  dominions  to  Austria  in 
lieu  of  a  pension  of  some  15,000  florins. 

APAIiACHEE,  &'p&-ia^ch^,  or  APAI^ACHI, 
il'p&-lft^ch^.  A  tribe  of  Muskhogean  stock  for- 
merly occupying  the  country  about  Apalachee 
Bay,  northwestern  Florida.  About  the  doae 
of  the  sixteenth  century  Spanish  [Franciscan 
priests  established  missions  among  them,  which 
continued  in  a  prosperous  condition  for  more  than 
a  hundred  years,  until  invaded  in  1702-8  by  the 
English  from  Carolina,  accompanied  by  a  large 
force  of  Indian  auxiliaries.  In  three  several 
expeditions  the  mission  churches  were  burned* 
the  missionaries  slain,  and  the  Apalachee  tribe 
practically  wiped  out  of  existence,  more  than 
one  thousand  prisoners  being  broiight  back  to 
Y*e  sold  as  slaves  in  Carolina  or  distributed  by 
the  English  among  their  savage  allies.  A  lai^ 
number  were  thus  incorporated  among  the 
Creeks,  where  for  a  time  they  preserved  their 
name  and  language,  but  are  now  extinct. 

AP'AIiACH^E  BAY.  An  arm  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  near  the  northwestern  part  of 
Florida,  extending  about  50  miles  inland  (Map: 
Florida,  D  1).  It  receives  the  waters  of  Saint 
Mark's  River,  at  the  mouth  of  which  stands  the 
town  of  the  same  name.  Its  average  depth  is  IS 
feet,  and  it  affords  a  good  harbor  for  small  craft. 

APALAGHIGOLA,  a'p&-l&ch-I-k(/-lA.  A  city, 
port  of  entry,  and  county  seat  of  Franklin 
Co.,  Fla.,  eighty-five  miles  southwest  of  Tallahas- 
see, on  Saint  Oeorge  Sound  (Gulf  of  Mexico) 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Apalachicola  River  (Map: 
Florida,  C  2) .  The  value  of  its  foreign  commerce 
amounted  in  1901  to  about  $370,000,  a  very  large 


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APALAGEIGOLA. 


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APABTMENT    HOTJSK 


proportion  of  which  was  in  the  export  trade,  the 
principal  commodities  being  lumber  and  naval 
stores.    Pop.  1890,  2727;     1900,  3077. 

APALACHIGOLA.  A  river  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Chattahoochee  with  the  Flint,  at 
the  southwestern  comer  of  the  State  of  Georgia. 
Thence  flowing  southward  through  Florida,  it 
empties  into  Apalachicola  Bay,  an  arm  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  navigable  for  steamboats 
through  its  entire  course  of  90  miles. 

APAXIT,  a'pA-let'.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Phil- 
ippines, in  the  province  of  Pampanga  (Map: 
Luzon,  E  7).  It  is  situated  about  eleven  miles 
southeast  of  Bacolor,  and  has  a  population  of 
11,750. 

APPANAGE  or  APPANAGE  (Fr.,  pro- 
vision for  maintenance,  from  Latin  ad  panem, 
for  bread).  The  name  applied  in  feudal  law  to 
contributions  from  the  exchequer  granted  for 
the  maintenance  of  princes  of  the  royal  house, 
or  to  lands  and  the  revenues  of  lands  set  apart 
for  the  same  purpose.  Territorial  apanages  were 
liestowed  either  for  life  or  upon  a  man  and  his 
direct  heirs  forever.  Apanages  were  customary 
all  over  mediseval  Europe,  and  especially  in 
France,  until  the  gradual  development  of  the 
centralized  monarchies,  to  the  aggprandizement 
of  which  they  were  at  all  times  a  powerful 
hindrance.  Louis  XL,  the  real  creator  of  the 
French  monarchy,  reunited  the  great  apanages 
of  the  realm  to  the  crown,  but  in  a  modified 
form.  The  institution  continued  until  1790, 
when  it  was  abolished  by  the  Constituent  As- 
sembly. In  England  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall  is 
in  form  an  apanage  of  the  Prince  of  Wales;  but 
other  members  of  the  royal  family  in  Great 
Britain,  as  w^ell  as  in  the  continental  monarchies, 
are  now  provided  for  by  annual  grants  from  the 
Civil  List. 

APABy  a^par.  See  Abu adillo. 
APABEJO,  ft'p&ra'hft  (Sp.,  pack  saddle).  A 
leather  bag  about  two  feet  wide,  nearly  encircling 
the  mule  or  horse  on  which  it  is  placed.  The 
aparejo  is  used  in  the  United  States  Army  as  a 
substitute  for  the  pack  saddle  (q.v. ) .  Two  round 
band  holes  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  each  side, 
the  8i4es  of  the  bag  being  distended  by  small  ash 
or  other  elastic  wooden  sticks.  The  advantages 
claimed  are  that  it  places  the  load  to  greater 
advantage  than  any  other  system  of  pack- 
Iranaport,  and  secures  better  results  from  the 
animal. 

APABBI,  A-par'rd.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines, in  the  province  of  Cagayan.  It  is  situated 
near  the  northeastern  coast,  at  the  estuary  of  the 
river  Cagavan,  and  has  a  telegraph  station. 
Pop.,  11,200. 

APABTMENT  HOUSE.  A  building  ar- 
ranged in  three  or  more  suites  of  connecting 
rooms,  each  suite  designed  for  independent  house- 
keeping, but  with  certain  mechanical  conven- 
iences, as  heat,  light,  or  elevator-service,  fur- 
nished in  common  to  all  the  families  occupying 
the  building.  Legally,  there  is  no  distinction,  in 
the  United  States,  between  an  apartment  house 
and  any  other  tenement.  Popularly,  the  apart- 
ment differs  from  the  tenement  in  the  greater 
4*le|rance  of  architectural  finish,  in  the  larger 
number  of  conveniences,  and  in  the  greater  com- 
plexity of  mechanical  service  furnished  to  all 
tenants  from  a  central  plant.  Midway,  in  popu- 
lar usage,  between  the  tenement  house  on  the  one 


hand,  which  is  the  home  of  the  poor,  and  the 
apartment  house  on  the  other,  whose  annual 
rentals  place  it  beyond  the  means  of  those  with 
moderate  incomes,  stands  the  flat,  which,  like  tho 
cottage  of  the  suburb,  is  designed  for  people  of 
moderate  means.  The  distinction,  however,  be- 
tween a  flat  and  an  apartment,  is  not  well 
defined,  and  the  term  apartment  is  often  applied 
to  any  well-appointed  flat.  In  the  article  on 
"Apartments**  in  the  Dictionary  of  Architecture 
and  Buildinfi  (New  York,  1902),  the  term  is 
limited  to  those  suites  of  rooms  for  independent 
housekeeping  which  rent  for  more  than  $300 
per  annum. 

The  typical  flat  or  less  expensive  apartment, 
in  New  York  City  consists  of  a  parlor,  two  or 
more  bedrooms,  besides  the  servant's  bedroom, 
a  dining-room,  bathroom,  and  kitchen.  These 
rooms  either  open  directly  into  each  other  or  are 
connected  by  a  private  hall.  Ordinarily,  they 
are  arranged  one  behind  the  other,  according  U> 
the  rectangular  shape  of  the  ordinary  city  lot,, 
and  are  reached  by  a  common  stairway,  and 
often  by  an  elevator!  The  provisions  are  brought 
up  by  a  dumb-waiter  or  freight  elevator.  Light 
and  air  for  the  interior  rooms  are  obtained  by 
means  of  interior  courts  or  air  shafts.  Of  course,, 
this  general  plan  is  subject  to  many  modifica- 
tions, depending  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
house  and  the  number  of  fiats  on  a  fioor.  Flats 
are  usually  heated  by  steam  or  hot  air  and 
lighted  by  gas  or  electricity.  Hot  water  is  fre- 
quently supplied.  In  apartments  the  rooms  are 
susceptible  of  much  greater  fiexibility  in  ar- 
rangement than  in  fiats,  as  such  buildings  are 
usually  built  over  several  lots,  and  frequently 
cover  an  entire  block.  The  number  of  services 
furnished  by  a  central  plant  to  all  the  tenants, 
is  also  greatly  increased.  An  apartment  hotel 
differs  from  an  apartment  house  in  that  only 
living  rooms  are  provided  for  the  different  fam- 
ilies, who  eat  in  a  common  dining-room,  as  do 
the  guests  of  an  ordinary  hotel.  In  some  of  the 
newer  and  more  elaborate  apartment  houses  of 
New  York  there  is  a  restaurant  in  the  building, 
where  families  may  eat  meals  or  not,  as  they 
choose,  there  being  a  separate  dining-room  and 
kitchen  in  each  apartment  as  well. 

HiSTOBiCAL  Development.  Apartment  houses 
have  been  in  vogue  in  the  large  cities  of  Conti- 
nental Europe  for  some  centuries,  and,  ia 
Paris  particularly,  they  have  been  developed  to- 
a  high  degree  of  elegance  and  luxury.  In  Great 
Britain,  apartment  houses  have  never  become 
popular.  In  the  United  States,  their  develop- 
ment began  with  the  rush  to  the  cities  which  fol- 
lowed the  Civil  War.  The  chief  causes  which 
have  led  to  their  rapidly  increasing  popularity 
are:  (1)  The  great  congestion  of  population 
within  a  limited  area  in  our  large  cities,  which 
makes  separate  houses  more  and  more  imprac- 
ticable; (2)  the  advantage  of  enjoying  such 
.common  services  as  elevator,  heat,  artificial  light,, 
and  hot  water  independent  of  the  kitchen  range, 
which  can  be  furnished  a  group  of  families  in  a 
single  building  at  much  less  cost  than  if  those 
families  were  separated  in  isolated  homes;  (3) 
the  migratory  tendency  among  city  dwellers 
which  makes  them  prefer  the  easily  vacated 
apartment  to  the  more  permanent  house;  and 
(4)  the  smaller  amount  of  domestic  service  re- 
quired in  an  apartment,  which,  in  these  days  of 
high-priced  and  unsatisfactory  servants,  is  per- 
haps the  most  important  consideration  of  alL 


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APABTMENT    HOUSE. 


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APATITE. 


During  the  past  few  years,  large  numbers  of 
apartment  houses  of  the  liighest  grade  have  been 
built  in  all  large  American  cities,  and  have 
become  popular  among  the  most  wealthy  and 
luxurious  classes  of  the  people.  A  description  of 
a  single  one  of  these  highly  developed  modem 
structures  will  give  an  idea  of  the  whole  class. 

The  following  account  of  an  apartment  house 
built  in  1899,  on  upper  Broadway,  New  York,  is 
based  on  a  description  contained  in  the  Engineer- 
ing Record  for  January  20,  1900:  "Apartments  in 
this  building  rent  at  from  $2500  to  $3000  annu- 
ally. The  building  itself  covers  an  entire  block, 
and  is  fireproof  in  its  construction.  The  main  en- 
trance leads  into  a  vestibule,  beyond  which  is  a 
large  hall  and  general  reception-room  where  hall 
boys  are  in  attendance.  At  the  rear  of  the  hall 
are  the  elevators  which  lead  to  general  halls  on 
each  floor.  Each  apartment  consists  of  a  parlor, 
library,  dining-room,  kitchen,  butler's  pantry, 
servant's  room,  bathroom,  servant's  bathroom, 
and  a  number  of  bedrooms.  Gas-ranges  are  used 
for  cooking,  so  that  neither  coal  nor  ashes  are 
encountered.  The  built-in  refrigerators  are  kept 
at  the  proper  degree  of  coldness  by  means  of  a 
refrigerating  plant  in  the  basement,  thus  exclud- 
ing ice,  also,  from  the  apartments.  Hot  as  well 
as  cold  water  is  furnished.  There  is  an  arrange- 
ment in  connection  with  the  dining-room  radia- 
tors for  plate-warming,  as  the  apartments  are 
heated  by  steam.  The  house  is  furnished  with 
both  gas  and  electric-light  fixtures.  Electricity 
is  generated  in  the  building,  and  is  furnished  to 
the  tenants  free  until  midnight,  after  which  they 
must  depend  for  light  upon  gas  at  their  own 
expense.  Every  apartment  is  provided  with  a 
telephone  from  a  private  branch  exchange. 
Household  provisions  are  distributed  by  a  freight 
elevator,  and  there  is  a  separate  servants'  stair- 
way. The  mechanical  plant  which  furnishes 
steam,  hot  water,  electricity,  and  refrigeration 
to  the  building  is  situated  in  the  basement.  Con- 
nected with  it  is  an  apparatus  for  drying  clothes. 
This  consists  of  a  series  of  clothes  dryers,  heat 
being  derived  from  a  number  of  steam  coil- 
pipes  and  the  air  being  circulated  by  an  exhaust- 
fan.  In  this  and  other  high-class  apartment 
houses  an  elaborate  ventilating  system  is  pro- 
vided. In  some  of  the  most  recent  houses  the 
sleeping-rooms  for  the  servants  are  grouped 
together  upon  the  top  floor.  Occasionally  a  bar- 
ber shop  within  the  building  is  added  to  the  list 
of  conveniences  accessible  to  its  occupants. 

It  is  interesting  to  compare  such  an  American 
dwelling  as  the  one  just  described,  with  a 
French  apartment  house  of  the  same  grade.  In 
Paris,  the  height  of  buildings  is  limited  by  law 
to  five  stories,'  so  that  it  is  impossible  for  a  sin- 
gle stnicture  to  accommodate  the  same  number 
of  families  as  in  America,  and  hence  the  central 
mechanical  plant  must  be  less  elaborate  or,  pro 
rata,  more  expensive.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
Parisians  are  only  beginning  to  avail  themselves 
of  conveniences  which  American  city  dwellers 
have  long  considered  essential.  Hot  air  instead 
of  steam  heat  is  universal,  a  supply  of  hot  water 
is  seldom  furnished,  and  only  within  a  few  years 
have  adequate  water-closets  and  other  toilet 
facilities  been  enjoyed.  The  rooms  of  a  Parisian 
apartment,  however,  are  likely  to  be  larger,  and 
greater  in  number,  than  in  an  American  apart- 
ment of  the  same  grade.  Prominent  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  every  suite  is  the  principal  bed- 
room belonging  to  the  mistress   of  the  house, 


which  is  larger  in  comparison  with  the  other 
rooms,  and  faces  the  street.  Opening  upon  thiB 
bedroom  is  the  boudoir  or  dressing-room.  Beside 
the  other  bedrooms  are  the  drawing-room  or 
salon,  the  billiard-room,  dining-room,  and  the 
butler's  pantry,  which  separates  the  dining-room 
from  the  kitchen.  The  kitchen  in  proportions 
and  importance  ranks  next  to  the  principal  bed- 
room. The  contrast  is  striking  between  such  a 
suite  of  rooms  and  an  American  apartment,  for 
in  the  latter  the  bedrooms  are  relegated  to  the 
rear  and,  like  the  kitchen,  are  extremely  small 
in  comparison  with  the  parlor,  library,  and 
dining-room.  In  Parisian  apartments  the  ser 
vants'  rooms  are  on  the  top  floor,  a  separate 
staircase  is  provided  for  them,  and  they  are 
otherwise  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the  family,  as 
in  many  of  the  newest  American  apartments.  In 
general  the  suites  of  a  French  apartment  house 
are  grouped  around  a  central  court ;  each  suite  b 
composed  of  a  double  row  of  rooms,  the  parlor 
and  main  chambers  situated  on  the  street  and  tlie 
dining-room  and  subordinate  rooms  upon  the 
court,  a  hall  separating  the  two  groups  of  rooms. 
Recently  a  second  hall  or  gallery  has  been  intro- 
duced in  many  apartments  which  connects  parlor, 
dining-room,  and  chambers,  and  is  decorated  with 
pictures,  sculpture,  and  other  works  of  art 

For  legal  restrictions  regarding  the  various 
sanitary  arrangements  of  apartment  houses,  see 
article  Tenement  House.  The  literature  con- 
cerning apartment  houses  is  confined  to  various 
articles  in  the  technical  magazines,  some  of 
which  may  be  found  in  the  following  volumes: 
Volumes  40,  41,  and  42  of  the  Enginetrin^ 
Record  (New  York)  ;  Volume  7  of  the  Architec- 
tural Record  (New  York)  ;  The  Brick  BuildeT 
(New  York),  for  June,  1898,  and  an  article  on 
London  and  Paris  flats  in  the  British  Architect 
(London),  for  February  3.  1889. 

APASTAMBA,  a'p&-stilm^&.  An  ancient 
Sanskrit  author,  noted  in  connection  with 
Vedic  literature  because  of  the  Srauta-,  Gfhyo- 
Dharma-f  and  £aZpa-£filtro«,  which  bear  his  name. 
See  Veda. 

APATIN,  6'p6-tln.  A  town  of  the  King- 
dom of  Hungary,  in  the  county  of  BAcs-Bodrog. 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  about 
forty-flve  miles  southwest  of  Maria-Theresiopel 
(Map:  Hungary,  F  4).  Its  chief  industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  rope  made  from  the  hemp 
raised  in  the  vicinity.  Population,  in  1890,  13,- 
000  (mostly  Germans). 

AF^ATITE  (From  Gk.  drdr^,  apatS,  deceit, 
as  the  mineral  has  often  been  mistaken  for  other 
minerals).  A  mineral  consisting  of  phosphate 
with  some  chloride  and  fluoride  of  calcium,  its 
composition  being  represented  by  the  formula 
Ca,  (POJ,-fCa  (GIF),.  It  occurs  both  in 
crystalline  and  amorphous  form,  and  is  larjielr 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  fertilizers,  for  whirh 
it  is  valuable  on  account  of  the  contained  phos- 
phoric acid.  It  occurs  in  both  stratified  and 
crystalline  (metamorphic  and  igneous)  rocks 
especially  in  the  latter.  It  is  thus  found  in  the 
older  crystalline  rocks  in  Ganada,  New  York. 
Mainland  New  Jersey;  in  Europe,  it  is  known  in 
England,  France,  Saxony,  Tyrol,  Bohemia,  Spain. 
Norway,  etc. ;  but  the  only  deposits  of  economic 
importance  are  those  of  Ganada,  Norway,  and 
Spain.  Most  of  the  Ganadian  material  that  has 
been  shipped  contains  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  the 
phosphate  of  lime.    In  recent  years  the  enormous 


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APATITE. 


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APE. 


deposits  of  rock  phosphate  or  amorphous  phos- 
phate of  limo  have  seriously  injured  the 
Canadian  trade.  Amorphous  phosphate  is  a 
name  given  to  non-crystalline  deposits  of  phos- 
phate of  lime  occurring  in  more  or  less 
abundance  at  certain  localities  and  of  importance 
as  a  source  of  fertilizer.  In  the  United  States 
the  most  important  deposits  are  in  South  Caro- 
lina, Florida,  and  Tennessee,  but  a  small  supply 
has  also  been  obtained  from  Pennsylvania.  The 
Florida  deposits  which  have  been  worked  since 
1888,  are  found  near  the  western  coast.  They 
occur  as  lumps  imbedded  in  clay,  known  as  Rock 
Phosphate;  in  pebble  agglomerations,  known  as 
Land  Pebble;  or  as  a  mixture  of  small  pebbles 
and  sand  in  the  river  bottoms  called  River  Peb- 
ble. The  latter  mixture  is  obtained  by  dredg- 
ing, the  sand  being  eventually  separated  by 
screening.  The  South  Carolina  deposits  are 
found  in  an  area  about  sixty  miles  long,  between 
Charleston  and  Beaufort.  The  phosphate  occurs 
in  nodules  buried  in  sand  and  clay,  the  produc- 
tive bed  being  one  to  two  feet  thick.  An 
acre  yields  four  hundred  to  twelve  hundred 
tons.  The  South  Carolina  district  was  opened  up 
in  1867.  Both  the  Florida  and  South  Carolina 
deposits  occur  associated  with  rocks  of  Eocene 
and  Miocene  ages,  and  many  teeth  of  sharks, 
elephants,  etc.,  together  with  bones,  are  found 
with  the  phosphate.  The  phosphoric  acid  of 
the  mineral  is  supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to 
the  accumulation  of  excrement  and  decaying 
animal  matter  deposited  along  the  shores  or  in 
pools  during  Tertiary  times,  and  to  subsequent 
local  replacement  of  limestone,  or  to  concre- 
tionary segregation  of  phosphate  of  lime.  In 
south  Central  Tennessee,  the  phosphate  is  as- 
sociated with  Devonian  rocks.  The  phosphate 
industry  of  the  United  States  has  assumed 
^eat  importance  in  recent  years,  and  much  of 
the  material  is  shipped  to  foreign  countries. 
The  recent  development  of  large  deposits  known 
to  exist  in  Algiers,  may  cause  serious  competi- 
tion with  the  American  industry.  Crude  rock 
containing  less  than  fifty  per  cent,  of  calcic  phos- 
phate, is  unsalable.  Silicious  impurities  are  in- 
ert, but  alumina  and  ferric  oxide  are  bad,  because 
they  tend  to  change  the  refined  phosphate  back 
to  an  insoluble  condition.  Lime,  if  present,  neu- 
tralizes some  of  the  sulphuric  acid  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  fertilizer.  The  price  of  phos- 
phate varies  from  year  to  year,  and  with  its 
^rade.  That  from  Tennessee  may  bring  as  little 
as  $1.60  per  ton,  while  the  hard  rock  from 
Florida  may  bring  as  much  as  $5.00  per  ton.  The 
importance" of  Canada  as  a  producer  of  phosphate 
has  been  greatly  lowered  by  the  development  of 
the  American  beds.  Those  of  Florida  have  as- 
sumed great  predominance,  for  the  ease  with 
which  the  material  can  be  mined,  and  by  reason 
of  their  proximity  to  shipping  points ;  the  latter 
feature  having  been  an  important  factor  in  the 
development  of  a  large  export  trade. 

For  more  particular  information  the  reader 
is  referred  to  the  general  paper  by  Adolphe 
Camot:  **Sur  les  variations  observ6es  dans  la 
composition  des  apatites,  •  ♦  •  Remarques  sur 
le  gisement  et  le  mode  de  formation  de  ces  phos- 
phates" in  the  Annales  des  Mines,  Volume  X. 
(Paris,  1896).  Papers  descriptive  of  the  phos- 
phate deposits  of  particular  regions  are:  Bran- 
ner,  "The  Phosphates  of  Arkansas,"  in  the 
Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of  Mining 
Engineers,    Volume  XXVI.   (New  York,  1896)  ; 

VOL.  I.-41 


Hayes,  "The  Tennessee  Phosphates,"  in  the  Six- 
teenth Annual  Report  of  the  United  States 
Geological  Survey,  Part  IV.  (Washington, 
1895). 

BiBLiOGBAPHY.  Brown,  "The  Phosphate  Rock 
Deposits  of  Tennessee  during  1897,"  United 
States  Geological  Survey,  Nineteenth  Annual  Re- 
port, Part  VI.  (continued)  (Washington,  1898)  ; 
McCallie,  "A  Preliminary  Report  on  a  Part  of  the 
Phosphates  and  Marls  of  Georgia,"  Georgia 
Geological  Survey  Bulletin,  No.  6- A  (Atlanta, 
1896)  ;  Eldridge,  "A  Preliminary  Sketch  of  the 
Phosphates  of  Florida,"  Transactions  of  the 
American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Volume 
XXI.  (New  York,  1891);  Smith,  "The  Phos- 
phates and  Marls  of  Alabama,"  Transactions  of 
the  American  Institute  of  Mining  Engineers,  Vol- 
ume XXV.  (New  York,  1895);  Penrose,  "The 
Nature  and  Orimn  of  Deposits  of  Phosphate  of 
Lime,"  Bulletin  No.  46,  United  States  Geological 
Survey;  Small,  "The  Phosphate  Mines  of  Can- 
ada," Transactions  of  the  American  Institute  of 
Mining  Engineers,  Volume  XXI.  (New  York, 
1891)  ;  and  Wyatt,  F.,  The  Phosphates  of  Amer- 
ica (New  York,  1891). 

APAYAO,  a'pA-ya'6,  or  APOYA,  A-po'-ya. 
A  head-hunting  tribe  in  Cagayan  Province,  Lu- 
zon.    Their  speech  is  separate. 

APE  (AS.  apa,  Ger.  Affe).  A  monkey; 
any  quadrumanous  animal,  especially  one  of 
large  size,  and  belonging  to  the  Old  World.  ( See 
below. )  Thus,  the  "apes  of  Gibraltar,"  or  "Bar- 
bary  apes,"  are  macaques  (q.v.)  and  some  "sa- 
cred apes*'  are  baboons.  ( See  Baboox  ;  Macaque  ; 
Monkey,  etc. )  More  particularly  the  word  nowa- 
days applies  to  simians  (family  Simiidae)  called 
"anthropoid  apes,"  because  they  most  resemble 
mankind. 

The  Anthropoid  Apes  consist  of  the  chimpan- 
zees, gorilla,  and  orang,  and  the  various  gibbons, 
together  with  various  extinct  and  fossil  species; 
but  the  three  forms  first  mentioned  are  those 
usually  in  the  mind  of  those  who  use  the  term  in 
its  popular  sense.  All  approach,  and  some  may 
exceed,  man  in  size,  frequently  assume  an  erect 
attitude  (though  none  are  so  much  at  ease  in 
this  position  as  are  some  gibbons ) ,  and  resemble 
him  in  structure  more  closely  than  they  do  the 
apes  and  monkeys  of  other*^  families.  This  is 
much  more  marked  in  young  examples,  however, 
than  in  the  adults,  which  in  advanced  age  be- 
come more  and  more  brutish.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  the  characteristics  of  the  skull, 
when  huge,  bony  "crests"  and  super-orbital  ridges 
develop,  the  canine  teeth  become  greatly  en- 
larged, and  a  revolting  expression  of  face  reveals 
the  essentially  savage  and  intractable  nature  of 
the  animal,  which,  enforced  by  gigantic  strength, 
renders  these  apes  among  the  most  formidable 
and  ugly  of  wild  beasts.  The  skeleton  is  sub- 
stantially similar  to  the  human  skeleton,  differ- 
ing from  it  in  greater  size  and  weight,  and  in 
certain  proportions;  the  arms  also  are  relatively 
much  longer,  and  the  legs  shorter,  and  the  great 
toe  is  longer  and  opposable  only  to  a  very 
limited  degree.  The  spine  lacks  those  curvatures 
in  its  lower  part  which  enable  man  to  stand 
erect  with  ease.  In  the  fiatness  of  the  sternum 
and  the  absence  of  a  certain  small  bone  in  the 
wrist,  these  apes  agree  with  man  and  differ  from 
the  monkeys.  The  skull  is  thicker,  has  in  age 
great  bony  ridges,  and  projects  at  the  muzzle - 
the  teeth  are  of  the  same  number  and  character 
as  man's,  but  they  are  not  set  in  a  horseshoe 


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AFEMANTTTS. 


form,  but  more  nearly  on  three  sides  of  a 
square,  the  front  teeth  making  a  decided  angle 
with  the  cheek  teeth,  where  the  canines  are 
developed  into  great  tusks.  The  brain-case  is 
Kmaller,  and  the  bulk  of  the  brain  far  less  than 
that  of  man.  Thus,  according  to  Mivart,  a  nor- 
mal human  brain  never  measures  less  than  65 
cubic  inches,  while  that  of  the  chimpanzee  (the 
nearest)  measures  only  27 Mi  cubic  inches;  the 
cerebrum  is  also  relatively  shorter.  In  its  gen- 
eral form  and  structure,  however,  the  brain  of 
these  apes  is  like  that  of  man,  and  it  is  richly 
convoluted.  There  are  no  important  differences 
in  the  soft  parts  of  the  body  or  their  functions. 

Externally,  all  the  anthropoid  apes  are  covered 
with  black,  brown,  or  reddish  coarse  hair,  on  all 
parts  of  the  body  except  the  face  and  palms,  where 
the  skin  is  dark,  leathery,  and  wrinkled ;  the  naked 
patches  and  callosities  so  frequently  found  upon 
the  buttocks  of  the  lower  apes  are  absent  or 
very  small;  nor  aCre  there  any  cheek-pouches. 
There  is  no  trace  of  a  tail.  The  chimpanzee  and 
gorilla  are  closely  related  to  one  another,  but 
the  orang  is  as  distinct  in  structure  from  them 
as  it  is  widely  removcnl  in  habitat.  All  are  inhab- 
itants of  the  equatorial  regions  of  the  Old  World, 
and  restricted  to  forests,  where  they  live  in  the 
trees,  building  rude  sleeping  platforms  and 
shelter,  and  feeding  wholly  upon  vegetable  food 
—chiefly  fruits.  S^  Chimpanzee;  Gibbon;  Go- 
rilla; Obano-utan;  and  Monkeys;  and  plate 
of  Anthropoid  Apes. 

Consult:  R.  Hartmann,  The  Anthropoid  Apes, 
illustrated  (New  York,  1886)  ;  Huxley,  Man's 
Place  in  Nature  (New  York,  1898). 

APEAK^.     See  Anchor. 

AFEL,  a'pel,  JoHANN  August  (1771-1816). 
A  German  writer.  He  was  bom  at  Leipzig, 
studied  there  and  at  Wittenberg  from  1789  to 
1793,  and  in  1801  was  appointed  a  counselor  at 
Leipzig.  He  wrote  several  dramas,  drawn  largely 
from  antiquity  and  slightly  esteemed,  a  Oespen- 
sterbuch  (1810-14)  and  a  Wunderhuch  (1815- 
17),  both  popular.  The  first  of  them  con- 
tained the  story  of  Der  Freischiitz,  which  formed 
the  basis  for  the  text  of  the  opera  of  that  name. 
He  is  perhaps  best  known  for  his  Metrik  (two 
volumes,  1814-16),  which  contains  an  interesting 
study  of  ancient  prosody. 

AFELDOBK,  g^pel-dOm,  or  APELDOOBN. 
A  beautiful  village  in  the  Netherlands,  province 
of  Gelderland  (Map:  Netherlands,  D  2).  It  is 
situated  about  seventeen  miles  north  of  Amhem, 
on  a  canal  which  joins  the  river  Grift,  a  branch 
of  the  Yssel,  by  which,  and  the  public  roads  from 
Arnhera  and  Utrecht  to  Deventer  and  Zutphen, 
and  by  railway,  it  has  much  traffic.  The  Loo, 
originally  a  hunting-lodge  of  the  Duke  of  Ge\- 
derland,  was  a  favorite  palace  of  William  III. 
of  England  when  Stadtholder.  The  principal  in- 
dustry is  paper  making.  Pop.  1890,  19,190; 
1900,  25,761. 

APELOiES  (Gk.  'AircXX^j).  The  most  cele- 
brated painter  in  ancient  times,  the  son  of 
Pytheas,  and  probably  a  native  of  Colophon,  on 
the  Ionian  coaat  of  Asia  Minor.  The  state- 
ments that  he  was  a  native  of  Cos  or  of  Ephesus, 
seem  due  to  his  long  residence  in  those  places. 
He  was  probably  made  a  citizen  of  Ephesus,  and 
may  have  died  at  Cos,  which  afterward  possessed 
an '  xmfinished  painting  by  him.  The  dates 
of  his  birth  and  death  are  unknown,  but  the  list 


of  his  portraits  shows  that  he  lived  during  the 
last  part  of  the  fourth  century  B.c.  He  first 
studied  at  Ephesus,  and  afterward  at  Sicyon 
under  the  celebrated  teacher  Pamphilus  of  Am- 
phipolis,  where  he  may  have  learned  the  fine 
drawing  in  which  he  excelled.  From  Sicyon  he 
seems  to  have  gone  to  Pella  in  Macedonia,  where 
he  painted  portraits  of  Philip,  and  became  the 
friend  of  Alexander,  who  sat  to  no  other  painter, 
though  frequently  to  him,  and  permitted  him 
much  freedom  of  speech.  His  most  celebrated 
portrait  represented  Alexander  wielding  the 
thunderbolt,  of  which  it  was  said  "of  the  two 
Alexanders,  Philip's  is  invincible,  Apelles's  in- 
imitable." He  also  painted  portraits  of  some  of 
the  generals  of  Alexander.  His  most  celebrated 
works  were  mythological  or  allegorical.  Very  fa- 
mous were  his  "Anadyomene"  (q.v.)  and'  his 
"Artemis  Surrounded  by  Maidens."  Of  his  paint- 
ing of  "Slander,"  in  which  also  appeared  Igno- 
rance, Suspicion^  Envy,  Deceit,  Remorse,  and 
other  personifications,  Lucian  gives  a  detailed 
description  which  has  inspired  Botticelli,  Ddrer, 
and  other  artists.  He  seems  to  have  returned  to 
Asia  after  Alexander's  conquests,  and  most  of  his 
celebrated  works  were  found  in  Asiatic  cities.  At 
Rhodes  he  visited  the  painter  Protogenes,  and  i& 
said  to  have  contributed  to  his  reputation  by  of- 
fering a  high  price  for  one  of  his  pictures.  He 
was  generous  in  his  appreciation  of  his  rivals, 
though  fully  aware  of  his  own  merits.  He  ad- 
mitted that  Melanthius  surpassed  him  in  group- 
ing, and  Asclepiodorus  in  symmetry,  and  that 
Protogenes  was  inferior  only  in  never  knowing 
when  to  stop,  which  deprived  his  pictures  of  that 
grace,  which  Apelles  claimed  as  his  own.  He 
seems  to  have  been  remarkable  for  his  accuracT 
of  drawing  and  fine  coloring,  probably  due  to  a 
thorough  theoretical  and  practical*  training. 
The  industry  with  which  he  practiced  drawing 
was  so  great  as  to  give  rise  to  the  proverb  which 
in  the  Latin  version  is.  Nulla  dies  sine  line^ 
Many  anecdotes  are  related  of  Apelles.  When 
his  works  were  exposed  to  public  view,  he  used 
to  place  himself  behind  a  picture,  to  listen  to 
the  criticisms  of  the  common  people.  A  cobbler 
having  detected  a  fault  in  the  shoe  of  one  of 
his  figures,  it  is  stated  that  Apelles  instantly 
rectified  it;  but  when  the  cobbler,  on  the  follow- 
ing day,  extended  his  criticism  to  the  legs,  the 
painter  rushed  from  his  hiding-place  and  told 
the  cobbler  to  stick  to  the  shoes,  or,  in  the 
Latin  version,  which  has  become  proverbial,  Se 
sutor  supra  crepidam.  Consult:  Woltmann  and 
Woermann,  History  of  Painting,  Vol.  I.,  Eng. 
trans.  (New  York,  1886)  ;  Houssage,  Histoire 
d* Apelles  (Paris,  1867)  ;  Wustmann,  Apellei* 
Leben  und  Werke  (Leipzig,  1870). 

APELT,  a'pelt,  Ernst  Friedbich  (1812-59). 
A  German  philosophical  writer,  bom  at  Reiche- 
nau.  He  studied  at  Jena  and  Leipzig,  and  wa» 
made  professor  of  philosophy  at  Jena  in  1840. 
His  works  include:  Die  Reformation  der  Stem- 
kunde  (Jena,  1852)  ;  Di^  Theorie  der  Induktion 
( 1 854 )  ;  Metaphysik  ( 1 867 )  ;  ParmerUdis  et 
Empedoclis  doctrina  de  Mundi  Structura  ( 1857) ; 
Religionsphilosophie  (1860),  etc. 

AP'EMAN^trS.  A  churlish  cynic  in  Shake- 
speare's Timon  of  Athens,  supposed  to  have  been 
modeled  after  the  sketch  of  a  similar  character 
given  in  Lucian's  Public  Sale  of  Philosophers,  a 
work  with  which  Shakespeare  might  easily  have 
been  acquainted. 


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ANTHROPOID    APES 


1.  ORANG-UTAN    (Simla   satyrus). 

2.  QIBBON    (Hylobates  leuciscus). 


3.  CHIMPANZEE    (Anthropoplthecu8  niger). 

4.  GORILLA    (Gorilla  savagel). 


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APENNINES. 


643 


AFENBADE. 


APENNINES  (Ital.  Appennino;  Lat.  Mons 
Apenninua,  Apennine  Mount,  from  Cym.  Celt. 
^pen,  hill,  summit,  promontory).  A  mountain 
chain  belonging  to  the  system  of  the  Alps  and 
extending  uninterruptedly  throughout  the  whole 
length  of  the  Italian  peninsula.  It  branches  out 
from  the  Maritime  Alps  at  the  Col  di  Tenda,  near 
the  sources  of  the  Tanaro.  From  this  point  the 
chain,  under  the  name  of  the  Ligurian  Apen- 
nines, girdles  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  sea,  and  then  runs  slightly 
south  of  east  inland  almost  across  the  peninsula 
at  latitude  44°,  and  then  southeastward,  forming 
the  watershed  between  the  Adriatic  and  the  Med- 
iterranean, but  gradually  approaching  the  east- 
em  coast,  till,  in  the  highlands  of  the  Abruzzi,  it 
borders  close  upon  it;  after  which  it  takes  a 
more  southerly  direction,  traversing  Calabria, 
dips  under  the  sea  at  the  Strait  of  Messina,  and 
reappears  on  the  northern  coast  of  Sicily.  The 
total  length  is  about  800  miles,  and  the  breadth 
varies  from  25  to  85  miles. 

Geographers  divide  the  Apennines  as  follows: 
(1)  The  North  Apennines,  from  the  Col  di  Ten- 
da,  in  the  Maritime  Alps,  to  the  pass  of  Borgo 
San  Sepolcro,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Arezzo, 
on  the  eastern  border  of  Tuscany.  (2)  The  Cen- 
tral Apennines,  from  Arezzo  to  the  valley  of  the 
Pescara,  which  flows  between  the  two  Abruzzi. 
( 3 )  The  South  Apennines,  from  the  valley  of  the 
Pescara  to  Cape  Spartivento.  (4)  The  Insular 
Apennines,  or  the  Sicilian  Range.  The  leading 
feature  of  the  Apennines,  wherever  they  approach 
the  coast,  is  their  extraordinarily  steep  declivi- 
ties; while  in  Middle  Italy  and  the  adjoining 
portions  of  Upper  and  Lower  Italy,  long,  terraced 
plateaus,  lower  ranges,  and  finally,  relatively 
extensive  coast  plains  mark  their  gradual  de- 
scent on  the  west.  The  general  name  for  these 
lower  ranges  is  Sub- Apennine ;  but  they  have  a 
variety  of  specific  designations,  such  as  the  moun- 
tains of  Carrara  and  Seravezza,  Protomagno,  and 
Monte  Amiata,  in  Tuscany;  the  Sabine,  Alban, 
and  Volscian  mountains  in  the  former  Papal 
States;  Monte  Gargano  on  the  southeastern 
coast,  north  of  Manfredonia,  etc.  The  main 
chain  of  the  Apennines  does  not  send  off  spurs 
into  the  Apulian  Peninsula  or  heel  of  Italy, 
which  in  the  main  is  rather  level,  or  only 
interspersed  with  detached  groups  of  hills.  The 
principal  chain  exhibits  for  the  most  part  a 
dreary  and  barren  appearance,  somewhat  like  a 
vast  wall,  with  very  few  projecting  peaks  to 
break  the  dull  monotony  of  the  scene,  and  there- 
fore seldom  furnishes  any  salient  points  on  which 
the  eye  of  the  spectator  can  rest  with  pleasure. 
Naked,  riven,  covered  with  thick  debris,  the  de- 
clivities seem  as  if  scorched  by  the  southern  suji. 
Only  in  the  Abruzzi,  in  the  Sub -Apennines,  and 
especially  in  the  marble-bearing  mountains  of 
Carrara  and  Seravezza  do  the  bold  and  magnifi- 
cent forms  of  the  Alps  reappear. 

The  average  height  of  the  entire  chain  of  the 
Apennines  is  about  4000  feet,  which,  however,  in 
the  north  sinks  down  to  little  more  than  3500 
feet,  and  in  the  mountains  of  the  Abruzzi  rises  to 
7000  feet.  Here,  in  Monte  Corno,  the  highest 
peak  of  the  range,  forming  part  of  the  Gran 
Sasso  d'ltalia,  they  reach  an  elevation  of  9680 
feet.  The  North  Apennines  attain  in  Monte  Ci- 
mone,  situated  in  the  Province  of  Modena,  a 
height  of  7103  feet.  The  highest  peak  of  the 
South  Apennines  is  Monte  Polino,  with  an  eleva- 
tion of  7450  feet. 


The  Apennines  are  pierced  bjr  thirteen  prin- 
cipal passes.  These  are,  proceeding  from  north 
to  south:  (1)  the  pass  of  Savona;  (2)  of  Boc- 
chetta;  (3)  of  Cisa;  (4)  of  Monte  Cimone ;  (5) 
of  Poretta;  (6)  of  Pietramala;  (7)  of  Borgo 
San  Sepolcro;  (8)  of  Furlo;  (9)  of  Serravalle; 
(10)  of  Aquila;  (11)  of  Isernia;  (12)  of  Arcano 
andTroa;   (13)  of  Potenza. 

Geoix)gy.  The  prevalent  rock  is  a  species  of 
compact  limestone,  of  a  whitish-gray  color,  be- 
longing to  the  Jura  formation.  Resting  on  the 
limestone  is  found  a  more  recent  formation  of 
sandstone  and  marl,  which  is  especially  abun- 
dant in  the  middle  region  of  the  Sub- Apennines, 
and  which  contains  an  extraordinary  number  of 
fossils  of  the  Tertiary  Age.  Older  formations, 
however,  frequently  crop  out.  In  the  Abruzzian 
Apennines  granite,  gneiss,  and  schist  are  the 
prevailing  rocks.  On  the  watershed  of  the  North 
and  Central  Apennines  there  are  found  Paleozoic 
clay-slate,  grauwacke-slate,  etc.  The  Apennines, 
especially  the  Roman  and  Neapolitan,  are  dis- 
tinguished from  all  other  mountain  chains  by  the 
rich  variety  of  marbles  which  they  contain.  In 
some  places  the  quarries  seem  inexhaustible. 
Igneous  rocks  are  numerous  in  the  middle  and 
southern  regions,  where  volcanic  disturbances 
have  produced  many  wonderful  formations — as, 
for  instance,  the  crater  lakes  of  Albano,  Nemi, 
Vesuvius,  Solfatara. 

The  direction  of  the  great  chain  of  the  Apen- 
nines is  favorable  to  the  formation  on  the  west- 
em  side  of  important  river  basins,  such  as  those 
of  the  Amo,  the  Tiber,  the'  Garigliano,  and  the 
Voltumo ;  while  on  the  eastern  side  we  find  noth- 
ing but  small  streams,  in  most  cases  destitute  of 
affluents,  hurrying  down  to  the  sea  through  wild, 
precipitous  valleys.  In  northern  Italv,  the  Li- 
gurian Apennines,  almost  overhanging  the  Gulf 
of  Genoa,  develop  on  the  southern  slopes  only 
puny  streams,  while  their  northern  slopes  send 
down,  tnrough  the  plains  of  Piedmont,  large 
tributaries  to  the  Po. 

Flora.  Where  the  Apennines,  in  general  so 
poorly  supplied  with  permanent  streams,  ex- 
hibit a  trace  of  Alpine  abundance  of  water,  there 
is  no  lack  of  rich  pastures  and  dense  for- 
ests; but  usually  only  thin  grass  and  wild, 
scrubby  bushes  cover  the  stony  slopes.  The 
greater  number  of  the  roaring  forest  brooks  in 
the  deep,  rocky  ravines  display  during  the  sum- 
mer only  dry  beds.  WTiere  the  mountains  dip 
down  to  the  sea,  as  at  the  Riviera  of  Genoa  and 
the  Gulf  of  Naples,  a  rich,  distinctively  southern 
vegetation  clothes  the  declivities.  Gigantic 
agaves,  Indian  figs,  myrtle  bushes,  orange 
groves,  suggest  in  these  northern  lands  the  splen- 
dors of  the  tropics.  The  altitudinal  vegetation 
zones  are  characterized  as  follows:  Vine  and 
olive  up  to  1300  feet;  chestnut  and  oaks  from 
1300  to  3300  feet;  pines  from  3300  to  6200  feet; 
shrubs  and  grasses  above  5200  feet,  succeeded 
above  by  naked  rocks. 

APENBADE,  a'p6n-ra'de.  A  town  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Schleswig-Holstein.  It  it 
situated  at  the  head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name, 
opening  into  the  Baltic  Sea,  has  an  excellent  har- 
bor, and  a  considerable  amount  of  shipping 
(Map:  Prussia,  CI).  Population,  in  1895,  5664; 
in  1900,  6616.  The  environs  of  the  to^v'n  are  beau- 
tiful. The  first  historical  mention  made  of  Apen- 
rade  relates  to  its  destruction  by  the  Slavs  in 
1148 ;  and,  indeed,  its  position  has  always  laid  it 


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APENBADE. 


644 


APHASIA. 


open  to  the  casual i ties  of  northern  war,  whether 
on  a  large  or  small  scale,  as  has  been  especially 
seen  since  1848.  Near  the  to^^i  stands  the  castle 
of  Bnindlund,  built  by  Queen  Margaret  in  1411, 
in  which  the  bailiff  of  the  place  resides. 

AFE^I  or  APO^HIS.  The  name  of  two 
Egyptian  kings  of  the  Uyksos  Dynasty.  (See 
Hyksos.)  Little  is  known  of  either,  and  only  a 
few  scanty  memorials  of  them  have  been  found. 
Under  Apepi  I.,  whose  date  is  very  uncertain, 
science  and  letters  seem  to  have  flourished.  The 
celebrated  Rhind  Mathematical  Papyrus,  a  sort 
of  practical  handbook  for  the  solution  of  arith- 
metical and  geometrical  problems/ bears  a  colo- 
phon stating  that  the  manuscript  was  copied,  in 
the  thirty-third  year  of  this  king,  from  an  origi- 
nal written  in  the  reign  of  Amenemhat  III. 
Apepi  II.  flourished  about  b.c.  1650,  and  several 
monuments  exist  bearing  his  name.  A  papyrus 
in  the  British  Museum  (Sallier  I.),  contains  a 
legendary  account  of  the  breaking  out  of  a  war 
about  religious  matters  between  Apepi  and  Se- 

auenen-rec.  Prince  of  Thebes.     It  would  seem, 
[lerefore,    that    Egyptian    tradition    regarded 
Apepi  II.  as  the  Hyksos  ruler  in  whose  reign  be- 
gan the  long  war  for  the  independence  of  Egypt. 
AFEBEA,  &-pyr^&.     See  Cavy  ;  and  GuiiOBA- 

PTG. 


AFEB^IEHTS. 
APET^ALOUS. 


See  Laxative;  Puboative. 
See  Floweb. 


A^EX  (Lat.,  the  extreme  end  of  a  thing; 
point,  summit ) .  A  term  used  in  mining  to  des- 
ignate the  outcropping  edge  of  a  mineral  vein  or 
lode.  As  interpreted  legally,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  the  edge  of  the  vein  should  project  above 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  simply  above  the 
surface  of  the  inclosing  bedrock,  and  both  vein 
and  bedrock  may  therefore  be  covered  by  soil 
or  drift.  The  term  outcrop  in  the  legal  sense,  as 
used  above,  does  not  agree  with  the  geological 
application  of  the  term  in  all  cases;  for  if  a 
vein  dips  nearly  parallel  with  a  sloping  surface, 
and  may  be  exposed  at  a  point  below  the  apex, 
due  to  an  irregularity  in  its  dip,  this  second  ex- 
posure, while  constituting  an  outcrop  in  the  geo- 
logical sense,  would  not  be  one  legally.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Revised  Statutes  of  1872,  a  miner  hav- 
ing the  apex  of  a  vein  within  the  boundaries  of 
his  claim  is  allowed  to  follow  it  along  the  strike 
until  it  intersects  the  end  lines  of  his  claim  ex- 
tended vertically  downward.  On  the  dip,  how- 
ever, he  is  at  liberty  to  follow  it  indefinitely, 
even  if  it  extends  outside  the  vertical  side  lines 
of  his  surface  location.  This  prohibits  another 
person  from  sinking  to  the  first  party's  vein  from 
a  point  outside  the  latter's  surface  claim.  This 
apex  rule  has  led  to  many  lawsuits,  some  of 
which  were  costly,  involving  property  worth 
several  million  dollars.  Thus,  where  two  veins 
join  below  the  surface  and  each  is  worked  by  a 
different  party,  both  may  endeavor  to  claim  pos- 
session of  the  true  apex,  but  under  the  apex  law 
slighter  pretenses  are  sometimes  used  by  one 
person  to  gain  ownership  of  another's  vein.  See 
Lode;  Mining  Claims;  Outcrop;  Dip;  Strike; 
Vein;  and  consult:  Barringer  and  Adams,.  The 
Law  of  Mines  and  Mining  in  the  United  States 
(Boston,  1897). 

APEX  OP  THE  SUN'S  WAY.  A  term  used 
to  denote  that  point  in  the  constellation  Her- 
cules toward  which  the  sun's  motion  in  space  is 
at  present  directed.    See  Stars. 


APHANIF^EBA.  An  order  of  insects, 
which  includes  the  fleas,  distinguished  from  the 
Diptera  by  having  the  three  segments  of  the 
thorax  "distinct  and  nearly  equal,  the  two  last 
rings  (mesothorax  and  metathorax)  bearing 
short,  leaf -like  appendages;  and  mouth-parts 
adapted  for  piercing."    See  Flora. 

APH^ANITE.     See  Diorite. 

APHASIA,  A-fa'zhl-A  or  -zJ-A  (Gk.  'A^wrio, 
speechlessness,  from  d,  a,  priv.  -\- ^vai,  phawii,  to 
speak).  A  term  used  to  denote  certain  derange- 
ments of  speech  which  are  the  results  of  certain 
disease  or  injury  of  the  mechanism  of  speech. 
This  mechanism  is  complicated,  but  it  funda- 
mentally consists  of  two  parts,  the  receptive 
part  and  the  emissive.  When  there  is  inter- 
ference with  the  former,  sensory  aphasia  is 
the  result,  while  motor  aphasia  is  the  conse- 
quence of  trouble  with  the  latter.  The  chief 
types  of  sensory  aphasia  are  word-deafness  and 
word-blindness,  while  the  chief  motor-aphasias 
are  motor  -  vocal  -  aphasia  and  motor  -  writing  - 
aphasia,  or  agraphia.  The  mechanism  of  speech 
has  been  built  up  gradually  in  the  course  of  evo- 
lution, and  consists  of  a  number  of  centres  in  the 
brain.  The  motor  speech  -  area  is  in  the  third 
frontal  convolution  (Broca's  convolution),  and 
injury  to  this  part  of  the  brain  or  of  the  nerve 
tracts  leading  from  it  to  control  the  motions  of 
the  tongue  and  lips  produce  motor-vocal-aphasia. 
With  this  affection  the  person  may  know  what 
he  wishes  to  say,  but  is  unable  to  say  it ;  he  may 
be  able  to  talk,  but  not  say  the  word  he  wishes. 
All  gradations  of  this  atTection,  from  slight  to 
severe  forms,  exist,  and  it  is  one  of  the  commonest 
forms  of  aphasia.  The  auditory  centre,  or  cen- 
tre for  auditory  memories,  or  that  portion  of  the 
brain  which  intellectually  hears  and  understands 
spoken  speech,  is  in  the  first  temporal  convolu- 
tion. Any  defect  of  this  centre  or  of  the  fibres 
which  go  from  it  to  the  motor  speech  centre, 
produces  what  is  known  as  word-deafness.  In 
this  form  the  person  may  hear  perfectly  well, 
may  read  and  speak,  but  does  not  understand 
spoken  language.  It  is  as  though  he  were  lis- 
tening to  a  foreign  language.  Tl^  sounds  of  the 
words  convey  no  meaning  to  him.  There  are 
varying  degrees  in  this  affection  as  well,  from 
slight  attacks  in  which  only  certain  words  lose 
their  significance,  to  complete  loss  of  the  under- 
standing of  spoken  language.  The  third  centre 
is  that  of  the  optical  mechanism,  by  which  the 
printed  or  written  word  is  understood.  This  cen- 
tre is  located  in  the  occipital  lobes,  and  disease 
or  injury  of  its  cells  or  of  the  fibres  which  lead 
from  it  to  the  motor  speech  centre  produce  word- 
blindness.  In  this  form  of  aphasia  the  person, 
although  capable  of  seeing,  does  not  comprehend 
what  he  sees.  Words  might  as  well  be  written 
in  Chinese  characters ;  he  would  understand  them 
as  well.  He  is  capable  of  talking  and  of  repeat- 
ing aloud  what  is  said  to  him.  or  of  writing  what 
may  be  said  or  what  he  reads.  In  this  latter 
case  he  would  be  copying  only.  In  a  fourth  type 
of  aphasia,  agraphia,  which  is  not  considered  a 
true  aphasia  by  many,  the  person  is  unable  to 
write  what  he  desires  to  write.  He  is  capable  of 
going  through  the  motions  of  writing,  but  not 
understandingly.  Aphasia  is  a  symptom  of  manT 
brain  troubles.  The  most  important  cause  is 
some  type  of  hemorrhage  into  the  brain  sub- 
stance, involving  these  areas.  Tumors,  injuria 
of  the  brain,  exhaustion,  and  some  of  the  insani- 


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APHASIA. 


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APHONIA. 


lies  may  oe  accompanied  by  aphasia.  The  treat- 
ment is  that  of  the  underlying  disease.  Consult: 
Gould  and  Pyle,  Cyclopcedia  of  Medicine  and 
Surgery  (Philadelphia,  1900). 

A'PHEK.  (1)  A  place  near  Sidon  (Josh, 
xiii.  4),  having  a  temple  to  Ashtoreth;  probably 
the  modern  Aphka  at  the  source  of  Nahr  Ibra- 
him. (2)  A  city  belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Asher 
(Josh.  xix.  30;  Judges  i.  31).  (3)  A  stronghold 
near  Megiddo,  where  the  Philistines  assembled 
their  army  for  the  battles  of  Gilboa  (1  Sam. 
xxix.  1)  and  Ebenezer  (I.  Sam.  iv.  1),  and  from 
which  Benhadad  and  Hazael  ( I.  Kings  xx.  26 ;  II. 
Kings  xiii.  17)  made  their  attacks  upon  Samaria. 
It  is  probably  identical  with  Apukn  in  the  annals 
ot  Tchutiniose  III.  (1503-1449). 

APHEOiION  (Gk.  dw6,  apo,  away  +  ffXiof, 
h€lio8,  the  sun).  That  point  in  the  elliptical 
orbit  of  a  planet  which  is  most  remote  from  the 
sun.  The  opposite  point,  or  that  nearest  to  the 
sun,  is  styled  the  perihelion.  At  the  former 
point,  the  swiftness  of  the  planet's  motion  is 
least,  and  begins  to  increase;  at  the  latter,  it  is 
greatest,  and  begins  to  decrease.  This  irregular- 
ity of  motion  is  most  remarkable  in  comets, 
since  their  orbits  deviate  most  from  the  circle. 
See  Apsides. 

APH'ELIOT^OPISM,  or  Negative  Helio- 
TROPiiiSM.  That  form  of  sensitiveness  by  vir- 
tue of  which  plant  organs  direct  their  axes 
away  from  the  source  of  incident  light.  Certain 
roots  show  this  reaction  to  light;  e.g.,  those  of 
mustard  seedlings.  It  is  seen  also  m  the  ten- 
drils of  Bignonia  capreolata.    See  Heliotbofibm. 

A^HID  (probably  from  Gk.  d^taijj,  aphei- 
dfts,  unsparing,  from  d,  a,  priv.  +  ^Wecr^oi,  pheide- 
sthai,  to  spare).  A  bug  of  the  family  Aphididse, 
commonly  known  as  plant-lice,  which  live  either 
free  on  the  foliage,  bark,  or  roots  of  plants,  or 
inclosed  in  galls.  They  nourish  themselves  on 
the  sap  of  their  plant-hosts,  which  they  suck  up 
through  a  long,  slender  rostrum.  They  are  mi- 
nute, the  largest  being  one-fourth  of  an  inch 
long.  The  color  is  usually  green  or  brown,  and 
the  shape  like  that  of  a  pear.  Most  of  the  forms 
that  live  on  the  roots  of  plants  underground  have 
neither  compound  eyes  nor  ocelli.  Several  forms 
secrete  a  cottony,  protective  coat.  At  the  pos- 
terior end  of  the  abdomen  of  most  aphids  there 
are  two  tubes,  or  perhaps  mere  perforations, 
through  which  a  sweet  liquid,  called  honey-dew, 
conies  out,  a  drop  at  a  time.  Upon  this  the 
young  feed  for  the  first  day  or  two.  The  flow 
may  be  so  abundant  as  to  render  the  stems  and 
leaves  sticky,  or,  when  the  wind  is  blowing,  the 
liquid  may  even  fall  to  the  ground  in  a  sweet 
spray.  The  leaves  and  bark  are  not  infrequently 
covered  by  fungi,  which  thrive  on  the  honey-dew, 
and  insects,  especially  ants,  are  attracted  to  it. 
The  ants  protect  from  year  to  year  the  makers 
of  this  food  supply,  and  also  feed  eagerly  upon 
the  honey-dew  itself,  and  cherish  the  aphids  for 
its  sake.    See  Ant. 

Dimorphism,  or  even  polymorphism,  is  very 
common  among  aphids.  Thus  the  forms  that 
live  on  the  roots  of  plants  and  those  that  live  on 
their  foliage  possess  certain  structural  differences. 
When  all  the  foliage  forms  perish,  the  under- 
^ound  ones  may  make  good  the  loss,  as  is  the 
case  with  the  Delaware  peach  species.  Again, 
the  sexes  may  be  winged  or  wingless,  and  the 
females  may  bring  forth  the  young  alive,  or  they 
niay  lay  eggs.     From  the  eggs  parthenogenetic 


females  alone  hatch.  These  produce  living  young 
for  many  generations.  At  times  o£  drought  or 
on  the  approach  of  winter,  males,  usually  winged, 
appear,  which  fertilize  the  eggs  of  the  wingless 
females.  These  eggs  hatch  in  the  following 
spring  into  the  "stem  mothers,"  and  the  cycle 
begins  again.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the 
progeny  of  a  single  "stem  mother"  of  the  cot- 
tony apple  aphis  may  be  one  quintillioH  in  a 
season.  See  Hoplouse,  and  accompanying  plates. 
Aphids  stunt  or  kill  growing  tips,  weaken  the 
entire  tree  by  impoverishing  it  of  sap,  and  pro- 
duce galls  and  other  abnormal  growths.  Entire 
crops  of  cereals  may  be  destroyed  by  them.  Let- 
tuce, beans,  indeed  nearly  all  vegetables,  suffer 
from  their  ravages,  and  house-plants  are  particu- 
larly infested  by  them.  The  price  of  hops  from 
year  to  year  varies  largely  according  to  the  abun- 
dance of  the  hop- vine  aphids;  and  to  this  fam- 
ily belongs  also  the  grape-vine  pest  { Phyllox- 
era) of  Europe.  Inundation  of  the  ground  in 
cold  weather  is  fatal  to  this  pest  Carbon  bisul- 
phide is  also  used.  In  the  greenhouse,  tobacco 
smoke,  soapsuds,  and  ladybird-beetles  are  effect- 
ive checks.  Young  fruit  and  shade  trees  in  the 
open  may  also  be  treated  with  soapsuds,  as  well 
as  with  hydrocyanic-acid  gas  applied  imder 
closed  tents.  Birds  and  spiders  feed  on  plant- 
lice,  ichneumon  and  syrphus-fiy  larvse  destroy 
great  numbers  of  them,  both  the  adults  and 
the  young  of  all  sorts  of  ladybird-beetles  feed 
ravenously  upon  them,  and  they  are  persecuted 
by  deadly  parasites.  Indeed,  were  it  not  for  the 
insect  foes  of  plant-lice,  there  would  be  little  or 
no  vegetation.  The  winter  eggs  of  aphids  may 
endure  any  amount  of  cold,  but  a  cold,  wet  spell 
in  the  spring  is  fatal  to  the  newly  hatched  aphid. 
See  Scale  Insects,  and  the  names  of  va- 
rious trees  and  plants  upon  which  they  prey; 
and  of  works  on  injurious  insects  and  economic 
entomology,  especially  for  the  United  States, 
see  Thomas,  Eighth  Report  State  Entomolo- 
gist of  Illinois  (Springfield,  1879);  and  for 
Europe,  Buckton,  Monograph  of  British  Aphides, 
Ray  Society   (London,  1879-83). 

APHIS  LIOK.  The  larva  of  a  lace-winged 
fly,  especially  of  the  family  Hemerobiidae,  which 
feed  on  plant  lice.  It  is  closely  related  to  the 
ant-lions  and  golden-eyed  flies.    See  Lace-wino. 

APHONIA  (Gk.  d0«v/o,  from  d,  a  priv.  -f 
^wi^,  p^ion^,  voice,  sound).  The  term  used  in 
medicine  to  signify  a  more  or  less  complete  loss 
of  voice.  It  is  altogether  distinct  from  mutism, 
in  which  it  is  impossible  to  form  articulate 
sounds,  and  in  mpst  cases  the  voice  is  not  en- 
tirely gone,  but  only  more  or  less  lost  or  sup- 
pressed. The  voice  is  essentially  produced  by 
three  distinct  agents — viz.  ( 1 )  the  expiration  of 
air,  (2)  the  opening  of  the  glottis,  and  (3)  the 
tension  of  the  vocal  cords;  and  hence  anything 
interfering  with  expiration,  or  with  the  func- 
tions of  the  glottis  and  vocal  cords,  may  cause 
aphonia.  Thus,  it  may  result  from  paralysis  of 
the  respiratory  muscles,  from  pulmonary  emphy- 
sema, and  sometimes  from  pneumonia ;  or  it  may 
be  caused  by  diseases  of  the  larynx,  as  chronic 
laryngitis,  oedema  of  the  glottis,  polypus,  etc.; 
or  by  pressure  on  the  larynx  caused  by  abscesses, 
vegetations,  and  any  kind  of  morbid  growth ;  or 
it  may  be  traced  tc  some  functional  or  organic 
disturbance  of  the  inferior  vocal  cords.  Thus, 
the  muscular  fibres  which  act  on  these  cords  may 
become  affected  in  acute  laryngitis  by  extension 


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APIA. 


of  the  inflammation,  or  their  action  may  be  im- 
peded by  the  pressure  of  false  membrane  in 
croup.  Again,  in  cases  of  lead  or  phosphorus 
poisoning,  there  is  aphonia  due  to  fatty  degen- 
eration of  the  muscles.  Not  infrequently  aph- 
onia may  be  traced  to  compression  of  the  re- 
current or  inferior  laryngeal  nerve,  which  is  the 
nerve-supplying  motor  power  to  all  the  muscles 
of  the  larynx,  with  one  trifling  exception.  Such 
pressure  is  not  infrequently  caused  by  aneurism, 
abscess,  tumor,  etc.  In  the  same  way,  a  wound 
or  contusion  of  the  pneumogastric  nerve,  or  one 
of  the  recurrent  branches,  will  cause  aphonia  or, 
more  commonly,  an  extremely  hoarse  modifica- 
tion of  the  voice,  in  consequence  of  the  laryngeal 
muscles  being  paralyzed  on  one  side  and  re- 
maining active  on  the  other.  They  are  cases  of 
direct  nen'ous  action  being  interfered  with ;  but 
there  are  many  cases  of  what  may  be  termed 
reflex  aphonia,  as  when  the  voice  is  often  more 
or  less  lost  in  the  course  of  pregnancy  when  ac- 
companied by  convulsions,  or  in  consequence 
of  the  presence  of  intestinal  worms,  or  after  the 
rapid  suppression  of  an  exanthema tous  rash,  or 
of  a  long  -  continued  hemorrhagic  discharge. 
Aphonia  is,  moreover,  very  commonly  associated 
with  hysteria. 

When  aphonia  is  not  due  to  irremovable 
causes,  as  tumors,  fatty  degeneration  of  the  lar- 
yngeal muscles,  etc.,  it  generally  disappears  after 
an  interval.  It  occasionally  assumes  remarkable 
intermittent  shapes. 

In  those  cases  which  are  amenable  to  treat- 
ment, emetics,  electricity,  strychnine,  leeching, 
blistering  and  local  application  of  nitrate  of 
silver,  have  been  found  to  be  the  most  useful 
remedies. 

AFH'OBISM  (6k.  dtpopurtt6s,  aphorismoa,  a 
limitation,  definition,  from  dir6,  apo,  away  -f 
6p/^iy,  horizein,  to  bound,  divide).  A  maxim 
or  any  short  and  significant  saying;  such  as, 
"Custom  is  a  second  nature."  A  complete  work 
is  sometimes  written  in  the  form  of  a  series 
of  aphorisms,  arranged  in  due  order,  and  leav- 
ing their  connection  to  be  traced  by  the  reader's 
reflection. 

APHBAATES,  &-frft^tSz.  A  Persian  Chris- 
tian of  the  Fourth  Century,  who  took  the  name 
of  Jacob,  and  was  afterward  famous  as  the 
"Persian  Sage"  (hakkitna  PharsayaJ.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  an  opponent  of  Arianism,  and 
after  his  conversion  lived  at  Edessa,  and  later 
at  Antioch.  According  to  Professor  William 
Wright,  he  was  bishop  of  the  convent  of  Mar 
Matthew  near  Mosul,  and  composed  his  works  in 
344,  345,  and  377.  His  writings  consist  of  twen- 
ty-two alphabetical  homilies,  and  the  separate 
homily  On  the  Cluster,  the  Syriac  text  of  which 
has  been  recovered  and  published  only  within  the 
last  few  years.  In  the  De  Viris  IlluatrihuB 
(written  before  406)  of  Gennadius  of  Marseilles, 
and  in  the  ancient  Armenian  version,  published 
by  N.  Antonelli  (Rome,  1756),  the  homilies 
were  ascribed  to  Jacob  of  Nisibis,  who  died  in 
338.  The  real  author,  however,  is  cited  by  name 
by  Abhdisho,  and  by  Elias  of  Nisibis  (Eleventh 
Centurj')f  in  his  Chronicle. 

Consult  the  preface  to  W.  Wright's  edition  of 
the  Homilies  of  Aphraates  (London,  1869)  ;  J. 
Forget,  De  Vita  et  Script  is  Aphraatis  (Louvain, 
1882)  ;  and  Thalhofer,  Bihliothek  der  Kirchen- 
voter  (Kempen,  1869-86),  where  eight  of  the 
homilies  are  translated.     All  the  homilies  have 


been  translated  by  Bert  in  Von  Gebhardt  and 
Hamack,  Texte  und  Untersuchungen  (Leipzig, 
1888). 

APHBODISIA,  &f 'r6-dIz^-&  or -dlsh^-A.  See 
Venus. 

AFHBODISIAG,  &f'r6-dlz^-&k  (Gk.  %. 
BtffuucAs  aphrodisiakos,  pertaining  to  Aphrodite, 
or  Venus,  goddess  of  love.)  A  name  generally 
used  in  medicine  for  drugs  that  excite  erotic  de- 
sire, though  the  name,  strictly  used,  may  also  in- 
clude any  physical  or  mechanical  means  employed 
for  the  same  purpose.  All  drugs  that  are  tonic  in 
their  efifects  and  which  promote  the  health  of 
the  body  are  indirectly  aphrodisiac  in  their 
tendency.  Such  are  strychnine,  iron,  quinine, 
etc.  True  aphrodisiacs  are  very  rare,  and  it  is 
in  fact  doubtful  if  there  be  any  whose  use  is 
not  injurious  if  given  in  effective  doses.  Such 
are  hashish  (cannabis  Indica,  cantharides,  a 
violent  and  dangerous  irritant),  Blatta  Orien- 
talis,  and  Damiana,  a  preparation  made  from  a 
species  of  Tumera  found  in  Mexieo.  Drugs  which 
have  the  contrary  effect  are  called  anaphrodii* 
iacs.    See  Anaphbodisiac. 

APHBODITE,  af'rA-di't^.     See  Venus. 

AFH'BODITOF'OLIS  {Aphrodite  +  (3k. 
ir6\is,  poliSj  city).  The  name  of  several  cities 
in  ancient  Egypt  under  the  Greeks. 

AFH^THiE  (6k.  d^>$a,  aphtha,  eruption,  ul- 
ceration). An  affection  of  the  mucous  mem- 
branes of  the  gastro-intestinal  tract,  occurring 
chiefly  in  infants,  sometimes  serious,  and  due  to 
the  growth  of  minute  fungus  parasites.  Aphthous 
patches  generally  appear  in  the  mouth,  and  are 
usually  whitish  in  the  early  stages,  but  later  the 
areas  may  coalesce  or  ulcers  may  form.  Loss  of 
appetite,  diminution  in  weight,  and  general 
ill-health  are  common  symptoms.  Aphths  is 
the  result  of  nursery  neglect.  Nipples,  bottles, 
etc.,  used  in  feeding,  should  be  kept  clean  and 
thoroughly  sterilized  by  solutions  of  boric  acid. 
See  Thbubh. 

APHTHOUS  FE'VEB.  See  Foot  a:^ 
Mouth  Disease. 

APH'YDBOT^OPISM,  or  Nbgativt:  Ht 
DBOTBOPISM.  That  form  of  sensitiveness  bj 
virtue  of  which  a  plant  organ  turns  its  axis 
away  from  the  source  of  diffusing  moisture. 
The  phenomenon  is  seen  in  the  fruiting  bodies  of 
many  fungi.  The  vegatative  filaments  remain  in 
the  moist  substratum  (being  positively  hydro- 
tropic),  but  the  reproductive  filaments,  which 
bear  the  spores,  grow  out  into  the  much  drier 
air.    See  Hydbotbopism. 

APIA,  ft^pd-&.  The  principal  town  in  the 
Samoan  Islands,  South  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is 
situated  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  CHemian 
island  of  Upolu,  in  lat.  IS"  49'  S.,  long.  171* 
48'  W.  It  has  an  open  harbor,  and  is  the 
chief  commercial  centre  of  the  Samoan  group. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  one  long  street  running 
along  the  harbor.  There  is  a  Roman  Catholic 
church  and  several  schools.  On  March  15,  1889, 
Apia  was  visited  by  a  disastrous  hurricane,  in 
which  several  vessels,  including  an  American  and 
two  German  warships,  were  destroyed,  and  146 
lives  lost.  Apia  was  constituted  a  municipality 
in  1879,  and  was  for  a  time  under  the  joint 
supervision  of  the  British,  American,  and  Ger- 
man consuls.  Its  population  is  estimated  at 
3750,  of  whom  about  250  are  Europeans.  Apia 
is  the  seat  of  a  United  States  consulate. 


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AFIANUS. 


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APOCALYPTIC  LITEKATTJBE. 


ATIAITCTS,  Petrus  (1501-52).  A  German 
astronomer  and  geographer,  bom  at  Leisnig,  Sax- 
ony. His  name  was  Peter  Bennewitz,  or  Biene- 
witz  {Biene  is  (Jerman  for  bee,  which  in  Latin 
is  apis — whence  his  adopted  name).  He  was, 
from  1527,  professor  of  mathematics  at  Ingol- 
etadt,  and  was  celebrated  as  a  mathematician, 
astronomer,  and  general  savant,  and  especially 
as  a  cosmographer.  He  was  the  inventor  of  a 
number  of  philosophical  instruments,  and  some 
of  the  earliest  maps  of  America  were  printed  by 
him.  The  best-known  among  his  writings  is  the 
Cosmographia  (Landshut,  1524;  Antwerp,  1529). 

APICES.       See  Numeral. 

APICnrSy  &-pIsh^-as,  Mabcus  Gabius.  a 
Roman  epicure,  who  lived  in  the  time  of  Au- 
^stus  and  Tiberius,  and  was  celebrated  for  his 
luxurious  table  and  his  acquirements  in  the  art 
of  cookery.  When,  by  the  gratification  of  his 
favorite  indulgence,  he  had  consumed  the  greater 
part  of  his  fortune,  and  had  only  some  $400,000 
left,  he  poisoned  himself,  in  order  to  avoid  the 
misery  of  plain  diet.  Two  other  gourmands — 
one  in  the  time  of  Pompey,  the  other  in  the  reign 
of  Trajan — are  mentioned  under  the  name  Api- 
-cius.  The  Roman  cookery-book,  Ccelii  Apicci  de 
Re  Coquinaria  ascribed  to  Apicius,  belongs  to  a 
much  later  time,  inasmuch  as  it  abounds  in  inac- 
curacies and  solecisms.  It  is  edited  by  Schuch 
(Heidelberg,  1867). 

APICtTLTTTBE.     See  Bee  Keeping. 

APINUS,  ft-pe'nvis,  Fbanz  Maria  Ulbigh 
TiiEODOR  (1724-1802).  A  German  physicist, 
bom  at  Rostock.  He  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  medicine  and  the  exact  sciences,  and  in 
1757  he  was  appointed  professor  of  physics  at 
Saint  Petersburg.  He  is  chiefly  remembered  for 
his  extension  of  Franklin's  electrical  .theory,  but 
also  published  valuable  works  on  various  other 
branches  of  the  physical  sciences,  including  a 
work  On  the  Distribution  of  Heat  at  the  Surface 
of  the  Earth  (1762). 

A^IOK  (Gk.  "KTcltav),  An  Alexandrian 
grammarian  of  the  First  Century  a.d.  He  was 
bom  in  the  Oasis  in  the  Libyan  Desert,  but  came 
early  to  Alexandria,  where  Didymus  received  him 
into  his  house.  He  became  a  pupil  of  Apollonius 
and  Euphranor,  and  eventually  succeeded  Theon 
as  head  of  the  Alexandrian  School.  He  traveled 
much  in  the  cities  of  Greece  lecturing  on  Homer, 
whereby  he  gained  great  renown,  but  more  from 
the  brilliancy  of  his  manner  than  from  the  value 
of  the  matter  presented.  His  journeys  extended 
to  Rome,  where  his  boastful  nature  won  him 
from  the  Emperor  Tiberius  the  nickname  cym- 
halum  mundi  ("the  cymbal  of  the  imiverse"). 
I..ater,  as  leader  of  the  anti-Jewish  party,  he  was 
sent  during  the  reign  of  Caligula  at  the  head  of 
an  embassy  to  Rome  to  oppose  the  Jewish  dele- 
ctation led  by  the  philosoplier,  Philo.  Josephus's 
tract.  Against  Apion,  answering  charges  made 
on  this  occasion,  is  one  of  our  chief  sources  of 
knowledge  in  regard  to  him.  In  the  reign  of 
Claudius,  Apion  lived  and  taught  at  Rome.  His 
chief  writings  were  a  comprehensive  work  on 
the  history  and  civilization  of  Egypt,  which 
contained  the  famous  story  of  Androcles  and  the 
Lion,  preserved  by  Aulus  Gellius  (v.  14)  ;  and  an 
Homeric  glossary,  which  may  be  identical  with 
that  in  the  appendix  to  the  Etymologicum 
Oudianum,  page  601  edition  Sturz  (Leipzig, 
1818).     The  scanty  fragments  of  his  historical 


works  are  collected  by  K.  and  Th.  MUller,  Frag- 
ment a  Histnricum  Qrcecorum  tti.  (Rom.),  506-516 
(Paris,  1868-74). 

A^IOS  TU'BEBO^A.     See  Ground-nut. 

A^IS  (Gk.  'Atw).  a  sacred  bull  worshiped 
at  Memphis  by  the  ancfent  Egyptians.  His 
Egyptian  name,  Eflp,  is  of  uncertain  etymology. 
Originally  he  may  have  been  an  independent 
local  divinity,  but  in  historical  times  he  appears 
as  the  sacred  animal  of  the  god  Ptah  of  Mem- 
phis. Later  he  was  considered  as  an  incarnation 
of  Osiris,  of  Sokaris,  or  even  of  the  sun;  but 
usually  he  was,  through  a  false  etymology,  asso- 
ciated with  the  Nile  {Hacpi),  According  to 
Greek  accounts,  he  was  not  allowed  to  live  longer 
than  twenty-five  years,  and  if  he  survived  his 
allotted  time  was  secretly  drowned  in  a  well. 
The  bodies  of  the  Apis  bulls  were  carefully  em- 
balmed and  were  buried  in  subterranean  rock- 
hewn  tombs,  in  the  Serapeum  at  Memphis  (not 
to  be  confounded  with  the  famous  Serapeum 
of  Alexandria),  where  Apis,  under  the  name 
Serapis  (a  combination  of  Osiris  and  Apis),  was 
worshiped  as  the  patron  of  the  dead.  Three 
tombs,  with  numerous  Apis  mummies,  were  dis- 
covered by  Mariette  in  1851.  After  the  death  of 
an  Apis  bull,  the  country  was  searched,  some- 
times for  years,  until  another  was  found  bearins 
the  sacred  marks.  As  to  the  precise  nature  or 
these  marks,  traditions  vary  widely.  The  ani- 
mal, however,  must  be  black,  with  certain  white 
spots,  and  a  peculiar  knot  under  the  tongue. 
When  found,  he  was  solemnly  conducted  to 
Memphis  and  installed  in  the  temple  with  great 
festivities.  The  day  of  his  installation  and  that 
of  his  birth  were  celebrated  annually,  and  oracles 
were  derived  from  his  movements  and  from  the 
nature  of  his  appetite.  Even  the  cow  which  had 
become  the  mother  of  an  Apis  bull  received 
divine  honors.  The  sumptuous  worship  of  this 
animal  seems  to  have  impressed  the  Greeks  as 
more  remarkable  than  that  of  any  other  sacred 
animal.    For  illustration,  see  Eotpt. 

APXACOPH^OBA.    See  Amphineura. 

AP'LAKATaC  LENS  (not  wandering,  from 
Gk.  d,  Oj  priv.  -f  irKavSurdai,  planaathai,  to  wan- 
der). An  achromatic  lens  corrected  for  spherical 
aberration  ( q.v. ) ,  so  that  all  rays  of  light  which 
emanate  from  one  point  and  pass  through  the 
lens,  are  focused  at  a  point.  The  construction 
and  correction  of  photographic  lenses  is  fully 
described,  from  the  technical  standpoint,  in 
Otto  Lummer's  Photographic  Optics.  Trans- 
lated by  Silvanus  P.  Thompson  (New  York, 
1900).  'See  Light  and  Lens. 

APOC^ALYPSE.      See  Revelation. 

APOCALYPTIC  LIT^BATUBE  (Gk. 
AiroKoMwrMiyjapokalyptein,  to  uncover,  reveal). 
J  he  designation  of  certain  alleged  prophecies 
and  revelations  of  Jewish  and  Christian  author- 
ship dating  from  about  B.C.  200  to  about  a.d.  200. 
Their  main  theme  is  the  problem  of  the  final 
triumph  of  the  Kingdom  of  God.  The  Jewish 
apocalypses  profess  to  reveal  the  future  of  Israel 
with  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  as  the  savior 
and  avenger  of  God's  elect.  The  Christian  inter- 
polations and  additions,  written  from  the  point 
of  view  of  faith  in  Jesus  as  the  Messiah,  unveil 
the  future  struggles  and  ultimate  victory  of  the 
Church  and  the  future  state  of  the  evil  and  the 
good.      Within   these    limits    large   opportunity 


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APOCALYPTIC    LITEBATTTBE. 


was  found  for  treating  of  a  variety  of  occult 
subjects.  The  purpose  of  these  works  was  to 
vindicate  God's  ways  to  the  faithful,  who  were 
sorely  tried  by  the  apparent  triumph  of  the 
wicked,  i.e.,  the  heathen  without  and  the  irre- 
ligioua  within  Israel^  The  fundamental  ideas 
represented  are  those  of  the  Pharisaic  Judaism 
of  the  popular,  non-scholastic  type — legalistic 
indeed,  but  full  of  passionate  earnestness.  This 
literature  is  pseud  epigraph  ic.  The  various  writ- 
ings were  put  forth  under  the  name  of  ancient 
worthies,  long  since  dead,  as  Enoch  or  Moses. 
Hence  the  form  of  statement  is  largely  pre- 
dictive. But  it  is  not  difficult,  in  most  cases,  to 
see  that  the  pretended  prediction  is  but  the 
T6sum6  of  past  history.  Where  the  pseudo- 
prophecy  ends  and  the  attempt  at  prediction 
really  begins,  the  author  is  seen  to  be  dealing 
with  his  own  times,  and  the  date  of  the  work  is 
thus  betrayed.  The  tone  of  these  works  is  one 
of  great  assurance,  well  adapted  to  deceive 
the  uncritical.  They  were  once  widely  accepted 
as  genuine  prophecies,  and  as  such  found  a 
warm  reception  in  the  Christian  Church  during 
the  first  four  or  five  centuries.  In  time  they 
began  to  be  looked  upon  with  suspicion,  and 
were  gradually  dropped  from  use,  except  in  the 
less  enlightened  circles  of  the  Church.  Several 
of  the  most  important  are  known  to-day  only 
in  such  translations  as  the  Ethiopic  or  Syriac, 
though  written  originally  in  Hebrew  (Aramaic) 
or  Greek.  These  works  are  of  value  to-day  be- 
cause of  the  insight  they  afford  us  into  the 
growth  of  eschatological  and  Messianic  doctrines 
among  the  Jewish  people  just  previous  to  the 
rise  of  Christianity,  especially  since  these  doc- 
trines have,  in  a  purified  form,  found  a  perma- 
nent place  in  the  Christian  system. 

The  following  list  contains  all  the  titles  about 
which  anvthing  positive  can  be  asserted.  Many 
such  works  have  probably  been  lost.  (1)  The 
Book  of  Enoch  is  a  compilation  from  several 
sources.  Nearly  all  of  the  book  is  to  be  dated 
before  B.C.  63.  It  professes  to  give  revelations 
to  Enoch  of  the  deliverance  of  Israel  and  the 
coming  of  the  Messianic  Kingdom.  It  also  con- 
tains much  about  angels  and  supramundane 
matters.  The  book  is  quoted  in  Jude  14.  (2)  The 
Sibylline  Oracles  were  originally  a  "Jewish  work 
under  a  heathen  mask,"  in  imitation  of  the 
utterances  of  the  heathen  Sibyls,  but  written  in 
wretched  Greek  hexameter.  The  present  col- 
lection in  fourteen  books  represents  the  growth 
from  beginnings  made  by  Hellenistic  Jews  in 
the  second  century  B.C.  The  latter  portions  are 
by  Christian  hands.  The  oldest  and  most  im- 
portant parts  are  in  Book  iii.,  lines  07-828. 
These  oracles  were  highly  esteemed  and  fre- 
quently quoted  by  the  early  Church  Fathers. 
(3)  The  Psalma  of  Solomon.  A  collection  of 
eighteen  patriotic  and  religious  psalms,  written 
originally  in  Hebrew  (now  extant  only  in 
Greek)  shortly  after  Pompey  made  Judsea  sub- 
ject to  Rome  B.C.  63).  The  apocalyptic  ele- 
ment in  these  is  very  small.  Psalm  xvii.  con- 
tains strong  Messianic  hopes.  These  psalms  are 
interesting  for  comparison  with  the  early 
Christian  hymns  in  Luke  i.  and  ii.  (4)  The  Book 
of  JuhileeSf  or  Leptogenesis  (Little  Genesis), 
purports  to  be  a  revelation  made  to  Moses  of  the 
course  of  events  from  Adam  to  Moses's  o'wn  day. 
The  history  is  divided  into  fifty  periods  of  fifty 
years  each;  hence  the  name  of  the  book.  The 
outline  is,  of  course,  that  of  Genesis,  but  great 


liberties   are   taken   with   the   test.     Deeds  of 
patriarchs   not   approved    in   Genesis  are  even 
praised;  the  patriarchs  are  all  strict  legalists. 
The  book  was  written  near  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era.     ( 5 )   The  Testaments  of  the  Tuxlve 
Patriarchs  gives  the  dying  exhortations  of  each 
of   the   twelve   sons   of   Jacob   to  his  children. 
Each  testament  deals  with  some  virtue  or  fault 
which  the  patriarch  exemplified  in  his  life,  and 
also  contains  predictions  relating  to  the  future 
of  his  descendants.     These  predictive  portiona 
have   been    largely   worked    over   by   Christian 
hands.    Tlie  original  Jewish  parts  belong  to  the 
First,   possibly  the   Second,   Century  b.c.     (6) 
Liher  Antiquitatum  Bihliarum  is  the  title  of  a 
pseudo-Philonic  work  somewhat  similar  to  Fourth 
Esdras,    It  is  perhaps  pre-Christian  in  date.  (7) 
The  Secrets  of  Enoch  is  a  portion  of  the  once 
extensive  Enoch  literature.    It  is  extant  only  in 
a   Slavonic  version.     It  contains  a  great  deal 
about  Paradise,  the  several  heavens,  angels,  the 
secrets  of  creation,  the  millennium,  and  similar 
bubjectjs.    The  first  century  a.d.  is  its  most  prob- 
able date.      (8)    The  Assumption  of  Moses,  or 
Testament 'of  Moses,  written  shortly  after  the 
death  of  Herod  (B.C.  4)  gives  the  parting  com- 
munications of  Moses  to  his  successor,  Joshua, 
in  which  he  unfolds  the  course  of  Israel's  his- 
tory  down   to   the   time   of   the   successors  of 
Herod.    Incidentally  the  work  furnishes  a  valu- 
able view  of  the  attitude  of  the  Pharisees  toward 
the  Sadduoees.    ( 9 )  The  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  is 
one   of   several   Baruch  books  once   current  in 
Jewish  circles.     It  dates  from   a.d.  50-90,  and 
illustrates    the    Messianic    hopes    of    Pharisaic 
Judaism  just  before  and  after  the  fall  of  Jeru- 
salem, 70  A.D.    (10)  Fourth  Esdras  { Second  Esdrof 
in  the  English  Apocrj-pha  of  the  Old  Testament) 
contains    seven    alleged    visions     of     Ezra,  the 
famous  scribe.     His  grief  over  the  hard  fate  of 
Zion  is  relieved  by  the  revelation  of  the  coming 
Messianic  era   and   punishment   of  the  wicked. 
The  book  was  written  by  a  Jew,  probably  about 
81-9fi  A.D.,  but  has  been  revised  and  added  to  hy 
Christian  hands.    (11)  The  Ascension  of  Isaiah  is 
a  compilation  containing   (1)    The  Martyrdom, 
(2)  The  Vision,  and  (3)  an  Apocalypse  treating 
of  the  history  of  the  Church  to  the  end  of  the 
Neronian    persecution.      The    compilation   was 
made  about  100  aj>.    Only  The  Martyrdom  is  of 
Jewish  origin. 

The  following  apocalyptic  works  are  of  minor 
importance:  (12)  The  various  Adam  books. 
( 13)  The  Testament  of  Abraham,  (14)  The  Rett 
of  the  Words  of  Baruch,  (16)  The  Prophecy  of 
Hystaspes.  (16)  The  Prayer  of  Joseph.  (17) 
The  Prophecy  of  Eldad  and  Modad.  (18)  The 
Apocalypse  of  Elijah,  (19)  The  Apocalypse  (4 
Zephaniah.  (20)  The  various  A'oafc  books.  (21) 
The  Book  of  Zoroaster.'    (22)   The  Book  of  Seth. 

In  the  foregoing  article  no  mention  hais  been 
made  of  the  very  large  number  of  apocalyptic 
writings  of  distinctly  Christian  origin  which 
were  produced  from  the  Second  Century  onwards, 
to  satisfy  an  unhealthy  craving  for  the  occult  and 
marvelous,  or  to  embellish  the  stories  of  the 
saints.  For  these  and  the  "Shepherd  of  Hermas.'' 
see  Apocrypha  (of  the  New  Testament) .  For  the 
two  canonical  apocalypses.  The  Book  of  Daniel 
and  The  Revelation  of  St.  John,  see  the  special 
articles  treating  of  the  same. 

Bibliogbaphy.  Deane,  Pseudepiffrapha  (New 
York,  1891);  Schllrer,  History  of  the  Jcicish 
People  in  the  Times  of  Jesus  Christ,  H  32-33 


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APOCALYPTIC    LITEBATUBE. 


649 


APOCBYPHA. 


(translation  New  York,  1885-91)  ;  article  "Apoc- 
alyptic Literature"  in  the  Encyclopcedia  Bihlica 
(New  York,  1899). 

APOCALYPTIC  KXTMBEB.  The  mystical 
number  which  is  given  in  Revelation  xiii.  18  as 
the  designation  of  the  beast  of  the  ten  horns  and 
seven  heads  (v.  1),  and  which,  in  the  accepted 
text,  reads  "Six  hundred  and  sixty  and  six." 
( "He  that  hath  understanding,  let  him  count  the 
number  of  the  beast;  for  it  is  the  number  of  a 
man    ...    six  hundred  and  sixty  and  six.") 

A  multitude  of  interpretations  of  this  num- 
ber have  been  given;  but  it  has  been  generally 
held  by  scholars  that,  on  the  basis  of  the  Hebrew 
numerical  alphabet,  which  contains  no  charac- 
ters for  e  or  a,  the  author  intended  to  represent 
by  this  number  Nero — 

N   (e)    R   O     N      K  (e)   S(a)    R  1 

50        200     6     60     100         60        200  J 

It  is  claimed,  however,  that  there  is  a  variant 
reading  for  the  text  that  gives  the  number  "Six 
hundred  and  sixteen,"  which,  on  the  basis  of  the 
Greek  numerical  alphabet,  would  represent  Gains 
(Caligula)  — 

GAIOSKAISARI 

Ul6 
3     1  10  70  200     20  1   10  200  1  lOOj 

In  confirmation  of  this  second  reading  it  is 
urged  that  an  author  writing  for  Greek  readers 
would  be  more  likely  to  use  the  Greek  alphabet, 
wath  which  they  were  familiar,  than  the  Hebrew, 
with  which  they  were  unacquainted.  But  it  is 
to  be  noticed  that  in  ix.  11,  a  Hebrew  as  well  as 
a  Greek  word  is  used  for  the  mystical  idea  the 
author  has  in  mind  ("  .  .  tne  angel  of  the 
abyss,  in  Hebrew  called  Abaddon,  and  Greek 
Apollyon"),  and  in  xvi.  16,  a  Hebrew  word  alone, 
("  .  .  the  place  which  is  called  in  Hebrew 
Har-Magedon" ) .  It  is  not  impossible,  therefore, 
that  Hebrew  letters  were  intended  to  be  repre- 
sented by  the  number  here  given.  In  fact,  the 
variant  reading  may  have  quite  naturally  come 
from  the  voluntary  omission  by  copyists  of  the 
second  n  of  Neron  in  the  first  reading — Nero 
being  the  more  familiar  form.  In  any  case, 
however,  it  is  certain  that  the  author  had  in 
mind  a  Roman  emperor  hostile  to  the  Christians, 
whose  name  it  was  not  safe  for  him  to  mention 
(cf.  xvii.  9,  18,  where  the  "seven  mountains, 
on  which  the  woman  sitteth,"  and  "the  great 
city,  which  reigneth  over  the  kings  of  the 
earth"  clearly  indicate  Rome).  See  Antt- 
CHKisT  and  Rex'et.atign,  Book  of. 

APOCALYPTIC  WBIT1NGS.  See  Apoc- 
alyptic TiiTERATURE  and  under  Apocrypha. 

AP'OCATAS^ASIS  (Gk.  diro«oT4<rTo<rtf,  apo- 
kntnstasis,  restoration).  A  word  found  in  Acts 
iii.  21  (comp.  Rom.  viii.  21,  Eph.  i.  9,  Col.  i.  19). 
It  has  been  interpreted  by  some  as  pointing  to 
the  final  salvation  of  all  men,  and  has  been  em- 
ployed  as  a  technical  term  with  this  significa- 
tion.   See  Unh-ersalism. 

APOCBYPHA,  (Gk.  dir6<cpw0oj.  apokryphoa, 
hidden,  concealed,  from  dir6,  apo,  away,  -|- 
irptbrreir,  kryptein,  to  hide),  or  Apocryphal  and 
PsEUDEPrcRAPHiCAL  WRITINGS:  I. — Old  Testa- 
ment. A  word  rendered  current  by  the  Jews  of 
Alexandria.  In  the  earliest  churches,  it  was  ap- 
plied with  very  different  significations  to  a 
variety  of  writings.  Among  the  various  views 
that  have  been  brought  forward  to  account  for 
the  application  of  the  term  to  the  non-canonical 


writings  of  the  Bible  (more  particularly  of  the 
Old  Testament),  the  most  probable  is  to  con- 
nect the  word  with  the  practice  existing  among 
religious  and  philosophic  sects  to  withhold  from 
the  general  public,  writings  embodying  the  special 
tenets  of  the  sect  and  communicated  only  to  the 
inner  circle  of  adherents.  Such  books  generally 
bore  the  name  of  a  patriarch,  prophet,  or  even 
apostle,  purporting  to  be  the  author.  In  conse- 
quence, the  term  'apocryphal'  also  acquired  an 
unfavorable  meaning,  and  by  the  Fourth  Cen- 
tury a.d.  was  applied  also  to  writings  which 
were  regarded  as  pseudographical  and  forgeries; 
but  in  connection  with  the  Bible  it  has  been  cus- 
tomary, since  the  time  of  Jerome,  to  apply  the 
term  to  a  number  of  writings  which  the  Septua- 
gint  (the  Greek  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment) had  circulated  amongst  the  Christians, 
and  which  were  sometimes  considered  as  an 
appendage  to  the  Old  Testament,  and  sometimes 
as  a  portion  of  it.  The  Greek  Church,  at  the 
Council  of  Laodicea  (a.d.  360),  excluded  them 
from  the  canon;  the  Latin  Church,  on  the  other 
hand,  always  highly  favored  them;  and  finally 
the  Council  of  Trent  (1545-63)  received  them  in 
part  for  edification,  but  not  for  the  "establish- 
ment of  doctrine."  All  the  Protestant  churches 
in  England  and  America,  except  the  Church  of 
England,  reject  their  use  in  public  worship.  In 
French  and  English  Bibles  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century  it  was  customary  to  bind  up  the  Apoc- 
rypha between  the  authorized  versions  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments,  but  in  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  this  ceased,  and,  as  a  conse- 
quence, this  curious,  interesting,  and  instructive 
part  of  Jewish  literature  acquired  to  a  large 
extent  merely  scholarly  interest.  The  Apocrypha 
is  not  published  by  the  great  Bible  societies,  but 
was  revised  by  the  Bible  Revision  Committee, 
and  is  separately  published  by  the  University 
Press.  The  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  consist 
of  fourteen  books :  (1)  First  Esdras  (q.v.)  ;  (2) 
Second  Esdras  (q.v.);  (3)  Tobit  (q.v.)  ;  (4)  Ju- 
dith (q.v.)  ;  (5)  The  parts  of  Esther  not  found 
in  Hebrew  or  Aramaic;  (6)  The  Wisdom  of 
Solomon;  (7)  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus,  son  of 
Sirach,  or  Ecclesiasticus  (q.v.)  ;  (8)  Baruch 
(q.v.)  ;  (9)  The  Song  of  the  Three  Holy  Chil- 
dren; (10)  The  History  of  Susanna;  (11)  The 
History  of  the  Destruction  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon  (q.v.);  (12)  The  Prayer  of  Manasses, 
King  of  Judah  (see  Manasseh)  ;  (13)  First  Mac- 
cabees (q.v.);  (14)  Second  Maccabees  ( q.v. ) .  The 
precise  origin  of  all  of  these  writings  cannot  be 
ascertained.  Their  composition  covers,  roughly 
speaking,  the  period  b.c.  150  to  a.d.  75.  Some,  as 
e.g.  The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  and  the  First  Macca- 
bees were  originally  written  in  Hebrew;  others, 
as  the  Fourth  Esdras  and  The  WMsdom  of  Solo- 
mon, in  Greek.  In  respect  to  contents,  they  may 
be  divided  into  (a)  historical  (the  First  Esdras, 
First  and  Second  Maccabees)  ;  (b)  legendary 
(Tobit,  Judith,  Additions  to  Esther,  Song  of 
Three  Holy  Children,  Susanna,  Bel  and  the 
Dragon)  ;  (c)  prophetical  (Baruch,  Prayer  of 
Manasses)  ;  (d)  apocalyptic  (Second  Esdras)  ; 
(e)  didactic  (The  Wisdom  of  Solomon,  The  Wis- 
dom of  Jesus). 

Betraying  to  a  larger  extent  the  religious  in- 
fluences current  in  Hellenistic  Judaism  than 
those  which  prevailed  in  Palestine,  it  was  natu- 
ral that  these  writings  should  have  been  looked 
upon  with  more  favor  outside  of  the  strictly 
rabbinical    circles    than    within    those    circles; 


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though  it  should  be  added  that  this  remark  ap- 
plies to  some  of  the  writings  more  than  to 
others.  So,  e.g.  in  the  Talmud,  quotations  from 
The  Wisdom  of  Jesus  are  introduced  and  quoted 
in  a  manner  which  indicated  the  high  esteem  in 
which  the  work  was  held.  Still  the  exclusion 
of  these  writings  from  the  authorized  canon,  due 
largely  to  the  fact  that  their  composition  lay 
too  close  to  the  period  when  to  the  earlier 
divisions  (a)  Law,  and  (b)  Prophets,  the  third 
division  (c)  Uagiographa  was  definitely  added, 
led  to  their  being  gradually  regarded  with  dis- 
favor, and  as  in  the  course  of  time  Rabbinical 
Judaism  concentrated  its  force  upon  the  study 
of  the  Talmud,  the  Apocrypha  were  entirely  lost 
sight  of.  On  the  other  hand,  the  affiliation 
of  early  Christianity  with  Hellenic  Judaism 
finds  an  interesting  illustration  in  the  readiness 
•with  which  the  ^ptuagint  translation,  which 
included  the  Apociypha,  was  accepted  as  an 
authorized  text. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  writings,  there 
are  others  which  may  likewise  be  included  under 
the  term  apocryphal,  although  not  officially 
recognized  as  such.  They  are  pseudepigraphicai, 
i.e.  attributed  to  fictitious  authorship.  We  may 
again  distinguish  in  each  class,  legendary,  apoca- 
lyptic, and  poetical  writings.  To  the  old  Tes- 
tament division  belong  the  following:  (1)  The 
Testament  of  Adam,  which  is  a  Jewish  romance 
dealing  with  Adam  and  Eve  after  the  Fall.  (2) 
The  Book  of  Jubilees,  a  commentary  upon  Gene- 
sis, containing  chiefly  legendary  additions.  (3) 
The  Testament  of  the  Patriarchs,  Abraham, 
Isaac,  and  Jacob.  (4)  The  Apocalypyse  of 
Abraham.  (5)  The  Testaments  of  the  Twelve 
Patriarchs,  furnishing  the  dying  instructions 
the  twelve  sons  of  Jacob.  (6)  A  Life  of  Aseneth, 
giving  the  circumstances  of  Joseph's  marriage 
with  Aseneth.  (7)  The  Testament  of  Job.  (8) 
The  Testament  of  Solomon,  chiefly  a  magical 
book.  ( 9 )  The  Contradictio  Salomonis,  a  contest 
in  wisdom  between  Solomon  and  Hiram.  (10) 
The  Ascension  of  Isaiah.  (11)  The  Pseudo- 
Philo's  Liber  Antiquitatum  Biblicorum,  a  legend- 
ary summary  of  Biblical  history  from  Adam  to 
Saul.  (12)  The  Book  of  Jasher,  legendary  com- 
mentary on  the  Hexateuch.  (13)  The  Book  of 
Koah.  These  embrace  the  legendary  writings, 
and  in  addition  there  are  several  other  books  be- 
longing to  this  division,  of  which  only  the  titles 
and  some  references  are  known.  To  the  apoc- 
alyptic division  belong  (1)  The  Book  of  Enoch. 
( 2 )  Sibylline  Oracles.  ( 3 )  The  Assumptio  Mosi. 
(4)  Apocalypse  of  Baruch  (of  which  there  are 
several  versions).  (5)  The  rest  of  the  words 
of  Baruch.  (6)  A  short  prophecy  of  Jeremiah 
(7)  The  Apocalypse  of  Elias.  (8)  The  Apoc- 
alypse of  Zephaniah.  (9)  The  Revelation  of 
Moses.  (10)  The  Apocalypse  of  Esdras,  and 
again  some  others,  of  which  only  the  titles 
are  known.  Of  poetical  writings  there  are :  ( 1 . 
Psalms  of  Solomon,  a  collection  of  eighteen,  or, 
according  to  some  versions,  nineteen  psalms. 
(2)  Additions  to  the  Psalter.  (3)  Lamentation 
of  Job's  wife.  The  date  of  composition  of  most 
of  these  writings  is  uncertain.  Almost  all  give 
evidence  of  having  been  recast,  and  while  most 
are  undoubtedly  of  Jewish  origin,  they  have  to 
a  large  extent  been  made  to  accord  with  Chris- 
tian doctrines.  It  will  also  be  apparent  that 
the  dividing  line  in  the  case  of  these  writings, 
between  apocalyptic  literature  and  didactic  or 
legendary  compositions,  becomes  at  times  very 


faint.  See  articles  upon  the  separate  books,  as 
mentioned  above;  the  following  division  on  New 
Testament  Apocrypha;  also  Aj*ocai.tptig  Reve- 
lation. 

II.  New  Testament.  The  New  Testament 
Apocrypha  and  Pseudepigrapha  include  numer- 
ous works  purported  to  have  been  written  by 
apostles  or  their  associates,  but  which  did  not 
secure  a  general  or  permanent  recognition.  As 
the  Church  became  ever  more  convinced  that  the 
writings  now  constituting  the  New  Testament 
were  the  only  authoritative  documents  of  the 
Apostolic  Age,  these  other  works  were  looked 
upon  with  suspicion,  and  finally  were  termed 
*apocrypha* — that  is,  works  whose  origin  was  mi- 
certain,  whose  contents  were  of  doubtful  char- 
acter, and  whose  common  use  was  not  to  be 
approved.  This  literature  was  extensive,  and 
continued  in  circulation  in  spite  of  the  dis- 
approval of  the  more  enlightened.  As  time 
went  on  the  earlier  works  were  continually  re- 
vised, enlarged,  and  imitated,  so  that  the'  list 
finally  became  a  very  long  one.  The  reason  for 
this  wide  circulation  was  that  these  writings 
satisfied  a  strong  though  abnormal  longing  on 
the  part  of  the  less  enlightened.  The  canonical 
books  of  the  New  Testament  are  marked  by  a 
noble  simplicity  and  reserve.  But  there  were 
many  who  craved  something  more  marvelous 
and  startling.  There  were  also  those  whose  doc- 
trinal tendencies  found  but  slight  support  in 
the  New  Testament.  Hence  works  were  written 
in  the  name  of  an  apostle  or  as  records  of  an 
apostle's  deeds,  in  which  suspicious  doctrines 
were  placed  under  apostolic  sanction.  These 
apocryphal  works  may  be  classified  thus:  (a) 
Cfospels;  (b)  Acts  of  Apostles;  (c)  Epistles; 
(d)   Apocalypses;    (e)   Didactic  Works. 

( a )  Apocryphal  Gospels  may  be  divided  into  sev- 
eral groups.  ( 1 )  Those  dealing  with  the  natif'ity 
of  the  Virgin,  her  childhood,  and  the  birth, 
infancy,  and  childhood  of  the  Saviour.  Probably 
the  earliest  of  these  is  the  Protevangelium  of 
James.  It  is  but  a  fanciful  enlargement  of  the 
nativity  narratives  in  the  canonical  Matthew 
and  Luke,  with  perhaps  a  little  assistance  from 
trustworthy  tradition.  It  was  written  early  in 
the  Second  Century,  Closely  connected  with 
the  Protevangelium  is  the  Oospel  of  Thomas, 
which  treats  of  the  childhood  of  Jesus.  He  is 
represented  as  even  then  working  miracles  and 
as  fully  conscious  of  his  divine  mission.  This 
work  was  much  used  by  Gnostics.  It  is  to  be 
dated  not  later  than  a.d.  150.  The  matter  con- 
tained in  these  two  works  was  combined  with 
additions  and  variations  in  the  later  Nativity  of 
the  Virgin  Mary,  falsely  ascribed  to  Matthew. 
A  still  later  form  of  the  same  material  is  found 
in  the  so-called  Arabic  Gospel  of  the  Infancy, 
which  devotes  much  space  to  the  experiences  as 
of  the  Holy  Family  in  Egypt.  In  The  History 
of  Joseph  the  Carpenter,  Jesus  is  represented  as 
telling  his  Apostles  of  his  mother's  betrothal, 
of  his  own  birth,  and,  more  particularly,  of  the 
last  sickness  and  death  of  Joseph.  (2)  There  is  a 
second  group  of  writings  treating  of  the  Passion 
and  post-mortem  experiences  of  Christ.  The 
Gospel  of  Nicodemujs  is  a  late  compilation  of 
two  earlier  and  altogether  separate  works,  The 
Acts  of  Pilate  and  The  Descent  of  Christ  into 
Hades,  The  Acts  of  Pilate  is  probably  the  older, 
but  in  its  present  form  an  enlargement  of  the 
reputed  official  acts  or  reports  of  Pilate,  to 
which  reference  is  made  by  Justin  Martyr  (c 


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130  A.D.).  The  second  work  is  mainly  an  imagi- 
nary narrative  represented  as  having  been  told 
by  two  men  raised  from  the  dead  at  the  time  of 
the  crucifixion  (comp.  Matt,  xxvii.  52-53).  (3) 
Other  works,  more  nearly  like  the  canonical 
Gospels,  were  especially  favored  in  particular 
circles  or  localities.  The  Grospel  of  the  Hebrews, 
probably  the  same  as  the  Gospel  of  the  Naza- 
renes,  was  one  of  the  earliest  gospel-books.  It 
w^as  probably  a  secondary  form  in  Aramaic  of 
the  Aramaic  original  of  our  canonical  Greek 
Matthew,  written  perhaps  as  early  as  a.d.  100 
for  the  use  of  the  Aramaic-speaking  Christians 
of  Palestine  and  Syria.  The  later  Jewish- 
Christian  sect  of  the  Ebionites  had  a  gospel 
called  The  Gospel  of  the  Twelve,  written  in 
Greek,  probably  not  earlier  than  a.d.  200,  and 
heretical  in  tendency.  A  Oospel  of  the  Egyptians 
was  in  existence  in  the  latter  half  of  the  Second 
Century.  It  was  probably  used  in  the  country 
districts  of  Egypt.  (4)  Other  Gospels  claimed 
apostolic  autliorship.  The  most  important  of 
such  is  the  Gospel  of  Peter.  Serapion,  Bishop  of 
Antioch,  a.d.  190-211,  discovered  that  this  work 
was  in  use  among  the  Christians  of  his  diocese. 
Its  use  was  neither  approved  nor  severely  con- 
denmed  by  the  orthodox  bishop.  A  large  frag- 
ment of  this  gospel  was  discovered  in  Egypt  in 
1885  and  published  in  1892.  Though  written 
early,  certainly  in  the  Second  Century,  it  seems 
never  to  have  been  used  as  an  authorit4itive  gos- 
pel in  the  regular  Church  service.  It  is  somewhat 
heretical  in  tendency.  A  Gospel  or  Traditions  of 
Matthias  (another  name  for  Zacchseus,  the  pub- 
lican) was  known  to  Origen.  This,  with  a  Gos- 
pel of  Philip,  was  used  by  Egyptian  Gnostics. 
Other  gospels  of  similar  character  were  circu- 
lated under  the  names  of  Andrew,  Barnabas,  and 
Bartholomew.  (5)  Other  forms  of  gospel  mate- 
rial were  in  circulation  in  early  times.  Sayings 
of  Jesus  not  contained  in  any  known  treatise 
are  met  with  occasionally.  (See  Agrapha.)  A 
most  interesting  fragment  of  a  collection  of 
such  was  found  in  Egj'pt  in  1897 — ^the  so-called 
Logia  fragment.  (See  Agrapha.)  (6)  In  addi- 
tion to  the  above  there  were  gospels  of  an  avow- 
edly heretical  type.  Of  these,  the  Gospel  of 
Basilides,  written  by  the  famous  Gnostic  for  the 
use  of  his  disciples,  and  Mardon's  Gospel,  which 
was  but  a  mutilated  Luke,  were  the  most  im- 
portant. 

(b)  Apocryphal  Acts  of  Apostles.  The  begin- 
ning of  this  literature  appears  to  have  been 
the  work  of  one  Lucius,  of  Charinus,  in  the 
second  half  of  the  Second  Century.  He  composed 
the  Acts,  or  Travels  (Uepiodot)  of  the  Apostles 
Peter,  John,  Thomas,  Andrew,  and  Paul  (each 
apostle  treated  separately).  His  sources  were 
the  New  Testament  Acts  and  Epistles,  current 
oral  tradition,  and  his  own  imagination.  In 
these  Acts  certain  Gnostic  tendencies  were  mani- 
fest, such  as  a  mystic  doctrine  of  the  Cross  and 
those  ascetic  teachings  that  exalt  celibacy  as  a 
form  of  higher  life.  Later  works  of  like  char- 
acter ^vere  the  Acts  of  Mattheio,  of  Bartholomew, 
and  of  Philip,  On  this  originally  Gnostic  basis, 
by  expurgation  or  abbreviation  of  objectionable 
material,  or  by  rewriting,  yet  using  the  same 
outlines,  a  series  of  Catholic  Acts  was  produced, 
written  from  a  more  orthodox  standpoint.  A 
secondary  form  of  the  same  literature  is  the  so- 
called  Abdias  collection  of  Martyrdoms  (Pas- 
siones  and  Virtutes)  of  the  several  apostles  and 
their  companions    (Sixth  Century).     The  most 


important  and  extensive  of  these  Acts  are  The 
Acts  of  John,  and  The  Acts  of  Judas  Thomas, 
the  Apostle  to  the  Indians. 

(c)  Of  Apocryphal  Epistles,  the  most  famous 
is  the  correspondence  between  Abgar,  King  of 
Edessa,  and  Jesus.  Apocryphal  Pauline  epistles 
were:  (1)  An  Epistle  to  the  Laodiceans,  on 
the  basis  of  the  hint  in  Col.  iv.  16.  (2)  An 
Epistle  to  the  Alexandrians,  mentioned  as  early 
as  C.170  A.D.  (3)  A  Third  Epistle  to  the  CoHn- 
thians.  These  are  simply  compilations  from 
the  genuine  Pauline  letters  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment. (4)  Correspondence  between  Seneca  and 
Paul  in  fourteen  letters  (at  least  as  early  as 
the  Fourth  Century). 

(d)  Apocryphal  Apocalypses.  Of  these  The 
Apocalypse  of  Peter  is  the  most  important,  a 
small  fragment  of  which  was  discovered  with  the 
fragment  of  the  Gospel  of  Peter.  The  work  was 
in  existence  as  early  as  a.d.  175,  and  highly 
esteemed  in  some  quarters.  The  Apocalypse  of 
Paul,  The  Vision  of  Paul,  The  Apocalypse  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and  other  like  works  are  late  and 
less  important. 

(e)  Didactic  Works.  The  Preaching  (Kijpvyfw) 
of  Peter  was  written  very  early,  possibly  before 
A.D.  100.  It  was  perhaps  also  known  as  the  Dida- 
scalia  or  Doctrine  of  Peter.  Tho  existence  of  a 
Preaching  (Prwdicatio)  of  Paul  is  very  doubtful. 
For  other  works  sometimes  classed  as  New  Testa- 
ment Apocrypha,  see  Apocalyptic  Revelation; 
Apostolic  Fathers;  Clement,  Epistle  or; 
Barnabas,  Epistle  of;  Hermas,  Shepherd  of; 
DiDACHE,  or  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles, 

Bibliography.  For  the  Old  Testament,  see 
for  texts  the  Septuagint  version  best  ed.  Swete 
(London,  second  edition,  1899).  O.  F.  Fritzsche 
LibH  Apocryphi  VeteHs  Testamenti  Grceci 
(Leipzig,  1871)  ;  for  English  translation,  C.  J. 
Ball,  The  Variorum  Apocrypha  (London,  undat- 
ed) ;  E.  C.  Bissell,  The  Apocrypha  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament (New  York,  1880,  with  commentary  and 
summary  of  pseudepigrapha )  ;  H.  Wall,  Apoc- 
rypha (London,  1888,  2  vols.,  with  commen- 
tary) ;  for  complete  German  translation,  see  E. 
Kautzsch,  Die  Apokryphen  und  Pseudepigraphen 
des  alien  Testaments  (Tubingen,  1900)  ;  Chur- 
tow,  Uncanonical  and  Apocrypha  Scriptures 
(1884);  The  Uncanonical  Writings  of  the  Old 
Testament  Found  in  the  Armenian  M8S.  of  the 
Library  of  Saint  Lazarus,  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Jacques  Issaverdens  (Venice,  1901).  For 
the  New  Testaments,  see  for  Texts,  Tischendorf, 
Evangelia  Apocrypha  (Leipzig,  1854),  Acta 
Apostolorum  Apocrypha  (Leipzig,  1851),  and 
Apocalypses  Apocrypha^  (Leipzig,  1866)  ;  R.  A. 
Lipsius  and  Bonnet,  Acta  Apostolorum  Apoc- 
rypha (Leipzig,  1883);  Zahn,  Acta  Johannia 
(Erlangen,  1880);  A  Hilgenfeld,  Novum  Testa- 
mentum,  extra  Canonem  Receptum  (Leipzig, 
(1884);  dijid  Evan geliorum  {et  ceterorum)  quce 
supersunt  (a  collection  of  fragments),  Editio 
altera.  Discussions:  The  most  extended  are 
K.  A.  Lipsius,  Die  apokryphen  Apostelgeschichten 
(Brunswick,  1883-90);  and  Zahn,  Geschichte 
des  neutestamentlichen  Kanons  (2d  ed.  Leipzig 
and  Erlangen,  1889).  For  further  literature, 
consult  G.  Krtiger,  History  of  Early  Christian 
Literature  (New  York,  1897).  For  translation, 
see  Walker  in  the  Ante-Xicene  Library. 

AP'OCYNA'CE-ffl  (Gk.  dir6,  apo,  away  from, 
-f    K(Kav,ky6n,  dog).    The  Dogbane  Family.   An 


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order  of  dicotyledonous  plants,  the  species  of 
which  are  herbs,  shrubs,  vines,  and  trees,  mostly 
with  a  copious,  milky  juice.  The  leaves  are 
mostly  opposite,  entire,  and  without  stipules. 
The  flowers  are  five-parted;  ovary  single  and 
two-celled,  or  two  and  cone-celled.  Fruit,  a 
follicle  or  drupe ;  seeds  with  a  straight  embryo ; 
endosperm  small  or  none;  seed  often  cov- 
ered with  a  thistle-like  down.  There  are  about 
130  genera  and  more  than  1000  species  in 
this  order,  the  principal  subdivisions  of  which 
are:  ARDUiNEi«,  represented  by  Arduina  and 
Landolphia;  Plumebie^,  containing  the  trop- 
ical genera  Tahernce  montana  and  Aspidio- 
aperma,  Vinca,  and  Alstonia;  and  Echitide^, 
which  embraces  Kickxia,  Apocynum,  Nerium, 
and  Strophanthus.  The  properties  of  plants  of 
this  order  vary  greatly,  but  many  are  exceed- 
ingly poisonous.  Some,  like  Kickxia  and  Lan- 
dolphia, are  rich  in  caoutchouc,  Apocynum  yields 
valuable  bast  fibre,  and  its  rhizomes  are  used  in 
medicine;  Strapanthus  contains  in  its  seed  a 
powerful  poisonous  alkalofd;  while  others  have 
varied  economic  uses.  See  Periwinkle;  Ole- 
ander; Indian  Hemp;  Caoutchouc;  Stbo- 
piiANTHUS,  Dogbane;  Wrightia;  Poisonous 
Plants,  etc. 

APOCYNTTM,  A-pSsl-niUn.  A  genus  of 
plants.    See  Dogbane. 

AFOCYNXTM,  ft-p6s1-niim.  A  drug  com- 
posed of  the  powdered  root  of  Apt)cynum  canna- 
hinuniy  Canadian  or  Indian  hemp.  Its  taste  is 
acrid  and  bitter.  It  contains  apocynine,  gallic, 
and  tannic  acids,  a  bitter  principle,  etc.  Its 
active  ingredients  are  soluble  in  water  and 
alcohol.  Moderate  doses  increase  the  secretions 
of  the  skin,  bronchi,  and  kidneys.  Large  doses 
cause  vomiting  and  purging.  The  chief  use  of 
apocynum  is  as  a  diuretic.  It  may  act  directly 
as  a*  renal  stimulant  and  dilate  the  arterioles, 
but  probably  chiefly  by  increasing  artificial  pres- 
sure. It  fails  in  many  cases,  but  in  others  it 
causes  marked  increase  of  urine.  See  Apocy- 
NACE.T2 ;    Dogbane. 

APODES,  fip'd-dez  (Gk.  d,  a,priv.+  iroiJs  pous, 
foot).  An  order  of  teleost  fishes,  variously  lim- 
ited, including  the  eels  (not  the  electric  eel), 
mur^nas,  and  allied  serpentiform  species.  Con- 
sult T.  Gill,  Standard  Natural  History,  III.,  100 
(Boston,  1885).    See  Eel. 

AP'ODIC^IC  (Gk.  dirodeiKTiK&t  apodeiktikos, 
demonstrating,  -ive).  A  logical  term  signifying 
necessary,  and  applied  to  judgments  which  ad- 
mit of  no  contradiction.  It  is  used  largely  by 
Kant.    See  A  Priori. 

APOCKAMY  (Gk.  dir6,  apo,  away  from  -f 
ydfMs,  gamoSj  a  wedding).  A  name  which  refers 
to  the  fact  tliat  a  plant  which  ordinarily  comes 
from  a  fertilized  egg  may,  under  certain  con- 
ditions, develop  in  some  other  way.  It  is  a 
general  term,  used  to  cover  all  cases  in  which 
the  asexual  plant  does  not  come  from  a  fertilized 
egg,  without  reference  to  the  method  of  its  ori- 
gin. Tarthenogenesis*  is  that  form  of  apogamy 
in  which  a  plant  is  developed  from  an  egg  that 
has  not  been  fertilized.  In  other  cases  of  apog- 
amy the  new  plant  is  developed  in  a  vegetative 
way  from  various  other  tissues.  The  phenome- 
non of  apogamy  has  been  observed  chiefly  among 
the  ferns,  which  seem  to  respond  most  readily 
to  the  conditions  which  favor  it.  Numerous 
cases  have  now  been  observed  (both  among 
native  and  cultivated  forms),  in  which  the  leafy 


plant  arises  in  various  ways  directly  from  the 
prothallium,  without  the  fertilization  or  even 
production  of  an  egg.  Among  the  mosses  apog- 
amy has  never  been  observed;  that  is,  there  is 
no  reason  to  believe  that  the  spore-bearing  struc- 
ture ever  has  any  other  origin  than  a  fertilized 
egg.  Among  the  seed-plants  the  phenomenon 
has  been  recorded  in  a  number  of  cases,  and  has 
usually  been  wrongly  referred  to  parthenogene- 
sis. So  far  as  the  records  go,  true  partheno- 
genesis has  been  established  in  seed-plants  only 
for  Antennaria  and  Alchemilla,  genera  of  Com- 
positee,  and  for  Thalictrum,  a  genus  of  Ranuncu- 
laceffi.  In  various  other  cases,  however,  in  which 
embryos  are  known  to  arise  in  seeds  which  h&xt 
received  nothing  from  the  pollen,  it  is  discov- 
ered that  the  embryo  is  not  developed  by  the 
unfertilized  egg,  but  arises  vegetatively  from  vi- 
rious  tissues  of  the  ovule,  just  as  a  bud  may 
develop  almost  any^vhere  upon  a  plant.  The 
fact  that  a  seed  contains  an  embryo  is  not  sure 
indication  that  this  embryo  has  developed  from 
the  egg.  In  seed-plants,  therefore,  the  extent 
of  the  phenomenon  of  apogamy  is  uncertain  and 
difficult  to  determine. 

AP'OGBE  (Gk.  dir6,  apo,  from,  +  7^,  ge,  the 
earth ) .  When  the  earth  and  some  other  planet 
reach  such  positions  in  their  respective  orbits 
that  the  distance  between  them  is  a  xuaximnm. 
then  that  planet  is  said  to  be  in  its  apogee.  The 
use  of  the  word  apogee  is  usually  restricted  to 
the  sun  and  moon,  the  sun's  apogee  correspond- 
ing to  the  earth's  aphelion,  and  the  moon's 
apogee  being  the  point  of  its  orbit  most  remote 
from  the  earth.    Apogee  is  opposed  to  perigee. 

AP'OaEOiyBOPISM,  or  Negative  Geo- 
TROPiSM.  That  form  of  sensitiveness  to  grav- 
ity in  plants  by  virtue  of  which  organs  tend 
to  grow  vertically  upward — that  is,  in  a  direc- 
tion opposite  to  that  of  the  earth's  attraction. 
The  best  example  of  this  phenomenon  is  found 
in  the  main  shoots  of  most  plants.  Wlien  'cen- 
trifugal force'  is  brought  to  bear  upon  the  plant 
in  place  of  gravity,  the  stems  of  seedlings  grow 
toward  the  centre  of  revolution,  while  the  roots, 
being  positively  geotropic,  grow  in  the  oppoc^ite 
direction.     See  Geotropism. 

APOLDA,  &-poKd&.  A  town  of  the  Grand 
Duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar,  Germany,  near  the  11m, 
a  feeder  of  the  Saale,  eight  miles  northeast  of 
Weimar  (Map:  Germany,  D  3).  It  is  a  8tati(» 
on  the  Thuringian  Railway,  between  Weimar  and 
Weissenfels.  It  is  a  place  of  much  industrial 
activity,  having  extensive  manufactures  of  ho- 
siery and  woven  goods.  Population,  in  1895. 
20,798;    in  1900,  20,352. 

APOL'LINA^IS  (  ?  -392).  The  younger, 
bishop  of  Laodicea  in  Syria,  and  one'  of  the 
warmest  opponents  of  Arianism.  Both  a»  • 
man  and  a  scholar  he  was  held  in  the  greatest 
reverence,  and  his  writings  were  extensively 
read  in  his  own  day.  His  father.  Apollinari- 
the  elder,  who  was  Bishop  of  Laodicea,  wa« 
born  at  Alexandria,  and  taught  grammar.  6r«t 
at  Berytus,  and  afterward  at  Laodicea.  \Mk« 
Julian  prohibited  the  Christians  from  teachin<r 
the  classics,  the  father  and  son  endeavored  to 
supply  the  loss  by  converting  the  Scriptures  into 
a  body  of  poetry,  rhetoric,  and  philosophy.  The 
Old  Testament  was  selected  as  the  subject  for 
poetical  compositions  after  the  manner  of 
Homer,  Pindar,  and  the  tragedians;  while  the 
New  Testament  formed  the  groundwork  of  dia- 


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AFOLLINABIS.                          653  APOLLO. 

logues  in  imitation  of  Plato.     It  is  not  ascer-  portant  and  widely  worshiped  divinity  of  Greece, 

tained  what  share  the  father  had  in  this  work;  Later  antiquity  identified  Apollo  with  the  sun, 

but  as  he  had  a  reputation  for  poetry,  he  prob-  but   in   Homer   the   two   are   entirely   distinct! 

ably  put  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek  verse.  As  to  the  origin  and  meaning  of  the  name  Apollo, 

But  it  was  chiefly  as  a  controversial  theologian,  there  is  no  general  agreement  among  scholars, 

and  as  the  founder  of  a  sect,  that  ApoUinaris  though  the  weight  of  argument  is  slightly  in 

is  celebrated.    He  maintained  the  doctrine  that  favor   of   those   who   interpret   it   as   from    'he 

the  logos,  or  divine  nature  in  Christ,  took  the  who  wards  off'  or  'drives  away'  evil,  from  which 

place  of  the  rational  human  soul  or  mind,  and  conception  it  is  easy  to  explain  many  of  the 

that  the  body  of  Christ  was  a  spiritualized  and  varied  forms  of  the  Apollo  cult.     Thus  Apollo 

glorified  form  of  humanity.     This  doctrine  was  is  a  god  of  healing  for  diseases,  and  of  purifica- 

condemned  by  several  synods,  especially  by  the  tion  from  moral  defilement.     So  he  was  said  to 

Council  of  Constantinople  (381),  on  the  ground  have   purified   Orestes   for   the   murder   of    his 

that  it  denied  the  true  human  nature  of  Christ,  mother,  and  so  he  was  invoked  to  purify  and 

The  heresy  styled  Apollinarianism  spread  rapidly  cleanse    entire    commimities    afflicted    by    pesti- 

through    Syria   and   the   neighboring   countries,  lence.     In  the  same  way  his  protection  was  ex- 

and,  after  the  death  of  ApoUinaris,  its  adherents  tended  to  flocks  and  herds,  as  is  shown  by  his 

formed   two   sects — the   Vitalians,   named   after  epithet  NotnioSf  and  the  story  of  his  serving  as 

Vitalis,  bishop  of  Antioch,  and  the  Polemeans,  the  shepherd  of  Admetus,  to  the  great  increase 

after    Polemo,    who   added   to   the    doctrine    of  of  the  flocks  of  that  king.     He  also  appears  as 

ApoUinaris  the  assertion   that  the  divine  and  protecting  the  grain  from  mildew,  and  as  driving 

human  natures  were  so  blended  as  one  substance  away  field-mice,  whence  his  surname  Smintheus. 

in  Christ  that  his  body  was  a  proper  object  of  Nor  did   he   only  protect  his  w^orshipers   from 

adoration.     On  this  account  they  were  accused  the  evil  spirits  of  disease  and  guard  their  flocks 

of  aarcol^tria  (worship  of  the  flesh)  and  anthro-  and  herds,  for  there  are  traces  of  Apollo  as  a 

polatria  (worship  of  man),  and  also  were  styled  war  god,  who  can  drive  away  the  enemy,  and 

synouaiastoiy     <r^r,    «yn,    together,    oArfa    ousia,  mingles  actively  in  the  fray;    and  at  the  shrine 

substance),  because  they  confused  the  two  dis-  in    Amyclae,    he    appeared    with    a    helmet    and 

tinct    substances.      Other    leaders    were    Valen-  lance.     The   paean,   which    in   later   times   was 

tinus  and  Timothy.  certainly  a  hymn  to  Apollo,  whatever  its  origin 

APOLLINABIS,  Saint.  A  citizen  of  Antioch,  |"^^.  ^^X*^  ^^^*  ^as  not  merely  a  prayer  for 
founder  and  bishop  of  the  Church  of  Ravenna.  r.Ji^^'  x?^  was  also  sung  before  the  charge  in 
He  followed  Saint  Peter  to  Rome,  where  he  was  ^^^l\^'  ^«F  ^^„^^}^  ^*«^  ^^  ^^  original  con- 
ordained.  As  late  as  the  Ninth  Century,  indenta-  ^^ption  of  Apollo  m  any  way  inconsistent  with 
tions  on  a  certain  rock  at  the  Elm  Monastery  at  T  ^'^F  ®^^*^"»  connection  with  the  light.  For 
Rome  were  said  to  have  been  the  impressions  ^^^^  ^f  was  early  connected  with  the  sun  is 
left  bv  the  heads,  backs,  and  legs  of  the  two  ^}!^^*  ^^^^  i^«  celebration  of  his  departure  in 
saints^  during  a  night  spent  there  in  sleep.  jj^  autumn  to  a  distant  land   and  his  return  in 

the  spring.     Light  is  regarded  as  a  healer  and 

APOLLINABIS  SIDO^IUS  (430-487).  A  protector,  the  bane  of  evil  spirits  who  love  dark- 
Roman  author,  political  leader,  and  Bishop  of  ness.  The  light  and  heat,  however,  are  not 
Arvema  (Clermont-Ferrand),  bom  at  Lyons,  always  beneficent,  and  Apollo  thus  appears  as 
He  married  in  about  452  the  daughter  of  Avitus,  the  sender  of  pestilence,  and  as  bringing  sudden 
who  was  Emperor  from  456  to  456.  He  became  death  with  his  unerring  arrows.  As  a  light- 
prefect  of  Rome  in  468,  bishop  in  472,  and  head  god,  also,  he  is  called  Lycean  and  Lycian;  for 
of  the  national  party  against  the  Goths.  In  these  are  probably  to  be  connected  with  the  same 
474  he  was  made  prisoner.  He  died  in  487  or  element  which  appears  in  the  Latin  lux,  light 
488,  and  was  canonized.  He  wrote  nine  books  The  ancients  connected  these  epithets  with  the 
of  letters,  of  great  historical  value,  and  twenty-  Greek  word  for  'wolf  (\6kos,  lykos),  and  some 
four  poems,  mainly  panegyrical.  The  best  edi-  good  modem  authorities  consider  Apollo  as 
tion  of  his  work  is  in  the  eighth  volume  of  originally  a  herdsman's  divinity  in  the  form  of 
the  Auctorum  Antiq.,  in  the  Monumenta  Oer-  a  wolf.  He  is  also  styled  Phcebus  (*oi)3of)  the 
manicB  BUtorica  (Berlin,  1887).  Consult  Hodg-  *bright  one,'  the  'brilliant  one.'  Whatever' may 
kin,  Italy  and  Her  Invaders,  Vol.  II.  (Oxford,  have  been  his  early  nature,  the  prominent  con- 
1802).  ception  of  Apollo  in  historic  times  was  as  a  god 

APOLLINABIS    WA^EB.       An    alkaline  of  prophecy,  and  so  of  music  and  song.  His  most 

mineral   water  obtained   from   a   spring  in  the  famous  oracle  was  at  Delphi    (q.v.),  but  there 

valley  of  the  Ahr,   in   Rhenish   Prussia,  which  were  others  at  Delos;   at  the  Ismenian  sanctuary 

was  discovered  in  1861.     Its  pleasant  taste  and  near  Thebes,  where  the  ashes  of  the  victim  were 

richness  in  carbon  dioxide  gas  has   led   to   its  supposed  to  reveal  the  future;    at  Abae,  on  the 

being  accepted  as  a  valuable  table  water  that  is  border  of  Phocis;    at  Patara,  in  Lycia;    and  at 

recommended  for  dyspepsia  and  loss  of  appetite.  Claros,  in  Ionia,  near  Colophon.    Apollo  was  also 

It  has  the  following  composition :  a  god  of  colonization,  and  many  Greek  cities  be- 

Sodlam  carbonate 6  964  grains  In  a  pint  ^^'^^  that  their  founders  had  been  guided  by 

Magnesium     "      2.761      "           **  ApoUo  in  the  form  of  an  animal  or  bird. 

sSdinm  chloride ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::2:743  "•      «  ^\;»  natural  in  the  case  of  a  god  so  widely 

Sodium  sulphate 1.548     ••           ••  worshiped,    the    legends    of    Apollo    are    highly 

p*^  telS '^^^JS^*^  I Traces.  diversified,  though  the  main  features  show  con- 
Iron  oxiIteSith  alumina 0.049     ••          *•  siderable  unity,  due  to  the  overpowering  influ- 

Slliclc  acid 0.099     "          "  ence  of  the  cults  at  Delphi  and  Delos,  which 

Carbonlcacld(tpeeand8emi-comblned).42.81cub.in.inapint  made  their  versions  canonical.     He  was  the  son 

Carbonic  acid  (combined) 12.44      "         •'  ^^  2eu8  and  Leto  (Latona),  born  with  his  twin 

AFOI/LO   (Gk.  'Air6XX«i',   ApollCny  Doric  for  sister  Artemis    (see   Diana)    on  the   island  of 

->ATAXiiyj^,  ApellOn).    Next  to  Zeus,  the  most  im-  Delos,  which  had  hitherto  floated  on  the  sea,  but 


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APOLLO. 


654 


AFOLLONIUS. 


now  became  fixed,  and  afforded  a  refuge  for  Leto, 
who  had  been  driven  from  all  other  places  by 
the  wrath  of  Hera.  After  his  birth,  the  god 
hastened  to  Delphi  and  slew  the  dragon  Python, 
who  had  pursued  his  mother  during  her  sorrow. 
For  other  legends  see  Admetus  ;  Hyperbobeans  ; 
Laomedon;  Niobe.  In  Greece,  Apollo  was  not 
the  god  of  any  single  race.  The  lonians  wor- 
shiped him  as  the  ancestral  god,  Patroos,  while 
the  great  Dorian  festival,  Camei&  (see  Greek 
Festivals)  ,  was  held  in  his  honor.  In  Rome,  his 
worship  was  introduced  from  Greece  at  a  com- 
paratively late  date.  The  earliest  mention  of  a 
place  of  worship  for  Apollo  is  in  B.C.  449,  and  it 
was  not  till  b.c.  212  tliat  the  Ludi  Apollinares 
were  celebrated.  Augustus  greatly  increased  the 
honor  of  the  god  in  gratitude  for  the  victory  of 
Actium,  and  built  him  a  splendid  temple  on  the 
Palatine,  with  which  a  library  was  connected. 
The  temple  contained  the  celebrated  statue  by 
Scopas   (q.v.). 

The  representations  of  Apollo  in  ancient  art 
are  almost  innumerable.  As  Apollo  Agyieus,  he 
was  worshiped  in  tiie  form  of  a  conical  stone. 
In  general,  two  chief  types  can  be  distinguished. 
(1)  As  a  nude  youth,  the  ideal  of  youthful 
strength  and  beauty.  This  can  be  traced  from 
the  rude  statues  of  archaic  art,  of  Melos,  Thera, 
and  Orchomenus,  through  the  Payne-Knight 
bronze,  and  the  Choiseul-Gouffier  marble  in  the 
British  Museum,  to  the  almost  effeminate  type 
Da  the  Apollo  Sauroctonos  (the  lizard-slayer) 
of  Praxiteles,  or  the  glorious  divinity  of  the 
Apollo  of  the  altar  frieze  from  Pergamus  (q.v.). 
The  other  type  represents  the  god  as  clad  in  the 
long  robe  of  the  musician  playing  on  the  lyre, 
as  he  appears  in  the  statue  in  the  Vatican, 
which  is  probably  a  copy  of  the  work  of  Scopas. 
The  special  attributes  of  Apollo  are  the  bow 
and  quiver,  the  laurel  and  the  lyre.  Con- 
sult: Overbeck,  Oriechische  Kunstmythologie 
(Leipzig,  1871-89)  ;  and  Wernicke  in  the  Pauly- 
Wissowa  Real-encyklopadie  der  klassischen  alter- 
tumaicisaenachaft  (Stuttgart,  1900). 

APOLLO  BELVEDEBE,  berv&-da^r&.  A  cele- 
brated statue  of  antiquity,  probably  found  at 
Grotto  Ferrata  (or  possibly  at  Porto  d'Anzio), 
and  in  1503  placed  in  the  Belvedere  of  the  Vati- 
can by  Pope  Julius  II.  The  left  hand  and  right 
forearm  were  restored  by  Montorsoli,  a  pupil 
of  Michelangelo.  The  right  hand  originally  held 
a  laurel  branch  wound  with  fillets,  while  the 
presence  of  the  quiver  shows  that  the  left  raised 
the  bow.  The  aegis,  which  has  been  restored 
in  the  left  hand,  on  the  evidence  of  a  bronze 
statuette,  is  not  kno>^^  as  an  attribute  of 
Apollo,  nor  is  its  presence  in  the  statuette 
proved.  The  beautiful  face  expresses  divine 
wrath  and  contempt.  The  god,  clad  only  in  the 
chlamys  (q.v.),  is  moving  forward  against  the 
powers  of  evil  to  rescue  the  distressed.  This 
statue  was  once  regarded  as  the  highest  type 
of  Greek  art,  but  it  has  long  been  known  to  be 
only  a  careful  Roman  copy  of  a  Greek  original, 
which  cannot  well  be  earlier  than  the  latter  part 
of  the  Fourth  Century  B.C.  (possibly  by  Leo- 
chares),  while  many  good  authorities  regard  it 
as  belonging  to  the*  Third,  or  even  Second  Cen- 
tury B.C. 

APOLLO  GITH'ABXE^DUS  (Gk.  KieaptfiSSt, 
kithar6do8,  harper,  from  Kldapa,  kithara,  lyre  + 
dotd6t,  aoidoSy  singer).  Apollo,  in  his  function 
of  (lod  of  Music.    Two  famous  statues  of  him  in 


this  capacity  are  in  existence:  one  at  the  Vati- 
can, the  other  at  the  Munich  Glyptothek,  both 
of  uncertain  date  and  origin. 

APOLLO  CLTTB.  A  Seventeenth -Century  lit- 
erary coterie,  resembling  the  £lizabethai»* 
*  Areopagus,'  or  that  still  more  famous  gather- 
ing, which,  in  the  Eighteenth  Century,  surround- 
ed Dr.  Johnson.  Among  its  members  were  Ben 
Jonson,  Robert  Herrick,  Randolph,  and  other 
poets  and  pamphleteers.  Its  meeting-plaoe  was 
the  Devil  Tavern  at  Temple  Bar. 

AP'OLLODO^US  ( Gk. '  AToXX6d»/»n,  ApoUo- 
dOroa).  (1)  An  Athenian  painter  of  the  Fifth 
Century  B.C.,  an  elder  contemporary  of  Zeuxis. 
He  is  said  to  have  introduced  the  rendering  of 
light  and  shade  in  place  of  the  flat  coloring  of 
his  predecessors.  (2)  Apollddosus.  A  celebra- 
ted architect  of  the  early  part  of  the  Second  Cen- 
tury, A.D.,  employed  by  the  Emperor  Trajan  in 
the  construction  of  his  bridge  over  the  Dttnube, 
in  that  of  the  Forum  called  the  Forum  of 
Trajan,  and  other  works  in  Rome.  His  severe 
censure  on  some  plans  of  the  Emperor  Hadrian 
caused  Apollodorus's  banishment  and  death. 
(3)  Apollodobus.  a  Greek  grammarian  of 
the  Second  Century  B.C.  He  studied  philosophy 
in  his  native  Athens,  and  then  joined  the  Alex- 
andrian scholars  about  Aristarchus;  wrote  a 
chronicle  in  iambic  verse  and  several  gram- 
matical works.  His  greatest  work  was  On 
the  OodSt  apparently  a  history  of  the  Greek 
religion,  though  its  exact  nature  can  only  be 
conjectured  from  scattered  notices.  The  niyth- 
ographical  handbook  which  began  with  the 
origin  of  the  gods,  and  ended  with  the  story  of 
Troyj  though  it  bears  the  name  of  Apollodorus, 
is  certainly  a  compilation  of  a  later  date. 

AP'OLLO^NTA  (Gk.  *AToXXciina).  The  name 
of  more  than  thirty  ancient  cities.  (1)  In 
lllyria,  on  the  Aotts,  founded  by  emigrants  from 
Corinth  and  Corcyra,  commercially  prosperous, 
and  towards  the  end  of  the  Roman  Empire,  a 
f>eat  of  literature  and  philosophy.  (2)  In  Thra- 
cia  (afterwards  Sozopolis,  and  now  Sisriwli). 
colonized  by  Milesians,  and  famous  for  a  co- 
lossal statue  of  Apollo,  by  Calamia,  which 
was  removed  to  Rome.  (3)  The  port  of  Cyrene 
(afterwards  Sozusa,  and  now  Marsa  Suza), 
which  outgrew  Cyrene  itself,  and  left  evidences 
of  its  magnificence  in  the  ruins  of  its  public 
buildings.  (4)  A  city  of  Macedonia,  referred 
to  in  Acts  xvii.  I  as  one  of  the  stations  on  the 
road  from  Amphipolis  to  Thessalonica.  Its  ex- 
act position  is  not  known.  It  was,  doubtless, 
on  the  celebrated  Via  Egnatia,  probably  south  of 
and  near  to  the  present  Gol  (Lake)  Beshik. 
Little  is  known  of  its  historj'. 

AFOLLOOnrtTS  ( Gk.  AxoXXvi^iot,  ApoU^ios ) . 
An  Alexandrian  scholar,  son  of  Archibius.  He 
lived  toward  the  end  of  the  First  Century  aj)., 
and  compiled  a  lexicon  of  Homeric  words,  the 
main  sources  of  which  were  Apion's  (?loa««irv, 
and  the  commentaries  of  Aristarchus  and  Helii>- 
dorus.  Though  it  has  come  down  to  us  in 
abridged  and  otherwise  imperfect  form,  this 
work  is  valuable  for  the  exegetical  study  of 
Homer. 

AFOLLONIUS,  of  Pebga.  A  mathematician 
and  younger  contemporary  of  Archimedes  and 
Erastoshenes.  Bom  at  Perga,  in  Pamphylia,  he 
lived,  during  the  years  of  his  activity  as  a 
scholar,  which  were  approximately  from  b.c.  247 


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APOLLO   BELVEDERE 

IN   THE    BELVEDERE    OF   THE   VATICAN 


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APOLIiONIUS. 


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APOLLONIXTS  DYSCOLXTS. 


to  205,  at  Alexandria  and  Pergamum.  His 
principal  work  was  a  treatise  on  Conic  Sections, 
in  eight  books,  the  first  four  of  which,  accom- 
panied by  a  sixth-century  commentary  on 
same  by  Eutocius,  have  come  down  to  us  in  the 
original  Greek.  Books  I.-VII.  were  twice  trans- 
lated into  Arabic  in  the  Ninth  and  Tenth  cen- 
turies, and  from  one  of  these  Arabic  transla- 
tions there  is  a  Latin  translation  of  Books 
V.-VII.  Of  Book  VIII.  there  exist  only  certain 
lemmata  of  Pappus,  dating  from  the  Third  and 
Fourth  centuries  a.d.  This  work,  containing  four 
hundred  problems,  was  so  complete  that  it  left 
little  for  his  successors  to  improve.  He  wrote  on 
the  methods  of  arithmetic  calculation,  on  statics, 
the  stations  and  regressions  of  the  planets  (a 
work  upon  which  Ptolemy  drew  in  writing 
the  Almagest),  and  on  transversals  of  conies, 
which  laid  the  foundation  for  the  geometry  of 
position.  Among  his  other  works  deserving  men- 
tion are:  De  Sectione  Spatrii,  De  Sectione  Deter- 
minata,  and  De  Tractionibua.  Apollonius's 
problem,  *'To  draw  a  circle  tangent  to  three 
given  circles  in  a  plane,"  found  in  his  treatise 
on  Contactf  has  been  solved  by  Newton  Victa, 
and  others.  Consult:  Halley,  Opera  et  Studia 
(Oxford,  1810),  which  is  the  beat  edition  of  the 
extant  works  of  Apollonius;  Heisberg,  Apollotiii 
Pergcpi  quxe  Greece  Exatant  Opera  (Leipzig,  189 1 - 
93).  T.  L.  Heath's  Cambridge  edition  also  de- 
serves mention. 

APOLXiONTCTSy  of  Ttana.  A  native  of 
Tyana,  in  Cappadocia,  who  lived  in  the  time  of 
Christ.  He  was  a  zealous  follower  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Pythagoras.  He  traveled  through  Asia 
to  Nineveh  and  Babylon.  Thence  to  India, 
where,  at  the  court  of  King  Phraortes,  he  met 
Jarchas,  the  principal  Brahmin.  When  Apollo- 
nius returned  from  this  pilgrimage,  his  fame  as 
a  wise  man  was  greatly  increased;  the  people 
regarded  him  as  a  worker  of  miracles  and  a  di- 
vine being,  and  princes  were  glad  to  entertain 
him  at  their  courts.  He  himself  seems  to  have 
claimed  insight  into  futurity,  rather  than  the 
power  of  working  miracles.  Yet  in  Rome  it 
was  claimed  that  he  raised  a  young  woman  from 
the  dead.  He  was  acquitted  of  treason  by  Nero, 
because  the  indictment  had  vanished  from  the 
paper.  After  extensive  travels  in  Spain,  Italy, 
Greece,  and  Ethiopia,  he  was  accused  of  having 
taken  part  in  an  insurrection  against  Domitian. 
He  appeared  before  the  tribunal,  but  soon 
miraculously  vanished.  Ultimately,  he  appears 
to  have  settled  in  Ephesus,  where  he  opened  a 
Pythagorean  school,  and  continued  his  teaching 
until  he  died,  nearly  one  hundred  years  old.  His 
history  was  written  by  Philostratus  (q.v.),  but 
is  plainly  a  religious  nove]  intended  for  the  en- 
tertainment of  Julia,  wife  of  the  Emperor 
Severus,  who,  however,  died  ere  its  completion. 
The  travels  of  the  Apostle  Paul  are  a  more  likely 
inspiration  to  this  work  than  the  Gospel  narra- 
tive of  Christ.  It  contains  a  mass  of  absurdi- 
ties and  fables,  through  which  an  outline  of 
historical  facts  and  the  real  character  of  the 
man  are  sufficiently  discernible.  Hierocles,  a 
heathen  statesman  and  opponent  of  Christianity, 
wrote,  in  the  Third  Century,  a  work  on  the  life 
and  doctrines  of  Apollonius,  with  a  view  to 
prove  their  superiority  to  the  doctrine  of  Christ. 
In  modem  times,  the  notorious  English  free- 
thinker Blount,  and  Voltaire  in  France,  have 
renewed  the  attempt.      Consult:    B.  L.  Gilder- 


sleeve,  Essays  and  Studies  (New  York,  1890), 
and  L.  Dyer,  Studies  of  the  Gods  in  Greece  (New 
York,  1894)  ;  and  for  the  life  of  Apollonius, 
Philostratus  in  the  Tttbner  series,  Vol.  I.  (Leip- 
zig, 1870-71);  French  translation,  A.  Chassang 
(Paris,  1862)  ;  German  translation,  E.  Baltzer 
(Rudolstadt,  1883)  ;  also  the  famous  essay  of 
F.  C.  Baur,  "Apollonius  von  Tyana  und  Christ- 
us,"  in  Drei  Abhandlungen  (ed.  Zeller,  Leipzig, 
1876)  ;  O.  de  B.  Priaulx,  The  Indian  Travels  of 
Apollonius  of  Tyana  (London,  1873)  ;  D.  M. 
Tredwell,  A  Sketch  of  the  Life  of  Apollonius  of 
Tyana  (New  York,  1886)  ;  G.  R.  S.  Mead,  Apol- 
lonius of  Tyana  (London,  1901). 

APOLIiONIXTS,  OF  Tyre.  The  hero  of  a 
Greek  romance  now  lost,  which  in  a  Latin  ver- 
sion enjoyed  great  popularity  in  the  Middle  Ages, 
and  was  translated  into  almost  all  the  languages 
of  Western  Europe.  In  it  are  related  the  ro- 
mantic adventures  which  befell  Apollonius,  a 
Syrian  prince,  previous  to  his  marriage  with 
the  daughter  of  King  Alcistrates,  of  Cyrene.  To 
these  are  added  the  adventures  of  his  w^ife,  who 
was  parted  from  him  by  apparent  death,  as 
well  as  those  of  his  daughter,  Tarsia,  who 
was  carried  off  by  pirates  and  sold  in  Mitylene. 
The  work  closes  with  the  reunion  of  the  whole 
family.  The  original  Greek  work  belonged  to 
the  Third  Century  a.d.,  and  showed  close  rela- 
tions with  the  Ephesiaca  of  Xenophon  of  Ephe- 
sus. The  Latin  version  was  made  by  a  Chris- 
tian, not  earlier  than  the  Fifth  Century.  The 
account  given  in  the  Gesta  Romanorum  and  the 
part  contained  in  the  Pantheon  of  (Godfrey,  of 
Viterbo  (c.ll86)  are  drawn  from  this  early 
translation.  The  earliest  translation  from  the 
Latin  was  into  Anglo-Saxon  in  the  Ninth  and 
Tenth  centuries;  an  early  English  rhymed  ver- 
sion of  the  end  of  the  Fourteenth  Century  is  to 
be  found  in  Gower's  Confessio  A  mantis;  and  the 
materials  are  employed  in  Shakespeare's  Pericles, 
About  1300,  Heinrich  von  der  Neuenstadt  pro- 
duced a  poetical  version  in  over  twenty  thousand 
verses,  based  probably  on  the  account  in  the 
Gesta  Romanorum.  The  Histori  des  Kuniges 
Apollonii,  published  1476,  is  translated  from 
Godfrey  of  Viterbo,  as  is  the  Spanish  version  of 
the  Thirteenth  Century,  printed  in  Sanchez'* 
Coleccidn  de  Poesias  Castellanus  (Paris,  1842). 
Several  French  and  Italian  versions  have  been 
made  from  the  same  source.  There  are  also 
middle  and  modern  Greek  versions  extant.  The 
Latin  translation  from  the  Greek  original  is 
edited  by  Riese,  Historia  Apollonii  Regis  Tyri, 
(2d  ed.  Leipzig,  1893).  Consult  in  general: 
Rohde,  Dcr  griechische  Roman  und  seine  X'ortlau- 
fer  (Leipzig,  1876)  ;  Hagen,  Der  Roman  vom 
Konig  Apollonius  in  seinen  verschtedenen  Bear- 
heitungen  (Berlin,  1878)  ;  Simrock,  Quellen  des 
Shakespeare  (Bonn,  1872). 

APOLLONIUS  DYS'COLXTS  (Gk.  •AxoXXcA- 
ptos  AijaKoXoSy  ApollCnios  Dyskolos) .  An  Alexan- 
drian scholar  who  lived  in  the  first  half  of  the 
Second  Century  a.d.  He  and  his  son,  Herodian, 
were  the  first  and  the  greatest  of  Greek  gram- 
marians. Apollonius  reduced  grammar  to  a 
system  and  made  a  science  of  syntax,  and 
among  the  later  grammarians  he  passed  as  an 
authority  on  questions  of  syntax,  and  the  theo- 
retical part  of  grammar.  "  He  wrote  a  large 
number  of  works,  but  the  greater  portion  of  them 
perished  early.  There  are  extant  four:  those 
on  Pronouns,  on  Conjunctions,  on  Adverbs,  and 


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APOLOOY. 


on  the  Syntax  of  the  Parts  of  Speech.  It  is  not 
clear  whether  the  surname  Dyacolus  (the  'crab- 
bed*) had  reference  to  his  literary  style  or  to 
his  disposition  of  mind. 

APOLLONIXTS  HO^LON.  A  Greek  rheto- 
rician, bom  at  Alabanda,  in  Caria.  He  taught 
rhetoric  at  Rhodes,  and  was  a  distinguished 
pleader  in  the  courts  of  justice.  In  B.c.  81, 
being  sent  to  Rome  as  an  ambassador  by  the 
Rhcjdians,  he  addressed  the  Roman  Senate  in 
Greek.  He  stayed  some  time  at  Rome,  and  was 
there  heard  by  Cicero,  who  afterwards  {b.c.  78) 
visited  him  at  Rhodes.  Other  distinguished 
Romans,  among  them  Cesar,  also  attended  his 
lectures. 

APOLLONIUS  BHOa>inS  (C.205  C.215  B.C.) . 
An  epic  poet,  son  of  SiUeus  (or  Ulcus),  bom  at 
Alexandria.  As  a  youth  he  was  the  pupil  of  Calli- 
machus,  but  afterwards  entered  into  a  bitter  strife 
with  his  former  teacher,  on  literary  grounds.  Cal- 
limachus  was  the  champion  of  the  short  poem  in 
the  artificial  and  learned  style,  while  Apollonius 
preferred  the  lengthy  poem  in  the  simple  style 
of  Homer.  The  Argonautica,  the  most  important 
and  only  extant  poem  of  Apollonius,  was  in  part 
written  while  the  author  was  at  Alexandria,  and 
was  received  with  scorn  by  the  audience  there. 
Apollonius  then  withdrew  to  Rhodes,  revised  his 
poem,  and  produced  it  with  great  acclaim.  He 
received  citizenship  at  Rhodes,  set  up  a 
school  of  rhetoric  there,  and  styled  himself  the 
Rhodian.  I^ater  in  life  he  is  said  to  have  re- 
turned to  Alexandria,  and  to  have  succeeded 
Eratosthenes  as  librarian — an  office  which  he 
held  till  his  death.  The  Argonautica  is  an  epic 
poem  in  four  books,  containing  an  account  of  the 
expedition  of  the  Argonauts  in  quest  of  the  Gol- 
den Fleece.  The  first  two  books  describe  the  de- 
parture of  the  expedition  and  the  adventures  on 
the  way;  the  third  book  tells  of  the  passion  of 
Medea;  the  fourth  book  gives  an  account  of  the 
return  home.  The  poem  imitates  the  language 
and  style  of  Homer,  but  it  is  labored  and  lacks 
spirit  and  movement.  The  Argonautica  was 
much  admired  by  the  Romans,  being  translated 
at  least  once,  and  often  imitated  by  them. 
Apollonius  wrote  other  works  in  verse  and  in 
prose.     Critical  edition  by  Merkel  (1854). 

APOLIiOS  ( Gk. ' AiroXXcfis,  an  abbreviation  of 
AroXKiivios,  Apollonios) .  An  early  Christian  mis- 
sionary and  companion  of  Saint  Paul.  He  was 
an  Alexandrian,  converted  probably  in  Alexandria 
by  followers  of  John  the  Baptist,  and  at  once 
threw  himself  with  enthusiasm  into  the  work 
of  propagating  the  new  faith.  He  came  to  Ephe- 
sus,  and  there  gladlj'  accepted  the  fuller  instruc- 
tion which  he  received  from  Priscilla  and 
Aquila.  Thus  equipped,  he  passed  on  to 
Corinth,  where  he  labored  with  great  success 
(Acts  xviii.  24-28).  But  unhappily,  there  were 
those  there  who  made  a  party  called  by  his 
name,  and  so  contributed  to  the  factional 
troubles  in  the  Corinthian  Church.  From  Corinth 
he  went  to  Ephesus.  But  his  Corinthian  ad- 
mirers, who  preferred  his  more  rhetorical  man- 
ner of  preaching  to  the  simpler  manner  of  Paul, 
desired  his  return,  and  he  promised  to  come  a 
little  later  (I.  Cor.  i.  10-12;  iii.  4-6;  xvi.  12). 
The  last  mention  of  him  in  the  New  Testament 
(Titus  iii.  13)  shows  him  about  to  undertake 
a  journey  to  Crete.  According  to  tradition  he 
became  the  first  bishop  of  Crete. 


APOLLO  SAXTBOCTONOS  ( Lizard  killer) . 
A  statue  of  the  youthful  xVpollo  in  the  Vatican 
— a  copy  of  a  bronze  of  Praxiteles.  It  repre- 
sents the  god  leaning  against  a  tree,  on  the 
point  of  stabbing  a  lizard  with  a  dart  as  the 
reptile  crawls  up  the  trunk. 

AFOLLYON,  A-pdKlI-on  or  i-pdl'm  {Gk. 
AToWj^taPf  from  dvoXXi/yaf,  apollynaiy  to  destroy). 
A  designation  used  (Rev.  ix.  3-11)  to  trans- 
late the  Hebrew  Abaddon ^  which  means  destruc- 
tion, and  which  was  one  of  the  names  given  to  the 
great  gathering  place  of  the  dead,  more  com- 
monly known  as  Sheol  ApoUyon  is  personified 
as  ttie  angel  having  dominion  over  the  locusts 
coming  up  out  of  the  'bottomless  pit'  at  the 
sound  of  the  fifth  trumpet  on  the  day  of  Judge- 
ment. In  the  Apocrypha  (Tobit  iii.  8)  the  slayer 
of  the  seven  husbands  of  Sarah,  daughter  of 
Raguel,  is  called  Asmodeus,  w^ho  is  by  some 
critics  identified  with  Abaddon,  or  Apollyon.  In 
Talmudic  literature  (Treatise  Shahhath  55a>) 
Abaddon  is  the  name  given  to  the  angel  who  \i'ith 
Maweth,  i.e.  *death,'  stands  over  the  six  angels 
of  destruction,  who  aid  God  in  the  punishment 
of  the  wicked. 

AP'OLO'GLA.  PBO  VITA  STJ'A.  (Lat, 
defense  concerning  his  life).  John  Henry  (after- 
wards Cardinal)  Ne\nnan'8  defense  of  his  po>i- 
tion  in  the  "Oxford  movement."  Its  immediate 
cause  was  an  accusation  made  by  Charles  Kings- 
ley,  that,  "Truth  for  its  own  sake  has  never  been 
a  virtue  with  the  Roman  clergy.  Father  New- 
man informs  us  that  it  need  not  and,  on  the 
whole,  ought  not  to  be."  Newman  first  demand- 
ed a  substantiation  or  a  retraction  of  thi^ 
charge;  and,  unable  to  obtain  either,  published 
the  Apologia. 

APOL^boiE  FOB  PO'BTBT  A  famous 
work  writen  by  Sir  Philip  Sidney  in  1580,  and 
published  in  1595,  in  answer  to  an  attack  on  the 
playhouses  entitled  The  School  of  Abuse  dedi- 
cated to  him  without  his  consent,  by  Stephen 
Gosson.  It  is  a  defense  and  eulogy  of  the  art  of 
poetry,  closely  modeled  after  Aristotle's  Poetia, 
and  couched  in  the  exaggerated  Elizabethan 
style. 

AP^OLOGUE  ( Gk.  dr6Xo7ot ,  apologos ) .  A  fa 
ble,  parable,  or  short  story,  intended  to  ser^e 
as  a  pleasant  vehicle  of  some  moral  doctrine. 
One  of  the  oldest  and  best  apologues  or  parables 
is  that  by  Jotham,  as  given  in  the  book  of 
Judges  (ix.  7-15).  Another  celebrated  apo^ 
logue  is  that  of  the  ''belly  and  the  members,"  re- 
lated by  the  patrician  Menenius  Agrippa.  .Esop  s 
fables  have  enjoyed  a  world-wide  reputation. 
Luther  held  such  an  opinion  of  the  value  of  the 
apologue  as  a  vehicle  of  moral  truth,  that  he 
edited  a  revised  ^sop,  for  which  he  wrote  a  char- 
acteristic preface.  He  says:  "In  doing  this,  1 
have  especially  cared  for  young  people,  that  they 
may  receive  instruction  in  a  style  suitable  to 
their  age,  which  is  naturally  fond"  of  all  kinds  of 
fiction;  and  I  have  wished  to  gratify  this 
natural  taste  without  indulging  anything  that  i$ 
bad."  Consult  Jacob,  Introduction  to  the  Fa- 
bles of  .Esop  (New  York,  1896). 

APOL'OQY  (Gk.  dToXoyla,  apologia,  a  speech 
in  defense,  defense).  A  term  now  commonly  un- 
derstood as  synonymous  with  an  excuse  for 
breach  of  an  engagement,  etc.,  but  originally  vl^ 
as  the  title  of  any  work  written  in  defense  of 
certain  doctrines,  as  in  the  Apology  of  Socrates, 


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APOLOGY. 


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APOPLEXY. 


ascribed  to  Plato  and  Xenophon;  the  Apology 
for  the  Christians,  by  Tertullian,  and  in  many 
other  defenses  of  the  Christians,  written  by 
Justin  Martyr,  A^ristides,  Athenagoras,  Tatian, 
Theophilus,  Origen,  Eusebius,  Minucius  Felix, 
Arnobius,  Lactantius,  Augustine,  Orosius,  and 
others.  The  attacks  parried  or  retorted  in  these 
apologetical  works  are  such  as  charges  of  athe- 
ism, want  of  philosophical  knowledge,  .anti- 
social tenets,  etc.  Both  the  charges  and  the  refu- 
tations brought  forward  serve  to  give  us  an 
insight  into  the  character  of  the  times  when 
these  works  were  written.  Thus,  in  the  Apology 
by  Tertullian,  it  is  curious  to  find  a  formal  argu- 
ment employed  to  refute  the  assertion  that  the 
spread  of  Christianity  was  the  cause  of  "earth- 
quakes" and  other  natural  phenomena  which  had 
occurred  in  some  parts  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
After  the  Fourth  Century,  when  the  Church 
was  made  dominant  under  the  Roman  Emperors, 
apologetical  writings  were  less  called  for;  but 
Bartholus  Edessenus  and  Raymundus  Martinus 
wrote  against  the  Jews  and  the  Mohammedans. 
In  the  Fifteenth  Century,  when  the  revival  of 
learning  placed  Christianity  in  apparent  oppo- 
sition to  the  Platonic  philosophy,  Marsilius 
Ficinus  wrote  in  defense  of  revelation ;  and,  some 
time  after  the  Reformation,  the  spread  of  free- 
thinking  and  skepticism  in  England  was  opposed 
by  a  variety  of  apologetical  works,  chiefly  main- 
taining the  points  that  Christianity  is  a  divine 
revelation,  Christ  a  divine  Messenger,  and  His 
Church  a  divine  institution.  The  defense  of 
Christianity  on  grounds  of  reason  came  now  to 
be  treated  as  a  distinct  branch  of  theology,  under 
the  name  of  Apologetics.  Among  the  numerous 
apologetic  works  by  Protestants  may  be  men- 
tioned those  by  Grotius  (De  Veritate,  etc.^,  But- 
ler (Analogy  of  Religion,  Natural  and  Revealed), 
Lardner  {Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History), 
L^land,  Addison  Soame  Jenyns  (Internal  Evi- 
dences of  the  Christian  Religion),  Hugh  Farmer, 
Bishop  Watson  {Apology  for  Christianity), 
Pa  ley  {Evidences  of  Christianity,  and  Horas 
Paulines),  Among  Roman  Catholic  apologetic 
writers  the  most  eminent  are  Pascal,  Houteville, 
Guen(^,  Bergier,  Mayr,  and  Chateaubriand. 

In  the  Nineteenth  Century  a  great  number  of 
apologetic  works  by  Neander,  Tholuck,  and 
others  were  called  forth  In  reply  to  Strauss's 
Life  of  Jesus,  and  the  Vie  de  J^sus  by  Joseph' 
Ernest  Renan.  liater  came  the  attacks  from  ag- 
nostic, materialistic,  and  other  philosophi-scien- 
tific  sources,  and  these  have  been  replied  to  by 
Christian  scholars,  as  A.  Ebraid,  Apologetics, 
second  edition  (GUtersloh,  1878-80)  ;  English 
translations,  three  volumes  (Edinburgh,  1886- 
87);  P.  Schauz  (R.  C.)  (Freiburg,  1895-98); 
English  translations,  three  volumes  (Dublin, 
1897)  ;  A.  B.  Bruce,  Apologetics  (New  York, 
1892).  Manifestly  these  works  are  written  to 
meet  a  passing  need,  and  few  of  them  retain 
much  value  after  a  few  years. 

AP'OMOB'PHINE.  (Gk.  dtrb,  apo,  away 
from  -h  morphine).  An  artificial  alkaloid  made 
by  heating  morpliine  with  hydrochloric  acid  un- 
der pressure.  The  salt  of  apomorphine  em- 
ployed in  medicine  is  the  hydrochlorate,  which 
occurs  in  fine  whitish,  needle-shaped  crystals 
that  rapidly  absorb  moisture  from  the  air, 
becoming  green.  It  is  the  best-known  of  the  so- 
called  systemic  emetics  (see  Emetic),  and 
causes  vomiting  promptlv,  within  five  to  twenty 
Vol.  r.-42. 


minutes,  whether  given  by  mouth  or  hypoder- 
mically.  This  emesis  is  due  to  direct  action  on 
tne  vomiting  centre  in  the  medulla.  It  is  re- 
peated frequently,  with  little  nausea,  after  the 
stomach  has  been  emptied,  and  is  accompanied 
by  marked  muscular  relaxation.  The  respira- 
tion and  circulation  are  also  depressed,  and  large 
doses  may  cause  convulsions,  followed  by  paraly- 
sis. As  an  emetic  it  is  used  when  sudden  action 
is  desired  or  when  swallowing  is  difficult  or  im- 
possible. It  is  used  also  in  small  doses  as  a 
sedative  expectorant.  (See  Expectobant. )  It 
has  also  been  recommended  as  a  hypnotic,  and 
is  said  to  act  usually  within  ten  or  fifteen 
minutes.  For  this  purpose  a  small  dose  is  given 
hypodermically  after  lying  down.  If  the  patient 
moves  about  after  taking  it,  vomiting  is  said  to 
be  likely  to  occur. 

AP'ONEXTBO'SIS  (Gk.  drove6pwra,  end  of  a 
muscle  where  it  becomes  tendon,  from  dird,  apo, 
away  -+•  vevpop,  neuron,  sinew,  tendon).  An  ana- 
tomical term  for  a  sheet- like  expansion  of  strong 
fibrous  tissue,  of  which  there  are  many  examples 
in  the  human  body.  For  the  sake  of  convenience, 
it  is  generally  confined  to  expansions  from  the 
tendons  of  muscles,  as  the  lumbar  aponeurosis. 
If  a  tendon  is  very  broad  and  expanded,  as  that  of 
the  external  oblique  muscle  of  the  abdomen,  it  is 
said  to  be  aponeurotic.  Some  muscles,  as  those 
on  the  shoulder-blade,  are  partially  covered  with 
a  tendinous  expansion,  to  which 'some  of  their 
fibers  are  attached;  this  is  termed  the  aponeur- 
otic origin  of  the  muscle;  it  gives  the  muscle  a 
more  extensive  attachment,  without  adding  ma- 
terially to  weight. 

APOPH'YLLITE  (Gk.  dr6,  apo,  away  -+- 
^i^Xoif,  phyllon,  leaf).  A  hydrated  potassium- 
calcium  silicate  that  crystallizes  in  the  tetrago- 
nal system,  and  belongs  to  the  zeolite  family.  It 
has  a  pearly  lustre,  and  in  color  is  usually  white 
or  grayish,  but  sometimes  of  a  light  green,  yel- 
low, or  red  tint.  This  mineral  occurs  usually  in 
basalt,  and  the  older  rocks,  with  other  members 
of  the  zeolites  in  Greenland,  Iceland,  India,  and 
at  Bergen  Hill,  N.  J.,  in  the  United  States,  where 
large  crystals  were  found  during  the  construction 
of  the  tunnel  there,  and  also  in  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior region.  It  is  named  from  its  tendency  to 
exfoliate  under  the  blo^vpipe. 

AP'OPLEXY  (Gk.  dxoirXiyfte,  apopUxia,  from 
dr6,  away  -f  ir\fiva€ip  ,  pl^ssein,  to  strike).  A 
term  applied  to  an  engorgement  of  blood,  with 
or  without  extravasation^  in  or  upon  any  organ, 
as  the  brain  {cerebral  apoplexy),  the  spinal  cord 
or  lungs  {pulmonary  apoplexy).  As  popularly 
used,  the  term  denotes  vaguely  a  condition  aris- 
ing from  some  disturbance  of  the  brain  cir- 
culation. In  medicine  three  distinct  •  affec- 
tions of  the  brain  circulation  are  under- 
stood: cerebral  embolism,  cerebral  thrombo- 
sis, and  cerebral  hemorrhage.  These  differ  in 
their  cause  and  somewhat  in  their  symptoms. 
In  cerebral  embolism  there  is  a  sudden  blocking 
up  of  one  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the  brain 
by  some  foreign  body  in  the  circulating  blood. 
Such  foreign  bodies  frequently  come  from  dis- 
eases of  the  joints  or  pleurse,  or  sometimes  from 
the  placenta  in  pregnant  women ;  but  more  often 
from  the  valves  of  the  heart,  which  in  a  number 
of  septic  diseases,  as  rheumatism,  typhoid,  gon- 
orrhea, etc.,  have  minute  growths  upon  them. 
These  become  detached,  and  are  swept  into  the 
circulation,  and  may  Klock  up  a  brain  artery. 


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APOPLEXY. 


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APOSTLE. 


The  symptomB  come  on  acutely,  may  occur  in 
the  young  or  old,  and  may  be  slight,  if  a  small 
vessel  is  blocked,  or  severe  if  the  vessel  is  large. 
There  may  be  sudden  dizziness  and  weakness, 
going  on  to  slight  convulsive  movements  of  one 
side  of  the  body  and  loss  of  consciousness.  This 
is  accompanied  by  deep,  noisy  breathing,  a  slow- 
ing of  the  pulse,  and  perhaps  a  slight  rise  in 
temperature.  The  person  may  soon  recover,  usu- 
ally with  some  weakness  in  some  part  of  the 
body,  or  with  a  slight  paralysis  of  some  of  the 
muscles  of  the  leg,  arm,  or  face.  At  times  the 
whole  of  one  side  of  the  body  may  remain  para- 
lyzed. 

Cerebral  thrombosis  is  due  to  a  disease  of  the 
blood  vessels  themselves,  during  which  blood 
clots  may  form  in  them,  and  thus  cut  off  a  por- 
tion of  the  brain  substance  from  its  normal  sup- 
ply of  blood.  Syphilis  is  the  chief  cause,  espe- 
cially in  most  cases  of  apoplexy  under  forty  years 
of  age.  The  symptoms  are  apt  to  come  on  more 
gradually.  Following  a  week  of  headache,  dizzi- 
ness, and  nausea,  may  occur  peculiar  sensations 
of  prickling  in  the  fingers;  convulsive  move- 
ments in  some  of  the  muscles,  and  twitchings  or 
gradually  increasing  lameness,  or  loss  of  muscu- 
lar strength.  At  the  time  of  attack  the  symp- 
toms resemble  those  of  embolism. 

Cerebral  hemorrhage  is  the  most  important 
cause  of  apoplexy.  It  occurs  from  the  rupture  of 
a  blood  vessel  in  the  brain  substance,  and  the 
severity  of  the  symptoms  depends  partly  on  the 
amount  of  the  hemorrhage,  largely  on  the  part 
of  the  brain  involved.  Hemorrhage  is  more  apt 
to  occur  in  the  aged,  and  it  is  a  frequent  cause  of 
death  in  those  over  sixty  years  of  age.  The  symp- 
toms may  be  sudden  and  terminate  in  deatn,  or 
there  may  be  several  attacks  of  giddiness  or  col- 
lapse, with  tingling  or  twitchings  of  the  extremi- 
ties, loss  of  speech,  etc.  Patients  may  have  sev- 
eral attacks  and  yet  recover,  with  some  persist- 
ing paralysis  of  one  side  of  the  body  or  of  one 
arm  or  one  leg.  Little  can  be  ^  done  before  a 
physician  comes.  Mustard  baths  to  the  feet  and 
the  application  of  heat  to  the  extremities  may 
help  in  some  cases.  Persons  with  the  "apoplec- 
tic habit'*  should  take  special  care  not  to  become 
mentally  disturbed. 

APOPLEXY,  Pabturient  .    See  Milk  Feveb. 

APOBT'.     See  Helm. 

APOS'POBY  (Gk.  dir6,  apo,  away,  from  + 
ardpofj  sporos,  seed).  A  name  which  literally 
means  "without  spore  reproduction,"  and  which 
refers  to  the  fact  that  in  some  cases  the 
sexual  plant  develops  directly  from  an  asexual 
one  without  the  intervention  of  a  spore.  This 
phenomenon,  like  its  correlative,  Apogamy  ( q.v. ) , 
has  been  especially  observed  among  ferns,  and  the 
list  of  known  forms  which  show  it  is  increasing 
rapidly.  Under,  certain  conditions,  which  are 
not  clear,  a  prothalliiun  (the  sexual  plant)  buds 
directly  from  various  regions  of  the  fern  leaf, 
common  among  which  are  abortive  sporangia  and 
leaf  teeth.  Among  mosses,  cases  of  apospory  have 
been  observed,  and  have  also  been  induced  arti- 
ficially. In  these  cases  a  sexual  plant  is  devel- 
oped directly  from  the  spore-bearing  structure. 
Among  seed-plants  apospory  has  not  been  ob- 
served, and  in  the  very  nature  of  things  is  not 
likely  to  be  found,  one  reason  for  this  being  that 
the  sexual  plant  is  so  very  much  reduced  that  it 
would  hardly  be  observable,  even  if  it  were  to 
appear  vegetatively. 


APOSTATE  (Glc.  dxwrrdT^,  apostam,  de- 
serter, renegade,  from  d«-6,  apo^  away  +  larivfu, 
histanai,  to  place,  to  stand).  Literally,  any  one 
who  changes  his  religion,  whatever  naay  be  his 
motive ;  but,  by  custom,  a  word  always  uaed  in  an 
opprobrious  sense,  as  equivalent  to  renegade,  or 
one  who,  in  changing  his  creed,  is  actuated  by 
unworthy  motives.  In  early  Christian  times,  the 
word  was  applied  to  those  who  abandoned  their 
faith  in  order  to  escape  from  persecution  (see 
Lapsed)  *,  but  it  was  also  applied  to  such 
as  rejected  Christianity  on  speculative  grounds, 
as,  for  instance  (though  in  his  case  there  had 
been  no  intelligent  reception  of  Christianity), 
the  Emperor  Julian  was  supposed  to  have  done. 
After  the  Fifth  Century,  when  heathenism  ^-u 
declining,  many  who  had  no  sincere  belief  in 
Christianity,  yet  made  profession  of  it  and  were 
baptized;  these  also  were  styled  apostates.  The 
Roman  Catholic  Church  at  one  period  imposed 
severe  penalties  on  apostasy.  The  apostate  was, 
of  course,  excommunicated,  but  sometimes,  also, 
his  property  was  confiscated,  and  he  himself 
banished,  or  even  put  to  death.  It  has  often 
l>een  of  great  moment  to  the  fortunes  of  a  na- 
tion that  a  prince  has  changed  his  religion.  The 
most  renowned  instance  in  modem  history  is  that 
of  Henry  IV.  of  France.  Those  who  embrace  a 
religious  faith  are  called  'converts'  by  th(Ke 
they  join  and  'perverts'  by  those  they  leave. 
The  term  Apostasy  is  now  employed  commonly, 
and  often  abusively,  as  a  reproach  for  great  or 
sudden  changes  in  political  opinions. 

A  POSTE'BIO'BI.    See  A  Priori. 

APOSTLE  (Gk.  iT6<rro\tn,apostolos,  one  sent 
forth,  a  delegate,  from  dr6,  apo,  from  +  ^AW, 
stellein,  to  send).  The  name  used  in  the  New 
Testament  to  designate  specifically  that  group 
of  Christ's  disciples  who  were  called  by  Him  to 
be  His  more  intimate  companions  during  His 
ministry,  and  to  proclaim,  as  His  representa- 
tives the  Gospel  to  men.  They  were  twelve  in 
number:  Simon  Peter  (Hebrew  name  Cephas), 
Andrew,  James  (the  son  of  Zebedee),  John 
(brother  of  James),  Philip,  Bartholomew,  Mat- 
thew (Hebrew  name  Levi),  Thomas  (also  called 
Didymus),  James  (the  son  of  Alphaeus),  Jude 
( the  son  of  James,  doubtless  to  be  identified  with 
Thaddseus,  named  in  his  place  in  the  lists  of 
Matthew  and  Mark) , "^imon  (the  Canaanite,  also 
called  the  Zealot),  and  Judas  Iscariot. 

Their  qualifications,  aa  understood  by  the  early 
Church,  were  evidently  that  they  should  have 
been  with  Him  during  his  ministry,  and  have 
seen  Him  after  His  resurrection  (Acts  i.  21,  22) : 
"Of  these  which  companied  with  us  all  the  time 
that  the  Lord  Jesus  went  in  and  out  among  us 
.  must  one  be  a  witness  with  us  of  the 
resurrection.")  As  a  result,  however,  of  exer- 
cising its  rights  in  the  election  of  a  substitute 
for  Judas  Iscariot,  in  order  to  maintain  the 
original  number,  and  as  a  result,  further,  of 
admitting  into  this  number  an  extra  apos- 
tle in  the  person  of  the  divinely  appointed 
Paul,  the  Church  evidently  considerMl  itself 
justified  in  modifying  these  qualifications, 
so  as  to  adapt  the  office  to  the  needs  of  its  de- 
veloping mission.  As  a  result,  others  prominent 
in  this  work  received  the  name  of  apostle  be- 
sides the  Twelve  and  Paul.  So  James,  the  Lord's 
brother,  head  of  the  Jerusalem  Church,  is  re- 
ferred to  by  Paul  as  an  apostle  (Galatlans  i.  19: 
"But  other  of  the  apostles   saw  I   none,  save 


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APOSTLE. 


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APOSTLES,  ACTS  OF. 


James,  the  Lord's  brother").  See  also  I.  Corin- 
thians ix.  5,  in  which  passage  Paul  speaks  of 
his  right  to  lead  about  a  wife  "as  well  as  other 
apostles,  and  the  brethren  of  the  Lord,  and 
Cephas,"  a  statement  that  would  seem  to  indi- 
cate that  all  the  brethren  of  the  Lord  were  rec- 
ognized as  apostles.)  So  Barnabas,  companion 
with  Paul  in  his  first  mission  tour,  is  designated 
by  Luke  as  an  apostle  (Acts  xiv.  4,  14:  "But 
when  the  apostles,  Barnabas  and  Paul,  heard  of 
it,  they  rent  their  garments").  So  perhaps  An- 
dronicus  and  Junias^  kinsmen  and  fellow  prison- 
ers of  Paul's,  are  mentioned  by  him  as  distin- 
guished apostles  (Rom.  xvi.  7;  "Andronicus 
and  Junias  .  .  .  who  are  of  note  among  the 
apostles").  Possibly,  also,  Apollos  is  intended 
by  him  to  be  considered  as  an  apostle  together 
with  himself  (L  Cor.  iv.  6,  9,  where  Paul 
speaks  of  God's  setting  forth  "us  the  apostles 
last  of  all,  as  men  doomed  to  death";  and  the 
immediate  context  makes  reference,  apparently, 
to  Apollos  as  the  one  Paul  had  in  mind  besides 
himself).  This  enlarged  application  of  the  term 
i»  recognized  by  patristic  writers,  such  as  the 
author  of  the  Didache  and  of  the  Shepherd  of 
Bermas, 

Among  the  credentials  of  the  apostolic  office 
were  apparently  the  ability  to  work  miracles 
(e.g.  IL  Cor.  xii.  12:  "Truly  the  signs  of 
an  apostle  were  wrought  among  you 
by  signs  and  wonders  and  mighty  works")  ;  also 
the  conversion  to  God  of  those  to  whom  they 
brought  the  Gospel  (e.g.  I.  Cor.  ix.  2:  "The 
seal  of  mine  apostleship  are  ye  in  the  Lord"). 
If  the  office  possessed  peculiar  rights,  to  these 
might  belong  the  appointment  of  the  original 
officers  of  the  local  churches  (e.g.  Acta  xiv.  23: 
"And  when  they  had  appointed  for  them 
elders  in  every  church  .  .  .  "),  and  pos- 
sibly, in  extreme  cases,  the  regulation  of  the 
teaching  and  morals  within  the  churches'  or- 
ganized limits  (e.g.  II.  Thess.  iii.  6:  "Now 
we  command  you,  brethren,  in  the  name  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  ye  withdraw  your- 
selves from  every  brother  that  walketh  disor- 
derly, and  not  after  the  tradition  which  they  re- 
ceived of  us").  The  characteristic  duty  of  the 
office  consisted,  most  likely,  in  the  preaching  and 
missioning  of  the  Gospel  (e.g.  Acts  vi.  2-4: 
"And  the  twelve  .  .  .  said.  It  is  not  fit 
that  we  should  forsake  the  word  of  God  and 
serves  tables."  I.  Cor.  i.  17:  "Christ  sent  me 
not  to  baptize,  but  to  preach  the  Grospel"). 
At  tfie  same  time,  however,  as  to  how  far  the 
apostolate  was  considered  by  the  early  Church 
as  an  office  at  all  is  a  question  of  large  debate. 

There  is  no  evidence  of  any  division  of  terri- 
tory among  the  Twelve.  The  nearest  approach 
to  this  is  in  the  mutual  understanding  referred 
to  in  Gal.  ii.  9  ("They  gave  us  the  right 
hand  of  fellowship,  that  we  should  go  imto  the 
Gentiles,  and  they  unto  the  circumcision"),  by 
which  Peter  was  recognized  as  the  leader  of  the 
mission  to  the  circumcision,  which  would  natu- 
rally mean,  in  general  terms,  the  Palestinian 
Jew's;  and  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  recognized 
as  the  leaders  to  the  uncircumcision,  which  would 
as  naturally  indicate,  generally,  the  Gentiles  out^ 
side  of  Palestine;  and  even  this  was  not  strictly 
carried  out,  since  Paul  began  his  work  in  most 
places  to  -which  he  went  by  preaching  in  the 
synagogue,  while  the  address  in  I.  Pet.  would 
imply  that  Peter  had  a  considerable  parish  of 
GentUe  Christians  in  Asia  Minor. 


In  II.  Cor.  viii.  23  and  Phil.  ii.  26,  in 
which  passages  Paul  speaks  of  the  messengers 
of  the  churches,  the  word  drSaroXos  is  used  in 
its  common  classical  meaning  of  delegate,  and 
in  Heb.  iii.  1,  where  Christ  is  referred  to  as 
"the  Apostle  and  High-Priest  of  our  confes- 
sion," the  word  is  applied  in  the  same  sense, 
from  the  point  of  view  of  Christ's  divine  sending 
into  the  world  (see  John  xvii.  18).  For  de- 
tails of  apostolic  life  and  work,  see  under  indi-' 
vidual  apostles. 

BiBLiooRAPHT.  In  general,  see  J.  B.  Lightfoot, 
"Excursus  on  Name  and  Office  of  an  Apostle,"  in 
Commentary  on  Oalatians  (London,  1877)  ;  C. 
Weizsllcker,  The  Apostolic  Age,  English  transla- 
tion (Edinburgh,  1894)  ;  A.  Harnack,  Die  Apos- 
iell^hre,  second  edition  (Leipzig,  1896)  ;  E. 
Haupt,  Zum  Verstandnis  des  ^Apoatolats  im 
Jieuen  Testament  (Halle,  1896)  ;  A.  V.  G.  Allen, 
Christian  Institutions  (New  York,  1897)  ;  F.  J. 
A.noTt,Ecclesia  (New  York,  1898)  ;  J.  W.  Fal- 
coner, From  Apostle  to  Priest  (New  York,  1900) . 

APOSTLE  OF  THE  ABDENNES,  ar^dSn'. 
An  appellation  given  to  St.  Hubert,  the  son  of 
the  Duke  of  Aquitaine,  in  the  reign  of  Theodoric, 
King  of  the  Franks.  He  was  converted  from  a 
gay  life  by  the  vision  of  a  stag  bearing  a  shining 
cross  between  its  antlers.  He  was  made  bishop 
of  Lifege  in  708,  and  died  728.  A  century  after 
his  body  was  transferred  to  the  Benedictine  con- 
vent of  Andoin,  in  the  Ardennes,  which  thence 
received  the  name  of  St.  Hubertus.  It  was  here 
that  he  was  supposed  to  have  seen  the  vision. 

APOSTLE  OF  FBEE  TBADE.  A  title 
frequently  applied  to  Richard  Cobden  (q.v.), 
author  of  The  Exponent  of  the  Principles  of 
Free  Trade,  for  his  persistent  advocacy  of  the 
repeal  of  the  high- tariff  policy  which  England 
practiced  from  1830  to  1846.  He  gave  utterance 
to  the  strikingly  accurate  prophecy  that  Amer- 
ica must  at  no  distant  date  enter  into  serious 
competition  with  English  products;  that,  in  this 
competition,  England  would  be  heavily  handi- 
capped by  Protection,  and  that  the  soundest 
policy  for  her  lay  in  the  direction  of  Free  Trade. 
A  fluent  speaker,  he  carried  these  theories  into 
Parliament,  and  was  directly  responsible  for  the 
repeal  of  the  obnoxious  duties  on  corn. 

APOSTLE  OF  IK'FIDEL^TY.  A  term  ap- 
plied to  Voltaire  on  account  of  his  persistent  at- 
tacks upon  the  Church,  and  his  unfailing  protec- 
tion of  those  whom  he  believed  to  be  persecuted 
by  her.    See  Voltaire. 

APOSTLE  OF  IBELAKJ).  A  title  given 
to  Patrick,  bishop  and  saint,  who,  early  in  the 
Fifth  Century,  felt  himself  divinely  inspired  to 
attempt  the  conversion  of  Ireland,  which  was 
at  that  time  a  heathen  country.  See  Patrick, 
Saint. 

APOSTLE  OF  TEM^EBANCE.  Theobald 
Mathew,  so  designated  through  his  great  labors 
during  the  first  half  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
to  further  the  cause  of  temperance  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  especially  in  Ireland,  the  country 
of  his  birth. 

APOSTLE    OF    THE    HXaH^LANBEBS. 

A  Celtic  missionary  to  the  Caledonians,  other- 
wise known  as  Saint  Columba;  the  founder  of 
the  monastery  of  lona  in  or  about  the  year  565. 

APOSTLES,  Acts  of  the.  Apocryphal.  Seo 
Apocrypha,  paragraph  New  Testament. 


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APOSTOLIC    CONSTITUTIONS. 


APOSTLES,  Teaching  of  the  Tweltb.  See 
Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 

APOSTLES'  CREED.    See  Cbeed. 

APOSTLES'  ISOiANDS,  OB  The  Twelve 
Apostles.  A  group  of  islands  in  Lake  Superior, 
near  the  western  end,  belonging  to  Wisconsin 
(Map:  Wisconsin,  CI).  There  are  in  all  27 
islands,  having  an  area  of  125,000  acres.  The 
largest  of  the  group  is  Madeline  Island,  on 
which  are  La  Pointe,  a  thriving  town,  and  the 
La  Pointe  Indian  Reservation.  The  other  im- 
portant islands  of  the  group  are  Oak  Presque 
and  Outer  Islands.  These  islands  were  occupied 
by  the  French  missions  as  early  as  1680. 

APOSTLE  SPOONS.  The  name  given  to 
spoons,  usually  in  sets  of  13,  the  handles  of 
which  are  formed  by  images  of  the  Twelve 
Apostles  and  of  the  Virgin  Mary.  Up  to  the 
Seventeenth  Century,  such  sets  were  favorite 
christening  gifts. 

APOSTLE  TO  OEBMANT.  A  tiUe  given 
to  Saint  Boniface,  an  English  missionary  (died 
755),  for  his  lifelong  labors  among  the  Frisian 
and  German  tribes. 

APOSTLE  TO  THE  ENGLISH.  An  appel- 
lation kiven  to  Saint  Augustine,  who  led  the 
body  of  monks  sent  to  England  by  Gregory  I.  to 
"convert  the  Angles  into  angels." 

APOSTLE  TO  THE  FBENCH.  An  appel- 
lation of  Saint  Dennis  (q.v.),  the  patron  saint 
of  France,  who  is  said  to  have  been  beheaded 
about  A.D.  272  at  Paris. 

APOSTLE  TO  THE  INDIANS,  The.  John 
Eliot,  thus  styled  because  of  his  eiTurts  to  convert 
the  Indian  tribes  of  New  England  in  the  middle 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century.    See  Eliot,  John. 

APOSTLE  TO  THE  SCOTS,  The.  A  term 
applied  to  the  Scottish  refonner  and  historian, 
John  Knox  (q.v.),  because  of  his  untiring  exer- 
tions to  spread  the  Calvinistic  doctrines  in  Scot- 
land at  the  expense  of  those  of  the  English  and 
Roman  churches. 

APOSTOLIC,  or  APOSTOLICAL.  An  ad- 
jective used  in  various  connections  to  denote 
(something)  that  is  supposed  to  date  from  the 
age  of  the  first  apostles  of  the  Christian  Church, 
or  to  have  received  their  sanction,  or  to  rest 
upon  their  authority.  As  applied  to  a  church, 
it  means  that  the  Twelve  Apostles,  or  at  least  one 
of  them,  taught  the  truths  and  established  the 
polity  it  stands  for.  As  applied  to  a  doctrine  or 
practice,  it  means  that  either  it  is  taught  in  the 
New  Testament,  which,  generally  speaking,  is  of 
e.xclusively  apostolic  composition,  or  that  tradi- 
tionally it  has  been  handed  down  from  apostolic 
days.  The  claim  to  such  origin,  in  particular 
cases,  is  much  disputed  by  Protestants  among 
themselves  in  regard  to  such  points  as  infant 
baptism,  immersion,  and  Church  government; 
and  by  Protestants  over  against  Roman  Catho- 
lics as  to  the  priority  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
and  Papal  claims  generally. 

APOSTOLIC,  The.      See  Mennonites. 

APOSTOLIC  BBETH^EN,  or  Apostolici. 
The  name  given  in  Italy,  toward  the  end  of  the 
Thirteenth  Century,  to  one  of  those  sects  which, 
animated  by  the  spirit  of  an  Arnold  of  Brescia, 
felt  constrained  to  oppose  the  worldly  tendencies 
of  the  Church.  Its  founder  was  Gherardo  Sega- 
relli,  a  weaver  in  Parma.  Rejected,  from  some 
cause  or  other,  by  the  Franciscan  Order,  his  long- 


continued  and  enthusiastic  meditations  led  him 
to  the  profound  conviction  that  it  was  above  all 
things  necessary  to  return  to  the  simple  forma 
of  apostolic  life.     Accordingly,  he  went  about 
( 1260)  in  the  garb  of  the  apostles,  as  a  preacher 
of  repentance,   and  by  his  practical  discourses 
gathered  many  adherents   into  a  kind  of  free 
society,  bound  by  no  oaths.     At  first  he  man- 
aged to  avoid  any  direct  collision  with  the  dog- 
mas of  the  Church;  but  after  twenty  years  of 
undisturbed  activity  and  growing  influence,  Se- 
garelli  was  arrested  by  the  Bishop  of  Panna, 
who,  however,  soon  after  released  him  and  kept 
him  in  his  palace  as  his  fool,  and  in  1286  ban- 
ished him  from  his  diocese.     Upon  the  occasion 
of  his  release.  Pope  Uonorius  IV.  renewed  a  de- 
cree of  the  Council  of  Lyons  (1274)  against  all 
religious   communities    not    directly    sanctioned 
by  the  Papal  chair.     In  1290,  Nicholas  IV.  ^i 
ting  himself  to  expose  and  persecute  the  apos- 
tolic brethren,  they,  on  their  side,  began  to  de- 
nounce the  Papacy  as  the  Babylon  of  Uie  Apoca- 
lypse.   Many,  both  men  and  women,  perished  at 
the  stake,  among  them  S^arelli  (July  18,  1300). 
But  his  cause  survived  him.     Dolcino,  a  more 
energetic  and  cultivated  man,  brought  up  as  a 
priest,  who  had  previously  taken  an  active  part 
in  Tyrol  against  the  alleged  corruptions  of  the 
Church,    now    headed    the    sect    in    Italy.    He 
taught  the  duty  of  a  complete  renunciation  of 
all  worldly  ties*,  of  property,  and  settled  abode, 
etc.     Having   retreated   into   Dalmatia,    he   an- 
nounced from   thence  the  davi'ning  of  the  new 
era,  and  in  1304  reappeared  in  Upper  Italy,  with 
thousands   of   adherents,  as   the   enemy   of   the 
Papacy — at  that  time  humbled  and  impoverished 
by   France.     In   1305   a   crusade  was   preached 
against  him.    He  fortified  the  mountain  Zebello, 
in  the  diocese  of  Vercelli,  but  was,  after  a  gal- 
lant  defense,   compelled   by   famine   to   submit 
After  horrible  tortures,  which  he  bore  with  the 
utmost  fortitude,  h^  was  burned  at  Vercelli,  June 
1,  1307.    In  Lombardy  and  the  south  of  France, 
brethren  lingered  tiiri308. 

APOSTOLIC  CON'STITUTIONS  AHB 
CANNONS.  The  Constitutions  are  a  collectioa 
of  ecclesiastical  ordinances,  in  eight  books,  erro- 
neously supposed  to  have  been  thd  work  of  the 
Apostles,  ana  to  have  been  written  down  by  Saint 
Clement.  In  the  last  chapter  of  the  eighth  book  the 
so-called  Apostolic  Canons,  eighty-five  in  number, 
are  given.  It  is  now  recognized  that  both  works 
are  compositions  of  a  later  date;  but  scholars 
are  not  yet  fully  agreed  upon  the  sources  and 
dates  for  the  different  parts.  The  theory  mo^t 
generally  held  is  that  the  first  six  books  of  the 
Constitutions  are  based  upon  the  Dida^calio^  a 
work  of  the  last  third  of  the  Third  Century: 
that  the  seventh  book  is  a  reworking  of  the 
Didache,  a  Second-Century  work;  and  that  the 
eighth  book  rests  probablv  upon  a  collect  itxi 
based  upon  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus  (q.v.). 
The  Canons  were  probably  composed  in  Syria, 
and  according  to  Funk,  who  may  be  re^rded  as 
the  best  authority,  date  from  the  beginning  ol 
the  Fifth  Century.  The  authority  of  the  con- 
stitutions was  never  accepted  in  the  Western 
Church,  and  was  rejected  by  the  Eastern  at  the 
Council  of  Constantinople,  in  692.  The  Can<vn< 
were  accepted  by  the  Eastern  Church  at  that 
council.  In  the  West,  the  first  fifty  fi-ere  trans- 
lated by  Dionysius  Exiguus  (q.v.),  were  inci>r- 
porated  in  the  Decretum  of  Gratian  ( q.v. ) ,  and. 
although  held  to  be'  apocryphal,  are  consi<lcred 


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661    APPALACHIAN   MOUNTAIN   CLUB. 


an  important  source  for  the  rules  of  the  primi- 
tive Church.  A  translation  of  both  may  be  found 
in  the  Ante-yicene  Fathers,  Volume  VII.  (Buf- 
falo, 1886),  and  a  bibliography  in  Volume  IX. 
(Buffalo,  1887).  The  original  text  was  edited 
by  P.  Lagarde  (Ticipzig,  1862).  For  the  Canons 
consult  especially:  Lauchert,  Kanonea  (Frei- 
burg and  I^ipzig,  1890)  ;  for  the  Constitutions, 
Funk,  Die  Apostolischen  Konatitutionen  (Roth- 
enburg,  1891). 

APOSTOLIC  FA^THEBS.  The  name  given 
to  the  disciples  and  fellow-laborers  of  the  Apos- 
tles, especially  to  those  among  them  who  have 
left  real  or  so-considered  writings  behind  them. 
These  writings,  in  Lightfoot's  edition,  comprise 
the  Epistle  of  Clement  of  Rome,  and  his  so- 
called  Second  Epistle,  which  really  is  not  his  at 
all ;  the  seven  Epistles  of  Ignatius  of  Antioch ; 
the  Epistle  of.  Polycarp  of  Smyrna ;  the  Martyr- 
dom of  Polycarp;  the  Teachings  of  the  Apostles 
(the  Didache)  ;  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas;  the 
Shepherd  of  Hermas;  the  Epistle  of  Diognetus; 
the  fragments  of  Papias;  and  the  Reliques  of 
the  Elders,  preserved  in  Irenseus.  The  writings 
of  the  Apostolic  Fathers,  as  to  their  form  and 
subject,  may  be  looked  upon  as  a  continuation 
of  the  apostolic  epistles,  though  far  inferior  to 
them.  Their  main  purpose  is  to  exhort  to  faith 
and  holiness  before  Christ's  coming  again.  Edi- 
tions of  the  Apostolic  Fathers  were  published 
by  J.  B.  Cotelerius  (Paris,  1672)  ;  W.  Jacob- 
son  (Oxford,  1838)  ;  C.  J.  Hefele  (Tttbingen, 
1839);  A.  R.  M.  Dressel  (Leipzig,  1857);  Geb- 
hardt,  Zahn,  and  Harnack  (Leipzig,  1876-78; 
text  edition,  1877;  third  edition,  1900);  J.  B. 
Lightfoot  (texts  and  English  translation,  Lon- 
don, 1891;  second  edition,  1893).  There  is  a 
separate  English  translation  in  Ante-Nicene 
Library  (Edinburgh),  Volume  I.,  1867;  Chris- 
tian Literature  editions  (New  York)  VII.  and 
IX.  See  the  separate  articles  on  the  Apostolic 
Fathers  mentioned  above. 

AP'OSTOI/ICI,  or  AP'OTACTICI  (i.e.,  re- 
nunciants).  A  sect  of  heretics  in  Phrygia,  Cili- 
cia,  and  Pamphylia,  who,  wishing  to  restore  the 
supposed  purity  of  the  Apostolic  Church,  re- 
nounced all  their  possessions,  forbade  marriage 
as  identical  with  unchastity,  and  adopted  an 
ascetic  mode  of  life.  They  flourished  in  the 
Third  and  Fourth  centuries. 

APOSTOLIC  MAJ'ESTY.  A  title  held  by 
the  kings  of  Hungary,  conferred  in  1000  by  Pope 
Sylvester  II.,  along  with  the  regal  crown  upon 
Saint  Stephen,  ruler  of  Hungary,  who  had  not 
only  greatly  encouraged  the  progress  of  Chris- 
tianity in  Hungary,  but  actually  preached  him- 
self ^  in  imitation  of  the  Apostles.  In  1758  the 
title  was  renewed  by  Pope  Clement  XIII.,  in 
favor  of  Maria  Theressa,  as  Queen  of  Hungary, 
and  it  continues  to  be  used  by  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  as  King  of  Hungary. 

APOSTOLIC  PAB'TY.  The  name  given  in 
Spain  early  in  the  Nineteenth  Century,  to  a 
faction  of  fanatical  Catholics,  who  demanded 
the  restoration  of  the  Inquisition  and  the  rees- 
tablishment  of  the  unlimited  power  of  the  King. 
They  formed  themselves  (soon  after  the  revolu- 
tion of  1820)  into  an  apostolic,  party,  whose 
leaders  were  fugitive  priests,  and  whose  troops 
were  smugglers  and  robbers.  They  were  popu- 
larly supposed  to  be  ruled  by  a  committee  known 
as  the  Apostolic  Junta.    After  taking  an  active 


part  in  all  the  subsequent  agitations,  they  finally 
merged  (1830)  in  the  Carlist  Party. 

APOSTOLIC  SUCCES^SION.  The  system 
according  to  which  a  person  is  consecrated  to 
episcopal  authority  and  office  by  those  who  have 
themselves  received  it  from  others,  tracing  their 
authority  back  by  successive  ascent  to  the  Apos- 
tles ;  the  law  by  which  the  Church,  as  an  organic 
body,  is  made  self-perpetuating.  Outside  of 
scriptural  authority  for  the  doctrine,  the  Epis- 
tles of  Ignatius  (q.v.)  and  the  earliest  canon  of 
post-apostolic  times  (which  orders  that  the  con- 
secrators  shall  be  three,  the  purpose  being  that 
the  consecration  shall  be  open  and  well-known), 
are  appealed  to  as  proofs  of  the  continuity  of  its 
maintenance.  It  is  strictly  insisted  upon  by  the 
Roman  Catholic,  the  Eastern,  and  (in  modem 
theory,  though  with  some  very  doubtful  points 
in  the  Sixteenth  Century)  by  the  Anglican 
churches,  none  of  which  recognizes  as  legitimate 
ministers  those  who  have  not  received  ordination 
from  a  bishop  in  this  succession;  and  a  few 
minor  bodies,  like  the  Vaudois  and  the  Mora- 
vians, assert  that  they  can  trace  some  kind  of 
succession  in  a  direct  line  to  the  apostles.  See 
Bishop. 

Consult  Haddan,  Apostolic  Succession  in  the 
Church  of  England  (London,  1869). 

APOS^BOPHE.      See  Chloboplast. 

APOTH^CABY.     See  Chemises  and  Dbug- 

6ISTS. 

APOTHEGM,  ftp'6-th6m,  (Gk.  dv6ip0eyMa, 
apophthegma,  an  utterance).  A  term  used  to 
designate  any  truth  or  maxim  sententioualy  ex- 
pressed. The  oracles  of  the  heathen  gods  often 
took  this  form,  as  also  the  proverbs,  memorable 
sayings,  etc.^  of  the  sages  of  antiquity.  In  mod- 
em times.  Lord  Bacon  has  made  a  charming  col- 
lection of  apothegms. 

AP'OTHE^OSIS  (Gk.  dxoWw<rts,  deification, 
from  dx6,  apo,  away  -+•  tfe6j,  theos,  god,  deity). 
The  raising  of  a  mortal  to  the  rank  of  a  god. 
From  the  polytheistic  point  of  view,  there  is 
nothing  monstrous  in  this  idea;  on  the  contrary, 
it  is  quite  natural,  and  a  necessary  part  of  the 
system.  Among  pagans  generally,  and  especially 
among  the  Romans,  every  departed  spirit  became 
a  deity  (see  Labes)  ;  "and  as  it  was  common 
for  children  to  worship  (privately)  the  manes 
of  their  fathers,  so  was  it  natural  for  divine 
honors  to  be  paid  publicly  to  a  deceased  emperor, 
who  was  regarded  as  the  parent  of  his  country." 
At  the  Consecratio,  as  it  was  called,  of  a  Roman 
emperor,  the  body  was  burned  on  a  funeral  pile, 
and  as  the  fire  ascended,  an  eagle  was  let  loose 
to  mount  into  the  sky,  carrying,  as  was  believed, 
the  soul  of  the  Emperor  from  earth  to  heaven. 
Many  coins  of  deified  Roman  emperors  are  found 
with  the  word  consecratio  surrounding  an  altar, 
with  fire  on  it. 

APOX'YOM^NOS  (Gk.  dxofu^Mewf, scraping 
one's  self,  from  dir6,  apo,  away  +  ^^ip^  xyein,' 
to  scrape).  A  well-preserved  marble  copy  in 
the  Vatican  of  a  statue  by  Lysippus,  represent- 
ing an  athlete  scraping  himself  with  the  strigil. 
It  was  found  in  Trastavere,  at  Rome,  in  1849. 
The  original  was  in  bronze,  and  stood  in  front 
of  the  baths  of  Agrippa. 

APPALACHIAN  MOUN'TAIN  CLUB. 
A  society  of  persons  interested  in  the  mountains 
of  New  England  and  adjacent  regions.  It  was 
organized  in  1876,  incorporated  in  1878,  and  au- 


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APPALACHIAN  MOUNTAIN  CLUB.     662 


APPALACHIANS. 


thorized  by  legislative  act  of  1894  to  hold  moun- 
tain and  forest  lands  as  historic  sites.  The  club 
aims  to  preserve  the  beauty  of  mountain  forests 
and  resorts,  to  render  them  attractive  to  visitors 
and  excursionists,  to  publish  accurate  maps 
thereof,  and  to  collect  scientific  data  concerning 
the  mountains.  Appalachia,  the  club  journal, 
has  ( 1901 )  reached  27  numbers,  constituting 
9  complete  volumes.  An  annual  Register  has 
been  published  since  1879.  Several  books  relat- 
ing to  mountaineering,  touring  trips,  etc.,  have 
been  published  under  the  auspices  of  the  society. 
The  club  library  consists  of  over  1000  volumes, 
500  pamphlets,  1300  maps  or  sets  of  maps,  and 
several  notable  collections  of  photographs  of 
mountain  views.  The  club  which,  in  1901,  had 
1200  members,  conducts  excursions  and  field 
meetings  every  year. 

APPALACHIANS.  The  general  name  for 
the  extensive  mountain  system  in  the  eastern 
United  States.  It  extends  in  a  northeast-south- 
west direction  from  northern  Alabama  and  Geor- 
gia, to  the  vicinity  of  Albany,  N.  Y.  Some 
writers  include  the  Adirondack  Mountains,  but 
these  constitute  an  independent  though  com- 
paratively small  system,  geologically  distinct 
from  the  Appalachians.  The  Taconic,  Green, 
and  White  mountains  are  often,  and  with  more 
reason,  considered  a  part  of  the  general  system, 
as  also  are  the  ranges  stretching  from  northern 
Maine  to  the  Gasp6  Peninsula,  and  reappearing 
in  Newfoundland.  At  its  southern  end  the  sys- 
tem curves  slightly  to  the  westward,  and  beyond 
the  Mississippi  Valley  is  resumed  as  the  Oua- 
chita uplift  of  southern  Arkansas  and  Indian 
Territory. 

General  Chabacteb.  The  region  proper  may 
be  described  as  a  long,  narrow  plateau,  from  70 
to  200  miles  in  width,  with  an  altitude  of  1500 
to  3000  feet.  It  is  bordered  on  the  east  by  the 
well-defined  Blue  Ridge,  and  on  the  west  by  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  whiqh  two  ridges  lie  ap- 
proximately parallel,  and  75  to  100  miles  apart, 
throughout  their  lengths.  Between  these  outer 
ranges  lie  a  great  number  of  smaller  discon- 
nected mountain  ridges,  chiefly  parallel  to  the 
main  axis  of  the  system  in  the  central  and  north- 
em  part,  but  much  broken  in  the  southern  and 
southeastern  Appalachians.  These  mountain 
ridges  maintain  a  remarkably  uniform  altitude, 
gradually  increasing  from  both  directions  to- 
ward the  central  mass  in  western  North  Caro- 
lina. Lying  between  the  comparatively  narrow 
and  regular  wall  of  the  Blue  Ridge  and  Alle- 
ghanian  ranges,  west  of  it,  is  the  great  Appa- 
lachian Valley,  which  is  a  characteristic  feature 
of  the  topography,  for  it  extends  the  entire 
length  of  the  mountain  system.  Here  and  there 
it  is  broken  by  minor  ridges  into  two  or  three 
parallel  valleys,  but  the  general  nature  of  a 
trough  between  mountain  ranges  is  maintained 
throughout.  In  New  York  it  is  knowTi  as  the 
Wallkill  Valley;  in  Pennsylvania,  the  Lebanon, 
Lancaster,  and  Cumberland  valleys;  in  Vir- 
ginia it  is  the  historic  Shenandoah  Valley,  or 
"Great  Valley  of  Virginia";  and  still  farther 
south  it  is  the  Tennessee  Vallej',  extending  into 
Alabama  and  Georgia. 

DmsiONS.  The  Appalachian  region  has  not 
a  uniform  conformation  throughout  its  extent, 
but  is  divided  into  two  sections,  the  Northern 
and  the  Southern  Appalachians,  with  the  line  of 
separation  in  western  Virginia.    This  division  is 


not  merely  of  an  arbitrary  nature,  but  is  founded 
on  well-marked  differences  in  the  structural  and 
physiographic  features  of  the  two  regions.  Id 
the  northern  division  the  Blue  Ridge  range  has 
gentle  slopes,  rising  usually  to  rounded  crests, 
which  show  a  gently  undulating  sky  line,  with 
here  and  there  a  peak  rising  a  little  higher  than 
the  usual  level.  (See  Blue  Ridge.)  To  the 
west  of  this  ridge  is  a  more  or  less  elevated 
northerly  extension  of  the  great  Appalachian 
Valley,  which  in  general  presents  a  succes'iion 
of  depressions  and  heights,  the  former  worn  by 
streams  to  a  depth,  in  some  cases,  of  200  feet 
while  the  latter  rise  to  a  height  of  usually  le^> 
than  1000  feet  above  the  depressions.  The  Alle- 
ghany Mountains  rise  west  of  the  valley  in 
bolder  sculpturing  than  that  of  the  Blue  Ridjie. 
the  side  toward  the  great  interior  valley,  the 
'*Alleghany  front,"  being  steep  and  rugged;  but 
on  the  side  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  the  slope  is 
gradual,  descending  westward  in  lessening  ridps 
from  the  plateau  which  marks  the  summit 
region;  this  configuration  is  due  to  the  fa^t 
that  the  stratified  rocks  (see  below)  incline 
westward,  exhibiting  their  upturned  edge*  in 
precipices  toward  the  east.  Beginning  with  the 
Catskills,  the  line  is  broken  by  the  broad  vailev 
of  the  Delaware,  but  reappears  in  several  promi- 
nent ranges  in  Pennsylvania.  The  westernmost, 
or  'front'  range,  is  confusingly  called  First  or 
Blue  Mountain,  with  Peter's,  or  Second  Moun- 
tain, behind  it,  east  of  the  Susquehanna.  East  of 
the  Susquehanna,  the  Tuscorora,  Blacklog.  Jacks 
Standing  Stone,  and  Tussey's  are  well-defined 
ranges  westward,  filling  the  whole  region  with 
crowded  heights  to  the  long  range  distinclivelj 
termed  Alleghany,  which  stretches  from  the 
border  of  New  York  do^Ti  into  West  Virginia. 
In  the  Virginias  both  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the 
western  ranges  become  loftier  and  better  de- 
fined. The  front  range  is  here  called  the  Great 
North  Mountain,  and  west  of  it  lie  successively 
the  Shenandoah  and  several  broken  ranges,  ris- 
ing to  the  continuation  of  the  Alleghanies  prop- 
er. These  draw  together  at  the  southwest  ex- 
tremity of  Virginia,  where  a  new  uplift,  tie 
Chimberland  Mountains  (q.v.),  rises  west  of 
them,  and  terminate  in  the  Clinch  Mounuin< 
The  valley  of  the  Tennessee  makes  a  break,  south 
of  which  the  range  reappears  in  the  prolongi- 
tions  of  the  Cumberland  Mountains  in  northern 
Alabama.  In  New  Jersey  the  'Highlands*  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  rise  to  heigh  to  of  1000  to  1500  feet: 
in  Pennsvlvania  to  2000  feet;  in  Virginia  fT»«ni 
2000  to  4000  feet  (Hawk's  Bill,  40«6  feetU  ani 
with  a  breadth  of  16  miles.  In  North  Carolina, 
near  the  Virginia  line,  the  Blue  Ridge  forks,  t^i* 
Unaka  Mountains,  of  somewhat  greater  altitude, 
but  of  lesser  continuity,  branching  off  toward  th* 
southwest,  while  the  Blue  Ridge  proper  take>  a 
more  southerly  course.  The  Alleghanies,  whu  h 
really  begin  with  the  Catskills,  in  New  Y.>rfc 
State  (highest  4200  feet),  have  in  the  northern 
part  a  general  elevation  of  about  2000  feet,  whir:. 
increases  to  4400  feet  in  Virginia  and  Kentuok>. 
and  still  farther  south  decreases  from  2«M)  ti> 
2500  feet.  The  absence  of  any  isolated  peak-  i^ 
highly  characteristic  of  the  whole  Alleghani^r. 
region;  the  mountains  everywhere  pre:»ent  trt^ 
ap|)earance  of  long,  evenly  topped  ridges,  and 
the  name  applies  to  the  whole  ridge. 

The  prominence  of  the  Blue  Ridge  is  th- 
characteristic  feature  of  the  southern  divi««ion 
of  the  Appalachians.     This  rises  suddenly  fp.^r 


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the  Piedmont  tableland,  east  and  south  of  it, 
to  heights  far  greater  than  the  Alleghanies  at- 
tain. Beginning  prominently  in  South  Moun- 
tain, in  southern  Pennsylvania,  it  stretches 
southwestward  in  greater  and  greater  heights, 
through  Virginia  and  Western  North  Carolina, 
where  it  divides,  the  northern  branch  continuing 
westward  to  Georgia  as  the  Unaka,  or  Great 
Smoky  Mountains.  These  form  a  broad  mass  of 
mountains  on  the  border  between  North  Caro- 
lina and  1'ennessee,  containing  peaks  exceeding 
those  of  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, and  consequently  the  highest  east  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  culminating  group, 
reaching  in  Mount  Mitchell  6710  feet,  is  known 
as  the  Black  Mountains  (q.v.),  and  contains 
many  peaks  above  4000  feet  in  height.  The 
Unaka  Mountains  are  characterized  by  the  great 
sharp-ridged  spurs  which  leave  the  main  chain 
and  preserve  its  height  for  a  distance  of  several 
miles ;  between  these  spurs  are  deep  valleys  only 
wide  enough  at  the  bottom  for  the  creek-beds 
which  are  invariably  found  there.  The  altitudes 
of  the  extended  valleys  in  this  great  highland 
region  are  from  2000  to  3000  feet.  To  the  west 
of  the  steep-sided  Unaka  ridge  lies  a  valley, 
about  60  or  60  miles  wide,  in  Tennessee,  which 
contains  the  Tennessee  River  and  its  tributaries, 
the  Clinch,  Hol^ton,  and  French  Broad. 

Geologt.  The  Appalachian  Mountains  are 
folded  mountains ;  that  is,  they  have  been  formed 
by  plications  or  folds  of  the  rock  layers  that 
make  up  the  crust  of  the  earth  in  this  region, 
and  the  particular  type  of  plication  is  so  well 
developed  in  this  region  that  it  has  received  the 
name  of  the  "Appalachian  type"  of  folding. 
The  Blue  Ridge,  along  the  eastern  side,  con- 
sists of  layers  of  crystalline  rocks,  the  oldest 
known  in  the  Appalachians,  that  have  suffered 
so  great  an  amount  of  metamorphism  as  to 
render  the  determination  of  their  exact  age  a 
matter  of  considerable  difficulty.  They  are 
grouped  under  the  term  "fundamental  complex," 
and  it  is  certain  that  they  are  in  large  part  pre- 
Cambrian;  and  some  are  even  Archaean  on  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  On  the  western 
edge  isolated  masses  of  Cambrian  rocks  are 
found.  All  these  rocks  of  the  Blue  Ridge  have 
been  much  folded  and  compressed,  so  that  the 
layers  now  stand  almost  on  end  and  are  even 
overturned.  Great  faults  and  overthrusts  are 
cx>mmon,  and  add  to  the  difficulty  of  unraveling 
the  structure  of  the  district.  In  the  Appala- 
chian Valley  the  geological  structure  is  also  quite , 
complex,  though  the  strata  are  not  so  intensely 
metamorphosed.  The  rocks  are  limestones, 
shales,  and  sandstones,  and  they  lie  in  closed 
folds  that  become  more  open  toward  the  western 
side  of  the  valley.  These  folds  are  peculiar  in 
that  their  eastward  slopes  are  always  steeper 
than  the  westward.  When  the  folds  are  over- 
turned the  inversion  is  toward  the  east;  and 
overthrusts  are  also  toward  the  east,  and  often 
of  considerable  extent.  Tliis  valley  is  largely 
the  result  of  the  erosion  of  a  great  limestone  for- 
mation, of  Cambro-Silurian  age,  that  extends  its 
entire  length.  The  Alleghany  Mountains  consist 
of  rocks  of  Paleozoic  age,  Cambrian  to  Carbon- 
iferous, inclusive,  that  have  been  elevated  into 
folded  ridges  and  then  eroded  to  their  present 
topography.  The  softer  beds  have  been  worn  into 
valleys,  and  the  harder  beds,  having  resisted 
erosion,  have  been  left  to  form  the  ridges  and 
benches.     In  this  limestone  also  have  been  erod- 


ed the  wonderful  series  of  caves  of  the  Shenan- 
doah Valley  and  elsewhere,  of  which  that  at 
Luray,  Va.,  is  a  striking  example  ( see  Caves  ) . 
Anticlinal  and  synclinal  folds  alternate  in  di- 
minishing intensity  toward  the  west,  where 
they  disappear  in  the  nearly  horizontal  beds  of 
the  Cumberland  Plateau,  which  is  made  up  of 
carboniferous  rocks. 

Dbainage  Development.  The  region  now  .oc- 
cupied by  the  Appalachian  Mountains  has  been 
the  scene  of  many  physiographical  changes  too 
complex  to  explain  here.  At  a  comparatively  re- 
cent time,  however,  the  whole  of  the  Appalachian 
system  consisted  of  a  great  rounded  plateau  with 
an  elevation  of  perhaps  4000  feet,  the  surface  of 
which  is  called  by  geologists  the  Kittatinny 
Plain.  Above  this  plain  arose  to  a  moderate 
height  the  now  high  mountains  of  Western  North 
Carolina.  Along  a  central  zone  the  land  in- 
creased in  altitude  to  a  region  in  Virginia  which 
thus  became  the  watershed.  The  rain  now  did 
its  work,  and  the  great  rivers — ^the  New,  the 
Roanoke,  James,  Potomac,  and  Susquehanna — 
cut  out  their  paths  through  the  then  nearly  level 
region,  and  a  well-developed  system  of  highlands 
and  drainage  was  established.  However,  the  sub- 
sequent elevation  of  land  in  this  region  by 
amounts  ranging  from  200  feet  in  the  north  to 
1700  feet  in  Virginia,  once  more  disturbed  the 
adjustment  of  the  water  systems,  and  gave  a  new 
impetus  to  the  work  of  the  flowing  waters. 

While  the  Appalachian  Mountains  form  the 
watershed  between  the  Atlantic  Slope  and  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  yet  throughout  there  is  no 
definite  watershed  line  on  one  side  of  which  the 
rivers  flow  to  the  west,  and  on  the  other  toward 
the  east.  In  the  northern  part  the  streams 
chiefly  break  through  the  mountains  from  the 
western  side  to  the  east.  In  the  middle  part, 
some  escape  toward  the  east  and  some  toward 
the  west;  while  at  the  south  the  eastern  moun- 
tain range  of  the  Blue  Ridge  forms  the  water- 
shed. The  water-courses  appear  to  be  independ- 
ent of  the  direction  of  the  mountain  ranges,  and 
instead  of  pursuing  what  appear  to  be  the  natu- 
ral directions  along  the  present  great  valleys, 
they  flow  across  the  ridges  through  deep  gaps  in 
them.  This  peculiar  circumstance  is  due  to  the 
fact  that  these  gaps  were  cut  by  the  streams  be- 
fore the  intervening  ridges  were  upheaved. 

The  chief  streams  draining  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Appalachian  into  the  Atlantic  are  the  Hud- 
son and  its  branches  on  the  west,  the  Delaware, 
Schuylkill,  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  and  the 
James,  which  cut  their  way  eastward  through 
the  mountain  ranges;  and  the  Rappahannock, 
Dan,  Yadkin  (Pedee),  Catawba,  Broad,  Saluda 
(branches  of  the  Santee),  and  the  Savannah, 
which  rise  from  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Blue 
Ridge,  whose  western  slopes  drain  into  the  Sus- 
quehanna, Shenandoah  (Potomac),  James  or 
Tennessee.  On  the  south  are  the  Chattahoochee 
(head  stream  of  the  Apalachicola )  and  the 
Coosa  (head  stream  of  the  Alabama),  flowing 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  streams  draining 
the  Appalachian  region  on  the  west  are  tributary 
to  the  Ohio  River.  They  are  they  Hiwassee,  the 
Little  Tennessee,  and  the  French  Broad,  which 
flow  from  the  Blue  Ridge  through  a  network  of 
high  mountains,  and  break  through  the  great 
Unaka  range  to  the  Tennessee;  the  Holston 
and  Clinch  rivers  also  tributaries  of  the  Ten- 
nessee; the  Cumberland,  the  New  (head  of  the 
Kanawha),  the  Little  Kanawha,  Allegheny,  and 


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Monongahela.  The  last  two  join  to  form  the 
Ohio. 

CuMATE.  The  climate  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  must  he  characterized  as  temperate, 
as  they  extend  from  a  region  in  which  the 
average  annual  temperature  is  46**  F.  south- 
ward to  a  region  of  61**  F.  The  region,  there- 
fore partakes  of  the  general  climatic  conditions 
of  its  latitude,  modified  by  its  altitude.  As  the 
prevailing  winds  come  from  the  southwest  they 
do  not  bring  much  moisture,  and  the  rainfall  and 
snowfall  are  not  excessive,  though  greater  upon 
the  heights  of  the  central  ranges  than  in  the 
lower  areas  outside.  The  rainfall  for  the  year 
averages  about  40  inches  throughout  most  of 
the  Appalachian  region,  but  in  the  southern  sec- 
tion increases  to  60  or  70  inches.  Droughts  fre- 
quently occur  at  the  north,  but  seldom  at  the 
south.'  On  the  whole,  the  summer  climate  of  the 
Appalachian  region  is  delightful,  and  its  charms 
are  becoming  more  and  more  appreciated  by 
summer  visitors.  This  attractiveness  is  in- 
creased by  the  abundance  of  vegetation,  the 
beautiful  scenery,  in  which  grandeur  may  often 
be  found,  and  particularly  by  the  presence  in 
many  parts  of  the  mountains  of  springs  of 
saline,  chalybeate,  and  other  mineral -bearing 
waters,  both  hot  and  cold.  These  medicinal 
waters,  together  with  the  purity  and  energizing 
character  of  the  air,  has  long  given  the  moun- 
tains, especially  in  North  Carolina  and  Virginia, 
a  high  repute  as  a  health  resort. 

Vegetation  and  Fauna.  The  Appalachian 
region  is  covered  with  a  dense  forest  growth 
where  it  has  not  been  removed  by  man,  forest 
trees  covering  the  mountain  slopes  practically  to 
their  summits,  except  where  the  bai^ren  rocks 
furnish  no  soil.  The  chief  trees  in  the  north 
are  the  sugar  maple,  white  birch,  beech,  ash,  pine, 
and  hemlock ;  in  the  south,  oaks  of  various  kinds, 
chestnut,  hickory,  poplar,  tulip,  ash,  beech, 
maple,  linden,  red  birch,  cherry,  with  a  sprink- 
ling of  a  dozen  other  varieties.  Especially  at 
the  south  extensive  thickets  of  laurel  and  rhodo- 
dendron border  the  water-courses.  Ferns,  wild 
flowers,  wild  grasses,  and  the  wild  pea  vine  fur- 
nish an  abundant  herbage.  In  the  northern  sec- 
tion most  of  the  valuable  timber  has  been 
removed  and  vast  areas  desolated  to  secure  tree 
bark  for  tanning  purposes.  At  the  South,  how- 
ever, the  forests  retain  much  of  their  primeval 
character  and  magnificence,  some  of  the  trees 
being  of  gigantic  size.  Of  the  larger  mammalia 
bears,  deer,  wildcats,  are  still  common,  but 
by  no  means  plentiful.  Wolves  and  panthers 
have  practically  disappeared.  Small  game  birds 
and,  at  the  South,  wild  turkeys  are  plentiful. 
Unfortunately,  rattlesnakes  and  copperheads  are 
to  be  found  all  over  the  mountains,  yet  rarely  in 
dangerous  numbers.  The  woods  and  streams 
abound,  beyond  almost  any  other  part  of  the 
Temperate  Zone,  in  fresh-water  mollusks. 

Mineral  Resources.  Economic  products  of 
considerable  importance  are  found  in  the  Appa- 
lachian region.  Coal  (q.v.)  is  far  the  most  im- 
portant; the  entire  anthracite  field  and  part  of 
the  bituminous  field  of  Pennsylvania  and  other 
States  lie  in  the  Alleghany  Mountain's  and  the 
Cumberland  plateau  or  its  northern  extension. 
The  petroleum  and  oil  fields  of  New  York, 
western  Pennsylvania,  and  southward,  barely 
touch  the  edge  of  the  Appalachian  region.  Of  the 
metals,   iron  occurs  as  hematite,  limonite,  and 


magnetite  at  many  localities;  zinc  is  found  in 
association  with  magnetite  at  the  well-known 
localities  of  Franklin  Furnace  and  Ogdensburg. 
N.  J.,  and  as  blendci,  calamine,  etc.,  associated 
with  lead,  at  the  Bertha  Mines  in  Wythe  County, 
Va.  Lead  has  been  found  in  small  amounts  at 
many  points,  but  does  not  occur  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  constitute  an  independent  industry. 
Copper  is  found  native  in  the  crystalline  rocks  of 
Virginia,  and  as  chalcopyrite  often  in  large 
masses,  as  at  DucktowTi,  eastern  Tennessee.  Gold 
and  silver  occur  in  small  amounts  chiefly  in 
Georgia  and  North  Carolina;  nickel  and  cobalt 
are  also  found  sparingly.  Bauxite,  one  of  the 
ores  of  aluminum,  has  assumed  great  importance 
in  Alabama,  and  manganese  has  been  mined  in 
large  quantities  in  Tennessee  and  Virginia. 
Natural  cement,  of  such  high  grade  as  to  make 
it  a  rival  of  Portland  cement,  is  found  at  many 
outcrops  of  the  upper  Silurean  formations  in 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  Mary- 
land, and  lime  is  burned  throughout  the  region. 
Building  stone  of  good  quality  is  abundant,  and 
slate  of  excellent  grade  is  quarried  in  New  Jer- 
sey and  Pennsylvania.  Asbestos,  mica,  garnet, 
and  emery  are  mined  in  Virginia,  the  Carolinas, 
and  Georgia,  and  gems  of  many  kinds  are  found 
in  the  Blue  Ridge. 

BiBiJOQBAPHT.  A.  Guyot,  "The  Appalachian 
Mountain  System,"  American  Journal  of  Sci- 
€n<:e,  second  series.  Volume  XXXI.  (New  Haven, 
1861)  ;  C.  W.  Hayes,  "The  Mechanics  of  Appa- 
lachian Mountain  Structure,"  Annual  Report 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Volume  XIIU 
Part  II.  (Washington,  1892);  B.  Willis,  "The 
Northern  Appalachians,"  National  Geographic 
Monographs,  Volume  I,  (New  York,  1895) ;  C. 
W.  Hayes,  "The  Southern  Appalachians,"  \<i- 
iional  Geographic  Monographs,  Volume  I.  (New 
York,  1895)  ;  C.  W.  Hayes  and  M.  R.  Campbell. 
"Geomorphology  of  the  Southern  Appalachian^.'* 
Natiofial  Geographic  Monographs,  Volume  Vf. 
(Washington,  1894);  C.  W.  Hayes.  "Physi- 
ography of  the  Chattanooga  District  in  Teiine>- 
see,  (jeorgia,  and  Alabama,"  Annual  Report 
United  States  Geological  Survey,  Volume  XIX., 
Part  II.  (Washington,  1899)  ;  B.  Willis,  "Paleo^ 
zoic  Appalachia,  or  a  History  of  Maryland  Dur- 
ing Paleozoic  Time,"  Maryland  Geological  i^ur- 
vey,  Special  Publication,  Volume  VI.,  Part  I, 
(Baltimore,  Md.,  1900)  ;  Chapman,  Flora  of  the 
Southern  States  (New  York,  1883)  ;  Lounsberr>\ 
Southern  Wildflotoers  and  Trees  (New  York, 
1901). 

See  Mountain;  Anticune;  Physiogxapht; 
Geology;  United  States. 

AP'PABATUS  (Lat.,  from  ad,  to  -^-porare. 
to  make  ready,  prepare).  In  the 'sciences,  a 
collection  of  tools  or  instruments  for  experiment- 
ing or  working."  In  physiology,  a  group  or  ci^l- 
lection  of  organs  associated  in  a  single  function ; 
as,  the  heart,  veins,  and  arteries  are  the  cirru- 
latory  apparatus;  the  legs  are  the  apparatus  of 
locomotion,  etc. 

APPARATUS,  PsYCHoixjGiCAi..  See  Psr- 
CHOix)GiCAL  Apparatus. 

APPABENT  (Lat.  ad,  to -{- parere,  to  come 
forth,  be  visible) .  A  term  used  to  express  a  num- 
ber of  important  distinctions,  especially  in  a.<- 
tronomy.  The  apparent  diameter  of  a  heavenly 
body  is  the  angle  formed  by  two  lines  drawn 
from  its  opposite  ends  to  the  spectator's  eye;  thi* 
obviously  depends  upon  the  distance  of  the  body^ 


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as  well  as  upon  its  real  magnitude.  A  planet 
seen  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  seems  nearer 
the  horizon  than  if  seen  from  the  centre  of  the 
earth:  what  is  seen  from  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  the  apparent  altitude  of  the  planet;  its 
real  altitude  would  be  seen,  if  an  observation 
could  be  made  from  the  centre  of  the  earth.  The 
apparent  altitude  differs  from  the  t^ue  on  ac- 
count of  parallax  and  refraction  (qq.v.).  Appar- 
ent noon  is  when  the  visible  sun  is  on  the  merid- 
ian; true  or  mean  noon  is  the  time  when  the 
sun  would  be  on  the  meridian  if  his  motion  in 
the  heavens  were  uniform  and  parallel  to  the 
equator.  (See  Equation  op  Time.)  The  daily 
and  annual  motions  of  the  sun  in  the  heavens  are 
both  apparent  motianSj  caused  by  two  real  mo- 
tions of  the  earth.  In  general,  apparent  phe- 
nomena are  the  phenomena  of  the  actual  visible 
heavenly  bodies,  while  the  •  corresponding  true 
phenomena  are  what  the  former  would  be  if  cer- 
tain disturbing  causes  were  eliminated.    See  also 

APPEARA^XEE. 

'  AP'PABI^IOK  (Lat.  apparitio,  an  appear- 
ance, from  adt  to  -+•  parere,  to  come  forth,  be 
visible).  An  illusion  or  hallucination  in  which 
objects,  commonly  human  beings,  are  seen  with 
such  vividness  as  to  be  regarded  as  real.  The 
hallucinations  of  delirium  or  insanity  are  not^ 
included  under  this  term.  Before  the  diffusion 
of  modern  science,  there  existed  a  well-nigh  uni- 
versal belief  in  the  reality  of  apparitions.  Greek 
and  Roman  poetry  abounds  with  instances;  folk- 
lore owes  much  of  its  attractiveness  to  its  wealth 
of  spectres  and  phantoms,  fairies  and  brownies, 
and  its  witches  and  ghost-haunted  houses.  Dr. 
Johnson  voices  the  universality  of  this  belief, 
and,  incidentally,  gives  us  a  glimpse  of  a  vein  of 
superstition  and  credulity  in  his  nature  when,  in 
his  RcLSselas,  he  causes  Imlac  to  say:  ''That  the 
dead  are  seen  no  more  I  will  not  undertake  to 
maintain  against  the  concurrent  testimony  of  all 
ages  and  all  nations.  There  is  no  people,  rude 
and  unlearned,  among  whom  apparitions  of  the 
dead  are  not  related  and  believed."  It  is  not 
difficult  to  understand  how  the  untutored  savage, 
encouraged  by  the  events  of  his  dream  conscious- 
ness which  led  him  to  believe  in  a  spirit-self  ex- 
isting apart  from  its  body-self,  should  come  to 
have  an  equally  strong  belief  in  the  external- 
ity of  the  apparitions  which  he  saw  in  his  wak- 
ing consciousness.  Indeed,  authorities  are  not 
wanting  who  see  in  tjie  attitude  of  early  man  to 
apparitions  the  most  important,  if  not  the 
unique,  origin  of  religion.  Whether  this  be  true 
or  not,  we  know  that  many  social  phenomena 
which  present  religious  phases  (e.g.,  witchcraft), 
have  owed  the  possibility  of  their  existence  large- 
ly to  a  widespread  belief  in  apparitions. 

The  reign  of  universal  superstition  has,  it  is 
true,  given  way  before  the  onward  progress  of  the 
scientific  spirit;  but  the  more  subtle  variations 
of  the  belief  in  apparitions  have  not  as  yet  en- 
tirely disappeared.  Tliere  still  prevails  a  belief 
in  the  supernormal  nature  of  apparitions  as  man- 
ifested in  clairvoyance  (q.v.),  telepathy  (q.v.), 
and  spiritualism.  We  need  refer,  for  example, 
only  to  the  birth  in  1847  of  modem  spiritualism, 
as  a  direct  descendant  of  the  belief  in  "haunted 
houses."  In  1882  the  Society  for  Psychical 
Research  was  instituted  in  England.  One  of  its 
express  purposes  was  to  collect  data  upon  the 
subject  of  apparitions.  Much  material  has  been 
published  in  the  "Proceedings"  of  the  Society, 


and  in  book  form  by  Gumey,  Myers,  and  Pod- 
more.  These  authors  express  the  relation  of  ap- 
paritions to  telepathy  in  the  following  passage: 
"This  book,  then,  claims  to  show  (1)  that  ex- 
perimental telepathy  exists,  and  (2)  that  ap- 
partitions  at  death,  etc.,  are  a  result  of  something 
beyond  chance,  whence  it  follows  (3)  that  these 
experimental  and  these  spontaneous  cases  of  the 
action  of  mind  on  mind  are  in  some  way  allied." 
The  opposing  position  is  that  of  Buckley,  who 
asserts  that  "before  endeavoring  to  explain  how 
phenomena  exist,  it  is  necessary  to  determine 
precisely  what  exists;  and  so  long  as  it  is  pos- 
sible to  find  a  rational  explanation  of  what  un- 
questionably is,  there  is  no  reason  to  suspect, 
and  it  is  superstition  to  assume,  the  operation 
of  supernatural  causes."  If  we  apply  this  cri- 
terion to  the  lately  collected  evidence  for  appari- 
tions, we  must  discount  for  errors  of  observa- 
tion, for  errors  of  memory,  and  for  the  strong 
influence  of  auto-suggestion  (q.v.).  W^e  shall  then 
find  that  we  have  left  certain  imexplained 
phenomena.  Those  who  do  not  believe  in  ap- 
pstritious  account  for  these  as  illusions  or  hal- 
lucinations (q.v.)  BiBLiOGBAPHY.  J.  M.  Buck- 
ley.  Faith  Healing,  Christian  Science,  and 
Kindred  Phenomena  (New  York,  1892)  ;  S.  Hib- 
bert.  Sketches  of  the  Philosophy  of  Apparitions 
(London,  1824)  ;  E.  Gumey,  F.  Myers,  and  F. 
Podmore,  Phantasms  of  the  Living  (London, 
1886)  ;  F.  Podmore,  Apparitions  and  Thought- 
Transference  (London,  1895)  ;  E.  B.  Tylor, 
Primitive  Culture  (New  York,  1871). 

APPEAL^  (From  Lat.  appellare,  to  address, 
appeal  to,  call,  summon).  In  English  legal  pro- 
cedure, a  term  that  has  two  distinct  meanings. 

( 1 )  It  denotes  an  accusation  by  a  private  person 
against  another  for  some  heinous  crime,  demand- 
ing punishment  on  acount  of  the  injury  to  the 
appellor,  rather  than  for  the  public  offense.  This 
method  of  prosecution  remained  in  force  until 
abolished  by  act  of  Parliament  in  1819  (59  Geo. 
III.,  c.  46 ) ,  although  it  had  been  used  but  rarely 
for  a  century  prior  thereto.  The  last  appeal  of 
murder  brought  in  England  (which  led  to  the 
enactment  of  the  statute  above  referred  to) 
was  that  of  Ashford  vs.  Thornton,  instituted  in. 
1818,  and  reported  in  1  Barnwell  and  Alderson,. 
405.     See  Blackstone,  Commentaries. 

( 2 )  The  other  signification,  attached  to  the  term 
by  Blackstone,  is  that  of  a  complaint  to  a  su- 
perior court  of  an  injustice  done  by  an  inferior 
one.  The  object  of  such  an  appeal  is  to  secure 
the  reversal  or  modification  of  the  decision  of 
the  inferior  court  through  the  intervention  of  a 
superior  tribunal.  Originally,  the  word  was  con- 
fined to  a  proceeding  for  thereview  of  a  decision 
in  an  equity,  an  admiralty,  or  an  ecclesias- 
tical cause.  Common-law  judgments  were  re- 
viewed by  a  writ  of  error.  The  chief  distinction 
between  a  writ  of  error  and  an  appeal  was  that 
the  former  brought  before  the  higher  court  only 
errors  of  law  m  the  court  below,  while  the 
latter  brought  up  questions  of  fact  as  well  as 
of  law.  The  tendency  of  modem  legislation  is 
toward  the  abolition  of  forms  of  action  and  the 
substitution  of  an  appeal  for  a  writ  of  error. 
The  grounds  of  appeal,  the  courts  to  which  an 
appeal  may  be  taken,  and  the  methods  of  prose- 
cuting appeals,  are  regulated  in  the  various 
jurisdictions  by  statutes  and  court  rules.  These 
are  so  diverse  that  no  attempt  will  be  made, 
here,  to  state  their  provisions.  See  Appellate 
Courts;  Pltading. 


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APPEHZETiTi. 


In  parliamentary  law,  appeal  denotes  the  pro- 
ceeding by  which  a  member  tests  the  correctnesa 
of  a  ruling  of  the  presiding  officer  by  calling  for 
a  vote  of  the  meeting  thereon.  See  Pabliameniv 
ABT  Law. 

APPEAB^ANGE.  (For  derivation,  see  Ap- 
PABEiiT.)  A  term  used  in  its  most  general 
meaning  to  signify  what  is  presented  in  con- 
sciousness. It  is  that  of  which  consciousness  is 
cognizant  as  an  object  distinct  from  itself.  For 
instance,  in  a  perception  I  may  have  of  a  piece 
of  money,  its  yellowness,  its  weight,  its  hard- 
ness, are  all  appearances  to  me.  Now,  the  fact 
that  appearance  is  always  related  to  conscious- 
ness raises  a  metaphysical  problem;  namely, 
Is  there  anything  more  ultimate,  more  real,  than 
appearance?  And,  if  so,  are  the  yellowness,  the 
weight,  the  hardness,  and  other  appearances  of 
the  coin  really  a  revelation  of  what  the  coin  is  in 
its  deepest  nature,  or  are  they  merely  the  form  in 
which  that  ultimate  nature,  whatever  it  may  be, 
is  disguised  when  it  comes  into  my  consciousness  7 
Different  schools  of  philosophy  have  given  dif- 
ferent answers  to  these  questions,  but  a  careful 
examination  of  the  answers  shows  that  they  are 
all  determined  by  the  view  taken  of  the  nature 
of  reality. 

(1)  Assume  that  there  is  a  reality  different 
from  appearance,  that  what  a  thing  really  is,  is 
wbat  it  is  in  absolute  independence  of  all  its 
relations ;  assume  that  "we  must  everywhere  dis- 
tinguish between  the  intrinsic  being  of  a  thing 
and  its  relations,"  adding  that  knowledge  is  al- 
ways a  relation,  and  it  becomes  clear  that  the 
reality  of  the  thing,  its  intrinsic  being,  need  not 
be  revealed  in  the  appearance  it  presents. to  con- 
sciousness. In  fact,  the  question  arises  whether 
appearances  must  not  be  always  deceptive.  An 
atHrmative  answer  to  this  question  is  the  funda- 
mental tenet  of  dogmatic  skepticism  (q.v.)  and 
of  critical  philosophy  (see- Kant).  A  suspense 
of  judgment  on  the  problem  is  the  attitude  of 
the  ancient  Skeptics.  A  negative  answer  given 
without  giving  a  reason  for  it,  is  the  attitude  of 
dogmatism.  A  negative  answer  can  be  justified 
only  by  showing  how  consciousness  can  be  in  a 
cognitive  relation  with  reality  without  truly 
transforming  reality  from  what  it  is  in  its  ulti- 
mate character.  This  is  what  some  conceive  to 
be  the  problem  set  by  the  science  of  epistemology, 
or  theory  of  knowledge.  See  Knowledge,  Theory 

OF. 

( 2 )  Assume  we  do  not  and  cannot  know  whether 
there  is  a  reality  distinct  from  appearance,  but 
that  at  least  we  have  the  conception  of  its  pos- 
sibility; and  the  result  of  this  confession  is  a 
critical  skepticism. 

(3)  Assume  that  there  is  no  reality  apart 
from  appearance,  and  we  have  on  the  one  hand 
Positivism  (q.v.),  and  on  the  other  the  idealistic 
systems  of  philosophy. 

Thus  the  attitude  taken  toward  appearance 
may  form  the  basis  for  one  of  the  most  conve- 
nient classifications  of  the  different  systems  of 
philosophy. 

Consult:  Bradley,  Appearance  and  Reality 
(London,  1897)  ;  Royce,  Conception  of  God  (New 
York,  1898),  and  The  World  and  the  Individual 
(New  York,  1900)  ;  Lotz,  System  der  Philosophic 
(Leipzig,  1884)  ;  translated  by  Bosanquet,  2 
vols.  (Oxford,  1888)  ;  Hegel,  Encyclopadie  der 
Philosophischen  Wissenschafte7i  im  Orundrisse 
(Heidelberg,  1830),  in  part  translated  into  Eng- 
lish by  Wallace,  under  the  titles,  HegeVs  Logic 


(Oxford,    1892-94)    and   HegeVs   Philosophy  of 
Mind  (Oxford,  1894). 

APPEABANCE.  The  legal  proceeding  by 
which  a  defendant  brings  himself,  or  is  brought, 
into  court,  and  made  subject  to  its  jurisdiction. 
In  modem  judicial  procedure  the  actual  presence 
of  the  defendant  is,  in  civil  cases,  dispensed  lii-ith, 
a  written  "appearance"  being  entered  in  lieu 
thereof,  though  in  criminal  proceedings,  espe- 
cially in  cases  of  felony,  actual  presence  is  still 
generally  necessary  in  order  to  give  the  proceed- 
ings regularity.  In  neither  case,  however,  is  ap- 
pearance necessary  to  give  the  court  jurisdiction 
of  the  person  of  the  defendant,  that  being 
effected  by  the  service  of  the  process  whereby  the 
action  is  instituted.  The  usual  method  of  mak- 
ing appearance  is  for  the  party  to  plead,  i.e.,  put 
in  his  answer  or  defense,  though  it  may  be  done 
formally,  by  serving  upon  the  opposing  party  a 
I'egular  notice  of  appearance,  or,  informally,  by 
any  act  whereby  the  jurisdiction  of  the  court  is 
recognized,  as  by  demanding  or  submitting  to  a 
preliminary  examination.  In  civil  cases,  appea^ 
ance  is  usually  by  attorney.  See  Acno5; 
Answer;  Pleading;  Procedure. 

APPEKD^AKT  BIGHTS  (Lat  ad,  to  -f 
pendere,  to  hang).  In  English  lieiw,  certain  com- 
mon rights  in  the  land  of  another  ( such  as  com- 
mon of  pasture)  which  have  existed  from  time 
immemorial,  and  which  are  historically  appurte- 
nant to  the  land  of  the  person  claiming  the  right 
They  differ  from  appurtenant  rights  in  that  the 
latter,  though  also  connected  with  the  land  of  the 
claimant,  may  be  of  modern  origin  and  may  be 
acquired  by  ordinary  prescription  (q.v.)  or  by 
grant;  whereas  appendant  rights  are  invariably 
ancient  and  cannot  be  created  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  parties.  For  this  reason,  the  number  of  such 
rights  is  limited  and  cannot  be  enlaiged.  They 
are  probably  survivals  of  community  rights  in 
common  lands,  which  have  persisted  notwith- 
standing the  inclosure  of  such  lands  and  their 
appropriation  by  private  owners.  See  Appurte- 
nance, Ck)MMON;  Easement,  Profit  A  prendre; 
and  Real  Property. 

APPEN'DICI^nS.  See  Verkifdrm  Ap- 
pendix. 

APPEKODIX  VEB'MIFOB^MIS.  See  Ver- 
miform Appendix. 

APPENZEIX,  &^pen-ts«l  (anciently,  Lat 
ahhatis  cella,  abbot's  cell).  A  northeastern  can- 
ton of  Switzerland  (Map:  Switzerland,  D  1), 
encircled  by  the  Canton  of  Saint  Gall,  and 
divided  into  the  demi-cantons  of  Ausserrhoden 
and  Innerrhoden.  Situated  among  the  Alps,  the 
region  is  noted  for  its  scenic  beauty;  in  alti- 
tude it  ranges  from  1300  feet,  its  lowest  eleva- 
tion, to  8215  feet  in  Sentis.  Other  prominent 
points  are  Heiden,  Wildkirchili,  Saint  Anthony's 
Chapel,  Ebenalp,  and  the  Hone  Kasten.  The 
Sitter,  a  tributary  of  the  Thur,  is  the  chief 
river.  The  mountainous  character  of  the  sur- 
face precludes  agriculture  on  a  large  scale;  but 
it  has  rich  pastures,  and  cattle-breeding  and 
dairy-farming  are  important  pursuits,  especially 
in  Innerrhoden,  which  has  an  area  of  61  square 
miles  (population,  in  1900,  13,499).  Ausserrho- 
den, with  an  area  of  101  square  miles  (popula- 
tion, in  1900,  56,281),  is  noted  for  its  cotton 
and  silk  manufactures.  Each  division  has  an  in- 
dependent local  government,  w^ith  representation 
in  the  Federal  Parliament.  The  local  division 
took  place  after  the  religious  wars  of  1597 — 


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APPEBCEPTION. 


Innerrhoden  being  almost  entirely  Roman  Catho- 
lic, and  Ausserrhoden,  Protestant.  Religious  in- 
tolerance is  still  strongly  marked  in  the  district. 
Trogen,  a  village  of  2578  inhabitants,  noted  as 
a  summer  resort,  is  the  capital  of  Ausserrhoden. 
Appenzell  ( population,  4369 ) ,  a  former  country- 
seat  of  the  abbots  of  Saint  Gall  (whence  its 
name ) ,  containing  two  monasteries,  is  the  capital 
of  Innerrhoden.  Consult  Richman,  Appenzell, 
Pure  Democracy  and  Pastoral  Life  in  Innerrho- 
den (London,  1895). 

AP'PEBCEPTIOK  (Lat.  ad,  in  addition  to 
+  percipere,  to  seize  entirely,  observe,  perceive). 
A  term  first  employed  by  Leibnitz  (1646-1716), 
for  whom  it  signified  a  spontaneous  activity  of 
the  ego  which  exercised  such  a  modifying  influ- 
ence upon  the  crude  "perceptions"  of  sense  that 
they  became  transformed  into  clear  and  ordered 
elements  of  knowledge.  This  metaphysical  con- 
cept was  used  by  Kant  (1724-1804)  in  his  epia- 
temology  (q.v.),  with  sharp  emphasis  upon  the 
spontaneity  of  the  activity.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  term  was  taken  over  into  psychology  by  Her- 
bart  (1776-1841)  and  his  followers,  has  been 
reformed  and  exhaustively  treated  by  Wundt, 
and  more  recently  has  received  extended  discus- 
sion at  the  hands  of  the  English  psychologist 
Stout. 

Berbart  and  his  school,  especially  Lazarus 
(1824)  and  Steinthal  (1823-99),  lay  stress  upon 
the  practical  significance  of  apperception.  This 
principle  forms,  indeed,  the  comer-stone  both 
of  their  psychology  and  of  all  modem  theories 
of  education  based  upon  it.  Apperception  is 
*'that  psychical  activity  by  which  individual 
perceptions,  ideas,  or  ideational  complexes  are 
brought  into  relation  to  our  previous  intel- 
lectual and  emotional  life,  associated  with  it, 
and  thus  raised  to  greater  clearness,  activity, 
and  significance."  The  mental  resultant  of 
previous  experience  wherewith  we  meet  and  re- 
ceive a  new  experience  is  termed  an  "appercep- 
tion mass."  There  will,  of  course,  be  individual 
variations  in  the  nature  of  this  mass;  different 
minds  are  unequally  prepared  for  a  particular 
experience.  One  child  will  call  butterflies  "fly- 
ing pansies";  another  knows  them  to  be  in- 
sects. Thus,  from  the  Herbartian  standpoint, 
it  is  of  extreme  importance  for  the  teacher  to 
acquaint  himself  with  the  existing  store  of  ideas 
in  the  minds  of  the  children  under  his  charge, 
in  order  that  the  new  matter  which  he  presents 
may  be  received  by  appropriate  thought-atti- 
tudes. 

Wundt's  treatment  combines  the  psychological 
acumen  of  Herbart  with  the  Kantian  emphasis 
upon  spontaneity  as  the  characteristic  feature 
of  apperception.  It  includes  a  careful  analysis 
of  the  experience  of  spontaneity  into  its  ulti- 
psychical  and  physiological  conditions.  The 
salient  points  of  Wundt*s  doctrine  are  as  fol- 
lows: Apperception  designates  (1)  either  cer- 
tain phenomena  actually  given  in  consciousness, 
or  (2)  a  certain  activity  which  we  infer  from 
these  conscious  data — i.e.,  a  concept  or  category 
under  which  the  phenomena  are  grouped.  As 
regards  the  phenomena  themselves,  we  have  to 
note  first  that  the  difi'erent  components  of  a 
given  consciousness  vary  in  prominence.  Some 
ideas  are  clear,  standing  in  the  focus  of  atten- 
tion (q.v.) ;  others  are  obscure.  Ideas  may, 
then,  be  in  consciousness  and  yet  not  be  "apper- 
ceived."  Furthermore,  the  relation  is  not  fixed. 
An  idea  may  disappear  from  the  focus  of  atten- 


tion and  another,  previously  obscure,  take  its 
place.  Clearness  is  not,  like  quality  or  extent  of 
sensation,  dependent  merely  upon  the  character 
of  Uie  stimulus.  It  is  not,  like  intensity,  which 
it  most  resembles,  a  function  of  a  single  idea, 
but  attaches  to  a  number  of  ideas.  Now  the 
entrance  of  an  idea  into  the  focus  of  attention  is 
by  no  means  a  simple  matter.  Analysis  dis- 
closes, besides  the  increase  of  the  given  idea  in 
clearness,  (1)  a  feeling  of  activity,  (2)  inhibi- 
tion of  other  ideas,  (3)  strain  sensations  and 
concomitant  feelings  which  intensify  the  feeling 
of  activity,  and  (4)  the  reflex  effect  of  (3), 
which  intensifies  the  given  idea.  A  careful 
examination  of  Wundt's  writings  shows  that  the 
"feeling  of  activity"  is  not  ultimate  and  un- 
analyzable,  distinct  from  either  sensation  or 
affection  (q.v.),  but  rather  a  conventional  term 
representing  a  complex  of  sensation  and  affec- 
tion from  the  presence  of  which  in  consciousness 
we  infer  an  activity  or  spontaneity.  Wundt 
distinguishes  between  "active"  apperception, 
marked  by  the  feeling  of  activity,  and  "passive" 
apperception,  marked  by  a  feeling  of  passivity, 
a  lessening  of  the  intensity  of  the  concomitant 
phenomena,  and  less  clearness  of  the  focal  idea. 
In  t3T)ical  passive  apperception  the  clarifying 
of  the  idea  is  determined  unequivocally  and  im- 
mediately. In  active  apperception  there  are 
several  rival  ideas;  the  result  is  equivocal  and 
frequently  delayed.  The  conditions  of  apper- 
ception are  either  (1)  objective,  viz.,  (a)  the 
intensity,  and  ( b )  the  frequency  of  the  presented 
occurrence;  or  (2)  subjective,  viz.,  (a)  the  na- 
ture of  the  immediately  preceding  consciousness, 
and  {b)  the  individual  disposition  of  the  mind, 
as  determined  by  its  entire  previous  history. 

Apperception  is  closely  related  to  association 
(q.v.).  Association,  according  to  Wundt,  fur- 
nishes all  the  possible  connections  of  ideas;  ap- 
perception decides  which  of  the  possibilities  shall 
be  realized.  Thus  the  idea  x  may  be  associa- 
tively  connected  with  a,  6,  c,  and  d,  but  apper- 
ception may  bring  it  about  that,  in  a  given  case 
of  the  arousal  of  x,  only  6  appears  in  attention. 
This  process  of  choice,  of  the  enhancement  of 
one  out  of  several  ideas,  together  with  the  feel- 
ing of  activity,  differentiates  apperception  from 
association.  Apperceptive  connections  them- 
selves may  be  either  simultaneous  or  successive. 
The  former  are  subdivided  into  (a)  agglutina- 
tions, (b)  apperceptive  fusions,  and  (c)  con- 
cepts. (See  Abstraction.)  The  judgment  is 
typical  of  the  successive  form  of  apperceptive 
connections.  Stout  defines  apperception  as  the 
"process  by  which  a  mental  system  appropriates 
a  new  element,  or  otherwise*  receives  fresh  de- 
termination." Great  stress  is  laid  upon  the 
"preformed  mental  system,"  which  is  regarded 
as  an  organic  whole,  not  (as  by  Herbart)  a 
mere  apperception-mass  of  presentations.  By  its 
reaction  upon  the  further  processes  of  attention, 
it  gives  us  the  clew  to  the  problems  of  mental 
growth  and  mental  organization.  Stout  further 
introduces  the  ideas  of  "negative"  and  "de- 
structive" apperception.  Negative  appercep- 
tion is  a  form  in  which  the  effort  to  appropriate 
a  new  element  is  unsuccessful;  destructive  ap- 
perception is  a  form  in  which  "one  system  by 
appropriating  a  new  element  wrests  it  from  its 
preformed  connection  with  another  system."  In 
each  case  there  results  some  positive  effect; 
former  svstems  become  modified  or  new  sys- 
tems are  developed.    The  early  experimental  in- 


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vestigations  of  apperception  deal  for  the  most 
part  with  the  time- relations  of  the  various  fac- 
tors involved;  the  later  investigations  have 
analyzed  the  conditions  imder  which  appercep- 
tion occurs.  Valuable  results  have  been  gained 
by  a  study  of  the  apperception  of  ideas  as  con- 
veyed by  language  (q.v.),  both  spoken  and  writ- 
ten. 

Bibliography.  Leibnitz,  New  Essays  (New 
York,  1896)  ;  Herbart,  Text-Book  in  Psychology 
(New  York,  1891)  ;  Stout,  Analytic  Psychology 
(London,  1896)  ;  Wundt,  GrundzUge  der  physio- 
logischtm  Psychologic  (Leipzig,  1893)  ;  Logik 
(Stuttgart,  1893)  ;  and  Outlines  of  Psychology 
(Leipzig,  1897).  Experimental:  Erdmann  and 
Dodge,  PsychoUtgische  Untersuchungcn  iiber  das 
Lescn  auf  experimenteller  Orundlage  (Halle, 
1898)  ;  Lange,  Apperception:  A  Monograph  on 
Psychology  and  Pedagogy  (Boston,  1893).  See 
Knowledge,  Theobt  of;  and  Knowledge,  Ab- 
solute. 

AFFEBT,  &'pAr^,  Benjamin  Nicolas  Mabie. 
(1797cl847).  A  French  philanthropist  and 
educator,  bom  in  Paris.  He  introduced  into 
several  military  schools  a  system  of  mutual  in- 
struction, and  in  1820  founded  and  conducted 
gratuitously  a  school  for  prisoners  at  Montaigu. 
He  was  suspected  of  having  aided  the  escape  of 
two  prisoners  and  was  himself  confined  in  the 
military  prison.  Here  he  made  a  study  of  the 
moral  and  physical  circumstances  of  the  prison- 
ers, and  after  his  liberation  he  devoted  much 
time  to  the  study  of  schools,  prisons,  and  hospi- 
tals, and  published  his  researches  in  his  Journal 
des  Prisons  (1825-30).  After  the  Revolution 
of  1830  he  was  employed  by  Louis  Philippe 
to  superintend  the  measures  taken  for  the  relief 
of  the  indigent  classes.  He  also  wrote  a  work 
entitled  Dix  Ans  d  la  cour  du  rot  Louis- Philippe 
(1846).  In  his  Conferences  conire  le  Syst^me 
CellulairCy  he  strongly  opposed  the  system  of 
solitary  confinement.  It  is  said  that  he  taught 
at  least  100,000  soldiers  to  read  and  write.  He 
has  been  criticised  for  one-sidedness,  but  seems 
to  have  been  a  sincere  and  warm-hearted  philan- 
thropist. 

AFFEBT,  Fbancois  (?1840).  A  French 
technologist,  the  brother  of  Benjamin  Appert. 
He  invented  ( 1804)  a  method  of  preserving  food, 
without  the  use  of  chemicals.  His  method  is 
fully  described  in  his  work  on  the  Art  of  Pre- 
serving Animal  and  Vegetable  Substances  (Paris, 
1810;  English  translation,  London,  1811).  It 
is  the  well-known  method  of  placing  the  article 
of  food  to  be  preserved  in  a  can,  after  heating  it, 
and  then  sealing  the  can  hermetically.  (See 
Antiseptics.)  For  the  publication  of  his  meth- 
od Appert  received  a  prize  of  12,000  francs  from 
the  French  Government. 

AF^ETITB.     See  Digestion. 

AFFIANI,  rp^-a'n^,  Andrea  (1754-1817). 
An  Italian  painter,  born  at  Milan.  He  received 
the  patronage  of  Napoleon,  and  was  appointed 
painter  to  the  King  of  Italy;  but  through 
political  disturbances  he  lost  his  pension,  and 
subsequently,  owing  to  ill  health,  was  obliged 
to  sell  his  drawings  and  everythinf^  of  value. 
His  portrait  of  Napoleon  is  in  England.  His 
frescoes  in  the  royal  palace  of  Milan  are  said 
to  approach  in  beauty  the  work  of  Correggio, 
who  was  his  model.  They  consist  of  allegoric- 
al illustrations  of  Napoleon's  career.  Consult 
Clement,  Pointers^  Sculptors,  Architects,  and 
Engravers  (Boston,  1899). 


AF'FIA^KTTS  (Gk.  'Awwuip^.  Appianos).  A 
native  of  Alexandria,  who  lived  during  the  reigns 
of  Trajan,  Hadrian,  and  Antoninus  Pius.  He 
was  the  author  of  a  Roman  history  in  Greek,  en- 
titled *Pctf/Mu'icd,  {ROmatka),  in  twenty-four  books, 
of  which  only  eleven  are  extant.  It  was  not  re- 
markable for  am'thing  except  the  plan  on  which 
it  was  written.'  Instead  of  proceeding  to  ex- 
hibit chronologically  the  growth  of  the  Empire, 
from  its  rude  beginning  on  the  Palatine  Hill  to 
the  period  when  its  power  held  the  whole  world 
in  awe,  which  is  at  once  the  popular  and  the 
philosophical  method,  he  divided  his  work  into 
ethnographic  sections,  recording  separately  the 
history  of  each  nation  up  to  the  time  of  its  con- 
quest by  the  Romans.  First  in  order  were  the 
books  devoted  to  the  old  Italian  tribes,  and 
afteni'ards  followed  the  history  of  Sicily,  Spain, 
Hannibal's  wars,  Libya,  Carthage,  and  Kumidia, 
Macedonia,  Greece  Proper  and  its  colonies,  Syria, 
Parthia,  the  Mithridatic  wars,  the  civil  wars,  and 
the  imperial  wars  in  Illyria  and  Arabia.  As  an 
historian,  Applanus  is  a  mere  compiler,  and  not 
very  accurate  in  his  compilation.  His  geograph- 
ical knowledge  in  particular  is  singmarly  de- 
ficient, considering  the  age  in  which  he  lived. 
The  best  edition  is  that  of  L.  Mendelssohn  (Leip- 
zig, 1879-81);  translated  by  H.  White  (New 
York,  1899). 

AF^IAN  WAY  (Lat.  Via  Appia),  A 
Roman  road,  well  named  by  the  poet  Statins 
regina  vivarurn  (the  queen  of  roads) .  It  was  be- 
gun by  Appius  Claudius  Csecus,  while  censor  (B.c. 
312).  It  is  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated  of  all 
the  Roman  roads.  It  led  from  the  Porta  Capena 
at  Rome  in  a  southerly  direction  to  Capua,  pass- 
ing through  Tres  Tabemse,  Appii  Forum,  Ter- 
racina,  etc.  Subsequently,  it  was  carried  on  to 
Beneventum,  Tarentum,  and  thence  to  Brundu- 
sium.  It  was  carefully  built,  though  the  pa^-e- 
ment  of  large  hexagonal  blocks,  principally 
lava,  on  a  firm  foundation  and  strengthened  br 
cement,  is  probably  not  the  original  bed.  From 
Rome  to  Terracina  the  course  is  nearly  straight, 
in  spite  of  the  steep  grades  in  crossing  the  Al- 
ban  Mountains,  and  the  difficulties  of  the  Pon- 
tine marshes.  Near  Rome  the  road  was  lined 
with  tombs,  of  which  many  remains  can  still 
be  seen.  The  most  remarkable  of  these  tombs  are 
those  of  the  Scipios,  and  of  Ceecilia  Metella.  The 
ancient  pavement,  in  good  repair,  is  still  in  use 
in  places. 

AFFIUS,  Market  of.    See  Fobum  Appn. 

AF^nXS  AND  VIBOIN1A.  A  Roman 
legend  of  an  attempted  corruption  of  maidenly 
virtue,  which  has  since  proved  a  fertile  subject 
for  romancers.  The  storj'  was  originally  told 
by  Livy.  It  is  repeated  in  the  Pecorone  di  Gio- 
vanni Fiorentino,  published  in  1378,  and  again 
in  Painter's  Palace  of  Pleasure,  in  1566.  Modi- 
fications of  it  occur  in  the  Roman  de  la  Rose  and 
in  Gower*s  Confessio  Atnantis.  "The  Doctor" 
of  the  Canterbury  Tales  also  repeats  it  in  sub- 
stance. The  title  has  headed  no  less  than  three 
English  plays:  an  early  tragical  comedy,  by  an 
unknoAvn  author  signing  himself  R.  R.,  a  tragedy 
by  Webster,  printed  in  1654,  and  a  tragedy  by 
Dennis,  in  1709.  It  is  also  the  subject  of  a  poem, 
**Virginia,"  by  Macaulay.  For  other  plays  on 
the  same  subject,  see  Vibginius. 

AFFIUS  CLATTa)IUS  CKAS^US.  A 
Roman  decemvir  ( B.c  451-449).  While  the  other 
decemviri  were  engaged  in  repelling  an  incursion 
made  by  the  Sabines,  Appius  Claudius  and  his 


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APPLE. 


colleague  Oppius  remained  in  Rome,  with  two 
legions  to  maintain  their  authority.  Meanwhile, 
Appius  Claudius  had  been  smitten  by  the  beauty 
of  Virginia,  daughter  of  a  respected  plebeian 
named  Lucius  Virginius,  who  was  abroad  with 
the  army.  By  force  and  stratagem,  representing 
that  she  was  the  born  slave  of  Marcus  Claudius, 
one  of  his  clients,  Appius  Claudius  gained  pos- 
session of  the  girl.  His  design  was  penetrated 
by  IciliuB,  who  was  betrothed  to  Virginia,  and 
who,  aided  by  Numitorius,  her  uncle,  threatened 
to  raise  an  insurrection  against  the  decemviri. 
Virginius,  hurriedly  recall^  from  the  army  by 
his  friends,  appeared  and  claimed  his  daughter; 
but,  after  another  mock- trial,  she  was  again  ad- 
judged to  be  the  property  of  Marcus  Claudius. 
To  save  his  daughter  from  dishonor,  the  unhappy 
father  seized  a  knife  and  slew  her.  The  popular 
indignation  excited  by  the  case  was  headed  by 
the  senators  Valerius  and  Horatius,  who  hated 
the  decemvirate.  The  army  returned  to  Rome 
with  Virginius,  who  had  carried  the  news  to 
them,  and  the  decemviri  were  deposed.  Appius 
Claudius  died  in  prison  by  his  own  hand  (as 
Livy  states),  or  was  strangled  by  order  of  the 
tribunes.  His  colleague,  Oppius,  committed  sui- 
cide, and  Marcus  Claudius  was  banished. 

AP^LE.  The  name  applied  to  a  tree  be- 
longing to  the  rose  family  of  plants,  as  well 
as  to  its  fruit.  The  common  apple  is  known 
botanically  as  Pirus  malus;  the  Crab  Apples  be- 
longing to  Piru8  haccata.  All  the  cultivated 
apples  of  the  world  have  come  from  these  two 
forms.  The  fruit  of  the  apple  is  a  pomey  con- 
sisting of  a  thickened  fleshy  portion,  resulting 
from  the  development  of  the*  calyx,  inclosing  the 
horny  cells  forming  the  core  and  covering  the 
true  seeds. 

The  common  apple,  Pirus  mains,  has  been  in 
cultivation  since  prehistoric  times.  Charred  re- 
mains of  the  fruit  have  been  found  in  the  mud 
of  the  lakes  inhabited  by  the  Lake  Dwellers,  and, 
according  to  De  Candolle,  the  tree  was  probably 
indigenous  to  Anatolia,  the  south  of  the  Cau- 
casus, and  northern  Russia,  and  its  cultivation 
l»egan  at  a  very  early  date.  The  Siberian  Crab, 
Pirus  haccata,  is  a  native  of  the  north,  and  is 
of  great  importance  to  fruit-growers  not  only 
on  account  of  its  own  hardy  and  resistant  char- 
acter, but  also  because  it  transmits  much  of 
its  hardiness  to  its  crosses  with  Pirus  malus, 
thus  producing  a  fruit  of  good  quality  that 
can  endure  northern  climates.  Beside  these 
European  apples,  Xorth  America  has  several 
wild  species  which  are  more  or  less  notable. 
Among  these,  the  Prairie  Apple,  Pirus  loensis, 
is  perhaps  the  most  promising  from  a  horti- 
cultural standpoint,  because  crosses  between  it 
and  Pirus  malus  (to  which  class  the  so-called 
Pirus  soulardii  undoubtedly  belongs)  are  already 
valuable.  The  eastern  wild  apple,  Pirus  corona- 
ria,  is  of  little  value  for  its  fruit,  but  its  bloom 
is  beautiful.  China  and  Japan  have  native  ap- 
ples which  are  of  little  economic  importance,  but 
are  interesting  in  that  they  carry  the  genus 
through  the  north  temperate  zone  around  the 
world. 

Cbab  Apple,  or  Crab.  A  term  applied  indis- 
criminately to  all  small  fruits  of  the  apple,  re- 
gardless of  species.  Sometimes,  however,  it  is 
confined  to  a  class  of  small,  long-stemmed  fruits 
belonging  to  Piru^  baccata. 

Economically  the  apple  is  the  most  important 
fruit  of  temperate  regions.     It  is  groA^-n  over  a 


wide  area,  prospering  ^  far  north  as  Scandi- 
navia and  as  far  south  a^  the  southern  mountain 
districts  of  the  United  States.  It  has,  moreover, 
been  carried  into  the  Southern  Hemisphere,  and 
now,  with  rapid  ocean  transit,  New  Zealand  and 
Tasmanian  apples  are  annually  offered  during 
April  and  May  in  the  markets  of  London  and 
San  Francisco. 

North  America  is  the  leading  apple-growing 
region  of  the  world.  Apples  are  raised  on  a 
commercial  scale  from  Nova  Scotia  south  to 
Virginia  and  west  to  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  and  Missouri.  They  are  also  raised  in 
Oregon  and  California.  These  several  regions 
produce  an  annual  aggregate  product  of  one 
hundred  million  barrels.  The  great  portion  of 
this  yield  finds  a  ready  market  within  the 
domain  of  North  America;  but  a  small  fraction 
of  the  crop  is  annually  exported,  mainly  to 
Liverpool,  London,  and  Glasgow.  The  export 
trade  is  gradually  increasing,  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean countries  may  be  counted  upon  as  a 
future  market  for  American  apples. 

The  apple  is  propagated  both  by  budding,  and 
by  grafting  the  desired  sort  on  young  seedling 
trees,  which  are  usually  grown  from  seeds  ob- 
tained from  apple  pomace  at  the  cider  mills. 
(See  BuDDmo;  Grafting.)  Such  seeds  give  a 
progeny  variable  both,  in  hardiness  and  in  habit 
of  growth,  and  are  therefore  less  desirable  for 
stocks  than  seedlings  grown  from  seeds  of  the 
wild  Pirus  malus  of  Europe.  Budded  trees  are 
preferred  by  most  growers,  as  well  as  nursery- 
men, in  the  southeastern  and  eastern  parts  of 
the  United  States.  To  the  nurseryman,  the  chief 
advantage  of  a  budded  tree  comes  of  its  quick 
growth,  which  shortens  the  time  during  which 
money  invested  is  non-productive.  The  root- 
grafted  tree  is  preferred  by  planters  in  the 
Northwest;  such  trees  form  roots  from  the  scion, 
if  a  short  piece-root  is  used.  This,  sooner  or 
later,  produces  a  tree  on  its  own  root,  which  in 
turn  eliminates  the  uncertainty  of  the  seedling 
root  and,  w^hen  "iron-clad"  scions  are  used,  gives 
a  perfectly  hardy  tree.  Grafting  is  again  im- 
portant for  the  purpose  of  converting  bearing 
trees,  of  several  years  standing,  from  one  variety 
to  another.     See  Top-Graftinq. 

Dwarf  apples  are  grown  as  espaliers  in  parts 
of  England.  The  dwarf  trees  are  obtained  by 
grafting  the  desired  variety  on  Paradise  or 
Doucin  stocks.  These  are  dwarf  forms  of  Pirus 
malus.  New  varieties  of  apples  are  obtained  by 
sowing  the  seeds  of  cultivated  sorts.  Seeds  from 
such  fruits  are  more  variable  than  those  from 
wild  trees,  and  consequently  more  likely  to  give 
desirable  offspring.  This  operation  is  one  of 
chance;  frequently  thousands  of  seedlings  are 
grown  without  producing  one  valuable  tree. 
Apple  trees  grow  large  and  endure  many  years. 
In  planting  an  orchard,  therefore,  the  trees 
should  be  given  ample  room;  40  feet  each  way 
is  close  enough  in  New  York  and  the  New  Eng- 
land States,  where  the  trees  grow  largest. 
Farther  south,  where  the  trees  do  not  attain 
great  size,  and  are  shorter-lived,  33  to  35  feet 
apart  each  way  is  not  too  close.  In  the  North- 
west, trees  should  be  planted  even  closer  tlian 
this,  for  there  they  are  liable  to  injury  from  sun- 
scald  and  wind.  Closely  planted  and  low-headed 
trees  serve  as  a  mutual  protection.  Soils  for  the 
apple  which  have  given  the  best  crops  and  have 
produced  longest  lived  trees,  are  chiefly  com- 
posed  of   clay   or   clay-loam    impregnated   with 


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gravel.  Such  land,  situated  so  as  to  afford  good 
air  as  well  as  land  drainage,  produces  more  regu- 
lar crops  of  highly  colored  and  highly  flavored 
fruits  than  lower  and  heavier  lands.  Atmos- 
pheric drainage  is  one  of  the  best  material  safe- 
guards against  late  spring  frosts,  and  good  land 
drainage  assures  a  warm,  congenial  soil  for  the 
plant. 

Two-year-old  apple  trees  contain,  in  the  air- 
dried  substance:  nitrogen,  0.891  per  cent.;  phos- 
phoric acid,  0.122  per  cent.;  potash,  0.44  per 
cent. ;  and  water,  60.83  per  cent.  About  ten  tons 
of  such  matter  is  produced  upon  an  acre  of 
nursery  stock.  The  fruit  contains:  nitrogen,  0.13 
per  cent.;  phosphoric  acid,  0.01  per  cent.;  potash, 
0.19  per  cent.  A  ton  of  ripe  apples  contains,  at 
the  usual  prices,  about  91  cents*  worth  of  valua- 
ble fertilizing  ingredients.  Generally  lands  such 
as  those  above  described,  contain  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply of  nitrogen  for  the  needs  of  the  tree,  but  as 
the  greatest  demand  in  the  ripening  of  the  fruit 
and  seed  is  made  upon  potash  and  phosphoric 
acid,  these  are  the  two  ingredients  most  fre- 
quently needed  by  the  orchard.  They  are  the 
ingredients,  too,  which  can  be  made  good  only 
by  the  application  of  a  manure  of  some  kind, 
while  if  nitrogen  be  lacking,  it  can  be  made  up 
by  growing  a  leguminous  crop,  such  as  Canada 
peas,  cow-peas,  or  beans  upon  the  soil  and  turn- 
ing it  under. 

Cultivation.  Good  cultivation  is  an  impor- 
tant part  of  orchard  management.  Two  crops  can 
seldom  be  profitably  grown  on  the  same  soil  at 
the  same  time.  The  orchard  should  not  be  used 
as  a  pasture  lot  or  as  regular  farm  land.  Culti- 
vation should  be  done  early  in  the  season  to 
stimulate  early  growth,  but  discontinued  by  July 
16th  in  the  United  States  in  order  that  growth 
may  be  checked  and  the  wood  mature  properly 
to  insure  hardiness  during  the  winter  and  a 
crop  the  following  season.  Another  essential  of 
<ircnard  management  is  proper  pruning.  This 
must  be  modified  to  suit  the  variety,  the  locality, 
and  the  purpose  for  which  the  tree  is  grown.  In 
general,  a  low  head,  wide-spreading  branches 
evenly  disposed  about  the  trunk  and  at  different 
heights  are  desirable  ends.  Harvesting  depends 
upon  the  season  of  ripening.  Most  commercial 
fruits  are  so-called  "winter  apples"  and  are  al- 
lowed to  remain  upon  the  trees  as  long  as  pos- 
sible without  being  frozen.  Fruits  so  treated 
are,  as  a  rule,  better  flavored  and  more  highly 
colored  than  those  picked  early,  and  experiments 
indicate  that  they  are  less  liable  to  scald  in 
cold  storage. 

Varieties.  Each  section  of  the  world  pos- 
sesses a  certain  number  of  varieties  which  are 
peculiarly  suited  to  its  soil  and  climate.  When 
apple-culture  is  to  be  extended  to  a  new  region, 
the  problem  to  be  solved  is,  to  ascertain  which 
varieties  are  best  adapted  to  the  conditions  pre- 
vailing in  that  region.  In  the  United  States,  the 
varieties  held  in  highest  favor  by  the  inhabitants 
of  any  given  locality  have  usually  proved  safest 
to  plant  for  commercial  purposes. 

Uses.  The  apple  is  used  most  extensively  for 
cooking  and  for  eating  out  of  hand.  It  is  also 
employed  for  cider  making  and  vinegar  making, 
the  finest  vinegar  being  made  from  apple  juice. 
For  these  purposes  smaller  or  inferior  fruits  are 
usually  taken.  Brandy  and  other  beverages  are 
made  from  the  juice  also.  Large  quantities  of 
the  fruit  are  now  dried  in  evaporators,  the  prod- 


uct being  quite  extensively  exported  to  European 
countries. 

Apple  Diseases.  The  apple  is  subject  to  a 
number  of  well-known  fungous  diseases,  the  more 
important  of  which  are  the  rtist,  scab,  and  hitter 
or  ripe  rot.  The  rust  is  due  to  the  fungus 
Rcestelia  pirata.  This  fungus  is  peculiar  in  that 
it  spends  part  of  its  life  on  the  apple  tree  and 
part  on  the  cedar.  It  causes  yellow  spots  on  the 
leaves  of  the  apple  in  May  or  June,  attacking 
the  fruit  about  the  same  time  and  rendering  it 
worthless.  Upon  the  underside  of  the  leaves  and 
on  the  swollen,  diseased  parts  of  the  fruit,  vast 
quantities  of  spores  are  produced,  which  find 
their  way  to  some  cedar  or  juniper  tree.  Here 
they  cause  enlargements  on  the  branches.  These 
swellings,  or  cedar  apples,  as  they  are  called, 
are  half  an  inch  or  more  in  diameter,  and  ripen 
the  next  spring,  when  their  horn-shaped,  orange- 
colored  masses  are  easily  to  be  seen.  On  these 
are  borne  spores,  minute  and  easily  blown  about. 
Some  of  these  find  their  way  to  the  apples. 
The  form  on  the  cedar  is  known  as  Gymnospo- 
rnngixim  macropua*  Instead  of  depending  upon 
the  cedar  for  the  alternate  generation,  the  myce- 
lium of  the  fungus  may  find  its  way  into  the 
buds  and  young  twigs  of  the  apple  tree,  and  from 
them  infest  the  next  crop.  Destroying  all  cedar 
trees  and  thoroughly  spraying  the  trees  with 
Bordeaux  mixture  (see  Fungicide)  upon  the 
appearance  of  the  leaves  will  aid  in  keeping  the 
disease  in  check.  The  apple-scah  is  caused  by  the 
fungus  Fusicladium  dendriticum.  Both  leaves  and 
fruit  of  the  apple  and  pear  are  subject  to  this 
disease.  Upon  the  fruit  dark  circular  spots  are 
formed.  The  centres  of  the  spots  are  dark  brown 
or  black,  with  light-colored  edges.  Often  a  num- 
ber of  spots  run  together,  when  the  fruit  usuallv 
cracks,  showing  hard,  brown  tissue  within.  The 
diseased  area  ceases  to  grow,  and  one-sided  fruit 
is  produced.  Upon  the  leaves  the  appearance  is 
somewhat  similar  to  that  upon  the  fruit,  except 
that  the  light  border  of  the  spot  is  lacking.  The 
leaves  become  crumpled  and  ragged,  and  finally 
fall  off.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  most  serious 
fungous  disease  to  which  apples  and  pears  are 
subject,  and  no  locality  seems  entirely  free  from 
it.  Differences  have  been  noticed  in  the  suscepti- 
bility to  the  disease  of  different  varieties.  Spiti- 
enberg,  Fameuse,  Fall  Pippin,  and  Harvest  apples 
are  especially  subject  to  scab;  while  Ben  Davis, 
King  Fallawater,  and  many  others  are  less  seri- 
ously affected.  This  disease  and  the  loss  caused 
by  it  may  be  prevented  by  thorough  spraying 
with  Bordeaux  mixture  or  similar  fungicide, 
three  applications  being  given  the  trees  at  inter- 
vals of  about  ten  days,  beginning  at  the  swelling 
time  of  the  buds.  In  many  of  the  Southern 
States,  as  well  as  in  northern  localities,  the 
hitter  rot  is  the  cause  of  much  loss  to  fruit- 
growers. This  rot,  due  to  the  fungus  OUxospo- 
rium  fructigenum,  attacks  the  fruit  at  any  stage 
of  growth.  The  diseased  tissue  becomes  browD 
and  very  bitter;  hence  the  name.  Spraying  as 
recommended  above,  is  the  preventive  treatment. 
A  black  rot  caused  by  Sphceropsia  malorum  is 
similar  to  the  bitter  rot,  and  yields  to  the  same 
treatment.  A  disease,  kno^ii  as  the  hroicn  spot 
of  Baldwins,  is  common  to  that  and  many  other 
varieties.  The  flesh  becomes  dry  and  brown  in 
any  part  of  the  fruit.  Its  origin  is  obscure,  and 
reliable  preventives  are  imknown.  A  serious 
disease  of  the  apple  tree  in  Europe,  lately  found  in 


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APPLES 


t  lOt^T.  ••02,  my  0000.  Mt  AO  »  COMPAJtr 


u»  BitN  a  Co  1 


1  HYSLOP    CRAB  NATURAL  SIZE 

2  RED    ASTRACHAN  V4  DIAMFTER 

3  YCUOW   BtlLFLOWER  Vj 


4  BEN    DAVIS 

5  NORTHERN   SPY 

6  HUBBARDSTQN 


V4  DIAMETER 


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APPLE. 


671 


APPLE  OF  DISGOBD. 


the  United  States  also,  is  that  known  as  apple-tree 
cankeVf  caused  by  Nectria  ditisaima.  The  fungus 
gains  entrance  through  wounds,  destroying  the 
bark,  and  later  attacking  and  destroying  the 
wood.  Where  the  attack  is  slight,  cutting  out 
the  diseased  areas  and  coating  the  cut  surface 
with  tar  will  prove  beneficial.  Where  the  tree 
is  seriously  affected,  it  should  be  cut  down  and 
burned,  as  it  cannot  be  restored  to  health  and  is 
a  menace  to  sound  trees.  This  same  fungus  at- 
tacks a  number  of  other  kinds  of  trees,  as  oak, 
alder,  dogwood,  maple,  etc. 
Insect     Pests.      A    large     number    of     in- 


tent-worms and  canker-worms  (qq.v.)  are  promi- 
nent among  these.  In  Europe  the  principal 
damage  is  done  by  a  small  white,  black-spotted 
ermine-moth  (Hypnomeuta  padellus),  and  in 
Japan  by  a  moth  {Laverna  herellera),  whose 
larvae  live  in  the  core  of  the  fruit.  The  worst 
American  insect  of  this  class  is  the  codling-moth, 
which  may  be  treated  by  spraying  with  an  in- 
secticide (q.v.).  Paris  green  or  London  purple  is 
most  frequently  used  for  this  purpose.  A  calen- 
dar showing  the  kind  and  approximate  time  of 
spraying  to  check  insect  pests  and  diseases  is 
given  below: 


SPRAY  CALENDAR  FOR  THE  APPLE 

NAME  OF  TBOUBLB. 

I  TBEATMSKT. 

U  THEATMENT. 

m  TBBATMENT. 

IV  TEBATMENT. 

V  TBEATMENT. 

Scab 

Copper  sulphate  eo- 
lutlon  before  buds 
break. 

Bordeaux     mixture 
at   same   time    as 
Treatment  II   for 
Apple  Scab. 

Bordeaux    mixture 
about  July  15  as  a 
safeguard. 

treatment  for  Scab . 

Paris  green  or  Lon- 
don purple   before 
blossoms  open   or 
as  soon  as  they  fall. 

Paris  green  or  Lon- 
don purple.    See  III 
treatment  forscab. 

Paris  green  as  soon 
as  tips   of    leaves 
show  in  bud. 

Bordeaux  mixture 
when  leaf  bud  8  are 
open   but  before 
flower  buds    ex- 
pand. 

Same  as  III  for  Ap- 
ple Scab. 

Bordeaux  mixture 
10  days  later. 

Repeat  (I)  in  8  to 
10  days. 

Repeat  (I)  before 
blossom  buds 
open. 

Bordeaux  mixture    'RordAn.nTmlTf.nm 

Repeat  (III)  once 
or  twice  at  inter- 
vals of  two  weeks. 

RU8t 

and  Paris  green 
as  soon  as  blos- 
soms have  fallen. 

Same  as  IV  for  Ap- 
ple Scab. 

Ammonlacal  Car- 
bonate of  Copper 
as  substitute  for 
Bordeaux  as  soon 
as    fruits    are 
three-fourths 
grown. 

Repeat  (I)  in  two 
weeks  after  (II). 

10-12  days  after 
(HI). 

Repeat  (I)  If  sec- 
ond   brood    is 
troublesome. 

Brown  Spot 

Note— This  disease 

Bitter  Rot 

is  liable  to  cause 
loss  of  foliage  near 
harvesttime.  Am- 
monlacal  Copper 
Carbonate  should 
be  used   for  lat» 
treatmaots. 

Tent  Caterpillar 

Canker  Worm 

Codling-moth 

NoTE-To  lessen  ex- 
pense, combine  in- 
secticides and  f un- 
gtcides— i.e.,    use 
Paris   green    or 
London    purple 
with     Bordeaux 
mixture  whenever 
the  poison  is  de- 
sired. 

Bud-moth 

sects  injuriously  affect  apple  trees  and  fruit, 
among  w^hich  certain  beetles  and  moths  are  pre- 
eminent. Borers. — Wood-boring  beetles  are  very 
destructive,  especially  the  round-headed  borer 
{Haperda  Candida)  (see  Plate  of  Beetles),  and 
the  flat-headed  borer  {Ghrysobothria  femoraia). 
The  former  is  the  worst  enemy,  after  the  codling- 
moth,  of  apple-culture  in  the  United  States ;  and 
like  the  others  does  its  damage  as  a  grub,  bom 
from  an  egg  laid  in  the  bark,  where  it  bores  into 
and  feeds  upon  the  sap-wood.  A  special  de- 
scription of  these  beetles  and  other  apple-eating 
beetles,  with  advice  as  to  control  of  similar  pests, 
is  given  by  F.  H.  Chittenden  in  Entomological 
Circular  No,  32,  second  series,  and  Bulletin  22, 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
(Washington,  1898-1900).  Various  root-borers 
and  fruit-borers  are  also  to  be  feared  here  and  in 
foreign  lands,  especially  in  Australia,  where  also 
a  harlequin  fruit-bug  is  dangerous.  Moths. — 
Important  enemies  are  to  be  found  among  the 
Lepidoptera,  which  place  eggs  within  the  blos- 
som, whence  caterpillars  develop  within  the 
ripened  fruit;  or  which  destroy  the  leaves.    The 


Directions  for  making  and  applying  these 
sprays  may  be  found  in  the  article  Fungicide. 

Fossil  Forms.  The  genus  Pirus  is  known  in  a 
fossil  state  from  the  Cretaceous  of  North  Amer- 
ica and  the  Tertiary  of  North  America  and 
Europe. 

Consult:  J.  A.  Warder,  American  Pomology, 
Part  /.,  Apples  (New  York,  1867)  ;  Bailey,  Field 
Notes  on  Apple  Culture  (New  York,  1886)  ;  Re- 
port of  the  Kansas  State  Horticultural  "Society, 
The  Apple  (Topeka,  1898);  Reports  of  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Division  of 
Pomology   ( W^ash ington ) . 

APPLE  BBAN'DY.  Brandy  produced  by 
distilling  the  fermented  juice  of  apples.  It  was 
at  one  time  extensively  produced  in  New  Jersey, 
where  it  was  known  as  "Apple-jack,"  and  on  ac- 
count of  its  ardent  and  intoxicating  qualities  aa 
"Jersey  Lightning."  The  process  of  manufacture 
is  similar  to  that  employed  in  distilling  the 
juices  of  other  fruits,  which  will  be  found  de- 
scribed in  the  article  Distilled  Liquors. 

APPLE  OP  DISGOBD.  A  golden  fruit  bear- 
ing the  inscription,  "For  the  most  beautiful," 


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APPLE    OF   DI8C0BD. 


672 


APPLETON. 


which  was  thrown  by  Eris,  or  Discord,  into  the 
midst  of  the  company  at  the  marriage  of  Peleus 
and  Thetis.  The  prize  was  claimed  by  Juno, 
Minerva,  and  Venus,  and  was  adjudged  to  Venus 
by  Paris,  who  was  called  in  to  make  the  award. 
From  this,  through  the  machinations  of  the  dis- 
appointed goddesses,  came  the  Trojan  War. 

APPLE  OF  SOiyOM.     See  Solanum. 

APPLE  SHELL,  or  APPLE  SXAIL.  A 
large,  globose,  amphibious  mollusk  of  the  warmer 
parts  of  Africa  and  America,  of  the  family  Am- 
puUariidffi.  They  inhabit  marshes,  attaching 
their  large  eggs  to  the  leaves  of  water  plants, 
where  they  are  searched  for  and  devoured  by 
birds.  They  possess  both  lungs  and  gills,  and  in 
some  regions  us^  both  these  organs  in  rapid  al- 
ternation, as  was  observed  by  Semper  {Animal 
Life,  New  York,  1881,  p.  191)  in  the  Philippines. 
"The  ampuUaria,"  he  remarks,  "lying  not  far 
from  the  surface  of  the  water,  protrudes  above 
it  a  breathing  siphon,  and  inhales  air  through  it; 
then  it  closes  its  lungs,  reopens  the  siphon,  and 
admits  a  stream  of  water  through  it  into  the 
branchial  cavity."  The  shells  are  large,  thin, 
brilliantly  striped  ( see  colored  plate  of  Snails  ) , 
and  are  known  in  South  America  as  idol-shells. 
See  plate  of  Abalone,  etc. 

AP'PLETON.  A  city  and  the  county  seat 
of  Outagamie  County,  Wis.,  100  miles  north- 
west of  Milwaukee,  on  the  Chicago  and  North- 
western, and  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St. 
Paul  railroads  (Map:  Wisconsin,  E  4).  It  is 
situated  on  the  falls  of  the  Fox  River,  which  by 
a  series  of  dams  is  navigable  for  steamboats  and, 
with  a  fall  of  about  fifty  feet,  supplies  extensive 
water  power  for  various  manufactures,  of  which 
paper  is  the  most  important.  Apple  ton  has  a 
public  library  and  is  the  seat  of  Appleton  Col- 
legiate Institute  and  Lawrence  University,  a 
Methodist  Episcopal  institution,  organized  1847. 
Appleton  was  settled  in  1840,  and  incorporated 
as  a  village  in  1853,  as  a  city  in  1857.  A  mayor, 
elected  biennially,  and  a  bicameral  city  council, 
composed  of  the  city  officials,  and  twelve  alder- 
men, are  provided  bv  the  amended  charter  of 
1886.     Population,  1890,  11,869;  1900,  15,086. 

-  APPLETON,  Charles  Edward  (1841-79). 
An  English  editor.  He  was  born  at  Reading, 
aud  was  educated  at  Saint  John's  College,  Oxford, 
and  in  Germany.  He  is  remembered  chiefly  as 
the  organizer  of  the  movement  for  the  "endow- 
ment of  research,"  and  as  founder  (1869)  and 
editor  (1869-79)  of  the  Academy,  the  distin- 
guishing characteristic  of  which  was  its  signed 
Articles.  Consult:  John  H.  Appleton  and  A. 
H.  Sayre,  Life  and  Literary  Relics  (London, 
1881). 

APPLETON,  Daniel  (1785-1849).  An  Ameri- 
can publisher.  He  was  bom  in  Haverhill,  Mass.; 
first  engaged  in  the  dry-goods  business  there 
and  in  Boston,  and  in  1825  removed  to  New 
York  to  follow  the  same  business.  He  gradu- 
ally combined  the  importing  of  books  with  the 
dry-goods  trade,  and  finally  devoted  himself  en- 
tirely to  the  book  business,  publishing  his  first 
book  in  1831.  The  firm  which  he  established, 
known  ever  since  as  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  is  con- 
tinued by  his  descendants. 

APPLETON,  George  Swett  (1821-78).  An 
American  publisher,  the  third  son  of  Daniel 
Appleton.  He  was  bom  in  Andover,  Mass., 
studied  at  Leipzig,  and  for  a  number  of  years 


was  a  publisher  and  bookseller  in  Philadelphia. 
In  1849,  with  three  brothers,  John,  William,  and 
Sidney,  he  succeeded  to  his  father's  publishing 
business  in  New  York. 

APPLETON,  James  ( 1786-1862 ) .  An  Ameri- 
can temperance  reformer,  bom  at  Ipswich, 
Mass.  He-  fought  as  colonel  of  militia  in  the 
War  of  1812,  and  was  promoted  to  be  a  brigadier- 
general.  Having  removed  to  Maine,  he  was 
elected  to  the  Legislature  of  that  State  in  1836. 
In  1837  he  presented  to  the  Legislature  a  report 
in  which  were  advanced  the  principles  that  after- 
ward became  the  basis  of  the  Maine  liquor  law. 

APPLETON,  Jesse  (1772-1819).  An  Ameri- 
can educator.  He  was  bom  at  New  Ipswich, 
N.  H. ;  graduated  at  Dartmouth  College  in  1792, 
and  was  ordained  pastor  of  the  Congregational 
Church,  Hampton,  N.  H.,  in  1797.  From  1807 
to  1819  he  was  president  of  Bowdoin  College. 
President  Franklin  Pierce  was  his  son-in-law. 

APPLETON,  John  (1815-64).  An  Ameri- 
can diplomatist.  He  was  bom  at  Beverly, 
Mass.,  and  graduated  at  Bowdoin  College  in 
1834.  He  was  charge  d'affaires  to  Biolivia 
(1848-49),  a  member  of  Congress  from  1851  to 
1853,  secretary  of  legation  in  London  (1855-56). 
assistant  secretary  of  state  (1857),  and  minister 
to  Russia    (1860-61). 

APPLETON,  John  Howard  (1844—).  An 
American  chemist.  He  was  born  at  Portland. 
Maine,  and  received  his  education  at  Brown  Uni- 
versity, where  he  became  instructor  in  1863  and 
professor  of  chemistry  in  1868.  He  i^Tote  a 
series  of  popular  text-books  that  are  well  known 
for  their  attractive  form  and  clearness  of  exposi- 
tion. The  series  includes:  The  Young  Chem- 
ist (Philadelphia,  1878)  ;  Qtialitative  Chemical 
Analysis  (Philadelphia,  1878)  ;  Quantitative 
Chemical  Analysis  (Boston,  1881);  Chemistry 
of  the  Non- Metals  (Providence,  1884);  The 
Metals  of  the  Chemist  (Providence,  1891); 
Chapters  on  the  Carbon  Compounds  (Providence, 
1892)  ;  and  Lessons  in  Chemical  Philosophy 
(2d  ed.  New  York,  1890). 

APPLETON,  Nathan  (1779-1861).  An 
American  merchant,  bom  at  New  Ipswich,  N.  H. 
He  was  in  partnership  with  his  brother  Samuel 
in  Boston.  With  others,  he  started  the  first 
power-loom  for  weaving  cotton  in  the  United 
States.  He  was  one  of  the  Merrimac  Company 
whose  enterprise  founded  the  city  of  Lowell 
( q.v. ) .  He  served  several  terms  in  the  Massachu- 
setts Legislature;  in  1830  and  in  1842  he  was  a 
member  of  Congress,  where  he  was  one  of  the 
prominent  advocates  of  a  tariff  for  protection. 

APPLETON,  Samuel  (1766-1853).  An 
American  merchant  and  philanthropist,  brother 
of  Nathan  Appleton,  born  at  New  Ipswich,  X.  H. 
He  passed  his  boyhood  on  a  farm.  In  1794  he 
and  his  brother  Nathan  went  into  the  English 
trade  in  Boston,  and  afterwards  added  cotton 
manufacturing,  in  which  they  made  a  fortune. 
He  retired  from  active  business  in  1823,  and  de- 
voted his  entire  income  to  benevolent  and  scien- 
tific purposes,  for  which  he  bequeathed  $200,000. 

APPLETON,  Thomas  Gold  (1812-84).  An 
American  poet,  artist,  and  scholar,  patron  of  art 
and  science,  bom  in  Boston.  He  was  a  brother- 
in-law  of  the  poet  Longfellow,  and  was  a  noted 
wit  and  raconteur.  His  verses  are  collected  in 
Faded  Leaves;  his  prose  in  A  Nile  Journal 
(1876);    Syrian   Sunshine    (1877);    Windfalls, 


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APFLETOX. 


©73 


APPONYI. 


etc.  His  Life  and  Letters  were  edited  by  Susan 
Hale  (1885).  He  founded  the  Boston  Literaxy 
Club. 

APPLETOMT,  William  Henby  (1814-84).  An 
American  publisher.  He  was  bom  at  Haver- 
hill, -Mass.,  and  studied  in  secondary  schools.  In 
1848  he  became  the  senior  member  of  the  firm  of 
D.  Appleton  and  Company,  and  for  sixty  years 
was  prominent  in  the  book  trade.  He  was  active 
in  the  struggle  for  an  international  copyright. 
Among  the  publications  brought  out  by  him  were 
^he  New  American  Cyclopcedia  ( New  York,  1858- 
<$3);  and  the  Webster's  Spelling -Book  (New 
York,  1858). 

APPLIQTTE,  A'pl^'kA'  (Fr.,  p.p.  of  appliquer, 
to  put  on).  In  needlework,  a  pattern  cut  out 
from  one  foundation  and  applied  to  another. 

APPOGGIATUBA,  &-p6d'jA-t?R5'rft  (It.  from 
<tppoggiare,  to  lean,  rest).  One  of  those  me- 
lodic ornaments  which  are  regarded  as  accessory 
notes  having  no  time-value,  and  which  are 
printed  in  small  characters.  There  are  two  dis- 
tinct varieties  of  the  appoggiatura,  the  long  and 
the  short.  The  Long  Appoggiatura  was  a  device 
of  the  early  classic  composers,  who  disliked  to 
use  imprepared  suspensions,  and  invented  the 
idea  of  covering  or  disguising  them  by  writing 
them  in  small  notes,  as  mere  embellishments  of 
the  melody.  This  unhappy  inspiration  has  been 
a  source  of  needless  trouble  to  the  music-student, 
who  is  obliged  to  learn  various  rules  for  the 
proper  execution  of  this  device,  in  which  a  note 
is  given  one  value  in  w^riting,  and  another  in 
performance.  The  time  of  an  appoggiatura  is 
taken  from  that  of  the  following  or  "principal" 
note,  and  the  appoggiatura  note  is  marked  with 
its  actual  value,  while  the  principal  note  is 
marked  with  the  value  which  both  together  have. 
The  general  rule  for  its  execution  is  that  the 
appoggiatura  is  played  exactly  as  if  it  were  writ- 
ten as  a  large  note,  and  the  following  note  is 
^ven  what  remains  of  its  face  value,  as  shown 
in  the  following  examples: 


i* 


umpire  roi^ 


WBITTBN  THUS. 


\^i'Af\noiiu^ 


PliAYED  THUS. 


The  Long  Appoggiatura  always  occurs  on  the 
beat,  and  has,  therefore,  the  accent  which  the 
principal  note  appears  to  have.  When  written 
before  a  chord,  the  appoggiatura  only  delays  the 
note  to  which  it  belongs. 

This  device  has  been  entirely  discarded  by 
modem  composers,  and  Dr.  Hugo  Riemaim 
wisely  suggests  that  in  new  editions  of  the  old 
works  it  should  be  removed,  and  the  notes  re- 
written in  the  form  in  which  they  are  to  be 
played. 

The  Short  Appoggiatura,  now  commonly  called 
a  grace-note,  also  originated  in  the  early  classic 
period.  It  is  written  as  an  eighth  note,  with  a 
stroke  through  the  stem,  ^  and  is  played  so 
quickly  that  it  really  has  no  perceptible  time- 
Vou  I.— 43. 


value.  Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  it  should 
be  played  on  the  beat  or  before  it,  the  difference 
being  merely  a  question  of  accent.  The  classic 
tradition  and  conservative  opinion  demand  its 
execution  on  the  beat,  but  many  musicians  of 
the  present  day  consider  it  more  graceful  and 
more  truly  ornamental  if  played  without  accent, 
before  the  beat.  The  final  decision  must  be  left 
to  the  taste  of  the  performer. 

APPOIKT^HENT  (Fr.  appointement) .  In 
English  and  American  law,  the  act  of  vesting 
an  estate  in  one's  self  or  in  another,  under  a 
power  or  authority  so  to  do,  conferred  by 
the  owner  of  the  land.  Such  powers  are  created 
by  deed  or  will,  and  must  be  exercised  in  the 
manner  prescribed  by  the  instrument  conferring 
the  power,  but  only  by  an  instrument  competent 
to  create  or  transfer  an  interest  in  real  estate. 
See  Power  of  Appointment,  and  the  authorities 
there  noted. 

Appointment  to  Office  is  the  formal  desig- 
nation, by  one  in  whom  the  authority  has  been 
lawfully  vested,  of  a  person  to  hold  a  public 
office  or  perform  a  public  duty.  The  term  is  not 
properly  applicable  to  the  choice  of  an  officer  by 
public  election.  The  manner  in  which  an  ap- 
pointment shall  be  made  is  prescribed  by  law. 
Usually  a  certificate,  or  commission,  in  writing, 
signed  by  the  appointing  officer,  is  required, 
and  this  becomes  a  public  record  and  consti- 
tutes the  appointee's  evidence  of  title  to  the 
office,  and  his  justification  for  exercising  its 
powers  and  authority.  The  exercise  of  the 
powers  of  an  office  without  such  formal  authori- 
zation constitutes  usurpation  (q.v.).  As  to 
the  nature  of  the  rights  conferred  by  an  ap- 
pointment, see  Office,  and  authorities  there 
noted;  see  also  De  Facto. 

APPOLD,  ftp'old,  John  Geobge  (1800-65). 
An  English  inventor.  His  chief  inventions  were 
an  improvement  of  the  centrifugal  pump,  a  proc- 
ess for  dressing  furs,  and  an  apparatus  for 
paying  out  submarine  telegraph  wire,  which 
w*as  very  useful  in  laying  the  Atlantic  cable. 

APPOMATTOX  COUBT^OITSE.  A  vil- 
lage in  Appomattox  County,  Va.,  about  twenty- 
five  miles  east  of  Lynchburg.  Here  General  Lee 
surrendered  the  Army  of  Northern  Virginia  to 
General  Grant,  April  9,  1865,  virtually  ending 
the  Civil  War. 

APPONYI,  6p'p6-nyl,  Gyobot  (George), 
Count  (1808-99).  A  Himgarian  statesman.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Presburg  Diet  of  1843-44, 
and  Hungarian  court  chancellor  in  1847.  He  was 
the  leader  of  the  Conservative  Party,  and  opposed 
the  revolutionary  movement  of  1848-49.  He 
lived  in  retirement  until  1859,  when  he  became 
a  member  of  the  Reichsrath  of  Vienna,  where  he 
displayed  great  ability  as  a  leading  advocate  of 
various  plans  for  restoring  the  Constitution  to 
Hungary.  In  1861  he  opened  the  Diet  at  Buda- 
pest as  Royal  Commissioner  and  presided  over 
the  sittings  of  the  Upper  House.  He  was  most 
influential  in  bringing  about  the  transformation 
of  Austria-Hungary  on  the  present  dual  basis. 
After  serving  till  1869  in  the  Diet,  he  retired  to 
private  life. — ^Apponyi,  Albert,  Count  (1846 — ). 
Son  of  the  preceding,  a  prominent  member  of  the 
Hungarian  Diet.  He  was  originally  the  leader  of 
the  Conservative  "National  Party,"  but  has  since 
1899  supported  the  Government.  He  is  one  of  the 
most  eloquent  orators  of  Himgary. 


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APPOBTIOKMSKT. 


674 


APPORTIONMENT  BILLS. 


APPOB'TIONMBNT  (Lat.  ad,  to +  portio, 
part,  share,  portion).  A  partition  and  read- 
justment of  legal  rights  or  obligations  to  con- 
form to  a  change  in  the  relations  of  the  parties 
thereto,  and  to  adjust  their  respective  interests 
in  the  subject-matter  affected  by  the  chance. 
Apportionment  is  of  frequent  occurrence  in  tne 
law,  and  may  conveniently  be  considered,  first, 
with  reference  to  the  division  of  claims,  or 
rights,  and,  second,  with  reference  to  the  divi- 
sion of  obligations,  or  burdens. 

Apportionment  of  rights  occurs  where  a  per- 
son having  an  interest  in  land  or  a  contract 
right,  entitling  him  to  the  use  or  profits  of  the 
land  or  to  payments  of  money,  parts  .with  such 
right  or  interest  to  another,  in  whole  or  in 
part.  Thus,  if  the  owner  of  land  which  is  sub- 
ject to  a  lease  at  a  fixed  rent,  sells  a  portion 
thereof,  the  purchaser  is  entitled  to  have  the 
entire  rent  apportioned  so  that  he  shall  receive 
the  share  due  from  the  parcel  of  which  he  has 
become  the  owner.  So,  also,  apportionment  of 
rent  takes  place  where  an  entire  tenement  or 
estate  is  partitioned  among  tenants  in  com- 
mon, or  passes  by  will  or  otherwise  to  several 
|iersons  in  parcels.  Again,  if  the  owner  of  land 
under  cultivation,  for  the  benefit  of  such  land 
and  of  every  part  of  it,  enjoys  an  easement  or 
profit  A  prendre  in  the  land  of  another,  as  to 
take  water  for  irrigation,  or  manure  or  sea- 
weed for  fertilizing  it,  a  conveyance  of  a  part 
of  his  land  carries  with  it  a  right  to  a  propor- 
tionate enjoyment  of  such  easement  or  profit. 
This  will,  of  course,  be  true  only  in  cases  where 
the  right  so  claimed  and  enjoyed  is  apportion- 
able  or  divisible  in  its  nature.  A  right  of 
way  or  a  right  to  pasture  one's  cattle  on  a 
neighbor's  land  would  not  ordinarily  be  appor- 
tionable,  though  it  is  said  that  a  right  to 
pasture  a  certain  number  of  cattle  may  be  appor- 
tioned. The  foregoing  are  all  cases  of  appor- 
tionment "in  respect  of  the  estate  or  interest 
enjoyed,"  and  present  no  great  diflSculty.  But 
where  the  apportionment  claimed  is  "in  respect 
of  time,"  as  where  the  new  right  accrues  be- 
tween fixed  periods  of  payment,  the  law  is  not 
so  simple  or  consistent.  At  common  law,  rents, 
annuities,  dividends,  and  similar  payments  fall- 
ing due  at  fixed  periods  were  not  deemed  appor- 
tionable  in  respect  of  time.  That  is  to  say,  if 
an  annual  rent  or  a  dividend  were  due  on  the 
first  day  of  January,  a  conveyance  of  the  land 
or  of  the  corporate  shares  on  the  31st  of 
December  would  carry  with  it  the  entire  rent 
or  dividends.  No  part  of  it  being  due  until  the 
whole  was  payable,  it  was  not  considered  capa- 
ble of  being  apportioned.  Interest  on  money 
loaned  was  an  exception,  as  in  theory  of  law 
interest  was  earned — i.e.,  accrued — from  day  to 
day  (per  diem  in  diem),  notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  by  agreement  of  the  parties  the  pay- 
ment was  postponed  to  a  fixed  date.  The  in- 
equitable operation  of  this  rule  regarding  fixed 
payments  and  the  inconveniences  resulting  from 
it  have  brought  about  a  general  change  in  the 
law,  by  statute,  both  in  England  and  in  the 
United  States,  and  it  is  now  provided  that  all 
rents,  annuities^  dividends,  and  other  periodical 
payments  in  the  nature  of  income,  are  to  be 
considered  as  accruing  from  day  to  day,  and  to 
be  apportionable  in  respect  of  time  accordingly. 
At  the  present  time  the  question  of  the  appor- 
tionment of  fixed  payments  presents  itself  most 
frequently     in   connection   with    the    respective 


claims  to  income  of  life  tenants  and  remainder- 
men, or  of  the  executor  of  a  deceased  testator 
and  the  person  entitled  under  his  will  to  cor- 
porate stocks  left  by  him.  The  calculation  of  the 
respective  shares  of  the  parties  is  sometimes 
intricate  and  difficult,  depending  upon  tables  of 
longevity,  but  the  principles  governing  their 
interests  are  as  simple  as  they  are  just  and  con- 
venient. 

Apportionment  of  obligations  depends  on  verj 
different  principles  from  those  which  result  in 
apportionment  of  rights  or  claims.  Indeed,  it 
may  be  asserted,  as  a  general  proposition,  that 
burdens  are  not  apportionable.  A  tenant  can- 
not, by  alienating  a  portion  of  his  tenement, 
relieve*  himself  of  any  part  of  his  obligation  to 
pay  rent;  nor  can  a  person,  by  rendering  only 
a  part  of  the  service  which  he  has  contracted  to 
perform,  entitle  himself  to  compensation  for  the 
service  rendered.  Rights  are  assignable;  obli- 
gations are  not  assignable.  Xo  man  can  at  his 
own  will,  or  by  his  own  act,  rid  himself  of  a 
legal  duty  by  transferring  it  to  another.  This 
is  true  even  of  burdens  which,  in  theory  of  law. 
rest  upon  land,  as  mortgages,  servitudes,  and 
other  incumbrances.  The  partition  of  the  land 
among  several  owners  will  not,  in  general,  re- 
lieve any  portion  thereof  of  the  burden  which 
rest^  upon  the  whole  and  upon  every  part  and 
parcel  thereof,  although,  as  between  "themselves, 
the  several  owners  may  be  entitled  to  an  equal- 
ization of  the  obligation  which  each  is  equally  lia- 
ble to  perfonp.  (See  Contribution;  Exonera- 
tion; SuBBOOATiON. )  The  severity  of  this  rule 
has  been  relaxed  in  a  few  exceptional  cases. 
Thus,  it  is  held  that  where  a  person  fails  to 
complete  a  contrate  for  personal  services,  in  con- 
sequent of  subsequent  disability  or  death,  com- 
pensation may  be  recovered  for  the  services  actu- 
ally rendered.  (See  Rescission  of  Contracts.) 
Again,  in  cases  where  a  tenant  under  a  rent  is 
evicted  from  a  part  of  the  premises  by  para- 
mount title — i.e.,  by  some  one  having  a  title 
superior  to  that  of  his  landlord — the  rent  i* 
apportioned,  the  tenant  being  liable  only  for  the 
use  and  occupation  of  the  part  actually  retained 
by  him.  If,  however,  the  eviction  be  by  the  land- 
lord himself  or  by  a  stranger,  or  even 'if  it  be  by 
the  destruction  of  the  premises,  in  whole  or  in 
part,  there  will  be  no  apportionment  of  the 
rent,  the  tenant  in  the  former  case  being  freed 
from  all  his  obligations  under  the  lease,  and  in 
the  second  case  continuing  liable  for  the  whole 
rent,  notwithstanding  the  eviction.  See  Enc- 
TioN;  Landlord  and  Tenant;  Rent;  and  the 
authorities  noted  under  the  various  titles  above 
referred  to. 

APFOBTIONHENT  BILLS.  In  the  United 
States,  laws  passed  by  Congress  after  each  decen- 
nial census,  to  define  the  number  of  members  of 
the  House  of  Representatives  to  which  the  sev- 
eral States  are  entitled.  Every  State  has  at 
least  one  member.  Eleven  apportionment  bills 
have  been  passed.  The  first  constitution  adopted 
by  the  original  thirteen  States  fixed  the  number 
of  members  at  65,  and  the  ratio  of  representa- 
tion at  30,000*  Representative  population  then 
meant  all  free  white  citizens  and  three-fifths  the 
number  of  slaves;  two-fifths  of  the  slaves,  all 
aliens,  and  Indians  not  taxed,  were  excluded 
from  any  share  in  choosing  members  of  Congress. 
The  Fifteenth  Amendment  to  the  United  States 
Constitution  conferred  the  franchise  on  the 
emancipated  slaves  in  the  South.    The  following 


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APPOBTIONHENT  BILLS.               675  APPBJBHEKSION. 

figures   show  the  variations   of  apportionment  a  rule,  conclusive  upon  the  parties  interested 

made  for  each  census:  therein. 

Pop.  to  a  APTBEHENIK      (Lat      apprehendere,     to 

P*'*^-                                  Sta-tea.    Members,    member,  geize).     To  take  a  person  into  custody  by  war- 

1790 15            106            33.000  rant  of  law  for  the  purpose  of  subjecting  him  to 

1800 16            141            83,000  criminal  process.     The  apprehension  of  the  per- 

JIJJ I JJ           213           Jo'ooo  *^^  accused  of  crime  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a 

i83o!!.'!!!!!!!!!!.'!!!!!!!.'.!!!!.*!!!!!!.'!!!!  24           mo           atItoo  part  of  the  criminal  process,  but  may  precede  it, 

1840 96           328           70,680  or  may  occur  at  any  stage  in  its  progress  prior  to 

i86o!!!!!!.'.7.*.!*.!!"!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!  84           ms          127!^  execution  of  the  sentence  imposed.     Indeed,  in 

i87o!!..!!!!!.'.'.'.'.*.*!.'.!.'!!!!!.!!.7.!!!.!!.*!  a?            298          I3i!426  some   jurisdictions,    it   may   be   dispensed   with 

1^ 88           825          170'SJlf  altogether,  where  the  sentence  does  not  call  for 

im!!!!!..!!!!!*.!!!!!...*!!!.!!.!!.!."!!!.  S           we          m,'i76  ^^®   physical  punishment  of   the  offender.     In 

England   and   the   United   States,   however,   the 

The  House  had  grown  rapidly  in  number  of  trial  of  a  person  accused  of  crime  cannot  proceed 

members  until  1830,  when  it  was  found  that  it  without  apprehension  or  personal  submission  of 

would  soon  become  unwieldly  unless  the  num-  the  accused  to  the  process  of  the  court.     The 

ber    of    representative    population    required    to  term  arrest   (q.v.),  which  is,  in  strictness,  ap- 

a  member  should  be  largely  increased;   so  the  plicable  only  to  detention  in  civil  cases,  is  now 

ratio   was   increased   by   one-half    (raised   from  commonly  employed  in  all  cases  of  taking  into 

47,700  to  70,680).     Since  then  the  purpose  has  custody. 

been  to  keep  the  House  below  300  members,  and  AP'PBBHEN'SIOK  (Lat.  apprehensio,  a 
the  ratio  is  raised  regularly  while  the  number  of  getting  upon,  grasping,  understanding,  from  ad, 
members  is  seldom  increasfed  unless  by  the  addi-  to  -f  prehende?e,  ti  seize ) .  A  term  denoting  the 
tion  of  new  States  In  that  way  the  House  was  subjective  aspect  of  perception  and  imagination, 
increased  by  the  admission  of  Ore^n  in  1869,  ^^  presentation  and  representation  denote  their 
^''';^«/Vf^'J^*'-^Xyi;*''n  i""  ^^^^'-^^Q^^if  objective  side.  Two  special  uses  of  the  word 
^  i?®*'  ?l^^M*'%.*^  J^^l'f  ^e^^''^^^  f  J®^^  may  be  noticed.  (1)  The  phrase  "direct  appre- 
North  ?nd  South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Wash-  hension"  is  employed  for  the  habitual  reco^i- 
ington  m  1889,  Idaho  and  Wyoming  in  1890  and  ^ion  of  objects  and  persom*  whose  presence  in  our 
I.tah  (making  the  forty-fifth  State)  m  1896.  surroundings  is  a  iJmtter  of  cour4.  We  do  not. 
In  the  various  State  legislatures  a  similar  prac-  i„  gtrictneis,  "recognize"  the  clothes  that  we 
tice  prevails  At  stated  intervals,  generally  of  ^  ^^  every  morning,  the  pen  with  which  we 
ten  years  intermediate  with  the  Federal  period,  ^.^^ite,  the  familiar  fa^es  of  our  household;  there 
a  reapportionment  IS  made.  This  period  is  often  ^g  ^^  trace  of  associative  supplementing,  or  of 
taken  advantege  of  by  the  party  in  the  majon-  well-marked  mood  of  familiarity.  Rather, 
ty,  who,  by  combinations  of  various  kinds,  "ger-  ^^  apprehend  them  directly.  Their  look  and 
rymander"  the  State,  and  so  redistrict  that  their  touch^et  up  a  certain  bodily  attitude,  the  atti- 
opponente  are  in  a  hopeless  minority  at  the  polls  tude  of  easy  "at-homeness";  and  it  is  the  vague, 
on  many  succeeding  election  days.  ill-defined  mood  of  "at-homeness"  which  mediates 
AP'POSI^ION  (Lat.  appositio,  a  setting  the  recognition  (q.v.).  (2)  Stout  has  carried 
before,  from  ad,  to  -j-  ponere,  to  place).  A  term  this  reduction  a  step  farther,  in  his  doctrine  of 
in  grammar  signifying  the  annexing  of  one  sub-  "implicit  apprehension."  "It  is  possible,"  he 
Btantive  to  another,  in  the  same  case  or  relation,  Bays,  "to  distinguish  and  identify  a  whole  with- 
in order  to  explain  or  limit  the  first;  as,  my  out  apprehending  any  of  its  constituent  details." 
brother,  the  physician;  Thomas  the  Rhymer.  It  is  possible,  e.g.,  to  understand  the  meaning  of 
WTiole  sentences  or  clauses  admit  of  apposition,  a  word — something  that  stands  for  a  highly  com- 
Thus:  "Napoleon  sought  the  way  to  India  plex  combination — without  any  mental  imagery 
through  Russia,  a  stroke  of  genius."  Sometimes  whatsoever;  the  meaning  is  implicitly  appre- 
a  connecting  word  is  used  where  logical  propriety  bended  by  an  imageless  thought  There  is  some- 
would  require  apposition;  as,  the  city  of  London,  thing  fascinating  about  this  assumption  of  "a 
for  the  city  London.  mode  of  presentational  consciousness  which  is 
APPBAISB^HBNT  (from  Eccles.  Lat.  ap-  not  composed  of  visual,  auditory,  tactual,  and 
pretiare,  to  value  at  a  price,  to  rate,  from  Lat.  other  experiences  derived  from  and  in  some  de- 
ad,  +  pretium,  price).  '  The  official  or  formal  gree  resembling  in  quality  the  sensations  of  the 
valuation  of  property,  in  accordance  with  legal  special  senses,"  yet  which  possesses  "a  repre- 
requirements,  or  by  agreement  between  the  par-  sentative  value  or  significance  for  thought";  but 
ties  interested.  Official  appraisements  in  legal  its  assumption  is  unnecessary.  By  the  law  of 
proceedings  are  regulated  generally  by  statute,  associate  exclusion  (see  Association),  the 
and  are  most  frequently  resorted  to  in  the  case  middle  terms  of  a  train  of  ideas  may  drop  out, 
of  merchandise  subject  to  customs  duty;  of  the  with  frequent  repetition;  so  that  the  idea  a, 
personal  estate  of  a  decedent;  of  property  taken  which  was  at  first  mediated  by  ahcdy  is  now 
for  public  use  under  the  right  of  eminent  do-  called  up  by  a  alone,  without  the  intervention  Of 
main,  or  damaged  by  authorized  public  works,  hcd.  So  the  sound,  or  •  articulatory  "feel,"  or 
such  as  canals ;  of  wTecked  property ;  of  property  sight  of  the  word  might  come,  in  time,  to  carry 
of  bankrupte  or  insolvents ;  and  of  property  lev-  the  meaning  which  had  originally  been  carried  by 
ied  upon  under  judicial  process,  or  distrained  associated  images.  Moreover,  there  can  be  no 
for  rent.  Unofficial  appraisements  are  often  pro-  understanding,  even  of  the  most  familiar  word, 
vided  for  by  the  agreement  of  parties  interested,  without  the  arousal  of  the  mood  of  "at  home," 
as  in  the  case  of  insured  property  which  is  in-  with  its  constituent  organic  sensations;  and 
jured  or  destroyed.  When  an  appraisement  is  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  these  are  the  real 
duly  made,  in  a  legal  proceeding  or  by  mutual  vehicle  of  the  word's  meaning.  Consult:  G.  F. 
agreement,  the  value  set  upon  the  property  is,  as  Stout,  Analytic  Psychology   (London,  1896) ;  E. 


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676 


APPSENTIGE. 


B.  Titchener,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (New  York, 
1902). 

APPRENTICE  (Low  Lat.  apprenticius, 
learner,  from  apprehendere,  to  grasp) .  A  person, 
generally  a  minor,  lawfuUjr  bound  to  the  service 
of  another,  in  consideration  of  maintenance  and 
instruction  by  that  other  in  some  art  or  trade. 
At  present  the  apprentice  system  in  England  and 
in  many  of  our  States  applies  chiefly  to  orphans 
or  to  the  children  of  paupers,  and  to  some  ex- 
tent in  this  coimtry  to  minors  who  have  been 
sent  to  houses  of  refuge  or  similar  institutions 
for  petty  offenses.  It  is  regulated  by  statutes  in 
most  of  our  States,  and  their  provisions  must  be 
strictly  complied  with,  or  the  apprenticeship  will 
be  invalid.  Ordinarily  the  consent  of  the  minor, 
and  of  his  father,  mother,  or  guardian,  is  re- 
quired: the  apprenticeship  is  limited  to  the  age 
of  21  in  the  case  of  boys,  and  18  in  the  case  of 
girls,  and  ceases  upon  the  death  of  either  the 
master  or  the  apprentice.  By  section  4609  of  the 
United  States  Revised  Statutes,  a  boy  who  has 
attained  the  age  of  12  years  may  be  apprenticed 
to  the  sea  service,  with  his  consent  and  that  of 
his  parents,  such  apprenticeship  to  cease  when  he 
becomes  18  years  of  age.  The  Thirteenth  Amend- 
ment to  the  United  States  Constitution,  prohib- 
iting "slavery  or  involuntary  servitude,  except  as 
a  punishment  for  crime,"  it  has  been  judicially 
declared,  does  not  relieve  an  apprentice  from 
doing  service  against  his  will.  See  Kent,  Com- 
mentaries on  American  Law  (fourteenth  edition, 
Boston,  1896)  ;  Austin,  The  Law  Relating  to  Ap- 
prentices (London,  1890),  for  the  English  laws; 
and  the  works  referred  to  under  the  titles  CoN- 
TBACT;  Master  and  Sehvant. 

Apprentice,  Naval.  Apprentices  are  enlisted 
for  the  United  States  naval  qervice  between 
the  ages  of  15  and  17  to  serve  until  they 
reach  21  years  of  age.  Minors  between  the  ages 
of  15  and  17  are  not  enlisted  without  the  con- 
sent of  their  parents  or  guardians.  The  appli- 
cant must  be  of  robust  frame,  intelligent,  of  per- 
fectly sound  and  healthy  constitution,  free  from 
all  physical  defects  or  malformation,  and  not 
subject  to  fits.  He  must  also  be  able  to  read 
and  write.  In  special  cases,  where  the  boy  shows 
a  general  intelligence,  and  is  otherwise  qualified, 
he  is  enlisted,  notwithstanding  his  reading  and 
writing  are  imperfect.  Upon  enlistment  boys  are 
rated  as  third-class  apprentices  and  receive  $9 
per  month  and  one  ration.  After  completing 
their  tour  of  service  in  a  cruising  training-ship, 
if  qualified,  they  are  advanced  to  apprentices  of 
the  second  class  at  $15  per  month.  After  serving 
one  year  in  cruising  ships  of  war,  if  qualified, 
they  are  advanced  to  apprentices,  first  class,  at 
$21  per  month.  Apprentices,  first  class,  during 
the  last  year  of  their  enlistment,  may  be  given 
acting  appointments  as  petty  officers,  third  class, 
and  if  they  serve  the  probationary  period  in  the 
United  States  Navy,  they  must  be  recommended 
to  a  permanent  appointment  previous  to  dis- 
charge. Upon  the  expiration  of  the  enlistment 
of  an  apprentice  he  will,  if  recommended,  receive 
an  honorable  discharge;  and  upon  reenlistment 
within  four  months  from  date  of  honorable  dis- 
charge he  will  receive  four  months'  extra  pay  of 
his  rating  when  discharged,  a  continuous  service 
certificate,  and  an  addition  of  $1.36  per  mohth 
to  his  pay.  When  first  received  on  board  a  train- 
ing-ship apprentices  are  furnished,  free  of  cost, 
with  an  outfit  of  clothing  not  exceeding  in  value 


the  sum  of  $45.     This  outfit  is  furnished  on 
the  supposition  that  the  apprentice  will  serve 
during  his  minority.     Should  he  be  discharge 
at  his  own  request  prior  to  the  completion  of 
his  term  at  the  traming  station  and  the  first 
practice  cruise,  he   must  refund  the  value  of 
the  outfit.     As   soon   as   practicable  after  the 
apprentices    are   enlisted,    they    are   forwarded 
to  the  naval  training-station  at  Newport,  where 
they  receive  instruction  in  English  studies  and 
in  the  rudiments  of  the  profession  of  a  sea- 
man,  for  the  period  of   six  months.     At  the 
termination  of  this  period  the  apprentices  are 
transferred  to  the  cruising  training-ships.  There 
are  three  departments  of  instruction  and  train- 
ing— seamanship,    gunnery,    and     English,   the 
last  embracing  reading,  writing,  spelling,  geog- 
raphy, history,  and  arithmetic.     There  is  also 
special  instruction  as  buglers,  carpenters,  sail- 
makers,  and  blacksmiths.    When  apprentices  are 
to  be  discharged  their  parents  or  guardians  are 
informed,  and  ample  time  is  allowed  them  to 
come  themselves,  or  send  means  to  defray  the 
traveling  expenses.    The  course  of  instruction  on 
board    the    cruising    training    ships    is   of  six 
months'  duration.    The  instruction  begun  at  the 
shore  station  is  continued  aboard  the  cruising 
vessels  with  an  increase  of  practical  work.  When 
transferred  to  the  regular  service  cruisers,  the 
instruction  is  still  continued,  and  the  apprentices 
are  regularly  examined  before  being  advanced  in 
rating.     Should  the  term  of  enlistment  of  an 
apprentice  expire  while  he  is  abroad,  he  is  to  be 
sent  to  the  United  States  as  soon  as  practicable, 
unless  he  desires  to  reenlist. 

APPROACHES,  (Fr.  approacker,  It  ap- 
procciaire,  M.  Lat.  appropriare,  come  near  to, 
from  Lat.  ad,  to  +  prope,  near) .  A  term  used  in 
the  science  of  fortification,  to  describe  the  sunken 
trenches  or  passages,  constructed  by  an  attacking 
force,  to  cover  and  protect  their  advance  on  a  for- 
tified position.  Care  is  taken  in  the  construction  of 
approaches,  which  are  iisually  in  a  zigzag  course, 
to  avoid  enfilade  or  direct  fire,  particularly  the 
former.  The  style  of  approaches  built  will  de- 
pend altogether  on  the  character  and  strength  of 
the  besieged,  and  the  time  available  for  the  work. 
Generally,  continuous  lines  of  breastworks  are 
built,  parallel  to  the  opponents'  lines.  If  exca- 
vation is  difficult  or  impossible,  breastworks  of 
sandbags  and  gabions  are  built  on  both  sides  of 
the  route.  The  most  important  examples  of  this 
branch  of  military  strategy  were  those  con- 
structed by  the  French  and  English  troops  in  the 
Crimean  War  of  1854,  at  the  siege  of  Sebastopol. 
More  recent  instances  are  rare,  owing  to  the 
great  change  that  has  taken  place  in  the  method 
of  conductmg  modem  warfare.  See  Fortifica- 
tion and  Stege  Works. 

APPBOTBIATION  (Late  Lat.  appropria- 
tio,  a  making  one's  self,  from  od,  to  -h  propn'tM, 
one's  oi;%7i).  (1)  The  act  of  applying  specific 
property  to  a  particular  use.  (2)  The  act  of 
reserving  property  for  a  designated  use.  In  its 
first  signification,  the  term  is  applied  to  unlawful 
acts,  such  as  those  of  conversion  (q.v.)  or  em- 
bezzlement (q.v.)  ;  and  to  lawful  acts,  such  as 
the  adoption  of  a  design  or  symbol  as  a  trade- 
mark, or  the  final  setting  aside  of  specific  goods 
under  an  executory  contract  of  sale  (q.v.)  for 
the  purpose  of  transferring  the  title  or  owner- 
ship to  the  buyer.  In  this  signification,  also,  it 
is  used  in  the  phrase  appropriation  of  payments. 


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677  APBAXIN. 


When  X  owes  Y  several  debts,  X  has  the  right  to 
appropriate  a  payment  which  he  makes  to  any 
of  the  debts.  If  he  pays,  without  exercising  the 
right,  Y  may  appropriate  the  payment  to  any 
debt.  In  case  a  payment  is  made  without  ap- 
propriation at  the  time,  by  either  X  or  Y,  and 
subsequently  they  disagree  as  to  its  appropria- 
tion, the  courts  will  apply  it  in  accordance  with 
their  conception  of  the  justice  of  the  ease.  These 
conceptions,  as  announced  in  various  reported 
decisions,  are  tending  toward  the  establishment 
of  fixed  rules.  Such  rules  are  applied,  however, 
only  to  voluntary  payments,  of  which  the  debtor 
had  the  power  of  appropriation.  If,  for  ex- 
ample, a  payment  is  made  under  judicial  process, 
as  upon  the  sale  of  the  debtor's  property  under 
the  foreclosure  of  a  mortgage,  it  will  be  ap- 
propriated ratably  toward  the  claims  for  which 
the  mortgage  was  security. 

In  the  second  of  the  above  significations,  the 
term  approprintion  is  found  most  frequently  in 
constitutional  and  statutory  provisions.  By 
Article  I,  Section  9,  of  the  United  States  Con- 
stitution, it  is  declared:  ''No  money  shall  be 
drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law."  In  England, 
"Not  a  penny  of  revenue  can  be  legally  expended, 
except  under  the  authority  of  some  act  of  Par- 
liament." The  most  important  statute  of  this 
sort  is  the  annual  Appropriation  Act,  by  which 
definite  sums  are  reserved  for  specified  objects. 
See  the  works  mentioned  under  the  titles  re- 
ferred to  in  this  article,  and  for  appropriation 
by  a  debtor  those  referred  to- under  the  title: 
Contract;  for  appropriation  of  funds  by  the 
government  see  Story,  Commentaries  on  the  Con- 
stitution of  the  United  States  (fifth  edition,  Bos- 
ton, 1891),  and  Von  Hoist,  Constitutional  Law 
of  the  United  States  of  America  (Chicago,  1887). 

APFBOVE^MENT.  A  term  relating  to  the 
law^  of  common  (q.v.).  It  means  the  inclosing, 
by  the  lord  of  the  manor,  of  a  part  of  the  com- 
mon, or  waste  lands  of  the  manor,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  cultivation  and  improvement.  When 
the  act  of  approvement  and  inclosure  were  com- 
pleted, the  land  so  inclosed  lost  its  character  as 
common  land,  and  was  converted  to  the  use  of 
the  lord.  In  general,  the  lord  could  not  exercise 
this  right  to  the  exclusion  of  those  having  rights 
of  common,  and,  therefore,  he  could  only  approve 
a  part  of  the  common  land.  Consult:  Pollock 
and  Maitland,  History  of  English  Law  (second 
edition,  Boston,  1899),  and  authorities  referred 
to  under  Common. 

APFBOX'IKA^ION  (Lat.  approximare,  to 
approach,  from  ad,  to  +  proanmus,  nearest).  A 
term  used  in  mathematics  to  designate  a  process 
or  a  calculated  result  not  rigorously  exact,  but 
which  approaches  the  truth  with  continually 
increasing  exactness,  or  near  enough  for  a  given 
purpose;  e.g.,  the  process  of  solving  a  higher 
numerical  equation  by  Homer's  method  gives 
a  root  that,  as  the  process  is  extended,  ap- 
proaches the  true  root  with  continually  increas- 
ing exactness;  multiplying  the  diameter  of  a 
circle  by  3.1416  gives  the  circumference  near 
enough  for  most  purposes.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  a  result  cannot  be  more  accurate 
than  the  data,  and  that  in  mensuration,  the 
data  are  not  usually  carried  beyond  thousandths 
of  a  unit;  hence  the  great  importance  of  ap- 
proximation, even  in  ordinary  arithmetical  cal- 
culations. 


AFFUI,  A'pw^.    See  Point  d'Appui. 

APFUN,  ftp'pvn,  Karl  Ferdinand  (1820- 
72).  A  German  naturalist,  bom  at  Bunzlau. 
In  1849  he  undertook  a  journey  of  explora- 
tion to  South  America,  where  he  remained  for 
nineteen  years.  The  three  years  from  1868 
to  1871  he  spent  in  his  native  country,  after 
which  he  returned  to  his  wanderings  in  South 
America,  where  his  death  was  caused  by  an 
accident  with  sulphuric  acid.  Appun's  studies 
were  extended  over  a  large  area  in  Venezuela, 
Brazil,  and  British  Guiana.  His  published 
works  include:  Unter  den  Tropen,  Wanderungen 
durch  Venezuela,  am  Orinoco,  durch  Britisch- 
Ouayanay  und  am  Amazonenstrom  in  den 
Jahren  1849-68  (Jena,  1871). 

AFFTTB^TENAXCE  (O.  F.  apurtenance, 
apartenance,  from  Lat.  ad,  to  -|-  pertinere,  to 
belong).  In  law,  an  incorporeal  property  right, 
which  is  an  incident  to,  and  belongs  with,  real 
estate.  Upon  conveyance  of  the  principal  real 
estate,  the  appurtenances  pass  to  the  grantee  as 
an  incident  without  being  expressly  mentioned 
in  the  grant.  An  appurtenant  right  is  the 
antithesis  of  a  right  in  gross,  which  is  a  prop- 
erty right,  attached  to  the  person  of  the  owner. 
It  is  not  an  incident  of  real  estate,  and  may  be 
conveyed  apart  from  it.  Appurtenances  are 
classified  as  profits,  or  rights  of  common,  and 
easements.  A  profit  appurtenant  is  the  right 
of  the  owner  of  real  estate  as  such,  to  take  a 
profit  or  portion  of  the  product  from  the  land 
or  water  of  another,  as  to  pasture  cattle,  cut 
timber,  catch  fish,  or  the  like,  in  common  with 
the  owner  of  the  land.  An  easement  appur- 
tenant is  any  right  of  the  owner  of  real  estate, 
as  such,  in  or  over  the  land  of  another,  which 
does  not  involve  taking  any  profit  or  product 
from  the  land,  as  a  right  of  way,  or  the  right  to 
have  light  and  air  pass  over  the  land  of  another. 
See  Easement;  Profit;  Servitude;  and  the  au- 
thorities referred  to  under  the  title  Real 
Property. 

AFBAXTUy  &-pra.ks^n,  Fedor  Matveyevitch 
(1671-1728).  A  distinguished  Russian  ad- 
miral. When  hardly  twelve  years  of  age  he 
entered  the  service  of  Peter  the  Great,  who  con- 
ceived a  great  attachment  for  him,  which  lasted 
during  the  life  of  the  monarch.  After  the  year 
1760  he  became  the  most  powerful  and  influ- 
ential person  at  the  court  of  the  Czar,  who  made 
him  chief  admiral  of  the  Russian  navy,  of 
which  in  fact  Apraxin  may  be  considered  the 
creator.  While  Peter  wm  fighting  the  Swedes 
in  the  north,  Apraxin  was  building  war-vessels, 
fortresses,  and  wharves  in  the  south.  In  1707 
he  was  appointed  president  of  the  admiralty; 
in  1708  he  defeated  the  Swedish  general  Ly- 
beker  in  Ingermanland,  and  saved  the  newly  built 
city  of  Saint  Petersburg  from  destruction;  in 
1710  he  captured  the  important  town  of  Viborg, 
in  Finland,  and  in  1711  commanded  in  the 
Black  Sea  during  the  Turkish  War.  The  fol- 
lowing year  he  returned  to  the  north;  and  in 
1713,  with  a  fleet  of  two  hundred  vessels,  he 
sailed  along  the  coast  of  Finland,  took  Helsing- 
fors  and  Borgo,  and  defeated  the  Swedish  fleet. 
The  result  of  his  great  successes  was  that  at 
the  peace  of  Nystadt,  in  1721,  Russia  obtained 
possession  of  the  coveted  Baltic  Provinces,  and 
became  the  leading  power  in  the  Baltic  Sea. 
In  1715,  and  again  in  1718,  Apraxin  was  found 


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678 


A  FBIOBl 


guilty  of  embezzlement  and  extorl^ion,  but  es- 
caped serious  punishment  and  lost  nothing  in 
reputation.  In  1722  he  accompanied  Peter 
in  his  Persian  war,  and  was  present  at  the  sie^ 
of  Derbend.  His  last  naval  expedition  was  m 
1726,  when  he  repaired  with  the  Russian  fleet 
to  Reval,  to  defend  that  place  against  an  ex- 
pected attack  by  the  English.  He  died  at 
Moscow. 

APBAXTN",  Stefan  Feooboyitch,  Count 
(1702-00).  A  Russian  general.  In  1737  he 
served  against  the  Turks,  gaining  rapid  promo- 
tion, being  appointed  ambassador  to  Persia  in 
1742,  general-in-chief  in  1746,  and  field-marshal 
in  1756.  In  Elizabeth's  court  he  was  a  strong 
opponent  of  Prussian  influence,  and  in  the 
Seven  Years'  War,  as  field-marshal,  led  an  army 
of  invasion  into  Prussia,  defeating  the  Prussian 
field-marshal  Lewald  at  Gross jagemdorfn,  1757. 
In  the  midst  of  success,  he  retreated,  on  call  of 
Bestuzheff,  who  wanted  to  raise  Paul  to  the 
Russian  throne  over  his  father  (Peter  III.),  who 
was  the  legitimate  heir,  as  the  Empress  Eliza- 
beth fell  dangerously  ill.  On  recovering,  the  lat- 
ter removed  Bestuzheff,  and  put  Apraxin  into 
prison.  The  court-martial  reported  to  the 
Empress  that  the  prisoner  denied  any  guilt, 
whereupon  she  recommended  it  to  apply  the  last 
remedy — to  set  him  free.  At  the  next  session, 
when  Apraxin  persisted  in  claiming  innocence, 
the  president  of  the  court-martial  urged  his  col- 
leagues to  apply  "the  last  remedy."  At  these 
words,  Apraxin  fell  in  a  fit  of  apoplexy,  think- 
ing they  referred  to  torture. 

A^BICOT  (Fr.  ahricoty  Sp.  albaricoque, 
Portug.  albricoque,  from  Ar.  al-hirqUq,  al-hur- 
qUq).  A  fruit  (Lat.  Prunua  armeniacay  i.e.,  Ar- 
menian plum)  resembling  in  several  respects 
both  the  peach  and  plum,  and  really  inter- 
mediate between  them.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
a  native  of  China,  and  was  brought  into  Eu- 
rope at  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great.  The 
fiesh  of  the  apricot  is  firm,  sweet,  and  aromatic; 
the  stone  is  smooth  and  slightly  furrowed,  like 
that  of  some  plums.  The  skin  is  downy,  like 
that  of  the  peach.  The  tree  resembles  the  plum 
more  than  the  peach,  in  that  it  has  ovate,  accu- 
minate,  and  cordate,  smooth,  double-toothed 
leaves,  on  long  stalks,  and  solitary,  sessile,  white 
flowers  which  appear  before  the  leaves.  The 
danger  of  loss  from  frost,  owing  to  its  early 
blooming  habit,  as  well  as  from  Plum  Curculio, 
has  discouraged  the  cultivation  of  the  apricot 
in  the  eastern  United  States.  In  California  and 
Oregon  it  is  extensively  raised.  In  England 
it  is  a  favorite  with  gardeners,  and  is  grown 
both  in  the  open  and  as  espalier  or  cordon  on 
protected  walls.  In  the  eastern  United  States, 
when  trained  in  similar  manner  to  a  northern 
or  northeastern  wall,  it  does  well,  as  in  such  a 
situation  the  buds  are  sufficiently  retarded  to 
escape  frost.  The  tree  is  as  hardy  as  the  peach, 
but  it  has  the  bad  habit  of  early  blooming,  char- 
acteristic of  all  Oriental  fruits,"  particularly  the 
Japanese  plums. 

In  the  eastern  United  States,  the  apricot  is 
usually  budded  or  gi-afted  upon  the  plum.  This 
fits  it  for  heavy  soils;  on  light  soils,  it  does 
well  when  worked  upon  the  peach,  and  in  Cali- 
fornia, where  apricot  stocks  can  be  obtained, 
it  is  worked  upon  the  apricot  itself.  In  New 
York  State  there  are  commercial  orchards  of 
apricots,   top-worked  on   the  plum.     The   Rus- 


sitin  apricot  is  a  hardy  form  of  Pninus  Arme- 
niaca,  and  although  not  in  itself  of  merit  for 
its  fruit,  may  prove  to  be  n  valuable  stock  for 
the  more  desirable  forms.  Orchard  culture  of. 
the  apricot  is,  in  general,  the  same  aa  for  the 
peach.  (See  Peach.)  Like  all  fruits  which  have 
been  long  in  cultivation,  the  apricot  has  numer- 
ous varieties;  some  valuable  varieties  are  Hol- 
land (Breda),  Moorpark,  Early  Golden,  and 
Peach.  The  fresh  fruit  of  the  apricot  is  now 
commonly  found  in  the  markets.  Large  quan- 
tities of  the  fruit  are  also  dried  in  California 
and  Oregon  in  fruit  evaporators.  The  product 
is  extensively  shipped  to  different  parts  of  the 
United  States  and  abroad,  for  cooking  purposes. 
For  composition  and  food  value  of  the  fruit,  see 
general  article  on  Fruit.  For  illustration  see 
Plate  of  Abutilon  and  Drupes. 

Diseases. — The  apricot  is  subject  to  the  same 
diseases  as  are  the  peach  and  plum.  The  most 
common  disease  is  the  leaf  rusU  It  may  be 
prevented  by  the  thorough  use  of  the  standard 
fimgicides    (q.v.). 

AFBIES,  ft'prl-6z  (Gk.  "Air/rfiyf,  Aprils; 
Uaphres,  Egyptian  JJaft-e6-r6* )  An  Egyptian 
king  of  the  twenty-sixth  dynasty.  In  the  Old 
Testament  he  is  called  Pharaoh-hophra.  He 
reigned  from  B.C.  589  to  570,  at  the  time  when 
the  Babylonians  subjected  Palestine  and  threat- 
ened Egypt.  He  aided  the  Jews  in  their  re- 
sistance against  Nebuchadnezzar,  but  was  unable 
to  prevent  the  fall  of  Jerusalem.  Apries  seems, 
however,  to  have  warded  off  the  Babylonian 
attack  upon  Egypt.  The  revolt  of  his  native 
troops,  sent  against  the  Cyrenieans  in  aid  of 
the  Libyan  king  Adikran  led  to  the  usurpation 
of  Amasis  (q.v.).  Hei'odotus,  who  in  general 
gives  a  strangely  distorted  account  of  Apries, 
relates  that  the  usurper  kept  him  alive  for 
some  time,  until  at  last  he  was  forced  to  yield 
up  the  dethroned  king  to  an  infuriated  mob. 
This  story  is,  however,  not  confirmed  by  the 
Egyptian  inscriptions. 

A^BIL.      See  Calendar. 

APBIL  FOOL.  The  first  of  April,  known 
as  "All  Fools'  Day,"  has  long  been  in  America, 
and  for  a  still  longer  period  in  many  European 
countries,  a  day  for  mocking  unwary  persons 
by  sending  them  on  bootless  errands  or  making 
them  the  victims  of  some  other  practical  joke. 
The  custom  seems  to  have  been  unknown  to  Ger- 
man antiquity.  Grimm  regards  it  as  having  been 
introduced  into  Germany  from  France,  in  com- 
paratively modem  times.  Various  theories  have 
been  held  as  to  the  origin  of  the  custom.  One 
traces  the  custom  to  the  miracle-play  formerly 
represented  at  Easter,  which  sometimes  shoimi 
the  sending  of  Christ  from  Annas  to  Caiaphas 
and  from  Pilate  to  Herod;  another  finds  the 
origin  in  some  ancient  pagan  festival  where 
similar  tricks  were  played,  such  as  the  Huli 
festival  held  by  the  Hindus  on  March  31,  or 
the  Feast  of  Fools,  celebrated  by  the  Roman* 
on  February  17.  In  France,  the  victim  is  called 
un  poisson  d'Avrilf  an  April  fish  (possibly  frtim 
the  reopening  of  the  fisheries  at  that  season ) ; 
in  Scotland,  a  gowk  or  a  cuckoo. 
■  A  FBIO^I  (Lat.,  from  something  prior, 
foregoing,  a,  from,  and  priory  prior).  In  Aris- 
totelian terminology,  a  designation  applied  to 
arguments  from  cause  to  effect,  as  opposed  to  a 
posteriori   (Lat.  from  something  posterior,  fol- 


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APSE. 


lowing),  which  describes  arguments  from  effect 
to  cause.  But  since  Kant's  day  a  priori  has  be- 
•come  an  epithet,  often  polemic,  applied  to  judg- 
ments alleged  to  have  a  validity  independent  of 
experience.  Its  antonym  in  this  meaning  is  still 
a  posteriori,  which  means  resting  upon  experi- 
ential proof.  The  attitude  one  takes  toward  the 
question  of  the  possibility  of  a  priori  judgments 
is  one  of  the  most  crucial  tests  of  one's  affiliation 
among  the  philosophic  schools.  Rationalists,  In- 
tuitionalists,  and  Criticists  (i.e.,  followers  of 
Kant)  maintain  that  many  of  our  judgments  are 
a  priori;  Empiricists  deny  it.  The  debate,  how- 
ever., seems  to  be  conducted  upon  a  false  assump- 
tion, shared  by  most  of  the  protagonists  on  either 
side,  viz.,  that  experience  comes  piecemeal,  or, 
technically,  is  atomistic  in  character.  If  such 
were  the  case,  then  any  valid  universal  judgment 
would  have  to  be  a  priori,  for  no  number  of  iso- 
lated experiences  could  point  to  a  general  law. 
But  experience  does  not  grow  by  the  accretion  of 
unrelated  elements;  rather  is  its  growth  a  proc- 
ess of  organic  expansion  under  stimulation,  which 
for  practical  purposes  must  be  regarded  as  pro- 
eeeding  from  the  external  world.  In  the  knowl- 
edge thus  acquired,  there  is  the  cooperation  of 
what  may  be  distinguished  as  two  factors,  the 
nature  of  consciousness  and  the  nature  of  the 
stimulus  that  gives  rise  to  a  content  in  conscious- 
ness. Now,  these  two  factors  may  conveniently 
be  designated  the  a  priori  and  the  a  posteriori 
constituents  of  knowledge.  But  it  is  of  the  ut- 
most moment  to  guard  against  the  error  of  sup- 
posing that  antecedently  to  experience  there  is  a 
thing  called  mind  which  comes  to  the  act  of  ex- 
perience ready  equipped  with  either  a  determi- 
nate nature  or  with  full-blown  knowledge  of 
Bome  sort.  The  literature  of  the  subject  is  enor- 
mous. Omitting  all  reference  to  ancient  phi- 
losophers, some  of  the  noteworthy  books  bear- 
ing on  the  topic  are :  J.  Locke,  Essay  Concerning 
Human  Understanding,  best  edition,  by  Fraser, 
2  vols.  (Oxford,  1894)  ;  Leibnitz,  Nouveauso  Es- 
sais  sur  Ventendement  humain,  English  by 
I^ngley  (New  York,  1896)  ;  also  selections  trans- 
lated by  Duncan  (New  Haven,  1890),  and  by 
Latta  (Oxford,  1898)  ;  D.  Hume,  Treatise  of  Hu- 
man Nature,  Book  i.  of  which  is  known  under  the 
title.  An  Enquiry  Concerning  the  Human  Un- 
derstanding, Selby-Bigge  ed.  (Oxford,  1888-94)  ; 
Kant,  Kritik  der  reinen  Vemunft,  English  by 
Max  Mtiller  (London,  1896)  ;  Hegel,  Encyclo- 
pddie  der  philosophischen  Wissenschaften  im 
Grundrisse  (Heidelberg,  1830),  in  part  trans- 
lated into  English  by  Wallace  under  the  titles, 
HegeVs  Logic  (Oxford,  1892-94)  and  HegeVs 
Philosophy  of  Mind  (Oxford,  1894)  ;  R.  H.  Lotze, 
Logik  (Leipzig,  1880),  edited  in  English  by  B. 
Bo'sanquet,  2  vols.  (Oxford,  1888)  ;  J.  S.  Mill, 
Logic  and  Examination  of  Sir  W.  Hamilton's 
Philosophy  (last  in  author's  lifetime,  1872)  ; 
(London,  1867)  ;  E.  Caird,  A  Critical  Account 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Kant,  2  vols.  (New  York 
and  London,  1889)  ;  F.  H.  Bradley,  Principles 
of  Logic  (London,  1883)  ;  B.  Bosanquet,  Logic 
(Oxford,  1888)  ;  L.  T.  Hobhouse,  Theory  of 
Knowledge  (Ix)ndon,  1896).  See  also  Kant; 
Deducjtion;  Induction;  Logic;  Empibicism; 
and  Transcendentalism. 

A^BON  (By  wrong  division  into  an  apron 
for  a  napron,  O.E.  napron,  O.F.  naperon,  Fr.  nap- 
peron,  dimin.  of  nappe,  cloth,  tablecloth,  from 
Lat.  mappa,  cloth,  cf.  napkin).     An  outer  gar- 


ment, originally  of  linen,  but  often  of  cloth  or 
leather,  covering  the  front  of  the  person  and  in- 
tended to  protect  other  clothes  from  injury.  It 
is  used  in  Goverdale's  translation  of  the  Bible 
(1535),  and  also  in  the  Authorized  Version,  to 
render  the  Hebrew  word  chagorah,  applied  to  the 
covering  of  fig-leaves  made  by  Adam  and  Eve 
after  the  Fall.  It  has  also  been  applied  to  va- 
rious mechanical  devices  used  for  purposes  of 
protection,  as  ( 1 )  in  military  affairs,  a  rectangu- 
lar piece  of  lead,  with  a  projection  on  the  under 
side,  used  to  cover  the  vents  in  old-fashioned 
cannon ;  ( 2 )  in  ship-building,  the  piece  of  curved 
timber  set  just  above  the  forward  end  of  the  keel, 
to  join  the  several  pieces  of  the  stem  and  con- 
nect them  more  firmly  with  the  keel  (see  Ship)  ; 

(3)  in  engineering  structures,  a  platform  placed 
at  the  base  to  protect  it  from  heavy  shocks; 

(4)  in  carpentry,  the  horizontal  piece  of  timber 
which  takes  a  carriage-piece  or  rough  string  on 
a  staircase,  and  also  the  ends  of  joists  which 
form  the  half -space  or  landing;  (5)  in  plumb- 
ing, the  lead  sheeting  or  flushing  dressed  on  the 
slates  in  front  of  a  dormer  window  or  skylight; 
(6)  in  mechanics,  the  piece  which  holds  the  cut- 
ting tool  in  a  planing  machine;  (7)  in  archi- 
tecture, a  more  or  less  flat  member  placed  against 
or  above  anything  for  protection,  as  the  deco- 
rative member  under  a  veranda  cornice.  Besides 
the  obvious  uses  of  aprons  in  the  original  sense, 
they  are  also  worn  in  elaborately  decorated 
forms,  as  part  of  the  costume  of  Freemasons 
(see  Masons,  Fbee)  in  the  lodge;  and  bishops 
and  deans  in  the  Church  of  England  wear  an 
apron  of  black  or  purple  silk  which  is  an  ab- 
breviation of  the  older  cassock. 

APSE.  (For  derivation,  see  Apsides.)  An  ar- 
chitectural term  used  by  Greeks  and  Romans  to 
designate  a  vaulted  structure,  such  as  a  domical 
chamber,  or  even  a  triumphal  arch.  The  Romans 
applied  it  particularly  to  the  large,  semicircu- 
lar niche  that  projected  from  some  of  their  tem- 
ple-cellas  or  their  basilicas;  in  the  temples,  it 
was  the  place  for  the  cult- image  of  the  god;  in 
the  basilica,  it  was  the  prstor's  tribunal,  where 
he  sat  surrounded  by  his  assessors.  In  both 
cases  it  was  the  culminating  point  of  the  struc- 
ture. The  partial  derivation  of  the  Christian 
church  or  basilica  from  the  Roman  basilica  or 
law-court  makes  it  natural  that  this  semi-circu- 
lar projection  or  apse  should  appear  as  an  inte- 
gral part  of  the  earliest  churches;  Early  Church 
writers  also  called  it  exedra,  concha,  or  conchula 
hematis.  Being  opposite  to  the  facade,  which 
usually  faced  west,  the  apse  end  of  the  church 
was  often  called  the  east  end.  The  higher  clergy 
were  seated  on  a  bench  around  the  apse;  the 
bishop  took  the  prtetor's  place  in  the  centre,  and 
the  presbyters  that  of  the  assessors.  The  altar 
rose  just  beyond  the  centre  of  the  semicircle. 
Being  the  most  sacred  part  of  the  church,  the 
apse  received  the  richest  and  most  artistic  deco- 
ration, and  the  most  sacred  subjects  were  de- 
picted upon  its  semidome  and  walls.  The  width 
of  the  apse  usually  corresponded  to  that  of  the 
nave  of  the  church,  whose  end  it  seemed  to  form. 
It  was  not  until  the  Seventh  or  Eighth  century 
that  two  smaller  apses  were  often  placed  on 
either  side  to  stand  in  the  same  way  at  the  ends 
of  the  aisles.  They  may.  have  developed  from 
the  small  sacristies  which  had  for  centuries  usu- 
ally been  placed  there. 


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APSE. 


680 


APUIiEXUS. 


Churches  without  apses  are  very  few.  But  in 
course  of  time  variations  of  form  were  intro- 
duced.    Byzantine  architects  gave  a  polygonal 


▲P8B  AMD  AP8IOOLBB. 

form  to  the  exterior,  while  preserving  the  in- 
terior semicircular  outline  (e.g.,  Ravenna). 
Square  apses,  found  at  first  only  as  out-of-the- 
way  freaks,  became  common  in  the  Eleventh, 
Twelfth,  and  Thirteenth  centuries,  especially  as 
they  were  adopted  by  the  Cistercian  monks  and 
those  who  felt  their  influence.  The  development 
of  transepts  led  sometimes  to  the  use  of  apses 
at  their  terminations,  as  in  the  Romanesque 
churches  at  Cologne.  Another  arrangement,  sel- 
dom seen  outside  of  Germany,  was  a  double  apse, 
one  at  each  end  of  the  church,  which  made  it  nec- 
essary to  enter  the  church  at  the  sides;  this  is 
foimd  in  both  Romanesque  and  Gothic  churches. 
Finally,  the  apsidal  end  of  the  Romanesque 
church,  first  in  France  and  then  in  Germany, 
became  enriched  by  the  use  of  radiating  chapels 
and  side-aisles,  taking  a  form  which  is  no  longer 
called  apse,  but  choir,  and  is  described  under 
that  head.  The  exterior  wall  of  the  apse  was 
very  plain  in  early  Christian  architecture,  but 
mediaeval  art  decorated  it  richly  with  false  and 
engaged  arcades  in  several  rows. 

APSHEBOX,  Up'shA-rdn.  A  peninsula  of 
Russia  on  the  western  shores  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  (Map:  Russia,  H  6).  It  is  famous  for  its 
immense  deposits  of  naphtha,  probably  the  rich- 
est in  the  world.  The  soil  is  sterile,  and  strong 
winds  prevail.     See  Baku. 

AF^SIDES,  fip'sl-dgz  (Gk.  plur.  of  d^/j, 
apsis,  loop,  juncture).  The  two  extreme  points 
in  the  orbit  of  a  planet — one  at  the  greatest, 
the  other  at  the  least  distance  from  the  sun. 
The  term  apsides  is  applied  in  the  same  manner 
to  the  two  points  in  the  orbit  of  a  satellite — one 
nearest  to,  the  other  farthest  from,  its  primary; 
corresponding,  in  the  case  of  the  moon,  to  the 
perigee  and  apogee.  A  straight  line  connecting 
these  extreme  points  is  called  the  line  of  ap- 
sides, or  the  major  axis  of  the  orbit.  In  the 
planetary  orbits,  this  line  has  no  fixed  position 
in  space,  but  undergoes  a  motion  in  the  plane 


of  the  orbit.  This  fact  in  the  orbit  of  the  earth 
gives  rise  to  the  difference  between  the  anomalis- 
tic (q.v.)  and  sideral  years.  This  motion  of  the 
line  of  apsides  is  especially  remarkable  in  the 
orbit**  of  the  moon,  an  entire  revolution  taking 
place  in  3232.57  days,  or  a  little  less  than  nine 
years. 

APPLET  HOUSE.  The  mansion  built  by 
Lord  Bathurst  in  1785,  and  purchased  in  1820  by 
the  Government  for  the  Duke  of  Wellington  in 
reward  for  the  latter's  services  to  the  nation  in 
the  Napoleonic  wars.  In  1830  its  windows  were 
broken  by  the  mob  on  the  anniversary  of  Water- 
loo, and  the  Duke  was  forced  to  have  them  pro- 
tected by  iron  shutters. 

APT,  ftpt  (anciently,  Lat.  Apia).  The  capi- 
tal of  the  arrondissement  of  the  same  name,  in 
the  department  of  Vaucluse,  France,  on  the  Med- 
iterranean Railway  (Map:  France,  M  8).  It 
contains  a  communal  college,  library,  meteoro- 
logical station,  and  a  num&r  of  manufacturing 
establishments.  Its  cathedral  is  supposed  to 
have  been  built  about  the  Eighth  Century,  and  it 
contains  numerous  specimens  of  Romanesque 
architecture.  In  ancient  times  Apt  was  the 
chief  city  of  the  Vulgientes  and  received  much 
attention  from  Julius  Csesar,  who  gave  it  the 
name  of  Apta  Julia.  It  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  France  in  1481.     Population,  1901,  5948. 

APTEBAIi  ("having  no  wings,"  Gk.  d,  c, 
priv.  +  rrep6r,  ptcron,  wing).  A  term  applied 
to  Greek  and  Roman  temples  without  lateral 
colonnades,  or  pieromata,  outside  the  cella;  and 
also  to  Christian  churches  which  either  had  no 
aisles  or  whose  facades  had  the  form  of  a  single 
unbroken  gable,  not  divided  into  three  sections. 

APTEBYOOTA.  A  prime  division  of  In- 
secta,  embracing  primitive  insects  without 
wings,  and  including  the  Thysaura  and  Callan- 
bola.    See  Silveb-fish  and  Springtail. 

AP^EBYX  (Gk.d,a,priv. +  xT^pv^,  p*fry«, 
wing).  The  type  genus  of  a  sub-class  or  group 
of  small  wingless  ratite  birds  of  New  Zealand, 
akin  to  the  epiomis  and  other  ancient  ostrich- 
like birds,  called  by  the  Maoris  "kiwi-kiwi" 
See  Kiwi. 

AP^HiE.     See  Aphtha. 

APTHOBP,    William    Foster    (1848- 


-). 
An  American  writer  and  miisical  critic,  bom  in 
Boston,  l^lass.  He  graduated  at  Harvard  in  1869 
and  studied  miisic  under  J.  K.  Paine  and  B.  J. 
Lang.  He  is  well  known  aa  the  author  of  Hector 
Berlioz:  Selections  from  His  Letters  and  Writ- 
ings, with  a  biographical  sketch,  a  pioneer  work 
in  English  on  this  composer;  and  books  of 
musical  criticism,  including  Musicians  and  Music 
Lovers  and  The  Opera,  Past  and  Present,  He 
has  lectured  at  the  Ix>well  Institute,  Boston, 
and  the  Peabody  Institute,  Baltimore,  and  has 
taught  at  the  ^ew  £higland  Conservatory,  Bos- 
ton, and  the  College  of  Music  of  Boston  Uni- 
versity. From  1892  to  1901  he  wrote  the  analy- 
ses of  musical  compositions  which  appeared  in 
the  progranmie  of  the  Boston  Symphony  Or- 
chestra. In  1881  he  became  musical  critic  of 
the  Boston  Transcript, 

APIJIiE^XJS,  Lucius.  A  satirical  writer 
of  the  Second  Century.  He  was  bom  at  Madaura, 
in  Africa,  where  his  father  was  a  magistrate,  and 
a  man  of  large  fortune.  Apuleius  first  studied  at 
Carthage,  which  at  one  time  enjoyed  a  high  rep- 
utation for  its  school  of  literature.    Afterward 


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APTn-EIUS. 


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AQUA. 


he  went  to  Athens,  where  he  entered  keenly  upon 
the  study  of  philosophy,  displaying  a  special  pre- 
dilection for  the  Platonic  School.  The  fortune 
bequeathed  to  him  at  his  father's  death  enabled 
Apuleius  to  travel  extensively.  He  visited  Asia 
and  Italy,  and  was  initiated  into  numerous  re- 
ligious mysteries.  The  knowledge  which  he  thus 
acquired  of  the  priestly  fraternities,  he  made 
abundant  use  of  afterward  in  his  Oolden  A88, 
His  first  appearance  in  literature  arose  from  a 
lawsuit.  Having  married  a  middle-aged  lady, 
named  Pudentilla,  very  wealthy,  but  not  particu- 
larly handsome,  he  drew  down  upon  his  head  the 
malice  of  her  relatives,  who  desired  to  inherit 
her  riches,  and  who  accused  the  youth  of  having 
employed  magic  to  gain  her  affections.  His  de- 
fense {Apologia,  still  extant)  spoken  before 
Claudius  Maximus,  proconsul  of  Africa,  was  an 
eloquent  and  successful  vindication  of  his  con- 
duct. After  this  event  his  life  appears  to  have 
been  devoted  zealously  to  literature  and  public 
oratory,  in  both  of  which  he  attained  great  emi- 
nence. He  was  extremely  popular,  so  that 
Carthage  and  other  cities  erected  statues  in  his 
honor. 

The  Metamorphoses,  or  Golden  Ass,  the  work 
by  which  his  reputation  has  survived,  is  a  ro- 
mance or  novel,  whose  principal  personage  is  one 
hucian,  supposed  by  some,  though  on  insufficient 
evidence,  to  be  the  author  himself.  It  is  generally 
understood  to  have  been  intended  as  a  satire  on 
the  vices  of  the  age,  especially  those  of  the  priest-* 
hood,  and  of  quacks  or  jugglers  affecting  super- 
natural powers,  though  Bishop  Warburton  and 
other  critics  fancied  they  could  detect  in  it  an 
indirect  apology  for  paganism.  Its  merits  are 
both  great  and  conspicuous,  as  are  also  its 
faults.  Wit,  humor,  satire,  fancy,  learning,  and 
even  poetic  eloquence  abound;  but  the  style  is 
disfigured  by  excessive  archaisms,  and  there  is  a 
frequent  affectation  in  the  metaphors,  etc.,  which 
proves  Apuleius  to  have  been  somewhat  artificial 
in  his  rhetoric.  The  most  exquisite  thing  in 
the  whole  work  is  the  episode  of  Cupid  and 
Psyche  (imitated  by  La  Fontaine;  separate 
edition  by  Jahn,  Leipzig,  1856).  It  is  supposed 
to  be  an  allegory  of  the  progress  of  the  soul  to 
perfection.  Besides  the  Apologia  and  Golden 
A  88,  we  have  from  the  pen  of  Apuleius  an  an- 
thology in  four  books,  a  work  on  the  demon  of 
Socrates,  one  on  the  doctrines  of  Plato,  one  on 
The  Universe,  etc.  A  considerable  number  of  his 
works  ars  lost.  The  most  recent  and  careful 
edition  is  by  J.  van  de  Vliet,  the  Metamorphoses 
(Leipzig,  1897)  ;  Apologia  and  Florida  (Leipzig, 
1900).  The  Golden  Ass  was  translated  into 
English  by  T.  Taylor  (London,  1822),  and 
again  by  Sir  G.  Head  (London,  1851).  A  still 
earlier  translation  by  Adlington  in  1566  has 
been  republished,  in  an  introduction  by  Whib- 
lery  (London,  1893).  An  English  version  of 
the  works  of  Apuleius  was  published  in  Lon- 
don,   1853. 

APULIA.  A  part  of  ancient  Italy  lying 
along  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  bounded  on  the  west 
and  south  by  the  Frentani,  Samnium,  Lucania, 
and  Calabria  ( Map :  Italy,  L  6 ) .  Modern  Apulia 
( Ital.  La  Puglia )  comprises  the  provinces  of  Bari, 
Foggia,  and  I/ecce.  It  is  a  vast  plain  drained  b^ 
numerous  small  streams  flowing  toward  the  Adri- 
atic. The  country  has  extensive  areas  of  pasture 
land,  and  the  raising  of  domestic  animals  is  the 
chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants.  Chief 
towns:  Bari,  Brindisi,  Foggia,  and  Lecce.  Popu- 


lation, 1881,  1,519,064;  1901,  1,949,423.  Accord- 
ing to  old  poetic  traditions,  Daunus,  King  of  the 
Apulians,  when  banished  from  Illyria,  had  come 
and  settled  here.  The  chief  towns  of  Apulia  were 
Arpi,  Barium,  Canusium,  Luceria,  and  Venusia 
(birthplace  of  Horace).  The  Romans  first  came 
in  contact  with  the  Apulians  in  b.g.  326,  when  a 
friendly  alliance  was  formed;  but  the  Apulians 
joined  the  Samnites,  the  Tarentines,  and  finally 
Hannibal  in  attempts  against  Roman  supremacy. 
Much  of  the  Second  Punic  War  was  fought  in 
Apulia,  and  here  the  Romans  lost  the  disastrous 
battle  of  Cannee  (q.v.).  After  the  fall  of  Hanni- 
bal, Apulia  was  wholly  subjugated  by  Rome. 
When  Augustus  divided  Italy  into  districts,  the 
Regio  II.  was  made  to  include  Apulia  and  Cala- 
bria. 

AFlTBEy  a'plSS-ra'.  An  important  tributary 
of  the  Orinoco,  rising  in  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Andes  near  Bucaramanga,  in  Colombia, 
South  America.  Flowing  eastward,  it  enters 
Venezuela,  receiving  from  the  south  the  Cau- 
cagua  River  and  from  the  north  the  Portuguesa, 
the  Guarico,  and  others;  finally  joining  the 
Orinoco  200  miles  above  Ciudad,  Bolivia.  It  is 
more  than  700  miles  long,  navigable  through  the 
greater  part  of  its  course.  The  vessels  of  the 
Orinoco   Steamship   Company  ply  its  waters. 

AFUBIMAG,  A-po<5'r^mak'  (Peruvian  upu, 
principal,  chief -|- rimac,  oracle).  A  Peruvian, 
river,  one  of  the  head  streams  of  the  Ucayali 
(q.v.)  (Map:  Peru,  C  6).  It  rises  in  the  high 
Andes  in  lat.  15*  S.,  about  one  hundred 
miles  northwest  of  Lake  Titicaca,  and  flows 
northwest  throughout  about  five  hundred  miles 
of  its  course,  but  after  uniting  with  the 
Pirene  it  flows  under  the  name  of  Tambo  east- 
ward and  then  northward  for  a  distance  of 
a  hundred  miles  to  its  place  of  union  with 
the  Quillabambi,  to  form  the  Ucayali,  which 
in  turn,  uniting  with  the  Maranon,  forms  the 
Amazon.  The  Apurimac  possesses  the  peculiar- 
ity that  its  tributaries,  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  Pampas,  Mantaro,  and  Perene,  are  received 
from  the  west  side.  Among  the  tributaries  of 
the  Amazon,  the  Apurimac  probably  rises  near- 
est to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Apurimac  and  its 
tributaries  are  of  the  nature  of  great  mountain 
torrents,  and  their  rocky  and  rugged  banks  are 
generally  difficult  of  access,  and  oft  times  wholly 
inaccessible.  The  valleys  through  which  they 
How  vary  in  climate  and  productiveness  with 
change  of  altitude.  The  lower  valleys  yield  the 
products  of  the  tropics,  and  the  upper  ones  those 
of  temperate  and  cold  climates.  The  basin  of  the 
Apurimac,  as  a  whole,  is  said  to  be  the  finest 
part  of  Peru,  and  to  contain  the  largest  propor- 
tion of  native  population — the  best  specimens, 
apparently,  of  the  aboriginal  civilization. 

AFUBIMAG.  A  department  of  Peru,  bound- 
ed by  the  department  of  Cuzco  on  the  north  and 
east  and  Ayacucho  on  the  south  and  west  (Map: 
Peru,  C  6).  Area,  8,187  square  miles.  The  sur- 
face is  largely  elevated  and  well  watered.  The 
population  was  officially  estimated  in  1896  at 
177,387.    Capital,  Abancay. 

A'QTJA  (Lat.,  water).  A  term  often  used 
by  the  alchemists,  who  called  nitric  acid  aqua 
fortis;  alcohol,  aqua  vitce,  etc.  A  mixture  of 
nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids  is  still  called  aqua 
regia.  In  modern  pharmacy  the  word  is  used  in 
the  following  terms:  Aqua  ammonice  (water  of 
ammonia),     aqua     ammonics     fortior      (strong 


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AQUATIC  ANHCALS. 


water  of  ammonia),  aqua  amygdalce  amarce 
(bitter  almond  water) ,  aqua  aniai  (anise  water) , 
aqua  aurantii  florum  ( orange  -  flower  water), 
aqua  camphorw  (camphor  water),  aqua  chlori 
(chlorine  water),  aqua  chlaroformi  (chloroform 
water  of  ammonia),  aqua  amygdalce  amarcB 
aqua  crcasoti  (creosote  water),  aqua  deatillata 
(distilled  water),  aqua  ^centcuK  (fennel  water), 
aqua  hydrogenii  diowidi  (peroxide  of  hydro^n 
solution),  aqua  menthce  piperatof  (peppermmt 
water),  aqua  menthw  viridis  (spearmint  water), 
and  aqua  rosas  (rose  water). 

AQUiB  BEXfTlM  (Lat.,  Sextian  waters). 
A  town  of  ancient  Gaul,  famous  for  the  victor j 
of  Marius  over  the  Teutones,  Ambrones,  and 
other  German  tribes,  in  B.C.  102.  It  is  now 
known  as  the  French  town  of  Aix,  in  Provence. 

AQUiE  SOOilS  (Lat.,  waters  of  the  sun). 
Now  the  English  town  of  Bath;  an  ancient  Ro- 
man city,  remarkable  for  its  magnificent  edifices 
and  for  the  medicinal  property  of  its  springs. 
Recent  excavations  at  its  site  have  brought  to 
light  the  remains  of  many  Roman  bath-houses. 

AQUAMABINE,  -m&ren^  (Lat.  aqua,  water 
-f  marinua,  belonging  to  the  sea).  A  bluish- 
green  variety  of  beryl  that  is  used  as  a  gem.  It 
is  found  in  a  number  of  localities  in  the  United 
States,  the  richest-colored  gems  coming  from 
Royalston,  Mass.  A  celandine  green  variety  of 
apatite  is  also  called  aquamarine. 

AQUA  BE^'OIA  (Lat.,  royal  water) .  A  name 
given  to  a  mixture  of  nitric  and  hydrochloric 
acids,  which  may  be  used  as  a  solvent  for  gold, 
whence  its  name,  as  gold  was  called  by  the 
alchemists  the  king  of  metals.  It  is  usually  pre- 
pared by  mixing  one  part  of  nitric  acid  with 
from  three  to  four  parts  of  hydrochloric. 

AQUARIUM  (Lat.,  a  watering-place  for 
cattle,  from  aqua,  water).  A  tank  or  vessel 
containing  either  salt  or  fresh  water,  in  which 
either  marine  or  fresh-water  plants  and  ani- 
mals are  kept  in  a  living  state.  From  1854  to 
1860  there  was  a  mania  for  these  scientific  toys, 
and  they  became  not  only  an  aid  to  study,  but  a 
source  of  rational  amusement,  depending  in 
principle  upon  the  relations  discovered  by  science 
between  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  particu- 
larly upon  the  consumption  by  plants  under  the 
action  of  light  of  the  carbonic-acid  gas  given 
forth  by  animals,  and  the  consequent  restoration 
to  the  air  or  water  in  which  they  live  of  the 
oxygen  necessary  for  the  maintenance  of  animal 
life.  The  aquarium  must,  therefore,  contain  both 
plants  and  animals,  and  in  something  like  a 
proper  proportion.  Zoophytes,  annelids,  mollusks, 
crustaceans,  and  fishes  may  thus  be  kept  in 
health  and  their  habits  observed.  The  water 
must  be  frequently  aerated,  which  can  be  accom- 
plished by  taking  up  portions  of  it  and  pouring 
them  in  again  from  a  small  height.  The  fresh- 
water aquarium  is  frequently  provided  with  a 
fountain,  which  produces  a  continual  change  of 
water ;  but  even  where  this  is  the  case,  the  pres- 
ence both  of  plants  and  animals  is  advantageous 
to  the  health  of  both.  When  sea  water  cannot 
be  easily  procured  for  the  marine  aquarium,  a 
substitute  may  be  made  by  mixing  with  rather 
less  than  4  quarts  of  spring  water  3^/^  ounces  of 
common  table  salt,  14  ounce  of  epsom  salts,  200 
grains  troy  of  chloride  of  magnesium,  and  40 
grains  troy  of  chloride  of  potassium.  With  care 
the  water  may  be  kept  pure  for  a  long  time.  No 
dead  animal  or  decaying  plant  must  be  permitted 


to  remain  in  it.  Salt  water,  artificially  prepared, 
is  not  fit  for  the  reception  of  animals  at  once; 
but  a  few  plants  must  first  be  placed  in  it,  for 
which  purpose  some  of  the  green  algse,  especially 
species  6i  Ulva,  are  most  suitable.  The  presence 
of  a  number  of  mollusks,  such  as  shore  snails,  is 
necessary  for  the  consumption  of  the  continually 
gi'owing  vegetable  matter,  and  of  the  multitu- 
dinous spores,  particularly  of  algae,  which  would 
otherwise  soon  fill  the  water,  rendering  it  green- 
ish or  brownish,  and  non-transparent,  and  which 
may  be  seen  beginning  to  vegetate  everywhere  on 
the  pebbles  or  on  the  glass  of  the  tank.  In  a 
fresh-water  aquarium,  pond-snails,  such  as  spe- 
cies of  Lymnaea  or  Planorbis,  are  equally  indis- 
pensable. For  large  aquaria,  tanks  of  plate 
glass  are  commonly  used;  smaller  ones  are  made 
of  bottle-glass  or  crystal. 

Aquaria  should  be  placed  where  they  have 
sufiicient  access  to  good  light.  This  is,  of  course, 
essential  to  the  green  plants,  and  will  also  pre- 
vent the  excessive  growth  of  dangerous  fungi. 
The  gills  of  fishes,  their  eyes,  and  any  woxmd  on 
the  body  are  frequently  attacked  by  these  fungi. 
These  can  often  be  removed  in  the  case  of  fresh- 
water forms  by  a  temporary  bath  in  a  common 
salt  solution,  sufiiciently  strong,  and  for  a  suf- 
ficient length  of  time  to  kill  the  fungi.  The  fish, 
although  severely  affected  by  the  salt,  will  revive 
upon  l^ing  flushed  with  an  abundance  of  fresh 
water.  The  plants  or  animals  with  which  the 
aquarium  is  to  be  stocked  must  vary  with  the 
tastes  and  purposes  of  the  individual.  Among 
flshes,  the  goldfish  (q.v.)  stands  first  in  beauty, 
variety  of  fantastic  forms,  and  in  tenacity  of 
life.  The  sticklebacks  (q.v.)  are  desirable  be- 
cause of  their  small  size  and  their  interesting 
nest-building  and  breeding  habits.  Besides  these, 
many  others  could  be  added.  Crabs  and  anemones 
are  common  objects  in  marine  aquaria.  Notable 
large  public  aquaria  are  maintained  in  various 
cities  of  Europe  for  the  instruction  and  amuse- 
ment of  the  people.  From  a  scientific  stand- 
point, the  aquaria  at  the  Naples  Marine  Station 
have  been  of  great  importance.  In  Great  Britain, 
the  Brighton  Aquarium  has  long  been  prominent, 
and  of  much  service  to  science  as  well  as  public 
entertainment  and  instruction.  In  America,  the 
United  States  Fish  Commission  Aquarium  at 
Washington,  D.  C,  and  the  New  York  City 
Aquarium  are  worthy  of  mention.  The  latter 
was  installed  in  old  Fort  Clinton,  on  the  Battery, 
long  known  as  Castle  Garden,  where. in  1897  it 
was  perfected  by  Dr.  Tarleton  Bean.  It  has 
seven  great  floor-tanks,  or  pools,  and  nearly  one 
hundred  wall-tanks,  lighted  from  above  and  in 
the  rear,  and  disposed  in  two  tiers,  the  upper 
viewed  from  a  gallery.  Both  marine  and  fresh- 
water fishes  and  other  aquatic  animals  are  dis- 
played, and  the  mechanical  arrangements  are 
of  the  highest  excellence.  It  is  sustained  by 
the  city,  under  the  control  of  the  Department  of 
Parks,  and  is  entirely  free  to  the  public. 

AQUAOEUUS  (Lat.,  the  water-bearer).  The 
eleventh  sign  of  the  zodiac,  through  which  the 
sun  moves  in  parts  of  the  months  of  January 
and  February.  It  is  also  the  name  of  a  zodiacal 
constellation,  whose  position  in  the  heavens 
may  be  found  by  producing  a  line  in  a  southerly 
direction  through  the  stars  in  the  head  of 
Andromeda  and  the  wing  of  Pegasus. 

AQUATIC  ANOHALS.  See  Distribu- 
tion OF  Animals. 


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AQUATIC   PLANTS 


co^vniOKT,  iftoa.sv  dodo,  mead  h  company 


I    CAT-TAIL    -    TYPHA  LATI FOLIA 

2  PONDWEED   -  POTAMOGETON    LONCHITES 

3  AMERICAN    LOTUS-    NELUMBO    LUTEA 


«  CO.  UTH  N.V 


^   WATER     HYACINTH    -     CICHHORNIA  CRASS  I  PES 

5  ARROWHEAD    -    SAGITTARIA    LATI  FOLIA 

6  WATER    -LILY;   POND -LILY    -    NYM 


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AQUATIC  PLANTS. 


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AQUATINTA. 


AQUATIC  PLANTS.  A  term  applied  to 
many  widely  distributed  plants  that  live  either 
wholly  or  partly  in  water.  Some  aquatic  plants 
have  their  inlloresoenee,  and  even  part  of  their 
foliage,  above  the  surface  of  the  water;  others 
are  in  water  entirely;  still  others  are  attached 
by  roots  to  the  bottom.  The  algse,  which  are 
exclusively  aquatic,  seem  adapted  to  perform 
under  water  all  the  functions  of  their  life. 
Aquatic  plants  are  generally  of  less  compact 
structure  than  plants  belonging  to  other  classes, 
and  are  therefore  better  adapted  for  rising  in 
their  growth  toward  the  surface  of  the  water. 
But  many  of  them.  Including  some  of  the  alge, 
are  also  provided  with  air-bladders  of  consider- 
able magnitude,  as  may  be  seen  in  some  of  the 
common  seaweeds.  Some  of  the  more  common 
aquatic  plants  are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
plate  and  deserve  brief  descriptions. 

Cat-Tail  {Typha  latifolia),  sometimes  called 
bullrush,  grows  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  feet. 
Its  root-stocks  are  astringent  and  diuretic,  and 
abound  in  starch.  Its  young  shoots  are  much 
eaten  by  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  are  some- 
times used  in  England  under  the  name  of  "Cos- 
sack asparagus."  Its  pollen  is  inflamn\at»le,  aiid 
has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  lycopodiuni:^  ..' 

L.ONG-i£AV£D  PoNDWEED  {Potamogeton  lonchi- 
tea),  is  one  of  some  65  species  and  a  number 
of  varieties,  included  in  the  genus  Potamogeton, 
which  belongs  to  the  natural  order  of  Naiadacee. 
The  long- leaved  pondweed  has  thin  elliptical 
leaves  that  float  on  the  surface  of  ponds  or  slow 
streams.  It  is  indigenous  to  the  United  States 
and  is  found  from  New  Brunswick  to  Washing- 
ton, and  south  to.  Florida  and  California. 

Akekigan  Lotus  {Nelumho  lutea) ,  also  known 
as  Yellow  Nelumbo,  yields  edible  tubers  and 
seeds.  The  seeds  are  sought  after  by  children, 
and  the  farinaceous  roots  are  agreeable  when 
boiled.  The  plant  is  foimd  as  far  north  as  On- 
tario. 

Water  Hyacinth  {Eichornia  craaaipes,  or 
Eichomia  apedoaa) ,  which  belongs  to  the  natu- 
ral order  Pontideriaccs,  occurs  in  tropical  and 
subtropical  streams  of  the  American  continents, 
being  a  native  of  tropical  South  America,  and  is 
widely  cultivated  in  Europe.  It  is  capable  of 
growing  on  marshy  banks,  but  attains  a  much 
larger  size  when  floating  on  the  water,  as  it  usu- 
ally does,  without  being  attached  to  the  bottom. 
The  rosettes,  formed  by  its  leaves  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  are  sometimes  no  less  than  two 
feet  high.  The  rapidity  with  which  they  multi- 
ply may  be  seen  from  the  fact  that,  within  a  few 
years  after  having  been  introduced  for  the  pur- 
pose of  beautifying  Saint  John's  River,  in  Flor- 
ida, they  threatened  to  render  navigation  on  the 
river  an  impossibility.  Great  masses  of  these 
plants  accumulate  along  the  shores  and  are  often 
driven  by  wind  and  current  until  they  form  ob- 
structions extending  over  the  entire  breadth  of 
the  river,  and  through  which  not  only  small 
boats,  but  even  paddle-wheel  steamers,"  cannot 
penetrate.  Such  obstructions  have  developed  in 
northern  South  America,  and,  as  already  stated, 
on  Saint  John's  River  and  its  tributaries  in 
Florida.  An  agent  of  the  United  States  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  who  undertook,  in  1897, 
to  investigate  the  danger  thus  caused  to  naviga- 
tion in  Florida,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  per- 
haps the  best  way  of  exterminating  the  nuisance 
iB   to  spread  among  the  water  hyacinths  their 


natural  enemies,  the  water  weeds,  or  water  pests 
{Philotria  Canadensis)  ;  further,  to  disseminate 
among  them  some  virulent  disease  capable  of  de- 
stroying them;  and  finally,  to  reconstruct  the 
bridges,  so  that  the  mass  of  obstructing  plants 
may  be  freely  carried  out  into  the  ocean. 

Common  Abrowtiead  (Sagittaria  latifolia,  or 
Sagittaria  variabilis)  is  a  widely  distributed, 
beautiful,  white,  scentless  plant.  It  is  indige- 
nous to  North  America,  where  it  extends  as  far 
south  as  Mexico,  being  found  in  shallow  waters 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
name  Arrowhead,  or  Sagittaria,  is  extended  not 
only  to  the  common  American  plant,  but  to  an 
entire  genus  of  aquatic  plants  belonging  to  the 
natural  order  Alismaces.  The  generic  name  of 
these  plants  refers  to  the  shape  of  their  leaves. 
The  plants  include  natives  of  both  cold  and 
warm  climates,  and  are  distinguished  by  imisex- 
ual  flowers  having  three  herbaceous  sepals  and 
three  colored  petals,  with  numerous  stamens  and 
carpels.  The  Sagittaria  sagittifolia  is  a  native 
of  Europe.  The  Chinese  arrowhead,  Sagittaria 
Sinensis,  has  long  been  cultivated  in  China  and 
Japan  for  its  edible  corms,  which  abound  in 
starch.  It  is  gro\^ii  in  ditches  and  in  ponds,  and 
has  arrow-shaped,  acute  leaves  and  a  branched 
polygonal  scape  (leafless  stem).  A  large  num- 
ber of  species  and  varieties  of  arrowhead  are 
native  in  American  waters,  and  fossil  forms  of 
the  genus  have  been  recognized  in  the  Tertiary 
rocks  of  northern  and  middle  Europe. 

Water-Lily  {NymphtBa  odorata),  often  .called 
the  "sweet-scented  water-lily,"  has  a  large  white 
flower  of  great  beauty  and  of  very  sweet  smell. 
Its  home  is  North  America.  Besides  this  plant, 
the  name  water-lily  is  commonly  applied  to  other 
species  of  Nymphsea,  or  Castalia,  as  well  as  to 
plants  of  the  genera  Nuphar  and  Nelumbo,  all  of 
which  belong  to  the  natural  order  Nymphtea- 
ceae.  Great  Britain  produces  three  species,  viz., 
Nymphoea  alha  (the  white  water-lily),  Nuphar 
luteum,  and  Nuphar  minimum  (yellow  water- 
lilies)  ;  all  these  have  heart-shaped  leaves  float- 
ing on  the  water,  those  of  the  yellow  lilies  being 
raised  by  the  stalks  a  little  above  the  surface. 
The  seeds  of  these  species,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  water-lily  of  the  Nile  {Nymphasa  lotus),  are 
farinaceous  and  are  sometimes  used  as  food. 
The  stems  of  Nuphar  luteum  are  used  by  the 
Turks  in  making  a  refreshing  beverage. 

Consult:  Britton  and  Brown,  Illustrated 
Flora  of  the  Northern  United  States,  Canada, 
and  the  British  Possessions  (New  York,  1896). 
The  structural  characters  of  aquatic  plants  are 
discussed  at  some  length  under  Hydrophytes. 
See  also  Benthos;  Halophytes;  Mangrove 
Swamp;  Plankton;  and  Swamp. 

A'QTJATIN^A  (It.  acqua,  Lat.  aqua,  water 
-f-  tinta,  dyed).  A  kind  of  engraving  on  copper 
invented  in  1760  by  Jean  Baptiste  Leprince. 
The  process  is  not  unlike  that  of  mezzotint,  but 
produces  more  rapid  results.  After  the  outline 
of  objects  has  been  traced,  the  plate  is  covered 
with  a  layer  of  fine  sand  or  powdered  roain, 
over  w^hich  the  passing  of  aqua-fortis  produces 
a  fine  graining,  which  renders  easy  an  imitation 
of  aquarelles  in  sepia,  India  ink,  or  umber. 
The  aquatint  has  been  used  successfully  in  pic- 
tures as  an  element  of  expression,  effecting  the 
physiognomy  of  things  by  producing  shadows, 
and  deepening  and  spreading  color. 


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684 


AQTTEDUCT. 


AQT7AT0FANA,  iA-Wnk  {lAt aqua, wster, 
of  Tofana;  see  below).  A  poisonous  liquid  de- 
scribed as  a  clear,  colorless,  tasteless,  and  odor^ 
less  fluid,  a  few  drops  of  which  were  sufficient  to 
produce  death,  which  resulted  slowly  and  with- 
out pain  or  fever,  under  a  constant  thirst,  and 
weariness  of  life,  and  an  aversion  to  food,  the 
strength  of  the  victim  diminishing  gradually. 
It  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  a  Sicilian 
woman  named  Tofana,  who  lived  about  1650- 
1730.  She  sold  the  preparation  in  vials  maiiied 
"Manna  of  Saint  Nicholas  of  Bari,"  and  it  was 
much  sought  after  by  young  wives  who  wished 
to  get  rid  of  their  husbands.  It  is  now  believed 
to  have  been  a  preparation  of  arsenic. 

AQUAVrVA,  ft'kwA-ve'vA,  Claudio  (1543- 
1616).  The  fifth  general  of  the  Jesuit  Order, 
appointed  in  1581.  He  was  noted  for  his  at- 
tempt to  increase  the  importance  and  effective- 
ness of  the  order  through  the  enforcement  of 
a  rigid  and  uniform  system.  To  this  end  he 
wrote  Ratio  Studiorum  Societatia  Je8u  (1592, 
revised  edition,  1599),  and  Direciorium  Ewer- 
ciiiorum  Spiritualium   (1599). 

AQ^ITEDTTCT  (Lat.  agucB  ductus,  a  conduit 
of  water).  Broadly  speaking,  this  word  means 
any  conduit  for  conveying  water,  but  usage,  both 
ancient  and  modem,  has  practically  limited  the 
word  to  masonry  conduits  with  little  or  no 
more  slope  than  is  necessary  to  cause  the  water 
to  flow  through  them  by  gravity.  Such  limita- 
tions generally  exclude  mere  channels  or  ditches 
(canals)  in  the  natural  earth,  on  the  one 
hand,  and  closed  conduits  (pipes)  under  pres- 
sure, on  the  other.  Modem  aqueducts  are  oc- 
casionally, but  rarely  under  low  pressures,  and 
frequently  sections  of  iron  or  steel  pipes  under 
heavy  pressure  are  used  to  convey  the  water 
of  an  aqueduct  beneath  a  deep  valley.  Inverted 
siphons,  as  these  depressed  sections  are  called, 
are  the  modem  substitute  for  the  aqueduct 
bridges  of  earlier  days,  or  for  the  circuitous 
routes  necessary  to  avoid  the  construction  of 
such  bridges.  Siphons  were  not  unknown  to 
the  Romans,  who  lacked,  however,  knowledge 
of  cast-iron  pipe,  or  any  other  pipe  of  large 
size,  capable  of  conveying  water  under  heavy 
pressure.  The  general  abandonment  of  the 
masonry  aqueduct  for  conduits  or  pipe  lines  of 
cast  or  wrought  iron,  steel  and  wood,  has  re- 
sulted from  a  variety  of  causes,  such  as  shorter 
routes,  due  to  the  possibility  of  taking  the  most 
direct  path  with  little  regard  to  hills,  valleys, 
and  streams;  smaller  conduits,  due  to  the  in- 
creased velocity  that  accompanies  higher  pres- 
sures; and  a  consequent  diminution  in  the  cost 
of  rights  of  way,  labor,  and  material.  Marked 
characteristics  of  the  modem  aqueducts  have 
been  great  boldness  and  freedom  in  the  use  of 
the  tunnel,  and  also  in  the  employment  of  long- 
span  arches  for  aqueduct  bridges,  or  the  sub- 
stitution of  iron  or  steel  (at  present  the  latter) 
for  masonry  bridges.  In  a  few  recent  instances, 
where  water  free,  or  nearly  free  from  pressure, 
was  to  be  conveyed,  vitrified  clay  pipes  have 
been  emploved. 

Bearing  m  mind  the  foregoing,  a  brief  review 
of  some  of  the  most  notable  masonry  aqueducts 
of  ancient  and  modem  times  will  be  given. 
Ancient  Oriental  peoples,  such  as  the  Persians 
and  Phcenicians,  used  a  system  of  subterranean 
channels  of  masonry  with  vertical  shafts  at  in- 
tervals, such  as  Polybius  described    (x.  23,  3) 


for  Hecatompglos,  the  capital  of  the  Araadda. 
The  Pelasgic  and  Mycenspan  cities,  such  a» 
Mycense  and  Argoa,  were  thus  supplied.  Herodo- 
tus describes,  as  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
works  of  Greek  lands,  the  aqueduct  of  Samoe, 
built  by  the  engineer  Eupalinos  with  a  gallerj 
eight  feet  scjuare.  He  also  saw  at  Tyre  three 
aqueducts  with  arches  and  viaducts  which  were 
imitated  at  Carthage  before  the  Roman  conauest 
The  early  Latin  tribes  in  Italy  continued  the 
Pelasgic  tradition,  as  is  shown  in  the  famous 
emissary  of  the  Alban  Lake.  The  water  supply 
of  Athens  and  its  plain  can  still  be  studied  in 
a  variety  of  conduits  and  aqueducts  earlier  than 
Hadrian's  more  striking  constructions.  The 
custom  of  subterranean  aqueducts  was  at  first 
also  followed  by  the  Romans,  whose  Appian 
aqueduct  had  less  than  three  hundred  feet  sup- 
ported on  arcades  above  groimd.  Gmduallj, 
with  the  increase  of  monumental  splendor,  com- 
bined with  the  desire  to  carry  the  water  to  the 
higher  level  of  the  hills  of  Rome,  a  larger  per- 
centage of  the  aqueduct  was  arcaded,  and  the 
water  brought  from  a  greater  distance. 

The  principle  of  the  inverted  siphon  was  used 
in  such  aqueducts  as  those  of  Patara,  Pergamum, 
and  Aspendos,  in  Asia  Minor,  at  Constantinople, 
at  Teb^sa  in  Africa,  and  at  Lyons,  where  it  can 
be  studied  in  great  detail;  but  Vitruvius  (ril 
6),   in   describing   this   method,   warns  against 
it  in  the  case  of  large  volumes  of  water,  whose 
pressure  would   not  be  withstood  by  the  lead 
or   terra -cotta   pipes   then   in   use.     In  a  few 
cases  expensive  bronze   pipe   is   used  to  resist 
pressure.     The  careful  grading  of  the  aqueduct 
to  prevent  a   too   rapid  flow   was  assisted  by 
curves   in   the   line   of   construction.    This  ex- 
plains apparent  peculiarities  in  direction.    Tun- 
nels were  often  cut,  sometimes  over  three  miles 
long.     The   fall   recommended   oy  Vitruvius  is 
six  inches  in  every  one  hundred  feet,  but  it  vas 
usually  greater.     At  the  head  of  the  aqueduct 
a   large   reservoir  or  piscina  was   established; 
minor    basins    were    constructed    at    intervals 
along  the  line  for  filtering  and  clarifying  the 
water  by  passing  it  through  gravel.    The  chan- 
nel for  the  water,  or  specus,  between  two  and 
four  feet  wide,  and  four  and  one-half  and  six 
and  one-half  feet  high,  was  originally  of  stone, 
lined  with  hydraulic  cement ;  afterwards  of  con- 
crete faced  with  brick.      At  frequent  intervals 
were   blowholes   through    the   top    or   sides,  to 
afford  ventilation  and  access  to  the  interior,  and 
their  place  was  taken  in  the  subterranean  sec- 
tions by  inspection  wells,  or  putei.     The  chan- 
nels were  large  enough  to  admit  the  workmen 
along  their  entire  length  for  inspection  and  re- 
pair.    Leakages  were  frequent,  and  the  heavr 
lime  incrustations,  if  not  periodically  removed, 
gradually  reduced  the  size  of  the  channels  and 
the  amount  of  the  supply.     In  many  cases  sev- 
eral water  supplies  were  carried  on  the  same 
arches,  being  joined  at  a  certain  distance  from 
their  source,  and  each  water  being  usually  car- 
ried in  its  separate  channel.     This  is  the  case 
with  the  Marcia,  which  carries  also  the  Tepula 
and  the  Julia. 

At  the  city  end  of  the  aqueduct  an  enormous 
reservoir  was  constructed  called  a  castellum 
aquarum,  where  the  water  was  cleared  by  pass- 
ing through  several  chambers,  and  from  which 
it  was  then  distributed  over  the  city.  These 
castella  were  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the 


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AQTrEDUGT. 


685 


AQXTEDUGT. 


Claudia  and  the  Alcxandrina,  at  Rome,  impor- 
tant artistic  structures.  Here  there  were  sepa- 
rate purifying  and  storing  compartments  for 
each  class  of  structures  supplied;  in  the  Re- 
publican period  there  were  only  three — ^public 
fountains,  baths,  and  private  houses.  But  under 
the  Empire  the  subdivision  became  much  more 
elaborate.  Certain  very  large  single  buildings, 
such  as  baths,  had  separate  reservoirs,  or  tanks. 
The  water  was  carried  into  private  or  public 
buildings  by  lead  pipes  through  an  official  bronze 
joint  stamped  with  its  exact  capacity,  and  serv- 
ing as  a  meter.  The  conservation  and  regulation 
of  the  water  supply,  the  exact  allowance  to  indi- 
viduals, corporations,  and  public  buildings,  was 
secured  by  a  very  careful  administration  of  the 
water-works.  This  care  was  not  only  applied 
in  Rome  itself;  but  was  coextensive  with  the 
entire  line  of  aqueduct  as  it  was  tapped  at 
intervals  and  used  by  towns,  settlements,  and 
private  owners  for  drinking  and  irrigation.  To 
assist  the  administration,  a  strip  of  land  thirty 
feet  wide  was  reserved  along  the  entire  course, 
as  government  property,  and  marked  by  boun- 
dary stones  at  intervals  of  two  hundred  and 
forty  feet.  The  administration  was  under  the 
care  of  the  censors,  and  then  of  the  qusestors 
and  sdiles;  but  under  Augustus  the  bureau  was 
better  organized,  and  put  in  charge  of  a  Curator 
Aquarum,  with  his  two  assistants,  his  clerks, 
his  consulting  engineer,  and  his  various  classes 
of  officials  and  of  artisans  comprising  a  familia 
of  slaves:  ushers,  lictors,  and  criers,  as  well 
as  pipe-layers,  pavers,  masons,  levelers,  meas- 
urers, inspectors,  reservoir  keepers,  etc.  As 
usual  with  Roman  buildings,  the  aqueducts  were 
built  by  contract,  and  the  use  of  unskilled  labor 
made  their  cost  relatively  small.  The  Appia  is 
said  to  have  cost  $676,000.  The  repairing  of 
the  Appia  and  Anio  Vetus,  and  building  of  the 
:Marcia  in  B.C.  144-140,  cost  only  about  $850,000. 
Under  the  more  lavish  Empire  the  Claudia  and 
the  Anio  Novus  cost  about  $4,000,000,  but  none 
of  the  others  were  as  expensive  as  these. 

Among  the  Roman  aqueducts,  those  of  Rome 
itself  possess  the  greatest  interest,  because  of 
their  number,  length,  and  boldness  of  design  and 
execution.  Two  of  them,  in  fact,  are  still  in  use, 
and  water  from  the  very  source  that  supplied  one 
of  them  (Marcia)  is  now  delivered  to  the  city 
through  a  modem  water- works  system.  Not 
only  are  they  in  remarkable  preservation,  but, 
most  happily  for  engineers  and  archseologists 
alike,  they  are  described  in  some  detail  by  a 
Roman  engineer  who  was  water  commissioner 
of  Rome  in  a.d.  97,  named  Sextus  Julius  Fron- 
tinus,  in  his  Two  Books  on  the  Water  Supply 
of  Rome,  Tliis  work  was  first  made  available 
to  English  readers  in  1899,  through  a  translation 
by  Mr.  Clemens  Herschel,  an  American  hy- 
draulic engineer,  who  gives  not  only  the  Latin 
text,  but  also  a  photographic  reproduction  of 
the  oldest  Latin  MS.  in  existence,  in  the  library 
of  the  Benedictine  monastery  at  Monte  Cassino. 
Besides  all  this,  the  book  in  question  contains 
several  chapters  of  comment  by  the  translator, 
both  on  the  aqueducts  and  the  water  supply  of 
Rome  in  general.  Mr.  Herschel  concludes  that 
the  capacity  of  the  ancient  Roman  aqueducts  has 
been  ^eatly  overrated,  and  that,  instead  of  the 
400,000,000  gallons  a  day  given  by  some  writers, 
based  on  Frontinus's  calculations,  "thirty-eight 
million  gallons  one  day  with  another"  is  "a  fair 


estimate  at  which  to  set  the  water  supply  within 
the  walls  of  ancient  Rome  in  a.d.  97,  though  the 
total  ranged,  no  doubt,  some  20,000,000  gallons 
per  day  either  side  of  that  mark  from  time  to 
time.  This  would  make  about  thirty-eight  gal- 
lons per  day  per  inhabitant,  which  is  still  a 
very  large  figure  when  use  alone,  not  waste,  is 
taken  into  account;  and  when,  further,  we  con- 
sider that  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  people 
undoubtedly  used  only  such  water  as  was  carried 
to  their  homes  in  jars  on  the  heads  of  slaves 
and  other  women."  Still,  Frontinus  describes 
nine  aqueducts  in  use  in  his  day,  the  main  facts 
regarding  which  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

( 1 )  Aqua  Appia,  built  by  and  named  after  the 
censor,  Appius  Claudius,  in  b.o.  312.  Its  springs 
were  between  the  sixth  and  seventh  milestone 
from  Rome,  and  its  course  was  about  11  miles 
long.  All  but  300  feet  was  undergroimd.  The 
exact  size  of  its  channel  is  imcertain,  but  is 
given  by  several  authors  as  about  2.5  feet  wide 
and  5  feet  high  in  the  clear. 

(2)  Anio  VetuSy  constructed  B.C.  272-270  by 
M.  Curius  Dentatus  and  Fulvius  Flaccus.  All 
but  1100  feet  was  underground.  Remains  may 
be  traced  both  near  Tivoli  and  near  the  Porta 
Maggiore.  Its  water  is  taken  from  the  river 
Anio,  about  the  twentieth  milestone,  three  miles 
beyond  Tivoli,  and  its  course,  which  is  very  cir- 
cuitous, is  about  43  miles  long.  About  3.7  feet 
wide  and  eight  feet  high  inside,  of  heavy  masonry 
of  peperino  stone,  plastered  on  the  inside. 

(3)  Aqua  Marcia,  named  after  the  prsetor, 
Quintus  Marcius  Rex,  B.c.  144-140,  had  its 
source  in  springs  between  Tivoli  and  Subiaco, 
near  the  thirty-sixth  milestone  from  Rome, 
was  over  62  miles  long,  carried  into  the  city 
195  feet  above  sea- level,  so  as  to  reach  the  top 
of  the  Capitol.  Near  its  head  it  is  5.7  feet  wide 
and  8.3  feet  high,  and  further  on  it  is  3  X  5.7  feet. 
This  and  the  two  preceding  aqueducts  were 
built  of  rough-hewn  stone,  dimensions  18x18x42 
inches,  or  more,  while  the  later  ones,  except  Clau- 
dia, were  of  concrete  and  brick.  The  greater  part 
of  Marcia  was  underground,  but  there  were  some 
long  stretches  on  arches — over  seven  miles — some 
of  which  are  still  standing,  and  bear  parts  of  two 
and  three  other  aqueducts  ( Anio  Vetus,  Claudia, 
and  Anio  Novus)  above  them.  This  is  especially 
the  case  near  Tivoli,  where  there  are  superb 
viaducts  and  bridges  alternating  with  tunnels. 
There  are  about  six  miles  of  arcades  near  Rome. 

(4)  Aqua  Tepnla,  B.C.  125,  leading  from 
springs  on  the  slopes  of  the  Monti  Albani,  had  at 
first  an  independent  channel,  on  the  arcades  of 
the  Marcia,  6  feet  above  it,  or  201  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  was  2.7  feet  wide,  by  3.3  feet  high, 
and  commenced  not  far  from  the  eleventh  mile- 
stone. 

( 5 )  Aqua  Julia,  the  first  imperial  aqueduct  con- 
structed by  M.  Agrippa,  under  Augustus,  in  33 
B.C.,  took  water  from  springs  near  the  source  of 
Tepula  (twelfth  milestone),  and  was  mixed  with 
the  latter  to  cool  it,  and  entered  Rome  on  the 
arcades  of  the  Marcia,  about  212  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Its  channel  was  2.3  feet  wide  and  4.6  feet 
high.  Portions  of  Marcia,  Tepula,  and  Julia, 
one  above  the  other,  are  still  in  existence  at 
Porta  Tiburtina. 

(6)  Aqua  Virgo,  B.C.  19,  also  constructed  by 
Agrippa.  Aqua  Vergine,  as  it  is  now  called,  is 
still  entire,  having  been  restored  by  Popes 
Nicholas  V.  and  Pius  IV.     The  source  of  the 


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AQUEDUCT. 


686 


AQUEDUCT. 


Aqua  Virgo  ia  near  the  eighth  milestone,  only 
80  feet  above  sea-level;  its  channel  was  14 
miles  long,  and  it  entered  the  city  13  feet  lower. 
The  channel  was  about  1.6  feet  wide  and  6.6  feet 
high.  It  still  supplies  the  famous  Trevi  foun- 
tain and  others. 

(7)  Aqua  Alaietina,  about  a.d.  10,  constructed 
by  Augustus,  now  called  the  A()ua  Paola,  starts 
at  a  pond  near  the  fourteenth  milestone,  and  sup- 
plies the  fountains  in  front  of  St.  Peter's  and  the 
Fontana  Paola,  on  the  Montorio.  Its  original 
object  was  for  irrigating  purposes,  and  to  supply 
the  Naumachia  of  Augustus,  which  was  a  sheet 
of  water  for  the  representation  of  sea  fights. 
Its  water,  which  was  undrinkable,  reached  Rome 
in  a  channel  24  miles  long,  about  55  feet  above 
the  sea,  the  lowest  level  of  any. 

(8)  Aqua  Claudia,  a.d.  38-52,  comn^enced  by 
Caligula  and  completed  by  Claudius,  starts  near 
the  thirty-eighth  milestone  and  is  about  45  miles 
long.  Its  line  of  nearly  ten  miles  of  magnificent 
arches  still  stretches  across  the  Campagna,  and 
forms  one  of  the  grandest  of  Roman  ruins.  At 
its  upper  end  its  channel  was  3.3  feet  wide  and 
6.6  feet  high.  When  it  reaches  the  Campagna  it 
carries  the  Anio  Novus  (see  below),  the  lower 
aqueduct  being  of  dimension  stone  and  the  upper 
of  brick,  lined  with  concrete.  The  water  of  these 
two  aqueducts  reached  the  Palatine  185  feet 
above  the  sea ;  but  at  Porta  Mag^ore  the  water 
in  Anio  Novus  was  at  an  elevation  of  230  feet 
and  Claudia  9  feet  lower. 

(9)  Anio  Novus,  also  a.d.  38-52,  was  nearly  62 
miles  long,  thus  being  the  longest  of  the  aque- 
ducts, and  starting  at  the  Anio,  near  the  thirty- 
eighth  milestone.  Its  channel  had  a  width  of  3.3 
feet  and  a  height  of  9  feet.  Some  of  its  arches 
are  over  100  feet  high,  and  its  ruins  are  as 
superb  as  those  of  the  Claudia,  the  two  com- 
bining before   entering  Rome. 

Aqua  Trajana,  built  in  a.d.  109,  started  at 
Lake  Bracciano,  was  about  40  miles  long,  fol- 
lowed nearly  the  same  route  as  Aqua  Alsietina 
and  its  waters  join  to  form  the  supply  of  the 
present  Aqua  Paola.  It  was  used  for  supplying 
the  Janiculum  and  the  Trsetevere.  In  A.D.  226 
an  eleventh  and  last  aqueduct  was  built,  called 
Aqua  Alexandrina,  to  supply  the  Campus  Mar- 
tius.  The  other  aqueducts  sometimes  credited 
to  old  Rome  were  probably  branches  of  some  of 
the  eleven. 

Although  stone  continued  in  use  for  aqueducts 
under  the  Empire,  concrete  with  opus  recticula- 
turn  and  concrete  with  brick  were  used  both  in 
various  parts  of  Italy  and  even  in  Rome  itself, 
especially  in  the  Aqua  Alexandrina  and  Nero*s 
additions  to  the  Claudia.  There  remain  many 
imposing  Roman  aqueducts  in  different  paTts  of 
the  Empire.  The  nigh  viaducts  and  bridges  in 
France,  such  as  those  near  Nlmes,  Cahors,  and 
Lyons;  in  Spain  at  Segovia,  M6rida,  and  Tar- 
ragona; at  Constantinople,  at  Beirut,  at 
Cherchel  and  Carthage  are  especially  imposing 
— higher  and  bolder  than  anything  at  Rome; 
some  have  two,  some  three  superposed  stories 
of  arcades,  with  a  total  height  of  between  100 
and  300  feet.  The  Pont  du  Gard  and  the  aque- 
duct of  Segovia  are  the  finest  in  existence.  The 
stonework  in  the  provinces  is  even  superior  to  the 
average  in  Rome.  The  following  examples  may 
be  mentioned:  Italy:  Mintumae  (fine  opus  reti- 
culatum,  very  decorative),  Genoa  (very  early, 
C.210  B.C.),  Puteoli,    Pompeii,  Termini  in  Sicily, 


Oaul:  Nlmes  (Pont  du  Card),  Lyons  (4  aque- 
ducts in  opus  reticulatum,  with  siphons  and 
bridges),  Metz  (with  a  great  bridge  of  lU 
arches),  Paris  (3  aqueducts  of  late  Eonuui 
date),  Frejus  (a  superb  example,  built  under 
Claudius,  30  miles  long,  with  many  arcades), 
Antibes  (2  aqueducts,  one  still  in  use),  Aries, 
Marseilles,  Aix,  Vienne,  Autun,  Besancon,  Poi- 
tiers (4),  Cahors  (a  superb  three-storied  via- 
duct), Toulouse,  and  many  others.  Qtrmany: 
Mainz,  Treves,  Cologne,  fiolicinium,  Windi&ch, 
Spain:  Segova  (built  imder  Trajan,  12  miles 
long,  with  a  superb  viaduct  of  119  arcades,  818 
yards  long,  in  two  stories),  Tarragona  (buUt  in 
the  Republican  Period,  c.210  B.C.,  6  miles  long, 
with  magnificent  two-storied  viaduct  of  11  and 
25  arches),  Chelva,  Seville,  M6rida(2  aqueducts, 
one  still  in  use;  the  other  by  Augustus,  with 
a  viaduct  of  three  stories),  Consuegra,  Calahor- 
ra.  Portugal:  Elvas,  Evora,  Beja.  Africa: 
Tebessa,  Constantine  (3),  Tipasa,  Cherchel 
(Csesarea),  Orl^ansville,  Carthage  (Punic  and 
Roman),  Makter  (with  a  viaduct).  Asia:  Ana- 
zarba,  Beirut  (with  a  bridge).  Palmyra,  Baal- 
bek, Petra,  Sinope,  Nicomedia,  Antioch,  etc 

The  Oriental  provinces  of  the  Empire,  pre- 
serving Greek  engineering  traditions,  were  moie 
scientific,  as  shown  by  frequent  use  of  siphons. 
The  Byzantine  emperors  continued  the  Roman 
traditions,  as  shown  by  the  aqueducts  of  Valeoi 
and  Justinian  at  Constantinople,  in  comiection 
with  which  are  the  wonderful  cistem-reseiroin 
in  the  city  with  their  forests  of  columns.  Adana, 
Mopsuestia,  and  many  other  Eastern  cities  were 
provided  by  Justinian  with  aqueducts.  The 
Grothic  kings  attempted  the  same,  as  in  the  ex- 
tremely bold  viaduct  at  Spoleto,  loftier  than  ant 
Roman  work ;  their  work  in  Spain  was  continued 
by  the  Moors,  as  at  Elvas.  The  Mohanmiedans 
throughout  the  East  continued  the  construction 
of  aqueducts;  but  the  Middle  Ages  in  Europe 
were  comparativelj'  inactive  in  this  branch  of 
engineering.  The  Gothic  aqueduct  at  Solmona 
and  that  at  Coutances  are  perhaps  the  finest 
in  Europe  of  this  age.  The  Renaissance  renewed 
the  art,  beginning  with  the  Roman  popes  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century.  France  soon  followed 
suit,  as  in  the  aqueduct  of  Arceuil  at  Paris  built 
for  Marie  de  Medici  in  1613,  and  that  of  Main- 
tenon  under  Louis  XIV.  In  1763  Charles  III. 
built  the  great  aqueduct  of  Caserta,  about  30 
miles  long.  The  aqueduct  of  Marseilles,  begun 
in  1847  and  over  40  miles  long,  with  75  tunneb 
and  several  viaducts,  is  the  only  work  of  modem 
enginciering  construction  comparable  artistically 
to  the  Roman;  it  could  have  been  built  for  a 
fraction  of  the  tfost  ($1,200,000)  by  using  si- 
phons. 

Among  the  European  aqueducts  constructed 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  Nineteenth  Century 
may  be  mentioned,  first,  that  conveying  water 
from  Loch  Katrine  to  Glasgow,  built  in  1855-60 
and  duplicated  quite  recently.  The  new  i;(:ater- 
supply  conduits  of  Manchester  and  Liverpool 
built  in  1881-92  and  1885-94,  respectively,  are 
partly  masoniy  structures  and  partly  pipe'  lines. 
The  Liverpool  supply  is  brought* from  Lake 
Vymwy,  a  distance  of  68  miles,  partly  in  tun- 
nel. The  Manchester  supply  comes  from  Lake 
Thirlmere,  a  distance  of  nearly  96  miles,  throu^ 
36  miles  of  concrete  conduit  and  14^  miles  of 
tunnel,  making  50%  miles  of  masonry  aqueduct, 
and  through  45  miles  of  iron  pipe.    The  laiigest 


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AQUEOUS  HUMOB. 


tunnel  is  8^/^  miles  in  length,  and  the  longest  in- 
verted siphon,  of  iron  pipe,  is  about  the  same 
length.  Another  inverted  siphon  is  under  a 
head  of  480  feet.  The  masonry  aqueduct  is  7 
feet  in  diameter.  In  the  United  States  notable 
aqueducts  were  completed  by  New  York  in  1842 
and  a  second  in  1800  (old  and  new  Croton) ; 
Boston  in  1848  and  a  second  in  1878;  Brooklyn 
in  1859;  Baltimore  in  1862  and  a  second  in  1880; 
Washington  in  1863,  with  a  second  one  begun  in 
1883,  abandoned  before  fully  completed  and  near- 
iiig  completion  in  1001;  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  about 
1893;  the  Metropolitan  Water  Board  (Boston 
and  surrounding  towns)  in  1897;  Jersey  City, 
in  progress  in  1901,  but  on  this  work  masonry 
aqueducts  and  tunnels  are  used  only  where  steel 
pipe  lines  are  not  available.  Cast-iron,  steel,  or 
wood  pipe  is  used  in  place  of  masonry  aqueducts 
for  nearly  all  American  w^ater-works,  especially 
in  recent  years,  and  with  the  introduction  of 
riveted  steel  pipes,  the  likelihood  of  using 
masonry  is  still  further  decreased.  The  one 
exception  to  this  is  in  the  case  of  tunnels,  and 
particularly  the  intake  tunnels  through  which 
Chicago  and  other  cities  on  the  Great  Lakes  draw 
their  supply.  These  intakes,  however,  hardly 
come  in  the  same  category  as  the  aqueducts  de- 
scribed here. 

The  Old  Croton  Aqueduct,  supplying  New 
York  City,  has  a  total  length  of  38.1  miles  and  a 
total  fall  of  43.7  feet,  the  ordinary  grade  being 
1.1088  feet  per  mile.^  It  is  of  brick-lined 
masonry,  the  bottom  being  an  inverted  arch  of 
6.75  feet  chord,  0.75  feet  versed  sine ;  sides,  4  feet 
high,  battered  to  7.42  feet  apart  at  top ;  covered 
with  semi-circular  arch,  giving  total  interior 
height  of  8.64  feet  and  cross-sectional  area  of 
53.34  square  fe«t.  The  Harlem  River  is  crossed 
on  a  granite  masonrj'  arched  bridge,  100  feet 
high  in  the  clear,  and  about  1400  feet  long,  the 
water  being  conveyed  in  two  36-inch  cast-iron 
and  one  OO^^-inch  wrought-iron  pipe,  the  latter 
added  in  1860.  The  Manhattan  Valley  is 
crossed  by  inverted  cast-iron  pipe  siphons,  two 
miles  long,  the  original  two  36-inch  pipes  being 
supplemented  by  a  48-inch  in  1853  and  a  60-inch 
.  in  1861,  the  latter  being  reported  as  the  largest 
iron  pipe  cast  up  to  that  time.  The  aqueduct  was 
designed  to  carry  72,000,000  gallons  a  day.  In 
1865,  the  portion  of  aqueduct  below  Ninety- 
second  Street  was  replaced  by  two  72-inch  cast- 
iron  pipes,  for  which  three  48-inch  pipes  were 
substituted  later  on.  In  1870  another  length  of 
aqueduct  within  the  city  was  replaced  by  six 
parallel  lines  of  48- inch  cast-iron  pipe,  %  mile 
long.  Tliis  aqueduct  was  carried  as  near  the 
surface  as  the  grades  would  permit.  The  New 
Croton  Aqueduct,  like  the  old  one,  begins  at 
Croton  Lake,  formed  by  a  dam  on  the  Croton 
Kiver,  and  extends  to  135th  Street,  New  York 
City.  Its  total  length  is  30.87  miles,  or 
33.25  miles  if  the  pipe  line  extension  to  the 
Central  Park  reservoir  is  included.  Of  the 
masonry  aqueduct,  29.63  miles  is  in  tunnel, 
requiring  shafts  from  18  to  402  feet  deep  for 
its  construction.  In  general  the  aqueduct  is 
shaped  like  a  horseshoe,  13.53  feet  high  and  13.6 
feet  wide,  has  a  fall  of  0.7  feet  per  mile  and  an 
original  rated  carrying  capacity  (see  below)  of 
about  318,000,000  gallons  a  day.  At  the  Jerome 
Park  storage  reservoir,  in  the  north  part  of  the 
city,  and  some  23  miles  from  the  upper  end,  it  is 
reduced  to  a  rated  capacity  of  250,000,000  gal- 


lons a  day  and  changed  to  a  circular  section, 
12^  feet  in  diameter,  for  over  0  miles.  It 
crosses  beneath  the  Harlem  River,  still  as  a 
masonry  aqueduct,  under  55  pounds  pressure, 
when  full,  the  aqueduct  here  being  10^  feet  in 
diameter,  lined  with  cast  iron.  The  cost  of  the 
aqueduct  varied  from  $89.98  to  $123.25  per 
lineal  foot  in  different  sections  and  under  vary- 
ing conditions.  When  the  new  aqueduct  was  de- 
signed it  was  estimated  that  it  would  carry  318,- 
000,000  gallons  a  day,  when  flowing  to  a  depth  of 
12.842  feet  in  the  horseshoe  sections.  Gaugings 
after  its  completion  fixed  the  carrying  capacity 
at  about  302,500,000  gallons.  Careful  studies 
made  by  Mr.  John  R.  Freeman  in  1899  {Report 
Upon  New  York*8  Water  Supply,  New  York, 
1900)  led  him  to  conclude  that  the  aqueduct  was 
then  carrying  16  per  cent,  less  for  stated  depths 
than  shown  by  the  earlier  gaugings,  part  of  the 
difference  being  due  to  deterioration  of  the  inner 
surface. 

The  Wachuaett  Aqueduct  for  Boston  and  vicin- 
ity has  a  rated  daily  capacity  of  300,000,000 
gallons.  It  is  12  miles  long,  if  the  3  miles  of 
canal  at  its  lower  end  are  included,  and  leads 
from  the  site  of  a  proposed  masonry  dam  on  the 
Nashua  River,  at  Clinton,  Mass.,  to  the  Sudbury 
reservoir,  a  part  of  the  old  Boston  water- works 
now  controlled  by  the  Metropolitan  Water  Board. 
From  this  reservoir  the  water  flows  through  the 
old  Sudbury  aqueduct,  completed  in  Boston  in 
1878.  The  first  two  miles  of  the  Wachusett 
aqueduct  is  in  tunnel,  through  rock  so  compact 
that  about  one-half  of  it  required  no  lining. 
Where  lining  was  needed  brick  was  used.  The 
floor  of  the  timnel  is  of  brick,  with  a  slope  of  1 
foot  in  5000  feet.  After  the  tunnel  comes  7  miles 
of  aqueduct,  with  a  grade  of  1  foot  in  2500  feet,, 
built  in  embankment  or  in  excavation.  Both 
tunnel  and  covered  aqueduct  were  built  in  the 
general  shape  of  a  horseshoe,  from  11%  to  13% 
feet  wide  and  from  10%  to  11  feet  10  inchea 
high,  and  were  of  concrete,  with  the  lower  por- 
tion lined  with  one  course  of  brick.  Below  the 
section  just  described  there  are  3  miles  of  open 
channel,  or  canal.  The  aqueduct  is  carried  over 
the  Assabet  River  on  a  handsome  granite 
masonry  bridge  of  seven  29% -feet  spans. 

The  Cahin  John  Arch,  which  carries  the  first 
Washington  aqueduct  across  a  creek  of  the 
same  name,  was  for  many  years  the  largest  sin- 
gle-span masonry  bridge  in  the  world,  having 
a  length  of  220  feet,  and  rising  to  a  height-  of 
101  feet  in  the  clear.  The  rise  of  the  arch,  from 
the  spring  line,  is  57%  feet.  The  bridge  is  20 
feet  wide  and  its  total  length  is  420  feet.  It  was 
built  of  large  granite  blocks,  with  sandstone 
parapets  and  coping.    It  cost  $237,000. 

Consult:    Frontinus,   De   Aquceductis    (edited 

by    Herschel,    New    York,    1900)  ;    Friediander, 

Daratellungen    aus    der    Sittengeschichte    Roma 

(I-ieipzig,    1888-90)  ;    and    Leger,    Lea    Travauso 

Puhlica  dea  Romaina  (Paris,  1875). 

A'QTJEOTJS  HU'MOB.  The  fluid  which  occu- 
pies the  space  in  the  eye  between  the  back  of  the 
cornea  and  the  front  of  the  lens,  which  in  foetal 
life  is  divided  into  an  anterior  and  poaterior 
chamber  by  the  membrana  pupillaris  (q.v.),  and 
in  adult  life  by  the  iris.  It  consists  of  water, 
with,  according  to  Berzelius,  about  a  fiftieth  of 
its  weight  made  up  of  chloride  of  sodium  and 
extractive  matters  held  in  solution.  This  watery 
secretion  is  produced  by  epithelial  cells  covering 


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the  posterior  surface  of  the  iris  and  the  ciliary 
muscle.  (See  Eye.)  It  is  rapidly  resecreted  if 
allowed  to  escape  by  any  wound  in  the  cornea. 
AQUEOUS  BOCXB.  In  geology,  rocks 
which  have  been  laid  down  as  mechanical,  chemi- 
cal, or  organic  deposits  from  water.  They  be- 
long to  the  sedimentary  rocks,  which  also  include 
rocks  deposited  from  air  (seolian  deposits). 

I.  The  mechanical  deposits  from  water  are 
derived  from  the  destruction  of  preexisting 
rocks.  Rain  and  rivers  move  considerable  quan- 
tities of  disintegrated  material,  depositing  it 
wherever  the  load  is  too  great  for  the  volume 
and  velocity  of  the  current.  Waves,  rolling 
against  a  shore,  break  from  it  small  and  large 
fragments,  carrv  these  fragments  back  with 
them,  and  deposit  them  in  layers  on  the  bottom 
of  the  basia.  The  coarse  particles  are  left  near- 
est the  shore,  forming  conglomerate  or  gravel; 
finer  particles  are  carried  somewhat  farther  out, 
forming  sand,  which  by  cementation  becomes 
aandstone,  quartzite,  novaculite,  or,  when  mixed 
with  feldspar,  arkoae  or  graywacke;  still  finer 
particles  are  carried  yet  farther  out  and  are 
deposited,  to  form  mud  or  clay,  which  by  cemen- 
tation or  consolidation  becomes  mudstone,  shale, 
or  slate. 

II.  Chemical  deposition  from  water  may  be 
due  to  the  mingling  of  solutions,  to  changes  in 
the  temperature  or  pressure  of  water  containing 
substances  in  solution,  or  to  the  simple  evapora- 
tion of  water.  For  convenience  in  discussion, 
chemical  precipitates  may  be  divided  into  three 
general  classes:  (a)  precipitates  of  the  alkalies 
and  alkaline  earths,  giving  calcareous  tufa,  sin- 
ter, travertine,  stalactite,  onyx  marbles,  oolite, 
gypsum,  rock  salt;  (b)  silicious  precipitates, 
giving  chert  (flint  or  hornstone),  geyserite,  sili- 
cious sinter;  (c)  ferruginous  precipitates,  giv- 
ing iron  ores.  These  latter  are  largely  deposited 
through  the  aid  of  decaying  vegetable  matter, 
and  might  properly  be  considered  under  class 
III.,  but  the  deposition  is  due  rather  to  the 
chemical  effect  of  dead  organisms  than  to  the 
activities  of  the  living  forms. 

III.  Organic  deposits  ori«?inate  in  the  growth 
and  decay  of  organisms,  either  in  situ  or  after 
transportation.  Deposits  of  this  character  are 
commonly  made  in  water  which  is  deeper  and 
quieter  than  that  in  which  chemical  deposits 
are  made.  They  may  be  divided  into — (a)  cal- 
careous accumulations,  resulting  in  shell  marl, 
chalk,  limestone,  dolomite;  (b)  siliceous  accumu- 
lations, such  as  infusorial  earth,  siliceous  ooze, 
some  forms  of  flint  or  chert;  (c)  ferruginous  ac- 
cumulations, resulting  in  certain  bog  ores;  (d) 
carbonaceous  accumulations,  known  as  peat,  lig- 
nite, brown  coal,  or  coal. 

Rocks  of  mechanical  and  "organic  deposition 
form  the  great  mass  of  the  aqueous  rocks.  The 
common  order  of  occurrence  from  the  shore 
outward— conglomerate,  sandstone,  mud,  and 
limestone — corresponds  in  a  general  way  with 
increase  in  depth  of  water.  It  follows,  there- 
fore, that  if  at  any  point  the  body  of  water  is 
transgressing  on  the  land,  resulting  in  deepen- 
ing of  the  water,  the  vertical  order  of  super- 
position of  mechanical  deposits  will  be  conglom- 
erate, sandstone,  shale,  and  limestone;  and,  vice 
versa,  if  the  water  is  receding,  the  order  will  be 
reversed.  There  is  thus  a  change  of  character  of 
the  sediments  in  any  series  both  laterally  and 
vertically.     The   aqueous   rocks   of   the   earth's 


crust  are  found  in  such  recurring  suooessions  and 
by  their  study  the  vertical  oscillations  of  con- 
tinents and  ocean  have  been  determined.  In  a 
very  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  the  suc- 
cession of  aqueous  deposits  during  geological 
history  has  been  much  the  same  the  world  over. 
The  members  of  this  succession  have  been 
grouped  into  divisions  on  the  basis  of  their 
order  of  superposition,  their  structure,  and  their 
contained  fossils,  and  these  divisions  correspond 
to  the  time  divisions  of  geological  histoiy.  See 
Gbolooy;  Limestone;  Lithogei7E8IS. 

AQUTLA,  a^w^-lA,  Degli  Abbuzzi  (It, 
Aquila  of  the  Abruzzi).  An  episcopal  city  in 
south  Italy,  on  the  Temi-Solmona  Railway,  62 
miles  southeast  of  Temi  (Map:  Italy,  H  5). 
It  is  pleasantly  situated  on  a  hill  beside  the 
Avemo;  the  streets  are  broad,  the  houses  pic- 
turesque, the  churches  numerous  and  interesting. 
It  is  a  favorite  summer  resort  for  Italians.  As 
the  meeting-point  of  roads  leading  to  Apennine 
passes  that  have  been  compared  to  Thennopylc, 
it  is  of  great  strategic  importance.  Aquila  was 
built  about  1240  bv  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
from  the  ruins  of  Amitemum,  the  birthplace  of 
Sallust,  the  Roman  historian.  In  1703  it  was 
almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  in  which 
two  thousand  persons  perished.  It  has  linen, 
leather,  paper,  and  wool  factories,  and  is  an  im- 
portant saffron  market.  Population,  in  I8S1, 
14,720;  in  1901,  21,188. 

AQOniiA,  Gbeek  Veesion  of.    See  Aquiia, 

PONTICUS. 

AQTTILA,  a'kw^lA,  Johann  Kaspee  (1488- 
1500).  A  German  Protestant  reformer.  He  was 
bom  in  Augsburg,  studied  at  Ulm  and  in  Italy, 
and  in  1515  was  appointed  chaplain  to  Franz 
von  Sickingen.  He  accepted  Lutheranism  and 
was  imprisoned,  but  was  released,  and  while 
court  chaplain  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony  at  Wit- 
tenberg (1524-27),  through  his  knowledge  of  He- 
brew assisted  Luther  in  translating  the  Bible. 
Against  the  Interim  (q.v.)  he  wrote  Christliche 
Bedenken  auf  das  Interim  (1548),  and  Das 
Interim  illuminiert  (1548),  for  which  a  price 
was  set  on  his  head  by  Charles  V.  In  1552  he 
was  restored  to  his  pastorate  at  Saalfeld,  which 
Luther  had  procured  for  him  in  1527,  and  filled 
that  office  until  his  death. 

AQ^TTHiA,  PoNTTCUS,  i.e.,  Aqutla  op  Pottus 
(Lat.  Aquila  Ponticus).  A  celebrated  translator 
of  the  Old  Testament  into  Greek,  who  flourished 
about  A.D.  130.  He  lived  in  Palestine  and  seems 
to  have  been  a  pagan  converted  first  to  Chris- 
tianity and  subsemiently  to  Judaism.  He  stud- 
ied under  the  Jewish  Rabbis,  notably  the 
celebrated  Rabbi  Akiba.  His  Greek  version, 
fragments  of  which  are  preserved  in  Origen's 
Bemapla,  was  marked  by  an  extreme  literalness 
of  translation;  it  was  probably  this  literalness 
that  made  the  Jews  for  a  long  time  prefer  the 
version  of  Aquila  to  the  Septuagint  translation. 
A  recently  found  specimen  of  Aquila's  transla- 
tion has  been  published  by  F.  C.  Burkitt,  Frag- 
ments of  the  Book  of  Kings,  according  to  the 
translation  of  Aquila  (Cambridge,  1897). 

AQ'TTILA^BIA.      See  Aix)es  Wood. 

AQ'TTILE^OIA.      See  Columbine. 

AQT7ILEJA,  &lcwMfi'yA  (or  Aolab,  ft-glftr', 
as  it  was  called  in  the  Middle  Ages).  A  small 
town  of  the  Austrian  crown-land  of  G(Sn  and 


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Oradisca,  situated  on  the  Lagunadi  Grado,  which 
connects  it  with  the  Adriatic,  about  twenty-five 
miles  west-northwest  of  Trieste  (Map:  Austria, 
O  4 ) ,  This  once  flourishing  seaport  has  dwindled 
to  an  insignificant  fishing-place  of  less  than  a 
thousand  inhabitants,  with  little  to  remind  one 
of  its  former  prosperity  and  importance  but  its 
ancient  cathedral  and  the  remains  of  the  Patri- 
arch's Palace.  It  oflTers,  however  a  rich  field  to 
antiquarians.  Colonized  by  the  Romans  in  B.C. 
182,  it  became  in  time  the  second  city  of  Italy, 
and  in  a.d.  168  was  so  strongly  fortified  by 
Marcus  Aurelius  as  to  be  considered  the  first 
bulwark  of  the  Empire  on  the  north.  In  the 
reign  of  Hadrian,  its  population  was  between 
30(),000  and  500,000.  It  was  the  meeting-place 
of  the  ^milian  Way  and  the  roads  leading  to 
central  and  southeastern  Europe,  and  one  of  the 
principal  naval  ports.  Here  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
min  perished  (238),  and  in  the  vicinity  Con- 
stantine  II.  lost  his  life  in  a  battle  against  his 
brother  Constans  (340).  When  the  town  was 
destroyed  by  Attila  (452),  it  had  100,000  inhab- 
itants. It  never  recovered,  although  between 
556  and  1750  it  was  the  seat  of  a  patriarchate. 
In  1809  it  was  acquired  by  Austria. 

Consult:  Bartoli,  Le  Antichita  d'AquUeja 
(Venice,  1739);  Zahn,  Austria  Friulana  (Vi- 
enna, 1877 )  ;  Meyer,  Die  Spaltung  des  Patri- 
archate Aquileja   (Berlin,  1898). 

AQTTI^ASy  Thomas,  or  Thomas  of  Aquino 
(c.1226-1274) .  One  of  the  most  influential  of  the 
scholastic  theologians,  who  bears  the  honorable 
titles  and  epithets  of  Doctor  Communis  ("Uni- 
versal Doctor,"  Fourteenth  Century)  ;  Doctor 
Angelicus  ("Angelical  Doctor,"  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tury) ;  Princeps  Scholasticorum  ("Prince  of 
Scholastics"),  Doctor  Ecclesiw  ("Doctor  of  the 
Church,"  1567);  "Patron  of  all  Catholic  Schools" 
(1880).  He  was  of  the  family  of  the  counts  of 
Aquino,  in  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  and  was  bom 
in  the  castle  of  Rocco  Secca,  directly  north  of 
Aquino,  about  fifty  miles  northwest  of  Naples, 
about  1226.  He  received  the  rudiments  of  his 
education  from  the  Benedictine  monks  at  Monte 
Cassino,  which  was  only  a  few  miles  away,  and 
completed  his  studies  at  the  University  of 
Naples.  A  strong  inclination  to  philosophical 
speculation  and  theological  study  determined  the 
young  nobleman  against  the  will  of  his  family, 
to  enter  (1243)  the  Order  of  Dominicans.  In 
order  to  frustrate  the  attempts  of  his  friends, 
especially  his  mother,  to  force  him  to  give  up 
his  monastic  life  and  enter  the  world,  his  order 
sent  him  to  Rome,  and  thence  to  Paris.  On  his 
way  thither  his  brothers  overtook  him  at  Acqua- 
pendente,  and  by  force  brought  him  to  the 
castle  of  Saint  John,  near  Aquino,  and  there 
he  was  closely  guarded  for  a  year,  and  every 
effort  was  made  to  break  his  resolution  to  re- 
main a  monk.  But  at  length  his  mother  came 
to  his  release,  and  he  went,  in  the  company  of 
the  (jreneral  of  the  Dominicans,  to  Paris  and 
thence  to  Cologne,  about  1245,  where  he  stud- 
ied under  Albert  the  Great  (Albertus  Magnus). 
At  Cologne  he  pursued  his  studies  in  such  si- 
lence that  his  companions  gave  him  the  name 
of  the  "Dumb  Ox."  But  Albert,  his  master, 
is  reported  to  have  predicted,  "that  this  ox  would 
one  day  fill  the  world  with  his  bellowing."  He 
accompanied  him  to  Paris  in  1245  and  back  to 
Cologne  in  1248,  when  Albert  was  commissioned 
by  his  Order,  the  Dominican,  to  establish  a  theo- 

FOL   I.— 44. 


logical  school  there.  In  it  Aquinas  taught  himself 
until  in  1251  (or  1252)  he  was  sent  to  Paris  to 
teach  in  the  Dominican  monastery  of  Saint 
Jacques.  He  had  taken  the  usual  degrees,  but  the 
highest,  the  doctorate,  was  not  conferred  upon 
him  till  1257,  by  the  University  of  Paris,  because 
of  the  fight  between  it  and  the  Mendicant  Orders. 
He  defended  his  Order  in  his  Contra  Impugnantes 
Dei  Cultum  et  Religionem.  He  was  already  a 
distinguished  scholar  and  teacher.  He  continued 
to  lecture  with  great  applause  in  Paris,  till 
Urban  IV.,  in  1261,  called  him  to  Italy  to  teach 
philosophy  in  Rome,  Bologna,  Pisa,  and  other 
places.  Finally  he  came  to  reside  in  the  convent 
at  Naples  (1272-74),  where  he  declined  the  offer 
of  the  dignity  of  archbishop,  in  order  to  devote 
hirnself  entirely  to  study  and  lecturing.  It  was 
while  there  that  the  following  incidenf  is  said  to 
have  occurred.  One  day  Christ  appeared  to  him 
and  said:  "You  have  written  ably  about  me. 
What  reward  would  you  like  to  have ?"  He  said: 
"Lord,  nothing,  except  thyself."  Being  sum- 
moned by  Gregory  X.  to  attend  the  general 
council  at  Lyons,  he  was  taken  ill  on  the  way 
in  the  castle  of  his  niece  at  Ceccano.  Realizing 
that  it  was  his  last  illness,  he  was  at  his  own 
request  transferred  to  the  neighboring  Cistercian 
monastery  of  Fossanuova,  so  that  he  might 
die  in  a  religious  house.  He  lingered  there  a 
month  and  died  on  March  7,  1274.  According 
to  a  report,  he  was  poisoned  at  the  instiga- 
tion of  Charles  I.  of  Sicily,  who  dreaded  the  evi- 
dence that  Aquinas  would  give  of  him  at  Lyons. 
Dante  held  this  opinion  {Purgatory,  xx.  68), 
but  it  is  probably  not  true.  His  relics  were 
fought  for,  and  his  right  arm  is  now  in  Saint 
Jacques,  Paris,  other  parts  in  Salerno  and 
Naples,  and  the  rest  of  his  body  in  Rome.  He 
was  canonized  July  18,  1323. 

Even  during  his  life  Aquinas  enjoyed  the 
highest  consideration  in  the  Church.  His  voice 
carried  decisive  weight  with  it.  A  general  chap- 
ter of  Dominicans  in  Paris  made  it  obligatory 
on  the  members  of  the  Order,  under  pain  of 
punishment,  to  defend  his  doctrines.  Like  most 
of  the  other  scholastic  theologians,  he  had  no 
knowledge  of  Greek  or  Hebrew,  and  was  almost 
equally  ignorant  of  history;  but  his  writings  dis- 
play a  great  expenditure  of  diligence  and  dia- 
lectic art,  set  off  with  the  irresistible  eloquence  of 
zeal.  His  chief  works  are :  A  Commentary  on  the 
Four  Books  of  Sentences  of  Peter  Lombard,  the 
Summa  Theologice,  Qucestiones  DisputatcB  et 
Quodlihetales,  and  Opuscula  Theologica,  He 
gave  a  new  and  systematic  foundation  to  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Church's  treasury  of  works  of  super- 
erogation, to  that  of  withholding  the  cup  from 
the  laity  in  the  compiunion,  and  to  that  of  tran- 
substantiation.  He  also  treated  Christian  morals 
according  to  an  arrangement  of  his  own,  and 
with  a  comprehensiveness  that  procured  him  the 
title  of  the  "Father  of  Moral  Philosophy."  The 
definiteness,  clearness,  and  completeness  of  his 
method  of  handling  the  theology  of  the  Church, 
gave  his  works  a  superiority  over  the  text-books 
of  the  earlier  writers  on  systematic  theology. 
His  Summa  Theologian  is  the  first  attempt  at  a 
complete  theological  system,  but  he  died  ere  he 
could  complete  it.  In  his  philosophical  writings, 
the  ablest  of  which  is  his  Summa  de  Veritate 
CatholiccB  Fidei  contra  Gentiles^  he  throws  new 
light  upon  the  most  abstract  truths.  The  cir- 
cumstance of  Aquinas  being  a  Dominican,  and 


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AQUIKAS. 


690 


ABABE8QUE. 


boasted  of  by  his  Order  as  their  great  ornament, 
excited  the  jealousy  of  the  Franciscans  against 
him.  In  the  beginning  of  the  Fourteenth  Cen- 
tury, Duns  Scotus  (q.v.),  a  Franciscan,  came 
forward  as  the  declared  opponent  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Aquinas,  and  founded  the  philosophico* 
theological  school  of  the  Scotists,  to  whom  the 
Thomista,  mostly  Dominicans,  stood  opposed. 
The  Thomists  leaned  in  philosophy  to  nominal- 
ism (q.v.),  although  they  held  the  abstract  form 
to  be  the  essence  of  things;  they  followed  the 
doctrines  of  Augustine  as  to  grace,  and  disputed 
the  doctrine  of  the  immaculate  conception  of  the 
Virgin.  The  Scotists,  again,  inclined  to  realism 
and  to  the  views  of  the  Semipelagians,  and  up- 
held the  immaculate  conception. 

Pope  Jjeo  XIII.  in  his  Encyclical,  "iEterni 
patris"  (August  4,  1879),  declared  that  the  phi- 
losophy and  theology  of  Aquinas  was  the  proper 
basis  for  all  such  teaching  in  Catholic  Christen- 
dom. His  life  was  spent  in  such  great  toil,  not 
only  as  an  author  but  as  a  teacher  and  as  the 
trusted  servant  of  his  order  and  the  adviser  of 
popes,  that  it  was  comparatively  brief.  Yet  its 
literary  product  was  enormous.  His  mind  was 
remarkably  clear,  so  that  although  he  was  the 
very  embodiment  of  the  scholastic  method  of 
endless  analysis  and  questionings,  he  wrote  in  a 
way  intelligible  and  interesting  to  the  modern 
reader.  One  gf  his  great  services  is  the  promi- 
nence he  gives  to  Aristotle,  upon  whose  works  he 
wrote  elaborate  commentaries.  Plato  also  was 
his  master,  and  to  the  fathers  he  yielded  loyal 
submission.  He  also  was  a  profound  Bible 
student,  as  he  showed  in  his  Catena  Aiirea,  which 
is  an  exhaustive  theological  interpretation  of 
the  Gospels.  In  fact,  take  him  all  in  all,  there 
is  no  theologian  of  the  past  who  deserves  and 
rewards  study  more  than  he,  and  the  Roman 
Church  does  well  in  accepting  him  as  her  great 
master  in  theology. 

His  works,  all  written  in  Latin,  were  first 
printed  by  Pope  Pius  V.  (Rome,  1570-71,  17 
vols.,  folio;  mod.  ed.,  Paris,  1871-80,  34  vols., 
8vo.;  probablv  final  form,  sanctioned  by  Pope 
Leo  XIII.,  Rome,  1882).  The  greatest  of  the 
works,  the  Summa  Theologian,  was  reprinted 
in  eight  volumes  (Paris,  1869)  ;  German  trans- 
lation, 12  volumes  (Ratisbon,  1886-92).  The 
Summa  de  Veritate  Catholicw  Fidei,  has  been 
published  in  French,  with  Latin  text  (Paris, 
1854).  Modem  English  translations  of  parts 
of  all  the  works  have  been  published  as  fol- 
lows: Catena  Aurea  (8  volumes,  London, 
1841-45)  ;  On  the  Rulers  and  Memhera  of  Chris- 
tian  States,  from  De  Regimine  Principum  (Lon- 
don, 1860)  ;  Homilies  upon  the  Epistles  and 
Gospels  for  the  Sundays  of  the  Christian  Tear, 
and  the  Festival  Homilies  (London,  1873)  ;  On 
the  Ttoo  Commandments  of  Charity  and  the 
Ten  Commandments  of  the  Law  (London, 
1880)  ;  A'ofes  on  the  Angels  (London, 
1888)  ;  Maxims  and  Prayers  and  the  Little 
Office  (London,  1890)  ;  On  the  Sacrament  (Lon- 
don, 1890)  ;  Aquinas  Ethicus,  or  the  Moral 
Teachings  of  Saint  Thomas  (Ijondon,  1892)  ; 
The  Lord's  Prayer,  made  up  of  parts  of  the 
Summa,  in  condensed  translation  (London, 
1892).  For  interpretation  of  his  work  in  gen- 
eral, consult:  L.  Schtltz,  Lexicon  Sammlung, 
Vhersetzung  und  Erldarung  der  in  sdmmtlichen 
Werken  des  heiligm  Thomas  von  Aquinas  vor- 
kommenden   Kunsiausdriicke    und   wissenschaft- 


lichen  Aussprilche  (Paderbom,  1895).  For  his 
biographv,  consult:  In  English,  R.  B.  Vaughan 
(London*  1893);  Pius  Cavanagh  (1890);  in 
German,  C.  Werner  (Regensburg,  1858-59);  J. 
Tansen  (Kevelaer,  1898);  in  Dutch,  H.  J. 
Schaepman  (Utrecht,  1898). 

AQ'TTITA'NIA.  The  Latin  name  of  a  part 
of  Gaul,  originally  including  the  country  be- 
tween the  Pyrenees  and  the  Garonne,  peopled 
by  Iberian  tribes.  Augustus,  when  he  divided 
Gaul  into  four  provinces,  added  to  Aquitania 
the  country  lying  between  the  rivers  Garonne 
and  Loire.  Shortly  before  the  extinction  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  Aquitania  passed  into  the  hands 
of  the  West  Goths.  In  507  it  was  conquered  by 
Clovis,  King  of  the  Franks,  and  during  the 
Merovingian  dynasty  became  an  independent 
duchy.  Though  subjugated  by  Charlemagne,  the 
Duchy  again  claimed  independence  under  the 
weak  monarchs  of  the  Carlovingian  dynasty.  In 
1137  Aquitania  (or  Aquitaine,  a  name' later 
supplanted  by  the  name  Ouienne)  was  united 
to  the  crown  of  France  by  the  marriage  of  Louis 
VII.  with  Eleanor,  heiress  of  Aquitania.  In 
1154  it  was  united  with  England,  as  the  result 
of  the  marriage  (1152)  of  Henry  Plantagenet 
with  Eleanor,  whom  Louis  had  divorced,  and  a 
long  series  of  disputes  took  place  between  Eng- 
land and  France  respecting  Aquitania,  which 
was  at  length  ultimately  united  to  the  crown  of 
France  by  Charles  VII.  in  1451. 

AKA,  ft'r&,  or  Abara  (local  native  name). 
The  great  black  cockatoo  {Microglossa  ater- 
rima)  of  the  Malayan  Islands  and  the  north 
coast  of  Australia.  It  is  the  largest  knovn 
parrot,  reaching  a  length  of  about  thirty  inches, 
and  when  fully  adult  is  wholly  blaclc,  except 
the  bare,  bright-red  cheeks.  Its  beak  is  of  ex- 
traordinary thickness  and  power,  enabling  it 
to  live  largely  on  the  stone-hard,  oily  fruit  of 
the  kanari  tree  {Canarium  commune)  ;  it  also 
eats  palm  ''cabbage,"  and  hence  has  been  called 
the  great  palm  cockatoo.  It  lives  in  the  forest, 
in  pairs  rather  than  in  flocks,  is  shy,  and  utten 
a  low,  double-whistle.  It  is  rarely  kept  in 
captivity.  See  Cockatoo,  and  plate  *of  Cocka- 
toos, etc. 

AKABAH,  ft'rft-b&.  The  valley  of  the  Dead 
Sea,  as  far  as  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  ("Heb. — DeuL  i. 
1 ) .  This  name  is  also  applied  to  the  valley  of 
the  Lake  of  Galilee  (Deut.  iii.  17),  and  many 
therefore  originally  have  been  used  to  designate 
the  entire  length  of  the  depression.  At  present 
El-Arabah  is  confined  to  the  southern  part,  while 
the  Jordan  Valley  is  called  £1  Ghor.  See  £i- 
Ababah. 

ABABATA  (native  South  American  name). 
The  straw-colored  howler.     See  Howler. 

ABABESQUE,  &r'&-besk^  (Fr.).  A  term 
which  means  merely  after  the  Arabian  manner: 
and,  so  far  as  etymology  is  concerned,  mi^ht 
therefore  be  general  in  its  application.  In 
practice,  however,  it  is  used  to  characteriM  any 
kind  of  carved  or  painted  decoration,  especially 
in  conjunction  with  architecture,  which  is  not 
in  close  imitation  of  natural  forms,  either  ani- 
mal or  vegetable,  but  admits  of  schematic,  her- 
aldic, and  fantastic  devices.  It  was  originally 
used  of  the  purely  geometric  ornamentation  of 
Mohammedan  architecture,  but  is  equally  ap- 
plicable to  the  decorative  work  of  the  Alex- 
andrian   Greeks,    and    especially    that    of    the 


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ARABESQUE. 


691 


ABABIA. 


Komans  (Pompeii,  Rome,  etc.),  which  was 
taken  as  a  model  at  the  Renaissance,  and  has 
never  been  surpassed  in  variety  and  delicacy. 
The  arabesque  of  the  Mohammedans  differed 
from  other  forms  in  entirely  excluding  the  fig- 
ures of  animals  and  men,  the  representation  of 
which  was  forbidden  by  the  Mohammedan  re- 
ligion, and  confining  itself  to  purely  geometric 
shapes  and  to  the  foliage,  flowers,  fruit,  and 
tendrils  of  plants  and  trees,  curiously  and  elab- 
orately intertwined.  This  limitation  of  the  field 
of  arabesque  was  not  observed  in  Christian  art. 
The  Byzantine  schools  and  the  Northern  barba- 
rians—  Celts,  Goths,  Saxons,  Lombards  —  used 


MOHAMMEDAN  BOSEWOBK 

the  schematic  heraldic  forms  of  this  style.  So 
did,  to  a  lesser  degree,  the  Romanesque  artists. 
The  Gothic  style  returned  to  the  study  of 
natural  forms  almost  entirely,  but  the  Renais- 
sance, notwithstanding  its  naturalism,  was  very 
partial  to  the  arabesque,  imitating  in  the  Fif- 
teenth Century  the  antique  carved  friezes  and 
pilasters,  and  in  the  Sixteenth  Century  the 
painted  designs  discovered  on  the  walls  of  the 
Baths  of  Titus,  the  Golden  House  of  Nero,  and 
the  imperial  palaces  on  the  Palatine.  Raphael's 
arabesques  in  the  Vatican  are  the  most  famous 
and  beautiful  of  these  imitations.  Further  im- 
petus to  this  type  of  design  was  given  in  the 
last  century  by  the  discoveries  at  Pompeii  and 
Herculaneum. 

ARABOIB,  a'r&b-g6r^.    See  Ababkib. 

ARABIA.  The  great  southwestern  penin- 
sula of  Asia,  called  by  the  inhabitants  "Jezirat- 
al-Arab,"  the  peninsula  of  Arabia;  by  the  Turks 
and  Persians;  "Arabistan."  It  is  situated  in  lati- 
tude 12**  40'  to  34°  N.,  and  longitude  32°  3(K 
to  60°  E.  Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  about 
1500  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  about  1200; 
its  area  is  about  1,200,000  square  miles  (Map: 
Asia,  D  6).  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
Asiatic  Turkey;  on  the  east  by  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Gulf  of  Oman;  on  the  south  by  thei 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  and  on  the 
west  by  the  Red  Sea.  It  is  connected  with 
Africa  on  the  northwest  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez.  Through  the  centre  of  the  land,  be- 
tween Mecca  and  Medina,  runs  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer.  The  name  Arabia  has  been  derived 
by    some    from    Araha    (which    means    a    level 


waste),  a  district  in  the  territory  of  Te- 
hama; by  others,  from  Eher,  a  word  signify- 
ing a  nomad  ("wanderer"),  as  the  primitive 
Arabs  were  such.  This  would  connect  it  with 
the  word  Hebrew,  which  has  a  similar  origin. 
Others,  again,  are  inclined  to  derive  it  from  the 
Hebrew  verb  Arab,  to  go  down — that  is,  the 
region  in  which  the  sun  appeared  to  set  to  the 
Semitic  dwellers  on  the  Euphrates.  There  is 
also  a  Hebrew  word,  Arahah,  which  means  "a 
barren  place,"  and  which  is  occasionally  em- 
ployed in  Scripture  to  denote  the  border  land 
between  Syria  and  Arabia.  Ptolemy  is  sup- 
posed to  be  the  author  of  the  famous  threefold 
division  into  Arabia  Petroea,  Arabia  Felix,  and 
Arabia  Deserta — the  first  of  which  included  the 
north'wjest  comer;  the  second,  the  west  and 
southwest  coasts;  and  the  third,  the  dimly 
known  interior.  This  division,  however,  is  not 
recognized  by  the  natives  themselves;  neither  is 
it  very  accurate  as  at  present  understood,  for 
Petrw  was  not  intended  to  mean  rocky  or  stony. 
Ptolemy  formed  the  adjective  from  the  flour- 
ishing city  of  Petra  (the  capital  of  the  kingdom 
of  the  Nabataeans),  whose  proper  name  was 
Thamud — that  is,  the  rock  with  a  single  stream. 
The  word  Felix,  also,  arose  from  an  incorrect 
translation  of  Yemen,  which  dpes  not  signify 
**happy,"  but  the  land  lying  to  the  right  of 
Mecca — as  Esh-Sham  (Syria)  means  the  land 
lying  to  the  left  of  the  same.  The  divisions  of 
the  Arab  geographers  are  as  follows :  ( 1 )  Bahr- 
el-Tur  Sinai  (Desert  of  Mount  Sinai )  ;  ( 2 )  Hed- 
jaz   (Land  of  Pilgrimage),  along  the  Red  Sea; 

(3)  Tehama  and   Yemen,  along  the  Red   Sea; 

(4)  Hadramaut,  the  region  along  the  southern 
coast;  (5)  Oman,  the  sultanate  of  Muscat,  in 
the  extreme  east;  (6)  Bahrein,  on  the  Persian 
Gulf;  (7)  J5;«-Ha«a,  along  the  Persian  Gulf;  (8) 
Nedjed,  the  central  highlands  of  Arabia. 

Our  knowledge  of  the  interior  of  Arabia  is  still 
very  imperfect  in  detail,  but  its  general  char- 
acteristics are  decidedly  African.  The  largest 
portion  of  it*  lies  in  that  great  desert  zone 
which  stretches  from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic 
to  those  of  the  Northern  Pacific.  The  interior, 
so  far  as  it  has  yet  been  explored  by  Europeans, 
seems  to  be  a  great  plateau,  in  some  places 
reaching  a  height  of  8000  feet.  The  western 
border  crest  of  this  plateau  may  be  regarded 
as  part  of  a  mountain-chain,  beginning  in  the 
north  with  Lebanon,  and  stretching  south  to 
the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  From  Bab-el- 
Mandeb  another  chain  runs  northeast,  parallel 
to  the  coast,  to  Oman.  The  elevation  of  the 
mountains  in  the  extreme  south  of  the  peninsula 
is  estimated  at  13,000  feet.  From  the  mountain- 
range  on  the  west  the  plateau  slopes  to  the 
northeast,  and  forms  in  general  a  vast  tract 
of  shifting  sands,  interspersed  here  and  there 
about  the  centre  with  various  ranges  of  hills, 
which,  like  the  shores  of  the  peninsula,  are 
generally  ban-en  and  uninteresting. 

One  of  the  chief  characteristics  in  the  physi- 
cal aspect  of  the  country  is  the  scarcity  of  per- 
manent rivers.  With  the  exception  of  Maidan, 
at  the  southwestern  end  of  the  country,  the 
streams  of  Arabia  dry  up  for  a  considerable 
part  of  the  year.  Like  most  desert  regions, 
Arabia  has  a  large  number  of  dried-up  river 
courses,  or  toadies,  among  which  the  Wadi-er- 
Rumen  is  the  longest,  traversing  under  different 
names   the   entire   coiuitry   from   west  to   east. 


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ARABIA. 


Springs  are  very  few,  and  in  the  cultivated 
parts  of  the  country  large  numbers  of  wells, 
cisterns,  and  reservoirs  are  prepared  for  the 
reception  of  rain  water. 

Arabia  has,  on  the  whole,  an  African  climate. 
Though  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  sea, 
its  chains  of  hills  exclude  in  a  great  measure 
the  modifying  influence  of  air  currents  from 
the  ocean.  In  several  parts  of  Arabia  hardly  a 
refreshing  shower  falls  in  the  course  of  the 
year,  and  vegetation  is  almost  unknown;  in 
other  torrid  districts  the  date-palm  is  almost 
the  only  sign  of  vegetable  life.  Over  vast 
sterile  tracts  hangs  a  sky  of  almost  eternal 
serenity.  The  time  and  duration  of  the  rainy 
season  varies  in  the  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. In  Yemen  it  lasts  from  June  to  September, 
and  is  often  followed  by  a  shorter  rainy  season 
in  the  spring.  In  the  coast  regions  of  Hadra- 
maut  and  Oman  it  lasts  from  February  to 
April,  while  in  the  highlands  of  the  former  it 
takes  place  between  April  and  September. 
Light  frosts  nmrk  the  winters  in  the  centre  and 
northeast.  During  the  hot  season  the  simoom 
(q.v.)  blows,  but  only  in  the  northern  part  of 
the  land.  The  districts  which  are  not  too  arid 
for  culture  produce  wheat,  barley,  millet,  dates, 
tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  sugar,  tamarinds,  coffee, 
balsam,  aloe,  myrrh,  frankincense,  etc.  Arabia 
is  destitute  of  forests,  but  has  vast  stretches 
of  desert  grass,  fragrant  with  aromatic  herbs, 
and  furnishing  admirable  pasturage  for  the 
splendid  breed  of  horses.  Coffee,  one  of  the  most 
important  exports,  is  an  indigenous  product  both 
of  Arabia  and  Africa,  as  are  also  the  date-palm 
and  banana.  The  trade  in  coffee,  dates,  figs, 
spices,  and  drugs,  though  still  considerable,  is 
said  to  be  only  a  shadow  of  the  old  commerce 
which  existed  before  the  circumnavigation  of 
Africa,  or  when  Aden  was  in  its  prime  and  the 
Ked  Sea  was  the  great  commercial  route  to  the 
East.  Arabia  has  few  manufactures,  but  carries 
on  a  transit  trade  in  foreign  fabrics,  besides  im- 
porting these  to  some  extent  for  its  own  necessi- 
ties. 

In  the  animal  kingdom,  an  African  character 
prevails  generally.  Sheep,  goats,  and  oxen  sat- 
isfy the  immediate  domestic  and  personal  neces- 
sities of  the  inhabitants,  to  whom  the  camel  and 
horse  are  trusty  companions  in  their  far  wan- 
derings. Gazelles  and  ostriches  frequent  the 
oases  of  the  deserts,  where  the  lion,  panther, 
hyena,  and  jackal  hunt  their  prey.  Monkeys, 
pheasants,  and  doves  are  found  in  the  fertile 
districts,  where  flights  of  locusts  often  make 
sad  devastation.  Fish  and  turtle  abound  on 
the  coast.  The  noble  breed  of  Arabian  horses 
has  been  cultivated  for  several  thousand  years; 
but  the  most  characteristic  of  all  animals  in 
the  peninsula  is  the  camel  (q.v.)  which  has 
been  both  poetically  and  justly  styled  "the  ship 
of  the  desert."  The  breed  of  Oman  is  celebrated 
for  its  beauty  and  swiftness.  Among  the  min- 
erals of  Arabia  may  be  mentioned  iron,  copper, 
lead,  coal,  basalt,  and  asphaltum,  and  the  pre- 
cious stones  emerald,  carnelian,  ngate,  and  onyx. 
Pearls  are  found  in  the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  population  of  Arabia  is  estimated  at 
between  3,.500,000  and  5,000,000,  including  about 
half  a  million  Bedouins.  The  Arab  is  of  medium 
stature,  compactly  built,  and  of  brown  complex- 
ion. Earnestness  and  pride  are  distinctive  char- 
acteristics; by  nature  he  is  quick,  sharp-witted, 


lively,  and  passionately  fond  of  poetry.  Cour- 
age, temi>erance,  hospitality,  and  good  faith 
are  his  leading  virtues;  but  these  are  often 
marred  by  a  spirit  of  sanguinary  revenge  and 
rapacity.  His  wife  keeps  the  house  and  edu- 
cates the  children.  Education  is  widespread 
and  illiteracy  is  unknown;  even  in  the  desert 
the  children  are  taught  to  read,  write,  and 
calculate.  The  Arab  cannot  conceive  a  higher 
felicity  than  the  birth  of  a  camel  or  a  foal,  or 
that  his  verses  should  be  honored  with  the  ap- 
plause of  his  tribe.  The  Arabs  are  generally 
monogamists,  although  frequently  the  wealthy 
chiefs  have  several  wives.  Matrimonial  ties  are 
severed  at  will,  and  the  ill-treated  wife  can 
always  find  refuge  in  her  father's  tent.  The 
Arabs  are  all  Mohammedans. 

Arabian  life  is  either  nomadic  or  settled. 
The  wandering  tribes,  or  Bedouins,  are  well 
known  to  entertain  very  loose  notions  of  the 
rights  of  property.  The  located  tribes,  styled 
tladesi  and  Fellahs,  are  despised  by  the '  Be- 
douin, who  scorns  to  be  tied  down  to  the  soil, 
even  where  such  l)ondage  might  make  him 
wealthy. 

The   prehistoric   home   of   the   Arabians   was 
in    the    southern    interior    of    the    peninsula 
named    after    them,    though    some    ethnologists 
are  inclined  to  assign  them  an  original  home 
with   other   Semites   in  Africa.     In  their  own 
persons,    or    by    their    language,    culture,    aztd 
religion,   they   have   made   their   influence    felt 
over  a  great  part  of  Africa,  southern  Europe, 
southern    and    central    Asia,    and    the    Indian 
Archipelago.      They    have    contributed    to    the 
knowledge   of   the   world   the   pseudo-scienoe   of 
alchemy,  a  certain  number  of  terms  used  in  the 
mathematical    and    physical    sciences,    and    the 
Arabic    numerals,    really    borrowed    from    the 
Hindu.     The  Arabic  alphabet  is   found  among 
peoples  as  widely  distant  as  the  Vei  of  West 
Africa  and  the  Bugis  of  Celebes.    The  Arabs  fos- 
tered commerce  and  geographical  exploration  in 
the  Middle  Ages,  created  a  new  order  of  archi- 
tecture,  made    the   productions    of   the    aneieot 
Greek  intellect  accessible  to  European  nations 
and  in  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences,  philosiophT, 
literature,  and  art  were  long  in  advance  of  the 
rest  of  the  world.     According  to  Brinton,   the 
Arab  ''preserves  in  his  language  Ihe  oldest  and 
purest  form  of  Semitic  speech,  and  in  mind  and 
body  its  most  pronounced  mental  and  physical 
type" ;  but  the  purity  of  the  Arab  type  has  been 
exaggerated,  for,  like  the  Jew,  he  presents  exam- 
ples of  the  tall  and  the  short  type,   the   long- 
headed and  the  broad-headed,  the  brunette  and 
the   blond,    the   straight-haired   and   the    wavy- 
haired,  evidencing  considerable  intermixture  with 
Negroid    and    Aryan    elements.     As    a    special 
branch  of  the  Semitic  stock,  the  Arabians   in- 
clude   the    Bedouins    of    northern    and    central 
Arabia,   as  well  as   those   who  have    wandend 
into    Egypt,    other   parts    of    northern    Africa, 
Palestine,  and  Mesopotamia ;  the  tribes  dwY»llin|[ 
in  Hadramaut,  Yemen,  Hedjaz,  Oman,  and   on 
the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf ;  the  various  Arab, 
rather    than    Bedouin,    communities    of     Aiua 
Minor  and  other  countries  to  the  east.     In  the 
Arabian  group  belong,  also,  the  ancient  HiniTar- 
ites,  or  Sabceans  (the  people  of  the  famous  Queen 
of  Sheba),  who  have  left  behind  them  in  the 
southwest  of   the   peninsula   many   inscriptions 
and  other  relics  of  an  important  culture   de* 


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ARABIA. 


stroyed  by  their  ruder  successors.  By  language 
many  of  the  peoples  of  Abyssinia,  and  some  out- 
side its  borders,  are  Arabians,  their  speech  being 
more  or  less  related  to  the  old  Himyaritic.  Such 
are  the  tribes  speaking  Tigr6,  Tigrifia,  and  Am- 
haric.  These  Ethiopian  Semites*— or,  rather, 
Semitizod  Ethiopians — are  the  result  of  a  secon- 
dary migration  from  Arabia  into  Africa.  A 
great  part  of  the  "Arabs"  of  northern  Africa 
and  central  and  eastern  Asia  are  merely  Hamites, 
Negroes,  Aryans,  Mongolians,  and  Malays  who 
have  received  a  large  infusion  of  Arab  blood. 
Keane  (1B96)  is  right  in  emphasizing  the  ab- 
sorptive power  of  the  Arabs,  to  whom  the  mass 
of  the  other  Semites  in  Asiatic  Turkey  are  be- 
coming more  and  more  assimilated.  For  illustra- 
tion, sMic  plate.  Races  of  Asia. 

Politically,  Arabia  is  divided  as  follows:  The 
Sinai  Peninsula  forms  a  dependency  of  Egypt. 
The  western  coast,  forming  the  two  provinces  of 
Hedjaz  and  Yemen,  as  well  as  the  region  of  El- 
Hasa,  on  the  eastern  coast,  belong  to  Turkey. 
Oman  is  administered  by  an  independent  imam, 
while  Aden  (q.v.)  forms  a  dependency  of  Great 
Britain,  which  exercises  a  protectorate  over  a 
considerable  territory.  The  remainder  of  the 
country  is  divided  into  a  number  of  independent 
or  senii-independent  states,  under  hereditary  or 
chosen  chiefs,  bearing  the  title  ot.emir,  sheik, 
or  imam.  Their  function  appears  to  be  limited 
to  leading  the  troops  in  time  of  war,  to  levying 
tribute,  and  to  the  administration  of  justice.  A 
spirit  01  liberty  in  the  people  moderates  the 
authority  of  their  chieftains;  but  instances  of 
extreme  despotism  have  not  been  unf  requent,  both 
in  early  and  modem  times.  The  most  important 
cities  of  Arabia  are  Mecca,  Muscat,  Jiddah,  Ho- 
deida,  Medina,  Riad,  Aden,  and  Mocha. 

HiSTOBY.     Of  the  first  settlement  of  Arabia 
nothing  is  known.     From  time  immemorial  the 
Arabian  Peninsula  has  been  the  home  of  Semitic 
tribes;  and  the  tendency  of  modern  scholarship 
18  to  regard  Arabia  as  the  original  home  of  the 
Semites.     Arabic  writers  follow  in  this  respect 
the    popular   distinction   between   the    northern 
and  southern  tribes,  and  trace  each  back  to  fic- 
titious ancestors — the  former  to  Ishma^l,  the  son 
of  Abraham;  the  latter  to  Kahtan,  a  mythical 
hero;  but,  naturally,  all  such  notices  have  no 
historical   value   whatsoever.      The   distinction, 
however,   between    the   northern    and    southern 
inhabitants  is  justified,  and  applies  to  Arabic 
history  until  the  union  of  all  the  tribes  imder 
the  influence  of  Islam.     Culture  proper  began 
in  the  south,  and  by  the  help  of  numerous  in- 
scriptions, found  especially  by  Glaser,  it  is  pos- 
sible  now   to   trace    back   Arabian   history    to 
about  B.C.  1500,  at  which  time  we  find  a  flour- 
ishing nation  in  the  south,  known  as  the  Him- 
yarites.     The    stronghold    of    the    Himyaritic 
power  was  in  the  kingdom  of  Yemen,   in  the 
southwestern  comer  of  the  peninsula,  where  also 
the  earliest  traces  of  Arabic  civilization  may 
be  found.    Less  important  principalities  existed 
all  over  the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula,  ex- 
tending across  its  entire  breadth,  from  the  Red 
Sea  to  the  Persian  Gulf.    The  Himyaritic  king- 
dom was  succeeded  by  the  Sabsean,  which  lasted 
well  into  the  Christian  era.    As  contrasted  with 
the  nomad  tribes  of  central  and  northern  Arabia, 
the  inhabitants  of  Yemen  were  a  highly  advanced 
race,    dwelling    in    cities,    actively    engaged    in 
commerce,  and  possessing  well-defined  political 


institutions.    The  tribes  of  the  north  were  never 
recognized  by  the  southern  inhabitants  as  pure 
Arabs.     For  a  very  long  period  they  were  more 
or   less   imder  the   authority   of   the   kings   of 
Yemen,  but  in  the  fifth  century  after  Christ  they 
successfully  asserted  their  independence.     They 
did  not,  however,  institute  any  form  of  govern- 
ment in  place  of  the  one  they  had  overthrown, 
and  for  about  two  hundred  years  they  remained 
split  up  into  numerous  clans  engaged  in  con- 
tinuous   warfare.      From   foreign    invasion    the 
ancient    inhabitants    were    comparatively    free. 
The  rulers  of  the  Mesopotamian  empires,  of  Per- 
sia, and  of  Egypt  failed  to  reduce  them  to  sub- 
mission, Alexander  the  Great  determined  upon 
the  invasion  of  the  country,  but  was  interrupted 
in  his  plans  by  death.     Three  centuries  after 
Alexander,  in  the  reign  of  Augustus,  an  army 
under  the  prefect  of  Egypt  invaded  Yemen:  but 
no  definite  results  followed  the  expedition.    The 
only  considerable  period  of  foreign  nile  was  that 
between  629  and  605,  when  \emen  was  held  by 
the    Abyssinians.      The   Arabs,    therefore,   were 
left  to  v»'ork  out  their  own  destinies,  and  the  force 
that  was^  to  unify  the  warring  tribes  into  one 
great  nation  was  to  come  from  among  themselves. 
In  southwestern  Arabia,  as  early  as  the  Fifth 
Century  the  tribe  of  Koreish,  living  in  Yemen, 
had  risen  to  great  prominence  on  account  of  their 
noble  descent,  their  wealth,  and  the  prestige  con- 
nected with  their  office  as  perpetual  guardians 
of  the  sacred  Caaba  at  Mecca.     This  structure 
from  the  earliest  times  had  been  a  place  of  pil- 
grimage for  the  peoples  of  the  entire  peninsula. 
In   the  great  fairs   which  were  annually  held 
not  far  from  Mecca,  the  first  steps  toward  Arab 
unity  were  made.     These  annual  meetings  were 
marked  by  the  celebration  of  athletic  games,  and 
poetic  contests,  and  partook  also  of  a  certain  re- 
ligious character  which  made  them  in  some  re- 
spects similar  to  the  OljTupian  Games  of  ancient 
Grece,  with  which  they  may  also  be  compared  for 
their  effect  upon  the  building  up  of  an  Arabian 
nationality.     The  way,  then,  was  prepared  for 
Mohammed,  who,  through  the  gospel  of  Islam, 
was  destined  to  unite  the  entire  peninsula  under 
his  rule  within  the  short  period  of  ten  years; 
for  after  he  had  won  over  the  powerful  Koreish 
to  his  doctrine,  and  had  provided  himself  in  this 
manner  with  an  efficient  army,  the  chaotic  con- 
dition of  political  life  in  Arabia  made  the  spread 
of  his  faith  all  the  more  easy.    Arabia  enjoyed 
the  most  prosperous  period  of  its  history  during 
the  reigns  of  the  first  three  caliphs   (632-656), 
under  whom  Syria,  Egypt,  and  Persia  were  con- 
quered.   Then  the  tide  of  Saracen  conquest  swept 
westward  over  the  whole  of  northern  Africa  and 
the  Spanish  Peninsula,  and  seemed  about  to  en- 
gulf ancient  Gaul,  when  it  was  arrested  between 
Poitiers  and  Tours  by  Charles  Martel,  ruler  of 
the  Franks  (732).    With  the  spread  of  Moham- 
medan dominion,  the  importance  of  Arabia  itself 
declined.    This  was  especially  true  after  the  year 
750,    when   the   Ommiads    were    overthrown   by 
the  descendants  of  Abbas.    So  long  as  Damascus 
had  been  the  centre  of  the  Moslem  world,  the 
Arab   element   had    been    preeminent,    and    the 
great  generals  and  administrators  of  the  caliphs 
had  been  drawn  chiefly  from  among  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  peninsula;  but  with  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Abbasside  dynasty  of  caliphs,  who 
removed  the  seat  of  the  Mohammedan  power  in 
the  East  to  Bagdad,  and  the  rise  of  a  great  Mo- 


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ARABIAN  XTTSia 


hammedan  realm  in  the  extreme  West  the  mag- 
nificent rdle  which  Arabia  had  played  came  to 
an  end,  and  the  country  which  had  furnished 
the  means  of  war  to  Mohammed's  immediate  suc- 
cessors, fell  into  the  condition  in  which  the 
prophet  had  found  it  in  the  "Days  of  Dark- 
ness.*' Numerous  principalities  once  more  arose, 
enjoying  complete  independence,  except  at 
rare  moments,  when  some  foreign  invader  estab- 
lished his  power  over  sections  of  the  country,  as 
was  the  case  with  Yemen,  which  was  for  some 
time  held  by  the  rulers  of  Egypt.  In  1570 
the  tribes  of  Yemen  and  Hediaz  definitely  ac- 
knowledged the  suzerainty  of  the  Sultan.  After 
some  sixty-  years,  however,  they  virtually  re- 
gained their  independence,  and  the  last  native 
ruler  in  Yemen  was  not  overthro>vn  till  1871. 
In  the  West  the  kingdom  of  Oman  attained  con- 
siderable importance.  From  1508  to  1659  its 
capital,  Muscat,  was  held  by  the  Portuguese,  but 
it  finally  fell  into  the  possession  of  the  native 
princes,  who  succeeded  in  extending  and  consol- 
idating their  power.  In  the  interior  ot  Arabia, 
the  most  important  princes  are  the  Wahabi 
rulers,  v/hose  dynasty  was  founded  m  the  middle 
of  the  Seventeenth  Century  by  Abd-el-Wahab,  a 
religious  reformer  who  attempted  to  restore  the 
pure  faith  of  Mohammed,  which  had  been  al- 
most lost  among  the  tribes,  and  made  the  propa- 
ganda of  his  religious  views  a  means  for  seizing 
on  political  power.  Under  his  successors  the 
Wahabi  sphere  of  influence  expanded  until  at  the 
beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century  Mecca  itself 
fell  into  their  hands.  In  1811  they  became  in- 
volved in  conflict  with  Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt, 
and  after  seven  years'  warfare  their  power  was 
shattered  by  Ibrahim  Pasha.  The  Wahabi 
monarcliy,  however,  took  a  new  lease  of  life 
after  1840,  when  the  struggle  between  the  Viceroy 
of  Egypt  and  the  Sultan  prevented  any  eflfective 
assertion  of  Ottoman  supremacy. 

BiBTJOGBAPiiT.  Jomard,  Etudes  gdographiquea 
et  historiquea  aur  VArahie  (Paris,  1839)  ;  Ritter, 
Erdknnde  von  Arahien  (Berlin,  1840-47)  ;  Spren- 
ger,  Die  alte  Geographic  Arahiens  (Bern,  1875)  ; 
Zehme,  Arabien  und  die  Araher  seit  hundert  Jah- 
ren  (Halle,  1875)  ;  Niebuhr,  Description  of  Ara- 
bia, trans,  by  Sealy  (Bombay,  1889)  ;  D'Avril, 
UArahie  contemporaine  (Paris,  1868)  ;  Palgrave, 
Narrative  of  a  Journey  Through  Centred  and 
Eastern  Arabia  (London,  1871)  ;  Maltzan,  Reise 
nach  Siidarabien  (Brunswick,  1873)  ;  Wrede, 
Reise  in  Hadhramauty  etc.,  edited  by  Maltzan 
(Brunswick,  1873)  ;  Upton,  Gleanings  from  the 
Desert  of  Arabia  (London,  1881)  ;  Huber,  Voyage 
dnyis  VArabie  centrale,  1878-82  (Paris,  1885); 
id.  Journal  d*un  voyage  en  Arable,  1883-84 
(Paris,  1891)  ;  Doughty,  Travels  in  Arabia  De- 
scrta  (Cambridge,  1888)  ;  Harris,  A  Journey 
Through  the  Yemen  (Edinburgh  and  London, 
1893)  ;  Nolde,  Reise  nach  innerarabien^  etc. 
(Brunswick,  1895);  Bent,  Southern  Arabia 
(London,  1000)  ;  Hull,  Memoir  on  the  Geology 
and  Gfiography  of  Arabia  Petrcoa^  etc.  (London, 
1886)  ;  Caussin  de  Perceval,  Essai  snr  Vhistoire 
des  Arabes  avant  VIslamisme  (Paris,  1847-49); 
Osborn,  Islam  under  the  Arabs  (London,  1876)  ; 
Sedillot,  Histoire  g^nirale  des  Arabes  (Paris, 
1877). 

ABABIA  DESEBTA  (Lat.,  Deserted  Ara- 
bia ) .  The  name  applied  by  ancient  geographers 
to  the  northern  and  central  third  of  the  country. 
It  is  a  region  of  hard,  gravelly  soil,  diversified 


here  and  there  by  patches  of  stunted  bosh  and 
meagre  grass. 

ARABIA  TWUX.  (Lat.,  Happy  Arabia). 
The  name  given  to  the  southeastern  part  of 
Arabia;  a  tolerably  fertile  region. 

ABABTAN  ABT.  It  is  an  erroneous  habit 
to  call  by  the  name  of  "Arabian"  the  architecture 
or  other  branches  of  art  developed  by  Moham- 
medan nations  after  the  Arabs  had  carried  th4>ir 
new  religion  over  most  of  the  East  and  part  of 
the  West.  Neither  is  there  an  art  that  could 
be  called  **Moori8h."  For  all  such  art  see  the 
articles  Mohammedan  Art;  and  Architecttre. 
The  Arabs  themselves  were  never  an  artistic  na 
tion,  only  patrons  of  art.  Even  in  Yemen,  where 
the  tribes  lived  not  a  nomadic,  but  a  sedentan- 
life,  no  special  form  of  art  appears  to  have  de 
veloped  in  antiquity. 

ABABTAN  GULF.     See  Red  Sea. 

ABABIAN  MUSIC.  The  influence  of  the 
Arabs  upon  modem  music  is  distinctly  felt  in 
many  of  our  orchestral  instruments.  Thtir 
musical  system,  however,  has  left  no  traces,  be- 
cause it  was  rather  a  philosophical  and  mathi- 
matical  speculation  than  a  practical  system. 
Although  in  early  times  the  Arabs  had  primitive 
instruments  and  characteristic  melodies,  we  can- 
not speak  of  a  distinctly  Arabic  system  of 
music  until  after  the  conquest  of  Persia  by  tht 
Arabs  in  the  Seventh  CJentury  a.d.  With 'won- 
derful rapidity  the  conquerors  assimilated  the 
musical  art  of  the  conquered,  so  that  in  a  short 
time  the  pupils  rose  to  the  position  of  master^. 
Since  then  the  music  of  Persia  and  Arabia  i> 
like  two  great  streams  flowing  side  by  side  and 
frequently  intermingling.  Already  in  the  £igiiT.i 
Century  we  find  theoretical  writings  on  music  ^t 
Arabic  authors.  When  Al  Farabi,  in  the  Teni^i 
Century,  attempted  to  supplant  the  Arabic  <t«- 
tem  by  that  of  the  Greeks,  he  failed.  becau<4* 
the  Arabic- Persian  system  had  already  reat-M 
a  high  development.  The  theoretical  founder  oi 
the  Arabic-Persian  school  is  Ssafliedin,  an  Ant> 
by  birth,  who  lived  in  the  Fourteenth  Ccnturr. 
The  Arabic  system  constructed  a  scale  by  join- 
ing together  a  tetrachord  ( D,  E,  Yt,  G ) ,  and  a 
pentachord  (G,  A,  B,  c,  d),  so  that  the  semi- 
steps  are  between  the  third  and  fourth  and 
sixth  and  seventh  degrees.  Each  whole  tone  wa< 
divided  into  three  third  tones,  so  that  th** 
octave  contained  17  third  tones.  These  third 
tones  were  not  regarded  as  chromatic  alteration* 
of  a  fundamental  tone,  but  were  denoted  by  th^ 
theorists  by  separate  numbers,  so  that  the  lir'i 
tone  of  the  second  octave  was  18,  of  the  third 
octave  35.  Octaves  and  fourths  are  reganied 
as  consonances,  thirds  and  sixths  as  discon- 
sonances.  The  fifth  was  a  disputed  interval. 
Out  of  a  possible  number  of  84  scales,  the  thtv 
rists  selected  12  as  practicable.  These  vYrp 
called  Makamat.  Besides  these  complete  scil^^ 
there  were  recognized  six  Axcasaty  combinatit'H- 
of  from  five  to  nine  third  tones,  which  stood  in 
the  same  relation  to  the  scales  as  the  trope?  of 
the  Plain  Chant  stood  to  their  res|iective  mtnie^. 
While  the  theorists  continually  introduced  n»'« 
systems  of  wonderful  ingenuity,  the  practif.j 
musicians  were  guided  chiefly  by  their  ear,  ano 
this  led  them  to  conceive  their  melodies  in  a 
scale  corresponding  exactly  to  our  D  major.  Tlh- 
principal  instrument  of  the  Arabs  was  the  lute 
(q.v.),  which  they  adopted  from  the  Persians- 


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AKABTAN  NIGHTS. 


The  tanbur  had  a  circular  or  oval  body,  a  very 
long  neck  and  three  strings.  The  kanun  was  a 
kind  of  cembalo  with  seventy-five  gut-strings 
(three  to  each  tone)  over  a  square  resonator. 
Among  the  instruments  played  with  a  bow  the 
principal  one  was  the  rebab  or  rebic^  which  has 
developed  into  our  violin.  The  kemangeh  was 
made  of  a  cocoanut  over  which  was  stretched  a 
membrane.  The  strings  were  fastened  on  an 
excessively  long  and  thin  neck.  The  chief  wind- 
instrument  was  the  zamr  or  zuma,  a  kind  of 
oboe.  The  nefyr  is  a  trumpet  similar  to  ours. 
The  nakarich  is  our  kettle-drum.  The  number 
of  instruments  used  by  the  Arabs  is  enormous. 
There  are  32  kinds  of  lutes,  12  kinds  of  kanuns, 
14  instruments  played  with  a  bow,  3  kinds  of 
lyre,  28  kinds  of  flute,  22  kinds  of  oboes,  8  kinds 
of  trumpets,  and  an  abundance  of  drums  (all 
sizes)  and  of  other  instruments  of  percussion. 
ARABIAN  NIQHTS.  An  extensive  collec- 
tion of  tales  forming  part  of  Arabic  literature 
( q.v. ) ,  and  the  more  exact  title  of  which  is  "The 
Book  of  the  Thousand  and  One  Nights."  Arabic 
manuscripts  vary  considerably,  no  two  agreeing 
either  as  to  the  number  of  separate  tales  or  as 
to  their  order.  In  their  most  complete  form  we 
have  262  tales,  though  this  does  not  include  one 
of  the  most  famous  stories,  that  of  Aladdin,  an 
Arabic  text  of  which  has  only  recently  come  to 
light  (published  by  H.  Zotenberg).  This  varia- 
tion in  the  manuscripts,  while  also  an  index  of 
the  popularity  which  the  collection  enjoyed,  is 
due  to  their  gradual  growth  and  to  the  diflferent 
c-entres  in  which  the  traditions  regarding  them 
developed.  They  were  first  made  known  to 
Europe  by  Antonie  Galland  (a.d.  1646-1715),  a 
French  orientalist,  who  succeeded,  after  much 
effort,  in  obtaining  a  manuscript,  which  he  sup- 
plemented by  gathering  tales  from  professional 
story-tellers  with  whom  he  came  in  contact  dur- 
ing his  travels  in  the  East.  Between  1704  and 
1717,  Galland  published  in  twelve  volumes  his 
French  translation  of  the  tales  which  he  en- 
titled Mille  et  une  Nuits,  contes  Arahea  traduita 
en  Francaia,  While  received  with  great  enthu- 
siasm by  the  general  public,  doubts  were  freely 
expressed  in  learned  circles  as  to  their  genuine- 
ness. Oriental  scholars  did  not  hesitate  at  first 
to  declare  against  their  authenticity,  and  de- 
nounce them  as  forgeries.  Having  taken  only 
an  obscure  place  in  the  literature  of  the  East, 
and  their  style  unfitting  them  from  being  classed 
among  models  of  eloquence  or  taste — ^having  no 
object  of  a  religious,  moral,  or  philosophical  kind 
in  view,  while  the  manners  and  customs  deline- 
ated in  them  were  different  from  all  received 
ideas  of  those  of  the  Moslem  nations — their  suc- 
cess took  the  critics  by  surprise.  It  was  not 
long,  however,  before  such  skepticism  gave  way, 
and  they  were  recognized  not  only  as  genuine 
productions  but  as  a  characteristic  expression  of 
Eastern  thought  and  manners.  The  success  of 
Galland's  translation  spread  the  tales  through- 
out Europe.  Few  books  have  been  translated 
into  so  many  different  languages,  and  given  de- 
light to  so  large  a  number  of  readers.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  translations  into  European  languages 
we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  Arabic  original 
has  also  been  the  source  of  renderings  into  many 
Eastern  tongues,  notably  Persian,  Turkish,  and 
Hindustani,  so  that  more  than  any  other  com- 
pilation, with  the  single  exception  of  the  Bible, 
the    Arabian    'Sighta   has    encircled    the    entire 


world.  It  may  be  said  that,  in  these  Oriental 
tales,  there  has  sprung  up  a  new  branch  of 
literature,  for  their  iniluence  on  the  literature 
of  the  present  day  is  easily  discernible.  Here 
are  found  depicted  with  much  simplicity  and 
great  effect,  the  scenes  of  the  town-life  of  the 
Moslem.  The  prowess  of  the  Arab  knight,  his 
passion  for  adventure,  his  dexterity,  his  love 
and  his  revenge,  the  craft  of  his  wives,  the 
hypocrisy  of  his  religious  teachers,  and  the  cor- 
ruptibility of  his  judges,  are  all  dramatically 
delineated — far  more  vividly  represented,  in  fact, 
than  is  possible  in  a  book  of  travels;  while 
gilded  palaces,  charming  women,  lovely  gardens, 
and  exquisite  repasts  captivate  the^ense  of  the 
reader,  and  transport  him  to  the  land  of  wonder 
and  enjoyment.  Besides  entertaining  the  mind 
with  the  kaleidoscopic  wonders  of  a  teeming  and 
luxurious  fancy,  which  is  their  most  obvious 
merit,  they  present  a  treasure  of  instruction 
upon  life  in  general,  and  Oriental  life  in  particu- 
lar. And  this  is  undeniable,  notwithstanding  the 
fact,  that  the  aspects  of  society  they  depict  are 
far  from  standing  high  in  the  social  scale  either 
as  to  civilization  or  morality.  The  origin  of  this 
remarkable  work  is  involved  in  mystery.  The 
collection,  as  a  whole,  cannot  be  much  earlier 
than  the  Thirteenth  Century,  but  it  is  equally 
certain  that  not  only  are  many  (if  not  most)  of 
the  stories  considerably  older,  but  the  beginnings 
of  the  compilation  likewise  revert  to  a  much 
earlier  date.  As  early  as  the  Tenth  Century 
there  existed  in  Persian  a  collection  of  stories 
entitled  Hezar  Abaaniy  i.e.  'the  thousand  tales,' 
with  which  the  Arabian  Night  a  has  points  of 
resemblance.  In  both,  the  framework  is  essen- 
tially the  same — a  king  who  was  in  the  habit 
when  wedding  a  damsel  to  kill  her  after  having 
spent  one  night  with  her,  and  a  damsel  who 
entertained  a  king  with  stories  so  fascinating 
that  he  respited  her  each  night  in  order  that  he 
might  hear  the  continuation.  This  continued  for 
a  thousand  nights,  at  the  end  of  which  period, 
the  king  impressed  by  her  intelligence  and 
moved  also  with  compassion  through  the  cliild 
which  was  bom  to  him  in  the  interval,  decided 
to  presence  his  consort's  life.  The  Arabian 
Night  a,  however,  is  a  most  composite  production, 
and  whatever  its  indebtedness  may  be  to  the 
Persian  Thouaand  Talea,  it  contains  stories  gath- 
ered from  all  parts  of  the  Eastern  world,  from 
India  to  Egypt,  all,  however,  so  adapted  to  con- 
ditions as  they  existed  in  the  Mohammedan 
world  as  to  lose  the  distinctive  traits  which 
would  have  revealed  their  origin.  The  tales  may 
have  circulated  for  a  long  time  orally  before 
being  committed  to  writing,  and  to  this  day  they 
form  the  theme  frequently  of  the  professional 
story-tellers  or  writers  who  are  found  in  the 
East — in  Morocco,  Algiers,  Egypt,  Syria,  and 
Persia.  When  and  where  they  first  began  to  be 
gathered  into  manuscripts  are  questions  almost 
impossible  to  determine.  Thirteen  tales  which 
may  be  regarded  as  the  nucleus  of  the  collection 
appear  to  have  been  reduced  to  writing  as  early 
as  the  Tenth  Century,  and  while  the  collection  as 
a  whole  assumed  a  definite  shape  in  the  Thir- 
teenth Century,  there  are  a  few  tales  which  may 
be  as  late  as  the  Sixteenth  Century. 

Regarding  the  character  of  the  stories  and 
the  material  contained  in  them,  we  may  dis- 
tinguish three  categories:  (1)  Beast  fables; 
(2)   Fairy  tales;  and  (3)   Anecdotes.    Of  these. 


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ABABIAN  KIGHTS. 


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AKABICI. 


the  beast  fables  represent  probably  the  oldest 
structure,  reverting,  as  they  eventually  do,  to  the 
primitive  beliefs  which  attributed  to  animals 
human  powers  and  evident  superhiunan  faculties. 
The  fairy  tales  show  the  Eastern  imagination 
at  its  best,  though  it  should  be  remembered  that 
some  of  the  tales  are  transformed  myths  that 
again  belong  to  a  more  primitive  age  than  one 
which  was  able  to  exercise  the  imaginative  fancy 
for  its  own  sake,  independent  of  doctrines  or  of 
symbolical  purposes.  Burton  assumes  that  the 
fairy  tale  proper  in  the  Arabian  Nights  is 
"wholly  and  purely  Persian"  ( Terminal  Essay  to 
his  translation,  page  127),  and  so  far  as  the 
stimulus  toward  this  branch  of  literature  is  in- 
volved, he  is  unquestionably  right,  for  the 
genuine  Arab,  while  of  a  highly  poetic  tempera- 
ment, is  restrained  in  his  fancy  through  the 
sober  and  austere  character  of  his  religion,  which 
discountenances  the  products  of  the  pure  imagi- 
nation. Characteristically  Arabic,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  the  stories  introduced  to  prove  a  point 
or  to  point  a  moral,  while  the  incidents  and 
anecdotes,  historical  and  otherwise,  are  likewise 
the  genuine  production  of  the  Arabic  mind. 

In  judging  of  the  obscene  allusions  with  which 
many  of  the  tales  are  well  stocked,  and  the 
frankly  indelicate  manner  in  which  incidents 
are  related  that  shock  Occidental  sensibilities, 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  many  themes  may 
be  discussed  in  the  Orient  with  perfect  sim- 
plicity, that  would  be  regarded  as  improper 
among  us,  so  that  not  everything  which  seems 
obscene  was  really  intended  to  be  such.  But 
making  due  allowance  for  this  diflference  between 
the  Oriental  and  Occidental  point  of  view,  there 
remains  a  large  residuum  of  erotic  material  that 
is  undoubtedly  introduced  to  add  piquancy  to 
the  tales.  Such  material,  however,  has  its  value 
for  the  student  of  customs  and  manners  who  is 
given  an  insight  into  conditions  existing  at  one 
time  in  the  Orient  which  is  not  to  be  had  in  any. 
ottier  way.  Indeed,  apart  from  the  entertaining 
character  of  the  tales  (when  freed  from  their 
objectionable  features),  they  abound  in  refer- 
ences to  religious  and  social  customs  and  man- 
ners of  thinking  that  make  them  a  perfect  store- 
house of  valuable  material  for  the  one  who 
w^ishes  to  study  the  Orient,  and  modern  scholars 
have  done  much  toward  utilizing  this  material 
in  their  researches  regarding  Mohammedanism 
and  Arabic  antiquities  as  well-  as  Arabic  his- 
tory. 

Among  those  who  have  made  important  con- 
tributions to  our  knowledge  of  the  Arabian 
Nights  and  to  their  interpretation,  may  be  men- 
tioned De  Sacy,  Caussin  de  Perceval,  in  France; 
Lane,  Payne,  and  Burton,  in  England ;  and  Ham- 
mer-Purgstall,  Habicht,  and  Weill,  in  Germany; 
and  De  Greje,  in  Holland.  Galland's  French 
translation  was  soon  followed  by  an  English 
rendering,  which  as  early  as  1713  had  already 
reached  a  fourth  edition.  Of  English  transla- 
tions based  on  the  Arabic,  there  are  now  three 
(a)  by  E.  W.  Lane — whose  edition  is  abridged, 
omitting  the  objectionable  features,  and  in  other 
respects  taking  liberties  with  the  text.  Ap- 
pearing first  in  monthly  parts,  1839-41,  a  popu- 
lar edition  was  published  in  1847 — The  Thousand 
and  One  Nights;  or.  The  Arabian  Nights*  Enter- 
tainment,  translated  and  arranged  for  family 
reading  tcith  explanatory  notes.  The  notes  con- 
stitute a  valuable  feature.     Lane's  edition  has 


been  repeatedly  reissued,  the  last  one  being  in 
six  volumes,  edited  by  Joseph  Jacobs  (LoDdon, 
1898).  John  Payne's  translation,  based  upon 
the  Macon  MSS.  and  prepared  for  the  Villon 
Society,  was  issued  in  nine  volumes  (London, 
1882-84).  It  takes  rank  with  Sir  Richard  Bur- 
ton's translation  in  ten  volume8(  1885-86),  with  a 
"Terminal  Essay"  embodying  the  results  of  Bur- 
ton's researches  as  to  the  origin,  age,  and  charac- 
ter of  the  tales.  To  this  he  subs^uently  added 
six  supplemental  volumes  (1887-88),  containing 
tales  not  included  in  Macon's  edition  and  drawn 
from  other  printed  texts  and  manuscripts.  An 
abridged  and  expurgated  edition  of  Burton's 
work  was  prepared  by  Lady  Burton  and  issued 
in  six  volumes  (London,  1887-88).  Of  the  three 
German  translations,  Habicht's  (Breslau,  1824- 
25,  in  15  vols.),  Zinserling's,  based  upon  Ham- 
mer-Purgstall's  French  translation  (Stuttgart, 
1823,  in  3  vols.),  and  Guslau  Neil's  (Stuttgart, 
1838-42,  3  vols.),  the  latter  is  by  far  the  best, 
and  indeed  the  only  reliable  German  rendering. 
In  France,  Galland's  translation  has  never  be^ 
superseded,  though  various  notable  editions  of 
the  Tales  have  been  issued  by  Caussin  de  Perce 
val  (Paris,  1806,  9  vols.),  Edward  Gautlier 
(1822-24,  7  vols.),  M.  Destain  (1823-25,  6 
vols.),  Silvestre  de  Sacy  (1838,  3  vols.),  and 
others. 

The  success  of  Galland's  venture  gave  rise  to 
many  imitations  that  appeared  in  France,  Eng- 
land, and  (Germany.  A  list  of  these  prepared  by 
Mr.  W.  F.  Kirby  will  be  found  attached  as  an 
appendix  to  Burton's  "Terminal  Essav,"  pp. 
507-13. 

ABABIAN  SEA  (anciently,  Lat.  If  ore  ^ 
thrcBum,  or  the  Red  Sea)  (Map:  Asia,  FT). 
The  northwestern  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
lying  between  Arabia,  India,  and  Beloochistan. 
Its  southern  limit  is  generally  supposed  to  be 
on  a  hne  from  Cape  Comorin,  m  Hindoostan,  to 
Cape  Guardafui,  in  Africa.  By  the  Gulf  of  Aden 
it  communicates  with  the  Red  Sea  and  also 
with  the  Mediterranean  through  the  Suei 
Canal  (q.v.).  On  the  northwest  it  forms  the 
Gulf  of  Oman,  with  its  continuation  called  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Among  its  eastern  inlets  may  be 
mentioned  the  gulfs  of  Chitch  and  Cambay.  The 
only  important  river  it  receives  is  the  Indus, 
from  the  east.  The  most  important  islands  in 
the  Arabian  Sea  are  the  Laocadives  and  Socotra. 
The  commercial  significance  of  the  Arabian  Sea 
was  very  great  in  ancient  times  when  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  Orient  were  conveyed  hither  by  sea 
to  be  transported  by  caravans  to  Europe,  But 
with  the  discovery  of  the  all -sea  route  to  India, 
in  1497,  its  importance  was  lost  until  the  open- 
ing of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869  gave  a  fresh  stimu- 
lus to  commerce  in  that  quarter.  At  present  it 
is  again  a  busy  water  thoroughfare.  Consult: 
C.  F.  Oldham,  "Topography  of  the  Arabian  Sea," 
in  Volume  LXIV,  Asiatic  Journal  (Calcutta, 
1896). 

ARABIA  PETBiEKA  (Lat.,  Rocky  Arabia). 
The  northwestern  and  more  hilly  region  of 
Arabia,  into  which  Arabia  Deserta  merges. 

ABAB^GI,or  Ara'bians.  A  sect  in  Arabia, 
in  the  Third  Century,  which  held  that  the  soul 
dies  with  the  body  and  will  be  raised  again  with 
it.  Eusebius  says  that  Origen,  at  their  invita- 
tion, held  a  debate  with  them  at  a  considerable 
synod,  convinced  them  of  their  error,  and  they 
renounced  it. 


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ABABIC  LANGTJAaE. 


AB'ABIC  LAN^aUAGE  AND  LIIVEBA- 
TTJBE.  The  Arabic  language  forms  a  group 
among  the  Semitic  languages,  and  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  Aramaic  dialects  spoken  in  the 
Lebanon  district,  in  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan, 
and  Armenia,  is  the  only  one  of  the  Semitic  lan- 
guages that  deserves  to  be  called  a  living  tongue, 
being  the  current  speech  in  Palestine,  Syria,  Me- 
sopotamia, Arabia,  Egypt,  northern  Africa,  and 
Malta.  We  may  distinguish  in  the  case  of  Arabic 
between  (a)  the  so-called  Classical  Arabic,  more 
properly  Old  Arabic,  and  (b)  Modem  Arabic, 
subdivided  into  the  following  chief  dialects :  ( 1 ) 
of  Syria,  (2)  of  Mesopotamia,  (3)  of  Egypt,  (4) 
of  Tunis,  (6)  of  Malta,  and  (6)  of  Oman  and 
Zanzibar;  and  thirdly  (c)  South  Arabic,  the 
ancient  form  of  which  is  preserved  in  the  Minean 
and  Sabfean  inscriptions,  and  the  modern  form  in 
various  dialects  of  southern  Arabia,  as  yet  imper- 
fectly known.  The  distinguishing  features  of  the 
language  are  an  exceedingly  extensive  vocabulary 
and  complicated  verbal  forms.  The  Arabic  al- 
phabet, which  is  in  form  a  derivative  of  an 
Aramaic  semi-cursive  variety  of  the  ancient 
Phoenician  script,  consists  of"  28  characters,  of 
which  11,  however,  are  merely  distinguished  by 
a  diacritical  point  or  points,  placed  above  or 
beneath  the  character,  so  that  there  are  only  17 
distinct  characters  at  present  used.  The  direc- 
tion of  the  writing  is  from  right  to  left,  as  in 
Hebrew  and  Aramaic. 

Confining  ourselves  to  Arabic  literature  in  the 
strict  sense,  we  may  separate  it  broadly  into  two 
periods,  the  first  extending  to  the  close  of  the 
Ommiad  dynasty,  c.750  a.d.,  the  second  covering 
the  Islamic  literature  in  Arabic.    In  this  second 
period   again,   four  subdivisions   may  be  noted 
(a)    c.750  to  c.lOOO  a.d.,  during  the  first  half 
of  the  period  of  the  Abbasside  caliphate,  when  the 
literary  activity  reached  its  height,     (b)   c.1000 
to  1517,  the  conquest  of  Egypt  by  Selim,  which 
represents  the  decline  and  decay,     (c)  From  1617 
to  the  present  time.    Regarding  the  oldest  liter- 
ary culture  of  the  Arabians,  we  possess  but  slight 
information.     That  their  poetry,  at  least,  must 
have  had  a  very  early  development,  may  be  in- 
ferred from  the  natural  disposition  of  the  in- 
liabitants,  who  were  characterized  by  their  high 
spirit,  courage,  love  of  adventure,  and  delight 
in  the  glory  of  war.     The  nomadic  tribes,  liv- 
infj  under  the  patriarchal  rule  of  their  sheiks, 
possessed  everything  that  was  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  a  simple  and  natural  poetry.     They 
had    quick    and    vivid    feelings,    and    a    rich, 
glowing     fancy,     which,     operating     upon     the 
])orils,    the    hardships,    and    strange    nomadic 
life    they    led    in    those    barren    sand    deserts, 
could    hardly    fail    to   call    forth    a    wild    and 
vii?orous  minstrelsy.    Before  the  time  of  Moham- 
mc<l,  the  Arabians  had  celebrated  poets  who  sang 
the  feuds  of  tribes,  and  the  praises  of  heroes  and 
fair    women.      The   poet,   who   was   called   "the 
knowing  one,"  was  looked  upon   as  a   kind  of 
oracle  by  his  clan,  whose  advice  was  sought  in 
times  of  trouble.     Clans  from  various  parts  of 
Arabia  were  accustomed  to  gather  at  great  fairs 
held  in  Okaz,  near  Mecca   (and  elsewhere),  and 
the  poets  of  the  clans  vied  with  one  another  in 
poetic  contests.     The  poems  were  preserved  for 
a  long  time  by  oral  tradition,  and  it  was  not 
until  some  time  after  the  rise  of  Islam  that  they  • 
were  committed  to  writing.    The  most  celebrated 
of  the  collections  of  Arabic  poems  is  that  known 


as    the    "Moallakat,"    signifying    the    "distin- 
guished" or  "celebrated"  productions,  and  com- 
prising seven  poems.    The  poets  thus  singled  out 
were  Amru-el-Kais  (q.v.)  or  Imrul-Kais,  Tarafa 
Zuhair,  Lebid  Amr  b.  Kulthum  Antar  and  Al- 
Harith,    though    according    to    some    collectors 
Nabiga   and    Al-Acsha    take   the    place    of   the 
last  two.    The  largest  collection  of  Arabic  poetry 
is  that  known  as  the  Kitab  al-Aghani,  i.e.  Book 
of  Songs,  consisting  of  twenty-one  volumes,  which 
contains,  besides  the  poems,  a  commentary  giving 
personal  notes  about  the  poets.    The  collection  is 
the  most  valuable  source  for  our  knowledge  of 
pre- Islamic  conditions  in  Arabia.    It  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  Jewish  and  Christian  poets  also 
flourished  in  Arabia  before  the  days  of  Islam.    A 
new  period  of  Arabic  culture  was  inaugurated  by 
Mohammed  (671-632),  though  he  himself  did  not 
directly  contribute  to  it.     The  naturally  adven- 
turous spirit  of  the  Arabs  found  a  suitable  ex- 
citement  in   the   half  -  religious,    half  -  military 
system  of  Mohammed,  and  after  his  death  an  era 
of  conquest  began,  which  soon  brought  a  great 
part  of  the  world  under  Arabid  dominion.    Like 
an  overwhelming  torrent,  the  Arab  armies  passed 
over  the  neighboring  states,  and  in  the  short 
space  of  eighty   years  from   the   death   of  the 
Prophet,    they    extended    their    dominion    from 
^fyp^  to  India,  and  from  Lisbon  to  Samarkand. 
When  Islam  reached  Persia,  a  new  direction  was 
given  to  it.     The  contact  of  the  Arabs  with  a 
land  in  which  culture  and  learning  had  long  since 
found  a  home,  reacted  on  the  conquerors,  and 
quite  as  remarkable  as  the  Mohammedan  con- 
quest is  the  rise  of  literary  activity  among  the 
followers  of  Mohammed.    The  Koran  ( q.v. )  itself 
became  the  model  of  classical  speech,  and  while 
Arabic  science  was  at  all  times   in  close  alli- 
ance with  the  theological  disciplines,  still   the 
literature  which  was  developed  during  the  four 
centuries    following   Mohammed    was    most    re- 
markable.    During  the  reign  of  the  Abbassides, 
literature,  arts,  and  sciences  were  generously  fos- 
tered under  the  splendid  sway  of  such  rulers  as 
Almansur  (754-755),  and  the  celebrated  Harun- 
al-Raschid    (786-809).     Learned  men  were  now 
invited  from  many  countries,  and  remunerated 
for  their  labors  with  princely  munificence;    the 
works  of  the  best  Greek,  Syriac,  and  old  Persian 
writers  were  translated  into  Arabic,  and  spread 
abroad  in  numerous  copies.    Under  the  sway  of 
the   caliphs   of   Bagdad,   excellent   schools  were 
founded  in  Bagdad,  as  well  as  at  Bosra,  Bokhara, 
and  Kufaj  while  large  libraries  were  collected  at 
Alexandria,  Bagdad,  and  Cairo.     In  Spain,  the 
Academy  of  Cordova  rivaled  the  literary  fame  of 
Bagdad,  and,  generally,  in  the  Tenth  Century,  the 
Arabs  appeared  everywhere  as  the  preservers  and 
distributors  of  knowledge.     Pupils  from  France 
and  other  European  countries  then  began  to  re- 
pair to  Spain  in  great  numbers,  to  study  mathe- 
matics and  medicine  under  the  Arabs.     There 
were  fourteen  academies,  with  many  preparatory 
and  upper  schools  in  Spain,  and  five  very  con- 
siderable public  libraries. 

In  geography,  history,  philosophy,  medicine, 
physics,  and  mathematics,  the  Arabians  rendered 
important  services  to  science;  and  the  Arabic 
words  still  employed  in  science — ^such  as  algebra, 
alcohol,  azimuth,  zenith,  nadir,  with  many  names 
of  stars,  etc. — remain  as  indications  of  their 
influence  on  the  early  intellectual  culture  of 
Europe.    But  geography  owes  most  to  them  dur- 


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ARABIC  IiANGIJAGE. 


ing  the  Middle  Ages.  In  Africa  and  Asia,  the 
boundaries  of  geographical  science  were  extended, 
and  the  old  Arab  treatises  on  geography  and 
works  of  travels  in  several  countries  by  Abulfeda, 
Edrisi  (1099-1154),  Yakut  (1179-1229),  Ibn 
Batuta,  Haswiri  (1203-83),  Albiruni  (973-1048), 
the  astronomer,  and  others,  are  still  interesting 
and  valuable. 

Already  in  the  days  of  the  Ommiad  dynasty 
history  began  to  be  cultivated  and  notices  have 
survived  of  several  chroniclers  belonging  to  this 
period.  The  example  of  Persian  historiography 
counts  as  a  factor  m  the  attention  that  b^fan  to 
be  paid  among  the  Arabs  to  recording  events  of 
the  past  and  present;  but  in  addition,  the  grow- 
ing interest  in  everything  connected  with  the 
Prophet  and  his  times  furnished  a  stimulus  to 
historical  studies,  while  the  interest  that  even  in 
pre-Islamic  days  had  been  taken  in  genealogy, 
may  be  regarded  as  a  third  factor.  As  a  result, 
we  have  from  the  middle  of  the  Eighth  Century 
an  uninterrupted  series  of  historians  beginning 
with  Mohammed  ibn  Ishak  ( died  in  768 ) ,  whose 
life  of  the  Prophet  in  a  revision  made  by  Ibn 
Hisham  (died  834)  is  still  the  standard  source 
on  the  subject.  Among  other  early  historians, 
Al-Wakidi  (747-823)  may  be  mentioned,  who 
wrote  an  important  accoimt  of  Mohammed's  do- 
ings while  his  residence  was  at  Medina.  The 
most  industrious  collector  of  facts  in  this  early 
period  was  Al-Kelbi  (died  about  819).  No  less 
than  one  hundred  and  forty  titles  of  works  pro- 
duced by  him,  covering  history,  genealogy,  and 
theology,  are  enumerated  by  Arabic  bibliogra- 
phers. It  was,  however,  reserved  for  one  of  Persian 
birth,  Abu  Djafar  al-Tabari  (838-923),  to  pro- 
duce the  first  universal  history  in  the  Arabic 
language,  which  begins  with  the  creation  and  is 
brought  down  to  the  days  of  the  author.  Hardly 
less  famous  than  Tabari  is  Abul  Hassan-al- 
iklasudi  (died  about  056),  whose  most  important 
work  is  a  universal  history  entitled  "Meadows 
of  Goli"  Extensive  as  it  is,  the  work  is  an  ab- 
stract from  a  far  more  comprehensive  one  pre- 
viously prepared  by  Masudi.  The  method  adopted 
by  the  Arabian  historians  is  the  compilatory  one, 
and  hence  in  the  second  period  of  the  literary 
activity  we  find  writers  largely  engaged  in  com- 
piling extracts  from  the  earlier  works  with  addi- 
tions of  their  own.  Among  the  more  important 
of  these  compilers  were  Abulfeda,  Ibn  al-Athir 
(1160-1234),  Djirgis  al-Makin,  Ibn  al-Amid(bom 
1254),  and  Abulfaraj,  known  as  Bar-Hebrseus 
(1226-86),  the  two  last  named  being  Christians 
by  birth.  A  more  original  feature  of  historiog- 
raphy in  this  second  period  is  formed  by  the 
numerous  local  histories  and  biographical  mono- 
graphs which  were  produced.  In  this  way  we 
obtain  histories  of  Bagdad,  of  Mecca,  Morocco, 
Egypt,  and  Spain,  which  are  still  of  importance 
as  sources. 

Arabian  theology  and  jurisprudence  are  inti- 
mately connected,  and  both  are  founded  on  the 
Koran;  but  they  are  by  no  means  so  simple  and 
uniform  as  is  generally  supposed.  Speculation 
first  began  to  prevail  during  the  Ommiad 
dynasty,  and  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  to  be 
studied  by  the  Arabs.  As  a  consequence,  the 
vague  statements  of  the  Koran  were  soon  vari- 
ously interpreted,  and  a  host  of  sects  gradually 
arose.  Of  these  four  only  are  Regarded  as  ortho- 
dox, leaving  not  less  than  seventy -two  heretical, 
whose  (discordant  tenets  are  stated  in  the  work  of 


Sharastani  (edited  by  Oureton,  London,  1842). 
The  four  orthodox  sects  are :  The  Hanefites,  who 
do  not  reject  tradition,  but  subordinate  it  to  ra- 
tionalism ;  the  Shafites,  who  entirely  refuse  the 
aids  of  reason  and  philosophy  in  their  treatment 
of  theology;  the  Uanbalites  and  the  Malechites, 
who  allow  speculation  on  points  where  there  is  no 
tradition.  The  collection  of  tradition  known  as 
Hadith  gives  an  account  of  the  sayings  and 
doings  of  Mohammed,  and,  though  pedantic  in  its 
details,  is  in  substance  more  valuable  than  the 
Koran.  The  first  extensive  collection  of  tradi- 
tions regarding  the  Prophet  was  made  by  a  Per- 
sian, Bukhari  (810-870),  who  selected  from  a 
great  mass  some  two  thousand  of  the  more  reli- 
able stories  and  sayings.  Important,  however, 
as  the  Hadith  was  for  practical  purposes  in 
regulating  the  ceremonialism  of  Islam,  it  was 
subsidiary  to  the  interpretation  of  the  Koran, 
which  constituted  the  crowning  part  of  theolog- 
ical education.  The  commentators  are  Baidavi 
and  Zamasshari. 

Arabian  philosophy,  which  was  of  Hellenic 
origin,  held  the  same  relation  to  the  Koran  as 
the  scholasticism  of  the  Middle  Ages  did  to  the 
Christian  Scriptures — ^that  is,  it  was  regarded  as 
the  servant  of  faith.  The  chief  study  of  the 
Arabs  was  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  who  became 
the  source  of  philosophical  speculation  through- 
out Western  Europe,  by  the  medium  of  trans- 
lations from  Arabic  into  Latin;  though  the 
Arabs  themselves  knew  the  Greek  philosopher 
only  in  translations  made  during  the  time  of 
the  Abbassides.  Especial  attention  was  paid  to 
logic  and  metaphysics.  The  most  distinguished 
of  their  philosophical  writers  are:  Alkindi 
(q.v,),  who  flourished  in  the  first  half  of  the 
Ninth  Century;  Alfarabi  (died  950),  whose 
philosophical  treatises  are  more  in  the  nature 
of  essays;  Avicenna  (Ibn  Sina)  (c.  980-1037), 
who  combined  the  study  of  logic  and  metaphysics 
with  that  of  medicine,  and  made  considerable 
progress  in  chemistry  and  medical  botany;  Al- 
gazali  (c.1059-1111),*  who  wrote  a  large' num- 
ber of  philosophical  and  doctrinal  worl^;  Abu- 
Bekr  ibn  Tophail  (died  1190),  who  taught  in 
his  philosophical  novel  Haidjihn  Yakdan  (edited 
by  Pococke,  Oxford,  1671)  the  development  of 
men  from  animals;  and  his  pupil,  Averro§s  (Ibn 
Boshd),  the  greatest  expositor  of  Aristotle 
among  the  Arabs. 

Many  of  these  illustrious  Arabic  philosophers 
were  also  physicians.  Schools  of  philosophy  and 
medicine  sprang  up  at  Bagdad,  Ispahan,  Finiza- 
bad,  Bokhara,  Kufa,  Basra,  Alexandria,  Cor- 
dova, etc.  In  all  departments  of  medical  science 
a  great  advance  was  made,  except  in  anatomy. 
The  reason  of  this  exception  lies  in  the  fact  that 
the  Koran  forbids  the  dissection  of  bodies.  The 
most  famous  writers  on  medicine  are  Abu  -  Bekr 
ar-Razi  (died  about  932);  Alkindi,  Avicenna 
(q.v.),  who  wrote  the  Canon  of  Medicine,  which 
remained  for  a  long  time  the  handbook  on  the 
subject  used  in  Occidental  universities ;  Ali  ben 
Kbbas,  Ishak  ben  Suleiman,  Abulkasim,  who 
wrote  an  important  treatise  on  surgery ;  Averroes 
( q.v. ) ,  who  wrote  a  complete  system  of  medicine, 
etc. 

In  mathematics,  the  Arabs  made  great  ad- 
vances by  the  introduction  of  the  numerals  and 
mode  of  notation  now  in  use,  of  the  sine  instead 
of  the  chord  (in  trigonometry),  and  of  a  more 
extended  application  of  algebra.    Astronomy  was 


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ARABIC  LANGUAQE. 


699 


ABABIC  LANGUAQE. 


zealously  studied  in  the  famous  schools  and 
observatories  of  Bagdad  and  Cordova.  Alhazan 
wrote  upon  optics;  Nasireddin  (1210-73)  trans- 
lated the  Elements  of  Euclid;  Djeber  ben  Afla 
furnished  a  commentary  on  the  trignometry  of 
Ptolemy,  etc.  The  Almagest,  or  System  of  As- 
tronomy by  Ptolemy,  was  translated  into  Arabic 
by  Alhazi  (d.  929)  and  Sergius  as  early  as  812. 
In  the  Tenth  Century,  al-Batani  (Albate^uis), 
ix)  whose  name  is  attached  the  introduction  of 
trigonometrical  functions,  observed  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic ;  Alpetragius  wrote  a  theory  of  the 
planets;  and  Abu- Hassan- Ali  on  astronomical 
instruments. 

Besides  these  advances  in  the  solid  branches 
of  knowledge,  the  genius  of  the  Arabs  continually 
flowered  into  poetry.  Numerous  poets  sprang  up 
in  all  lands  where  the  children  of  the  desert  had 
carried  their  irresistible  faith.  Their  verse,  how- 
ever, was  not  like  the  rude,  simple  minstrelsy  of 
a  purely  patriarchal  people;  it  gradually  allied 
itself  to  the  prevailing  culture,  and  took,  espe- 
cially in  the  golden  epoch  of  Arabian  civilization, 
a  highly  artistic  form.  Motenabbi  (905-965), 
Abul-Ala,  and  others  acquired  a  great  reputa- 
tion for  their  delicate  idylls;  Busiri  for  his 
eulogy  of  Mohammed;  Hamadani  (932-968),  as 
the  first  to  introduce  novels  in  verse  (of  which 
he  wrote  400  under  the  title  of  Makamat),  a 
style  of  literature  which  was  brought  to  perfec- 
tion by  Hariri.  Besides  these,  a  singularly 
wild  and  fantastic  prose  literature  made  its 
appearance,  in  which  'the  craving  for  the  won- 
derful and  gorgeous,  so  characteristic  of  the 
restless,  adventure-loving  Arabs,  was  richly 
gratified.  Romances  and  legendary  tales  abound- 
ed. The  most  famous  of  these  are:  The 
Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments  (q.v.).  The  Ex- 
ploits of  Antar,  The  Exploits  of  the  Champions, 
and  The  Exploits  of  the  Hero.  In  fact,  with  the 
exception  of  the  drama,  there  was  no  field  of 
poetry  which  the  Arabs  did  not  cultivate.  The 
effect  of  this  universality  and  richness  in  Arabic 
literature  was,  that  it  exercised  a  powerful  in- 
fluence on  modem  European  poetry.  The  tales  of 
spirits,  charms,  sorceries,  and  the  whole  elaborate 
machinery  of  enchantment  passed  into  the  poetry 
of  the  West,  During  the  Middle  Ages  of  Euro- 
pean history,  several  of  the  most  popular  and 
widespread  books  were  of  Arabic  origin,  such  as 
The  Seven  Wise  Masters,  though  the  Ara- 
bians themselves  borrowed  largely  from  the  Per- 
sians and  the  Greeks,  who  themselves  had  re- 
ceived many  of  their  fables  and  stories  from 
India. 

All  this  culture  of  the  early  ages  of  Moham- 
medanism presents  a  strong  contrast  to  the 
general  ignorance  which  afterwards  and  until 
recently,  prevailed  among  the  Arabs.  The  brutal 
fanaticism  of  the  Turks  nipped  the  blooming 
promise  of  the  East.  In  the  third  period  of 
Arabic  literature  learning  spent  itself  principally 
in  commentaries  and  scholia,  in  scholastic  dis- 
cussions on  the  subject  matter  of  dogmatics  and 
jurisprudence,  and  in  tedious  grammatical  dis- 
quisitions concerning  the  old  Arabic  speech,  gen- 
erally acute  and  subtle,  but  also  unprofitable  and 
unenlivening.  A  change,  however,  bef^ins  again 
-with  the  advent  of  European  conquerors  in  the 
Orient.  The  expedition  of  Napoleon  to  Egypt 
and  Syria  was  followed  by  an  intellectual 
resurrection,  though  the  process  proved  to  be 
a   slow  one.     Writers  began  to   attempt,   with 


■  more  or  less  success,  to  imitate  European 
forms  of  thought  and  sentiment.  Of  theae 
may  be  mentioned  Michael  Sabbagh  of  Syria 
(La  Colombe  mcssag^re,  Arabic  and  French, 
Paris,  1805);  the  Sheik  Refaa  of  Cairo  (The 
Broken  Lyre,  Paris,  1827;  Manners  and  Customs 
of  the  Europeans,  Cairo,  1834;  Travels  in 
France,  Cairo,  1826);  and  Nasif  -  Eflfendi  of 
Beirut,  who  wrote  the  critical  observations  in 
De  Sacy's  edition  of  Hariri  {Epistola  Critica, 
Leipzig,  1848).  During  the  past  decades  the 
signs  have  increased  which  indicate  the  advent 
of  a  new  blossom  of  Arabic  literature.  News- 
papers in  Arabic  are  now  published  in  the  East. 
European  books  make  their  way  among  select 
classes;  and  while  the  number  of  Mohammedans 
in  touch  with  modem  culture  is  still  compara- 
tively small,  a  steady  encroachment  of  Occidental 
culture,  notably  in  those  parts  of  the  East  con- 
trolled by  England  and  France,  is  leading  to 
profound  changes  which  are  reacting  on  the  intel- 
lectual life  of  the  people  in  general.  The  tele- 
graph, the  locomotive,  and  the  printing-press  are 
the  three  factors  which,  it  is  safe  to  predict,  will 
in  the  course  of  time  bring  about  a  new  era  of 
Arabic  literature  that  may  not  be  unworthy  to 
be  connected  with  the  glorious  epochs  of  the  past. 
There  is  also  a  Christian  and  Jewish  literature 
in  Arabic,  which,  however,  is  chiefly  ecclesias- 
tical. In  the  Middle  Ages  the  Spanish  Jews 
employed  Arabic  for  their  learned  compositions; 
and  several  of  the  most  important  works  of  Mo- 
ses Maimonides,  Saadia,  and  others,  as  well  as 
numerous  grammatical  treatises  and  biblical  com- 
mentaries were  originally  written  in  that  tongue. 

BiBuooRAPHT:  Literature. — Brockelmann,  Oe- 
schichte  der  arabischen  Litteratur  (Weimar, 
1898)  ;  Hammer-Purgstall,  Litteraturgeschichte 
der  Araber  (Vienna,  1850)  (antiauated)  ;  Ar- 
buthnot,  Arabic  Authors  (London,  1890)  ; 
Kremer,  Culturgeschichte  des  Orients  unter  den 
Chalifen  (Vienna,  1877)  ;  Goldziher,  Mohamme- 
danische  Studien  (Halle,  1890)  ;  Chauvin,  Bibli- 
ographie  Arabe  (Lifege,  1892-1900)  ;  Renan, 
Averroes  et  VAverroisme  (Paris,  1850)  ;  Wttsten- 
feld,  Oeschichte  der  arabischen  Aerzte  und 
yaturforscher  (GOttingen,  1840)  ;  S^dillot,  Ma- 
tMaux  pour  servir  d  Vhistoire  compar4e  des 
sciences  math&matiques  chez  les  Orecs  et  les 
Orientaux  (Paris,  1845);  Mimk,  Melanges  de 
philosophic  juive  et  arabe  (Paris,  1859)  ;  Dugat, 
Histoire  des  philosophes  et  des  tMologiens 
musulmans  (Paris,  1879)  ;  Dieterici,  Philosophic 
der  Araber  im  10  Jahrhundert  (Leipzig,  1876- 
79)  ;  Logik  und  Psychologic  der  Araber  (Leipzig, 
1868)  ;  Propddeutik  der  Araber  (Berlin,  1865)  ; 
Anthropologic  der  Araber  (Leipzig,  1871);  Na- 
turwissenschaft  der  Araber  (Berlin,  1861); 
Fltigel,  Al-Kindi,  (Leipzig,  1857)  ;  Noldeke,  Bei- 
trdge  zur  Kenntnis  der  Poesie  der  alten  Araber 
(Hanover,  1864)  ;  Schack,  Poesie  und  Kunst  der 
Araber  in  Spanien  und  Sizilien  (Berlin,  1865)  ; 
Ahlwardt,  Ueber  Poesie  und  Poetik  der  Araber 
(Gotha,  1856)  ;  Basset,  La  poesie  arabe  anti- 
islamique  (Paris,  1880)  ;  Jacob,  Studien  in  ara- 
bischen Dichtern  (Berlin,  1893)  ;  Lyall,  Ancient 
Arabic  Poetry  (London,  1885)  ;  Steingass, 
Hariri's  Assemblies  (London,  1896)  ;  RUckert, 
Hamdsa,  oder  die  dltesten  arabischen  Volkslieder 
(Stuttgart,  1846). 

Language. — Wright  and  de  Goeje,  Arabic  Gram- 
mar (London,  1890)  ;  Wahrmund,  Neu-arabisches 
Handicorterbuch   (Giessen,  1870)  ;  Lane,  Arabic 


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ABABIC  LANOUAOB. 


700 


ABACHNOID  MEKBBAHE. 


Dictionary  (London,  1893)  ;  besides  several 
grammars  of  Spitta-Bey  (Iieipzig,  1880)  ;  Vollers 
(Beirut,  1891)  ;  Green  (Oxford,  1887)  ;  Stumme, 
etc..  Modem  Dialects  (I^ipzig,  1896-99). 

ARABIC  KU^MERALS.  See  Numerals; 
and  Algorism. 

ABABIC  VEB^SIONS.    See  Bibul 

AB^ABIK.  The  chief  constituent  of  gum- 
arabic,  obtained  by  precipitating  an  acidulated 
aqueous  solution  of  gum-arabic  with  ordinary 
alcohol. 

ABABI  PASHA,  a-rft^  pA-shtt',  properly 
AiiAMEO  Arabi  (c.  1837 — ).  Leader  of  the  na- 
tional party  in  Egypt  in  1882.  He  was  bom  of 
fellah  parents  in  Lower  Egypt,  and  his  early 
youth  was  spent  as  a  laborer.  He  served  for  twelve 
years  as  a  private  soldier  in  the  Egyptian  army, 
and  gradually  rose  to  the  rank  of  colonel.  He  took 
advantage  of  the  discontent  which  prevailed  in 
Eg>T)t  on  account  of  the  foreign  influence  to 
organize  a  rebellion  on  the  issue  of  "Egypt  for 
the  Egyptians,"  The  lack  of  energy  shown  by 
the  Khedive  Tewfik  permitted  Arabi  to  acquire 
great  influence.  He  participated  in  the  revolt 
against  Nubar  Pasha,  obtained  the  removal  of 
the  ministry,  and  entered  the  new  cabinet  as 
minister  of  war  (1882).  In  this  position  he  be- 
came a  virtual  autocrat,  setting  aside  the  Anglo- 
French  financial  control.  England  now  inter- 
vened and  a  war  ensued.  On  July  11-12,  1882, 
an  English  fleet  bombarded  Alexandria.  Arabi 
withdrew,  and  the  British  undertook  a  vigorous 
campaign  against  him,  completely  defeating  him 
September  13,  1882,  at  Tel-el-Kebir.  He  surren- 
dered the  following  day,  and  a  sentence  of  death 
was  passed  upon  him,  but  it  was  commuted  to 
life  exile  in  Ceylon.  The  movement  he  had 
headed  collapsed,  and  its  only  result  was  the 
permanent  establishment  of  British  control  in 
Egypt.  He  was  pardoned  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment in  December,  1900,  and  permitted  to  re- 
turn to  Egypt. 

Consult:  Ix)ng,  The  Three  Prophets — Chinese 
Gordon,  Mohammed  Ahmed  {el  Mahdi),  Arabi 
Pasha  (New  York,  1884);  Broadley,  How  We 
Defeated  Arabi  and  His  Friends  (London,  1884). 
See  Egypt. 

ABABKIB,  ft'rftb-ker'.  A  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  about  one  hundred  and  seventy  miles 
northwest  of  Diarbekr  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia, 
H  3) .  It  lies  on  the  route  from  Aleppo  to  Trebi- 
zond  and  is  of  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance. Population  estimated  at  from  25,000  to 
30,000,  including  a  considerable  number  of 
Armenians. 

AB^ABY.  A  poetical  form,  especially  cur- 
rent in  the  Renaissance,  for  Arabia. 

ABAGAJU,  &'r&-kA-zhl$o^.  The  capital  and 
chief  port  of  the  Brazilian  State  of  Sergipe,  situ- 
ated about  seven  miles  from  the  coast  on  the 
river  Cotindiba  (Map:  Brazil,  K  6).  The  city  is 
regularly  built  and  contains  an  agricultural 
school.  It  is  connected  by  rail  with  Capella  and 
Signilo  Diaz  in  the  interior,  and  has  an  estimated 
population  of  6000,  including  a  number  of  In- 
dians. 

AB'AGAN^    See  Abakan. 

ABACABI,  a'rft-ka^r^  (Port.).  A  toucan  of 
the  genus  Pteroglossus.    See  Toucan. 


ABACAXi,  a'rft-c&t^.  A  port  in  the  SUte 
of  Cear&,  Brazil,  on  the  river  Jaguaribe,  ten  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  seventy-five  miles  southeast 
of  Oarfl  (Map:  Brazil,  K  4) .  Its  harbor  is  shal- 
low, with  a  shifting  bar  at  the  entrance,  but  can 
be  entered  at  high  tide.  Its  exports  are  hides, 
cotton,  and  sugar.  It  maintains  regular  steam- 
ship communication  with  Pemambuco,  and  has  a 
population  of  about  6000.  It  waa  founded  in 
1723. 

ABA^GKaS.     See  Arum. 

ABACHIS,  ftr^A-kls.     See  Peanxtt. 

ABACHNE,  A-rftk^nd  (Gk.  'Apdxrti,  artidkn^ 
lit.  spider) .  The  mythical  Lydian  girl  who,  hav- 
ing excited  Athene's  anger  by  challenging  her  to 
a  contest  in  weaving,  was  changed  by  the  irate 
goddess  to  a  spider.  Her  fate,  and  especially  her 
skill  with  the  shuttle  and  the  loom,  have  been  a 
favorite  theme  among  the  poets. 

ABACH^NIDA  (Gk.  a^x>^»  aracKnl,  a 
spider).  A  class  of  air-breathing  arthropods 
including  the  mites,  scorpions,  spiders,  and  a  few 
other  less  well-knov^  groups.  The  typical 
arachnida  have  the  head  and  the  thorax*  more 
or  less  fused  into  a  "cephalothorax,"  four  pairs 
of  legs,  and  no  antennse,  the  maxillary  pal|» 
functioning  as  antemue.  The  eyes  are  all' simple, 
and  vary  in  number  from  two  to  twelve.  By  the 
number  and  arrangement  of  these  eyes  the 
species  of  spiders  are  determined.  The  abdomen 
possesses  no  true  legs,  but  the  three  abdominal 
spinnerets  of  spiders  are  homologous  with  legsw 
Besides  the  spinneret-glands  in  the  abdominal 
region  of  spiders  there  are  poison-glands  in  the 
last  abdominal  segment  of  scorpions,  located  at 
the  base  of  the  sting.  In  other  forms  the  poison 
is  emitted  through  the  hollow  jaws.  The 
arachnida  breathe  by  means  of  trachec,  like 
other  insects,  or  by  means  of  sacklike  bodies 
called  'iungs"  that  open  on  the  under  side  of  the 
abdomen;  but  some  forms  breathe  by  both 
trachese  and  lungs.  All  the  arachnida  are  carniv- 
orous save  some  of  the  mites,  which  live  on  plant- 
sap,  ^fost  of  the  animal-feeders  prey  upon 
other  insects,  and  hence  are  the  friends  of  agri- 
culture. A  few  forms  are  parasitic  on  warm- 
blooded vertebrates  and  fish,  and  cause  or  accom- 
pany such  diseases  as  itch  and  mange.  The  his- 
tory of  this  class  goes  back  to  Paleozoic  times. 

Classification. — The  arachnida  are  divided  into 
seven  orders:  (1)  Solpugida,  or  wind  scor- 
pions; (2)  Scorpionida,  or  scorpions;  (3)  Pseu- 
doscorpionida,  biook-scorpions ;  (4)  Pedipalpida, 
or  whip-scorpions;  (5)  Phalangida,  or  harvest- 
men;  (6)  Araneida,  or  spiders;  and  (7)  Acarida, 
or  mites.  The  following  groups  are  believed  hy 
many  to  fall  into  the  class  arachnida,  but  their 
relationships  are  doubtful:  Linguatulida,  or 
tongue-parasites  of  the  dog;  Tardigrada,  or 
wat^r-bears;  Pycnogonida,  or  sea-spiders; 
Xiphosura,  or  king-crabs.  See  Mues;  Scoe- 
piONs;  Spiders;  Habvestmen. 

ABACHOrOID  MEM^BANB.  One  of  the 
three  coverings  of  the  brain  and  spinal  cord.  It 
is  a  thin,  glistening  membrane,  which,  by  its 
parietal  layer,  adheres  inseparably  to  the  dura- 
mater  on  its  outer  side,  and  more  loosely  to  the 
pia-mater,  which  is  between  it  and  the  brain 
substance.  Between  the  pia-mater  and  the  arach- 
noid membrane  in  some  situations  there  are  con- 
siderable intervals  (sub-arachnoid  spaces).  See 
Cerebbo-Spinal  Flitid;  Nervous  System. 


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ABACCELI. 


701 


ABAGO. 


A^BA  CCE^I  (Lat.,  Altar  of  Heaven).  The 
name  given  to  the  famous  church  of  the  Virgin 
erected  on  the  summit  of  the  Capitoline  Hill  in 
Rome.  It  was  the  only  Christian  edifice  on  the 
Capitol,  and  was  for  centuries  called  Sancta  Maria 
in  Capitolio;  but  popular  legend  connected  it 
with  the  possession  by  Christianity  of  the  strong- 
hold of  Paganism,  and  the  Middle  Ages  imagined 
a  dream  of  Augustus,  to  whom  the  Sibyl  an- 
nounced that  here  was  the  altar  of  the  Son  of 
God ;  hence  Ara  Cceli.  The  Church  took  over  all 
the  celebrity  of  the  pagan  capitol,  and  was  the 
meeting-place  for  the  city  council  and  the  people. 

ABADy  dr^5d.  Two  towns  of  the  Kingdom 
of  Hungary.  (1)  Old  Abad  (Hung.  0-Arad), 
The  capital  of  the  county  of  Arad,  situated  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Maros,  a  tributary  of  the 
Theiss,  about  thirty-seven  miles  north  of  Temes- 
vfir  (Map:  Hungary,  G  3).  The  town  has  many 
handsome  streets  and  fine  modem  buildings, 
such  as  the  theatre,  town-hall,  and  the  palaces  of 
justice  and  industry.  The  former  strong  forti- 
fications are  now  rather  out  of  date.  Arad  is  the 
seat  of  a  Greek-Oriental  and  of  a  Rumanian 
bishop.  It  is  one  of  the  most  important  indus- 
trial towns  of  Hungary.  Its  manufactures  in- 
clude alcohol  (one  of  the  largest  distilleries  in 
Europe),  starch,  leather,  and  machinery.  There 
is  also  a  considerable  export  trade  in  grain,  to- 
bacco, wine,  and  cattle.  Population,  in  1890, 
42,050. 

During  the  Seventeenth  Century  it  was  often 
captured  by  the  Turks.  Its  new  fortifications, 
erected  in  1763,  made  Arad  an  important  posi- 
tion in  the  Revolutionary  War  of  1848-49,  when 
it  was  occupied  for  a  considerable  time  by  the 
Austrian  general,  Berger,  who  capitulated  here 
in  July,  1S49.  From  this  place  Kossuth  issued 
the  last  proclamation  to  the  Hungarian  patriots. 
After  the  capitulation  at  Vil&gos,  August  13, 
1849,  Arad  was  surrendered  to  the  Russians  by 
the  order  of  Gorgey.  Here,  on  October  6th  of 
the  same  year,  a  number  of  Hungarian  generals 
were  executed  by  order  of  the  Austrian  com- 
mander, Haynau. 

(2).  New  Abad  (Hung.  Uj-Arad).  A  town  in 
the  county  of  Temes,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Maros  opposite  Old  Arad,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected by  a  long  wooden  bridge.  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  flour  and  wood.  Population,  1890, 
6000. 

AB^ADXTS  (now  Ruad).  An  ancient  Phoeni- 
cian town  situated  on  a  small  island  of  the  same 
name,  about  35  miles  north  of  the  town  of  Trip- 
olis  (Map:  Turkey  in  Asia,  F  5).  Strabo  says 
that  the  city  of  Aradus  was  founded  by  fugitives 
from  Sidon.  It  was  independent,  ruled  over  the 
adjacent  coast,  and  assisted  the  Macedonians  in 
the  siege  of  Tyre.  In  638  the  Caliph  Omar's 
i»ommander  destroyed  Aradus,  and  it  was  not 
rebuilt.  The  ruins  show  that  it  was  once  a  very 
strong  place.  The  Hebrew  name  of  the  town  was 
Arvad.  The  present  village  of  Ruad  has  a  small 
population. 

ARAFy  ar'Af,  or  more  accurately  Al-Araf. 
The  name  given  in  the  Koran  (Sura  vii.  44)  to 
the  partition  separating  heaven  from  hell.  Mo- 
hammed vividly  portrays  those  standing  by  the 
partition  saluting  the  happy  inhabitants  of  Para- 
dise without  being  able  to  enter  it,  while  on  the 
other  hand  they  are  also  terrified  at  the  sight  of 
those  who  are  condemned  to  the  tortures  of  hell- 


flre.  In  Mohammedan  theology,  El-Araf  is  a  sort 
of  limbo  for  those  whose  good  and  evil  works 
so  balance  one  another  that  they  cannot  enter 
Paradise  until  the  last  day  of  judgment;  but  in 
addition  to  this  class,  there  are  others  who,  ac- 
cording to  the  views  of  some  theologians,  are 
consigned  to  El-Araf. 

ABAJAT,  ll'rft-fat'.  Mount,  or  Jebel  eb- 
BAHME  (Moimt  of  Mercy).  A  granite  hill  some 
twelve  miles  east  of  Mecca.  According  to  the 
Mohammedans,  when  Adam  and  Eve  were  cast 
forth  from  Paradise  for  eating  the  wheat  which 
deprived  them  of  their  pristine  purity,  Adam  fell 
at  Ceylon,  and  Eve  on  Mount  Arafat;  and  after 
much  wandering,  Adam  finally  joined  Eve  on  this 
mountain.  The  mount  is  about  two  hundred  feet 
high  and  a  mile  and  a  half  in  circuit.  The  mount 
is  the  real  goal  of  the  Mohammedan  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  for  while  the  visit  to  'the  Kaaba — the 
sanctuary  at  Mecca — ^may  be  made  at  any  time, 
it  is  known  as  the  "small  pilgrimage."  The  "great 
pilgrimage,"  which  ends  with  a  visit  to  Arafat, 
can  only  be  made  in  the  month  Zu-l-Hijjah,  i.e. 
"month  of  pilgrimage."  The  tenth  day  of  this 
month,  the  most  sacred  of  the  year,  is  spent  by 
the  pilgrims  at  Arafat,  to  which  they  proceed  in 
a  body  on  the  evening  of  the  ninth  day.  The  day 
is  spent  in  prayers  and  in  listening  to  a  sermon 
which  always  lasts  many  hours.  See  Burton's 
account  in  his  Pilgrimage  to  El-Medina  and  Kaa- 
fta,  Mecca  and  Medina,  chapter  xxviii.  See,  also, 
Kaaba;  Mecca;  Islam. 

AJLAGO,  a'rft-gft;  French  pron.  ft'rft'gy. 
Dominique  FBAwgois  (1786-1853).  A  celebrat- 
ed French  astronomer  and  natural  philosopher, 
bom  at  Estagel,  near  Perpignan,  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Basses-Pyr^n^s.  At  the  age  of  seven- 
teen he  entered  the  Ecole  Polytechnique  at  Paris, 
where  the  spirit,  promptitude,  and  vivid  intelli- 
gence he  exhibited  in  his  answers  to  the  ques- 
tions of  Legendre,  excited  the  admiration  of 
every  one.  In  1805  he  became  secretary  to  the 
Bureau  des  Longitudes  at  Paris.  Two  years 
afterwards  he  was  engaged,  with  Biot  and 
others,  by  the  French  Government,  to  carry  out 
the  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian, 
which  had  been  commenced  by  Delambre  and 
M6chain.  Arago  and  Biot  had  to  extend  it  from 
Barcelona  to  the  Balearic  Islands.  The  two 
savants  established  themselves  on  a  lofty  sum- 
mit near  the  eastern  coast  of  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula, where  they  lived  for  many  months,  com- 
municating by  signals  across  the  Mediterranean 
with  their  Spanish  collaborators  in  the  little 
isle  of  Iviza.  Before  Arago  completed  his  cal- 
culations, Biot  had  returned  to  France,  and  war 
had  broken  out  between  France  and  Spain.  Ara- 
go was  now  held  to  be  a  spy;  his  signals  were 
interrupted;  and  with  great  difficulty  he  suc- 
ceeded in  making  his  escape  to  Majorca,  where 
he  voluntarily  imprisoned  himself  in  the  citadel 
of  Belver,  near  Palma.  At  last  he  obtained  his 
liberty  on  condition  of  proceeding  to  Algiers, 
which  he  did;  but  on  his  way  back  to  France 
was  captured  by  a  Spanish  cruiser,  and  sent  to 
the  hulks  at  Palamos.  He  was,  however,  liber- 
ated after  a  time  and  sailed  once  more  for 
France;  but  almost  as  he  was  entering  the  port 
of  Marseilles,  a  tempest  arose  which  drove  the 
vessel  across  the  Mediterranean  all  the  way  back 
to  the  coast  of  Africa,  landing  it  at  Bougia.  He 
went  by   land  to   Algiers,  where   he   was   corn- 


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ARAQO. 


702 


ARAQO. 


peUed  to  remain  about  half  a  year,  and  whence 
he  again  set  out  for  Marseilles  in  the  latter 
part  of  June,  1809.  After  having  narrowly 
escaped  another  capture  by  an  English  frigate, 
Arago  Anally  found  his  way  to  Marseilles.  As  a 
reward  for  his  sufferings  in  the  cause  of  science, 
the  Paris  Academy  of  Sciences  suspended  its 
standing  rules  in  his  favor;  and  though  only 
twenty- three  years  of  age,  he  was  elected  mem- 
ber inthe  place  of  Lalande,  who  had  just  died,  and 
was  appointed  professor  of  analytical  geometry 
and  geodesy  in  the  Ecole  Polytechnique.  After 
wanS,  his  attention  was  devoted  more  to  astron- 
omy, magnetism,  galvanism,  and  the  polariza- 
tion of  light.  In  1811  he  read  before  the  Acade- 
my a  paper  of  fundamental  importance  on  chro- 
matic polarization.  In  1812  he  began  his  extraor- 
dinary course  of  lectures  on  astronomy,  etc., 
which  fascinated  all  Paris  —  the  savants  by 
their  scientific  rigor  and  solidity,  the  public  by 
their  brilliancy  of  style.  In  1816,  along  with 
Gay-Lussac,  Arago  established  the  Annates  de 
Chimie  et  de  Physique,  and  demonstrated  the 
value  of  the  imdulatory  theory  of  light.  In  the 
same  year  he  visited  England,  making  the  ac- 
quaintance of  various  persons  distinguished  in 
science,  especially  Dr.  Thomas  Young.  In  1818 
appeared  his  Recueil  d'ohservations  g^odisiques, 
astronomiques  et  physiques.  In  1820  he  turned 
his  facile  and  inventive  genius  into  a  new  chan- 
nel, and  made  several  important  discoveries  in 
electro-magnetism.  Oersted  had  shown  that  a 
magnetic  needle  was  deflected  by  a  voltaic  cur- 
rent passing  along  a  wire.  Arago  pursued  the 
investigation,  and  found  that  not  only  a  magnetic 
needle,  but  even  non-magnetic  substances,  such  as 
rods  of  iron  or  steel,  were  subject  to  deflection, 
exhibiting  during  the  action  of  the  voltaic  cur- 
rent, a  positive  magnetic  power,  which,  however, 
ceased  with  the  cessation  of  the  current.  Some 
time  after,  he  demonstrated  that  a  bar  of  copper, 
and  other  non-magnetic  metals,  when  moved  cir- 
cularly, exert  a  noticeable  influence  on  the  mag- 
netic needle.  For  this  discovery  of  the  develop- 
ment of  magnetism  by  rotation,  he  obtained  in 
1825  the  Copley  Medal  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
London,  and  in  1834,  when  he  again  visited  Great 
Britain,  especial  honors  were  paid  to  him  by  the 
friends  of  science  in  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow. 
Four  years  previous  to  this  second  visit  to  Great 
Britain,  he  was  made  perpetual  secretary  of  the 
Academy  and  director  of  the  observatory,  a 
position  which  he  retained  till  his  death.  As 
secretary  of  the  Academy  he  wrote  his  famous 
^loges  of  deceased  members,  the  beauty  of  which 
has  given  him  so  high  a  place  among  French 
prose  writers.  In  politics,  too,  his  career  was 
remarkable.  He  was  a  keen  Republican,  and 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  July  Revolution 
of  1830.  In  the  following  year  he  was  elected 
by  Perpignan  as  member  of  the  Chamber  of 
Deputies,  where  he  occupied  a  position  on  the 
extreme  Left.  In  the  February  Revolution  of 
1848,  he  was  chosen  a  member  of  the  Provisional 
Government,  and  appointed  minister  of  war  and 
marine.  In  this  position  he  resisted  the  pro- 
posed measures  of  the  Socialist  Party,  regard- 
ing the  Constitution  of  the  United  States  as 
the  ideal  of  democracy.  His  popularity  in  his 
own  department  was  the  means  of  preventing  the 
discontented  population  of  Basses- Pyrenees  from 
proceeding  to  lawless  and  violent  measures.  He 
opposed  Sie  election  of  Louis  Napoleon  to  the 


presidency,  declared  himself  against  the  policy 
of  the  new  ministry,  and  refused  to  take  the 
oath  of  allegiance  after  the  coup  d'etat  of  1S51. 
Napoleon,  in  a  letter,  paid  a  high  tribute  to 
his  talents  and  virtues,  and  excused  him  from 
taking  the  oath  as  director  of  the  observatory. 
In  his  general  character  Arago  was  sociable,  and 
a  brilliant  conversationalist.  He  was  the  inti- 
mate friend  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt.  His 
collected  works,  edited  by  Barral,  were  published 
in  Paris  (17  vols.,  including  a  biography  of 
Arago,  1854-62 ) .  Alexander  von  Humboldt  wrote 
an  introduction  to  the  German  translation  of 
Arago's  works. 

ABAGO,  Etienne  Vincent  (1803-92).  A 
French  dramatist  and  politician,  a  brother  of 
the  famous  scientist,  Dominique  Francois  Arago 
(q.v.),  bom  near  Perpignan,  Basses  -  Pyrfn^s. 
He  was  the  author,  with  various  collaborators,  of 
a  large  number  of  comedies  and  vaudeville  pieces 
which  were  successfully  produced  in  Paris, among 
them  Les  Pages  de  Bassompierre  and  Les  Mf 
moires  du  diahle,  and  was  director  of  the  Vaude- 
ville from  1829  to  1840.  As  a  journalist,  he  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  La  R^forme^  an  advanced 
Republican  newspaper. ,  His  poetical  comedy, 
Les  Aristocraties  (1847),  the  success  of  which  at 
the  Theatre  Francais  was  ended  only  by  the 
Revolution  of  1848,  was  an  expression  of  the 
same  radical  sentiments  which  made  him,  as  a 
member  of  the  Constituent  Assembly,  an  oppon- 
ent of  Louis  Napoleon's  pretensions,  and  caused 
his  own  exile  (1849-59).  His  highest  political 
station  had  been  as  director-general  of  the  post- 
office  for  several  months  in  1848.  Upon  the 
restoration  of  the  Republic  in  1870,  he  resumed 
a  position  of  influence,  being  for  a  short  time 
mayor  of  Paris.  In  1871  he  was  elected  to  the 
National  Assembly,  but  soon  resigned.  He  be- 
came archivist  of  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts  in 
1878,  and  later  director  of  the  Mus^  du  Liixem- 
bourg. 

ABAGO,  Francois  Victor  Emmanuel  ( 1812- 
96) .  A  French  politician,  son  of  the  astronomer. 
He  became  an  ardent  Republican,  and  on  Febru- 
ary 24,  1848,  when  the  abdication  of  the  King 
was  announced  in  the  Chamber,  Arago,  who  had 
penetrated  thither,  demanded  the  deposition  of 
the  Orleans  family,  and  protested  in  the  name 
of  the  people  against  a  regency.  Under  the  pro- 
visional government,  he  was  sent  to  Lyons  a3 
commissary-general,  and  prevented  a  serious  in- 
surrection by  applying  half  a  million  francs  to 
relieve  immediate  distress.  A  little  later  he 
was  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly,  and 
was  soon  sent  as  envov  to  Prussia,  where  he 
interested  himself  for  tne  oppressed  Poles,  pro- 
curing the  liberation  of  General  Microlawski. 
He  resigned  as  soon  as  Louis  Napoleon  was 
elected  to  the  presidency,  and  became  in  the 
Constituent,  and  later  in  the  Legislative  As- 
sembly, one  of  the  future  Emperor's  most  active 
opponents,  vigorously  protesting  against  the  ex- 
pedition to  Rome.  After  the  coup  d'etat  (De- 
cember 2,  1851),  he  quitted  political  life  and  re- 
turned to  his  law  practice,  but  in  1870  became 
a  member  of  the  Government  of  National  De- 
fense, first  as  minister  of  justice,  and  later 
as  minister  of  the  interior,  replacing  Gambetta 
in  the  latter  office.  In  1871,  he  was  elected  a 
member  of  the  National  Assembly,  and  on  the 
organization  of  the  Senate  in  1876,  he  was  elect- 


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ABAGO. 


708 


ABAGONITE. 


ed  to  that  body,  where  he  sat  until  his  appoint- 
ment as  ambassador  to  Switzerland  in  1880.  He 
retired  in  1894. 

ABAGO,  Jacques  Etienne  Victor  (1790- 
1855).  A  French  traveler  and  writer,  brother 
of  the  astronomer.  Tn  1817  he  accompanied  an 
expedition,  under  Freycinet,  in  a  voyage  round 
the  world.  Afterwards  he  wrote  plays,  poems,  and 
novels,  and  in  1835  undertook  the  management 
of  the  theatre  at  Rouen,  but  having  become  blind 
in  1837  he  resigned.  His  early  voyage  he  de- 
scribed in  two  books  of  travel :  Promenade  autour 
du  monde  (1822),  and  Voyage  autour  du  monde 
(1838).  In  1849,  though  deprived  of  sight,  he 
formed  a  company  of  speculators  and  started  for 
California  in  search  of  gold.  But  his  compan- 
ions deserted  him  at  Valparaiso.  On  his  return, 
he  published  his  painful  experiences,  under  the 
title,  Voyage  d'un  aveugle  en  Calif omie  et  dans 
lea  regions  auriferea  (1851).    He  died  in  Brazil. 

ARAQ6tS[,  a'rft-gon'.  A  captaincy-general  of 
Spain  and  former  kingdom,  situated  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  the  country,  and  bounded 
on  the  north  by  the  Pyrenees,  which  separate  it 
from  France,  on  the  east  by  Catalonia  and  Va- 
lencia, on  the  south  by  Valencia  and  New  Castile, 
and  on  the  west  by  New  and  Old  Castile  (Map: 
Spain,  E  2).  It  comprises  the  three  provinces 
of  Saragossa,  Teruel,  and  Huesca,  with  a  total 
area  of  17,976  square  miles.  The  southern  and 
northern  parts  of  the  country  are  mostly  moun- 
tainous, while  the  central  portion  is  occupied  by 
a  plain,  intersected  by  the  Ebro  and  its  tribu- 
taries. The  climate  is  varied,  owing  to  the 
difference  in  the  elevation  of  the  surface.  In  the 
mountains  it  is  cool,  while  in  the  lower  parts  it 
is  exceedingly  hot  and  dry. 

This  difference  in  the  climate  is  accompanied 
by  a  corresponding  variation  in  vegetation,  and 
the  agricultural  products  of  the  region  embrace 
both  the  hardier  grains,  such  as  corn  and  wheat, 
as  well  as  delicate  fruits  like  the  olive  and  vine. 
Agriculture  is  in  a  backward  state  owing  in  part 
to  scarcity  of  population,  but  chiefly  because  of 
the  burdens  laid  by  the  Government  on  agrarian 
communities.  In  the  Province  of  Teruel  are  found 
deposits  of  sulphur,  copper,  lead,  and  salt,  which 
are  mined  to  some  extent.  The  manufacturing 
industries  are  confined  to  the  production  of  linen 
and  woolens  and  some  leather  goods.  The  com- 
merce of  the  region  is  insignificant  both  on  ac- 
count of  the  agricultural  and  industrial  back- 
wardness, as  well  as  of  the  lack  of  transportation 
facilities.  Population,  1887,  912,187;  1897,  892,- 
246.  Capital,  and  seat  of  the  Captain-General, 
Saragossa. 

Aragon  came  into  the  possession  of  Rome  after 
the  overthrow  of  the  Carthaginian  power  in 
Spain,  and  was  made  a  part  of  the  Province  of 
Hispania  Tarraconensis.  It  was  conquered  by 
the  Visigoths  early  in  the  Fifth  Century,  and 
these  in  turn  were  subdued  by  the  Moors  after 
711.  A  remnant  of  the  Christian  inhabitants  who 
escaped  to  the  mountains  and  settled  in  the 
region  between  the  Sierra  de  la  Pefia  and  the 
Pyrenees,  managed  to  maintain  their  independ- 
ence. For  a  long  time  Aragon  was  ruled  by 
counts  of  Gothic  origin.  Subsequently  it  was  in- 
corporated with  Navarre,  but  in  1035  it  attained 
its  independence  under  Ramiro  I.,  the  son  of 
Sancho  the  Great,  and  now  made  its  appearance 
as  a  kingdom.     Hemmed  in  by  Navarre  on  the 


west  and  by  the  little  State  of  Sobrarbe  on  the 
east,  Aragon,  of  necessity,  took  a  southward  ex- 
pansion. A  long  confiict  was  carried  on  with 
the  Arabs,  amounting,  perhaps,  to  nothing  more 
at  times  than  mere  guerrilla  raids,  but  result- 
ing in  the  gradual  acquisition  of  individual 
strongholds  and  towns.  On  the  capture  of 
Huesca  in  1096,  the  capital  of  the  country  was 
removed  from  the  mountain  valleys  to  the  plateau 
of  northern  Spain.  The  conquest  of  Saragossa  in 
1118  brought  the  valley  of  the  Ebro  under  the 
rule  of  the  kings  of  Aragon.  In  1137  Aragon  was 
united  with  Catalonia  by  the  marriage  of  Petron- 
ella,  the  daughter  of  Ramiro  II.,  with  Count 
Raymond  Berengar  IV.  of  Barcelona.  This  union 
at  once  raised  Aragon  to  a  predominant  position 
in  the  Iberian  Peninsula.  Through  the  activity 
of  the  seafaring  population  of  Catalonia,  the 
kings  of  Aragon  gained  possession  of  the  Balearic 
Islands,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Naples  in  the 
course  of  the  two  following  centuries.  At  the 
same  time  the  consolidated  strength  of  the  king- 
dom was  directed  against  the  Mohammedans,  and 
in  1238  the  important  city  of  Valencia,  with  the 
surrounding  region,  fell  into  its  power.  During 
the  later  Middle  Ages,  Aragon  possessed  the  freest 
political  institutions  in  Europe.  The  power  of 
the  King  was  greatly  limited  by  the  privileges 
enjoyed  by  the  towns,  which  in  effect,  formed  a 
republican  State  within  the  monarchy.  Their 
affairs  were  administered  by  municipal  officers 
and  their  representatives  met  in  juntas,  which 
were  charged  with  the  maintenance  of  public 
safety  and  the  control  of  common  affairs.  At 
the  head  of  the  united  towns  stood  the  Justiciar 
of  Aragon,  to  whom,  on  certain  questions,  even 
the  King  had  to  yield.  The  towns  availed  them- 
selves of  the  King's  financial  embarrassments  to 
wring  charters  of  privileges  from  the  crown. 
Pedro  IV.,  in  the  Fourteenth  Century,  first  at- 
tempted to  assert  the  power  of  the  crown  over 
the  cities;  but  though  he  was  partially  success- 
ful, the  task  was  not  completed  until  after  the 
union  of  Aragon  with  Castile.  During  this 
period  Barcelona  developed  into  one  of  the 
greatest  Mediterranean  ports,  and  entered  into 
rivalry  with  the  Italian  cities,  and  especially 
with  Genoa,  against  which  continual  wars  were 
waged..  By  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  of  Ara- 
gon with  Isabella  heiress  to  the  crown  of  Cas 
tile,  in  1469^  the  two  States  were  united  in 
1479.  The  bond  between  the  two,  however,  was 
only  a  personal  one  until  1516,  when,  on  the 
accession  of  Charles  I.  they  were  definitely 
merged  into  a  new  Spain,  with  which  the  sub- 
sequent history  of  Aragon  is  identified. 

ABAGONA,  a'rft-go'nA.  A  city  of  Sicily, 
68  miles  south  of  Palermo,  and  11  miles  north 
of  Girgenti.  In  this  vicinity  are  rich  sulphur 
mines,  and  the  mud- volcano  of  Maccaluba,  which 
is  about  135  feet  high  and  860  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  which  emits  carbureted  hydrogen  gases. 

AB^AGONITE  (named  after  Aragon,  see 
below).  An  anhydrous  calcium  carbonate  differ- 
ing from  calcite  by  crystallizing  in  the  ortho- 
rhombic  system,  while  calcite  crystallizes  in  the 
hexagonal.  In  color  it  is  generally  white,  but 
gray,  yellow,  green,  and  violet  varieties  are 
known.  Some  of  the  known  varieties  of  aragonite 
diflfer  considerably  in  their  structure.  Flos  ferri 
is  a  coralloidal  form  found  in  beds  of  iron  ore; 
Satin  apar  is  a  silky,  fibrous  variety;  Sprudel- 


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ABAGOKITE. 


704: 


ABAL. 


atein  is  a  stalactitic  or  stalamitic  variety.  Ara- 
gonite  was  first  found  in  Aragon,  S|>ain,  from 
which  it  derives  its  name.  It  also  occurs  in 
Bohemia,  Austria,  and  in  Sicily.  The  localities 
in  the  United  States  include  Hoboken,  N.  J.; 
Lockport,  Edenville,  and  Rossie,  N.  Y.;  Chester 
County,  Pa.;  Dubuque,  Iowa,  and  Mine-la-Mottc, 
Mo.  It  is  cut  and  polished  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses, and  the  well-known  varieties  of  Mexican 
onyx,  so  largely  used  by  architects  for  wain- 
scoting and  interior  decoration,  are  forms  of 
aragonite. 

ABAGUATA,  &'r&-gwil^t&  (native  name). 
The  ursine  howler.    See  Howler. 

ABAGTJAYA,  a'rft-gw&-ya',  or  Rio  Grande. 
A  large  river  of  Brazil,  rising  in  the  Serra 
Cavapo,  in  latitude  18^  10'  S.,  and  longitude 
61^  30'  W.  (Map:  Brazil,  H  5).  It  flows 
northeasterly  between  the  States  of  Goyaz  and 
Matto  Grosso,  inclosing  in  its  course  the  large 
Island  of  Bananal  (q.v.).  Near  San  Francisco, 
in  latitude  6*  30'  S.,  the  AraguayA  joins  the 
Tocantins,  which  empties  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
about  50  miles  to  the  east  of  the  main  estuary 
of  the  Amazon.  The  Araguayft  is  more  than 
1300  miles  long  and  navigable  for  more  than 
half  that  distance.  A  line  of  small  steamers 
plies  its  waters  to  the  Rapids  of  Santa  Maria. 

ABAI  HAKTJSEXI,  H-rl^  ha'ko5-sd^«  ( 1657- 
1725).  One  of  the  most  noted  of  modem  Japa- 
nese scholars,  Confucianists,  and  stylists,  who, 
by  his  life  and  writings,  illuminated  and  adorned 
the  ideas  that  long  molded  Japanese  society. 
When  lyeyasu  "caused  confusion  to  cease  and 
order  to  prevail,"  native  and  Chinese  learning 
revived  in  Japan,  and  a  brilliant  group  of 
scholars  in  Yedo  set  forth  the  philosopnical 
doctrines  of  Chu-Hi.  Of  these,  Arai  is  best 
known.  He  became  more  liberal  than  his  mas- 
ter, Seiga,  but  he  was  still  orthodox,  as  against 
the  Kogaku,  or  (in  government  view)  "heretical" 
school  of  philosophy.  As  patronized  by  lyeyasu 
and  his  successors,  the  Tycoons,  from  1615  to 
1868,  this  philosophical  system  became  a  sort  of 
established  church,  and  heretics  were  made  to 
feel  severe  political  opposition,  which  sometimes 
ended  in  imprisonment  and  death.  Yet  scat- 
tered over  the  country,  the  pupils  of  Arai  and 
other  masters  instructed  young  gentlemen  and 
helped  powerfully  to  mold  the  public  opinion 
by  which  the  Mikado  was  restored  to  power  in 
1868.  He  wrote  a  book  in  three  volumes,  Sei  Yo 
Ri  Bun,  or  Annals  of  the  Western  Ocean,  which 
was  translated  by  S.  R.  Brown,  in  the  Trans- 
actions of  the  North  China  Branch  of  the  Asiatic 
Society  (London,  1827-31). 

ABAKAN,  a'rft-klln^  or  Aracan.  The  north- 
em  division  of  Lower  Burma,  British  India,  ex- 
tending along  the  Bay  of  Bengal  from  about  18'* 
to  21°  33'  northern  latitude,  and  covering,  with 
the  adjacent  islands,  an  area  of  18,540  square 
miles.  The  surface  is  very  mountainous  in  the 
interior,  which  is  traversed  by  several  parallel 
chains.  There  are  vast  forests  and  marshes 
covered  with  a  thick  growth  of  grasses  and  un- 
derbrush. The  climate  is  exceedingly  unhealth- 
ful.  The  lower  parts  of  the  country  are  well 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  rice,  indigo,  pepper, 
and  raw  sugar,  and  many  tropical  fruits  are 
found  in  a  wild  state.  The  chief  articles  of  ex- 
port are  rice,  salt,  and  teak-wood,  The  chief 
port  is  Akyab.     The  town  of  Arokan,  situated 


in  the  interior  to  the  northwest  of  Akyab,  wbieh 
before  the  British  conquest  is  said  to  have  num- 
bered nearly  100,000  souls,  is  now  a  place  of 
ruins.  The  natives  of  Arakan  are  shoiter,  and 
somewhat  less  round-headed  than  the  Bunnese 
proper,  with  whom  they  belong  by  race  and  lan- 
guage. A  caste  system  with  monogamy  pre- 
vails among  them.  The  population  increased 
from  671,899  in  1891  to  760,848  in  1901.  About 
seventy  per  cent,  of  the  inhabitants  are  Bud- 
dhists, while  the  remainder  is  made  up  chiefly 
of  Mohammedans.  Arakan  was  formerly  an  in- 
dependent kingdom.  At  the  end  of  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  it  began  to  decline,  owing  to  in- 
ternal strifes,  and  a  century  later  fell  into  the 
possession  of  Burma,  from  which  it  passed  to 
Great  Britain  in  1826.  Anthropological  details 
concerning  the  peoples  of  Aralum  wrll  be  found 
in  Lewin,  Wild  Races  of  Southeastern  India 
(London,  1870),  and  Risley,  Tribes  and  Castes  of 
Bengal  (Calcutta,  1891). 

ABAXTCHETEFF,  rr&k-chfi'yef,  Aixm 
ANnnEYEViTCii,  Count  (1769-1834).  A  Russian 
statesman.  Of  noble  though  poor  family  he 
rose  rapidly  to  high  rank  under  the  faToritism 
of  Paul,  who  made  him  commandant  of  his  body- 
guard at  Gatchina.  On  his  accession  to  the 
throne,  Paul  made  him  commandant  of  Saint 
Petersburg,  conferred  upon  him  the  baronial 
title,  dismissed  him  in  a  short  while,  made  him 
Count  in  1799,  and  again  retired  him  in  eight 
months.  After  Paul's  assassination,  Araktcbe 
yeff  was  kept  near  the  person  of  Alexander  L 
became  minister  of  war  in  1806,  and  in  the 
late  years  of  that  Elmperor's  reign  was  bis  all- 
powerful  adviser  in  matters  of  internal  policT. 
The  will  of  the  Emperor,  whom  he  almost  wor- 
shiped, was  carried  out  at  all  hazards,  and  as 
the  energetic  Araktcheyeff  did  not  stop  short 
of  any  cruelty,  his  name  became  synonymous 
with  terror  to  all  liberal  thinkers.  In  1833  he 
deposited  50,000  rubles,  of  which  three-quarters 
of  the  principal  and  accumulated  interest  is  to  be 
awarded  in  1926  for  the  best  history  of  Alex- 
ander's reign.  It  was  provided  that  the  re- 
mainder shall  cover  the  expense  of  printing  the 
work,  to  form  a  second  prize,  and  to  be  paid 
for  translations  of  the  work  into  French  and 
German.  As  he  left  no  heirs  and  made  no  will 
Nicholas  I.  granted  his  estate  at  Gruzino  and  all 
his  possessions  to  the  Novgorod  Corps  of  Cadets, 
henceforth  known  as  Araktcheyeff  Corps,  so  as 
to  perpetuate  the  memory  of  the  statesman. 

ARAL,  fti^al  {Russian  pron,  A-riK),  or 
Abal-Dengis,  Lake.  (For  derivation  see  below.) 
A  lake  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  within  the  limits 
of  Russian  Central  Asia,  between  latitude  43°  43' 
and  46**  45'  N.,  and  traversed  by  the  meridian 
of  60**  E.  longitude  (Map:  Asia,  E.  4).  It  lies  in 
the  Aralo-Caspian  lowlands,  is  bounded  by  the 
steppes  and  deserts  of  Khiva,  by  the  land  of  the 
Kirghis,  and  by  the  plateau  of  Ust-Urt,  separat- 
ing it  from  the  Caspian  Sea.  Its  greatest  length 
is  about  230  miles;  its  greatest  width  is  ISi 
miles;  and  its  area,  according  to  Strelbitski, 
is  25,050  square  miles;  this  does  not  include 
its  four  large  islands,  occupying  about  lOOO 
square  miles.  After  the  Caspian  Sea,  it  is 
the  largest  lake  in  the  Eurasiatic  continent, 
and,  next  to  Lake  Superior  and  the  Victoria 
Nyanza,  it  is  the  fourth  largest  in  the  world.  It 
lies  at  a  height  of  103  feet  above  the  level  of 


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AHATiT 


705 


AKAM. 


the  ocean,  and  about  250  feet  above  that  of  the 
Caspian.  Its  numerous  islands  gave  rise  to  its 
name  of  Aral  -  Dengis  ( Kirkhiz,  Turk.,  aral, 
island  +  dengis,  sea,  lake).  The  bluish  tinge 
of  its  water  suggested  to  the  Russians  the  name 
of  Blue  Sea.  In  ancient  times  it  was  called 
the  Lake  of  Oxiana,  and  during  the  Middle  Ages 
the  Sea  of  Khovaresm,  or  Khuarism.  It  is  fed 
by  the  Syr-Darya  (the  ancient  Jaxartes)  on  the 
east  side  and  the  Amu-Darya  (or  ancient  Oxus) 
on  the  south.  It  is  shallow,  its  average  depth 
hardly  reaching  fifty  feet.  There  are  unmis- 
takable signs  of  its  drying  up,  especially  in  its 
southern  part.  The  A'ral  is  a  salt-water  lake, 
but  it  contains  less  salt  than  the  ocean.  It 
freezes  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
shore.  It  is  very  rich  in  fish,  which  are  caught 
here  in  great  quantities.  It  is  remarkable  that, 
of  all  the  varieties  of  fish  in  the  Aral,  there  is 
not  a  single  salt-water  variety.  In  the  affluents 
of  the  Aral  the  Scaphirynchua  species  of  fish 
has  recently  been  discovered,  a  variety  not  found 
anywhere  in  the  world  at  present,  but  which 
was  abundant  in  the  Tertiary  period.  Owing 
to  the  shallowness  of  its  waters,  navigation 
is  difficult;  but  Russian  steamers  have  been 
launched  upon  it,  and  took  part  in  the  operations 
against  Khiva  in  June,  1873.  The  history  of 
the  Sea  of  Aral  is  very  remarkable.  Sir  Henry 
Rawlinson  and  Colonel  Yule  collected  refer- 
ences made  to  it  in  Greek,  Latin,  Arabic,  and 
Persian  writers,  and  tried  to  establish  the  fact 
that  the  area  it  now  occupies  has  been  dry  land 
twice  within  historical  times — ^the  Jaxartes  and 
the  Oxus  then  running  south  of  the  Sea  of  Aral 
to  the  Caspian.  It  is  very  remarkable  that  the 
Amu  has  changed  its  bed  very  considerably 
within  one  decade,  as  is  proven  by  a  comparison 
of  the  maps  carefully  prepared  in  1869  and  1870. 
See  Proceedings  of  Royal  Geographical  Society, 
Vol.  XL,  Vol.  XVI.,  and  Vol.  I.  (new  series, 
1879)  ;  also  The  Shores  of  Lake  Aral,  by  Major 
Wood   (London,  1876). 

ABAH'JA  (derivation  uncertain).  A  genus 
of  plants,  the  type  of  the  natural  order  Aralia- 
cecB.  This  order  is  dicotyledonous,  and  consists 
of  trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous  plants,  resem- 
bling the  Umbel  lif era,  both  in  their  general 
habit  and  in  their  botanical  characters,  but  dif- 
fering essentially  in  the  fruit,  which  is  not 
formed  of  two  separable  carpels  as  in  the  Um- 
belliferse.  The  fruit  of  the  Araliacese  consists 
of  several  one-seeded  cells,  and  is  often  succulent. 
The  order  contains  about  four  hundred  known 
species,  natives  of  tropical,  temperate,  and  cold 
climates,  generally  possessing  stimulant  and  aro- 
matic properties.  The  principal  genera  are  Ara- 
lia,  Panax,  Hedera,  and  Fatsia.  Poisonous 
qualities  are  not  developed  as  in  the  Umbelli- 
ferne.  The  herbage  of  many  species  affords  good 
food  for  cattle,  and  some  are  used  for  human 
food.  The  genus  Aralia  contains  a  considerable 
number  of  species — ^trees,  shrubs,  and  herbaceous 
plants.  It  has  a  succulent  fruit,  with  five  or 
ten  cells,  crowned  with  the  styles.  Aralia  nodi- 
caulis,  commonly  called  wild  sarsaparilla,  is  a 
native  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a  species 
of  low  growth,  having  a  solitary  radical  leaf 
with  a  trifid  stalk  and  ovate  serrated  segments ; 
the  scape  is  shorter  than  the  leaf.  The  root 
is  said  to  be  equal  in  value  to  sarsaparilla 
4is  an  alterative  and  tonic.  Aralia  racemosa, 
Vol.  I.-45. 


well  known  as  spikenard,  has  large,  spicy,  aro- 
matic roots.  Aralia  spinosa,  and  Aralia  hispida, 
also  natives  of  North  America,  produce  an  aro- 
matic gum-resin.  Aralia  spinosa  is  sometimes 
called  toothache-tree;  it  also  bears  the  name  of 
angelica-tree.  It  is  a  native  of  moist  woods  in 
Virginia  and  Carolina,  growing  to  a  height  of 
ten  or  twelve  feet,  with  a  single  stem,  spreading 
head,  doubly  and  trebly  pinnate  leaves  and  ovate 
leafiets,  and  is  very  ornamental  in  a  lawn.  Ara- 
lia polaris,  found  in  the  southern  island  of  New 
Zealand,  and  in  the  greatest  abundance  and  lux- 
uriance in  the  Auckland  Islands,  is  a  herba- 
ceous perennial,  four  to  five  feet  high,  with  large 
orbicular  masses  of  green  foliage  and  waxy 
flowers,  which  present  a  very  striking  appear- 
ance. Aralia  edulis,  now  called  Aralia  cordata, 
is  employed  in  China  as  a  sudorific.  Its  shoots 
are  very  delicate  and  pleasant  when  boiled;  and 
the  roots,  which  have  an  agreeable  aromatic 
fiavor,  are  used  by  the  Japanese  as  carrots  or 
parsnips  are  by  Europeans.  Aralias  abound  in 
the  warm  valleys  of  the  Himalaya.  The  natives 
collect  the  leaves  of  many  as  fodder  for  cattle, 
for  which  purpose  they  are  of  great  value  in  a 
country  where  grass  for  pasture  is  scarce;  but 
the  use  of  this  food  gives  a  peculiar  taste  to  the 
butter.  Chinese  rice-paper  is  cut  from  cylinders 
of  the  pith  of  Aralia  papyrifera.  Gensing,  the 
root  of  Panax  quinquefolia,  is  one  of  the  most 
important  products  of  the  order  Araliacese. 
Large  quantities  of  gensing  are  collected  and 
shipped  to  China,  where  wonderful  medicinal 
qualities  are  attributed  to  it.  For  fine  speci- 
mens almost  fabulous  prices  are  paid.  Modern 
pharmacy  does  not  consider  it  of  great  value. 
The  astringent  roots  of  Ounnera  scdbra,  some- 
times classed  with  the  Aralias,  are  used  in  tan- 
ning, and  its  fieshy  leaf-stalks  are  eaten  like 
those  of  rhubarb.  It  has  been  seen  on  the  sand- 
stone cliflfs  of  Chile  with  leaves  nearly  eight  feet 
in  diameter,  each  plant  bearing  four  or  five  of 
these  enormous  leaves.  It  has  been  introduced 
into  Great  Britain,  and  is  found  to  succeed  well 
in  the  climate  of  Edinburgh.  The  only  repre- 
sentative of  this  order  in  the  British  flora  is 
the  ivy  (q.v.)  Hedera  helix.  Fatsia  horrida,  a 
member  of  this  family,  is  common  along  the 
Pacific  coast,  extending  well  into  Alaska.  It  has 
slender,  rope  -  like  stems,  crowned  with  large 
leaves.  Stems  and  leaves  are  covered  with 
prickles  that  sometimes  make  severe  sores  upon 
l^rsons  who  come  in  violent  contact  with  them. 
The  popular  name  for  the  plant  is  Devil's  Club. 

FossTL  Forms.  The  genus  Aralia  and  an  allied 
genus,  Aralisephyllum,  have  been  described  from 
many  localities  in  the  cretaceous  and  tertiary 
rocks  of  North  America  and  Europe,  where  they 
are  represented  by  about  twenty-five  species. 

A^BAM,  Eugene  (1704-1759).  An  English 
schoolmaster  and  scholar,  bom  at  Ramsgill, 
Netherdale,  in  Yorkshire.  His  father  was  a 
gardener,  and  could  afford  to  keep  Eugene  at 
school  for  only  a  short  time;  but  even  while  as- 
sisting his  father  the  boy  found  time  for  study. 
He  married  early,  and  became  a  schoolmaster, 
first  in  Netherdale,  and  afterwaird  at  Knares- 
borough,  where  he  continued  to  teach  till  1745. 
At  Knaresborough  lived  one  Daniel  Clarke,  a 
shoemaker,  and  an  intimate  acquaintance  of 
Aram.  On  one  occasion  Clarke  happened  to  buy 
.a  quantity  of  valuable  goods,  which  he  easily 
obtained  on  credit ;  but,  to  the  surprise  of  every- 


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ARAM. 


706 


ASAMAIC. 


body,  he  soon  after  disappeared,  and  no  trace  of 
him  could  be  discovered.  Suspicion  lighted  upon 
Aram»  not  as  Clarke's  murderer,  but  as  his  con- 
federate in  fraud.  His  garden  was  searched, 
and  in  it  were  found  some  of  the  goods  which 
Clarke  had  bought.  Aram  was  arrested  and 
tried,  but  acquitted  for  want  of  evidence.  He 
now  left  his  wife  at  Knaresborough,  and  went 
to  London  and  other  parts  of  England,  teaching 
here  and  there ;  and,  in  spite  of  his  roaming  life, 
contrived  to  acquire  a  knowledge  of  botany,  her- 
aldry, Chaldee,  Arabic,  Welsh,  and  Irish,  and 
was  planning  a  comparative  dictionary  of  all 
the  European  languages.  His  most  important 
8<;ho]astic  achievement  was  his  discovery  of  the 
similarity  of  the  Celtic  to  other  European  lan- 
guagefl.  He  was  at  work  on  his  dictionary  when 
he  was  suddenly  dragged  away  from  his  usher- 
ship  of  Lynn  Academy,  in  Norfolk,  and  commit- 
ted to  prison  on  a  charge  of  murder.  The  remain- 
der of  the  story  is  well  known.  In  1759  a  skeleton 
was  dug  up  near  Knaresborough,  which  the  in- 
habitants suspected  to  be  that  of  Clarke;  for 
they  had  now  come  to  the  conclusion  that  the 
unfortunate  man  had  met  with  foul  play,  espe- 
cially as  Aram's  wife  had,  on  several  occasions, 
made  strange  statements  to  the  eflfect  that  her 
husband  and  a  man  named  Houseman  knew  more 
of  Clarke's  disappearance  than  they  chose  to  tell. 
Houseman  was  now  confronted  with  a  bone  of 
the  skeleton  which  had  been  discovered.  He 
very  emphatically  denied  that  it  was  Clarke's. 
People  naturally  wondered  how  he  could  be  so 
positive,  and  they  became  convinced  that  if  the 
skeleton  was  not  Clarke's,  Houseman  must  know 
where  Clarke's  body  was.  At  last  he  confessed 
that  he  had  been  a  spectator  of  the  murder  of 
Clarke  by  Aram  and  one  Terry.  He  named  the 
place  where  the  body  had  been  hidden.  The 
skeleton  was  dug  up,  and  Aram  was  tried  at 
York  for  the  murder  of  Clarke,  on  August  3, 
1759.  He  conducted  his  own  defense,  and  at- 
tacked, with  great  acumen,  the  doctrine  of  cir- 
cumstantial evidence;  but  to  no  effect,  for  a' 
verdict  of  guilty  was  returned,  and  he  was  con- 
demned to  be  executed  within  three  days.  In 
the  interval  he  confessed  his  guilt  to  two  clergy- 
men. While  in  the  condemned  cell  he  Wrote  a 
defense  of  suicide,  but  failed  in  a  practical  illus- 
tration of  the  doctrine.  For  further  details 
consult:  N.  Scatcherd,  Memoirs  of  Eugerie  Aram 
(London,  1838),  and  for  an  idealized  portrait, 
Buhver,  Eugene  Aram  (London,  1832)  ;  Hood, 
The  Dream  of  Eugene  Aram  (London,  1845). 

AB'AIEA^G.  The  name  given  to  a  branch 
of  the  Semitic  languages,  which  embraces  numer- 
ous subdivisions.  According  to  the  classification 
now  generally  adopted,  Semitic  speech  is  divided 
into  five  broad  divisions,  as  follows:  (1)  Baby- 
lonian-Assyrian; (2)  Aramaic;  (3)  Canaan- 
itic;  (4)  Arabic;  (5)  Ethiopic.  Confining 
ourselves  to  the  second  of  these  groups,  a 
subdivision  of  Aramaic  into  West  and  East  sug- 
gests itself.  To  the  former  belong  (a)  Biblical 
Aramaic  and  later  Palestinian  Aramaic  (of 
which  again  some  variations  may  be  distin- 
guished) ;  (b)  Palmyrene;  (c)  Nabatsean;  (d) 
Samaritan;  (e)  the  Aramaic  dialect  in  the 
Lebanon  district.  To  East  Aramaic  belong  (a) 
Babylonian  Aramaic,  as  found  in  the  Babylonian 
Talmud;  (b)  Alandaic;  (c)  Syriac;  (d)  modem 
Aramaic  dialects  in  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan,  and 
Armenia.     Oi  these  the  most  important,  so  far 


as  literary  productions  are  concerned,  are  Bibli- 
cal Aramaic,  Babylonian  Aramaic,  and  Syriac. 
Examples  of  Biblical  Aramaic  are  in  the  book 
of  Daniel  (c.l65  B.C.)  and  Ezra  (c.250  B.C.), 
with  some  scattered  words  elsewhere  in  the  Old 
Testament.  The  discussions  of  the  Babylonian 
rabbis  on  the  Pentateuchal  and  post-biblical 
laws  are  almost  exclusively  in  the  Aramaic  dia- 
lect, which  was  adopted  by  the  Jews  on  coming 
to  Babylonia,  and  which  forms  the  language 
of  the  most  of  the  vast  compilation  known 
as  the  Babylonian  Talmud.  (See  Talmid.) 
Roughly  speaking,  this  compilation  covers  tbe 
four  centuries  from  a.d.  200  to  600,  tbougli 
there  are  both  earlier  and  later  portions  in 
it.  The  Syraic  literature  is  almost  exclusively 
Christian,  and  for  the  greater  part  theological 
Its  dialect  is  more  properly  that  of  Edessa,  for 
through  the  translation  of  the  Bible  known  as 
the  Peshito  (i.e.  the  plain  or  unadorned  render- 
ing), in  the  Second  Century  a.d.,  the  literary 
language  of  Edessa  spread  throughout  Mesopo- 
tamia and  Palestinian  Christendom.  From  tlii» 
time  until  the  Fourteenth  Century  a  large  litera- 
ture was  produced,  embracing  not  only  doctrinal 
and  homiletic  expositions,  rituals,  and  religious 
poetry,  but  also  history  and  romance.  Eren 
after  the  Arabic  conquest,  Syriac  continued  for 
some  centuries  to  be  the  current  language  in 
Mesopotamia  and  northern  Palestine.  See 
Sybiac. 

Of  the  other  Aramaic  languages,  the  later 
Palestinian  Aramaic  is  represented  chiefly  in 
large  portions  of  the  so-called  Palestinian  Tal- 
mud, embracing  the  discussions  of  Palestinian 
rabbis  on  the  ceremonial  and  other  regulations 
of , post-Exilic  Judaism,  while  the  Samaritan  is 
of  importance  chiefly  because  of  the  translation 
of  the  Pentateuch  and  Joshua  into  this  speech. 
The  Mandaic,  one  of  the  Christian  dialects  of 
Mesopotamia,  has  but  scanty  literary  remains, 
and  is  of  importance  chiefly  for  the  insight  it 
affords  into  the  peculiarities  of  the  Handsean 
sect.  Palmyrene  and  Nabatsean  are  represented 
merely  by  mortuary  and  commemorative  inscrip- 
tions, belonging  to  the  early  centuries  of  our 
era,  while  the  modem  dialects  have  no  literature 
to  speak  of,  beyond  Bible  translation  and  prayers 
made  for  missionary  purposes.  A  feature  of  the 
Aramaic  speech,  which  is  illustrated  by  the 
above  sketch,  is  the  large  geographical  extent 
occupied  by  it,  covering  as  it  does  practically 
the  entire  range  of  Semitic  settlements,  with  the 
exception  of  Southern  Arabia  and  Abyssinia.  As 
early  as  the  Eighth  Century  B.C.  we  find  Aramaic 
a  current  speech  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Syria  at  the  foot  of  the  Taurus  range.  Monu- 
ments of  rulers  in  this  district,  found  by  (jrerman 
explorers  at  Senjerli,  contain  inscriptions  in 
Aramaic.  The  southern  limit  of  Aramaic  is 
marked  by  inscriptions  found  at  Teima  in  north- 
em  Arabia,  and  belonging  to  the  period  before 
Mohammed.  In  the  later  days  of  the  Babylonian 
Empire,  Aramaic  even  superseded  the  native 
Babylonian  as  the  current  speech  of  the  people, 
so  that  the  Hebrews,  upon  coming  to  Babylonia, 
adopted  Aramaic  and  not  Babylonian,  in  place 
of  Hebrew.  In  Palestine  proper,  Aramaic  also 
crept  in  at  a  comparatively  early  period.  After 
the  return  of  the  Hebrews  from  the  Babylonian 
exile.  Hebrew  rapidly  declined  and  assumed  the 
character  of  a  sacr^  and  learned  language  in 
contrast  to  the  ever-growing  popularity  of  Ara- 


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ASAMAIG. 


W7 


ABANSAS. 


maic  as  the  speech  of  the  people.  For  the  spe- 
cial traits  of  Aramaic,  see  Semitio  Languages. 
BiBUOGBAPHT.  Zimmem,  Vergleichende  (jhram- 
maiik  dcr  Semitiaohen  Sprachen  (Berlin,  1898) ; 
Kautsch,  Orammatik  des  Bihliach-Aratnaiaohen 
(Leipzig,  1846)  ;  also  the  Aramaic  idiom  con- 
tained in  that  by  Strack  (1897)  and  Marti 
(Leipzig,  1854) ;  Dalman,  Orammatik  des  ju- 
disch'palastinischen  Aramdisch  (Leipzig,  1894)  ; 
Levias,  Orammar  of  the  Babylonian  Talmud 
(New  York,  1900)  ;  Petermann,  Brevis  Lingua 
Samaritanw  Grammatica  (Leipzig,  1867)  ;  N51- 
deke,  Manddische  Orammatik  (Halle,  1875)  ;  ib., 
Syrische  Orammatik  (Leipzig,  1880)  ;  ib.,  Oram- 
matik der  neusyriachen  Spraohe  (Leipzig,  1868)  ; 
Duval,  Orammaire  des  dialectes  n4o-8yriaques 
(Paris,  1883). 

ARAMATC  VEB13I0NS.     See  Bible. 

AK'AME'ANS.  By  Arameans,  or  Syro- 
Chaldeans,  Keane  (1896)  denotes  certain  Semitic 
peoples  of  Syria,  parts  of  Palestine,  and  the 
Lower  Euphrates,  while  Brinton  (1890)  makes 
Aramean  a  subdivision  of  the  more  general  Chal- 
dean, and  Featherman  (1881)  uses  it  to  include 
all  the  Semitic,  Hamitic,  and  related  peoples. 
As  Arameans  we  may  reckon  the  ancient  Baby- 
lonians (in  so  far  as  they  were  Semites),  the 
Assyrians,  the  Syrians,  or  Western  Arameans; 
the  so-called  Chaldeans,  or  Eastern  Arameans, 
and  the  Samaritans  (in  part),  besides  some 
tribes  of  less  importance.  As  a  result  of  the 
vitality  of  Arabic,  and  the  absorbing  power  of 
the  people  who  carried  it  north,  Aramean  is  now 
reduced  to  the  dialects  of  a  few  communities  in 
the  highlands  (Aram),  whence  it  received  its 
name.  The  Syriac,  or  Western  Aramean,  is  of  in- 
terest as  being  the  every-day  speech  of  Palestine 
in  the  time  of  Jesus,  and  used  by  him,  as  the 
quotations  in  the  New  Testament  show.  Ara- 
mean, in  the  limited  sense,  was  a  sort  of  trade 
language  in  the  days  of  ancient  Babylonia  and 
Assyria,  and  seems  to  have  driven  the  Semitic 
dialects  of  that  region  out  of  popular  use.  See 
Syrians;  Semites. 

AK'AMIN^A.  A  favorite  name  among  the 
Restoration  dramatists,  although  never  given 
by  them  to  very  prepossessing  characters.  Van- 
brugh,  in  The  Confederacy,  christens  with  it  the 
wife  of  Aloneytrap,  a  snobbish  creature  with  a 
weakness  for  titles,  and  Congreve  gives  it  to  the 
principal  female  character  in  his  comedy  of  The 
Old  Bachelor. 

ABAMISy  &'rft'm$s^  The  least  exaggerated 
and  most  sympathetic  of  Dumas's  Three  Musket- 
eers, whose  mildness  and  modesty  make  him 
more  pleasing  to  modem  readers  than  his  more 
self-assertive  companions.  He  finally  enters  the 
Church  as  an  ahb^. 

ABAN,  ar'an,  South  Isles  of.  Three  small 
islands  situated  at  the  entrance  to  Gal  way  Bay, 
off  the  western  coast  of  Ireland.  The  principal 
and  the  most  western  of  them  is  called  Inishmore, 
and  is  seven  miles  long,  and  two  miles  broad. 
The  next  is  called  Inishmaan,and  the  third,  lying 
to  the  southeast,  Inishere.  Their  total  area  is 
about  eighteen  square  miles,  and  they  all  form 
the  barony  of  Gore.  The  soil  is  for  the  most 
part  sandy,  and  the  only  remarkable  feature  of 
the  islands  is  the  number  of  old  relics  found  on 
tliem.  The  islands  contained  at  one  time  about 
twenty  churches  and  .monasteries.  There  exist 
some  remains  of  old  fortresses,  supposed  to  have 


been  built  in  the  First  Century  a.d.  The  main 
industry  is  fishing,  and  the  principal  village  is 
Kilronan,  on  Inishmore,  with  a  population  of 
760. 

ABANDA,  &-r&n^dA,  Don  Pedbo  Pablo 
Abaraca  de  Bolea,  Count  of  (1718-99).  A 
Spanish  statesman,  bom  in  Saragossa,  of  a  dis- 
tinguished Aragonese  family.  He  at  first  fol- 
lowed a  military  career,  and  rose  to  the  rank  of 
general.  In  1760  he  was  appointed  by  Charles 
III.  ambassador  to  the  court  of  Augustus  III., 
King  of  Poland.  In  1766  he  was  recalled  to 
Madrid  on  account  of  its  disturbed  state,  and 
became  president  of  the  Council  of  Castile  and 
prime  minister.  He  soon  restored  order  in  the 
capital,  expelled  the  Jesuits  from  Spain,  sup- 
pressed the  banditti  in  the  Sierra  Morena,  and 
promoted  a  liberal  policy.  In  1773  he  was  re- 
moved from  his  post  through  the  influence  of 
the  clergy,  and  sent  as  ambassador  to  France, 
where  he  remained  until  1787.  In  1792  he  was 
again  made  prime  minister,  but  was  soon  de- 
posed again  tn rough  the  agency  of  Godoy,  Duke 
of  Alcudia,  the  Queen's  favorite.  He  remained 
president  of  the  Council  of  State,  which  he  had 
organized;  but  upon  opposing  the  foreign  policy 
of  Godoy  he  was  banished  to  Aragon,  where  he 
died. 

AB'ANE^DA.  An  order  of  Arachnida.  See 
Spidebs. 

ASANGO  Y  PABBENO'  &-r&n^g6  e  p&-rft^- 
nyd,  Fbancisgo  de  ( 1765-1837 ) .  A  Cuban  states- 
man. He  was  bom  at  Havana,  was  admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1789,  and  twice  represented  Cuba 
in  the  Cortes  of  Spain.  It  was  through  his 
exertions  that  the  tobacco  monopoly  was  done 
away  with,  and  the  ports  of  Cuba  were  opened 
to  foreign  trade.  He  is  best  known  for  his 
works  treating  of  Cuban  economies,  many  of 
which  have  been  translated  into  other  languages'. 

AJtANJUEZ,  rrftn-Hweth^  (From  Lat.  Ara 
Jovis,  altar  of  Jupiter).  A  town  in  the  Prov- 
ince of  Madrid,  Spain,  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Tagus,  28  miles  south-southeast  of  Ma- 
drid, in  a  beautifully  wooded  valley  (Map: 
Spain,  D  3).  The  town  is  built  in  the  Dutch 
style  and  has  broad  and  regular  streets  intersect- 
ing each  other  at  right  angles.  It  is  famed  for 
its  palace  and  gardens.  The  place  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  an  idiosyncrasy  of  Philip  II.  He  erected 
a  splendid  palace  where  had  been  but  a  shooting 
villa,  and  for  several  months  of  the  year  Aran- 
juez  became  the  seat  of  government.  *  The  place 
naturally  acquired  more  or  less  importance  from 
this  circumstance,  its  population  at  one  time 
reaching  20,000.  The  various  sovereigns  who 
occupied  Aranjuez  beautified  it  by  erecting  new 
structures  or  extending  the  gardens.  Aranjuez 
is  known  historically  for  the  treaty  of  alliance 
concluded  here  between  France  and  Spain  on 
April  12,  1772,  and  as  the  scene  of  the  abdica- 
tion of  Charles  IV.  on  March  19,  1808.  Pop., 
1900,  11,172. 

ABANSAS,  A-rAn^zas,  Bay.  An  inlet  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  on  the  coast  of  Texas,  about 
15  miles  northeast  of  Corpus  Christi  Bay  (Map: 
Texas,  F  6).  It  has  a  length  of  about  18  miles, 
and  its  greatest  width  is  about  8  miles.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Gulf  by  a  narrow  channel, 
known  as  AVansas  Pass.  It  has  a  sandy  bar, 
which  detracts  from  its  commercial  importance, 
and  is  protected  by  a  lighthouse.    On  November 


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ARANSAS. 


708 


ARARAT. 


20,  1864,  the  pass  was  the  scene  of  a  battle  be- 
tween the  Confederate  and  the  Federal  troops, 
which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  the  former's 
fortifications  at  the  pass. 

ARAV8AS  PASS.     See  Abanbas  Bat. 

ARAmr,  yrd-ny',  JAnoq  (1817-82).  Next 
to  PetOfi  the  greatest  of  modem  Hungarian 
poets.  He  was  bom  at  Nagy-Szalonta,  March  1, 
1817.  His  parents  were  simple  peasants  and 
very  poor,  but  he  was  their  only  son  and  the 
child  of  their  old  age,  and  they  spared  no  effort 
to  give  him  an  education.  At  four  he  had  al- 
ready learned  to  read  from  letters  traced  in  the 
ashes  on  the  hearth,  and  the  Psalms  were  his 
first  spelling-book.  From  the  first  he  was  an  in- 
defatigable reader,  and  had  soon  exhausted  the 
resources  of  the  local  library,  both  in  Hungarian 
and  in  Latin.  At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  entered 
the  college  at  Debreczin,  where  he  quickly  dis- 
tinguished himself,  but  his  dreams  were  of  a 
romantic  career.  Like  Pet(}fi,  he  had  felt  the 
fascination  of  the  stage,  and  in  1836  joined  a 
company  of  strolling  players;  but  after  a  few 
months,'  poverty  and  hunger  brought  him,  foot- 
sore and  discouraged,  back  to  his  father's  house. 
Here  he  put  aside  romantic  aspirations,  and  hav- 
ing obtained  an  appointment  as  notary,  settled 
down  to  be  a  mere  "everyday"  man.  It  was  not 
until  the  summer  of  1846  that  certain  absurdi- 
ties in  the  life  of  the  county  officials  "awoke 
the  voice  of  satire  within  him,"  and  inspired  his 
first  poem,  a  satirical  epic,  Az  Elveszett  Alkot- 
mdny  ("The  Lost  Constitution"),  and  the  Kis- 
ifahidy  Society  of  Pesth  having  offered  a  prize 
for  the  best  humorous  poem,  he  submitted  it 
and  was  successful.  Two  years  later  he  obtained 
a  second  prize  with  the  first  part  of  his  great 
trilogy,  Toldiy  an  epic  founded  wholly  upon  Mag- 
yar traditions,  which  immediately  brought  him 
into  widespread  popularity,  and  won  him  the 
friendship  of  the  leading  men  of  letters  of  his 
day  and  country.  Pet<)fi,  among  others,  wrote 
to  him,  saying:  "While  others  win  their  laurels 
leaf  by  leaf,  we  must  grant  you  at  once  the  full 
crown."  Arany*s  popularity  soon  extended  to 
the  lowest  ranks  of  the  people,  for  he  had  satu- 
rated himself  in  childhood  with  the  folklore  of 
his  race,  and  he  excelled  above  all  in  the  art  of 
weaving  these  old  legends  and  traditions  into 
the  fabric  of  his  poems,  and  in  appealing  to  that 
spirit  of  national  pride  which  is  a  leading  char- 
acteristic of  the  Magyar  race.  From  this  time 
on  his  career  was  determined.  In  1860  he  re- 
moved to  Pesth,  becoming  first  director  and  then 
secretary  of  the  Kisfaludy  Society,  and  in  1870 
general  secretary  of  the  Hungarian  Academy  of 
Science,  a  position  which  he  held  until  shortly 
before  his  death,  October  22,  1882.  A  monument 
was  raised  to  his  memory  at  Pesth  in  1893. 
Among  his  more  notable  works  should  be  men- 
tioned: Murdny  Ostroma  ("The  Siege  of  Mu- 
rfiny") ;  King  Buda'a  Death,  an  epic  in  twelve 
cantos;  the  second  and  third  parts  of  the  Toldi 
cycle,  ToldVa  Love  and  Toldi* s  Evening;  some 
exquisite  ballads,  which  many  Hungarian  critics 
think  have  been  unsurpassed,  and  numerous 
translations,  including  Aristophanes,  and  por- 
tions of  Goethe,  Tasso,  and  Shakespeare.  Arany's 
own  estimate  of  his  worth  is  interesting:  "My 
talent,"  he  wrote,  "is  always  urging  me  onward, 
but  my  lack  of  energy  constantly  drags  me  back ; 
and  so  I  remain,  like  the  greater  part  of  my  work 
— a  fragment!"    This  verdict  falls  far  below  that 


of  his  countrymen,  who  unite  in  regarding  lum 
as  the  poet  who  raised  Hungarian  poetry  to  a 
hitherto  unknown  height,  as  unequaled  in  his 
versatility  and  artistic  finish,  and  in  his  power 
of  combining  the  spirit  of  the  primitive  Magyar 
folksong  and  the  classic  polish  of  his  own  verse 
in  perfect  harmony.  There  are  numerous  Ger- 
man translations  of  his  poems,  among  otherB, 
Kertbeny  (Leipzig,  1851)  ;  L.  K6rodi  (Kran- 
stadt,  1863)  ;  Sponer  (Leipzig,  1880) ;  and 
Dux  (Pesth,  1861). 

ARAP'AHO  (probably,  tattooed  people). 
An  important  Algonkian  tribe  of  the  North 
American  plains,  living  in  three  principal  divi- 
sions, viz.,  the  Hitimena,  "Beggars"  or  Grosven- 
tres,  associated  with  the  Assiniboin  in  northern 
Montana  (600)  ;  the  Northern  Arapahos,  liv- 
ing with  the  Shoshonis  upon  a  reservation  in 
Wyoming  (800)  ;  and  the  Southern  Arapahos, 
associated  with  the  Cheyennes  in  Oklahoma 
(980).  These  last,  together  with  the  Cheyennes, 
sold  their  reservation  by  treaty  in  1892,  and  are 
now  citizens,  holding  allotments  in  severalty. 
In  character  the  Arapahos  are  friendly  and  ac- 
commodating, and  display  a  superior  adapUbil- 
ity  to  civilization.  They  are  alao  of  a  fervent 
religious  spirit,  and  were  amon^  the  principal 
adherents  and  propagators  of  the  ghost  dance 
religion  some  ten  years  ago.  In  the  early  border 
wars  they  were  usually  friendly  or  neutral,  not- 
withstanding the  fact  that  their  allies,  the  Cbey- 
ennes,  were  among  the  most  determined  of  the 
hostiles. 

ARAPATMA,  &'r&-pI'mA  (probably  native 
name) .  A  genus  of  South  American  river  fishes, 
closely  related  to  the  herrings,  and  having  the 
body  covered  with  a  mosaic  of  strong,  bony,  com- 
pound scales.  They  are  the  largest  fresh-water 
fishes  in  the  world,  attaining  a  length  of  15 
feet  and  a  weight  of  400  poimds.  They  are  much 
valued  as  food,  both  in  the  fresh  and  in  tiie  salted 
condition,  by  the  people  of  Brazil  and  Guiana. 
The  principal  species  is  Arapainia  gigaa,  which 
is  taken  by  spearing. 

ARAPILES,  fi'rft-penfis.  A  village  of  Spain 
in  the  Province  of  Salamanca,  situated  about 
four  miles  southeast  of  the  town  of  Salamanca 
(Map:  Spain,  C  2).  It  was  famous  as  the  place 
of  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  in  which  the  French 
forces  under  Marmont  were  defeated  by  the 
allied  troops  under  Wellington,  on  July  22, 
1812. 

AR^ARAT  {Airaraty  in  the  old  Armenian 
dialect  Aiarat,  i.e.  the  plains  of  the  Aryans).  The 
ancient  name  of  the  fertile  plateau  through  which 
fiows  the  river  Aras,  or  Araxes.  Ararat  appears 
in  the  Old  Testament  (II.  Kings  xix.  37)  as  the 
place  to  which  the  sons  of  Sennacherib  fled  after 
murdering  their  father.  In  Assyrian  texts  the 
country  is  also  mentioned  frequently  from  the 
Ninth  Century  B.C.  onward  under  the  form  Urarti, 
though  it  would  appear  that  the  name  was  used 
somewhat  indefinitely  for  a  larger  district  than 
the  Ararat  of  classical  writers.  It  was  the 
ambition  of  the  Assyrian  kings  to  include  Urarti 
in  their  dominions,  and  frequent  military  expedi- 
tions were  made  against  Nairi,  as  the  vast  tract 
to  the  north  and  northeast  of  Assyria  was  com- 
monly termed.  It  occupies  the  centre  of  the 
mountainous  region  of  Annenia,  belonging  partly 
to  Turkey  and  partly  to  Russia.  According  to 
Genesis  (viii.  4)  it  was  on  the  "mountains  of 
Ararat"  that  Noah's  Ark  rested  after  the  Del- 


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ARARAT. 


709 


ARATTJS. 


uge,  from  which  it  appears  that  Ararat  was 
properly  the  designation  of  an  entire  district. 
Such,  however,  was  the  general  interest  attach- 
ing to  the  Biblical  tradition,  that  the  name 
Ararat  became  attached  to  a  particular  moun- 
tain, the  one  called  by  the  Armenians  McLsia 
Leusar,  or  "mountains  of  the  ark";  by  the 
Turks  Aghri-Dagh,  "steep  moimtain";  and  by 
the  Persians,  Koh-i-NUh,  "Noah's  mountain."  It 
rises  in  two  volcanic  cones,  known  as  the  greater 
and  lesser  Ararat;  the  former,  which  attains 
the  height  of  16,912  feet  (according  to  another 
measurement,  17,212  feet)  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  is  covered  with  perpetual  snow.  It  is,  next 
to  Mount  Demavend,  the  highest  elevation  of 
Western  Asia,  and  since  1827  it  forms  the  point 
where  the  Russian,  Turkish,  and  Persian  ter- 
ritories meet,  its  summit  being  in  Russian  terri- 
tory. In  1840  the  form  of  the  mountain  was 
partially  changed  by  a  frightful  and  destructive 
earthquake.  Previous  to  this  period,  at  the  base 
of  the  mountain  and  at  a  point  where  a  stream 
runs  from  a  wild  goi^ge,  there  stood  the  village 
of  Arguri,  or  Aguri.  It  was  surrounded  by 
gardens  and  orchards,  and  had  upwards  of  one 
thousand  inhabitants.  In  the  ravine,  2300  feet 
above  the  village,  stood  the  Armenian  convent  of 
St.  James,  and  1000  feet  higher  still  a  chapel 
dedicated  to  St.  James.  The  beauty  and  mild 
air  of  the  district  made  Arguri  a  favorite  sum- 
mer resort  of  the  richer  inhabitants  of  Armenia. 
It  was  destined  to  undergo  a  great  change,  how- 
ever. On  July  2,  1840,  dreadful  shocks  of 
earthquake  were  felt.  Great  masses  of  the  moun- 
tain were  thrown  into  the  plain,  the  ravine  was 
closed,  the  convent  and  chapel  disappeared,  and 
the  village  and  the  gardens  which  surrounded  it 
were  buried  under  rocks,  earth,  and  ice,  with  all 
the  inhabitants. 

ARARAT,  or  PI^OT  MOUNTAIN.       A 

mountain  about  3000  feet  high,  situated  in  Sur- 
rey County,  N.  C. 

ARART,  &-r&'r^.  Sebra.  A  low  mountain 
tain  chain  forming  the  southwestern  boundanr  of 
the  States  of  Cearfi  and  Piauhy,  Brazil  (Map: 
Brazil,  J  6).  It  forms  part  of  the  mountain 
system  that  extends  southward  from  the  north- 
east coast  at  a  point  just  to  the  west  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Parahiba  River.  It  is,  besides, 
the  watershed  between  that  river  system  and  the 
Sao  Francisco,  to  the  eastward. 

ARAB,  &-r9.s^,  the  ancient  6k.^Apd{i7t,Arax§s). 
A  river  in  Armenia,  formed  by  the  junction  of 
the  Bingol-Su  and  the  Kaleh-Su,  and  uniting  its 
waters  with  those  of  the  Kur  (ancient  Cyrus), 
after  a  course  of  about  500  miles.  The  main 
stream  is  the  Bingol-Su,  which  rises  in  the  Bin- 
gol-Dagh  Mountains,  Asiatic  Turkey,  in  latitude 
41**  30'  N.  and  longitude  41*»  10'  E.;  and  flowing 
north-northeast,  is  joined  a  little  below  Hasan- 
Kaleh  by  the  Kaleh-Su,  after  which  the  combined 
stream  is  called  the  Aras  (Map:  Turkey 
in  Asia,  L  3).  About  52  miles  west  of 
Kazyman  it  crosses  the  Russian  frontier,  trav- 
erses the  territory  of  Kars  and  the  government 
of  Erivan;  then  forms  for  a  long  distance  the 
boundary  line  between  Russia  and  Persia,  and  by 
a  sharp  turn  south  it  flows  on  until  it  meets  the 
Kur.  On  its  banks  are  found  many  traces  of 
ancient  canals  and  other  proofs  that  the  sur- 
rounding country  was  once  densely  populated. 
The  ancient  writers  claimed  that  the  Aras  flowed 


directly  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  modem  re- 
search has  proven  this  to  have  been  the  case. 
Near  the  village  of  Janfitze  the  old  bed  of  the 
Aras  is  visible  for  about  twenty  miles.  This 
former  bed  of  the  river  passed  through  Armavir, 
the  ancient  capital  of  Armenia. 

ARA^OR.  A  Christian  Latin  poet  of  the 
Sixth  Century.  He  was  bom  in  Liguria,  studied 
at  Milan,  became  a  jurist  under  Theodoric,  and 
was  an  official  under  Athalaric,  Theodoric's  suc- 
cessor. About  640  he  took  orders  as  a  subdea- 
con  of  the  Roman  Church.  He  is  best  known 
for  his  De  Actis  Apoatolorum,  a  poem  in  very 
creditable  hexameters,  but  much  overweighted 
with  reflective  and  allegorical  passages.  He  also 
wrote  an  Epistola  ad  Parthenium  (1866),  in  the 
elegiac  distich. 

ARA-TUS  (Gk.  "Aparos,  Aratos),  (B.C.  271- 
13).  A  distinguished  statesman  and  general  of 
Sicyon.  At  the  time  of  Aratus's  youth,  Sicyon 
was  in  the  hands  of  tyrants,  who  were  chiefly 
partisans  of  the  Macedonian  kings.  Clinias,  the 
father  of  Aratus,  was  an  active  supporter  of  the 
opposite  side,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  party  strug- 
gle, he  was  assassinated,  B.C.  246.  Many  mem- 
bers of  his  party  were  obliged  to  flee  from  the 
city,  and  Aratus  was  rescued  by  a  relative  and 
taken  to  Argos.  Here  he  spent  his  youth  and 
became  a  recognized  leader  of  the  exiled  band. 
In  his  twentieth  year  (B.C.  251),  putting  himself 
at  the  head  of  a  few  followers,  he  made  his  way 
to  Sicyon,  secretly  entered  the  town,  drove  out 
the  tyrant,  and  reestablished  a  government  of 
the  people.  Owing  to  the  long  rule  of  the  ty- 
rants, he  at  first  met  with  many  difficulties  in 
his  efforts  at  reorganization,  but  he  successfully 
overcame  these,  and  was  r^'ognized  as  the  first 
man  in  the  state.  Under  his  lead,  Sicyon  joined 
the  Achaean  League,  in  which  it  soon  rose  to  a 
position  of  first  importance.  In  B.C.  245  he  was 
made  general  of  the  League,  an  office  which  he 
held  in  the  course  of  his  caree'r  seventeen  times. 
Through  his  influence,  many  other  Greek  cities 
joined  the  confederacy.  In  B.C.  224  the  League 
was  hard  pressed  by  the  Spartans  under  Cleo- 
menes,  and  Aratus  found  himself  obliged  to 
join  hands  with  Antigonus,  King  of  Macedonia. 
An  alliance  was  made,  and  the  Spartans  were 
defeated  at  Sellasia,  in  B.C.  221;  but  through 
this  step  the  Macedonians  gained  a  foothold  in 
Peloponnesus.  Aratus  was  a  greater  statesman 
than  general,  but  he  was  sincere  throughout  his 
life  in  his  efforts  to  enlar^  4ind  strengthen  the 
league.  He  was  finally  poisoned,  in  B.C.  213,  by 
order  of  Philip,  the  successor  of  Antigonus.  Two 
annual  festivals  (the  Aratea)  were  instituted 
by  his  countrymen  in  his  honor.  Near  the  end 
of  his  life  he  wrote  his  memoirs,  in  thirty  books. 
Consult  Mflller,  Fragmenta  Hiatoricorum  OrcB- 
corum  (Paris,  1868-74). 

ARATUS  OF  Soli.  A  Greek  physician  and 
poet  of  Cilicia.  About  B.c.  270,  at  the  request 
of  the  Macedonian  king,  Antigonus  Gonatas,  he 
wrote  a  Greek  didactic  poem,  entitled,  Phcsnom- 
ena^  founded  on  the  astronomical  system  of 
Gudoxus  of  Cnidos,  and  appended  to  it  another 
poem,  Diosemeia,  giving  rules  for  prognostication 
of  the  weather.  A  pure  style  and  correct  versi- 
fication mark  both  poems,  which  were  translated 
into  Latin  by  Cicero,  Cflesar  Germanicus,  and 
Rufus  Festus  Avienus.  Aratus  was  a  native  of 
the  same  province  as  St.  Paul,  who  quotes  from 


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ASATUS. 


710 


ABAUGABIA. 


him  in  his  speech  on  Mars'  Hill  (Acts  xviL  28). 
Critical  edition  by  Maass  (Berlin,  1892). 

ABAUGANIA,  &'rou-krn«-&.  The  country 
of  the  Araucos  or  Araucanian  Indians,  a  terri- 
tory in  the  southern  part  of  Chile,  occupying  a 
large  portion  of  the  province  of  Arauco.  The 
country  is  divided  from  north  to  south  into  four 
parallel  regions,  which  were  formerly  adminis- 
tered by  hereditary  toguia.  The  population  can- 
not be  given  with  accuracy,  but  is  estimated  at 
50,000.  In  physical  type  they  resemble  their 
kindred  of  the  pampas.  Their  language  is  of 
such  harmonious  and  adaptable  character  that  a 
serious  attempt  was  once  made  by  a  missionary 
student  to  introduce  it  into  Europe  to  super- 
sede Latin.  The  Araucanians  remained  inde- 
pendent longer  than  any  other  native  tribe  on 
the  American  continent,  and  had  fought  for  their 
liberty,  with  intervals  of  precarious  truce,  from 
1537  to  1773.  During  the  war  between  Spain 
and  the  Chilean  colonists,  Araucania  remained 
neutral.  In  1861,  a  French  adventurer  named 
Antoine  Tounens  was  elected  King  of  Araucania, 
under  the  name  of  0x41  ie  Antoine  I.,  but  was 
deposed  and  sent  back  to  France  by  the  Chil- 
ean Government.  The  rule  of  Chile  was  recog- 
nized by  the  Araucanians  in  1870.  Consult  A. 
Polakowsky,  "Die  heutigen  Aurakanen,"  in 
Olohus,  No.  74  (Brunswick,  1898). 

ARAU^GAN  STOGX.  A  group  of  South 
American  tribes  formerly  occupying  the  pampas 
region  of  Argentina,  from  about  35**  south  to 
the  Rio  Ne^o  and  the  adjoining  portion  of 
Chile,  including  the  island  of  Chiloe.  The  stock 
name  (Aucanian  of  Brinton)  is  derived  from 
aucani,  "wild,  indomitable."  In  their  general 
character  and  habit  the  Indians  of  this  stock 
closely  resemble  our  own  plains  tribes ;  or  rather, 
perhaps,  the  Navajos,  most  of  them  wandering 
constantly  from  place  to  place  in  quest  of  fresher 
pasture  for  their  herds  of  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep,  dwelling  in  low  skin  tents  and  subsisting 
almost  entirely  upon  meat,  despising  agriculture, 
but  expert  in  dressing  skins,  forging  lance  blades 
and  knives,  and  weaving  the  wool  of  their  sheep 
into  blankets  and  ponchos.  They  seem  to  have 
but  a  loose  organization,  many  of  the  tribal 
names  being  merely  direction  names.  As  a  race 
they  are  warlike  and  independent,  refusing  civili- 
zation or  Christianity.  Among  their  tribes  are 
the  Araucano,  Chono,  Huilche,  Moluche,  Puel- 
che,  Ranquele,  and  others. 

AB'AnCA^BIA*(  from  Araticania,  a  territory 
in  the  south  of  Chile).  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Conifene  or  pines,  consisting  of 
lofty  trees,  natives  of  South  America  and  Aus- 
tralasia. The  species,  of  which  there  are  fifteen, 
are  all  evergreen.  The  leaves  are  broader  than 
those  of  pines  and  firs,  which,  however,  the  trees 
resemble  in  their  general  manner  of  growth.  Ar- 
aucaria  imprtcata^  sometimes  called  the  Chile 
Pine,  a  native  of  the  Andes  of  Chile,  form- 
ing forests  on  their  western  declivities,  attain  a 
height  of  150  feet.  Its  trunk  is  quite  straight 
and  free  from  knots.  The  bark  of  the  young  trees 
is  studded  with  leaves  from  the  base  upward, 
even  until  the  tree  is  12  or  15  years  of  age.  The 
branches  are  in  whorls  of  five  to  eight.  Young 
trees  have  branches  almost  from  the  ground ;  old 
trees  have  tall  naked  stems,  with  a  crown  of 
branches.  The  female  strobile  (cone)  is  roundish 
ovate,  six  to  eight  inches  in  diameter,  with  scales 


terminated  by  a  long  awl-shaped  ptoint,  and  seeds 
wedge-shaped  and  more  than  an  inch  in  length. 
The  outer  and  inner  bark  of  full-grown  trees  are 
each  four  to  six  inches  in  thickness.  From  both 
outer  and  inner  bark,  and  indeed  from  all  parts  of 
the  tree,  resin  flows  readily  and  in  great  abun- 
dance. The  leaves  are  lanceolate,  about  an  inch  in 
length,  and  half  an  inch  in  breadth  near  the  base, 
sharp-pointed.  The  timber  is  heavy,  solid,  hard, 
fibrous,  yellowish  white,  and  beautifully  veined. 
It  is  suitable  for  masts  of  ships.  The  resin, 
which  is  white,  has  a  smell  like  frankincense, 
and  a  not  impleasant  taste.  The  seed  is  pleasant 
to  the  taste,  not  unlike  the  chestnut,  and  is  a 
most  important  article  of  food  among  the 
natives.  It  is  eaten  raw,  boiled,  or  roast^.  A 
spirituous  liquor  is  distilled  from  it.  A  single 
strobile  sometimes  contains  between  200  and  300 
seeds,  and  one  tree  may  be  seen  loaded  with  20  or 
30  of  these  great  strobiles.  This  Araucaris 
was  introduc^  into  Great  Britain  at  the  end 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,  and  is  now  prettj 
frequently  planted.  Araucaria  Brasiliana,  the 
Brazil  Pine,  has  loosely  imbricated  lanceolate 
leaves,  and  a  looser  and  more  spreading  habit 
than  Araucaria  imbricata.  The  seeds  or  nuts 
are  sold  as  an  article  of  food  in  Rio  Janeiro. 
The  resin  which  exudes  from  the  tree  is  mixed 
with  wax  to  make  candles.  Araucaria  eacoeUa, 
the  Norfolk  Island  Pine,  a  native  of  Norfolk 
Island,  New  Caledonia,  etc.,  attains  a  height  of 
160  to  220  feet,  free  from  branches  to  80  to  100 
feet,  with  a  trunk  sometimes  11  feet  in  diameter. 
The  wood  is  white,  tough,  close-grained,  and  so 
heavy  as  almost  to  sink  in  water.  The  leaves 
of  the  young  trees  are  linear  and  spreading; 
those  of  the  adult  are  ovate,  and  closely  imbri- 
cated. The  cones  are  four  to  five  inches  in 
diameter.  Araucaria  Cunmnghamii,  nearly 
globular,  the  Moreton  Bay  Pine,  a  native  of 
the  shores  of  Moreton  Bay  and  banks  of  the 
Brisbane  River  in  New  South  Wales,  very  mudi 
resembles  the  last.  It  attains  a  height  of  150  to 
200  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  three  to  six  feet  The 
leaves  of  the  adult  trees  are  lanceolate  and  im- 
bricated. The  wood  is  yellowish,  and  is  used  for 
boat-building,  house-carpentry,  and  the  commoo 
kinds  of  furniture.  Araucaria  Bidwillii,  the 
Bunya  Bunya,  is  an  important  tree  of  Qneeju- 
land,  where  it  attains  a  height  of  100  to  150 
feet  and  a  diameter  of  three  to  four  feet  The 
timber  is  not  quite  so  valuable  as  that  of  the 
Moreton  Bay  Pine.  The  seeds,  of  which  there  is 
said  to  be  an  abundance  every  three  years,  are 
as  much  as  two  inches  long  and  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  broad,  and  are  much  used  for  food  by 
the  aborigines.  An  important  resin  is  obtained 
from  this  tree. 

There  are  a  number  of  species  and  varieties 
grown  in  greenhouses  in  the  United  States,  where 
they  are  prized  for  their  graceful  appearance. 
This  is  especially  true  of  Araucaria  excelsa.  The 
species  do  not  flourish  in  the  open,  except  in  the 
southern  States,  Nearly  all  the  leading  species 
are  successfully  grown  as  ornamentals  in  Cali- 
fornia. 

Fossil  Forms.  Araucaria,  and  several  allied 
genera,  have  been  found  abundantly  in  rocks  of 
Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  ages  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  world.  The  oldest  representative  of  the 
group  is  the  genus  Walchia,  which  occurs  in 
rocks  of  Permian  or  uppermost  Carboniferous 
Age,  and  which  grew  to  a  great  size,  equalipg 


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ARAUCARIA 


1.  ASPHODEL   (Asphodelus  albus).  4.  A  FOSSIL  SPECIES  OF  NORFOLK  PINE  (Arauoaria). 

2.  JERUSALEM  ARTICHOKE   (Helianthus  tuberosus),  5.  NORFOLK   PINE   (Arauoaria  exoelsa). 

•howlna  tubers.  5A.  TIPS  OF   BRANCHES  OF   NORFOLK   PINE. 

3.  A  WESTERN   ASTER   (Aster  townsendil).  6.  CONE  AND  BRANCH   OF  A 

7.  QLOBE  ARTICHOKE   (Cynara  soolymus). 


ORFOLK   PINE.  T 


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ABAUGABIA. 


711 


ABAWAKAN  STOCK. 


that  of  the  tallest  spruces  of  modem  times. 
Throughout  Mesozoic  rocks  pf  America,  Europe, 
and  Asia,  the  genus  Araucaria  and  its  allies  have 
been  widely  recognized  by  their  leaves,  branches, 
fruits,  and  in  some  cases  by  even  large  trunks. 
The  type  genus  Araucaria  appears  first  in  rocks 
of  Lower  Jurassic  Age ;  it  reached  a  considerable 
degree  of  expansion  in  Cretaceous  time  all  over 
northern  Europe  and  Greenland,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  Eocene  Tertiary  it  became  extinct 
over  that  region,  probably  because  of  climatic 
changes  which  forced  it  to  migrate  farther  to 
the  southward.  It  will  hence  be  seen  that  the 
modem  representatives  of  this  genus  are  mere 
relics  of  a  once  extensive  group  of  plants  which 
in  those  earlier  times  furnished  the  great  forest 
trees  that  covered  a  large  part  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  to  a  lesser  degree  portions  also  of  the 
American  continent. 

Consult:  F.  von  Mueller,  Select  Extra-Tropical 
Plants  Readily  Eligible  for  Industrial  Culture 
(Melbourne,  1895)  ;  G.  Behtham,  Flora  Aus* 
traliensis  (Ijondon,  1803-78)  ;  G.  Nicholson, 
The  Illustrated  History  of  Cfardening  (London, 
1888)  ;  L.  H.  Bailey,  Cyclopcedia  of  American 
.Horticulture  (New  York,  1900-01).  For  illus- 
tratioh,  see  Conifers. 

ABAUCO,  A-rou'kd.  A  province  of  Chile, 
bounded  by  the  provinces  of  Concepci6n,  Bio- 
Bio,  Malleco,  and  Cantin,  and  the  Pacific  Ocean 
(Map:  Chile,  C  11).  Its  area  is  4248  square 
miles.  It  has  a  fertile  soil  and  contains  •  some 
minerals.  Formerly  the  province  occupied  a  far 
larger  area.  The  population  in  1895  was  59,237, 
excluding  Indians.  Capital,  Lebu,  with  a  popu- 
lation of  2784.     See  Abaucabia. 

ABAUJO  DE  AZEVEDO,  &-rou'zh6  d&  ft'- 
z&-va'd6,  Antonio  de  (Conde  da  Barca)  (1754- 
1817).  A  Portuguese  statesman  and  diplomatist, 
bom  at  Sa,  near  Ponte  de  Lima.  In  1789  he  was 
appointed  ambassador  to  The  Hague.  In  1797 
he  negotiated  at  Paris  a  treaty  with  France,  but 
it  was  rejected  by  the  Directory.  A  few  months 
later  he  went  as  ambassador  to  Berlin.  After  the 
Peace  of  Amiens  he  served  as  ambassador  to  Saint 
Petersburg.  In  1803  he  was  recalled  to  Lisbon, 
to  assume  the  oflSce  of  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
As  head  of  the  State  he  did  much  for  its  material 
advancement ;  but  with  the  capture  of  Lisbon  by 
Napoleon  and  the  dethronement  of  the  royal  fam- 
ily in  1807,  he  accompanied  the  court  to  Brazil. 
During  the  first  years  of  his  residence  in  the 
New  World,  he  devoted  himself  to  scientific 
and  literary  pursuits.  He  founded  at  Rio  de 
Janeiro  a  bchool  of  fine  arts  and  one  of  medicint; 
and  chemistry.  He  introduced  the  cultivation  of 
tea,  and  in  many  ways  encouraged  agriculture 
and  industries.  In  1814  he  was  minister  of 
marine  for  the  colonies  of  Brazil,  and  the  next 
year  received  the  title  of  the  Count  of  Barca.  At 
his  death  he  was  minister  of  foreign  affairs. 
Among  his  literary  w^orks  were  two  tragedies, 
translations  from  Horace,  Gray,  and  Dryden. 
He  died  in  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

ABAUJO  FOBTO-ALEaBE,  pdr'td  ii-W- 
grft.  Mangel  de  (1806-79).  A  Brazilian  ar- 
chitect and  poet.  He  was  bom  at  Rio  Pardo,  in 
the  Province  of  Sao  Pedro,  studied  art  at  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  and  art  and  architecture  in  Paris 
and  Italy,  and  in  1837  was  appointed  professor 
in  the  Academy  of  Art  at  Rio  de  Janeiro.  He 
was  appointed  consul-general  at  Stettin  in  1859. 


He  designed  the  church  of  Santa  Ana  and  the 
Rio  Bank,  wrote  a  number  of  moderately  suc- 
cessful comedies,  Colombo  (an  uncompleted 
epic),  and  a  volume  of  poems  entitled  Brasil- 
tanas  (1863). 

ABAUNAy  rr&-l5^n&.  A  South  American 
tribe  of  Tacanan  stock,  living  along  the  Madre  de 
Dioff,  a  northern  tributary  of  the  BenI  River,  on 
the  Peru-Bolivia  frontier.  Although  evidently 
of  considerable  importance,  contemporary  ac- 
counts concerning  them  differ  radically.  Heath 
(1883)  asserting  that  they  are  naked  cannibals, 
ugly  and  ill-formed,  while  Labre  (1885)  describes 
them  as  sedentary  agriculturists,  and  Armentia 
(1887)  says  that  they  are  gentle  and  friendly, 
and  of  remarkably  light  complexion.  According 
to  Labre  also,  they  have  temples  with  images  of 
wood  and  polished  stone,  and  hold  women  so  im- 
pure as  to  exclude  them  from  religious  rites,  and 
not  even  to  permit  them  to  know  the  names  of 
the  gods. 

ABAUBE,  &-rou'rft.  A  town  in  the  State  of 
Lara,  Venezuela,  on  the  Acarigua  River,  twenty 
miles  south  of  Barquisimeto  (Map:  Venezuela, 
D  2).  The  surrounding  region  is  noted  for  its 
fertility  in  the  production  of  cotton,  coffee,  and 
cattle,  while  near  by  is  the  scene  of  the  Battle 
of  Arame,  December  4,  1813.    Population,  4000. 

ABAVULLI,  ar^ft-vnn^.  A  mountain  range 
in  Rajputana,  British  India,  extending  from 
about  latitude  22*»  40'  N.,  longitude  74"  E.,  to 
latitude  26"  50'  N.,  longitude  75"  E.  (Map: 
India,  B  3).  It  is  about  300  miles  long,  with  a 
width  ranging  from  6  to  60  miles.  The  river 
system  of  the  Aravulli  Mountains  is  very  exten- 
sive, especially  on  the  northern  and  southern 
slopes.  The  vegetation  is  very  poor,  and  the 
valleys  inclosed  between  the  hills  are  mostly 
sandy  and  utterly  devoid  of  vegetation. 

ABA  WAX,  £L^r&-w&k.  A  tribe  living  on  the 
Corentyn  River  in  Dutch  Guiana,  from  which  the 
great  Arawakan  stock  (q.v.)  derives  its  name. 
The  word  signifies  ''meal  eaters,"  in  allusion  to 
cassava  bread,  which  forms  a  principal  article  of 
diet  with  the  tribe.  The  Arawak  cultivate  both 
cassava  and  com,  but  depend  largely  also  on 
hunting  and  fishing.  They  have  the  clan  system, 
with,  descent  in  the  female  line  and  practice  the 
couvade. 

ABAWAKAN,  £l'r&-w^^an,  STOCK.  The 
most  widely  extended  linguistic  stock  of  South 
America,  its  tribes  formerly  reaching,  with  inter- 
ruptions, from  southern  Brazil  and  Bolivia  to 
the  northernmost  extremity  of  the  continent,  and 
including  also,  imtil  the  irruption  of  the 
Caribs,  the  whole  of  the  West  Indies,  several 
villages  being  even  established  upon  the  main- 
land of  Florida.  Columbus  made  his  first  land- 
ing and  earliest  discoveries  in  Arawakan  terri- 
tory, and  the  names  preserved  from  Haiti,  Cuba, 
and  the  Bahamas  are  readily  explained  from  the 
existing  dialects  of  this  stock.  The  Arawakan 
tribes  were  pressed  upon  by  the  Caribs  from  the 
lower  Orinoco,  and  these  fierce  invaders  had 
already  seized  many  of  the  southern  Antilles  at 
the  time  of  the  discovery,  the  occupation  being 
then  so  recent  that  the  women  of  the  island 
Caribs,  most  of  whom  were  Arawak  captives, 
still  spoke  that  language.  Physically,  the  Ara- 
wakan tribes  are  rather  undersized,  with  appar- 
ently low  vitality.     Their  plane  of  culture  U 


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A&AWAXAN  STOCK. 


712 


ABBITBATION. 


rather  above  that  of  their  neighbors.  Those  of 
the  islands  cultivated  com,  manioc,  and  cotton, 
as  well  as  tobacco,  which  came  first  to  European 
knowledge  through  them.  They  were  skillful 
weavers  and  artisans  in  wood,  stone,  and  native 
gold.  Considerable  study  has  been  made  of  the 
mythologies  of  the  stock.  Of  perhaps  a  hundred 
existing  Arawakan  tribes,  the  most  important  are 
the  Anti,  Arawak,  Barre,  Baure,  Goajiro,  Guana, 
Juri,  Manaos,  Manetenesi,  Maipure,  Maranho, 
Moxo,  Passe,  Piro,  Taruraa. 
ABAXOESS.     See  Abas. 

ABAYAT,  A-rl'At.  A  town  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines, in  the  Province  of  Pampanga,  about 
twelve  miles  northeast  of  Bacolor  (Map:  Luzon, 
E  6) .  It  was  occupied  by  American  troops  under 
General  Young  on  October  12,  1899,  during  the 
Filipino  insurrection.    Population,  14,000. 

AB^ACES  {Gk.'Apfidinis,Arhake8),  Accord- 
ing to  Otesias,  a  general  of  Sardanapalus  (i.e. 
Asshurbanapal),  King  of  Assyria,  who  in  con- 
nection with  Belesys,  commanding  the  Babylon- 
ian troops,  organized  a  conspiracy  against  As- 
syria, and  after  defeating  Sardanapalus  (b.c. 
876),  founded  the  Median  Empire.  The  dynasty 
established  by  Arbaces  lasted  till  its  overthrow 
by  Cyrus (c.550  B.C.) .  This  account  does  not  tally 
with  what  we  now  know  through  the  cuneiform 
inscriptions  of  the  manner  in  which  Assyria  fell 
(see  Assybia),  nor  with  our  present  knowledge 
of  the  founding  of  the  Median  Empire.  Belesys 
may  be  a  corruption  of,  or  intended  for,  Nabopo- 
lassar,  and  if  there  is  any  historical  basis  for 
Ctesias^s  account,  Arbaces  may  be  the  name  of 
the  *Scythian'  chief  who  joined  Nabopolassar 
in  the  attack  upon  Assyria  under  the  last  king, 
Sin-sharishkun,  or  the  name  may  even  be  a  dis- 
tortion of  the  latter. 

AB^AGES.  The  king  of  Iberia  in  Beaumont 
and  Fleteher's  King  and  Xo  King,  (2)  The  ruler 
of  Media  in  Byron's  Sardanapalus, 

AS/BALEBT  (Lat.  arcu8,  bow  +  ballista,  a 
milite,ry  engine,  from  Gk.  /SdXXetv,  hallein,  to 
throw).  Abbalist,  Abcubalist,  Abblast.  A 
weapon  of  indefinite  antiquity,  known  also  as 
cross-bow  or  bow-gun.  Some  Roman  forms  are 
depicted  on  extant  monumente,  and  it  was  from 
the  Romans,  possibly  indirectly,  that  the  arba- 
lest in  use  in  the  Middle  Ages  was  derived,  ^t 
was  employed  chiefly  in  the  Twelfth  Century  and 
later,  although  it  was  not  unknown  in  the  Tenth 
and  Eleventh  centuries.  There  were  at  least  eight 
distinct  forms,  varying  in  size  and  construction. 
Some  were  carried  by  foot- soldiers,  others  were 
permanently  fixed  on  fortifications  like  modern 
cannons;  some  hurled  short,  thick  arrows  (called 
'quarrels'  or  bolts)  ;  others  shot  stones,  leaden 
balls,  or  other  projectiles.  The  larger  ones  were 
worked  by  placing  the  foot  in  a  loop,  drawing 
the  cords  up  with  the  hands,  while  the  gun  was 
mainteined  in  an  inverted  position.  When  the 
weapon  became  so  improved  that  the  bow  was 
made  of  steel,  it  required,  in  order  to  bend  it, 
a  separate  machine  called  a  *moulinet.'  In  the 
crude  formations  of  mediaeval  tactics  the  arbales- 
tiers  or  cross-bowmen  were  an  important  branch, 
and  were  usually  advanced  to  the  first  line  of  bat- 
tle. They  were  divided  into  two  branches,  the 
mounted  and  dismounted,  and  their  supplies  of 
arrow  ammunition  were  carried  in  carts.  The 
use  of  the  arbalest  against  Christians  was  pro- 
hibited by  the  Lateran  Council  of  1139  on  the 


ground  that  it  was  "a  thoroughly  diabolical 
weapon."  But  this  prohibition  was  ineffective. 
Richard  the  Lion-Hearted  was  noted  for  his  skill 
with  the  arbalest.  One  clause  of  the  Magna 
Charta  prohibited  King  John  from  employing 
foreign  cross-bowmen.  In  the  Fourteenth  On- 
tury  the  arbalest  was  superseded  in  England  by 
the  long-bow.    See  Abchebt. 

ABBE^A  (Gk.  'Ap^i|Xa,  Assyr.  A r&ai/u,  the 
city  of  four  gods,  from  arba,  four  -j-  il,  god).  An 
ancient  town  of  Assyria,  now  the  Turkish  town 
of  Erbil  or  Arbil,  situated  in  latitude  36**  9^  N., 
longitude  44^  4'  £.,  to  the  southwest  of  Mosul. 
It  is  famous  as  having  given  name  to  the  battle 
in  which  Alexander  finally  defeated  Barius,  RC. 
331.  The  battle  was  really  fought  near  Gauga- 
mela  to  the  northwest  of  Arbela. 

AB^EB,  Edwabd.  An  English  scholar.  Fel- 
low of  King's  College,  London,  and  emeritus  pro- 
fessor of  English  literature  in  Mason  College, 
Birmingham.  To  him  English  scholarship  i& 
greatly  indebted  for  many  careful  reprints.  Thev 
comprise  Tyndale's  New  Testament,  1525  ( 1871) ; 
A  Transcript  of  the  Registers  of  the  Company  of 
Stationers  of  London,  Uok-lSkO  (1875)  ;  English 
Reprints  (14  vols.,  1868-71)  ;  An  English  Gamer 
(8  vols.,  1877-96)  ;  An  English  Scholar's  Library 
(16  nos.,  1878-84)  ;  British  Anthologies,  10  vols., 
1899-1900)  ;  The  First  Three  English  Books  oa 
America  (1885):  The  Story  of  the  Pilgrim 
Fathers,  1606-28  (1897). 

ABBITBAGE,  firn)I-trftj  or  ftrlil-traih' 
(Lat.  arbiter,  umpire,  judge).  A  term  applied 
to  transactions  which  take  advantage  of  differ- 
ences of  prices  for  the  same  articles  in  different 
markete.  At  the  same  time  that  the  trader  buys 
in  the  cheaper  market,  he  sells  in  the  dearer. 
The  margin  between  the  two  prices  must  be  suffi- 
cient to  do  more  than  cover  the  costs  of  ex- 
change to  insure  a  profit.  The  rate  of  profit  is  of 
necessity  small,  being  frequently  measured  in 
small  fractions  of  one  per  cent.  The  objects 
of  such  arbitrage  transactions  may  be  bullion  or 
coin,  bills  and  exchanges,  or  stocks  and  bonds. 

AB'BITBA^nON  (Lat.  arbitratio,  judg- 
ment, from  arbiter,  umpire,  judge) .  The  submis- 
sion of  a  dispute,  which  might  otherwise  be  the 
subject-matter  of  a  civil  litigation,  or  the  de- 
cision of  a  private  person  instead  of  a  court  of 
justice.  This  is  not  permitted  in  criminal  cases; 
nor  are  the  parties  to  a  civil  dispute  necessarily 
bound  by  an  agreement  to  arbitrate,  even  though 
the  agreement  be  upon  a  valuable  consideration. 
At  common  law,  contracts  for  the  adjustment 
and  settlement  by  arbitration  of  all  disputes  and 
differences  between  the  contracting  parties  are 
not  treated  as  binding  so  as  to  oust  the  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  courte.  For  example,  if  a  landowner 
grante  to  another  the  privilege  of  laying  water- 
pipes  across  certain  land,  in  consideration  of  the 
latter's  payment  of  a  specified  sum,  and  of  his 
agreement  to  pay  all  damages  caused  bv  the 
breaking  or  leaking  of  the  pipe,  a  stipulation 
that  the  damages  shall  be  fixed  by  arbitration  is 
not  enforceable.  The  landoMmer  can  maintain  an 
action  at  law  for  any  damages  so  caused,  and 
refuse  to  abide  by  his  agreement  to  arbitrate 
them.  This,  it  has  been  judicially  declared,  both 
in  England  and  the  United  States,  rests  "npoo 
the  general  policy  of  the  law,  that  parties  cannot 
enter  into  a  contract  which  gives  rise  to  a  right 
of  action  for  the  breach  of  it,  and  then  withdraw 


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such  a  case  from  the  jurisdiction  of  th^  ordinary 
tribunals."  On  the  other  hand,  if  a  property- 
owner  and  an  insurer  enter  into  an  agreement 
that  the  former  shall  pay  a  certain  premium,  in 
consideration  of  which  the  latter,  upon  the 
destruction  of  the  property,  shall  pay  the  former 
such  a  sum  of  money  as  shall  be  settled  and 
ascertained  by  arbitration,  the  contract  is  bind- 
ing in  all  of  its  provisions,  and  the  insured  has 
no  cause  of  action  until  an  arbitration  has  been 
had,  or  it  has  been  prevented  or  dispensed  with 
by  the  insurer.  The  legal  distinction  between 
these  two  classes  of  cases  is  well  established,  but 
it  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  within  which 
class  a  particular  controversy  falls.  If  it  falls 
within  the  first  class,  either  party  has  the  power 
to  revoke  the  arbitration,  even  after  his  sub- 
mission of  the  dispute  to  the  arbitrator; 
although  by  so  doing  he  subjects  himself  to  an 
action  for  damages  for  breach  of  contract,  if  his 
agreement  to  arbitrate  was  upon  a  valuable  con- 
sideration. 

This  power  of  revoking  a  submission  has  been 
modified  by  statute  in  England  and  in  many 
American  jurisdictions.  It  is  provided,  in  some 
of  our  State  constitutions,  that  the  legislature 
shall  enact  laws  providing  for  arbitration,  or 
shall  establish  courts  of  conciliation.  The  ten- 
dency of  modem  statutes  is  to  extend  the  limits 
of  private  arbitration,  to'  conform  the  pro- 
ceedings therein,  so  far  as  practicable,  to  tnose 
of  a  court  or  an  official  referee,  and  to  give  to 
an  award  of  arbitrators  the  force  and  effect  of  a 
iudicial  decision.  In  the  absence  of  legislation, 
however,  a  judgment  cannot  be  entered  on  an 
award,  nor  can  the  determination  of  an  arbi- 
trator be  enforced  by  execution.  If  the  defeated 
party  refuses  to  carry  out  the  award,  his 
opponent  must  sue  upon  it.  There  is  no  appeal 
from  an  award,  as  there  is  from  the  decision  of 
an  inferior  court;  but  it  may  be  corrected  in 
some  cases,  and  it  may  be  set  aside  for  various 
reasons,  such  as  fraud  practiced  by  the  prevail- 
ing party,  or  misconduct  on  the  part  of  the 
arbitrators,  or  their  failure  to  conform  to  the 
terms  of  the  submission.  As  a  rule,  however,  an 
award  will  not  be  set  aside  for  purely  technical 
or  formal  defects.  Unless  some  flagrant  error  in 
the  proceedings  is  disclosed,  courts  are  disposed 
to  uphold  an  award  in  an  arbitration  to  which 
the  parties  have  assented,  and  on  which  they  have 
been  fairly  heard.  Consult:  Morse,  Law  of  Ar- 
bitration and  Award  (Boston,  1872)  ;  Watson, 
Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Arbitration  and  Awards, 
third  edition  (Philadelphia,  1848)  ;  Russell,  A 
Treatise  on  the  Power  and  Duty  of  an  Arbitrator 
and  the  Law  of  Submissions  and  Awards,  eighth 
edition    (London,  1900). 

AK'BITBA^ION,  International.  The 
settlement  of  disputes  between  states  by  judges 
of  their  own  choosing  and  in  conformity  with 
their  respective  rights.  Arbitration  tribunals 
may  be  special  or  general,  temporary  or  perma- 
nent, restricted  or  open.  It  is  essential  that 
the  contracting  states  formally  agree  to  refer 
their  differences  to  an  independent  tribunal  and 
bind  themselves  to  abide  by  its  award.  The 
persons  or  states  chosen  as  arbitrators  should 
formally  accord  their  consent  and  accept  the 
obligation.  The  reference  is  usually  made  by 
special  agreement  signed  on  behalf  of  the  con- 
tending parties,  stating  the  questions  to  be  sub- 
mitted,  summarizing  the  points  of  law  or  fact 


involved,  defining  the  limits  of  the  arbitration, 
and  in  many  cases  indicating  the  course  of  pro- 
cedure. It*  may  result  either  from  a  general 
treaty,  a  special  or  arbitration  treaty,  or  an 
arbitral  clause  inseiled  in  a  treaty  providing  for 
this  method  of  settlement  of  disputes,  or  a 
protocol  (q.v.)  of  an  international  congress  to 
which  the  particular  states  were  parties. 

Arbitration,  while  not  unknown  to  the  ancient 
world,  is  largely  an  outgrowth  of  the  complex  in- 
ternational relations  of  the  Nineteenth  Century, 
and  the  consequent  development  and  recognition 
of  international  duties  and  liabilities.  The  atti- 
tude of  Greek  civilization  toward  the  barbarian 
world  rendered  the  application  of  methods  of 
conciliation  impossible;  while  the  employment 
of  arbitration  among  the  Greeks  themselves  was 
confined  rather  to  disputed  questions  touching 
upon  religion,  commerce,  boundaries,  and  the 
possession  of  contested  territory  between  the 
several  states  than  to  great  political  questions. 
The  Amphictyonic  Council,  while  primarily  a 
deliberative  body,  later  assumed  distinct  polit- 
ical functions,  and  became  the  tribunal  for  tlie 
settlement  of  various  differences,  though  its  sen- 
tences  lost  their  effectiveness  through  the  im- 
potence of  that  body  to  enforce  their  execution. 
The  foreign  policy  of  Rome  aimed  at  universal 
conquest,  and  so  from  the  outset  precluded  the 
employment  of  referendum  methods,  since  arbitra- 
tion presupposes  a  conflict  between  independent 
states.  During  the  Middle  Ages,  under  the  in- 
fluence of  religious  and  feudal  ideas,  arbitra- 
tions were  frequent.  With  the  breaking  up  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  the  predominance  of  the 
popes,  as  delegates  of  God,  from  whom  all  sov- 
ereignty emanates,  constituted  them  the  natural 
judges  of  all  international  causes,  and  brought 
to  their  tribunal  many  of  the  differences  between 
kings  and  peoples.  So  strongly  did  this  idea 
impress  itself  upon  the  times  that  the  great  prel- 
ates were  often  chosen  as  voluntary  arbitrators, 
though  perhaps  oftener  on  occasions  involving 
private  interest  and  internal  policy  than  on 
those  of  actual  international  conflict.  One  of 
the  most  celebrated  of  arbitration  decis- 
ions is  that  of  Pope  Alexander  VI.,  tracing  an 
imaginary  line  from  pole  to  pole  in  his  division 
of  all  lands  discovered  in  the  New  World  between 
Spain  and  Portugal.  Even  after  the  decline  of 
papal  supremacy,  Gregory  XV.  acted  as  arbi- 
trator of  the  question  of  the  "Valtelline"  forts 
in  the  Seventeenth  Century,  and  Pope  Clement 
XI.  gave  the  casting  vote  as  umpire  between 
Louis  XIV.  and  Leopold  I.,  the  chosen  arbitral 
tors  by  Article  8,  of  the  Treaty  of  Ryswick. 
Under  the  feudal  system,  vassals  were  natural- 
ly predisposed  to  look  to  their  lords  for  the 
determination  of  their  conflicting  claims.  The 
efforts  of  the  emperors  of  the  Holy  Roman 
Empire  to  succeed  to  the  position  of  the  popes 
in  this  regard  never  resulted  in  more  than  an 
occasional  recognition  of  their  jurisdiction— 
never  of  their  supremacy.  With  the  establish- 
ment of  absolute  monarchies,  arbitration  as  a 
method  of  settlement  of  differences  naturally 
declined. 

The  change  in  international  relations  pro- 
duced by  modem  means  of  transportation,  with 
the  resultant  complex  social  and  political  inter- 
course and  the  vast  economic  loss  involved  in 
modern  war,  has  tended  more  and  more  to  the 
employment  of  the  method  of  arbitration  in  in- 


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temational  disputes,  and  its  gradual  recognition 
as  the  most  humane,  economical,  and  enduring 
method  for  their  determination.  The  questions 
submitted  involve  not  only  the  adjustment  of 
claims  relating  to  the  rights  of  nations  as  be- 
tween themselves,  but  also  those  of  individuals 
against  foreign  governments.  During  the  Nine- 
t^nth  Century,  including  cases  now  pending, 
there  have  been  over  one  hundred  and  thirty 
important  arbitrations,  not  to  mention  almost 
as  many  more  minor  commissions  for  the  settle- 
ment of  purely  financial  claims.  Both  in  the 
numbers  and  the  questions  involved  the  United 
States  and  Great  Britain  have  unquestionably 
led  the  way.  The  most  important  of  these,  and 
one  forming  a  landmark  in  the  history  of  arbi- 
tration, is  the  Joint  High  Commission,  which 
met  at  Geneva  in  1871  and  determined  the  ques- 
tions relating  to  the  Alabama  Claims  (q.v.). 
This  was  only  one  of  the  four  articles  of  the 
Treaty  of  Washington  (q.v.),  submitting  to  arbi- 
tration matters  then  in  dispute  between  the 
two  countries.  Besides  actual  causes  sub- 
mitted to  such  tribunals  for  settlement,  various 
international  conferences  have  been  held  and 
conventions  adopted,  some  of  the  most  significant 
of  which  are: 

The  proposal  for  the  establishment  of  a  per- 
manent court  of  arbitration,  made  by  the  Com- 
mittee of  the  International  Law  Association, 
which  met  at  Brussels  in  1895;  the  Inter- 
parliamentary Conference  on  Arbitration  and 
Peace,  at  Brussels  in  1807 ;  the  proposal  for  the 
arbitration  for  the  settlement  of  disputes  be- 
tween the  States  of  North,  Central,  and  South 
America,  signed  at  Washington,  1890 ;  the  Anglo- 
American  Arbitration  Treaty,  signed  at  Wash- 
ington, January  11,  1897,  but  never  ratified  by 
the  Senate  of  the  United  States :  the  Italy- Ar^n- 
tine  Republic  General  Treaty  of  Arbitration, 
signed  at  Eome,  July  23,  1898;  The  Hague  Con- 
vention, adopted  at  a  plenary  meeting  of  the 
Peace  Conference  at  The  Hague,  July  29,  1899. 

The  arbitration  treaty  between  Great  Britain 
and  th^  United  States  mentioned  above,  pro- 
vided for  the  submission  of  all  questions  fail- 
ing of  diplomatic  adjustment  to  arbitrators. 
The  questions  were  divided  into  three  classes: 
(1)  Pecuniary  claims  not  aggregating  £100,000, 
not  involving  territorial  questions;  (2)  pecuni- 
ary claims  of  over  £100,000,  not  involving  ter- 
ritorial questions ;  ( 3 )  questions  involving  rights 
of  a  territorial  nature.  The  tribunal  for  the 
settlement  of  the  first  class  of  questions  was  to 
be  composed  of  three  members;  for  the  second, 
of  five ;  for  the  third,  of  six.  The  odd  member  in 
each  of  the  first  two  classes  was  to  be  selected 
by  the  United  States  Supreme  Court  and  the 
British  Judicial  Committee  of  the  Privy  Coun- 
cil, acting  jointly,  or,  on  their  failure  to  agree, 
by  the  King  of  Sweden  and  Norway.  The  de- 
cisions of  these  courts  were  to  be  final.  For 
the  last  class,  the  court  was  to  be  composed  of 
three  members  of  the  United  States  Supreme 
Court  and  three  members  of  the  British  Supreme 
Court  of  Judicature.  Only  awards  in  which 
five  of  the  six  concurred  were  to  be  final.  For 
the  provisions  of  the  Hague  Arbitration  and 
Mediation  Convention,  see  Hague  Peace  Con- 
ference. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  some  of  the  principal 
arbitrations  and  adjustments  to  which  the 
United  States  has  been  a  party: 


(1)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  under  the  Jay  Treaty  of  1794,  providing 
for  three  mixed  commissions:  one  to  settle  the 
identity  of  the  Saint  Croix  River,  forming  a  part 
of  the  northeastern  boundary;  one  to  determine 
the  compensation  due  to  British  subjects  in 
consequence  of  impediments  imposed  by  some  of 
the  States  to  the  collection  of  debts  by  British 
creditors,  in  violation  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace; 
and  a  third  for  the  settlement  of  the  question 
of  contraband,  the  rights  of  neutrals,  and  the 
finality  of  decisions  of  prize  courts. 

( 2 )  Between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
under  the  Treaty  of  Ghent,  1814,  providing  for 
three  commissions:  one  to  settle  the  ownership 
of  certain  islands  in  Passamaquoddy  Bay  and  the 
Bay  of  Fundy;  a  second  to  determine  the  north- 
east boundary  of  the  United  States  from  tiie 
river  Saint  Croix  to  the  river  Saint  Lawrence; 
and  a  third  to  determine  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  United  States  along  the  middle  of  the 
Great  Lakes  to  the  water  communication  between 
Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  and  the  further  de- 
termination to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  On  the 
latter  point  the  commission  could  not  agree. 

(3)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  1818,  regarding  the  obligation  of 
Great  Britain  to  restore  slaves  in  the  British  pos- 
sessions at  the  time  of  signing  the  Treaty  of 
Ghent.  Referred  to  the  Ehnperor  of  Russia,  who 
decided  that  the  United  States  was  entitled  to 
compensation  for  slaves  transported  from  terri- 
tories restored  under  the  treaty.  Two  mixed 
boards  were  created  to  determine  the  claims: 
but  these  boards  disagreeing,  the  sum  of  $1,204,- 
960  was  finally  accepted  by  the  United  States 
in  full  satisfaction. 

(4)  Between  the  United  States  and  Spain,  in 
1819,  regarding  the  satisfaction  of  American 
claims  against  Spain  during  her  occupation  of 
Florida.  By  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Florida, 
the  United  States  agreed  to  settle  these  claims. 

(5)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  1827,  for  the  settlement  of  the  dispute 
regarding  the  northeastern  boundary.  The  King 
of  the  Netherlands  was  chosen  arbitrator,  but  his 
award  was  not  accepted  by  the  United  States. 
The  matter  was  afterwards  settled  by  compro- 
mise, in  the  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty. 

(6)  Between  the  United  States  and  Franoe, 
the  claims  of  American  citizens  growing  out  of 
French  depredations  at  sea  during  the  Napoleon- 
ic wars,  and  the  French  Beaumarchais  Claim, 
and  claim  to  special  commercial  privileges  under 
the  Louisiana  Cession  Treaty,  were  adjusted  by 
Minister  Rives  after  long  negotiation  in  1831 
by  an  indemnity  to  the  United  States  of  $5,558,- 
108.07.  But  the  French  Government  delayed  in 
executing  the  convention  and  a  diplomatic  rup- 
ture resulted,  only  allayed  by  the  mediation  of 
Great  Britain,  in  1836,  when  the  full  amount  was 
paid. 

(7)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  1846,  for  the  settlement  of  the  San 
Juan  water  boundary.  It  had  been  decided  to 
continue  the  line  between  the  British  Possessions 
and  the  United  States  southerly  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  channel  separating  Vancouver's  Island 
from  the  continent,  through  the  said  channel 
and  Fuca  Straits  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The 
dispute  as  to  the  latter  portion  of  the  boundaiy 
was  referred  to  a  commission  which  disagreed. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Washington  (1871)  the  ques- 


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tion  was  referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Germany, 
who  rendered  an  award  sustaining  the  American 
claims  to  the  Haro  Channel  as  the  true  interpre- 
tation of  the  treaty.  This  boundary  was  finally 
fixed  by  the  protocol  of  1873. 

(8)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great  Brit- 
ain in  1855  to  determine  by  a  mixed  commission 
the  reciprocal,  "Reserved  Fisheries  Rights" 
under  the  Reciprocity  Treaty  of  1854,  which  re- 
newed the  privileges  renounced  under  the  Con- 
vention of  1818  by  taking  and  curing  fish  in 
^'unsettled  bays,  harbors  and  creeks"  along  the 
Canadian  shore.  The  work  of  the  commission 
was  to  define  the  "rivers  and  river-mounts"  re- 
served under  the  treaty,  and  was  not  concluded 
until  1866. 

(9)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain  under  the  Treaty  of  1863,  by  which  the 
claims  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  and  Puget's  Sound 
Agricultural  Companies  arising  under  the  Oreeon 
Treaty  (Treaty  of  1846)  were  settled  by  refer- 
ence to  two  commissioners,  one  from  each  State, 
who  chose  an  umpire.  They  awarded  $450,000  to 
the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  and  $200,000  to  the 
Puget's  Sound  Company,  in  return  for  which  the 
companies  executed  deeds  of  release  of  their  pos- 
sessory claims  in  the  Oregon  region  to  the  United 
States. 

(10)  Between  the  United  States  and  Vene- 
zuela, in  1866,  by  a  mixed  comn^ission — one 
from  each  State,  and  an  umpire,  in  settlement 
of  claims  of  American  citizens  against  the  latter. 
The  award  was  $1,253,310.30  in  favor  of  the 
United  States,  but  was  subsequently  impeached 
for  alleged  fraud.  By  treaty  in  1885  these  claims 
vere  resubmitted  to  a  second  commission  of  simi- 
lar character,  which,  in  1888,  awarded  $080,- 
572.60  to  the  United  States. 

(11)  Between  the  United  States  and  Mexico, 
in  1868,  for  various  claims  and  counterclaims 
subsequent  to  the  Peace  of  Guadalupe-Hidalgo,  in 
1848.  The  award  was  rendered  in  favor  of  the 
United  States;  but  objection  was  raised  later 
to  some  of  the  evidence  admitted.  Pending  the 
investigation  of  these  charges,  distribution  has 
never  l^n  made  of  the  funds. 

(12)  Between  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain,  in  1871,  by  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of 
Washington,  providing  for  the  submission  to 
arbitration  of:  (1)  The  San  Juan  water  boun- 
dary (see  7).  Referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Ger- 
many, who  sustained  the  American  claim.  (2) 
The  Nova  Scotia  fishery  rights.  (3)  Claims 
and  counterclaims  growing  out  of  the  Civil  War, 
other  than  the  Alabama  claims.  (4)  The  Ala- 
bama claims  (q.v.).  Under  the  second,  an 
award  of  £1,100,000  was  given  to  Great  Britain, 
and  under  the  third  £386,000. 

(13)  Between  the  United  States  and  France, 
in  1880,  for  claims  for  injuries  growing  out  of 
the  Mexican  War  of  1862-67,  the  Civil  War,  and 
the  Franco-Prussian  War.  An  award  of  $612,- 
OOO  was  rendered  against  the  United  States. 

(14)  Between  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
and  Germany,  in  1889,  to  determine  their  con- 
flicting claims  in  the  island  of  Samoa.  The  ap- 
pointment of  the  Chief  Justice  of  Samoa  was  to 
be  referred  to  the  King  of  Sweden  and  a  joint 
commission  established.  In  1899  complications 
arose,  resulting  in  a  joint  high  commission  pro- 
ceeding to  the  Samoan  Islands.  As  a  result  of 
this  investigation,  an  agreement  for  their  par- 


tition was  signed  in  Washington,  December  2, 
1899 

(15)  Between  the  United  States,  Great  Brit- 
ain, and  Portugal,  for  the  determination  of  the 
dispute  arising  from  the  seizure  and  annulment 
of  the  charter  of  the  Delagoa  Bay  Railway,  con- 
structed by  an  American  citizen.  The  claims 
were  referred  to  three  jurists  appointed  by  the 
President  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

(16)  Between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  in  1892,  regarding  the  Bering  Sea  seal 
fisheries.  The  commission,  which  sat  in  Paris, 
gave  a  divided  award,  mainly  in  favor  of  Great 
Britain,  in  1893;  but  in  favor  "of  the  United 
States'  admission  of  the  necessity  for  regula- 
tion of  pelagic  sealing  and  the  proposal  for 
such  regulations.  Later,  in  1896,  a  further  com- 
mission was  created  to  award  the  amount  of 
damages  due  to  Canadian  sealers  under  the  de- 
cision of  the  Bering  Sea  Arbitration  Court,  to 
which  reference  was  made  above.  This  was 
fixed  at  $471,151. 

(17)  Between  Great  Britain  and  the  United 
States,  in  1897,  to  determine  the  boimdary  be- 
tween Alaska  and  the  British  Possessions.  After 
reaching  a  decision,  the  commission's  work  was 
interfered  with  by  an  act  of  the  British  Colum- 
bia Legislature.  A  subsequent  determination 
of  the  question  was  reached  on  the  same  lines  in 
1899. 

Oonsult:  Balch,  International  Courts  of  Arbi- 
tration (Philadelphia,  1896)  ;  Moore,  History 
and  Digest  of  International  Arbitrations  to 
which  the  United  States  has  been  a  Party 
(Washington,  1898)  ;  Darby,  International  Arbi- 
tration, International  Tribunals  (London,  1900)  ; 
and  the  works  referred  to  under  the  title  Inteb- 
NATIONAL  Law. 

ABBOGA,  Ur-b</gft.  An  ancient  city  in 
Sweden,  in  the  Province  of  Westmannland,  10 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Arboga  River,  by 
which,  with  the  aid  of  a  canal,  the  lakes  Hjel- 
mar  and  Millar  are  united  (Map:  Sweden,  F  7). 
Arboga  is  connected  by  steamer  with  Stockholm, 
and  used  to  be  an  important  commercial  town; 
but  it  has  now  sunk  into  insignificance,  and 
only  possesses  an  historical  interest,  from  the 
antiquities  in  its  neighborhood.  Of  all  its 
churches,  cloisters,  and  chapels,  there  only  now 
remain  the  to%^Ti  and  parish  churches,  the  for- 
mer with  an  altar-piece  of  Rembrandt's.  Sev- 
eral kings  of  the  family  of  Vasa  have '  resided 
here.  Church  assemblies  were  held  here  in  1396, 
1412,  1417,  1423,  and  1474;  diets  in  1435  (the 
first  in  Sweden),  1440,  1471,  1629,  and  1561, 
in  which  last  year  also  certain  articles,  known 
as  the  Arboga  Articles,  were  passed,  by  which 
Eric  XIV.  was  enabled  to  limit  the  power  of  the 
nobles;  and  in  1625  Gustavus  Adolphus  issued 
an  edict  here,  commanding  that  the  copper  coin 
of  the  realm  should  contain  ita  full  worth  of 
copper.    Population,  1901,  5250. 

AB^OGAST  (?  -394).  A  Frank  who  be- 
came a  distinguished  general  in  the  Roman 
service.  During  the  reign  of  Gratian  he  suc- 
cessfully commanded  an  expedition  against  the 
(rermans,  and  under  Valentinian  II.  was  com- 
mander in  Gaul.  After  winning  the  favor  of 
his  army,  he  defied  the  authority  of  the  Em- 
peror, who  was  killed,  probably  by  Arbogast's 
order,  in  392.  Eugenius,  Arbogast's  client,  was 
proclaimed  Emperor;  but  Arbogast,  after  suffer- 
ing a  defeat  at  the  hands  of  Theodosius,  near 


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ABBOQAST.  716 

the  river  Frigidus,  north  of  Aquileia,  killed  him- 
self. 

ABBOLEDA,  Hr^b^-WDii,  Juuo  (1817-62). 
A  Colombian  poet  and  political  leader.  He 
was  bom  at  Barbacoas  and  was  educated  in 
Europe.  In  1866  he  joined  the  Conservative 
revolt  in  Antioquia,  and  soon  became  the  leader 
of  his  faction.  He  concluded  an  alliance  with 
President  Moreno,  of  Ecuador,  and  made  war 
upon  the  Federalist  dictator,  Mosquera.  With 
the  support  of  the  States  of  western  Colombia, 
he  assumed  supreme  power,  but  soon  afterwards 
was  assassinated.  In  a  literary  way  he  is 
chiefly  known  1for  his  poems,  which,  including 
Dioa  y  la  virtud^  Estoz  en  la  cdrcel,  and  Mo 
auasento,  gave  him  high  rank  among  Spanish- 
American  poets.  The  manuscript  of  his  most 
important  work,  Oonzalo  de  Oyon,  was  almost 
completely  destroyed  by  an  enemy,  and  only 
fragmentary  copies  are  preserved. 

AB^OB  DAY  (Lat.  arbor,  tree).  A  day  set 
apart  by  the  legislatures  of  most  of  the  States 
and  Territories  of  the  United  States  for  the 
annual  planting  of  trees  by  the  people,  and 
more  especially  by  the  school  children.  B.  G. 
Northrop,  while  secretary  of  the  Connecticut 
Board  of  Education,  seems  to  have  been  the 
first — in  1865 — to  suggest  the  annual  planting 
of  trees  under  the  direction  of  a  State  govern- 
ment. J.  Sterling  Morton  was  probably  the 
first,  however,  to  propose  the  setting  apart  of 
a  certain  day  annuallv  for  the  purpose,  and  in 
1872,  largely  through  his  efforts,  the  custom  was 
instituted  in  Nebraska.  At  present  Arbor  Day 
is  observed  in  nearly  every  State  and  Territory; 
in  some  as  a  lesal  holiday,  in  others  as  a  school 
holiday.  In  addition,  several  States,  including 
New  York,  publish  an  Arbor  Day  manual.  The 
exact  date  is  not  imiform  throughout  the  coun- 
try, though  it  generally  falls  late  in  April  or 
early  in  May. 

ABBOB  DIA^iB  (Lat.  tree  of  Diana,  the 
alchemic  name  of  silver).  An  arborescent  pre- 
cipitate of  metallic  silver  from  a  solution  of 
silver  nitrate,  produced  by  the  addition  of  a 
metallic  element  such  as  mercury.  The  pro- 
portions recommended  are  as  follows:  Dissolve 
twenty  grains  silver  nitrate  in  one  fluid  ounce 
of  water  in  a  convenient  bottle,  add  one-half 
dram  of  pure  mercury,  suspend  a  piece  of  zinc 
by  means  of  a  fine  thread  secured  to  the  cork, 
and  in  a  day  or  two  the  arborescent  appearance 
will  present  itself. 

AB'BOBBTTrM  (Lat.  from  arbor y  a  tree).  A 
collection  of  specimen  trees  in  a  park  of  nurs- 
ery. See  Botanic  Gardens;  Forestry;  Horti- 
culture; Nursery. 

AB'BOBICXJI/TUBE  (Lat.  arbor,  tree  -f 
cultura,  care,  cultivation).  A  term  referring  to 
the  scientific  cultivation  of  trees.  It  embraces 
that  part  of  Horticulture  which  treats  of  the 
planting  and  cultivation  of  ornamental  and  fruit 
trees,  and  that  part  of  Forestry  known  as  Sylvi- 
culture. The  horticultural  growing  of  various 
trees  is  discussed  under  the  corresponding  special 
headings.  Forest  practices  are  described  under 
Sylviculture.    See  also  Forestry. 

AB'BOB  YITM  (Lat.  tree  of  life), 
Thuja,  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  order  Coni- 
ferse,  allied  to  the  cypress,  and  consisting  of 
evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  with  compressed  or 
flattened  branchlets — small,  scale-like,  imbricated 


ABBBOATH. 


leaves.     Species  of  arbor  vit«  are  found  in  the 
north  temperate  zones  of  both  hemispheres.  The 
common  arbor  vitee    {Thufa  oocidentalU)   is  a 
native    of    North    America,    especially  between 
latitude  45^  and  latitude  49**,  but  has  long  been 
well  known  in  Europe.    It  is  a  tree  forty  to  fifty 
feet    high;    its    branches    are    horizontally  ex- 
panded,  and   the   strobiles    (cones)    small  and 
obovate.    The  young  leafy  twigs  have  a  balsamic 
smell,  and  both  they  and  the  wood  were  for- 
merly in  great  repute  as  a  medicine;  the  oil 
obtained  by  distillation  from  the  twigs,  which 
has  a  pungent  and  camphor-like  taste,  has  been 
recommended  as  a  vermifuge.    The  wood  of  the 
stem  is  reddish,  soft,  and  very  light,  but  com- 
pact, tough,  and  durable,  bearing  exposure  to 
the  weather  remarkably  well.    The  tree  is  com- 
mon  in   Great   Britain,  planted  chiefly  as  an 
ornament.     It  seldom   attains  so  great  a  size 
as  in  its  native  country.     It  flourishes  in  cool, 
moist  localities.    The  Chinese  arbor  vitie,  Thuj^ 
orientalis,  a  native  of  China  and  Japan,  which 
is  immediately  distinguishable  from  the  former 
species  bv  its  upright  branches  and  larger,  al- 
most globose  and   rough   strobiles,    is  idso,  in 
Great  Britain  and  upon  the  continent  of  Europe, 
a  common  ornament  of  pleasure  groimds ;  but  it 
does  not  attain  so  great  a  size  as  the  preced- 
ing, and  is  more  sensible  of  the  cold  of  severe 
winters.      The    balsamic    smell    is    very   agree- 
able.    The  tree  yields  a  resin  with  a  pleasant 
odor,    to    which    medicinal    virtues    were   once 
ascribed ;  hence  the  name,  arbor  vit<B  given  to  this 
species  and  extended  to  the  genus.     There  are 
several  other  species  of  Thuja,  some  of  which 
seem  well  suited  to  the  open  air  in  the  climate 
of  Great  Britain,  and  others  require  the  protec- 
tion   of   greenhouses.     Among    the    former  are 
Thuja  plicata,  California  to  Alaska,  and  Thuja 
dolabrata,  a  native  of  Japan,  a  tree  of  great 
height  and  thickness,  and  which  will  not  im- 
probably   prove    one    of    the    most    important 
of  the  whole  genus.    In   favorable   forest  con- 
ditions   both    Thuja    occidental  is    and    Thuja 
plicata  become  rather  large  trees,  the  timber  of 
which  is  very  valuable.     There  are  about  sixty 
horticultural  varieties  of  the  American  species, 
that  vary  in  habit  of  growth,  color  of  foliage, 
or   other   characteristics.     Many   of   these  are 
popular  in  landscape  gardening.     A  tree  com- 
mon in  North  America  and  there  known  by  the 
name  of  White  Cedar  is  sometimes  included  in 
the   genus    Thuja,   under   the    name   of   Thuja 
sphcBToidea,  but  is  more  generally  ranked  in  the 
genus    Cupressus    as    Cupressus    thyoides.    See 
Ctpress.     Closely  allied  to  the  genus  Thuja  is 
CaUitria.    See  Sandaracm. 

Fossil  Forms.  The  genus  Thuja,  like  many 
other  forms  of  conifers,  is  represented  by  an- 
cestral forms  in  cretaceous  rocks  of  northern 
Europe,  and  with  the  advance  of  time  is  found 
to  migrate  from  northerly  to  more  southerly 
regions,  till  during  Miocene  time  it  disappeared 
from  Europe.  Thuja  is  also  known  in  the 
Miocene  beds  of  Dakota. 

ABBBOATH,  ar-brOTH'  (Celt,  dber,  conflu- 
ence, mouth  -f  Brothock).  Abebrbothwice, 
ab'Sr-brothlk,  or  Abebbrothock,  -tik.  A  sea- 
port town  in  Forfarshire,  Scotland,  on  the 
North  Sea,  about  seventeen  miles  east-north- 
east of  Dundee  (Map:  Scotland,  F  3).  Here 
King  William  the  tiion  found^  a  Tyronen- 
sian    abbey    in    honor    of    Thomas    ft  'Becket 


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AKBBOATH. 


717 


ABO. 


in  1178.  The  King  was  interred  in  it  in 
1214.  In  the  abbej,  Bruce  and  the  Scottish 
nobles  met  in  1320,  to  resist  the  claims  of  Ed- 
ward II.  to  Scotland.  Its  ruins,  which  are 
cruciform,  270  by  160  feet,  are  very  picturesque, 
presenting  lofty  toivers,  columns,  gothic  win- 
doiKTt,  etc.  The  chief  industries  of  Arbroath  are 
flax-spinning,  jute-spinning,  and  the  manufacture 
of  sail-cloth.  The  new  Imrbor,  begun  in  1841, 
admits  vessels  of  400  tons;  it  is  protected  by 
a  breakwater.  The  chief  exports  are  grain, 
potatoes,  f^h,  pork,  and  paving-stones.  Ar- 
broath is  a  royal  burgh,  and,  in  conjuction  with 
Montrose,  Brechin,  Forfar,  and  Bervie  burghs, 
returns  one  member  to  Parliament.  Popula- 
tion, with  suburbs,  in  1001,  22,372.  The  famous 
Bellrock  lighthouse  stands  in  the  sea  twelve 
miles  southeast  of  Arbroath. 

ABBin^S,  ar-bwfts^  Pedro  (1441-85).  A 
Spanish  inquisitor.  He  was  bom  at  Epila, 
Aragon;  became  a  member  of  the  Augustinian 
College  at  Saragossa,  and  in  1484  was  ap- 
pointed first  inquisitor  of  Saragossa  by  Tor- 
quemada,  inquisitor-general.  He  was  a  tireless 
persecutor  of  all  heretics,  real  or  suspected,  and 
was  finally  slain  through  a  conspiracy  of  the 
friends  of  his  victims.  He  was  canonized  by 
Pope  Pius  IX.  in  1867. 

AB^UTHKOT,  John  (1667-1735).  A 
Scotch  author  and  physician,  the  contemporary 
and  friend  of  Pope  and  Swift.  He  was  the  son 
of  an  Episcopal  clergyman,  and  was  bom  at 
Arbuthnot,  Kincardineshire.  He  studied  medi- 
cine at  Aberdeen,  but  took  his  degree  at  Saint 
Andrew's.  Arbuthnot*s  father  lost  his  pre- 
ferment at  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution.  His 
sons'  prospects  being  thus  blighted  in  their  own 
•country,  the  family  were  compelled  to  go  abroad 
to  seek  their  fortune.  John  went  soon  after  to 
London,  and  there  supported  himself  by  teach- 
ing mathematics.  In  1697  he  published  an  ex- 
amination of  Dr.  Woodward's  account  of  the 
Deluge,  which  brought  him  into  notice  as  a 
person  of  unusual  ability.  Accident  called  him 
into  attendance  on  Prince  George  of  Denmark, 
who  thenceforth  patronized  him.  In  1709  he 
was  appointed  physician  in  ordinary  to  the 
<2ueen,  and  in  1710  was  elected  a  member  of  the 
Koyal  College  of  Physicians.  On  the  death  of 
<2ueen  Anne,  in  1714,  he  lost  his  place  at  court, 
and  his  circumstances  were  never  so  prosper- 
<iua  afterward.  In  1717,  Arbuthnot,  with  Pope, 
helped  Gay  in  a  farce,  entitled  Three  Hours  After 
Marriage,  which,  however,  proved  a  complete 
failure.  In  1723  he  was  chosen  second  censor  of 
the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  and  in  1727 
he  pronounced  the  Harveian  oration  for  the 
year.    He  died  at  Hampstead  in  1735. 

Arbuthnot's  literary  fame  rests  upon  two 
humorous  pieces.  In  1712  he  published  the 
History  of  John  Bull,  one  of  the  most  amusing 
of  political  satires.  After  his  death  appeared 
(in  Pope's  Works,  1741)  the  Memoirs  of  Mar- 
tinus  Scriblerus  (q.v.),  in  which  all  kinds  of 
pedantry  is  ridiculed.  John  Bull  as  a  nickname 
for  England  has  been  traced  back  no  farther 
than  Arbuthnot,  and  Scriblerus  is  one  of  the 
important  sources  of  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy. 
Arbuthnot  was  one  of  the  most  amiable  of  men. 
To  him  Pope  addressed  his  best  Epistle,  and 
Swift  said  that  if  there  were  a  dozen  Arbuth- 
nota  in  the  world  he  would  bum  his  Travels. 


Consult  G.  A.  Aitkin,  Life  and  Works  of  Ar-- 
huthnot  (London,  1892). 

ABBUTHNOT,  Mabbiot  (1711-94).  A  Brit- 
ish admiral.  He  became  a  commander  in  1746 
and  a  captain  in  1747;  was  commissioner  of 
the  navy  at  Halifax,  N.  S.,  from  1775  to  1778; 
became  a  rear-admirul  in  1778,  and  in  1779  was 
appointed  vice-admiral  and  placed  in  command 
of  the  North  American  Station.  In  conjunction 
with  Sir  Henry  Clinton  he  captured  Charleston, 
S.  C,  after  a  long  siege,  in  1780  (May  12), 
and  in  March,  1781,  fought  an  indecisive  en- 
gagement with  a  French  fleet  oflf  Cape  Henry. 
He  surrendered  his  command  to  Rear-Admiral 
Graves  in  July,  1781,  returned  to  England, 
and  though  he  saw  no  more  actual  service,  he 
became  by  seniority  Admiral  of  the  Blue  in 
1793.  As  a  naval  officer  he  was  absurdly  in- 
efficient, being  ignorant  of  even  the  rudiments 
of  naval  tactics,  and  as  a  man  he  seems  to  have 
been  known  to  his  contemporaries  as  a  coarse 
and  blustering  bravo.  Consult  Ralfe,  Naval 
Biography   (London,  1820). 

ABBUTUS,  ar^A-ttSs  or  ftr-ba'ttis  (Lat  the 
wild  strawberry  tree).  A  genus  of  plants  of 
the  order  Ericacecs.  The  species,  which  number 
about  twenty,  are  mostly  European  and  North 
American  shrubs  and  small  trees.  In  many 
species  the  leaves  are  evergreen  and  shining,  the 
branches  usually  smooth  and  red.  Such  a  species 
is  Arbutus  unedo,  the  Strawberry  Tree,  exten- 
sively planted  as  an  ornament  in  parks.  It 
is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  not 
hardy  in  the  colder  parts  of  the  United  States. 
It  is'  highly  valued  m  California.  The  flowers, 
which  are  white,  are  produced  in  great  abim- 
dance;  the  fruit,  which  resembles  a  strawberry 
in  size  and  color,  is  ripened  the  second  year. 
In  this  way  flowers  and  fruits  occur  together, 
and,  with  the  bright  green  leaves,  make  the  tree 
very  attractive.  The  fruit  is  edible  and  often 
utilized,  especially  in  Spain,  where  sugar  and  a 
spirit  are  manufactured  from  it.  A  second 
species.  Arbutus  Menziesii,  is  the  Madrofia  of 
California.  It  is  fairly  hardy,  and  as  a  tree 
often  attains  a  height  of  eighty  to  one  hundred 
feet.  Arbutus  Arizonica,  a  tree  forty  to  fifty  feet 
high,  has  the  bark  of  the  trunk  white,  of  the 
branches  red,  which,  together  with  the  palrt-gri»en 
leaves,  make  a  pleasing  contrast.  A  few  fossil 
forms  have  been  described  under  the  name  Ab- 
UUTITES,  from  the  Eocene  of  Europe. 

ABBUTUS,  Tbaiung  {Epigasa  repens).  A 
prostrate  or  trailing  plant,  called  Mayflower  in 
New  England  and  Ground  Laurel  in  the  Southern 
States,  with  evergreen  leaves,  rusty,  bristly 
shoots,  and  axillary  clusters  of  fragrant,  rose- 
colored  or  white  flowers,  opening  in  early  sprinff ; 
foimd  in  sandy  or  rocky  soil,  especially  m  the 
shade  of  pines.  It  grows  from  Canada  to  Texas, 
but  is  particularly  abundant  in  New  England, 
the  Middle  and  South  Atlantic  States,  as  well 
as  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota. 

ABC  (Lat.  arcus,  a  bow).  Any  part  of  a 
curved  line.  It  is  usually  limited  to  a  part  not 
including  a  cusp,  and  more  particularly  is  ap- 
plied to  part  of  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  as 
in  the  following  statements:  The  straight  line 
joining  the  ends  of  an  arc  is  called  its  chord. 
Arcs  of  diflferent  circles  are  similar  when  they 
subtend  equal  central  angles  of  their  respective 
circles;    if  these  circles  are  equal,   so  are  the 


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ABO. 


718 


ABC  APIA. 


similar  arcs.  Circular  arcs  have  the  same 
numerical  measure  as  the  central  angles  which 
they  subtend,  and  hence  are  commonlj  said  to 
measure  and  to  be  measured  by  those  angles. 
Like  their  subtended  central  angles,  arcs  may 
be  considered  as  positive  or  negative  and  as 
exceeding  360**  (see  Aivgle).  Aji  arc  is  dis- 
tinguished as  major  or  minor,  according  as  it  is 
greater  or  less  than  a  semi-circumference.  The 
arc  equaling  in  length  the  radius  of  a  circle  is 
called  a  radian;  it  is  nearly  67*  17'  44.8".  There 
are,  therefore,  2  w  radians  in  a  circiunference. 

ARCy  Electbic.  See  Eleothic  Abc  and  Eueo- 
TBic  Lighting, 

ABCy  Joan  of.     See  Joan  of  Abo. 

ABCAGHON,  fir'kA'shON'.  A  French  town 
and  favorite  watering-place  on  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay, in  the  Department  of  Gironde,  which  has 
grown  up  since  1854,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Bas- 
sin  d'Arcachon,  thirty-four  miles  southwest  of 
Bordeaux  by  rail.  The  fine  broad  sands  are  ad- 
mirably adapted  for  bathing,  and  the  place  is 
sheltered  by  sandhills  covered  with  extensive 
pine  woods  of  the  Landes.  Its  main  street 
stretches  two  and  one-half  miles  along  the 
shore,  with  the  pine  forests  immediately  be- 
hind. The  climate  is  always  temperate,  averag- 
ing in  summer  47 **  F.  and  in  wmter  41*.  Its 
numerous  villas  amons  the  firs  are  much  fre- 
quented in  the  winter  oy  invalids  afflicted  with 
lung  disease.  Scientific  ovster  culture  is  prac- 
ticed here  on  a  large  scale.  Pop.,  1901,  8259. 
Consult  Areachon   (Paris,  1899). 

ABGADE^  (Fr.,  from  Lat.  arcus,  bow,  arch, 
vault).  A  row  of  arches  supported  by  columns 
or  piers,  either  having  an  open  space  of  greater 
or  less  width  behind  them,  or  in  contact  with 
masonry.  The  arcade  in  Christian  architecture 
corresponds  to  the  colonnade  in  classical  archi- 
tecture; the  difference  between  them  is  mainly 
in  the  substitution  of  arches  for  the  straight 
architrave.  The  term  'arcade*  is  sometimes  ap- 
plied to  the  row  of  piers,  or  columns  and  arches, 
by  which  the  aisles  are  divided  from  the  nave  of 
a  church,  or  by  which  cloisters  are  inclosed;  but 
it  is  more  generally  confined  to  those  series  of 


smaller  arches  which  are  employed  simply  for 
purposes  of  ornamentation.  They  form  the  main 
decorative  feature  of  both  outside  and  inside 
mediaeval  architecture,  especially  in  the  form 
of  real  or  blind  galleries,  adding  a  play  of  light 
and  shade,  a  richness  of  detail,  and  a  variety  of 
form  that  contrast  with  the  early  Christian 
simplicity  and  the  exclusive  use  of  color  by  the 
Byzantines.      The    term    is    also    applied,    im- 


properly, to  a  glass-covered  street  or  lane  with 
a  row  of  shops  or  stalls  on  each  side. 

AB^CADELT,  Jacob.  A  Flemish  oompoeer 
who  assisted  in  founding  the  classical  Italitn 
school  of  music.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  un- 
certain, but  is  believed  to  have  been  during  the 
first  quarter  of  the  Sixteenth  Century.  His 
works  are  among  the  masterpieces  of  contra- 
puntal music  of  the  Middle  Ages.  He  was  the 
most  popular  composer  of  his  day,  and  his  popu- 
larity induced  many  persons,  for  business  rea- 
sons, to  add  his  name  to  works  written  by  others. 
During  a  residence  in  Rome  (1539*55),  as 
teacher  and  as  singer  in  the  Papal  Chapel,  he 
composed  many  madrigals.  His  works  also  in- 
clude motets  and  masses.  Arcadelt  probably 
died  about  1570-75,  while  in  Paris  with  Cardinal 
Charles,  Duke  of  Guise,  whose  service  he  entered 
in  1557.  Consult:  Bumey,  General  History  of 
Miiaic,  Vol.  III.  (London,  1789)  ;  Ambros,  Ge- 
achichte  der  Musik,  Vol.  II.  (Breslau,  1862-82). 

ABGADES,  Ur^kA-dgz.  A  masque  written  by 
John  Milton  in  1634  and  published  in  1645.  it 
was  acted  shortly  after  Comus,  before  the 
Countess-Dowager  of  Derby,  wife,  first  of  Fer- 
nando, Earl  of  Derby,  and  afterwards  of  Thomas 
Egerton,  Lord  Ellesmere,  when  she  was  living  at 
Harefield,  near  Uxbridge.  It  was  set  to  music 
by  Mr.  Lawes  at  the  same  time.  In  it  the 
Countess's  guests  appear  on  the  scene  in  pastoral 
habit  and  move  toward  the  seat  of  state  with 
a  prefatory  song  of  compliment.  A  "genius 
of  the  wood"  then  comes  forward  and  describes 
the  significance  of  the  occasion,  after  which  the 
piece  closes  with  two  more  songs  of  flattery. 

ABGA^IA  (Gk.  'ApxaBla,  Arkadia).  The 
middle  and  highest  part  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
bounded  on  the  north  by  Achaia,  on  the  east 
by  Argolis,  on  the  south  by  Messenia  and  La- 
conia,  and  on  the  west  by  Elis.  According  to 
Pausanias,  it  derived  its  name  from  Areas,  the 
son  of  Callisto.  Next  to  Laconia,  Arcadia  was 
the  largest  country  in  the  Peloponnesus.  It  had 
an  area  of  1800  square  miles,  and  was  girt  round 
by  a  circle  of  mountains,  which  cut  off  to  a 
large  extent  its  commimication  with  the  rest  of 
the  peninsula.  Mountains  also  intersected  it 
in  different  directions,  forming  a  number  of 
small  cantons.  The  western  part  of  what  was 
anciently  Arcadia  is  wild,  bleak,"  and  rugged, 
and  covered  with  forests;  the  eastern  is  more 
fertile;  and  in  the  southeast  are  two  plateaus, 
in  which  lay  the  chief  ancient  cities.  The  lofti- 
est peak  in  Arcadia  is  Mount  (I)yllene,  in  the 
northeast,  7790  feet.  The  small  rivers  are  either 
tributaries  of  the  Alpheus  (q.v.),  or  empty  into 
inland  lakes  drained  by  imderground  channels 
ikatavothra) .  The  chief  cities  were  Tegea 
(q.v.)  and  Mantinea  (q.v.)  in  the  southeast, 
and  the  great  city.  Megalopolis  (q.v.),  founded 
in  B.C.  370  by  Epaminondas  as  the  capital  of  the 
Arcadian  Confederacy.  Further  north  were  Or- 
chomenus,  Pheneus,  Clitor,  and  Psophis.  Owing 
to  its  isolation,  Arcadia  remained  little  af- 
fected by  the  Dorian  conquest  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, and  its  inhabitants  were  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  original  population  of  the 
peninsula;  a  belief  confirmed  by  their  dialect, 
which  preserves  some  early  forms  and  shows 
strong  resemblances  to  the  Cyprian.  The  nature 
of  the  country  also  prevented  any  lasting  union 
among  the  inhabitants,  and  enabled  the  Spartans 


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ABCADIA. 


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ABCH. 


to  maintain  their  supremacy  until  the  battle 
of  Leuctra.  The  confederation  organized  by 
Epaminondas  had  no  real  permanency,  and  until 
the  Roman  conquest  the  country  was  the  scene 
of  civil  strife.  The  inhabitants  were  brave, 
hardy,  and  fond  of  fighting,  so  that  they  were 
in  great  demand  as  mercenaries.  Among  their 
shepherds  and  hunters  the  chief  deities  seem  to 
have  been  Pan,  Artemis,  and  Zeus  who  was 
worshiped  with  human  sacrifices  on  Mount 
Lycieon  till  a  comparatively  late  date.  A  form 
of  pastoral  poetry  seems  to  have  developed  in 
Arcadia,  which  was  at  first  crowded  into  the 
background  by  the  Sicilian  bucolics  of  Theocri- 
tus; but  later  revived  and  influenced  the  Roman 
poets,  whence  Arcadia  has  become  a  synonym 
for  an  idyllic  pastoral  coimtry  of  peace,  inno- 
cence, and  simplicity. 

ABC  APIA.  The  title  of  various  pastoral 
romances,  suggested,  doubtless,  from  the  use 
of  the  word  in  Vergil's  Eclogues,  where  it  is 
spoken  of  as  a  realm  of  bucolic  content.  One  of 
these  romances  is  by  Sannazaro,  and  appeared 
at  the  close  of  the  Fifteenth  Century ;  another  is 
by  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  and  was  published  in  1590; 
a  third  is  by  Robert  Greene,  published  in  1689; 
and  a  fourth  by  Lope  de  Ve^,  in  1598.  In  1640 
Shirley  wrote  a  dramatization  of  Sidney's  tale. 

ABCAa)II7S  (c.377-408).  The  first  Em- 
peror of  the  East  (a.d.  395-408).  He  was  bom 
in  Spain,  and  was  the  son  of  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius,  after  whose  death  the  Roman  Empire 
was  divided  into  the  Eastern  and  Western.  Arca- 
dius  lived  in  Oriental  state,  and  his  dominion  ex- 
tended from  the  Adriatic  Sea  to  the  river  Tigris, 
and  from  Scythia  to  Ethiopia;  but  the  real  rulers 
over  this  vast  empire  were,  first,  the  Gaul  Rufi- 
nus,  and  afterwards  the  eunuch  Eutropius,  who 
openly  assumed  the  reins  of  government  and  the 
comm'and  of  the  army,  while  Arcadius  reposed  in 
luxurious  indiflference.  In  399  Eutropius  was 
deposed  by  another  usurper,  Gainas,  who,  in  his 
turn,  soon  fell  a  victim  to  his  own  ambition. 
Afterwards  Eudoxia,  the  wife  of  the  Emperor, 
assumed  the  supremacy.  One  really  great  man 
adorned  this  period,  the  virtuous  and  eloquent 
Chrj'sostom,  who  was  persecuted  by  Eudoxia, 
and  through  her  influence  exiled  in  404,  on  ac- 
count of  his  firm  opposition  to  Arianism,  which 
the  Empress  herself  favored.  During  the  reign 
of  Arcadius  his  territories  suffered  by  barbarian 
incursions,  earthquakes,  and  famine,  but  nothing 
could  disturb  the  indifTerence  of  the  monarch. 
He  died,  unlamented,  a.d.  408.     See  Honobius. 

AKCA^NI  DlS'CIPLI^A.  See  Disciplina, 
Abcani. 

ABCA^UM,  The  Great.  In  the  Middle 
Ages  the  Latin  word  arcanum,  literally  meaning 
secret,  was  used  of  any  of  the  most  valued 
preparations  of  alchemy  (q.v.)  ;  but  the  name 
great  arcanum  was  especially  applied  to  the 
highest  problems  of  the  science,  the  discovery 
of  such  supposed  great  secrets  of  nature  as  the 
elixir  of  life  or  the  philosopher's  stone. 

AKC  D£  TBIOMPHE  DE  L'ETOILE,  de 
lA'twaK  (Fr.,  triumphal  arch  of  the  star).  The 
largest  triumphal  arch  in  the  world.  It  stands 
at  the  head  of  the  Champs  Elys^s,  Paris,  and 
was  begxm  by  Napoleon  in  180*6,  and  completed 
by  Louis  Philippe  in  1836.  It  was  designed  by 
Cfhalgrin,  and  is  profusely  ornamented  with  re- 
liefs   representing  the   Napoleonic   victories,   in 


commemoration  of  which  it  was  erected.  See 
Arch,  Triumphal. 

ABC  DE  TBIOMPHE  DX7  CABBOXnSEIi. 

ark  de  tr^'Owf'  dv  kk'r7PS'z6V  (Fr.,  triumphal 
arch  of  the  tilting-match ) .  An  arch  built  by 
Napoleon  I.  at  Paris,  in  the  square  inclosed  by 
the  Tuileries  and  the  Louvre,  in  commemoration 
of  his  victories  during  1805-06.  It  is  a  smaller 
copy  of  the  Arch  of  Gonstantine  at  Rome.  See 
Arch,  Triumphal. 

AB'CEy  Span,  pron,,  ftr^thft,  Francisco 
(1822-78).  A  California  pioneer.  He  removed 
to  Alta,  Cal.,  in  1833,  and  soon  afterward 
became  secretary  to  GJeneral  Jos6  Castro,  then 
commanding  the  Califomian  forces.  In  1840, 
while  bringing  a  number  of  horses,  supposed  to 
belong  to  the  Califomian  Government,  from  So- 
noma to  the  south,  he  was  attacked  (June  6) 
by  a  company  of  Americans,  supposedly  insti- 
gated by  Captain  John  C.  Fremont.  The  "Arce 
affair"  attracted  widespread  attention,  and 
marked  the  beginning  of  the  Bear-Flag  Revolt 
(q.v.),  which  result^  in  the  seizure  of  Cali- 
fornia by  the  Americans. 

AB'CESILA^S  (Gk.  '^kpKwCKam.Arkesilaos) 
(B.C.  316-241).  A  Greek  philosopner,  founder 
of  the  Middle  Academv.  He  was  bom  at  Pitane, 
in  iBiolis;  studied  philosophy  at  Athens,  first 
imder  Theophrastus,  the  Peripatetic,  and  after- 
wards under  Grantor,  the  Academician,  and 
through  the  latter  became  acquainted  with  Pole- 
mon  and  Crates,  by  whom,  as  well  as  by  Grantor, 
he  was  profoundly  influenced  in  his  philosophic 
views.  After  the  death  of  Grantor,  he  became 
the  head  of  the  Academic  school.  Arcesilaus 
marks  a  reaction  against  the  dogmatism  of  the 
Stoic  school  of  philosophy,  and  an  intended  re- 
currence to  the  method  and  attitude  of  Plato 
and  Socrates.  He  denied  the  Stoic  doctrine  of  a 
"convincing  conception,"  which  he  aflfirmed  to  be, 
from  its  very  nature,  unintelligible  and  contra- 
dictory. He  also  denied  the  certainty  of  intel- 
lectual and  sensuous  knowledge,  and  reconunend- 
ed  abstinenpe  from  all  dogmatic  judgments.  In 
practice,  he  maintained,  we  must  act  on  grounds 
of  probability.  Though  Arcesilaus  confined  his 
activity  to  teaching  by  the  Socratic  method,  and 
wrote  nothing,  his  influence  on  the  future  course 
of  philosophic  thought  was  far-reaching.  He 
had  clearness  of  thought,  cutting  wit,  and  readi- 
ness of  speech;  his  frank  and  generous  disposi- 
tion charmed  his  opponents  as  well  as  his  dis- 
ciples. Consult  Zeller,  Geschichte  der  grtech- 
iscken  Philosophic  (Leipzig,  1893). 

ABCH  (Lat.  arcu^,  anything  curved,  a  bow, 
vrult,  arch).  A  term  used  in  architecture  to 
designate  any  curved  form  that  spans  an  open- 
ing or  recess.  It  may  be  decorative,  as  a  floral 
arch ;  or  constructional,  as  a  stone  or  brick  arch. 
It  may  be  a  detached  structure,  a  memorial  or 
triumphal  arch;  or  it  may  be  a  part  of  a  large 
building.  A  constructional  arch  may  be  a  false 
arch,  consisting  of  horizontal  courses  of  masonry, 
each  projecting  over  the  one  below  it,  the  edges 
being  chamfered  to  give  the  form  of  the  arch 
without  the  carrying  function;  or  it  may  be  a 
true  arch,  with  a  keystone,  as  is  usually  the  case, 
and  may  be  of  the  greatest  variety  of  shapes: 
a  primitive  triangle,  formed  of  two  slanting 
stones ;  a  flat  arch,  with  wedge-shaped  voussoirs ; 
a  segmental  arch,  or  very  low  arch,  used  often 
within  walls,  as  a  discharging  arch,  for  strength; 


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ABCH. 


720 


ASCH. 


«  usual  round  or  one-centred  arch;  a  stilted 
arch;  a  usual  pointed  or  two-centred  arch;  a 
cusped  or  lobed  arch  (trefoil,  quatrefoil,  cinq- 
foil  )  ;  a  horseshoe  arch ;  a  reverse-curve  or  ogee 
arch;  a  basket-handle  arch  (both  three-centred). 
The  arch  is  formed  of  voussoirs ;  the  central  one 
is  the  keystone,  the  lower  ones  are  the  springers. 
The  inner  side  of  the  arch  is  the  intrados,  the 
outer  the  extrados.  See  Abutment  ;  Abchivolt  ; 
Spandbel. 

History, — ^The  supporting  power  of  the  arch 
appears  to  have  been  known  to  most  nations  of 
antiquity,  but  the  power  was  not  regarded  as 
artistic.  The  Egyptians  knew  the  round  arch, 
but  relegated  it  to  works  of  engineering  and  pri- 
vate architecture;  the  arch  never  appears  in 
their  temples,  tombs,  or  any  other  large  monu- 
ments. In  this  they  held  precisely  the  position 
held  later  by  the  Greeks.  The  arch  in  the  As- 
sembly Hall  at  Priene  (time  of  Alexander),  re- 
cently discovered,  is  supposed  to  be  the  only 
decorative  Greek  arch  found ;  the  few  others  are 
in  fortifications,  etc.  But  the  Babylonians  and 
Assyrians  knew  and  used  various  kinds  of  arches 
in  tbeir  palaces,  tombs,  and  temples:  the  false 
arch;  the  pointed  and  the  semicircular  arches. 
All  the  openings  in  Assyrian  palaces  were  arched. 
In  ancient  Italy,  the  Pelasgic  and  Etruscan 
populations  used  the  arch  in  the  same  way  for 
secular  and  sepulchral  buildings;  for  gates, 
bridges,  passages.  Only  in  temple  architecture, 
borrowed  from  the  Greeks  of  the  historic  age, 
was  the  architrave  supreme.  This  custom  was 
inherited  by  the  Romans,  most  of  whose  secular 
buildings  were  arched,  while  their  temples  were 
not.  But  the  Romans  of  the  Early  Empire  did 
not  invent  the  arcade — that  is,  an  uninterrupted 
series  of  arches  supported  on  columns  or  piers. 
This  was  first  introduced  at  Diocletian's  palace 
in  Spalato,  and  developed  in  early  Christian 
religious  architecture.  Etruscans,  Romans,  and 
early  Christians  knew  only  the  semicircular  arch. 
But  the  Persians  and  Mohammedans,  beginning 
in  the  Sixth  and  Seyenth  centuries,  brought  into 
use  a  variety  of  other  forms:  the  pointed,  the 
horseshoe,  the  ovoid,  the  stilted  arches.  These 
forms  later  penetrated  sporadically  into  Europe, 
especially  where  there  were  political  or  com- 
mercial relations  with  the  Orient.  The  pointed 
arch  became,  in  fact,  the  favorite  Mohammedan 
form.  It  was,  perhaps,  a  knowledge  of  this 
Oriental  usage  that  suggested  to  French  build- 
ers of  the  time  of  the  First  Crusade  the  use 
of  this  form  in  vaulting;  and  thus  was  laid  the 
basis  for  Gothic  construction,  though  otherwise 
,  there  cannot  be  any  connection  between  the 
pointed  style  of  the  East  and  Gothic  architec- 
ture. In  Europe  the  round-arched  style  of  the 
Romanesque  Period  was  succeeded  by  the  more 
flexible  pointed  style  of  Gothic.  Gothic  archi- 
tects produced  the  greatest  number  of  sub-forms 
and  by-forms  of  the  arch,  not  all  of  them  pointed. 
Then  the  Renaissance  returned  to  the  round  arch. 
Modem  architects  have  no  style  to  hamper  them, 
and  therefore  use  all  kinds. 

ABCH,  Triumphal,  or  Memorial.  Usually 
a  free-standing  arch,  spanning  a  road;  though 
sometimes  city  gates  and  monumental  doorways 
are  turned  into  memorial  arches.  These  arches 
are  erected  to  commemorate  triumphs  or  suc- 
cessful campaigns,  or  even  great  peaceful  events, 
or  an  entire  reign,  or  even  a  great  family.  They 
appear   to  have   originated  with  the   Romans. 


Nearly  one  hundred  and  fifty  such  Roman  arches 
remain  wholly  or  in  part,  of  which  about  sixty 
are  in  North  Africa.    At  Rome  they  were  placed 
alone  the  Triumphal  Way  followed  by  the  tri- 
umphing general  and  his  army  from  the  Field  of 
Mars  to  the  Capitol.    The  custom  spread  from 
Rome  elsewhere.    The  earliest  arches  mentioned 
at  Rome  are  those  of  Stertinius  (b.o.  196)  and 
Scipio  Africanus   (B.C.  190).     Then  the  Fabian 
gens    erected    one    to    itself    (c.l20    B.C.).    But 
it  was  under  Augustus  that  the  custom  took  root 
everywhere,  as  is  sho^'n  in  the  Roman  Forum, 
at  Aosta,  Susa,  Rimini,  Fano,  etc.     From  that 
time  imtil  the  fall  of  the  Empire  in  the  Fifth 
Century  such  arches  followed  Roman  dominion 
throughout   the  civilised  world,   and    they  are 
found  in  France    (Saint  Remy,  Orange,  etc.), 
Spain  (Caparra,  Bara),  North  Africa  (Timgad, 
Tebessa,     Thugga,    Haidra),    Syria     (Palmyra, 
Gerasa,  Baalbek),  Asia  Minor,  etc.     The  early 
arches  were  of  stone  and  without  much  carving, 
beine  mainly  arched  bases  for  a  group  of  tri- 
umphal statuary.    But  imder  the  Empire,  though 
still  crowned  by  the  triumphal   quadriga  and 
other  figures  in  bronze,  the  arches  themselves 
became  of  mat  artistic  importance,  and  often 
represent  the  most  successful  effort  of  Roman 
genius  at  combining  architectural  and  sculptural 
design.     They  were  then  built  of  marble.    The 
number  of  openings  varied  from  one   to  four, 
according  as  special  arcades  were  or  were  not 
made  for  foot-passengers,  or  two  main  arehes 
provided  for  vehicles  in  place  of  one.     Still  an- 
other  favorite   form   was   the    Janus    arch,   or 
Petrapylon,  a  solid  cube,  with  arches  at  right 
angles,   usually   placed   at   the    intersection   of 
avenues,  as  at  Philippopolis,  (3erast,  and  Rome. 
Few  cities  were  built  under  the  Empire  without 
one  or  more  of  these  arches,  but  only  in  Italy 
and  South  France  were  they  profusely  derated 
with  relief  sculptures.    The  most  perfect  of  all 
such   sculptured  arches   is   that  of  Trajan,    at 
Benevento     (a.d.     114)  ;     then    come    those    of 
Titus   (a.d.  80),  Septimius  Severus   (a.d.  203), 
and  Constantine   (a.d.  312)   at  Rome,  and  that 
of  Tiberius  at  Orange.    The  sculptures  commemo- 
rated events  of  these  emperors'  reigns,  and  the 
attic  contained  the  dedicatory  inscription.     One 
of  the  slenderest  and  most  elegant  is  the  one 
erected  on  the  Mole  at  Ancona,  to  celebrate  the 
enlargement  of  this  port  by  Trajan.    The  Renais- 
sance resurrected  the  arch  after  a  lapse  of  a 
thousand   years    (Arch   of   Alfonso   at   Naples, 
Fifteenth  Century),  and  it  has  since  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  steadily  increased  in  popularity 
in    Italy    (Arco    della    Pace,    Milan)  ;     Fran<w 
(Arc  de  I'Etoile,  Arc  du  Carrousel)  ;  Germany 
( Brandenburger  Thor,  Berlin;    Siegesthor,  ^lu- 
nich),   and   America    (Washington    Arch,    New 
York;     Memorial   Arch,    Brooklyn).      Consult: 
Baumeister,   Denkmaler  des   klassischen  Alifr- 
tuma  (Munich,  1885-88)  ;  Daremberg  and  Saglio, 
Dictionnaire    des    antiguii6s    grecques    et     ro- 
maines  (Paris,  1881-92)  ;   Bellori,  Veteres  Arc^ts 
Augustorum  (Rome,  1690)  ;  and  Philippi,  Ceber 
die  romischen  Triumphalreliefe  (Leipzig,  1874). 
ABCHy  Joseph  (1826-     ).  An  English  labor 
leader.     He  was  bom  in  humble  circumstances: 
was  a  farm  laborer;    educated  himself,  and  be- 
came a  Primitive  Methodist  preacher.    In  1872 
he  headed  the  movement  for  the  betterment  of 
the  condition  of  farm  laborers  in  England,  and 
founded  and  was  president  of  the  National  Agri- 


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ARCHES 


A.  TRIANGULAR  Q.  SURBASEDOROVAL.  M.  OQIVAL.  S.  FIVE-LOBED. 

B.  SEMI-CIRCULAR,  Primitive.  H.  DEPRESSED.  N.  LANCET.  T.  REVERSED  OGEE. 

C.  SEMI-CIRCULAR,  With  keystone.  I.    ELLIPTICAL.  ©.FLAMBOYANT.  U.  INFLECTED,  COUNTER  CURVED. 

D.  SURMOUNTED.  J.    INDENTED.  P.  FLAT.  V.  OGEE. 

E.  HORSESHOE.  K.  TRUNCATED  Q.  TUDOR.  W.  RAMPANT.  ,.■   ^  .  .    , , 

F.  SEGMENTAL.  ANGULAR.  R.  THREE-LOBED.  X.  ZIG-ZAG.       '^'^^^1  Dy 

L.  LANCE-SHAPED. 


,Vc300gle 


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ABGH. 


721 


ABGHJEOLOGT. 


cultural  Laborers'  Union.  In  1873  he  visited 
Canada  and  the  United  States  to  study  the  con- 
dition and  prospects  of  labor,  and  the  question 
of  emigration.  In  1885  he  was  elected  to  Parlia- 
ment from  Northwest  Norfolk  as  a  Liberal ;  was 
defeated  in  1886^  and  reelected  in  1892  and  in 
1895.  In  1898  his  autobiography,  edited  by  the 
-Countess  of  Warwick,  was  published. 

ABGHiEAN  ( Ur-k^an )  SYSTEM  (from  Gk. 
^pxoMt.  archaios,  ancient).  A  name  proposed 
by  J.  D.  Dana,  in  1872,  for  the  entire  series  of 
crystalline  rocks  that  forms  the  oldest  under- 
lying fundamental  complex  of  the  earth's  crust. 
Earlier  names  applied  to  this  series  were:  Azoic, 
Primitive,  Huronian,  and  Laurentian,  of  Ameri- 
•can  geologists,  and  Urgehirge  and  Primitivge- 
Inrge  of  the  still  earlier  Germans,  Werner  and 
Lehmann.  The  rocks  of  this  system  consist  of  a 
complex  series  of  gneisses,  granites,  and  schists, 
with  a  host  of  associated  massive  igneous  intru- 
sions, all  of  which  have  suffered  profound  dis- 
turbances and  metamorphism  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  is  extremely  doubtful  if  at  the  present 
day  there  exist  any  traces  of  their  original 
•characters.  They  form,  as  a  rule,  the  cores  of 
the  great  mountain  masses,  and  are  the  Original 
sources  from  which  were  derived,  by  erosfon 
through  countless  ages,  all  the  forms  of  later 
sedimentary  rocks,  which  they  underlie  with 
marked  unconformity.  Various  classifications  of 
Archaean  rocks  have  been  made  in  the  attempt 
to  organize  them  into  stratigraphic  groups,  but 
owing  to  the  complex  nature  of  the  series,  and 
to  the  almost  complete  absence  of  reliable  data 
for  determining  the  relative  age  of  the  com- 
ponent formations,  no  one  classification  has  as 
yet  received  general  recomiition.  These  Archse- 
an  rocks  of  undoubted  primeval  origin,  together 
with  certain  others,  which  because  of  their  prob- 
able sedimentary  derivation  have  been  separated 
under  the  name  Algonkian,  antedate  in  respect 
of  the  time  of  their  formation  the  rocks  of  the 
Cambrian  system,  and  can  be  described  to  better 
advantage  under  the  title,  Pbe-Cambbian  Forma- 
tions, to  which  article  the  reader  is  referred  for 
further  information.  See  also  Algonkian  Sys- 
tem ;  and  Tonic. 

ABCHLfflOLOGICAIi  ( ar'-k*.d-l6j1-kal )  IN- 
STirTJTE  OF  AMEBIGA.  A  society  for  the 
promotion  of  archaeological  investigation  and 
research.  It  was  organized  in  Boston  in  1879, 
and  has  since  established  nine  affiliated  societies, 
with  headquarters  in  different  American  cities. 
The  Institute  founded  the  American  School  of 
Classical  Studies  in  Athens  in  1881 ;  the  Ameri- 
<?an  School  of  Classical  Studies  in  Rome  in  1895, 
and  the  American  School  in  Palestine  in  1900. 
These  are  supported  partly  by  private  subscrip- 
tion and  partly  by  the  aid  of  several  American 
colleges.  The  Society  conducted  important  ex- 
cavations of  the  site  of  ancient  Assos  in  1881-83, 
and  has  aided  the  School  at  Athens  in  its  exca- 
vation of  Grecian  sites,  notably  that  of  the 
Herseum,  in  the  Argolid.  The  official  organ  of 
the  society  is  the  American  Journal  of  Arch(B' 
ologp,  a  bi-monthly  magazine.  Besides  this  the 
society  publishes  various  papers  and  supple- 
mental reports,  and  more  important  publications 
are  in  course  of  preparation,  notably  a  fac- 
simile reproduction  of  the  Codex  Venetus  of 
Aristophanes,  and  important  descriptions  of  the 
results  of  special  archaeological  investigations. 
The  membership  of  the  society  is  about  one  thou- 
VOL.  I.— 46. 


sand.  Its  presidents  have  been:  Prof.  Charles 
Eliot  Norton,  1879-90;  Seth  Low,  1890-96;  Prof. 
John  Williams  WTiite  (of  Harvard),  1896. 

ABCHiBOIiOGY,  ftr'-k6-6F-6-jI  (Gk.  dpxa«^- 
XoyULf  archaiologia,  antiquarian  lore,  from  dpxa-of, 
archaiosy  ancient  -f  Uyos,  logos,  science).  The 
Miienee  of  antiquities — that  is,  of  the  material 
remains  of  ancient  peoples.  But  from  the  fact 
that  in  its  origin  and  development  it  has  been 
primarily  and  chiefly  concerned  with  the  ar- 
tistic and  architectural  remnants  of  the  Gr»co- 
Roman  world,  it  is  often  taken  to  mean  the 
science  of  Greek  and  Roman  antiquities,  in  which 
sense  the  term  will  be  used  in  this  article,  with- 
out losing  sight  of  the  connection  subsisting 
between  these  monuments  and  those  of  the  more 
ancient  peoples  to  whom  they  owe  in  great  meas- 
ure their  inception. 

As  a  science,  archaeology  cannot  justly  be  said 
to  have  existed  before  the  last  century,  although 
the  way  had  been  gradually  paved  for  it  from 
the  time  of  the  Italian  Renaissance.  The  pas- 
sion for  the  artistic  relics  of  Graeco-Roman  civili- 
zation, which  at  the  end  of  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury took  such  surprising  hold  upon  the  cultured 
classes  of  Italy  under  the  Papal  sway,  led  to  the 
foundation  of  museums,  in  which  were  gathered 
statues  of  bronze  and  marble,  vases,  inscriptions, 
gems,  jewelry,  and  coins,  affording  material  for 
study  and  comparison.  The  spoils  brought  over 
from  Greece  by  her  Roman  conquerors,  and  the 
mania  for  collecting  treasures  from  the  same 
source  which  had  been  displayed  by  many  Ro- 
man amateurs,  as  well  as  the  great  artistic  and 
architectural  activity  in  imperial  Rome  under 
the  guidance  of  Greek  masters,  rendered  that  city 
a  mine  for  the  early  archaeologists;  and,  further- 
more, much  filtered  in  from  Greece  itself.  (Cf. 
Lanciani,  Ancient  Rome  in  the  Light  of  Recent 
Discoveries,  Boston  and  New  York,  1889.)  It 
must  be  admitted  that  these  collectors  were  en- 
thusiastic rather  than  scientific,  and  that  the 
works  of  art  discovered  were  ruthlessly  restored 
to  present  a  pleasing  appearance,  often  at  the 
complete  sacrifice  of  accuracy.  Heads  and  bodies 
of  totally  different  style  were  frequently  joined 
in  hybrid  works  which  still  mislead  the  unin- 
formed. 

The  father  of  modem  archaeology  is  Johann 
Joachim  Winckelmann  (1717-68)  (q.v.),  whose 
writings,  although  superseded  in  many  points, 
are  still  of  value,  and  who,  by  his  genius,  marked 
out  the  field  since  so  successfully  cultivated.  He 
first  presented  to  European  scholars  an  authentic 
account  of  the  discoveries  made  in  the  0am- 
panian  city  of  Herculaneum  (q.v.),  and,  more 
than  all,  first  wrote  a  systematic  history  of 
ancient  art  {Oeschichte  der  Kunst  des  Alter- 
thums,\l%A\  vid.  Winckelmann's  complete  works, 
edited  by  Meyer  and  Schulze,  Dresden,  1808-20). 
By  a  passage  in  Winckelmann's  writings,  Les- 
sing  was  stimulated  to  the  composition  of  his 
great  aesthetic  essay,  "LaocoSn,"  and  Goethe  also 
was  powerfully  influenced  by  him.  Thus  the  seed 
of  the  new  science  was  planted,  to  develop  after 
the  era  of  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Like  his  predecessors,  Winckelmann  was  able  to 
know  Greek  art  only  through  the  copies  of  the 
Roman  period,  or  the  few  originals  of  later 
times;  but  even  through  this  haze  he  was  able 
to  distinguish  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
period,  and  his  works  prepared  the  way  for  the 


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ABCHAOLOOY. 


better  appreciation  of  the  discoveries  of  the  early 
Nineteenth  Century. 

Napoleon's  invasion  of  Egypt  opened  the  treas- 
ures of  the  Nile  Valley  to  European  scholars, 
and  the  discovery  of  the  key  to  the  hieroglyphic 
writing  (q.v.)  threw  new  light  on  the  early  his- 
tory of  the  East.  In  Greece  itself  English  schol- 
ars were  at  this  time  doing  what  could  be  done 
under  the  Turkish  regime.  The  chief  result  was 
the  splendid  work  of  Stuart  and  Revett,  The  An- 
tiquitiea  of  Athens  (4  vols.,  1762-1816).  The 
expedition  sent  out  by  the  Society  of  Dilettanti 
to  continue  their  work  accomplished  but  little. 
The  true  character  of  the  art  of  the  Fifth  Century 
B.C.  became  clear  when,  in  1803-12,  Lord  Elgin 
brought  the  sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  to  Lon- 
don. (See  Elgin  Marbles.)  These, together  with 
the  reliefs  from  the  temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius 
at  Bassie,  near  Phigalia,  in  Arcadia,  discovered 
in  1812,  were  subsequently  acquired  by  the  Brit- 
ish Government,  and  form  a  most  important 
part  of  the  archaeological  treasures  of  the  Brit- 
ish Museum.  In  1811  the  same  English  and  Ger- 
man explorers  who  Hubsequently  brought  to  light 
the  Phigalian  marbles  discovered  the  remains  of 
the  remarkable  pedlroental  groups  of  the  temple 
on  the  island  of  ^Kgina,  which  were  purchased  by 
Prince  Ludwig  of  Bavaria,  and  placed  in  the 
Gl>7)tothek  at  Munich.  (See  ^^Soinetan  Sculp- 
tures.) The  successful  termination  of  the  Greek 
War  of  Independence  ( 1821-29)  opened  anew  mine 
from  which  something  was  immediately  realized 
by  the  French  exploration  of  the  Morea  (Pelo- 
ponnesus) in  1829,  which  brought  to  the  Louvre 
the  first  specimens  of  the  Olympic  sculptures. 
Soon  after,  the  little  temple  of  Athena  Nike  rose 
again  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  rescued  from 
the  Turkish  bastion  which  had  been  built  of  its 
stones.  In  Sicily  the  exploration  of  the  many 
Greek  sites  led  to  the  discovery  of  the  early 
sculptures  of  Selinus,  while  the  systematic  ex- 
cavation of  Pompeii  (q.v.)  brought  to  light  the 
paintings  and  household  ornaments  of  the  First 
Century.  At  about  the  same  time,  the  discovery 
of  the  great  necropolises  of  Etruria,  especially 
that  of  Vulci,  in  1828,  not  only  opened  the  whole 
field  of  Etruscan  art,  and  especially  of  mural 
painting,  to  study,  but  also  added  thousands  of 
vases,  Greek  and  Etruscan,  to  the  material  for 
reconstructing  the  life  and  thought  of  the  past. 
The  importance  of  the  vases,  not  for  art  alone, 
but  for  the  study  of  daily  life  and  mythology,  was 
at  once  recognized;  but  unfortunately  the  strict 
methods  of  scientific  interpretation  were  not  at 
first  followed,  and  for  many  years  the  wildest 
subjectivity  sought  to  find  a  whole  system  of 
mystic  symbolism  in  these  gifts  to  the  dead. 
Fortunately,  this  has  now  been  generally  super- 
seded by  a  careful  study  of  the  language  and 
methods  of  the  Greek  potter.  This  growth  of 
material  made  necessary  some  organization  of 
the  laborers  in  the  new  science,  and  the  founda- 
tion of  the  "Istituto  di  Corrispondenza  Archeo- 
logica,"  by  Bunsen,  Gerhard,  the  Duke  of  Luynes, 
and  others,  on  December  9,  1828,  was  one  of  the 
most  important  steps  in  the  history  of  archaeo- 
logical progress.  This  institution,  now  the  Im- 
perial German  Archaeological  Institute  (Kaiser- 
lich-Deutsches  ArchUologisches  Institut),  has,  by 
its  publications  and  by  the  training  of  young 
scholars,  been  of  incHtimable  value.  The  French 
School  of  Archaeology,  established  at  Athens  in 
1846,  as  well  as  the  activity  which  began  to  be 


displayed  by  certain  Greek  savants  under  the 
Bavarian  regime,  had  also  an  important  influ- 
ence on  the  development  of  our  science.  An  im- 
portant part  in  this  development  was  plated  by 
the  pupils  of  F.  A.  Wolf,  especially  by  A.  Boeckh, 
whose  aim  was  a  complete  reconstruction  of 
ancient  life,  and  who  were  therefore  ready  to 
welcome  light  from  other  sources  than  the  liter- 
ary monuments  whidi  had  so  long  abaoibed  the 
attention  of  classical  scholars.  The  discoveries 
of  Layard  at  Nineveh  (1845-46),  and  the  subse- 
quent decipherment  of  the  cuneiform  inscrip- 
tions, revealed  the  ancient  civilization  of  Assym 
and  Babylonia,  and  gave  new  material  for  & 
more  accurate  estimate  of  the  relative  position 
of  (vreek  culture  and  art.  We  must  not  omit  to 
mention  here  the  important  addition  made  to  the 
British  Museum  by  the  discoveries  of  Sir  Charles 
Fellows  in  Lycia  (1840),  of  Wood  at  Ephesu? 
(1867-74),  and  of  Newton  at  Branchidse,  Uali- 
carnassus  (q.v.),  and  Cnidus  (q.v.). 

The  study  of  Greek  inscriptions  (see  Insciif- 
TIONS )  imder  Boeckh  and  Franz,  and  of  compara- 
tive linguistics  under  Bopp  and  his  successors 
contributed  their  share  to  the  modem  arehsolo- 
gist's  equipment.  We  have  now  brought  the  ac- 
count down  to  the  last  thirtv  years  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  during  which  a  series  of  di'scov- 
eries  were  made,  whose  full  importance  cannot 
yet  be  estimated. 

The  first  place  in  this  series  must  be  given  to 
the  excavations  of  Heinrich  Schliemann  (q.v.)  at 
Troy,  Mycenaj,  and  Tiryns,  which  brought  to 
light  the  remains  of  pre-Homeric  Greece,  and 
revolutionized  our  conceptions  of  the  de\'elop- 
ment  of  the  early  JCgean  civilization.  These  di?- 
coveries  have  been  supplemented  and  explained 
by  the  work  of  Flinders  Petrieand  others  in 
Eg^'pt,  of  the  English  on  Melos,  and  especially 
by  the  most  recent  explorations  in  Crete.  The 
])eculiar  Cypriote  civilization,  which  first  at- 
tracted attention  in  the  collections  of  Cesnola, 
has  since  been  studied  scientifically  by  Ohne- 
falsch-Richter  and  other  German  and  English 
scholars.  Of  the  greatest  importance  in  the  de- 
velopment of  archaeological  study  in  Greece  has 
been  the  establishment  of  other  foreign  schools 
besides  the  French  Institute  in  Athens.  The  first 
of  these  was  the  Athenian  branch  of  the  German 
Archaeological  Institute  (1874),  which  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  American  School  of  Classical  Stud- 
ies (1882),  the  British  School  (1886),  and  a 
branch  of  the  Austrian  Archaeological  Institute 
( 1897 ) .  Italy,  Russia,  and  Denmark  have  also 
made  provision  for  their  archaeologists  who  de- 
sire to  study  in  Greek  lands.  Through  the  aid 
of  foreign  archaeologists  many  of  the  most  im- 
portant excavations  in  Greece  and  Asia  Minor 
have  been  made  possible.  Thus,  the  German'^ 
have  excavated  Olympia  (1875-81),  Pergamus, 
Priene,  and  Miletus;  the  French,  Delos  and 
Delphi;  the  Americans,  Eretria,  the  temple  of 
Hera,  near  Argos  (1892-95),  and  Corinth;  the 
British,  Megalopolis  and  Melos,  and  the  Austri- 
ans,  Ephesus.  Side  by  side  with  the  foreign- 
ers, has  worked  the  Greek  Archaeological  Society 
('EXXewiri)  'A4txau>\rrucif  'Eratpia) ,  HellenikS  Arckai- 
logike  Hetairia),  founded  in  1836,  and  always 
one  of  the  most  active  agencies  in  the  e3q)lora- 
tion  of  Greek  soil.  To  it  is  due  the  exca\'ation 
of  the  southern  slope  and  the  summit  of  the 
Acropolis,  the  great  sanctuaries  of  Eleusis,  Epi- 
daurus  and  Oropos,  and  the  palace  and  many 


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ABGHiEOLOGY. 


graves  at  Mycenas.  In  Italy  the  progress  of 
discovery  has  been  somewhat  limited  by  a  re- 
fusal to  permit  foreigners  to  engage  in  the  work; 
but  archaeological  study  flourishes  not  only 
among  the  Italians^  but  under  the  direction  of 
the  German  and  French  Institutes  and  the  Amer- 
ican School  (1895). 

As  may  be  inferred  from  this  brief  outline, 
archseology  is  an  eminently  progressive  science, 
and  in  all  its  departments  subject  to  constant  re- 
vision. The  steady  increase  of  material,  and  the 
filling  of  gaps  in  the  general  structure,  as  well  as 
continual  correction  or  rejection  of  hastily 
formed  theories  and  insufficiently  supported  con- 
clusions, will  occupy  savants  for  generations  to 
come.  We  can  deal  only  provisionally  with  the 
most  certain  and  generally  accepted  data,  supple- 
menting the  statements  of  ancient  writers  by  the 
monuments,  and  interpreting  the  monuments  in 
turn  by  our  literary  sources. 

Bibliography.  For  the  history  of  archaeologic- 
al study:  Stark,  Systematik  und  Oeschichte  der 
Archaoiogie  der  Kunst  (Leipzig,  1880)  ;  Sittl, 
Archdologie  der  Kunst  with  atlas  (Volume  VI.  of 
M tiller,  Handbuch  der  klass.  Altertkumswissen- 
schaft,  Munich,  1895)  ;  this  is  the  only  recent 
work,  but  must  be  used  with  caution.  On  the 
general  subject:  Miiller,  Ancient  Art  and  Its 
Remains f  translated  by  Leitch  (London,  1850), 
is  still  valuable;  Collignon,  Manual  of  Greek 
Archaeology f  translated  by  J.  H.  Wright  (New 
York,  1886)  ;  A.  S.  Murray,  Handbook  of  Greek 
Archaeology  (London,  1892)  ;  Baumeister,  Denk- 
miiler  des  klass.  Alterthums  (Munich,  1885-88)  ; 
Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire  de  Vart  dans  Van- 
iiquitdf  seven  volumes  published  (Paris,  1881 
seq. ) .  For  the  history  of  discoveries,  besides  the 
works  mentioned  under  the  separate  places,  good 
brief  accounts  are  to  be  found  in  P.  Gardner, 
New  Chapters  in  Greek  History  (London,  1892), 
and  Diehl,  Excursions  in  Greece,  translated  by 
E.  R.  Perkins  (London,  1893).  For  a  summary 
of  recent  results,  see  Hogarth,  Authority  and 
Archceology  (I^ondon,  1899).  The  record  of  dis- 
coveries is  preserved  chiefly  in  periodicals,  of 
which  the  most  important  is  the  old  series  of  the 
German  Archeeological  Institute;  Annali  and 
Bolletino  delV  Istituto  di  Corrispondenza 
Archeologica  (Rome,  1829-86),  and  the  Monu- 
menti  Inedoti,  twelve  volumes  and  supplement 
(Rome,  1829-85;  Berlin,  1891);  Archdologische 
Zeitung  (Berlin,  1843-85).  Other  important  peri- 
odicals are:  In  German,  Jahrbuch  des  kaiser- 
lick  deutschen  archaologischen  Instituts  (Ber- 
lin, 1885  if.)  ;  Mittheilungen  des  kaiserlich 
deutsches  archaologisches  Instituts,  Athemische 
Abtheilung  (Athens,  1876  flf.)  ;  Bomische  Ab- 
theilung  (Rome,  1886  flf.)  ;  Antike  Denkmdler, 
folio  (Berlin,  1887  ft.)  ;  Jahrbilcher  des  Vereins 
der  Altertumsfreunde  im  Rheinlande  (Bonn, 
1842  flf.).  For  the  Roman  antiquities  of  Ger- 
many, Archaologisch-epigraphische  Mittheilungen 
aus  6sterreich  (Vienna,  1877-97),  superseded  by 
Jahreshefto  des  Osterreichischen  archaologischen 
Instituts  (Vienna,  1898  ff.).  In  French,  Revue 
arch4ologique  (Paris,  1884  flf.)  ;  Gazette  arch4- 
ologue  (Paris,  1875-89)  ;  Bulletin  de  Corre- 
spondance  Hellhtique  (Athens,  1877  ff.).  In 
Italian,  Monumcnti  antichi  (Milan,  1889  ff.)  ; 
Notizie  degli  scavi  di  Antichitd  (Rome,  1876 
ff.).  In  Greek,  'E^iy/Liepif 'A^x««>Xo7tnJ,  Eph&neris 
ArchaiologikS  (Athens,  1837-60;  1862-74;  1883 
ff.).     In  English,  Journal  of  Hellenic  Studies 


(London,  1880  ff.),  and  American  Journal  of 
Archwology  (Baltimore,  Boston,  Princeton,  Nor- 
wood, 1885  ff.).  The  American  School  of  Clas- 
sical Studies  at  Athens  has  published  six  vol- 
umes of  papers  (1885-97)  and  the  British  School 
an  Annual  since  1895. 

For  our  purpose  we  may  divide  the  general 
subject  of  classical  archaeology,  from  an  histori- 
cal point  of  view,  into  the  following  periods : 

L  Pre-Mycensean  Period,  from  the  earliest 
times  to  c.1800  B.C. 

II.  Mycensan  Period,  from  c.1800  B.C.  or 
earlier,  to  the  Dorian  conquest,  c.lOOO  B.C. 

III.  Earlier  Hellenic  Period,  from  c.lOOO  B.C. 
to  the  era  of  the  Persian  Wars,  c.500  B.C. 

IV.  Period  of  Hellenic  Prime,  from  c.500  B.C. 
to  the  Macedonian  supremacy,  c.350  B.C. — the 
period  of  Phidias  and  Praxiteles. 

V.  Period  of  Hellenic  Dissemination  and  De- 
cline, from  c.350  B.C.  to  the  Roman  conquest, 
C.150  B.C. — the  period  of  Lysippus  and  of  the 
Rhodian  and  Pergamene  Schools,  so  called. 

VI.  Roman  Period,  from  c.160  B.C.  to  c,150 
A.D.  or  later — the  period  of  the  union  and  united 
achievement  of  Greek  and  Roman  civilization. 

For  convenience,  the  consideration  of  Roman 
art,  properly  so  called,  will  be  reserved  to  the 
last  period.  Space  will  permit  only  a  brief  men- 
tion of  the  chief  monuments  and  important  char- 
acteristics of  each  period. 

I.  The  Pre-Mtcen.ean  Period.  This  period 
has  naturally  no  deflnite  chronological  beginning, 
nor  even  a  distinctly  marked  close.  As  its  name 
shows,  it  includes  the  remains  of  the  Stone  and 
early  Bronze  ages,  which  by  their  position  in  the 
archaeological  strata,  and  their  distinctive  types, 
plainly  preceded  the  appearance  and  spread  of 
the  highly  characteristic  civilization  which 
marks  our  second  period.  This  primitive  age 
lasted  much  longer  in  some  regions  than  m 
others.  On  the  island  of  Cyprus  it  lingered  in 
the  interior  long  after  the  Mycensean  products 
had  appeared  on  the  coast.  On  the  islands  of 
the  .Egean,  at  least  on  Thera,  Melos,  and  Crete, 
it  produced  pottery,  paintings,  and  buildings  lit- 
tle inferior  in  merit  to  those  of  the  succeeding 
age,  though  suflSciently  distinct  in  character  to 
indicate  a  non-Mycensean  origin.  The  period  is 
represented  by  the  lower  strata,  especially  the 
second  city,  at  Troy,  the  earliest  remains  on  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens,  and  at  Tiryns,  and  espe- 
cially by  the  numerous  graves  on  the  islands  of 
the  jEgean — Amorgos,  Syros,  Siphnos,  Naxos, 
Paros,  and  others — and  the  buried  villages  and 
tombs  of  Thera  and  Melos.  As  usual,  the  pottery 
is  the  most  characteristic  and  abundant  survival. 
In  the  earliest  deposits  it  is  hand-made,  and 
often  rude  in  texture  and  form,  though  some  of 
the  later  ware,  especially  from  Cyprus  and 
Thera,  shows  considerable  skill  in  molding.  The 
decorations  are  commonly  incised  lines,  some- 
times filled  in  with  a  white  substance.  The 
color  is  usually  gray  or  red  (produced  by  burn- 
ing), and  the  surface  is  smooth  and  polished. 
The  burials  are  in  cist-graves.  Implements  are 
chiefly  of  stone,  though  small  objects  of  copper 
are  foimd,  and  in  the  later  remains  bronze  ap- 
pears. Very  characteristic  are  the  rude  "idols," 
images  of  terra-cotta  and  stone,  which  commonly 
represent  a  nude  female,  and  have  been  associat- 
ed by  some  archaeologists  with  the  cult  of  the 
great  eastern  goddess  Ishtar  or  Astarte.  To- 
ward the  end  of  this  period  a  marked  advance 


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can  be  distinguished ;  the  building  of  great  walls 
and  many-roomed  dwellings  shows  increased 
power  in  dealing  with  material;  walls  orna- 
mented in  painted  stucco,  an  increased  use  of 
bronze,  and  the  introduction  of  the  potter's  wheel 
and  painted  decoration  on  the  vases  mark  the 
transition  from  the  rude  civilization  of  the  end 
of  the  Stone  Age  to  the  real  splendor  of  the  suc- 
ceeding epoch.  This  period  has  sometimes  been 
designated  as  that  of  the  "Cycladic,"  or  "Island," 
or  "Carian"  civilization,  the  former  names  being 
derived  from  the  region  where  it  has  been  best 
preserved,  the  last  from  a  somewhat  doubtful 
ethnological  attribution.  See  Melos;  Thera; 
Tboy. 

In  the  West  this  period  is  represented  by  the 
pre-Sicel,  and  first  Sicel  graves  in  Sicily,  and 
the  earlier  remains  of  Italy.  It  may  be  noted 
here  that  the  developments  of  the  Bronze  Age  in 
Italy  are  independent  of  the  Mycencean  Period. 
The  products  of  Mycensan  art  reached  the  West 
only  as  importations,  and  apparently  late  and  in 
small  quantities. 

II.  MYCEN.EAN  Period.  The  remains  of  this 
period  were  first  brought  prominently  into  view 
by  the  excavations  of  H.  Schliemann  at  My- 
cene,  and  from  this  fact  is  derived  the  name 
adopted  for  this  civilization.  It  is  not  to  be  sup- 
posed that  MyceniB  was  the  centre  from  which 
the  art  spread,  though  the  characteristic  series 
of  vases  is  more  completely  illustrated  in  Ar- 
golis  than  at  any  other  single  site.  The  char- 
acteristic products  of  this  period  have  been  found 
on  the  mainland  of  Greece  in  Bceotia  (Orcho- 
menus,  Gha),  Attica  (Athens,  Eleusis,  Sparta, 
Thoricus),  Thessaly  (near  Volo),  and  especially 
in  Argolis  and  Laconia  (Amyclse)  ;  Delphi  and 
the  island  of  Cephallenia  have  also  yielded  My- 
cenaean remains.  It  will  be  noticed  that  these 
sites  are  for  the  most  part  in  eastern  and  south- 
em  Greece.  The  same  civilization  is  found  on 
Melos,  Thera,  Amorgos,  and  at  lalysus,  on 
Rhodes;  but  the  most  splendid  remains  are  in 
Crete,  which  plays  a  prominent  part  in  the 
heroic  legends,  and  is  now  known  to  have  had 
cities  and  palaces  far  finer  than  anything  yet 
found  on  the  mainland.  Troy  is  also  a  Mycen- 
ean  site;  but  with  this  exception  Asia  Minor 
has  not  been  brought  within  this  culture. 

The  remains  of  this  period  fall  naturally  into 
several  groups:  (1)  The  fortifications,  repre- 
sented by  the  walls  of  the  sixth  city  at  Troy,  a 
large  part  of  those  of  Mycenae,  and  especially  the 
well-known  wall  surrounding  Tiryns,  as  well  as 
the  defenses  of  many  other  less  important  sites. 
These  walls  are  built  of  huge  stones,  roughly 
hewn,  and  laid  in  clay  mortar.  In  general,  there 
is  only  one  great  gate,  though  there  are  also 
smaller  gates,  or  mere  sally-ports.  The  gate  is 
fianked  by  a  large  tower,  and  is  often  approached 
by  a  narrow  and  crooked  passage.  (2)  The 
dwellings,  chiefly  the  royal  palaces.  The  latter 
are  best  seen  at  Tiryns,  Mycenae,  and,  above  all, 
at  Cnossus,  in  Crete.  The  usual  plan  shows  a 
court,  on  one  side  of  which  is  situated  a  great 
hall,  containing  the  hearth,  and  approached 
through  a  vestibule.  Around  this  hall  and  the 
court  is  arranged  a  complex  of  lesser  rooms,  and 
the  whole  structure  is  carefully  placed  inside  the 
great  fortification,  w^hich  in  general  seems  to 
have  contained  little  but  the  residence  of  the 
ruler  and  his  immediate  dependents.  The  palace 
was  built  of  wood  and  sun-dried  brick,  but  the 


walls  were  stuccoed  and  painted,  and  metal  in- 
crustations, and  decorations  of  canned  alabaster 
and  glass  paste  were  often  employed.    The  palace 
at  Cnossus  has  yielded  remarkable  specimeiB  of 
wall  paintings  and  its  plan  shows  a  much  greater 
extent  than  is  found  in  Greece,  but  it  is  not  as 
yet  (1902)  wholly  cleared.     The  smaller  houses 
found  in  some  places,  as  at  Melos,  Troy,  Crete, 
and  Mycenie,  also  show  the  large  hail  and  its 
vestibule,  but  as  a  rule  no  further  rooms.   Addi- 
tional accommodation  seems  to  have  been  Ob- 
tained by  juxtaposition  of  unconnected  buildings^ 
rather   than   by   a    series   of   connected  rooms. 
(3)    The  tombs  form  the  third  great  class  of 
Mycenaean  buildings.     The  most  important  are 
the  *'bee-hive"  tombs,  of  which  the  most  notable 
examples  are  those  of  Mycenae,  and  the  so-calkd 
"Treasury"  at  Orchomenus,  in  Boeotia.    These 
tombs  are  built  of  huge,  carefully  squared  stones, 
laid  in  regular  circles,  so  arranged  that  each 
course  projects  inward  beyond  the  course  below, 
thus  making  the  interior  a  dome.     The  whole 
structure  is  held  together  by  the  weight  of  the 
earth  outside,  and  therefore  the  side  ojf  a  Jiill  is 
usually  hollowed   out  to   receive   the  building, 
which  is  wholly  concealed  by  the  replaced  earth. 
I'he  approach  is  always  by  a  long  passage,  with 
side  walls  of  stone,  and  the  facade  of  the  tomb 
was  richly  decorated  with  columns  and  adorn- 
ments in  colored  stone,  elaborately  carved.    The 
interior  was  carefully  smoothed  and  decorated 
with  metal  plates  or  rosettes.     In  some  cases  a 
small  side  chamber  for  the  dead  is  found.    Be 
sides  the  great  tombs,  a  series  of  similar  grave 
chambers,  cut  in  the  rock,  or  excavated  in  the 
hillsides,  and  approached  by  similar  passa^ 
show  the  common  Mycenaean  mode  of  disposing 
of  the  dead.     Burning  seems  to  have  been  un- 
known at  this  time.     (4)  It  is,  however,  in  the 
products  of  its  art,  even  more  than  in  its  archi- 
tectural triumphs,  that  this  period  is  sharply 
characterized.     The  excavation  of  Mycen«  and 
Tiryns  yielded  a  series  of  painted  vas^,  which 
still  occupy  a  place  by  themselves  in  the  histoiy 
of  Greek  ceramics.    Made  on  the  wheel,  of  grace- 
ful form,  they  are  decorated  with  marine  plants 
and  animals,  birds,  and,  in  the  later  work,  rude 
drawings  of  men  and  animals.    The  decoration  is 
by  means  of  a  "glaze"  paint,  varying  from  brown 
to  black,  or  under  intense  heat  Incoming  red. 
(For  details,  see  Vases.)     Even  more  marked 
are  the  gems  and  gold  work  of  this  time.    The 
drawing  is  often  rude,  but  the  spirit  and  vigor 
are  astonishing.    The  gold  cups  of  Vaphio,  with 
scenes   in   relief    representing   the    capture  and 
taming  of  wild  bulls,  shows  an  art  which  is  not 
that  of  Egypt  or  Assyria,  but,  whatever  its  ori- 
gin, has  much  of  the  quality  which  distinguishes 
the  later  Hellenic  products.     More  Oriental  in 
technique  and  decoration  are  the  sword  blades, 
inlaid    with    scenes   of   hunting   and    wild  life, 
which  much  resemble  objects  found  in  Egyptian 
tombs.     Of  larger  works  of  art,  the  noble  lions 
over  the  gate  of  Mycenae,  and  the  rudely  carred 
slabs  which  once  marked  the  site  of  shaft  graves, 
were  for  a  long  time  the  only  representatives,  if 
we  omit  the  purely  ornamental  spirals  and  other 
motives  forming  part  of  the  decoration  of  the 
facades.     Crete,  however,  has  yielded  reliefs  of 
bulls   and   other  sculptures   not  yet   published, 
which    are    said    to    show   that   the    Mycenjean 
art  did  not  confine   its  sjcill   to  small   objects 
only.     Space   does   not   permit  a  detailed  de- 


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ARCH/EOLOGY  — MYCEN/CAN    AND    EARLY    GREEK 


''ij-jy;  '" — r***r 


--^  I 


1.THE  VAPHIO   CUP. 
2.  GOLD  INTAGLIOS. 


3.  INLAID  SWORD   BLADE. 
4-5.  TWO  CUPS. 


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ABCEUEOLOGT. 


725 


ABGSUEOLOGY. 


sciiption  or  even  list  of  the  Mycenffian  works; 
they  may  be  found  fully  illustrated  in  the  works 
mentioned  below. 

These  two  periods  were  not  without  their  rec- 
ords. In  Crete  have  been  found  tablets  of  clay 
bearing  inscriptions  in  at  least  two  different  sys- 
tems of  writing,  neither  of  which  has  been  de- 
ciphered.    See  Writing. 

The  ethnological  relations  of  these  civilizations 
are  as  yet  an  unsolved  problem.  Some  scholars 
hold  that  we  have  here  a  more  or  less  homo- 
geneous race,  developing  along  its  own  lines,  but 
largely  influenced  bv  the  intercourse  with  the 
East,  which  is  clearly  proved  for  the  Mycenaan 
and  later  pre-Mycensean  periods.  Some  even  go 
so  far  as  to  deny  any  Hellenic  or  Indo-European 
character  to  this  race.  Such  views  probably  go 
too  far.  More  probable  is  the  view  that,  while  the 
Stone  Age  and  the  earlier  Bronze  Age  reveal  to 
us  the  presence  of  a  pre-Greek  people,  possibly 
the  ancestors  of  the  later  Carians  and  Eteocre- 
tans,  the  Mycensean^  remains  belong  to  the  con- 
quering Greek  race,  the  Achseans  of.  the  Homeric 
poems  which'  contain  a  reminiscence"  of  this  early 
age  of  splendor,  as  preserved  by  the  Greek  colo- 
nists of  Asia  Minor.  This  is  not  to  say  that  all 
the  descriptions  of  the  poems  apply  to  life  in  this 
early  age,  for  the  poet  has  naturally  used  cus- 
toms of  his  o^vn  time;  and  it  is  merely  the  gen- 
eral conditions  and  the  traditional  glories  of  the 
past  that  he  has  embodied  in  his  verses.  The 
chronological  limits  of  these  periods  are  deter- 
mined by  the  presence  of  datable  Egyptian  ob- 
jects in  western  sites,  and  more  closely  perhaps 
by  the  presence  of  iEgean  importations  in  Egypt. 
The  details  are  still  much  disputed,  but  the  gen- 
eral results  show  that  the  later  developments  of 
the  pre-Mycenaan  Period  may  be  placed  from 
C.2500  B.C.  to  1800  B.C.,  while  the  Mycenaean 
products  were  known  in  Egypt  at  least  as  early 
as  B.C.  1550  in  a  well -developed  form.  The  My- 
cenaean Age  ends  about  B.C.  1000,  or  possibly  a 
little  later,  and  for  a  century  or  more  before  that 
time  there  is  an  obvious  decline  in  artistic  power. 
It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  though 
superseded,  the  peculiar  Mycenaean  motives  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  lost,  for  they  reappear  at 
various  points  in  the  following  period,  especially 
in  some  of  the  local  varieties  of  painted  vases. 

Bibliography.  Schuchhardt,  8chliemann*8- 
Ausffrahungen  im  Lichte  der  heutigen  Wisaen- 
schaft  (Leipzig,  1890),  the  best  r6sum6  of  the 
subject,  English  translation,  edited  by  Leaf, 
(London,  1891)  ;  MilchSffer,  Anfdnge  der  Kunst 
in  Griechenlund  (Ijeipzig,  1883),  a  thorough 
and  scientific  discussion  of  the  subject ;  Mitchell, 
History  of  Ancient  Sculpture  (New  York,  1883), 
Vol.  I.  chap  X.,  where  Milchhftffer's  work  is 
summarized;  Baumeister,  "Mykenai,"  "Tiryns," 
"Kyklopenbau"  in  Denkmaler  des  klassischen 
AlferthumSf  admirably,  illustrated  (Munich, 
1884-88)  ;  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Histoire  de 
Vart  dans  Vantiquit^,  Volume  VI.  (Paris, 
1894)  ;  the  English  translation  is  sadly  inac- 
curate and  cannot  be  recommended;  the  work 
is  richly  illustrated:  Tsountas  and  Manatt, 
The  Mycencean  Age  (Boston,  1897),  a  valuable 
summary  at  the  date  of  publication;  Hall,  The 
Oldest  Civilization  in  Greece  (London  and  Phila- 
delphia, 1901);  Ridoeway,  The  Early  Age  of 
Greece  (Cambridge,  1901)  ;  valuable  for  its  ma- 
terial, but  the  author's  theories  are  not  gener- 
ally accepted.     Most  of  the  recent  reports  and 


discussions  are  to  be  found  in  the  periodicals 
named  above. 

III.  Early  Hellenic  Period.  The  dark  age, 
from  the  Dorian  invasion  to  the  rise  of  sculpture 
in  the  Seventh  Century  B.C.,  is  bridged,  from  an 
archseological  point  of  view,  chiefly  by  the  paint- 
ed vases,  the  earliest  varieties  of  which  have, 
been  already  mentioned.  It  seems  clear  that  we 
a^  now  in  the  presence  of  a  new  element.  The 
whole  style  of  ornamentation  is  changed.  For 
the  Age  of  Bronze  we  now  find  the  Age  of  Iron. 
Gold  ornaments  are  much  rarer.  The  whole  style 
of  the  pottery  has  changed.  The  prevailing  deco- 
ration, not  merely  on  vases,  but  on  metal  or- 
naments, is  the  'geometric,'  i.e.  meander-pat- 
terns, circles,  and  various  combinations  of 
straight  lines.  The  situation  well  agrees  with 
the  overturning  of  the  old  Achipan  kingdoms  by 
the  invading  Dorians,  as  pictured  in  Greek 
legend. 

The  funereal  urns  and  other  representatives  of 
the  so-called  "Dipylon-style"*  (from  the  Dipylon 
gate  of  Athens,  in  ancient  tombs  near  which  the 
finest  specimens  of  this  class  have  been  discov- 
ered) appear  to  extend  over  a  period  from  about 
B.C.  1000  to  about  B.C.  700  at  latest.  The  pat- 
terns upon  this  pottery  are  "geometric,"  derived 
from  carving  and  textile  fabrics,  rather  than 
from  nature,  as  in  the  Mycenaean  ware.  The 
human  and  animal  figures  upon  them  are  emi- 
nently schematic  and  conventional.  Figures  of 
nautical  scenes  (sea-fights  and  the  like)  and 
funeral  processions  are  prominent.  The  figured 
examples  seem  to  be  introduced  later  than  those 
with  merely  a  geometric  pattern,  though  this 
style  continues  in  use  till  the  end.  It  is  not  im- 
probable that  Athens  was  the  seat  of  its  manu- 
facture. 

The  Mycenaean  influences  seem  to  have  sur- 
vived on  the  islands  and  the  Asiatic  coast,  whe/e 
also  the  connection  with  the  Orient  was  main- 
tained, and  in  consequence  we  find  in  these  re- 
gions the  development  of  a  number  of  local  types, 
all  strongly  influenced  by  Oriental  motives,  and 
yet  with  well-marked  peculiarities.  The  favorite 
decoration  is  with  rows  of  animals;  lions,  boars, 
panthers,  cattle,  deer,  as  well  as  griflSns  and 
sphinxes,  appear,  either  in  procession,  or  grouped 
heraldically.  By  the  Seventh  Century  these  have 
crowded  back  the  geoinetric  types,  and,  further, 
the  merely  ornamental  decoration  begins  to  give 
place  to  actual  scenes,  either  of  daily  life  or 
from  the  legends  of  the  past.  For  the  pottery, 
see  Vases. 

About  the  opening  of  the  Seventh  Century 
begins  the  class  of  Corinthian  vases  still  strong- 
ly Oriental,  but  later  exhibiting  the  mythological 
scenes.  The  commercial  importance  of  Corinth 
during  the  Seventh  and  Sixth  centuries  gave  this 
ware  a  wide  distribution,  and  many  of  the  best 
specimens  have  been  found  in  Italy.  Chalcis 
also  developed  a  local  style  of  wide  distribution, 
and  both  Corinth  and  Chalcis  contributed  to  the 
formation  of  the  Athenian  style,  which,  begin- 
ning at  the  end  of  the  Sixth  Century  B.C.,  as  the 
result  of  a  gradual  transition  from  the  Dipylon 
methods  rapidly  became  so  popular  as  practical- 
ly to  drive  out  of  the  general  market  all  other 
styles.  The  reddish  color  of  the  clay  was  arti- 
ficially heightened,  and  the  decoration  was  ap- 
plied in  a  very  lustrous  black  paint,  relieved 
only  by  the  occasional  employment  of  purple,  red, 
and  white.    Toward  the  end  of  this  period  a  new 


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style,  the  "red-figured,"  begins  to  displace  the 
"black- figured"  techniaue.  Here  the  body  of  the 
vase  is  covered  with  the  black  glaze,  the  figures 
being  left  in  the  color  of  the  clay,  while  details 
are  represented  by  fine  black  lines.  The  greater 
delicacy  which  this  style  made  possible  brought 
it  at  once  into  favor,  and  in  it  were  executed  the 
great  masterpieces  of  Greek  ceramic  art. 

Painting  in  Greek  archapology  can  hardly  Ije 
separated  from  ceramics,  architecture,  and  sculp- 
ture before  the  time  of  Polygnotus  (Fifth  Cen- 
tury B.C. )  We  therefore  take  up  next  the  consid- 
eration of  these  two  latter  developments,  in  brief 
outline,  referring  for  details  to  the  special  arti- 
cles on  Greek  ABcniTECTi.'RE  and  on  Sculptube. 

The  historj'  of  the  origin  of  Hellenic  architec- 
ture rests  largely  upon  conjecture  and  reasoning 
from  analogy.  Although  in  its  development,  as 
known  to  u»  from  existing  monuments,  we  have 
to  deal  with  it  as  manifested  chiefly  in  temple- 
building  (private  dwellings  being  of  compara- 
tively little  account  among  the  Greeks),  it  is 
plain  that  we  have  to  seek  for  its  primitive 
principles  in  domestic  structures,  which  were  of 
sun-dried  brick  and  wood.  It  is  during  this 
period  that  the  temple  forms  became  fixed,  and 
the  oldest  stone  buildings  erected,  though  the 
full  perfection  of  architecture  is  not  manifested 
till  the  Fifth  Century.  The  point,  however,  which 
chiefly  concerns  us  in  this  place,  is  the  rise  of  the 
two  great  orders,  connected,  as  their  names  im- 
ply, with  the  two  great  branches  of  the  Greek 
race — the  Dorians  and  the  lonians.  The  main 
distinguishing  marks  of  these  orders  are  to  be 
found  in  the  form  of  the  columns  employed ;  and 
it  is  to  these  that  we  must  turn  our  attention 
here,  leaving  the  discussion  of  the  several  vari- 
eties of  temple,  whether  in  antis  (with  the  front 
recessed  and  columns  between  the  projections  of 
the  side  walls),  prostyle  (with  columns  across 
the  front) ,  amphiprostyle  (with  a  front  at  either 
end),  or  peristyle  (surrounded  by  columns),  as 
well  as  the  details  of  the  architrave  and  roof, 
for  another  page. 

The  Doric  column,  which  we  find  to  have  been 
employed  in  the  Herapum  at  Olympia,  in  the  old 
temple  at  Corinth,  and  in  those  of  Selinus,  as 
well  as  in  other  buildings  of  this  and  the  suc- 
ceeding periods,  and  which  is  traceable  to  the 
Seventh  Century  B.C.,  is  characterized  in  general 
by  the  absence  of  a  distinct  base  (though  this 
seems  clearly  to  have  been  an  original  element 
of  this  species  of  column),  by  an  outward  sweep 
at  the  top  called  the  echinus,  and  by  a  square 
plate  (the  abacus)  between  the  echinus  and  the 
architrave,  as  well  as  by  the  fact  that  the  edges 
of  the  fluting  (q.v.)  are  sharp,  and  not  flat,  as 
in  the  Ionic.  The  nearest  prototypes  of  this 
form  of  column,  which  is  marked,  particularly  in 
the  oldest  examples  known  to  us,  by  great  heavi- 
ness of  proportion,  seem  to  be  Egyptian,  al- 
though Doric  architecture  ofl'ers  a  new  element 
in  the  entasis  (or  slight  bulge)  in  the  shaft, 
which  serves  to  correct  a  familiar  optical  illu- 
sion. 

The  Ionic  column,  on  the  other  hand,  which  is 
of  lighter  and  more  ornamental  design,  has  al- 
ways a  distinct  base,  with  a  succession  of  mold- 
ings above  it,  while  the  grooves  in  its  shaft  do 
not  meet  in  arrises,  but  are  separated  by  flat 
bands.  Its  chief  point  of  interest,  the  capital, 
consists  of  double  spirals,  parted  in  the  earlier 
forms  by  a  palmette  device.     Over  the  origin  of 


this  form  of  capital  much  has  been  written ;  and 
although  the  Question  is  not  as  yet  settled,  it 
seems  likely  that  it  goes  back  to  an  Oriental 
prototype,  whether  a  ccmventionalized  Assyrian 
palm-form  or  a  derivative  of  the  Egyptian  lotus. 
See  American  Journal  of  ArchcBology  1886,  pp. 
1-20,  "A  proto-Ionic  Capital,"  by  J.  T.  Clarke: 
ib.,  pp.  267-285,  "A  Doric  Shaft  and  Base  Found 
at  Assos,"  same  author  (containing  a  full  bib- 
liography of  the  subject  in  both  articles)  ;  Good- 
year, ib.,  p.  271  sqq.  (an  attempt  to  derive  all 
palmette,  as  well  as  lotus-patterns  from  the 
Egyptian  lotus),  and  especially,  Puchstein,  Das 
ioniache  Capital  (Berlin,  1887). 

The  Corinthian  capital,  with  its  acanthus 
leaves,  so  extensively  used  by  the  Romans  on  ac- 
count of  its  more  elaborate  character,  may  be 
considered  a  variety  of  the  Ionic  influenced  by 
metal-work.  It  does  not  come  into  use  until  the 
next  period,  and  was  never  very  common  until 
after  the  Fourth  Century  b.c.  (Cf.  Baumeister. 
op.  cit.,  art.  Baukufist,  with  the  authorities  there 
cited.) 

While  in  painting,  metal- work,  and  architec- 
ture, it  is  possible  to  trace  the  connection  from 
the  Mycena^an  Age,  in  sculpture  the  line  seems 
abruptly  broken.  It  is  not  till  the  latter  part 
of  the  Seventh  Century  b.c.  that  monumental 
sculpture,  whether  in  the  round  or  in  relief, 
again  begins  to  develop  among  the  Hellenes.  We 
find  shapeless  fetiches  of  wood  and  stone  vener- 
ated in  various  parts  of  Greece  down  to  the  Sec- 
ond Century  a.d.,  and  later.  A  step  beyond  this 
primitive  worship  brings  us  to  rude  cultus-stat- 
ues  of  wood  and  stone.  We  should  expect  the 
same  Oriental  influences  to  manifest  themselves 
here  as  in  the  case  of  ceramic  art;  and  when  we 
look  to  the  early  statues  themselves,  such  as  the 
various  so-called  Apollo- figures  of  the  Seventh 
and  Sixth  centuries  (typical  is  the  famous 
"Apollo  of  Tenea,"  in  Munich),  we  seem  to  find 
unmistakably  Egyptian  elements.  The  angukr- 
ity  of  the  figure,  the  heavy  masses  of  hair,  the 
high  set  of  the  ears,  the  advancement  of  the  left 
leg  in  such  statues  are  unmistakable  reminis- 
cences of  Egyptian  works,  with  which  the  Greeks 
were  especially  brought  into  contact  about  this 
period.  On  the  other  hand,  statues  like  the 
"Nicandra"  of  Islos,  the  "Hera"  of  Samos,  aod 
other  closely  draped  female  figures,  with  the  feet 
just  appearing  below  the  drapery,  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  seated  statues  from  Branchids,  in 
the  British  Museum,  and  with  what  seem  to  he 
their  older  Chaldiean  prototj-pes  from  Tel-lo. 
The  closely  draped  standing  female  figures  show 
markedly  the  influence  of  sculpture  in  wood; 
either  from  the  flat  board,  as  the  "Nicandra,"  or 
the  round  log,  as  the  "Hera."  Such  works  are 
frequently  spoken  of  as  Xoana.  Though  the  in- 
spiration for  these  types  may  have  been  derived 
from  the  Asiatic  connections  of  the  lonians,  and 
the  trade  with  Egypt  through  Naucratis,  the 
Greek  artist  was  by  no  means  a  mere  imitator, 
but  early  began  to  strive  after  development  and 
variety  along  various  lines. 

The  series  of  works  of  archaic  sculpture  from 
the  period  under  discussion  has  rapidly  increased 
through  recent  excavations,  and  we  are  able  to 
trace  -with  tolerable  clearness  the  attempts  made 
by  the  vigorous  Greek  artists  to  gain  increased 
naturalness  and  lifelikeness  in  their  figures,  while 
gradually  acquiring  the  full  mastery  of  material 


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ARCH/EOLOGY-MYCEN/EAN    AND    EARLY    GREEK 


1.  ISLAND  IDOL. 

2.  HEAD  OF   BULL   FROM   CN088U8. 
8.  8IEQE  8CENE   FROM   8ILVER   VA8E. 


4.  QOLD   MA8K. 

5.  8ILVER    PIN   AND  QOLD  ORNAMENT. 

6.  OEM. 


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and  technique  requisite  for  the  free  exposition 
of  the  sculptor's  ideal. 

To  the  opening  of  the  marble  quarries  of  Naxos 
and  Paros  we  owe  much.  The  marble  thence  ob- 
tained is  a  wonderfully  fit  material,  easily 
worked,  and  in  its  very  hue  imitating  human 
flesh.  The  earlier  material  had  been  wood  or 
coarse  limestone^  the  so-called  "poros,"  which 
could  not  be  given  fine  carving,  and  needed  to  be 
painted  in  order  to  show  details.  The  early  mar- 
ble statues  show  that  the  technique  of  wood-carv- 
ing, easily  available  for  the  softer  "poros,"  was 
at  first  used  for  the  new  and  harder  material, 
and  at  all  times  color  was  largely  employed  in 
Greek   sculpture. 

Of  inestimable  value  for  the  study  of  the 
sculptures  of  this  period  are  the  archaic  statues 
discovered  on  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  which  cer- 
tainly antedate  (how  much  we  cannot  say)  the 
Persian  invasion  of  B.C.  480.  The  tyranny  of  Pi- 
sistratus  in  the  Sixth  Century  certainly  formed 
an  epoch  in  the  artistic  as  well  as  literary  life  of 
Athens,  only  to  be  paralleled  by  the  Periclean  Age. 
Material  and  style  show  that  we  have  to  do 
with  various  schools,  partly  the  marble  sculptors 
from  the  islands,  partly  the  nattve  Attic  artists, 
developing  along  the  lines  of  the  heavier  "poros" 
style,  but  largely  influenced  by  the  more  delicate 
and  elaborate  Ionian  developments.  For  an 
account  of  the  painted  decoration  of  some  of 
the  female  statues,  cf.  an  illustrated  article  by 
Bussell  Sturgis,  in  Harper's  Magazine  for  Sep- 
tember, 1890. 

But  the  development  of  the  period  was  not 
confined  to  Attica  alone,  nor  merely  to  sculpture 
in  the  round.  The  pedimental  groups  of  the 
gigantomachy  from  the  Megarian  treasure-house 
at  Olympia,  and  of  "Heracles  and  the  Hydra" 
from  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  wrought  in  high 
relief  from  *poros,'  a  sort  of  tufa,  and,  like  all 
such  work,  stuccoed  and  painted,  are  also  of 
special  note,  together  with  the  early  metopes  of 
^linus  in  Sicily;  while  the  elaborate  grave- 
stelffi  of  the  "Warrior  of  Marathon"  type  (Stele 
of  Aristion),  with  complete  .and  minute  poly- 
chrome decoration  supplementing  the  details  of 
the  bas-relief,  are  the  forenmners  of  the  exqui- 
site monuments  of  the  Ceramicus  to  be  mentioned 
hereafter.  To  this  period  also  belong  the  pedi- 
ment sculptures  of  -^gina  ( see  ^Eoinetan  Sculp- 
tures) and  the  reliefs  from  the  treasuries  of 
Cnidus  and  Athens  at  Delphi. 

Figures  like  the  winged  victory  of  Archermus, 
and  the  sphinx,  if  not  also  the  lion,  show  the 
influence  of  the  East,  particularly  of  the  Asiatic 
Orient,  in  the  sculpture  of  this  epoch.  But  we 
feel,  in  contemplating  the  Acropolis  statues,  that 
we  are  on  Greek  ground,  and  that  the  artists 
are  rapidly  bringing  in  a  nobler  native  art. 

We  have  hardly  entered  upon  the  list  of  these 
important  monmnents;  but  it  must  suffice  for 
this  place  to  have  indicated  to  some  degree  their 
relations,  and  we  now  pass  to  the  mention  of  the 
kindred  class  of  bronze  works. 

Together  with  the  rude  terra-cotta  dedicatory 
figurines  of  early  workmanship,  we  find  also 
many  small  bronzes,  which  exhibit  a  gradual 
development  from  the  rude  and  primitive  to  the 
delicate  and  refined.  An  elaborate  and  truly 
remarkable  technique,  however,  is  manifested  in 
such  consummate  works  of  archaic  Greek  art  as 
the  bearded  bronze  head  found  on  the  Acropolis, 
or  the  similar  head  of  Zeus  from  Olympia.    The 


art  of  hollow  casting  in  bronze,  long  known  in 
Egypt,  seems  to  have  been  brought  to  Greece  by 
Samian  artists,  and  by  the  end  of  the  Sixth  Cen- 
tury was  adopted  for  larger  works,  ^gina  early 
attained  fame  for  its  artists  in  bronze,  of  whom 
Onatas  was  the  chief,  and  the  influence  of  this 
technique,  with  its  sharp  lines  and  fine  engrav- 
ing, is  plainly  seen  in  the  marble  sculptures  of 
the  ^ginetan  temple.  The  new  art  came  to  be 
regarded  as  more  noble  than  the  cutting  of 
marble,  and  was  especially  cultivated  in  the 
Argive  and  Sicyonian  schools. 

To  the  period  under  discussion  belongs  another 
development  in  metal-work,  namely,  the  miniing 
of  coins.  The  earliest  coins,  properly  so  called, 
seem  to  date  from  about  the  beginning  of  the 
Seventh  Century  B.C.,  and  to  have  been  struck 
by  the  Lydian  monarchs  (possibly  first  by 
^yges).  Their  material  is  electrum,  or  "white 
gold,"  a  native  alloy  of  gold  and  silver,  in  about 
the  proportion  of  three  to  one.  Phidon  of  Argos, 
a  tyrant  of  uncertain  date,  but  not  earlier  than 
the  Seventh  Century,  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  to  issue  coins  among  the  Greeks,  .^gina 
being  the  seat  of  their  mintage,  and  the  name 
"tortoises"  being  bestowed  upon  them  from  the 
figure  on  the  obverse,  the  reverse  (which  was 
the  side  struck  by  the  upper  die  in  minting) 
having  upon  it  the  familiar  "incuse-square,"  or 
punch -mark  so  prevalent  in  archaic  coinage. 

In  Greece  Proper,  sprang  up,  subsequent  to 
the  iEginetan,  a  coinage  at  Corinth,  the  so-called 
"colts,"  from  the  Pegasus  on  the  obverse,  and  at 
Athens  the  so-called  "maidens,"  or  "virgins," 
from  the  Athena-head  of  the  obverse,  or  "owls" 
from  the  type  of  the  reverse.  We  see  in  all  these 
types  a  sacred  symbolism,  which  continues  un- 
broken in  coinage  till  the  Macedonian  Period. 

The  greatest  Greek  cities  in  this  early  period 
were  the  Achaean  colonies  of  Magna  Grsecia,  fore- 
most among  which  was  Sybaris,  afterward  over- 
thrown by  her  great  rival  Croton.  The  coinage 
of  the  Achsean  Confederacy,  which  seems  to  have 
existed  in  this  region,  is  far  superior  in  artistic 
workmanship  to  that  of  Eastern  Hellas,  and  is 
distinguished  by  having,  instead  of  an  incuse- 
square  on  the  reverse,  an  incuse  type,  generally 
Ihe  same  as  that  of  the  obverse  (Poseidon,  bull, 
boar,  etc.). 

Sicilian  coinage,  notably  that  of  Syracuse, 
which  in  the  Fifth  and  Fourth  centuries  reached 
so  high  an  artistic  position,  also  began  in  the 
Sixth  Century. 

All  the  coinage  here  mentioned,  except  the 
Lydian,  is  of  silver.  For  a  full  discussion  of 
ancient  coins,  with  exhaustive  bibliography,  con- 
sult Head's  Historia  Numorum  (Oxford,  1887)  ; 
also  particularly  Percy  Gardner's  admirable 
Types  of  Greek  Coins  (Cambridge,  1883).  The 
period  here  outlined  corresponds  to  Head's  ar- 
chaic period,  B.C.  700-480.  See  also  Numis- 
matics. 

The  minting  of  money  became  gradually  dif- 
fused through  the  Greek'world,  so  that  there  was 
hardly  a  town  of  any  consequence  without  a 
coinage,  some  towns  being  known  to  us  only  from 
their  coins. 

Intimately  connected  with  die-cutting  is  gem- 
engraving,  for  the  details  of  which  see  the  work 
of  Middleton,  The  Engraved  Oems  of  Classical 
Times  (Cambridge,  1891). 

IV.  Period  of  Heixenic  Pbime.  The  period 
which  we  now  enter  upon  is  naturally  subdivided 


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by  that  great  convulsion  of  the  Greek  world,  the 
Peloponnesian  War  (B.C.  431-404),  into  an  earlier 
and  a  later  half,  in  which  diverse  social  and 
political  influences  are  at  work,  wherefore  it  will 
be  of  advantage  to  keep  this  subdivision  in  mind. 
The  most  noteworthy  development  of  this  time 
for  us  is  that  of  sculpture  and  statuary,  the 
great  monuments  of  the  painter's  art  having 
irretrievably  perished.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  no  hard  and  fast  line  separates  these 
Greek  periods,  such  as  divides  the  Mycenaean 
from  the  later  times.  The  great  development  in 
Greek  art  is  indeed  later  than  the  Persian  wars, 
out  the  germs  are  in  the  later  Sixth  Century,  and 
many  works,  which  artistically  belong  to  the 
archaic  period,  were  made  after  B.C.  600.  The 
same  remark  applies  to  all  the  later  periods ;  the 
dates  given  are  merely  convenient  approxima- 
tions. 

In  the  early  part  of  this  period  the  develop- 
ment of  bronze  statuary  was  continued  chiefly  by 
the  so-called  Argive-Sieyonian  School.  We  find 
Ageladas  of  Argos,  and  Canachus  of  Sicyon 
famous  as  statuaries  in  bronze  about  the  end  of 
the  Sixth  Century,  (iold  and  ivory  (in  the 
famous  chryselephantine  work)  and  marble  were 
more  popular  in  Attica,  where  the  quarries  of 
Pentelicus  furnished  inexhaustible  material. 
Pythagoras  of  Rhegium  (the  author  of  the  limp- 
ing 'Thiloctetes"),  and  Calamis  and  Myron 
among  Attic  artists,  the  latter  famed  for  his 
"Discobolus"  and  bronze  cow,  are  the  forerun- 
ners of  "Phidias"  in  the  development  of  the 
great  art  of  the  Fifth  Century.  Here  also  be- 
long the  sculptures  from  the  temple  of  Zeus, 
at  Olympia  (q.v.),  whose  artistic  origin  has 
been  sought  in  many  schools,  perhaps  with  most 
probability  in  Ionia. 

Greek  siculpturc,  however,  reached  its  highest 
ideal  development,  though  not  its  full  legitimate 
growth,  in  Phidias  (q.v.),  son  of  Charmides,  and 
pupil  of  Ageladns,  of  Argos,  the  superintendent 
of  the  Parthenon  (q.v.)  sculptures,  and  the  art- 
ist of  the  chryselephantine  Athena  Parthenos, 
as  well  as  the  creator  of  the  highest  anthropo- 
morphic type  of  Greek  religion  in  the  great 
chryselephantine  Zeus  at  Olympia,  of  whose  calm 
and'  marvelous  beauty  and  dignity  we  can  now, 
unfortunately,  gain  but  feeble  conception. 

We  have  noticed  Phidias's  activity  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Parthenon,  but  we  must  not  leave 
unmentioned  the  other  great  buildings  of  the 
time,  the  Propyloea,  the  so-called  Theseum,  the 
Erechtheum,  the  temple  at  Eleusis,  and  that  at 
Rhamnus,  while  a  like  architectural  activity 
was  going  on  across  seas  in  Ionia,  Sicily,  and 
Mafirna  Graecia. 

Painting  as  a  great  and  independent  art  was 
developed  contemporarily  with  Phidias,  by  Po- 
lygnotus,  of  Thasos,  whose  paintings  in  the 
Lesche  (portico)  at  Delphi  have  been  fortu- 
nately described  to  us  by  Pausanias.  He  must 
have  powerfully  influenced  the  art  of  the  cera- 
mic painters,  as  we  seem  to  be  able  to  trace  in 
their  works.  After  him  may  be  mentioned 
Agatharchus.  of  Samos;  ApolJodorus,  the  first 
painter  of  pictures  in  the  more  modern  sense 
(i.e.,  on  flat,  movable  surfaces,  anciently  not  of 
canvas,  but  of  board)  ;  Zeuxis,  the  contemporary 
of  Socrates,  whose  "Centaur  Family"  is  mi- 
nutely described  to  us  by  Lucian,  and  Parrhasius, 
of  Ephesus. 

The  work  of  the  Argive-Sicyonian  School  was 


carried  forward  by  Polycletus  (q.v.)  He  was 
the  author  of  the  Doryphorus  (spear-bearer), 
and  Diadumenus  (youth  binding  on  head-band), 
which  are  known  to  us  through  Romui  copies; 
and  he  established  a  canon  of  proportion  charac- 
terized by  a  certain  squareness  and  heaviness. 

After  the  stormy  period  of  the  Peloponnesian 
W^ar  we  find  Cephisodotus  and  Praxiteles 
(q.v.),  probably  his  son,  carrying  out  Greek 
plastic  art  to  its  legitimate  and  Ic^cal  conclu- 
sion, and  to  fullest  bloom  and  perfection.  The 
"Eirene"  (Peace)  with  the  baby  "Plutua,"  pre- 
served in  Munich,  a  replica  of  a  work  of  Cephis- 
odotus, is  a  gracious  and  lovely  figure;  but 
Praxiteles's  marble  "Hermes,"  with  the  baby 
"Dionysus,"  found  in  the  place  designated  bj 
Pausanias,  the  Hen^um  at  Olympia,  in  exquisite 
senuous  beatuy,  in  perfection  of  manly  strength 
and  grace,  and  in  the  combination  of  the  divine 
ideal  with  human  form,  as  well  as  in  complete 
mastery  of  technique,  surpasses  all  that  is  left 
us  of  ancient  art,  while  the  pensive  expression 
of  the  god's  face  indicates  but  too  clearly  the 
speculative  thought  that  was  undermining  the 
old  faith.  There  is  no  more  perfect  image  of 
the  period  than  this  marvelous  statue.  It  is  to 
Praxiteles  that  we  are  to  attribute  the  develop- 
ment, if  not  the  invention,  of  languid  but  not 
yet  effeminate  figures,  with  hand  supported  on 
hip,  such  as  the  famous  "Faun,"  of  which  sev- 
eral replicas  exist,  perhaps  even  the  torso  of  the 
original.  Praxiteles  is  preeminently  the  sculp- 
tor of  youthful  beauty,  not  merely  in  man  but 
also  in  woman,  as  proved  by  his  famous  "Cni- 
dian  Aphrodite,"  inadequately  preserved  in 
replicas. 

Side  by  side  with  Praxiteles  must  be  men- 
tioned Scopas  (q.v.),  of  Paros,  whose  art  was 
rather  that  of  the  Peloponnesian  School,  while 
Praxiteles  is  Attic.  The  remains  of  his  work 
from  the  temple  of  Athena  Alea  at  Tegea, 
though  scanty,  make  it  possible  to  recognize  his 
style  in  a  number  of  other  sculptures,  such  as 
the  Meleager,  the  Ares  Ludovisi,  and  a  head 
of  the  youthful  Heracles.  These  show  dis- 
tinctly his  power  in  "tragic  intensity  of  ex- 
pression." 

To  the  last  half  of  the  Fifth  and  first  half  of 
the  Fourth  Century  we  may  assign  those  most 
exquisite  funereal  monuments  of  the  Athenian 
Ceramicus,  such  as  that  of  Dexileos,  and  the 
deeply  pathetic  relief  of  Hegeso.  The  early  re- 
liefs show  decidedly  the  influence  of  Phidias, 
while  later  the  work  of  Scopas  evidently  became 
the  model.  Indeed  many  archieologists*  are  dis- 
posed to  see  the  actual  Vork  of  this  master  in 
some  of  the  best  of  these  monuments. 

Portraiture  also  began  in  this  period  with 
Silanion,  and  from  this  time  probably  dat^  the 
beautiful  Lateran  Sophocles,  and  some  of  the 
types  of  Socrates  and  Plato.  Heretofore  the 
statues  set  up  in  honor  of  men  had  been  ideal 
in  their  type  rather  than  a  portrayal  of  the  real 
features  of  those  honored. 

The  growth  of  the  Attic  drama  in  the  fifth 
century  led  to  the  architectural  development  of 
the  theatre,  though  most  of  the  buildings  knoi^Ti 
to  us  belong  at  the  end  of  this  period,  or  early 
in  the  next.  For  a  consideration  of  the  form 
and  development  of  these  structures,  see  Thea- 

IRE. 

In  ceramics  we  must  consider  the  Attie  de- 
velopment, which  in  this  period  is  of  absorbing 


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interest,  and  gives  us  much  light  on  painting 
on  a  larger  scale,  as  well  as  on  contemporary 
manners  and  customs.  The  rise  of  Attic  black- 
figured  ware  has  already  been  mentioned.  As  a 
special  form  of  this  we  must  mention  particu- 
larly the  fine  Panathenaic  amphoras,  with  figures 
of  the  armed  Athena,  in  which  the  sacred  oil 
ini'as  presented  to  victors  at  the  Panathenaic 
games.  These  vases  are  interesting  as  being 
continued  in  an  archaistic  form  into  the 
Fourth  Century  (cf.  Baumeister,  Denkmdler, 
art.  Panathenaia).  A  special  class  of  peculiarly 
Attic  vases  are  the  beautiful  white  lecvthi  (oil 
or  perfume  flasks ) ,  which  were  interred  with  the 
dead,  and  which  contain  scenes  from  the  burial, 
and  also  from  the  daily  life,  exquisitely  depicted 
in  colors  on  the  white  slip  with  which  the  body 
of  the  vase  is  covered.  The  series  begins  early 
in  the  Fifth  Century,  and  continues  during  the 
Fourth,  in  the  variations  of  style  throwing  much 
light  on  the  development  of  painting,  and  form- 
ing an  interesting  parallel  to  the  contemporary 
series  of  grave  reliefs. 

In  the  **red-figured"  ware,  which  far  surpasses 
in  artistic  merit  the  black-figured,  and  of  which 
the  rise  as  a  separate  variety  has  already  been 
mentioned,  scenes  from  the  myths,  while  not 
excluded,  yet  make  room  for  delightful  bits  of 
social  and  domestic  life.  In  the  development  of 
this  style  the  "cylix,"  or  shallow  cup  on  a  rather 
high  foot,  plays  an  important  part,  especially  in 
the  early  part  of  the  Fifth  Century,  when  such 
masters  flourished  as  Euphronios,  Duris,  Hiero 
and  Brygos.  See  Hartwig,  Oriechische  Meiater- 
schulen  (Stuttgart  and  Berlin,  1893). 

Various  grotesque  forms  of  vases,  such  as  the 
rhyton  (in  the  snape  of  a  head,  generally  that 
of  an  animal),  later  came  into  use,  and  we  find 
numerous  examples  of  the  pyxis,  or  woman's 
toilet-box.  But  tlie  art  gradually  sank,  and 
vase-painting  was  fast  dying  out  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Alexandrian  Period. 

In  the  domain  of  numismatics  we  must  brief- 
ly mention  the  periods  of  transitional  art  (B.C. 
480-416)  and  of  finest  art  (b.c.  416-336).  We 
have  here  not  to  deal  particularly  with  Athenian 
coinage,  which,  like  the  Panathenaic  amphoras, 
keeps  a  designedly  rude  and  archaic  character  in 
order  to  maintain  its  position  with  foreign  peo- 
ples, with  whom  the  Attic  State  came  in  contact 
through  its  wide  maritime  relations  and  com- 
mercial dealings,  but  rather  with  such  beauti- 
ful work  as  that  of  the  Syracusan  die-cutters 
Fusenetus  and  Cimon,  in  tlie  period  subsequent 
to  B.C.  415,  whose  splendid  decadrachms  are 
justly  reckoned  among  the  highest  achievements 
in  this  class.  We  may  trace,  however,  through 
the  cbins  of  this  entire  epoch  that  same  gradual 
mastery  of  material  and  development  from  the 
more  severe  to  the  more  graceful,  which  is 
marked  in  other  lines  of  art.  But  coinage  still 
maintains  the  sacred  symbolism  which  character- 
ized it  from  the  besrinning,  the  purely  human  and 
individual  element  appearing  distinctly  only  in 
the  special  marks  of  magistrates  and  mint- 
masters,  which  are  kept  subordinate  to  the  main 
design. 

V.  Period  of  Hetxentc  Dissemtnation  and 
DECiiiiYE. — ^The  development  of  Macedon  under 
Philip  and  the  conquests  of  Alexander  change 
the  entire  aspect  of  the  Greek  world.  We  have 
henceforth  to  consider  a  Hellenism  synonymous 


with  civilization  rather  than  the  geographical 
Hellas  with  her  outlying  colonies. 

In  Greece  itself  the  greatest  influence  is  exerted 
at  the  opening  of  this  period  by  Lysippus  of 
Sicyon,  who  not  only  continued  the  prestige  of  the 
Argive-Sicyonian  school,  but  also  introduced  a 
new  canon  in  statuary,  making  the  figure  more 
slender  and  the  head  proportionally  smaller  than 
in  the  preceding  art  and  forming  a  marked  con- 
trast to  the  canon  of  Polycletus.  His  work  is 
known  to  us  from  copies  of  his  "Apoxyomenos" 
(a  youth  scraping  himself  with  the  strigil)  ; 
and  a  marble  copy  at  Delphi  of  a  series  of  stat- 
ues of  the  family  of  Daochos,  of  which  the 
bronze  originals  were  at  Pharsalia.  He  was 
also  a  sort  of  court-sculptor  to  Alexander  the 
Great,  as  Apclles  was  his  painter.  His  influ- 
ence extends  immediately  to  Rhodes  in  Chares 
of  Lindus,  one  of  his  best-known  pupils,  and 
artist  of  the  famous  ^'Colossus  of  Rhc^es." 

The  splendid  "Victory  of  Samothrace,"  now  in 
the  Louvre,  which  may  be  dated  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Third  Century,  is  one  of  the  great- 
est monuments  of  thi«  period,  and  deserves  to  be 
ranked  with  such  splendid  figures  as  the  "Victory 
of  Pseonius  of  Mende,"  set  up  at  Olympia  a  cen- 
tury or  more  earlier,  and  with  the  Victories  from 
the  balustrade  of  the  Temple  of  Athena  Nike,  at 
Athens. 

The  Pergamene  art,  cultivated  especially  under 
the  Attalid  kings,  and  of  which  we  see  such  as- 
tonishing examples  in  the  frieze  of  the  great  altar 
of  Zeus  at  Pergamus  (q.v.),  of  the  earlier  part 
of  the  Second  Ontury  B.C.,  representing  a  co- 
lossal gigantomachy,  exhibits  great  mastery  of 
technique,  violence  of  action,  and  the  free  ex- 
pression of  physical  suffering,  the  two  latter  be- 
ing qualities  of  sculpture  rather  than  of  painting. 
Somewhat  earlier  than  the  great  altar  are  the 
well-known  statues  of  the  "Dying  Gaul"  mis- 
called "Gladiator"),  and  the  Gaul  and  his 
wife  in  the  Ludovisi  Gallery.  As  intimated 
above,  it  is  the  grand  finale  of  Greek  sculp- 
ture, in  which  this  art  still  appears  great, 
though  overstepping  its  due  bounds.  To  this 
period  also  belongs  probably  the  development  of 
the  Rhodian  School,  though  some  scholars  pre- 
fer to  date  the  great  product  of  that  School,  the 
Laocodn  group,  now  in  the  V^atican,  at  the  end  of 
the  Second  Century  or  beginning  of  the  First 
Century  B.C.  To  this  school  in  its  Asiatic  de- 
velopment belongs  the  great  work  of  Apollonius 
and  Tauriscus  of  Tralles,  the  "Famese  Bull." 

Single  statues  which  seem  to  belong  to  this 
period,  but  cannot  be  assigned  with  certainty  to 
any  definite  artist,  are  the  "Aphrodite  of  Melos," 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  works  of  the  later 
classical  art;  the  "Apollo  Belvedere"  (q.v.)  ;  and 
the  "Torso  of  the  Belvedere,"  a  noble  fragment, 
whose  correct  restoration,  though  often  at- 
tempted, has  not  yet  been  found.  To  this  period 
also  belongs  the  full  development  of  genre 
scenes,  though  this  begins  still  earlier.  Such 
are  the  group  of  the  "Boy  and  the  Goose,"  the 
"Drunken  Old  Woman,"  the  "Fisherman,"  and 
especially  the  large  mass  of  reliefs,  which  seem 
to  owe  their  origin  to  Alexandria,  and  to  be  the 
product  of  the  same  tendencies  which  led  to  the 
bucolic  poetry.  Portraiture  also  flourished, 
not  only  in  statues  and  busts  of  the  living,  but 
in  ideal  portraits  of  the  great  men  of  the  past, 
as  Homer  and  Anacreon. 

With  the  painting  of  the  Alexandrian  Period 


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we  come  more  closely  into  contact  than  with  the 
earlier  art  in  this  kind  through  the  wall  decora- 
tions of  Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  and  Rome,  which 
follow  the  traditions  of  this  epoch.  Apelles 
(q.v.)  of  Colophon  represents  the  highest  devel- 
opment of  Greek  painting.  His  idealized  por- 
traits of  Alexander  were  as  famous  as  Lysippus's 
statues.  Protogenes  of  Caunus,  who  worked  at 
Rhodes  about  the  end  of  the  Fourth  Centurj,  is 
also  distinguislied  in  this  department.  Anti- 
philus  at  the  court  of  Ptolemy  is  characterized  as 
'•most  eminent  in  facility,"  But  the  list  of  great 
Greek  painters  closes  with  Theon  of  Samos,  of 
the  Third  Century  (ef.  the  article  "Malerei,"  in 
Baumeister,  op.  cit.j. 

In  other  species  of  art  we  find  the  eminent 
gem-engraver  Pyrgoteles,  employed  by  Alexan- 
der; and  this  branch  of  the  sculptor's  profession, 
ever  excessively  popular  among  the  ancients,  was 
fostered  by  that  monarch's  successors. 

In  vase-painting  we  note  little  else  than  de- 
cline, the  latest  development  manifesting  itself 
in  Magna  Grsecia,  Etruria,  and  Campania.  The 
painted  vases  of  southern  ftaly,  whicn  present  a 
distinctly  funereal  element  side  by  side  with  a 
marked  influence  from  the  drama,  give  us  much 
valuable  archeeological  material.  Asteas  (of 
Psestum?),  Pytho,  and  Lasimus  are  its  only  mas- 
ters known  to  us  by  signature.  We  have  also 
some  Campanian  vases  with  Latin  inscriptions 
of  the  Third  Century.  The  end  of  vase-painting 
seems  to  fall  about  the  beginning  of  the  Second 
Century  B.C. 

We  may  here  depart  from  our  chronological 
order  to  consider  briefly  the  peculiar  ware  of 
Etruria  (q.v.),  when,  side  by  side  with  primi-' 
tive  geometric  pottery,  continued  seemingly  over 
a  long  period,  and  more  or  less  skillful  imitations 
of  Greek  painted  ware  (particularly  Attic),  we 
find  the  so-called  vast  di  hucchero,  a  peculiar 
class  of  pottery  of  black  clay,  about  which  we  have 
but  little  exact  knowledge  and  of  which  examples 
have  been  found  not  merely  in  Etruria,  but  also 
in  the  Orient,  in  Cyprus,  in  Greece  Proper,  and 
on  the  coasts  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  earliest  of 
such  vessels  in  Etruria  are  made  without  the 
potter's  wheel,  but  in  the  manufacture  of  the 
later  (and  darker)  ware,  this  tool  was  employed. 
The  earliest  figures  are  scratched  in;  subse- 
quently relief -decoration  appears.  In  the  latter 
case,  Greek  types  are  employed,  at  first  i^oughly, 
afterwards  more  skillfully  and  with  a  mold  or 
incised  roller.  In  individual  cases  polychrome 
painting  occurs.  This  art  seems  to  have  con- 
tinued into  the  Sixth  Century. 

Before  leaving  the  subject  of  pottery  we  must 
also  notice  the  so-called  Samian  and  Megarian 
relief -ware,  assigned  to  the  Third  and  Second 
centuries  B.C.,  and  the  Aretine  ware,  apparently 
of  the  First  Century  b.c.  and  later. 

In  numismatics  the  new  development  under 
Alexander  and  his  successors,  designated  as  "the 
period  of  later  fine  art  from  the  accession  of 
Alexander  to  the  death  of  Lysimachus"  (B.C. 
336-280),  and  marked  by  the  influence  of  Ly- 
sippus,  is  succeeded  by  a  period  of  decline  in  art 
extending  to  the  Roman  conquest  (b.c.  280-146). 
Types  of  sovereigns,  first  that  of  the  deified  Alex- 
ander, then  those  of  other  and  living  princes, 
make  their  appearance  upon  coins,  and  continue 
down  to  the  later  Roman  Empire  a  valuable  series 
of  historical  portraits.  Gold  coinage  now  begins 
to  occupy  a  prominent  position,  and  contii^ues 


side    by  side  with   silver  and  bronze  to  be  & 
medium  of  exchange  under  the  Roman  Empire. 

In  small  art  our  attention  is  particularly 
drawn  to  the  terra-cotta  figurines  of  tiiis  period, 
particularly  those  of  Tanagra  in  Bceotia,  which 
in  their  charming  shapes  and  lovely  coloring 
give  us  so  many  delightful  pictures  of  Greek 
life.  Such  figures  have  their  origin  in  very 
early  times,  but  from  the  time  of  Praxiteles, 
whose  style  they  often  reproduce,  down  to  the 
Roman  period  and  later,  they  formed  a  favorite 
household  decoration,  and  were  buried  in  great 
numbers  with  the  dead.    See  Terba-Cotta. 

Bronze  mirrors  may  also  be  alluded  to  here 
before  we  pass  out  of  the  domain  of  Greek  chissie 
art.  Of  these  some  most  beautiful  specimens 
exist,  their  lids,  forming  a  class  of  chefs-d^autre 
in  metal-graving,  while  their  handles  are  often 
statuettes  of  finest  workmanship. 

VI.  Roman  Period.  The  passion  of  the  Ro- 
man connoisseurs  for  objects  of  Greek  art  has 
already  been  alluded  to;  but  in  the  period  upon 
which  we  are  now  entering  certain  other  ele- 
ments demand  our  attention.  As  among  the 
Greeks,  the  introduction  of  foreign  art  was  met 
by  a  native  element,  which  at  first  colored  and 
afterwards  completely  overpowered  by  the 
strength  and  vigor,  of  its  own  development  exter- 
nal infiuences;  so  we  find  in  Italy,  among  the 
Etruscans,  the  masters,  in  so  much,  of  the 
Romans,  and  whose  peculiar  bucchero-ware  has 
already  been  mentioned,  a  native  element  whidi 
reacted  upon  the  art  from  without,  though  in  a 
vastly  slighter  degree  than  that  of  Greece  and 
with  inferior  genius.  Their  art  was  not  the 
oldest  in  Italy;  for  we  find  specimens  of  siiula 
(pails)  of  beaten  metal,  perhaps  to  be  designated 
as  Umbrian,  the  decoration  of  which,  while  it 
seems  to  show  certain  elements  derived  through 
the  Greeks,  has  but  little  affinity  with  Etruscan 
art. 

The  infiuences  at  work  among  the  Etruscans 
were  principally  Greek,  as  we  have  noticed  in  the 
case  of  their  figured  pottery.  The  native  ele- 
ments were  chiefly  their  sombre  religion,  and  a 
marked  aptitude  for  portraiture.  We  find  **real- 
ism  combined  with  poverty  of  style."  The  chief 
Etruscan  monuments  are  funereal,  consisting  of 
decorated  tombs,  sarcophagi,  and  ash-ums,  in 
which  Greek  ornamentation  and  Etruscan  por- 
traiture are  not  very  happily  blended. 

The  same  tendency  to  portraiture  appears 
among  the  Romans,  fostered  by  the  importance 
attached  to  ancestral  imagines  (portraits  in 
wax),  which  played  so  marked  a  part  in  their 
funeral  ceremonies.  Their  masters  in  this  vere 
Etruscan  artists. 

Hand  in  hand  with  the  art  of  plastic  por- 
traiture, in  which  Roman  artists  learned  from 
Etruscan  masters,  went  that  of  honorary  statu- 
ary in  bronze,  and  after  the  Second  Punic  War 
such  statutes  were  to  be  seen  at  Rome  in  large 
numbers,  most  Romans  of  any  distinction  being 
honored  in  this  way.  It  was  just  after  this  time 
that  their  Grecian  conquests  began  to  bring  the 
Romans  decidedly  under  the  sway  of  Hellenic  art 

In  architecture  the  markedly  Roman  feature 
is  the  great  employment  of  the  arch,  which, 
although  not  unknown  to  the  Greeks,  was  but 
rarely  used  by  them.  This  rendered  possible 
such  great  works  as  the  aqueducts,  to  say  noth- 
ing of  the  Colosseum,  the  Pantheon,  and  the 
other  huge  structures  of  imperial  times.    In  tcm- 


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pie  construction  we  find  Etruscan  influence  at 
work  in  the  earlier  period,  in  both  form  and 
decoration.  Later  Greek  architecture  is  com- 
bined with  native  elements  in  elaborate  and  lux- 
uriant structures. 

The  so-called  Attic  Renaissance  in  sculpture 
about  the  beginning  of  the  period  we  are  now 
considering,  i.e.  when  Greece  had  been  brought 
under  Roman  dominion,  introduced  no  new  ele- 
ments, but  carried  on  with  enfeebled  ability 
the  old.  This  revival  is  best  known  to  us 
through  the  "Farnese  Hercules,"  an  exaggerated 
work  of  which  the  motive  is  derived  from 
Xiysippus. 

The  school  of  the  First  Century  b.c.,  founded 
by  Pasiteles,  a  native  of  southern  Italy,  and  con- 
tinued by  his  pupil  Stephanus^  and  Stephanus's 
pupil,  Menelaus,  deserves  mention  as  exercising 
somewhat  of  independent  influence.  It  is  char- 
acterized by  a  return  to  the  types  and  style  of 
the  end  of  the  archaic  period,  but  combines  them 
with  types  and  technique  belonging  to  its  own 
time.  During  this  period  we  also  find  the  growth 
of  the  archaistic  style,  which  imitated  the  stiff 
drapery,  awkward  smile,  and  other  peculiarities 
of  the  archaic  art. 

The  most  active  class  of  sculptors  at  Rome  in 
the  time  of  the  late  Republic  and  early  Empire 
were  from  Asia  Minor.  Best  known  among  such 
is  Agasias,  the  artist  of  the  so-called  "Borghese 
Oladiator." 

From  the  time  of  Augustus  on,  we  meet,  side 
by  side  with  a  vast  importation  of  ancient  Greek 
w'orks  and  reproductions  of  them  in  copies,  a 
host  of  portrait  statues  and  busts,  triumphal 
arches  and  elaborate  public  and  private  buildings 
of  all  kinds.  A  most  splendid  specimen  of 
Koman  portrait-statuary  is.  that  of  Augustus  in 
general's  uniform,  now  in  the  Vatican.  In  it  are 
admirably  combined  grand  and  realistic  por- 
traiture and  rich  decorative  effects,  particularly 
in  the  cuirass.  Especially  notewortny  also  are 
the  reliefs  of  the  Ara  Pacis  Augusti  and  of  the 
triumphal  arches,  such  as  that  of  Titus.  In 
these  fields  of  portraiture  and  historical  relief, 
the  art  of  Roman  times  offers  much  that  shows 
originality  and  strength,  but  in  general  it  is 
imitative  of  the  Greek.  Consult:  Wickoff,  Ro- 
^man  Art,  translated  by  Eug&nie  Sellers  Strong 
(London  and  New  York,  1900). 

Of  idealistic  bronze  statuary  we  have  a  beau- 
tiful example  in  the  "Victory  of  Brescia"  of  the 
First  Century  a.d. 

The  era  of  Hadrian  is  the  last  period  of  vigor- 
ous impulse  in  art  among  the  Romans.  That 
Emperor's  passion  for  ancient  art,  both  Egyptian 
and  Greek,  and  his  encouragement  of  new  works, 
both  at  home  and  abroad,  is  well  known.  To  his 
reign  are  to  be  assigned  the  various  idealized 
portraits  of  his  famous  Bithynian  favorite  An- 
tinofis. 

In  numismatics  the  last  period  of  continued 
decline  (b.c.  146-27)  that  of  the  coinage  of  the 
Roman  Empire  down  to  Gallienus  (b.c.  27  to  a.d. 
208)  falls  in  here.  The  material  is  vast;  and 
here,  too,  the  element  of  realistic  portraiture  is 
prominent. 

The  luxury  of  the  Romans  manifested  itself  in 
the  multiplication  of  elaborate  mosaics,  rich 
jewelry,  wonderful  intaglios,  both  in  stone  and  in 
paste,  costly  glassware  and  the  like.  But  of  all 
this  art,  which  cannot  be  fully  discussed  here, 
suffice  it  to  say  that  it  involves  no  new  principles. 


It  is  merely  the  bloom  of  that  decay  which  was 
fast  consuming  the  ancient  world. 

ABCHJEOLOQY,  American.  In  many  re- 
spects the  Western  Hemisphere  forms  a  distinct 
archffiologic  field,  and  one  of  peculiar  interest  to 
the  student.  In  the  first  place  the  two  great 
continents,  with  their  insular  appendages,  form  a 
single  ethnic  province,  i.e.,  from  the  earliest 
times  up  to  Caucasian  discovery,  the  lands  were 
inhabited  by  the  single  tribe  or  race  of  man- 
kind known  as  the  Amerind,  or  American  type; 
and  though  the  province  is  vast,  yet  throughout 
its  extent  the  tribes  and  their  works  bear  what 
may  be  called  the  family  resemblance  in  a  strik- 
ing degree.  In  the  second  place,  the  American 
aborigines,  from  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic,  were 
remarkably  similar  in  cultural  development. 
True,  some  of  the  tribes  discovered  by  Caucasians 
represented  lower  savagery,  while  others  (as  in 
Mexico  and  Peru)  occupied  the  higher  planes 
of  barbarism  verging  on  civilization,  yet  the 
cultural  range  represented  by  their  works  is 
narrower  than  that  of  any  other  ethnic  province 
save  Australia.  Furthermore,  the  aboriginal 
tribes  survived  until  the  spirit  of  inquiry  among 
the  European  invaders  of  the  Continent  had  been 
developed,  and  until  observation  and  records  were 
well  advanced.  By  reason  of  the  several  condi- 
tions, a  distinctive,  if  not  a  novel,  science  of 
archaeology  has  grown  up  in  the  Western  Hemi- 
sphere. In  the  American  system,  prehistoric  arti- 
facts are  interpreted  in  the  light  of  the  observed 
uses  of  artifacts,  recorded  by  early  explorers  or 
studied  by  modern  investigators;  the  modem 
artifacts  are  interpreted  in  the  light  of  primi- 
tive thought- ascertained  by  current  inquiries  into 
primitive  arts,  industries,  laws,  languages,  and 
faiths — and  thus  the  ancient  and  the  modern, 
the  prehistoric  and  the  historic,  the  living  and 
the  dead  are  correlated  in  a  simple  yet  compre- 
hensive scheme  at  once  coextensive  with  the 
world's  greatest  ethnic  province  and  sufiiciently 
definite  to  outline  a  considerable  part  of  the 
course  of  human  development. 

The  object  matter  of  American  archteology 
comprises  (1)  human  remains  imbedded  m 
natural  deposits  or  entombed  in  prehistoric 
structures,  and  (2)  artifacts  in  wide  variety, 
including  (a)  habitations,  (b)  mounds  and 
other  structures  connected  with  habitations  or 
places  of  worship,  (c)  gaming  devices,  (d)  tools, 
implements,  and  weapons,  (e)  ceremonial  ob- 
jects, (f )  domestic  and  ceremonial  utensils,  (g) 
shrines  and  monuments,  (h)  petroglyphs,  (i) 
moldings  in  stucco,  (j)  sculptures,  (k)  mis- 
cellaneous inscriptions  (1)  wrought  metal  ob- 
jects, etc.  The  various  artifacts  may  be  grouped 
under  a  few  general  designations  based  on  pre- 
vailing types  such  as  earthworks,  stone  imple- 
ments, pottery,  etc. 

Human  Remains.  Bones  of  prehistoric .  men 
are  exceedingly  common  in  the  mounds  and  other 
burial  places  of  central  and  eastern  United 
States;  skeletons,  with  and  without  integument, 
have  been  found  in  caves  throughout  nearly  all 
of  both  Americas,  and  nre  fairly  common  in  the 
arid  districts;  and  complete  mummies  of  pre- 
historic bodies,  with  complete  wrappings,  have 
been  found  in  large  numbers,  especially  in  Peru. 
The  chief  lesson  taught  by  these  remains  is  that 
the  prehistoric  inhabitants  of  the  various  dis- 
tricts (so  far  back  as  this  record  runs)  cor- 
responded more  or  less  closely,  in  most  cases 


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ABCHJBOLOGY. 


exactly,  with  the  tribes  found  there  by  Caucasian 
explorers,  the  correspondence  extending  to  the 
mode  of  burial,  the  preparation  of  the  hodj,  and 
the  mortuary  sacrifices,  as  well  as  to  the  somatic 
or  physical  characteristics  of  the  individuals.  In 
some  cases  diversities  between  the  living  and  the 
dead  have  been  found  of  8uch  sort  as  to  indicate 
migrations  or  displacemente  of  tribes,  and  in  a 
few  instances  these  have  thrown  useful  light  on 
early  movements  of  the  aborigines ;  but  in  a  gen- 
eral view,  these  indications  are  of  minor  impor- 
tance. By  some  students,  numbers  of  prehistoric 
crania  have  been  grouped  by  types — e.g.  dolicho- 
cephalic and  brachycephalic — assumed  to  repre- 
sent distinct  genetic  stocks  or  races;  but  since 
the  types  merge  in  very  large  series,  since  both 
are  sometimes  found  in  the  same  mound  or  ceme- 
tery (and  even  in  the  same  living  clan) ,  the  value 
of  the  cranial  classification  would  seem  but  secon- 
dary at  the  best.  In  some  instances  the  prehis- 
toric skeletons,  especially  the  crania,  throw  light 
on  customs;  thus  the  Muniz  collection  of  1000 
Peruvian  crania,  of  which  19  were  trephined  in 
24  distinct  operations,  proves  that  the  pre- 
historic folk  of  this  region  performed  this 
critical  operation  with  a  frequency  higher 
even  than  that  of  a  modern  military  hos- 
pital, and  with  a  degree  of  success  hardly 
exceeded  by  that  of  the  best  modem  surgery. 
Similarly  the  distribution  of  deformed  crania 
throws  light  on  cradle  customs  and  on  the  half- 
intentional  flattening  of  infantile  heads  in  pre- 
historic times;  while  the  pathologic  conditions 
occasionally  revealed  by  the  buried  bones  serve 
to  extend  our  knowledge  of  certain  diseases  and 
wounds,  and  of  the  medical  practice  of  the  early 
tribes. 

In  a  few  instances  human  bones  have  been 
found  in  such  associations  as  to  suggest  the  high 
geologic  antiquity  of  man  in  America.  The  best- 
known  instance  is  that  of  the  Calaveras  skull 
alleged  to  have  been  found  in  auriferous  gravels 
beneath  lava  beds  near  Angels,  Cal. ;  and  its  in- 
terest was  enhanced  by  frequent  reports  of  the 
finding  of  stone  implements  (pestles,  mortars, 
spear-heads,  etc.)  in  gravels  of  a  corresponding 
age.  At  the  time  the  associations  were  reported, 
the  gravels  were  supposed  to  be  Pleistocene  or 
Quaternary,  and  the  lava  still  newer,  so  that 
the  accounts  had  an  air  of  credibility.  During 
1880-05,  several  geologists  resurveyed  the  region, 
and  ascertained  that  the  auriferous  gravels,  and 
even  the  overlying  lava-beds,  are  of  Tertiary 
(probably  early  Tertiary)  Age,  so  that  the  alleged 
associations  would  seem  unworthy  of  considera- 
tion unless  supported  by  the  strongest  possible 
direct  evidence.  In  1897  the  region  was  re- 
examined critically  by  Holmes  and  McGee,  who 
discovered  (1)  that  all  the  alleged  occurrences 
of  human  relics  in  the  gravel  reported  during 
recent  years  may  be  ascribed  to  a  natural  mis- 
apprehension on  the  part  of  workmen  and  others 
(the  objects  falling  from  the  surface  into  the 
gravel  stratum,  to  mix  with  the  pebbles  in  the 
sluice  boxes)  ;  (2)  that  most  of  the  mortars  and 
pestles  alleged  to  have  been  found  in  the  gravels 
were  manufactured  from  the  volcanic  rock  over- 
lying the  gravel  beds;  (3)  that  the  obsidian 
blades  reported  from  the  gravels  are  made  from 
material  of  much  newer  formations;  (4)  that  the 
Calaveras  skull  is  of  a  type  corresponding  pre- 
cisely with  that  of  Indians  still  living  in  the  same 
vicinity;   (5)  that  its  state  of  preservation  cor- 


responds closely  with  that  of  modem  bones  after 
a  few  years'  burial  in  the  limestone  caverns  or 
calcareous  earths  of  the  region;  and  (8)  that  the 
contemporary  testimony  concerning  the  finding  of 
the  cranium  is  contradictory,  with  the  burden 
against  the  original  allegation.  Other  reports 
of  the  occurrence  of  human  remains  in  geologic 
deposits  have  come  from  Trenton;  the  first  case 
was  that  of  a  supposed  Eskimo  cranium*  al- 
leged to  have  been  found  in  Pleistocene  deposits, 
but  which  was  afterward  examined  bv  Russell 
and  found  to  be  of  modem  Algonquian  type; 
another  was  a  human  femur  reported  from' the 
same  deposits,  which  is  yet  under  discussion. 
On  the  whole  it  may  be  said  that  while  the  pre- 
historic human  remains  of  America  throw  murh 
light  on  ethnic  problems,  on  the  habitats  and 
migrations  of  tribes,  on  primitive  customs,  and 
so  on  the  later  chapters  in  the  development  of 
the  aborigines,  they  throw  little  li^t  on  such 
questions  as  those  relating  to  the  origin  and 
antiquity  of  mankind. 

Eabthwobks.  The  most  conspicuous  prehis- 
toric works  of  America  are  moimds  and  other 
elevations  of  earth,  such  as  occur  abundantly  hi 
the  Mississippi  Valley;  perhaps  the  best-known 
examples  being  Cahokia  Mound,  near  East  Saint 
Louis,  and  the  Etowah  Mound  in  northeastern 
Georgia.  The  moimds  range  from  barely  per- 
ceptible elevations  to  two  hundred  feet  in  height, 
from  three  to  four  yards  to  over  half  a  mile  in 
diameter,  and  from  a  hundred  square  feet  to 
several  acres  in  extent ;  they  number  tens,  if  not 
hundreds,  of  thousands ;  and  while  they  are  most 
abundant  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Mississippi 
and  its  tributaries,  the^  occur  in  every  State 
and  Territory  of  the  United  States  and  in  eveir 
American  country  and  district  thus  far  ade- 
quately examined.  Many,  if  not  most,  of  the 
simple  mounds  are  tumuli  or  burial  places;  a 
considerable  part  of  those  examined  have  been 
found  to  contain  human  skeletons,  sometimes  in 
large  numbers,  together  with  a  wide  variety  of 
artifacts  attesting  lavish  mortuary  sacrifices. 
In  some  instances  structures  ef  wood  or  stone 
have  been  found  in  the  mounds;  and  in  south- 
western United  States,  Mexico,  Yucatan,  Hon- 
duras, and  some  South  American  countries,  many 
of  the  mounds  are  but  ruins  of  habitations, 
temples,  or  other  structures  reduced  by  weathe^ 
ing.  In  some  districts  the  tumuli  are  associated 
with  embankments,  either  simple  or  in  cirralar 
or  rectangular  form;  and  these  are  sometimes 
combined  and  connected  with  conical  or  pyra- 
midal mounds  in  elaborate  systems.  Sqiiier, 
whose  investigations  of  the  aboriginal  earthworks 
of  the  Ohio  Valley  are  classic,  deemed  the  earth- 
built  circles  accurate  and  the  squares  perfect; 
and  while  later  surveys  have  revealed  imperfec- 
tions in  the  engineering,  the  extent  and  sym- 
metry of  the  works  must  be  regarded  as  re- 
markable. In  some  cases  the  earthworks  have 
been  shown,  by  early  observation  or  otherwise, 
to  be  designed  as  fortifications ;  but  similar  evi- 
dence indicates  that  many  of  the  most  remark- 
able works  were  ceremonial,  and  connected  with 
elaborate  systems  of  faith  and  forms  of  worship. 
In  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  Iowa,  and  to  some 
extent  elsewhere*  many  mounds  are  rudely 
shaped  in  animal  forms,  representing  various 
mammals,  birds,  and  reptiles;  these  effigy  mounds 
denoted  the  totems  (or  zoic  tutelaries)  of  local 
clans  and  tribes.     One  in  Wisconsin,  known  as 


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ABCHJEOLOQY. 


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ABrCHJEOLOQY. 


"the  Elephant  Mound,"  from  its  resemblance  to 
the  elephantine  form,  has  attracted  much  atten- 
tion, though  it  is  the  prevailing  opinion  of  in- 
vestigators that  the  resemblance  is  fortuitous; 
but  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  example  of  its 
class  is  "the  Serpent  Mound"  of  Summit  County, 
Ohio,  described  by  Putnam,  and  through  his  ef- 
forts preserved  in  a  public  park.  Along  most  or 
all  of  the  American  coasts  shell-mounds,  or  mid- 
dens, occur,  sometimes  in  great  size  and  profusion. 
Those  of  the  Maine  coast  have  been  examined  by 
many  investigators,  and  have  been  found  to  con- 
sist primarily  of  shells,  bones,  and  other  refuse 
of  a  shoreland  dietary,  together  with  implements, 
utensils,  and  ornaments  lost  in  the  debris  from 
time  to  time,  so  that  they  alTord  a  clear  picture 
of  prehistoric  life ;  and  similar  records  have  been 
obtained  from  the  middens  of  Alaska,  British 
Columbia,  California,  Greenland,  and  other  parts 
of  the  North  American  coast.  The  shell  mounds 
of  Florida  yielded  a  remarkably  clear  record 
under  the  investigations  of  Wyman;  and  this 
record  was  gi'eatly  extended  on  the  western 
coast  of  Florida  by  Cushing,  who  found  the  coast- 
wise keys  and  other  small  islands  raised  and 
strengthened  by  carefully  laid  walls  of  conch 
and  other  shells,  and  who  obtained  from  adjacent 
muck-beds  remarkable  series  of  utensils,  orna- 
ments, ceremonial  objects,  etc.,  preserved  in  the 
peaty  mass  in  remarkable  perfection.  The  shell 
mounds  of  the  liOuisiana  coast  also  are  of  great 
extent,  though  they  have  not  been  fully  exam- 
ined; while  Moore  and  others  have  found  those 
of  the  Alabama  coast  to  throw  much  light  on 
local  characteristics  of  the  aborigines.  Perhaps 
the  largest  American  shell  mound  is  that  forming 
Funta  Antigualla,  opposite  Tiburon  Island  in  the 
Gulf  of  California;  it  is  about  ninety  feet  high, 
and  although  a  large  but  unknown  portion  of  it 
has  been  carried  away  by  wave- wear,  it  still 
covers  an  area  of  some  seventy- five  acres;  it  is 
wholly  of  local  shells,  chiefly  those  of  the  clam, 
and  contains  pottery  and  stone  implements  pre- 
cisely like  those  used  by  the  surviving  aborigines 
of  the  district,  from  base  to  summit. 

The  origin  of  the  custom  of  building  mounds 
has  been  discussed  by  Cushing;  he  conceived  the 
original  mound  to  be  a  midden  of  shells  and 
other  refuse  accumulated  under  a  shoreland  pile- 
dwelling  to  such  height  as  eventually  to  form  a 
support  for  the  habitation;  and  that  the  asso- 
ciation of  mound  and  dwelling  eventually  be- 
came so  deeply  fixed  in  the  minds  of  the  dwellers 
that  when  new  habitations  were  erected  further 
inland,  the  mound  was  regarded  as  a  necessary 
accompaniment,  and  was  built  of  earth  in  lieu  of 
refuse.  During  the  earlier  two- thirds  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century  the  opinion  prevailed  that  the 
"Mound  Builders"  were  a  distinct  people  or  race, 
antedating  the  Amerind  tribes  found  inhabiting 
the  coimtry  by  the  Caucasian  invaders ;  this  was 
shown,  chiefly  by  Powell  and  later  by  Thomas, 
to  be  an  error.  ITie  latter  described  the  earth- 
works of  the  eastern  United  States  in  detail,  and 
identified  many  of  them  with  the  aborigines  re- 
siding in  their  vicinity  up  to  the  time  of  white 
settlement.  The  demonstration  of  the  identity 
of  "Mound  Builders"  and  "Indian"  may  be  said 
to  have  been  completed  by  Holmes,  who  in  vari- 
ous publications  established  the  unity  of  aesthetic, 
technic,  and  symbolic  motives  in  the  mounds 
and  among  the  living  tribesmen.  The  mound 
proper,  with  its  variants  in  the  form  of  embank- 


ments, effigies,  etc.,  may  be  regarded  as  pertain- 
ing to  humid  lands,  and  the  shell-mounds  to 
shorelands;  while  in  arid  lands  the  earth- work- 
ing sometimes  differentiated  into  a  style  of 
house-building  known  in  parts  of  Spanish  Amer- 
ica as  cajon  ( so  called  from  the  box-like  arrange- 
ment of  parallel  boards  between  which  puddled 
earth  was  laid  and  allowed  to  harden  in  suc- 
cessive ledges,  or  strata,  varying  from  a  few 
inches  to  a  foot  or  more  in  vertical  thickness) ; 
and  this  type  of  structure  is  widely  diffused  in 
the  more  arid  regions  of  both  American  conti- 
nents, the  best  example  in  the  United  States 
being  the  ruin  known  as  Casa  Grande  (q.v.) ,  near 
Florence,  Ariz.  Modemly  the  cajon  structure 
grades  into  adobe — i.e.,  sun-dried  bricks  of  pud- 
dled silt ;  but  there  is  some  question  whether  the 
use  of  adobe  proper  ("dobies"  in  the  vernacular) 
antedated  the  Caucasian  invasion.  From  cajon 
to  a  plaster  of  earth  and  stone  over  wicker  walls 
was  an  easy  step,  w^hich  was  taken  by  many 
tribes,  as  attested  by  buried  ruins  of  the  arid 
region  as  well  as  by  vestiges  among  living  tribes, 
e.g.,  the  Papago ;  and  the  step  thence  to  wrought 
stucco  was  little  harder,  and  was  taken  by  the 
ancient  Mexicans,  Yucatecans,  Central  Ajneri- 
cans,  and  some  South  Americans,  as  well  illus- 
trated in  several  ruined  cities  (noted  under 
Abchitectube,  Ancient  American). 

Wooden  Stbuctubes.  While  wood  was  un- 
doubtedly used  largely  by  the  prehistoric  tribes 
of  America  for  habitations  as  well  as  for  imple- 
ments, utensils,  etc.,  comparatively  little  of  the 
material  remains  for  study.  In  certain  large 
tumuli  described  by  Thomas,  remains  of  wooden 
structures  were  found  imder  such  conditions  as 
to  indicate  that  earth  was  heaped  over  a  house  or 
stout  wigwam  in  such  manner  as  to  form  a  lofty 
mound ;  the  stumps  of  prehistoric  piles,  probably 
used  either  to  support  palafittes  (or  pile  dwell- 
ings) or  as  adjuncts  to  large  fish  weirs,  were 
found  by  Cresson  in  Delaware  River,  near  Clay- 
mont ;  in  the  prehistoric  Casa  Grande  of  Arizona, 
as  well  as  in  neighboring  pueblos  of  prehistoric 
origin,  upper  fioors  and  roofs  were  supported  on 
joists  and  rafters  consisting  of  round  cedar  or 
pine  poles,  which  must  in  some  instances  have 
been  transported  over  many  miles  of  desert  from 
the  wooded  mountains ;  in  even  the  most  impos- 
ing and  massive  temples  of  Yucatan  and  Peru, 
wm>den  lintels  were  introduced — and  the  decay 
of  these  was  one  of  the  factors  in  hastening  the 
downfall  of  these  noble  structures.  These  in- 
stances of  the  use  of  wood  are  quite  in  accord 
with  the  large  employment  of  this  material 
among  the  tribesmen  found  by  the  first  invaders ; 
and  the  two  records — unwritten  and  written — 
coincide  not  only  as  to  the  use  of  the  material, 
but  as  to  the  primitive  modes  through  which  it 
was  reduced  to  seniceable  condition  by  aid  of 
crude  stone  tools  and  fire.  Closely  connected  in 
aboriginal  thought  with  the  fixed  home  was  the 
floating  habitation,  also  commonly  of  wood  or 
bark;   the  greater  water-craft,  capable  of  navi- 

fating  all  parts  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of 
lexico,  are  known  through  the  descriptions  of 
Columbus  and  his  companions,  as  well  as  from 
models  found  by  Cushing  in  the  peat-beds  of 
western  Florida;  while  fragments  of  birch  bark 
from  the  mounds  of  Wisconsin,  and  bits  of  cane 
from  the  great  shell-mound  of  Seriland,  are 
among  the  indications  that  the  pre-Columbian 
warrior  paddled  the  light  canoe  or  propelled  the 


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inraceful  balna  just  as  do  hia  descendants  of  the 
fifteenth  generation. 

Stone  Stbuctubes.  More  or  less  extensive  ruins 
of  stone  structures,  the  work  of  aborigines  during 
prehistoric  times,  occur  in  many  districts  through- 
out the  Western  Hemisphere;  they  range  from 
simple  cairns  of  loose  pebbles  to  imposing  tem- 
ples of  wrought  stone.  The  types  are  too  numer- 
ous for  easy  listing;  but  several  examples  throw 
light  on  the  technic  of  the  ancient  artisans.  Thus 
most  of  the  pueblos  and  cliff-dw^ellers  of  the  south- 
western United  States  and  northern  Mexico  are 
of  coarse  rubble — i.e.,  of  natural  slabs  laid  with 
slight  regard  to  the  production  of  even  surfaces. 
Some  of  the  ancient  walls  are  of  slabs  finished  off 
on  one  or  both  edges  by  smooth  jointage  planes  so 
selected  and  laid  as  to  form  surfaces  hardly  less 
regular  than  cut  stone;  while  Hodge,  in  1899, 
found  in  New  Mexico  certain  stone  ruins  in 
which  the  walls  were  evidently  smoothed  by  rub- 
bing or  grinding  after  the  structure  was  other- 
wise complete — the  comers  in  one  case  being 
neatly  squared  and  in  another  beautifully 
rounded  to  a  radius  of  several  inches.  Yet  even 
these  fine  structures  showed  that  the  primitive 
mason  did  not  grasp  the  principle  of  breaking 

i'oints  or  that  of  the  mortar-bond.  In  Central 
Mexico  and  Yucatan  massive  stones  were  laid  in 
substantial  walls;  but  even  here,  as  shown  by 
Holmes,  the  quarrying  and  dressing  were  effected 
wholly  with  stone  tools  and  by  painfully  clumsy 
methods,  while  none  of  the  builders  grasped  the 
principle  of  the  arch.  Much  the  same  may  be 
said  of  the  remarkable  stonework  of  Peru.  The 
architectural  features  of  American  stone  struc- 
tures (so  far  as  architecture  was  developed  in 
the  Western  Hemisphere)  are  described  else- 
where; but  it  is  worthy  of  special  note  that  the 
many-storied  pueblo  grades  into  the  cliff-house, 
and  this  again  into  the  cavate  lodge  dug  into  the 
softer  stratum  of  the  cliff,  and  this  in  turn  into 
the  simple  rock  shelter,  the  open  cavern  used  for 
temporary  lodgment  by  primitive  folk  every- 
where, it  may  be  noted  also  that  the  early 
Americans  used  stone  structures  chiefly  for  habi- 
tations and  places  of  worship,  and  seldom,  if 
ever,  for  fortresses.  True,  rude  fortifications  of 
loose  rubble  crown  hilltops  adjacent  to  villages 
in  Wisconsin  and  northern  Mexico,  as  noted  by 
Bandelier  and  described  by  McGee  under  the 
local  designation  trincherai,  while  similar  forti- 
fications have  been  observed  in  other  districts; 
yet  even  these  are  places  of  ceremonial  observ- 
ance as  well  as  of  defense — and  true  fortifications 
of  stone  are  conspicuously  absent  from  the 
greater  part  of  America. 

Stone  Implements.  The  diversity  between  the 
archaeology  of  America  and  that  of  Europe  cul- 
minates in  the  classification  of  stone  implements 
and  the  definition  of  culture-stages  based  on  this 
classification.  This  diversity  arises  naturally  in 
the  modes  of  approach,  that  of  America  being 
through  observation  of  primitive  customs,  and 
that  of  Europe  through  the  logic  of  the  civilized 
mind.  On  both  hemispheres  stone  implements 
are  numerous — commonly  the  most  abundant 
relics  of  the  prehistoric  period;  on  the  Ameri- 
can hemisphere  they  are  still  in  use,  in  aboriginal 
fashion,  by  a  considerable  class  of  the  population. 
Throughout  the  eastern  United  States  aboriginal 
arrow-points  of  stone  may  be  found  on  nearly 
every  hillside,  while  larger  implements,  which 
may*  have  been  used  as  spear-heads  or  knives, 


can  be  picked  up  in  every  township.  Usually 
they  are  rather  rudely  chipped  from  auartz, 
quartzite,  argillite,  or  other  local  or  neighboring 


FLIltT  AJtaOW-POINTS,  PROM  TKKXESSKK. 

rocks;  and  Holmes  in  Maryland,  Fowke  in  Vir- 
ginia, Mercer  in  Pennsylvania,  and  Phillips  in 
Illinois,  have  traced  the  material  to  its  original 
sources,   and   have   described  the  quarries   and 


ABBOW-POINT,  AND  PKBFOBATOB. 

workshops  whence  the  implements  came — indeed, 
the  first  of  these  investigators  has  been  able  to 
trace  the  distribution  of  given  materials  from 
particular  quarries,  and  has  thus  been  able  to 


EMBLEMATIC  GOBOBT,  FBOM  BHXA  OOUHTT,  Tlinr. 

throw  light  on  aboriginal  migrations  and  com- 
merce. Associated  with  these  implements  are 
found  vessels  of  steatite  (soapstone),  elaborately 


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STAGES  IN  MANUFACTURE  OF  CELTS  FROM  RIVER 
PEBBLES.  Ranging  from  partially  chipped  pebble 
to  finished  Implement,  from  near  Luray,  Vir- 
ginia. 


STAGES  IN  MANUFACTURE  OF  CHIPPED  IMPLE- 
MENTS FROM  QUARTZITE  COBBLES.  Ranging 
from  "Turtle  Back"  or  "  Paleolith  "  to  ar- 
rowpoint,  from  District  of  Columbia 


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ABCHJEOLOQY. 


wrought  stone  pipes  of  material  ranging  in 
hardness  from  steatite  to  quartz,  and  a  great 
variety  of  gorgets,  pendants,  etc.,  of  polished 
stone,  as  well  as  stone  disks,  such  as  were  used 
by  the  aborigines  in  games  up  to  the  time  of  the 
white  settlement.  These  various  types  of  stone 
artifacts  have  been  found  on  the  surface  in 
tumuli  associated  with  skeletons,  in  shell-mounds 


PLUMMET.  MADE  OP  BANDY  LIMESTONE,  PBOM  LOUISIANA. 

on  hundreds  of '  village  sites,  and  about  scores 
of  quarries  and  quarry  workshops;  and  both  the 
certain  relations  that  are  found  to  prevail 
among  prehistoric  art,  facts  and  the  observa- 
tion of  living  peoples  indicate  that  the  flaked. 


PLINT  OOBB,   PBOM  WHICH  FLAKES  WERE  CHIPPED,   AND 
FLINT  PLAKE  USED  AS  A  KNIFE. 

chipped,  and  polished  objects  were  made  at 
the  same  time  and  by  the  same  tribes — indeed, 
scores  of  specimens  bear  the  unmistakable  traces 
of  manufacture  by  a  combination  of  processes 
ranging  from  flaking  and  chipping,  to  battering, 
grinding,  and  polishing.  Toward  the  Pacific 
coast  the  stone  implement  types  are  much  the 
same,  though  their  relative  abundance  is  differ- 
ent;  chipped  arrow-points  and  spear-heads  are 


comparatively  rare,  while  polished  stone  pestles 
and  mullers  are  abundant,  associated  with 
equally  abundant  mortars,  either  portable,  or 
shaped  in  natural  ledges  and  great  bowlders; 
while  here,  as  in  much  of  Mexico,  and  to  some 
extent  in  the  Pueblo  country,  blades  of  beauti- 
fully flaked  and  chipped  obsidian  (volcanic 
glass)  are  frequently  found  in  ancient  mounds 
and  graves,  as  well  as  in  the  possession  of  aged 
shamans  among  the  living  tribes.  Some  of  the 
California  tribes  noted  by  Powers,  make  little 
use  of  stone  for  cutting,  etc.,  though  they  employ 
natural  pebbles,  so  cleft  as  to  give  sharp  edges. 


|VJ'\>. 


5-^ 


.«&:i  I 


m 


CELT.  BOUGHLY  CUT  BY  CHIPPING,  AND  FINISHED  BV  GRINDING. 
FROM  ALEXANDEB  COUNTY,   ILL. 

for  certain  purposes;  while  the  Seri  Indians  of 
Tiburon  Island  use  wave-worn  cobbles  for  break- 
ing up  green  turtles,  large  game  animals,  etc., 
and  gradually  reduce  them  by  wear  to  symmetric 
form  and  well-polished  condition,  yet  eschew 
them  with  horror  if  accidentally  broken  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  form  sharp  edges. 

The  various  types  of  stone  implements,  both 
prehistoric  and  modern,  grade  in  some  respects 
into  implements  of  shell,  tooth,  bone,  and  wood; 
and  the  method  of  interpretation  in  terms  of 
primitive  thought,  affords  a  means  of  classifying 
the  entire  series  of  implements  in  simple  and  in- 
structive fashion.  Thus  it  is  found  that  the 
lowest  peoples  give  preference  to  tooth  and  bone, 
to  chitinous  beak  and  claw,  to  sharp-edged  shell 


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ABCHiEOLOGT. 


and  piscine  spine,  as  material  for  tool  and 
weapon,  and,  moreover,  that  they  prefer  to  use 
these  materials  in  a  manner  mimetic  of  the 
actual  or  imputed  motions  of  their  zoic  tute- 
laries;  so  that  this  stage  of  culture  has  been  re- 
garded as  primal,  and  defined  as  zodmimic.  It 
is  found  also  that  the  somewhat  more  advanced 


TYPICAL  POLISHED  CELT  (SIDB  VIEW  AKD  SECTIOK). 
PROM   LllfCOLM  COUNTY,   ARKANSAS. 

savages  give  preference  to  stone  used  in  natural 
forms,  to  which  zoic  attributes  are  imputed  (as 
when  pebbles  are  designated  as  teeth)  and  grad- 
ually shape  and  polish  these  by  the  wear  of  use, 
without  antecedent  design;  and  this  stage  of  de- 
signless stonework  is  defined  as  protolithic.  In 
like  manner  it  is  found  that  the  more  advanced 
tribes  shape  their  implements  first  by  a  com- 
bination of  wear  like  that  of  the  previous  stage, 
later  by  battering  and  chipping,  and  last  of  all 
by  fiaking,  in  accordance  with  preconceived  de- 
signs; and  the  implements  so  produced,  and  the 
culture-stage  which  they  represent,  have  been 
defined  as  technolithic.  This  classification  is  set 
forth  elsewhere  (Man,  Science  of)  in  some  de- 
tail; but  it  is  desirable  to  note  that  the  classi- 
fication is  based  largely  on  prehistoric  material, 
while,  conversely,  it  illumines  in  useful  fashion 
a  considerable  part  of  the  course  of  cultural  de- 
velopment on  the  Western  Hemisphere. 

Metal  Products,  l^arge  numbers  of  metallic 
artifacts  have  been  found  in  the  mounds  of  the 
eastern  United  States,  in  the  cemeteries  of  the 
arid  region,  in  the  crypts  of  Mexico,  and  in  the 
huaccLS  of  South  America.  The  prevailing  ma- 
terial, especially  in  North  America,  is  copper, 
evidently  found  native  and  wrought  cold,  or  at 
low  heat,  with  implements  of  stone,  deer  horn, 
etc.  Most  of  the  copper  objects  are  implements 
evidently  designed  in  imitation  of  stone  celts, 
axes  (tomahawks),  spear- heads,  knives,  etc.; 
while  many  objects,  usually  wrought  from  sheets, 
were  evidently  decorative  or  ceremonial,  some  of 
the  largest  pieces  from  the  moimds  being  zoic 


images,  or  effigies,  evidently  of  totemic  diarac- 
ter.  In  the  Pueblo  region,  and  thence  southward 
through  Mexico  to  Bolivia  and  Peru,  silver  and 
gold  were  used  in  considerable  quantity,  ordina- 
rily for  decorative  or  symbolic  purposes;  these 
metals,  too,  were  undoubtedly  found  native,  and 
wrought  (usually)  at  low  temperatures;  but  a 
few  interesting  types  of  gold  ornaments,  de- 
scribed by  Holmes,  were  evidently  produced  by 
partial  fusing  of  slender  bars  or  wires,  while 
some  objects  seem  to  have  been  produced  by  a 
sort  of  casting,  in  which  the  metal  must  hare 
been  fused,  at  least  to  a  moderately  fluent  con- 
dition. Some  of  the  mounds  have  yielded  or- 
namental pieces  of  iron,  evidently  of  meteoric 
origin,  and  wrought  cold  or  at  low  tem'perature; 
their  preservation  being  due  to  the  resistance  of 
siderite  to  oxidation,  and  their  shapement  de- 
pending on  the  fact  that  this  material  is  'iiot- 
short,"  yet  malleable  at  low  temperatures.  There 
are 'a  few  examples  (including  one  brought  to 
light  in  the  neighborhood  of  Casa  Grande,  Arizo- 
na, in  1898)  of  the  aboriginal  use  of  heavy' masses 
of  iron;  the  Casa  Grande  specimen  was  a  circu- 
lar plate  of  fairly  symmetrical  form,  some  two 
feet  in  diameter,  and  nearly  two  inches  in  thick- 
ness; the  material  was  greatly  oxidized  and  dis- 
integrated, but  bore  some  appearance  of  meteoric 
origin.  On  the  whole,  the  metallic  artifacts  of 
prehistoric  America  indicate  that  the  aborigines 
never  mastered  smelting,  and  that  most  of  their 
standards  of  metal-working  were  borrowed  from 
their  more  characteristic  stone  craft. 

Fictile  Ware.  Next  in  abundance  to  stone 
implements  among  the  relics  of  ancient  America 
is  pottery ;  it  may  be  found  in  sherds  and  smaller 
fragments  in  every  commonwealth,  if  not  in  e^'ery 
county  of  the  United  States,  in  every  State,  if 
not  every  district,  of  Mexico,  and  in  equal  abun- 
dance throughout  most  of  Central  America  and 
South  America,  as  well  as  in  some  abundance 
over  much  of  Canada.  In  general,  the  prevalence 
of  fictile  ware  in  the  domestic  economy  of  the 
various  tribes  was  inversely  proportionate  to 
(1)  basketry,  (2)  gourds,  (3)  shells,  (4)  wood- 
enware  (often  shaped  in  imitation  of  shells), 
(5)  horns  of  buffalo,  musk  ox,  etc.,  and  (6)  birch- 
bark,  etc. ;  yet  so  far  as  the  relics  go,  they  indicate 
that  the  prevailing  utensils  of  pre-Columbian 
America  were  of  fictile  ware.  The  ware  varies 
widely  in  quality,  from  rude  inch-thick  ware  to 
delicately  shaped,  artistically  painted  and  semi- 
glazed  bowls  and  vases;  while  in  the  Mississippi 
Valley,  the  Pueblo  region,  Mexico,  Central  Amer- 
ica, Peru,  and  to  some  extent  elsewhere,  elaborate 
figures  of  symbolic  and  ceremonial  character 
were  wrought  in  clay,  and  fired  with  a  skill  little 
short  of  that  of  the  Old  World.  By  Cushing 
and  others,  the  genesis  of  the  pottery  bowl  has 
been  traced  to  the  basket,  the  germ  appearing 
when  a  flat  basket  was  lined  with  earth  for  use 
in  parching  com  (by  mixing  the  grain  with  hot 
coals  and  shaking  them  within  it)  ;  and  this  in- 
terpretation has  been  measurably  verified  by  the 
finding  of  sherds,  and  some  entire  pieces  bearinof 
the  impress  of  the  baskets  in  which  they  were 
molded  in  certain  mounds  and  cemeteries.  The 
molded  and  painted  designs  on  aboriginal  ware 
have  received  much  attention,  notably  from 
Holmes  and  Fewkes;  they  have  been  found  to  be 
symbolic,  and  in  many  cases  susceptible  of  inter- 
pretation as  totemic  emblems,  etc.  Closely  related 
to  the  fictile  ware,  and  especially  to  the  figur- 
ines, is  the  stucco  work  of  Central  Mexico,  Yuca- 


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ABCHJEOLOQT. 


tan,  Honduras,  Costa  Rica,  and  other  districts. 
These  stucco  designs,  which  have  been  carefully 
studied  by  Saville,  Holmes,  and  many  other 
students,  are  sometimes  of  calendric  character, 
and  are  related  on  the  one  hand  to  the  stone 
'  sculptures  of  the  same  districts,  and  on  the  other 
hand  to  the  native  books,  or  codices,  inscribed 
on  maguey  paper.  Viewed  collectively,  the  fic- 
tile ware  of  pre-Columbian  America  is  of  interest 
as  marking,  in  many  respects,  the  highest  intel- 
lectual advancement  of  the  Western  Hemisphere; 
for  the  better  grades,  at  least,  represent  well- 
developed  aesthetic  standards,  fair  technical  skill, 
a  highly  differentiated  religious  symbolism,  and 
the  germ,  of  writing.  Yet  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered that  even  the  finest  products  of  the  Ameri- 
can elaypit  and  kiln  were  but  earthenware 
rather  than  porcelain  or  delft,  and  that  both  the 
potter's  wheel  and  true  glazes  were  unknown  to 
its  makers. 

Insc?riptions  and  Codices.  The  early  travelers 
and  settlers  in  many  parts  of  America  found 
designs  inscribed  or  painted  on  trees  and  rocks; 
and  throughout  the  more  mountainous  portions 
of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  petroglyphs  (usually 
formed  by  battering  the  rock-face  with  a  harder 
stone,  but  sometimes  sharply  incised )  are  numer- 
ous and  striking.  These  rude  inscriptions  grade 
into  the  sculptures  and  stucco  moldings  of 
Mexico  and  Peru,  as  well  as  into  the  designs 
molded  and  painted  on  the  fictile  ware;  at  the 
same  time  they  are  related  to  the  inscriptions 
of  the  maguey  codices  which  were  found  in  great 
numbers  by  the  Conquistadores,  but  were  sacri- 
ficed under  hasty  ecclesiastic  impulse  before  their 
value  was  understood — all  save  the  few  speci- 
mens looted  by  subalterns  or  privates,  and  sent 
surreptitiously  to  Europe  as  souvenirs  of  per- 
sonal success.  The  various  aboriginal  records  are 
not  only  alike  in  general  character,  but  tell  a 
consistent  story  of  intellectual  advancement  on 
the  part  of  the  earliest  Americans;  and  their 
testimony  is  corroborated  by  modern  observation 
of  the  autographic  records  of  tribesmen  in  many 
districts.  On  putting  together  the  various 
records,  it  appears  that  none  of  the  pre-Colum- 
bian aborigines  had  grasped  the  idea  of  arbitrary 
characters,  but  were  satisfied  with  crude  symbols 
understood  only  by  themselves,  or  conventions 
understood  by  special  classes  only  (like  the  fig- 
urines on  the  wampum  treaty  belts,  each  recall- 
ing a  clause  or  item  in  the  vaguely  remembered 
contract)  ;  and  that  even  the  most  elaborate  in- 
scriptions were  little  more  than  sacred  calendars 
designed  to  control  ceremonial  observances,  and 
understood  only  by  the  priests.  Accordingly,  the 
inscriptions  attest  a  germ  of  writing,  yet  prove 
that  the  ^rm  remained  largely  inchoate  up  to 
the  coming  of  Columbus,  and  the  introduction 
of  incomparably  higher  intellectual  standards. 
True,  the  North  American  Indian,  Sequoyah, 
invented  a  syllabary  which  aided  his  kind  in 
their  strife  for  intellectual  advancement  and 
which  might  have  developed  a  written  language; 
but  there  is  some  question  as  to  whether  his  in- 
vention was  not  stimulated  by  European  sugges- 
tion. 

Human  Antiquity.  The  archaeologists  of 
America,  like  those  of  other  countries,  are  in  con- 
stant search  for  evidences  of  human  antiquity, 
and  hundreds  of  suggestive  obsen^ations  are  on 
record.  On  generalizing  these,  it  must  be  said 
that  none  of  the  acceptable  observations  indicate 
Vol.  I.— 47. 


an  antiquity  of  man  on  the  Western  Hemisphere 
at  all  comparable  to  that  indicated  by  appar- 
ently trustworthy  observations  in  Europe  and 
Asia.  Briefly,  there  is  a  strong  presumption 
that  mankind  existed  in  North  America  about, 
if  not  anterior  to,  the  last  ice  invasion  of  the 
Pleistocene,  i.e.  ten  thousand  to  fifty  thou- 
sand years  ago ;  yet  positive  evidence  is  far  from 
complete,  as  indicated  by  the  fact  that  not  a 
single  reported  association  of  human  remains 
with  even  the  latest  Pleistocene  deposits,  is  un- 
questionably accepted  by  either  anthropologists 
or  geologists. 

Pre-Columbian  Disoovebies.  There  have  been 
many  suggestions  of  discoveries  of  America  an- 
terior to  the  time  of  Columbus,  by  both  Euro- 
peans from  the  East  and  Asians  from  the  West; 
some  of  the  latter  are  particularly  striking,  and 
are  now  imder  critical  examination,  partly 
through  an  admirable  series  of  expeditions  sup- 
ported by  Jesup,  directed  by  Putnam,  and  con- 
ducted by  Boas  and  others.  The  most  striking 
indications  of  pre-Columbian  discovery  falling 
clearly  within  the  domain  of  archeology  are  the 
cairns,  house  remains,  and  stone  pavements  of 
eastern  Massachusetts,  which  have  been  described 
and  compared  with  the  Norse  structures  of  Ice- 
land and  Scandinavia  by  Miss  Horsford.  The 
case  cannot,  perhaps,  be  considered  closed,  pend- 
ing inquiries  in  related  lines ;  but  it  is  important 
to  note  that  some  of  the  works  on  CJharles  River 
— m  the  Vinland  the  Good  of  the  Sagas — are 
unlike  those  produced  by  any  known  native 
tribe,  and  are  like  those  of  the  Norse  settlers 
in  Iceland. 

Further  information  concerning  single  branches 
of  archseological  research  is  presented  under  the 
titles  of  ancient  countries.  The  articles  on 
these  countries  include  the  art,  monuments,  lan- 
guage, religion,  laws,  etc.,  of  the  early  inhabi- 
tants. Among  such  articles  are:  Assybia; 
Babylonia;  Chaldea;  Egypt;  Phcenicia; 
China;  Japan;  Pebsia;  Ceylon;  and  India. 
For  information  with  regard  to  the  arts  of  an- 
cient countries,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
series  of  special  articles  on  Assybian  Abt  ;  Baby- 
lonian Abt;  Egyptian  Abt;  Bible  Antiqui- 
ties: Chinese  Abt;  Japanese  Abt;  Indian 
Abt;  Anglo-Saxon  Abt,  etc.  More  specific  in- 
formation about  discoveries  at  particular  places 
is  included  under  the  titles  of  those  places— as, 
for  example, Am ABN a;  Kabnak;  Koyunjik;  Peb- 
sepolis — and  under  the  names  of  the  excavators, 
such  as  Botta;  Ledyabd;  P^tbie;  Petebs; 
Mabiette;  Masp£bo,  etc.  See  further  the  ar- 
ticles on  Agbicultube;  Aqueduct;  Abchitec- 
tube;  Abmies;  Navies;  Bbick;  Building;  Cos- 
tume ;  CuNEiFOBM ;  Glass  ;  Hieboglyphics  ;  Nu- 
mismatics; Rosetta  Stone;  Amabna  Lettebs. 
For  biblical  archaeology,  in  addition  to  the  gen- 
eral title,  see  Atonement,  Day  of;  Baal;  Che- 
mash;  Dagon;  Essenes;  Festivals;  House; 
Judges;  Levites;  Magical  Abts;  Nazabite; 
Pbiests;  Pboselyte;  Pubim;  Remphan;  Rim- 
mon;  Sabbath;  Sacbtfices;  Sadducees; 
Scbibes  ;  Tabebn ACLE ;  Tammuz  ;  Temple  ;  Teba- 
phim;  Ubim;  Vows. 

bibliogbaphy. 

Genebal  Wobks.  Abbott,  Primitive  Industry, 
etc.  (Salem,  1881)  ;  Baldwin,  Ancient  America^ 
etc.  (New  York,  1872)  ;  Dellenbaugh,  The  North 
Americans  of  Yesterday  (New  York,  1901)  ;  Fos- 
ter, Prehistoric  Races  of  the  United  States,  sixth 
edition    (Chicago,   1887)  ;   Fowke,  "Stone  Art," 


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ABCH^OLOQY. 


788 


ABCHiEOLOGY. 


Thirteenth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  iJtfcfiol- 
o^y(  Washington,  1891)  ;  Hamy,  M ^moire  d'arch^- 
oloyie  et  d'cthnographie  aw dricatne( Paris,  1882)  ; 
Holmes,  "Art  in  Shell  of  the  Ancient  Americans," 
ticcond  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnol- 
ogy (Washington,  1880)  ;  id.  "Stone  Implements 
of  the  Potomac-Chesapeake  Tidewater  Province," 
Fifteenth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
(W^ashington,  1893)  ;  McGee,  "Some  Principles 
of  Evidence  Relating  to  the  Antiquity  of  Man," 
American  Antiquarian,  Volume  XIII.  (Chicago, 
1891)  ;  McGuire,  "Pipes  and  Smoking  Customs 
of  the  American  Aborigines,"  Report  of  the 
United  States  National  Museum  (Washington, 
1897)  ;  Mercer,  Researches  Upon  the  Antiquity 
of  Man  in  the  Delaware  Valley  and  Eastern 
United  States  (Boston,  1897)  ;  Moorehead,  Pre- 
historic Implements  (Cincinnati,  1900)  ;  Phil- 
lips, "New  Group  of  Stone  Implements  from 
Lake  Michigan,"  Smithsonian  Report  (Wash- 
ington, 1897);  Rau,  "Observations  on  Cup- 
shaped  and  other  Lapidarian  Sculptures  in  the 
Old  World  and  in  America,"  Cantrihutions  to 
Tforth  American  Ethnology,  Volume  V.  (W^ash- 
ington,  1881 )  ;  id.  "ArchsBological  Collections 
of  the  United  States  National  Museum,"  Smith- 
sonian Contributions,  Volume  XXII.  (Washing- 
ton, 1880)  ;  Short,  Xorth  Americans  of  An- 
tiquity (New  York,  1880);  Squier,  Antiquities 
of  the  State  of  New  York  (Buffalo,  1851); 
Thomas,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  North 
American  Archceology  (Cincinnati,  1898)  ; 
Thurston,  Antiquities  of  Tennessee  (Cincinnati, 
1897)  ;  Wilson,  Prehistoric  Man,  revised  edition 
(J^ndon,  1876)  ;  Wilson,  "Prehistoric  Art,"  Re- 
port United  States  National  Museum  (Wash- 
ington, 1896). 

Key  Dwellers.  Cushing,  "Exploration  of 
Ancient  Ker-Dweller  Remains  on  the  Gulf  Coast 
of  Florida,"  Journal  A,  N.  S.  P.,  Volume  XI. 
(Philadelphia,  1897). 

Mound  Builders.  Brower,  Harahey  (Saint 
Paul,  1899)  ;  Gordon,  "Researches  in  TJloa  Val- 
ley, Honduras,"  Memoirs  Peabody  Museum, 
Volume  I.  (Cambridge,  1891)  ;  Henshftw,  "Ani- 
mal Carvings  from  Mounds  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley,"  Second  Report,  Bureau  of  American 
Ethnology  (Washington,  1880)  ;  Holmes,  "An- 
cient Pottery  of  the  Mississippi  Valley," 
Fourth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
(Washington,  1882-83);  id.  "Prehistoric  Tex- 
tile Art  of  Eastern  United  States,"  Thir- 
teenth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnol- 
ogy (W^ashington,  1891)  ;  id.  "Ancient  Pot- 
tery East  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,"  Twen- 
tieth Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
(Washington,  1902)  ;  C.  C.  Jones,  Jr.,  Monumen- 
tal Remains  of  Georgia  (Savannah,  1861);  J. 
•Jones,  **Explorations  of  the  Aboriginal  Remains 
of  Tennessee,"  Smithsonian  Contributions, 
Volume  XXII.  (1880)  ;  Lapham,  "Antiquities  of 
Wisconsin,"  Smithsonian  Contributions,  Volume 
VII.  (Washington,  1855)  ;  Moore,  Certain 
Sand  Mounds  of  the  Saint  John's  River,  Flor- 
ida (Philadelphia,  1894)  ;  id.  "Certain  River 
Mounds  of  Duval  County,  Florida,"  Journal  A. 
N.  8.  P.,  Volume  X.  (Philadelphia,  1895); 
Moore,  "Certain  Aboriginal  Mounds  of  the  Geor- 
gia Coast,"  Journal  A,  N.  S.  P.,  Volume  XI. 
(Philadelphia,  1900)  ;  "Certain  Aboriginal  Re- 
mains of  the  Alabama  River,"  Journal  A.  N,  S. 
P,  (Philadelphia,  1900)  ;  Maclean,  Mound  Build- 
ers   (Cincinnati,    1897)  ;    Moorehead,   Primitive 


Man  in  Ohio  (New  York,  1890)  ;  Peet,  Pre- 
historic America  (Chicago,  1890)  ;  Potter,  ir- 
chopological  Remains  in  Southeastern  Missouri 
(Salem,  1860)  ;  Squier  and  Davis,  "Ancient 
Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  Smithr 
sonian  Contributions,  Volume  I.  (Washington, 
1848)  ;  Thomas,  "Report  on  Mound  Explora^ 
tions,"  Twelfth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Eth- 
nology (Washington,  1890-91)  ;  Squier,  "Aborigi- 
nal Monuments  of  the  State  of  New  Yor^" 
Smithsonian  Contributions,  Volume  U.  (Wash- 
ington, 1851). 

CoFP  AND  Cave  Dwellers;  Pueblos.  Cush- 
ing, "Study  of  Pueblo  Pottery,"  Fourth  Report, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (Washington, 
1882-83);  Fewkes,  "Archaeological  Expedition 
to  Arizona,"  Seventeenth  Report,  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology  (1895-96);  Hodge,  "The 
Enchanted  Mesa,"  National  Geographical  Maga- 
zine, Volume  VIII.  (Washington,  1897)  ;  Holmes, 
"Pottery  of  the  Ancient  Pueblos,"  Fourth  R€- 
port,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (Washing- 
ton, 1882-83)  ;  C.  Mindeleff,  "Aboriginal  Re- 
mains in  Verde  Valley,  Arizona,"  Thirteenth 
Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (1891); 
ibid.  "Casa  Grande  Ruin,"  ibid. ;  "Cliff  Ruins  of 
Canyon  de  Chelly,"  Sixteenth  Report,  Bureau 
of  American  Ethnology  (Washington,  1894-95); 
V.  Mindeleff,  "Study  of  Pueblo  Archseology," 
Eighth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
(188G-87);  Powers,  Stone  Implements;  Yates, 
Aboriginal  Weapons  in   California    (Cincinnati, 

1900)  ;  Prehistoric  Man  in  California  (Santa 
Barbara,  1887)  ;  Fewkes,  "Tusayan  Migration 
Traditions,"  Nineteenth  Report,  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology   (Washington,  1901). 

Localities  and  Tribes.  Abbott,  "Stone  Age 
in  New  Jersey,"  Smithsonian  Report  (Salem, 
1872)  ;  C.  C.  Jones,  Jr.,  Antiquities  of  the  South- 
ern Indians  (New  York,  1873)  ;  Putnam,  •'Re- 
ports on  Archsological  and  Ethnological  Col- 
lections," United  States  Geographical  Surveys 
West  of  the  One  Hundredth  Meridian,  Volume 
VII.  (Washington,  1879)  ;  Smith,  "Archicology 
of  the  Thompson  River  Region,"  American  Mu- 
seum of  Natural  History,  Memoirs,  Volume  IL 
(New  York,  1900). 

Mexicans  and  Central  Ahebicans.  Bande- 
lier,  A.  F.  A.,  "Report  of  an  Archseological  Tour 
in  Mexico,"  Papers  of  the  Arch€Bological  Insti- 
tute of  America  (Boston,  1884) ;  Braaseur  de 
Bourbourg,  Monuments  anciens  du  Me^nque 
(Paris,  1866)  ;  Chamay,  Ancient  Cities  of  the 
New  World  (New  York,  1887)  ;  Catherwood, 
Views  of  Ancient  Monuments  in  Central  America, 
Chiapas,  and  Yucatan  (London,  1844)  ;  Holmes, 
"Archsological  Studies  Among  the  Ancient  Cities 
of  Mexico,"  Field  Columbian  Museum  Publica- 
tions (Chicago,  1895-97)  ;  Maler,  "Researches  in 
the  Ontral  Portion  of  the  Usumasintla  Valley," 
Memoirs  of  Peabody  Museum,  Volume  II.  (Cam- 
bridge, 1901)  ;  Maudslay,  "Archaeology,"  in  Bio- 
logia  Centrali- Americana  (London,  1899-1901); 
Pefiafiel,  Teotihuacan  (Mexico,  1900)  ;  Thomas, 
"Mayan  Calendar  Systems,"  Nineteenth  Report, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  (Washington, 
1901). 

Peruvians.  Dorsey,  Archseological  Investiga- 
tions on  the  Island  of  La  Plata,  Ecuador,"  Field 
Columbian      Museum      Publications      (Chicago, 

1901)  ;  McGee,  "Primitive  Trephining  in  Pcni" 
Sixteenth  Report,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
(Washington,  1894-95). 


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ABCHiEOPTEBIS. 


739 


ABCHANGEL. 


ABCHJEOPTEBIS,  ar'kA-6p't^rf8  (Gk.  dp- 
Xaibs,  archaioa,  ancient  +  vrcplt,  pterist  fern). 
A  genus  including  some  of  the  oldest  known 
fossil 'ferns,  originally  described  by  Dawson  in 
18G3  to  include  species  from  the  Chemung  group 
of  the  Upper  Devonian.  The  leaves  are  bipin- 
nate  with  obovate  inequilateral  pinnules;  the 
fertile  leaves  having  oval  spore-cases  instead 
of  pinnules.  Perhaps  the  largest  species  is 
ArchcBopteris  Jackaonij  fine  examples  of  which, 
attaining  a  length  of  five  feet,  are  often  found  in 
the  flagstone  quarries  of  the  upper  horizons  of 
the  Catskill  group  in  the  central  portions  of  the 
Catskill  Mountains  of  New  York  State.  See 
Febns,  Fossil;  Carboniferous;  Devonian. 

ABCH^OPTEBYX,  arOc^Op't^-rlks  (Gk.  dp- 
xaiibf,  archaiosj  ancient,  primitive  +  Tripv^^ 
pten/Xy  wing:  bird).  The  oldest  known  bird, 
found  fossil  in  the  Jurassic  lithographic  stone 
of  Solenhofen,  Bavaria,  where  it  was  discovered 
in  1861.  It  was  a  creature  about  the  size  of 
a  crow,  bird-like  in  form,  having  a  rather 
short,  blunt  beak,  the  upper  jaw  of  which  was 
furnished  with  thirteen  teeth,  and  the  lower 
with  three  teeth  on  each  side,  each  planted 
in  a  separate  socket.  Its  most  extraordinary 
feature,  however,  is  a  lizard-like  tail  of  twenty 
vertebrop,  from  each  of  which  springs  a  pair  of 
well-developed  quill  feathers.  "The  vertebrae  of 
the  neck  and  back  were  biconcave,  the  sternum 
seems  to  have  been  keeled,  and  the  manus  had 
three  free  digits.  The  tibia  and  fibula  do  not 
coalesce,  and  the  former  was  furnished  with  a 
series  of  feathers  (wing-quills)   very  similar  to 


ARCH  COPTER  YX  MACBURA. 

(Specimen  from  Solenhofen,  studied  by  Owen.) 

those  of  the  tail."  These  are  divisible,  as  in 
modern  birds,  into  primaries  and  secondaries. 
That  it  was  able  to  fly  is  not  to  be  doubted;  the 
form  of  its  feet,  also,  indicate  arboreal  habits, 
and  that  it  scrambled  about,  as  well  as  made 
short  flights,  is  suggested  by  the  fact  that  each 
finger  of  the  hand,  as  well  as  the  toes,  was  armed 
with  a  claw.  The  tail  must  have  impeded  rather 
than  assisted  flight,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note 
that  in  later  birds  this  cumbersome  member  soon 
became  modified  into  substantially  the  present 
form  before  the  Cretaceous  era  came  to  a  close. 
(See  Birds.)  It  was  first  thoroughly  studied  b^ 
Owen  (Philosophical  Transactional  London, 
1863)  ;  later  information  is  summarized  in  New- 
ton. Dictionary  of  Birds,  Article  "Fossil  Birds" 
(New  York,  1803-96). 

ABCHA^C  (Gk.  dpx«"«^»,  archaikos,  old-fash- 
ioned, primitive,  from  ipx^,  drche,  beginning, 
origin).  A  term  applied  to  the  primitive  stage 
of  the  art  of  a  good  period,  especially  to  Greek 


art  before  Pericles.  Archaistic  is  applied  to 
an  imitation  of  this  style;  as,  when  Greek  artists 
under  Augustus  reproduced  Greek  sculpture  of 
the  Sixth  and  Fifth  centuries. 

ABCHAN^GEL,   or  ABEHANGELSE;  ar- 

K&n'^g^lsk.  A  government  of  Russia,  between  61® 
and  71°  N.  lat.  and  28°  to  66°  E.  long.,  extend- 
ing along  the  White  Sea  and  Arctic  Ocean  from 
Finland  and  Norway  east  to  the  Ural,  and 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  governments  of 
Vologda  and  Olonetz.  It  occupies  an  area  of 
326,500  square  miles,  including  the  islands  of 
Nova  Zembia  and  Vaigatch.  It  is  the  largest  gov- 
ernment of  the  Empire,  and  occupies  the  entire 
north  of  Europ^n  Russia.  Its  greatest  length, 
from  west  to  east,  is  POO  miles;  its  greatest 
width,  from  north  to  south,  is  132  miles.  Four 
large  navigable  rivers  fiow  through  Archangel; 
the  Petchora  for  628  miles,  the  Onega  132  miles, 
the  northern  Dvina  265  miles,  and  the  Meseu 
265  miles,  all  emptying  their  waters  into  the 
White  Sea.  The  northwestern  and  the  north- 
eastern parts  are  mountainous,  reaching  a 
height  of  more  than  4900  feet.  The  climate  of 
Archangel  is  very  severe  in  the  central  part  of 
the  government.  At  its  northwestern  extremity 
the  climate  is  perceptibly  milder,  and  the  open 
sea  is  never  frozen.  The  great  wealth  of  Arch- 
angel is  in  its  forests,  which  cover  more  than  half 
of  its  area.  Incumbering  is  therefore  the  leading 
industry.  The  inhabitants  are  besides  engaged  in 
agriculture  which,  at  its  best,  in  the  south  is  but 
poorly  developed,  in  fishing  and  hunting  along 
the  shores  of  the  Arctic  and  the  White  Sea,  and 
in  the  rearing  of  deer,  which  constitutes  the  al- 
most exclusive  occupation  of  the  Samoyeds.  The 
population  of  the  government  was  331,200  in  1890, 
and  347,600  in  1897.  Ninety-eight  per  cent,  of 
the  people  are  Russians.  Of  the  different  abo- 
riginal tribes,  as  the  Lopars,  Zyrans,  Samoyeds, 
etc.,  there  are  not  more  than  6000  persons.  Arch- 
angel is  the  most  sparsely  populated  government 
of  Russia.  Consult  A.  P.  Englehardt,  A  Rus- 
sian Province  of  the  North  (Westminster,  1889). 

ABCHANGEL.  The  capital  city  of  the  Rus- 
sian Government  of  Archangel,  situated  in  lat. 
64°  33'  N.,  and  long.  40°  33'  E.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Dvina  River,  26  miles  above  its  en- 
trance into  the  White  Sea,  and  740  miles  north- 
east of  Saint  Petersburg  (Map:  Russia,  F  2).  It 
is  the  largest  and  most  important  city  in  the 
world  situated  so  near  to  the  Arctic  Circle.  The 
city  is  of  ancient  origin,  and  among  its  most 
noteworthy  buildings  are  the  handsome  cathe- 
dral finished  in  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century.  It  is  said  to  be  the  handsomest  and 
best-lighted  cathedral  in  Russia.  The  other 
buildings  of  interest  are  the  bazaar  or  mart,  the 
marine  hospital,  and  the  wooden  "little  house" 
of  Peter  the  Great.  The  importance  of  the  city  is 
considerable,  since  it  serves  as  an  outlet  for  the 
products  of  the  far  northern  and  western  part  of 
Siberia.  The  chief  articles  of  traflic  are  fish, 
skins,  furs,  timber,  wax,  iron,  tallow,  bristles, 
and  caviar.  At  its  annual  fair,  in  September, 
about  14,000,000  rubles  worth  of  goods  change 
hands.  The  value  of  its  exports  and  imports 
amounts  to  about  8,000,000  rubles  ($4,500,000) 
annually,  and  it  is  visited  by  some  800  vessels 
during  the  months  of  July  to  September,  the  only 
period  of  the  year  when  the  harbor  of  Archangel 
is  entirely  free  from  ice.     Of  the  foreign  ves- 


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ABCH  ANGEL. 


740 


ABCHBISHOP. 


sels  visiting  the  port  the  British  and  Norwegian 
are  the  most  numerous.  Considerable  inland 
shipping  is  carried  on  by  a  large  number  of 
smaller  vessels  navigating  the  Dvina.  The 
fact  that  the  harbor  is  ice-bound  during  the 
greater  part  of  the  year  has  been  the  greatest 
obstacle  to  the  commercial  growth  of  the  city, 
ever  since  its  foundation  in  1584  by  Czar  Feodor. 
The  city  was  named  after  the  monastery  on  the 
Dvina,  founded  here  by'  the  Archbishop  of  Nov- 
gorod in  the  Twelfth  Century  with  a  view  to 
missionary  work  among  the  pagan  Choods.  Pop. 
1807,  20,933. 

ABCHANGEL  (Gk.  Apxh  prefix  denoting 
dignity  of  rank  and  A77cXot,  messenger,  angel). 
A  term  occurring  twice  in  the  New  Testament, 
I.  Thess.  iv.  10  (where  it  is  referred  indefinitely 
to  an  exalted  angelic  being) .  The  idea  contained 
in  the  term  is  due  to  the  Old  Testament  devel- 
opment of  the  conception  of  angels,  which,  in 
its  earliest  stage,  involved  nothing  more  than 
the  positing  of  supernatural  beings,  whose  vo- 
cation, generally  speaking,  was  to  be  in  varied 
ways  agents  of  God.  Gradually,  however,  the 
idea  of  moral  distinctions  among  these  angelic 
beings  appeared,  some  of  them  being  thought  of 
as  doing  evil,  as  when  in  Gen.  vi.  1-4,  the  'sons 
of  God'  are  spoken  of  as  being  led  into  a  love 
for  the  'daughters  of  men,'  and  some  of  them 
being  pictured  as  instigating  men  to  wickedness, 
as  in  I.  Chron.  xxi.  1,  where  Satan  is  repre- 
sented as  moving  David  to  number  Israel.  Final- 
ly, among  the  hosts,  in  which  more  or  less  they 
had  been  understood  as  existing,  appeared  the 
idea  of  ranks  and  even  names,  the  book  of  Daniel 
referring  to  Gabriel  (viii.  16;  ix.  21)  and  to 
Michael,  who  is  represented  as  "the  great  prince 
who  standeth  for  the  children  of  the  people" 
(xii.  1).  Both  of  these  developed  ideas — moral 
distinctions  and  ranks  and  names — are  carried 
over  into  the  New  Testament  writings,  where 
use  is  frequently  made  of  them.  The  first  place 
in  these  ranks  is  evidently  intended  to  be  re- 
ferred to  in  our  term.    See  Angel. 

ABCHANGEL,  New.    See  Sitka. 
ABCHANGELICA,      Ark'fin-jen-k&.        See 
Angelica. 

ABCHAS,  fir^os.  A  character  in  Fletcher's 
The  Loyal  Subject;  a  much  too  "loyal  subject" 
of  the  unworthy  and  thankless  monarch  in  that 
play. 

ABCHBISHOP,.  arch^Ish^Qp  (Gk.  dpxi,- 
archi-,  chief  +  hrlaKowos,  epiakopds,  overseer). 
The  title  given  to  a  metropolitan  bishop  who 
superintends  the  conduct  of  the  suffragan  bishops 
in  his  province,  and  also  exercises  episcopal 
authority  in  his  own  diocese.  The  archbishop 
was  probably  originally  the  bishop  of  the  chief 
town.  The  office  appears  as  early  as  the  Fourth 
Century.  In  the  Oriental  Church  the  archbishops 
are  still  called  'metropolitans,'  from  the  cir- 
cumstance mentioned.  In  the  African  Church,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  term  used  was  'primus.*  The 
great  archbishoprics  of  the  early  Church  were 
those  of  .Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Alexan- 
dria, Constantinople,  and  Rome.  Since  the  Sixth 
Century  the  Archbishop  of  Rome  has  borne  the 
name  of  Pope  {papa).  There  is  an  official  letter 
by  Justinian,  addressed  to  "John,  Archbishop  of 
Rome  and  Patriarch,"  and  several  ecclesiasti- 
cal constitutions  are  addressed  to  "Epiphanius, 


Archbishop  of  Constantinople  and  Patriarch." 
The  Synod  of  Antioch,  in  341,  assigned  to  the 
archbishop  the  superintendence  over  all  the  bish- 
oprics and  a  precedence  in  rank  over  all  the 
bishops  of  the  Church,  who,  on  important  mat- 
ters, were  bound  to  consult  him  and  be  guide^l 
by  his  advice.  By  degrees  there  arose,  out  of 
this  superiority  of  rank,  privileges  which  at 
length  assumed  the  character  of  positive  juris- 
diction in  ecclesiastical  matters.  Many  of  these 
rights  passed  to  the  patriarchs  (q.v.)  toward 
the  end  of  the  Fourth  and  during  the  Fifth  Cen- 
tury, and  still  more  to  the  Pope  in  the  Ninth. 
The  archbishops  still  retained  jurisdiction,  in  the 
first  instance,  over  their  suffragans  in  matters 
which  were  not  criminal,  and  over  those  who 
were  subject  to  them  they  acted  as  a  court  of 
appeal.  They  possessed  also  the  right  of  calling 
together,  and  presiding  in,  the  provincial  synods ; 
the  superintendence  and  power  of  %'isitation  over 
the  bishops  of  the  metropolitan  see;  the  power 
of  enforcing  the  laws  of  the  Church ;  the  dispen- 
sation of  indulgences,  and  the  like.  The  arch- 
bishops further  enjoyed  the  honor  of  having  the 
cross  carried  before  them  in  their  own  arehi- 
episcopate,  even  in  presence  of  the  Pope  himself, 
and  of  wearing  the  pallium. 

In  the  Established  Church  of  England  there 
are  two  archbishops,  both  appointed  by  the 
sovereign,  of  whom  the  one  has  his  seat  at  Can- 
terbury, the  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Kent;  the  other  at  York,  the  capital  of  North- 
umbria.  But  though,  as  ruling  over  a  province 
in  place  of  a  single  diocese,  both  have  enjoyed  the 
rank  of  metropolitans  from  the  first,  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbuiy  has  all  along  enjoyed,  not 
merely  precedence  as  the  successor  of  Augu;itine 
and  the  senior  archbishop,  but  as  possessing  a 
preeminent  and  universal  authority  over  the 
whole  kingdom.  This  preeminence  is  marked 
in  the  titles  which  they  respectively  assume — the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury  being  styled  the  Pri- 
mate of  All  England  {metropolitanus  et  primus 
totiua  Angli<e),  while  the  Archbishop  of  York 
is  simply  called  Primate  of  England  {primus  et 
metropolitanus  Anglice).  It  is  also  indicated  by 
the  places  which  they  occupy  in  proceasicms — 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  who  has  precedence 
of  all  the  nobility,  not  only  preceding  the  Arch- 
bishop of  York,  but  the  Lord  Chancellor  being  in- 
terposed between  them.  Previous  to  the  creation 
of  an  archbishopric  in  Ireland  the  authority  of 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury  ex£ended  to  that 
island.  The  amount  of  control  which  belongs  to 
an  archbishop  over  the  bishops  of  his  province  is 
not  very  accurately  defined;  but  if  any  bishop 
introduces  irregularities  into  his  diocese,  or  i^ 
guilty  of  immorality,  the  archbishop  may  call 
him  to  account  and  even  deprive  him.  In*  1822, 
the  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  w^ho  is  Primate  of 
All  Ireland,  deposed  the  Bishop  of  Clogher  on 
the  latter  ground.  To  the  Archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury belongs  the  honor  of  placing  the  crown  on 
the  sovereign's  head  at  his  coronation:  and  the 
Archbishop  of  York  claims  the  like  privilege  in 
the  case  of  the  Queen-Consort,  whose  perpetual 
chaplain  he  is.  The  province  of  the  Archbishop 
of  York  consists  of  the  six  northern  counties,  with 
Cheshire  and  Nottinghamshire.  The  rest  of  Eng- 
land and  Wales  form  the  province  of  the  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  The  dioceses  of  the  two 
archbishops — that  is  to  say,  the  districts  in 
which  they  exercise  ordinary  episcopal  functions 


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—were  remodeled  by  6  and  7  Will.  IV.  c.  77.  The 
diocese  of  Canterbury  comprises  Kent,  except  the 
city  and  deanery 'of  Rochester,  and  some  parishes 
transferred  by  this  act;  a  number  of  parishes  in 
Sussex  called  'peculiar*;  with  small  districts 
in  other  dioceses,  particularly  London.  The  diocese 
of  the  Archbishop  of  York  embraces  the  county 
of  York,  except  that  portion  of  it  now  included 
in  the  dioceses  of  Ripon  and  Manchester;  the 
whole  county  of  Nottingham,  and  some  other  de- 
tached districts.  In  Ireland  there  are  two 
Protestant  archbishops,  elected  by  their  fellow- 
bishops  out  of  their  number,  and  four  Roman 
Catholic.  Of  the  former,  the  Archbishop  of  Ar- 
magh is  Primate  of  All  Ireland;  the  Archbishop 
of  Dublin  being  Primate  of  Ireland.  They  for- 
merly sat  alternately  in  the  House  of  Lords ;  the 
three  bishops  who,  along  with  them,  represented 
the  Church  of  Ireland,  being  chosen  by  rotation. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  England  and 
Wales  has  one  archbishop ;  in  Scotland  two  arch- 
bishops, while  the  Episcopal  Church  in  that 
country  has  no  archbishop,  but  a  primus.  An 
English  archbishop  writes  himself,  "by  divine 
providence";  a  bishop  being,  'Tiy  divine  per- 
mission"; and  an  archbishop  has  the  title  of 
"Grace,"  and  "Jklost  Reverend  Father  in  God," 
while  a  bishop  is  styled  "Lord,"  and  "Right  Rev- 
erend Father  in  God."  The  archbishop  is  enti- 
tled to  present  to  all  ecclesiastical  livings  in  the 
disposal  of  diocesan  bishops,  if  not  filled  within 
six  months ;  and  every  bishop,  whether  created  or 
translated,  was  formerly  bound  to  make  a  legal 
conveyance  to  the  archbishop  of  the  next  avoid- 
ance of  one  such  dignity  or  benefice  belonging  to 
his  see  as  the  archbishop  should  choose. 

The  only  archbishops  in  the  United  States  are 
those  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  now  four- 
teen in  number.  Up  to  1789  the  ecclesiastical 
government  of  that  Church  in  this  country  con- 
tinued under  the  vicar  apostolic  of  the  London 
district,  the  local  superior  at  that  time  being 
Father  John  Carroll,  of  Baltimore.  In  1789 
Baltimore  was  erected  into  an  episcopal  see,  and 
Father  Carroll  became  bishop.  In  1808,  after 
New  Orleans,  New  York,  and  Boston  had  been 
erected  into  sees,  Baltimore  was  raised  to  metro- 
politan rank,  Father  Carroll  becoming  the  first 
arehbishop,  as  he  had  been  the  first  bishop,  in 
this  country.  The  dates  of  the  establishments  of 
other  archiepiscopal  sees  in  this  country  are  as 
follows — the  first  date  being  that  of  the  founda- 
tion of  the  ace,  and  the  second  of  its  elevation 
to  a  metropolis:  Oregon  City,  1846,  1846;  Saint 
Louis,  1826,  1847;  New  Orleans,  1793,  1850;  New 
York,  1808,  1850;  Cincinnati,  1821,  1850; 
Dubuque,  1837,  1893;  San  Francisco,  1853,  1853; 
Milwaukee.  1844.  1875;  Boston,  1808,  1876; 
Philadelphia,  1808,  1875;  Santa  Fe,  1850,  1875; 
Chicago,  1844,  1880;  Saint  Paul,  1850,  1888. 

ABCHDALE,  HrehMAl,  John.  A  colonial 
governor  of  North  Carolina,  born  in  England. 
He  came  to  New  England,  as  the  agent  for  Gov- 
ernor Gorges,  of  Maine,  in  1664;  was  a  com- 
missioner for  Gorges  (1687-88)  ;  and  was  Gover- 
nor of  North  Carolina,  of  which  he  was  also  a 
'proprietary.*  He  reorganized  the  administra- 
tion of  the'  colony,  conciliated  the  Indians,  and 
introduced  the  culture  of  rice.  He  published 
A  New  Description  of  the  Fertile  and  Pleasant 
Province  of  Carolina,  icith  a  Brief  Account  of 
Its  Discovery,  Settling,  and  Government  up  to 
This  Time  (London,  1707). 


ABCHDEACON,iirch'de^fln(Gk.  dpx*.-  archi, 
chief  +  SidKOPoSj  diakonos,  servant,  minister  of 
the  Church).  An  ecclesiastical  dignitary  whose 
jurisdiction  is  immediately  subordinate  to  that 
of  the  bishop.  The  archdeacon  originally  wag 
simply  the  chief  of  the  deacons,  who  were 
the  attendants  and  assistants  of  the  bishop  in 
Church  affairs.  His  duties  consisted  in  attend- 
ing the  bishop  at  the  altar  and  at  ordina- 
tions, assisting  him  in  managing  the  revenues 
of  the  Chureh  and  directing  the  deacons  in 
their  duties.  From  being  thus  mere  assistants, 
archdeacons  in  the  Fifth  Century  began  to  share 
the  bishop's  powers,  and  step  by  step  attained 
to  the  authority  they  now  enjoy,  which  from 
the  Ninth  Century  became  in  many  res]>ect8  dis- 
tinct from  that  of  the  bishop.  Several  synods 
protested  against  the  innovation,  but  it  was  con- 
tinued in  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  centuries, 
when  the  archdeacons  were  recognized  as  the 
most  infiuential  of  prelates.  In  the  Thirteenth 
Century,  their  powers  were  limited  by  the  estab* 
lishment  of  episcopal  courts.  Their  dignity  and 
influence  is  now  very  much  reduced  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  CHiurch,  and  many  of  their 
former  functions  are  now  exercised  by  vicar- 
generals. 

There  are  now  eighty-three  archdeaconries  in 
the  Established  Church  of  England.  No  person 
can  be  appointed  to  this  office  who  has  not  been 
six  years  a  priest.  His  duties  include  visitation 
of  the  parishes,  holding  synods,  ordering  repairs 
of  churches,  and  in  other  ways  being,  as  the 
canon  law  calls  him,  *the  bishop's  eye.'  He  is 
addressed  as  'Venerable.*  In  the  American  Prot- 
estant Episcopal  Church  the  arehdeacon  exercises 
analogous  functions,  but  the  office  is  found  in 
only  thirty-nine  out  of  the  seventy-six  dioceses, 
and  the  number  in  the  dioceses  where  it  has  been 
introduced  varies  from  one  to  six.  The  office 
is  found  in  all  branches  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land and  also  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 

AKCHDTJKE,  arch'dtlk'  {arch  -f  duke,  from 
Gk.  dpxh  ctrcTii-,  chief  +  Lat.  duw,  leader) .  Arch- 
duke and  archduchess  are  titles  now  taken  by 
all  the  princes  and  princesses  of  the  house 
of  Austria.  The  title  seems  to  have  originated 
about  the  middle  of  the  Twelfth  Century,  though 
it  came  into  use  only  gradually.  Rudolph  IV. 
of  Austria  called  himself  Palatinus  Archidux. 
The  name  was  formally  conferred  on  the  Haps- 
burgs  by  Frederick  III.  in  1453.  Various  noble 
houses,  especially  that  of  Bavaria,  disputed  the 
title  with  the  Hapsburgs,  but  since  Rudolph  II., 
German  Emperor  from  1576  to  1612,  their  pre- 
cedence has  been  established. 

ABCHEDEMXJS,  ar'k^df'mtis  (Gk.  'Apx'- 
di7/iOf,  Arched^mos),  called  Glamon  (the  *blear- 
eyed*).  A  demagogue  and  popular  speaker  in 
Athens  at  the  end  of  the  Fifth  Century  and 
the  beginning  of  the  Fourth  Century  B.C.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a  foreigner  who  worked 
his  way  by  fraud  into  the  Athenian  franchise, 
was  poor,  and  was  generally  disliked  by  reason 
of  his  restless  activity  and  meddlesomeness.  By 
bringing  an  accusation  against  Erasinidea,  he 
took  the  first  steps  toward  the  impeachment  of 
the  Athenian  generals  who  took  part  in  the 
battle  of  Arginus,T,  B.C.  406. 

ARCHEGONnrM,  n^'k^g6'nI-llm  (Gk.  dp- 
X^opos,  archegonos,  first  of  a  race,  primal). 
The  peculiar  female  organ  of  mosses,  ferns,  coni- 


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fers,  etc.,  which  together  are  often  spoken  of 
as  Archegoniates.  it  is  a  flask-shaped  organ, 
consisting  of  a  neck  more  or  less  elongated  and 
a  venter  more  or  less  bulbous.  A  single  egg 
occupies  the  venter,  and  in  the  process  of  fer- 
tilization the  sperm  enters  by  the  open  neck  of 
the  archegonium  and  comes  in  contact  with  the 
egg.  Among  the  mosses  the  archegonium  is  a 
free  and  often  stalked  organ.  Among  the  liver- 
worts the  archegonia  are  variously  disposed  on 
the  thallus-body,  while  in  mosses  they  are  borne 
in  a  cluster  at  the  apex  of  the  leafy  shoot  or 
of  its  branches,  the  terminal  rosette  of  more  or 
less  modified  leaves  forming  what  is  often  called 
a  *moss  flower.*  Among  the  ferns  the  archegonia 
are  usually  borne  upon  the  under  side  of  the  in- 
conspicuous 8exua^  plant  (prothallium),  the  ven- 
ters being  imbedded  in  the  tissue  and  the  necks 
more  or  less  projecting.  In  the  water  ferns, 
quill  worts,  and  little  club-mosses,  the  female 
plant  is  developed  as  a  tissue  within  the  spore, 
whose  heavy  wall  breaks  or  cracks  at  a  certain 
place,  and  in  the  exposed  part  of  the  female 
plant  the  archegonia  are  developed.  Among 
the  conifers  the  spore,  with  its  contained  female 
plant,  is  retained  within  the  ovule,  and  hence 
the  archegonia  are  not  exposed,  but  lie  im- 
bedded in  the  superficial  part  of  the  female  plant 
(endosperm),  toward  the  micropyle  (the  pas- 
sageway left  by  the  integument).  Among  the 
conifers  the  male  cells  are  brought  to  the  arche- 
gonium by  growing  pollen-tubes.  The  pollen- 
grain,  containing  the  male  cells,  rests  at  the 
base  of  the  micropyle,  upon  the  apex  of  the 
nucellus  (central  part  of  the  ovule).  ITie  tube 
penetrates  the  tissue  of  the  nucellus  and  reaches 
the  embryo-sac  (megaspore),  just  within  which 
are  the  archegonium  necks.  It  then  pierces  the 
sac-wall,  enters  and  crushes  the  neck,  and  dis- 
charges its  male  cells  into  the  egg. 

Among  the  flowering  plants  no  archegonia  are 
developed,  the  embryo-sac  containing  a  free  egg, 
along  with  other  free  cells  of  a  much-reduced 
female  plant. 


ARCHEGONIA. 


(a)  of  a  moH8.  (fc)  of  a  fern,  and  (c)  of  a  liverwort,  show- 
ing in  each  case  the  neck  and  theventercontainingthe  egg. 


The  development  of  an  archegonium  and  its 
preparation  for  fertilization  are  matters  of  great 
morphological  interest.  It  begins  as  a  single 
superficial  cell  of  the  sexual  plant.  By  repeated 
cell  divisions  the  layer  of  cells  constituting  the 
neck  and  venter  is  formed,  and  this  surrounds 
a  single  row  of  axial  cells.  The  cells  of  this 
row  (variable  in  number)  which  lie  within 
the  neck  are  called  the  **neck  canal  cells,"  while 
the  lowest  cell  of  the  row,  the  one  within  the 
venter,  forms  the  egg.  When  the  archegoniimi 
is  nearly  mature  the  row  of  neck  canal  cells 
breaks  down  and  leaves  an  open  neck;  and 
usually  just  before  fertilization  the  cell  in  the 
venter  cuts  off  a  small  cell  toward  the  neck 
called  the  "ventral  canal  cell,"  which  rapidly 
disorganizes  and  leaves  the  egg  free  and  alone 
in  the  venter,  ready  for  the  approach  of  the 
sperms  through  the  neck. 

One  of  the  interesting  facts  in  connection  with 
archegonia  is  that  the  apical  neck  cells  secrete 
a  substance  which  attracts  the  sperms  toward 
them.  For  example,  this  substance  is  not  the 
same  in  mosses  and  ferns,  so  that  even  if  arche- 
gonia of  the  two  groups  are  close  together  the 
moss  sperms  and  the  fern  sperms  will  be  at- 
tracted only  to  their  o^vn  archegonia. 

ABCHEGOSAUBUSy  arlc^gd-sa'ras.  See 
Stbgocephaija. 

ABCHELAUS,  [lr'k6-la^as  (Gk.  'Apx^>^aot, 
Archelaoa). —  (1)  One  of  the  Heraclidse  who, 
when  driven  by  'his  brothers  from  his  native 
land,  fled  to  Macedonia  and  founded  the  town  of 
.^g8B.  He  was  the  mythical  founder  of  the 
royal  house  of  Macedonia. —  ( 2 )  A  Greek  philoso- 
pher and  pupil  of  Anaxagoras.  He  was  bom  at 
Athens,  and  was  the  son  of  ApoUodorus  or 
Myson.  The  outlines  of  his  system  were  those 
of  his  teacher,  but  for  the  details  of  his  cosmol- 
ogy he  went  back  to  the  ideas  of  the  earlier  Ionic 
physicists.  He  admitted  a  primitive  matter,  con- 
sisting of  infinite  particles  similar  in  nature  to 
the  bodies  formed  from  them.  He  also  admitted 
a  ruling  Mind.  Matter  and  mind  he  held  to  be 
mingled,  and  identified  the  primitive  matter  with 
air.  Out  of  this  air,  thus  endowed  with  mind, 
there  arose.,  by  processes  of  thickening  and  thin- 
ning, cold  and  heat,  or  water  and  fire — the  former 
passive,  the  latter  active.  From  the  Kction  of 
fire  and  water,  were  formed  the  atmosphere  and 
the  mud  out  of  which  the  heavenly  bodies  were 
developed.  Living  organized  beings,  at  first  of 
low  type,  sprang  from  the  mud,  and  gradually 
the  races  of  animals  were  formed.  Man  he  held 
to  be  superior  to  other  beings,  by  reason  of  his 
artistic  and  moral  powers. —  (3)  King  of  Mace- 
donia, natural  son  of  Perdiecas  II.  He  cam« 
to  the  throne  in  B.C.  413,  after  murdering  the 
rightful  heir.  Archelaus  improved  the  internal 
condition  of  his  kingdom,  introduced  changes  in 
the  currency,  improved  the  army,  and  showed 
himself  a  warm  patron  of  art  and  literature. 
Euripides,  Zeuxis,  and  other  men  of  eminence 
visited  his  court,  and  only  Socrates  refused  an 
invitation  to  go  thither.  The  palace  of  Archelaus 
was  adorned  with  magnificent  paintings  bv 
Zeuxis.  Archelaus  was  either  murdered  or  acci- 
dentally slain  by  his  favorite,  Cratspus  or  Cra- 
teras  in  B.C.  399. —  (4)  A  distinguished  general 
of  Mithridates.  In  the  winter  of  b.c  88-87  he 
was  sent  to  Greece  with  a  large  fleet  and  arniy 
to  oppose  the  Romans  in  that  quarter.    On  thr 


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ABCHEB. 


way  he  seized  the  Cyclades,  together  with  Pelos, 
and,  by  granting  the  latter  island  to  Athens,  won 
over  that  city  to  the  side  of  Mithridates.  On  his 
appearance  in  Greece,  the  Acheeans,  the  Laconi- 
ans,  and  the  Boeotians  at  once  flocked  to  his 
standard.  A  three  days'  battle  was  fought  in  the 
neighborhood  of  Thespiae,  with  indecisive  result, 
but  Archelaus  was  forced  to  fall  back  upon 
Athens  and  Pirrpus.  In  the  summer  of  B.C.  87, 
Sulla  landed  in  Greece  and  proceeded  against 
Archelaus.  After  long  and  hard  fighting  Athens 
and  Piraeus  were  taken,  and  Archelaus  retreated 
to  Chalcis.  Here  he  was  joined  by  reinforce- 
ments from  Mithridates,  and  in  March  B.C.  86, 
met  with  a  crushing  defeat  at  ChoBronea.  Of 
120,000  men  that  Archelaus  led  into  battle,  barely 
10,000  reassembled  at  Chalcis.  In  the  meantime 
Mithridates  sent  into  Greece  a  further  force  of 
80,000  men  under  Dorylaus.  With  this  force 
Archelaus  faced  the  enemy  at  Orchomenus  in  B.C. 
85.  His  army  was  almost  entirely  destroyed, 
but  Archelaus  himself,  after  hiding  for  several 
days  in  a  swamp,  finally  escaped  to  Chalcis. 
Peace  followed,  but  Archelaus,  though  innocent, 
awakened,  by  his  conduct  in  the  negotiations,  the 
suspicions  of  Mithridates,  and  was  as  a  result 
driven  to  side  with  the  Romans  in  the  second  and 
third  Mithridatic  wars. —  (5)  Son  of  the  preced- 
ing. He  married  Berenice,  daughter  of  King  Ptole- 
msus  Auletes,  in  B.C.  56,  and  ruled  over  Egypt 
for  the  short  space  of  six  months  during  the 
banishment  of  Ptolemseus.  The  usurper  lost  his 
life  in  a  battle  against  Aulus  Gabinius,  procon- 
sul of  Syria. —  (6)  Grandson  of  the  preceding. 
He  obtained  from  Marcus  Antonius  the  Province 
of  Cappadocia,  which  he  retained  during  the 
reign  of  Augustus.  Tiberius  accused  him  of 
political  innovations  and  condemned  him  to 
death;  but  he  was  already  old  and  broken,  and 
he  died  at  Rome  soon  after  his  trial,  in  a.d.  17. — 

(7)  A  Greek  sculptor,  celebrated  for  his  bas-re- 
lief representing  the  *Apotheosis  of  Homer,* 
which  was  found  in  the  Seventeenth  Century  on 
the  Via  Appia,  near  Bovillse.  The  relief  appears 
to  be  the  votive  oflfering  of  a  poet  made  for  a 
victory  won  at  a  poetic  contest.  Its  time  is 
placed  all  the  way  from  B.C.  150  to  the  begin- 
ning of  the  first  century  a.d.  The  relief  was 
purchased   in   1819  for  the  British  Museum. — 

(8)  Son  of  Herod,  tyrant  of  Judsea.  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  B.C.  4,  and  maintained  his 
position  against  an  insurrection  raised  by  the 
Pharisees.  His  heirship  to  the  throne  being 
disputed  by  his  brother  Antipas,  Archelaus  went 
to  Rome,  where  his  authority  was  confirmed  by 
Augustus,  who  made  him  Ethnarch  of  Judsea, 
Samaria,  and  IdumsBa.  After  a  reign  of  nine 
years  he  was  deposed  by  Augustus,  on  account  of 
his  cruel  tyranny,  and  banished  to  Vienna  in 
Gaul,  where  he  died.  His  territories  were  added 
to  the  Roman  Province  of  Syria. 

ABCHENHOLZy  ar^K^n-holts,  Johann  Wil- 
HELM,  Baron  von  (1743-1812).  A  German  his- 
torian. After  service  in  the  army,  he  gained  his 
discharge  at  the  close  of  the  Seven  Years*  War, 
and  passed  several  years  in  travel,  visiting 
almost  all  the  principal  cities  of  Europe,  and 
supporting  himself  by  authorship.  He  wrote 
Oeschichte  des  siehenjdhrigen  Krieges  (History 
of  the  Seven  Years'  War)  (two  volumes,  1793), 
-which,  when  compared  with  the  generally  dry 
style  of  his  German  contemporaries,  deserves 
praise  on  account  of  its  narrative  interest.     He 


also  wrote  Annalen  der  hritischen  Oeschichte 
(Annals  of  British  History)  (twenty  volumes, 
1789-98),  and  biographies  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
of  England  and  Gustavus  Vasa  of  Sweden. 

ABCH^By  Belle  (1860-1900).  An  American 
actress,  named  Arabella  S.  Mingle,  but  known  as 
Miss  Archer  after  her  marriage  in  1880  to  Her- 
bert Archer,  from  whom  she  was  divorced  in 
1889.  She  was  born  at  Easton,  Pa.,  and  made 
her  d^but  at  Washington,  D.  C,  with  William 
Florence  in  The  Mighty  Dollar.  Afterward  she 
appeared  in  Pinafore,  Hazel  KirkCy  etc.,  and  for 
some  time  played  with  E.  H.  Sothern,  as  Rose 
in  Lord  Chumley  (1888),  and  in  other  pieces. 
She  also  supported  Alexander  Salvini,  and  in 
Daly's  company  took  the  part  of  Maid  Marian 
in  the  later  productions  of  Tennyson's  Foresters. 
In  1894,  after  having  left  the  stage  for  a  time, 
she  resumed  her  career  as  a  star,  and  afterward 
was  for  a  while  leading  woman  with  Sol  Smith 
Russell. 

ABCHEB,  Branch  T.  (1790-1856).  A  Texas 
patriot.  He  was  bom  in  Virginia,  where  in  early 
life  he  practiced  medicine.  In  1831  he  went  to 
Texas,  took  part  in  the  Revolution,  and  in  1835 
presided  over  the  'Consultation,*  called  by  the 
American  settlers  to  consider  the  subject  of 
independence.  During  the  same  year  he  was  one 
of  the  three  commissioners  sent  to  Washington  to 
solicit  aid  from  the  United  States.  In  1836  he 
was  speaker  of  the  Texas  House  of  Representa- 
tives, and  from  1839-42  was  secretary  of  war 
for  the  new  Republic. 

ABCHEB,  Fredebic  (1838-1901).  An  Ameri- 
can organist,  bom  at  Oxford,  England.  He 
studied  music  in  London  and  Leipzig,  and  held 
musical  positions  in  England  and  Scotland  untU 
1880,  when  he  was  appointed  organist  of  Plym- 
outh Church,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.  Afterward  he 
became  conductor  of  the  Boston  (Mass.)  Ora- 
torio Society,  director  of  Carnegie  Music  Hall, 
Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and  in  1899  organist  of  the 
Church  of  the  Ascension,  Pittsburg.  He  founded, 
in  1885,  the  Keynote,  which  for  a  time  he  edited. 
He  published,  besides  numerous  compositions  for 
the  organ,  a  treatise  entitled  The  Organ  and  The 
College  Organist. 

ABCHEB,  John  (1741-1810).  He  was  bom 
in  Maryland  and  graduated  at  Princeton  in  1760, 
the  first  man  in  the  United  States  to  receive  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  medicine,  that  degree  coming 
to  him  when  he  graduated  at  the  Philadelphia 
Medical  College  in  1768.  He  was  an  officer  in 
the  army  of  the  Revolution,  a  member  of  the 
Maryland  General  Assembly,  and  a  representative 
in  (Congress  from  that  State  for  three  terms, 
1801-07, 

ABCHEB,  William  (1856—-).  An  Eng- 
lish dramatic  critic,  bom  at  Perth,  Scotland. 
He  received  the  degree  of  M.A.  at  Edinburgh 
University  in  1876,  and  was  on  the  staff  of  the 
Edinburgh  Evening  News  from  1875  to  1878. 
He  was  dramatic  critic  of  the  London  Figaro 
from  1879  to  1881 ;  was  called  to  the  bar  at  the 
Middle  Temple  in  1883,  and  succeeded  Button 
Cook  as  dramatic  critic  of  the  London  World 
in  1884 — a  position  which  he  still  held  in  1902. 
Among  his  works  pertaining  to  the  English 
drama  are:  English  Dramatists  of  To-day 
(1882);  Henry  Irving,  a  study  (1883);  About 
the  Theatre  (1886);  Htudy  in  the  Psychology 
of  Acting  (1886)  ;  \\\  C.  Macready,  a  biography 


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(1890).  Since  1893  he  has  published  a  year- 
book of  dramatic  criticisms,  made  up  of  his 
contributions  to  the  World,  usually  under  the 
title.  The  Theatrical  World,  Archer  has  gained 
wide  recognition  for  his  translations  of  Ibsen's 
dramas  and  his  attempts  to  popularize  them 
on  tlie  English  stage.  His  translation  of  The 
DolVs  House  was  performed  at  the  Novelty 
Theatre,  London,  June  7,  1889,  and  in  1890-91 
appeared  Ibsen's  Prose  Dramas^  in  five  volumes. 
He  also  translated  from  the  Norwegian  Kiel- 
land's  beautiful  Tales  of  Two  Countries  (1891), 
and  from  the  Danish  a  large  part  of  Georg 
Brandes's  William  Shakespeare  (1898).  He 
visited  the  United  States  in  1899  to  study  the 
dramatic  situation  here.  His  America  To-day 
appeared  in  1900. 

ABCH^B-ITSH.  Any  of  the  small  spiny- 
ra3*ed  East  Indian  fishes  of  the  family  "Toxo- 
tidte.  They  are  said  to  eject  from  their  mouths 
drops  of  water  aimed  at  insects.  These,  when 
the  aim  is  good,  fall  to  the  water  and  are  seized 
as  prey  by  the  fish.  Specifically,  the  name  is 
applied  to  Toxotes  jaculator,  which,  because  of 
this  interesting  habit,  is  often  kept  in  house 
aquaria  in  the  East. 

ABCH^BY  (O.  F.  archerie,  from  Low  Lat. 
arcariuSf  bowman,  from  Lat.  arcus,  bow).  The 
use  of  the  bow  and  arrow  is  still  practiced  by 
enthusiasts  as  a  means  for  the  capture  and 
destruction  of  game;  but  its  main  use  to-day, 
except  in  a  few  remote  nations,  is  as  a  recrea- 
tion and  healthful  exercise.  The  use  of  the 
bow  and  arrow  is  coeval  with  man's  authentic 
history;  thus  lahmael  "dwelt  in  the  wilderness 
of  Paran  and  became  an  archer"  (Gen.  xxi. 
20).  The  archery  of  Jonathan  is  specifically 
referred  to  in  Holy  Writ,  and  Josephus,  the 
Jewish  historian,  alleges  that  the  bow  was  con- 
sidered the  most  efficient  weapon  of  the  Jews. 
It  was  deadly  in  the  hands  of  their  conauerors, 
the  Babylonians,  who  have  left  many  r-^ulptured 
memorials  of  their  prowess  with  it.  It  is  not 
surprising,  therefore,  to  find  that  their  near 
neighbors,  the  Persians,  cultivated  its  practice, 
or  that  the  Scythians  carried  the  lesson  of  its 
value  to  the  Greeks,  from  whom  it  passed,  with 
the  empire  of  the  world,  to  the  Romans.  These, 
in  their  turn,  were  vanquished  by  the  superior 
skill  of  the  archers  of  the  (joths,  Huns,  and 
Vandals. 

Both  as  a  weapon  of  the  chase  as  well  as  for 
military  purposes,  the  bow  was  for  centuries  most 
formidable  in  the  hands  of  the  English.  With 
the  long-bow  they  decided  the  fate  of  nations, 
a^^  at  Cr(^cy  (1346)  and  Poitiers  (1356)  and 
Agincourt  (1415).  The  skill  of  their  hunters  and 
the  wonderful  feats  of  their  archers  have  come 
down  to  us  from  many  sources.  Especially  are 
the  ballads  rich  in  incidents  of  their  prowess. 
One  old  black-letter  ballad,  reprinted  in  Percy's 
Reliques,  tells  of  "Three  Archers,"  one  of  whom, 
shooting  before  the  King,  split  a  wand  in  two 
at  a  distance  of  four  hundred  yards;  and  then, 
not  satisfied  with  this  example,  tied  his  eldest 
son,  a  lad  of  seven  years  of  age,  to  a  stake  one 
hundred  and  twenty  yards  off,  and  cleft  an  apple 
placed  on  his  head. 

In  a  treatise  on  martial  discipline,  by  Ralph 
Smithe,  written  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth,  we  hare 
a  picture  of  the  English  archer:  "Captens  and 
officers  should  be  skillful  of  that  most  noble 
weapon   the    long-bow;    and   to   see   that   their 


soldiers,  according  to  their  draught  and  strength, 
have  good  bowes,  well  nockeil,  well  strynged, 
everie  strynge-whippe  in  their  nocke,  and  in  the 
middes  rubbed  with  wax  braser,  and  shutting- 
glove,  some  spare  strynges  trymed  as  aforesaid; 
every  man  one  shefeof  arrows,  with  a  case  of 
leather  defensible  against  the  rayne,  and  in  the 
same  four-and-twenty  arrowes,  whereof  eight 
of  them  should  be  lighter  than  the  residue,  to 
gall  or  astoyne  the  enemye  with  the  hailshot  of 
light  arrowes  before  they  shall  come  within  the 
danger  of  their  harquebus  shot.  Let  every  man 
have  a  brigandine  or  a  little  coat  of  plate,  a 
skull  or  hufkyn,  a  maule  of  leade  of  five  foote 
in  lengthe,  and  a  pike,  and  the  same  hanging  by 
his  girdle  with  a  hook  and  a  dagger." 

In  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign  the  practice  of 
archery  ceased  to  be  a  national  necessity;  yet 
she  was  able  to  offer  Charles  IX.  of  France 
6000  men,  one-half  of  whom  should  be  archers; 
and  shortly  before  the  beginning  of  her  reign  the 
celebrated  scholar,  Roger  Ascham,  who  was  a 
lover  of  all  kinds  of  sport,  wrote  the  classic  work 
on  archery,  Toxophilusy  or  the  Schole  of  Shoot- 
ing, in  1545,  in  which  he  gave  minute  directions 
on  attitude  and  the  manner  of  drawing  the  bow. 
It  is  a  very  practical  book;  indeed,  one  point  he 
makes  is  M'orth  transcribing  even  to-day.  Young 
archers,  he  says,  generally  fall  into  the  fault  of 
fixing  the  eye  on  the  end  of  the  arrow  rather 
than  on  the  mark.  To  obviate  this  evil  he  ad- 
vises them  to  shoot  in  the  dark  by  night  at 
lights  set  up  at  their  proper  distances — a  very 
shrewd  bit  of  advice. 

England  had  not  a  monopoly  of  skill  in  arch- 
ery; even  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  Egyptians, 
Arabs,  and  Turks  ran  them  close.  Baumgarten, 
indeed,  relates  that  he  saw  60,000  Mamelukes 
assembled  in  a  spacious  plain,  who  exhibited  al- 
most incredible  agility  in  shooting  on  horse- 
back, shooting  arrows  while  in  full  career,  and 
mounting  and  remounting  on  either  side  of  their 
horses  and  shooting  time  and  again,  yet  seldom 
or  never  missing  their  mark.  He  even  asserts 
that  horsemen  shot  while  guiding  two  horses,  one 
under  either  foot,  as  men  ride  in  a  circus,  and 
their  arrows  found  their  mark. 

So  universal,  indeed,  was  the  skill  in  arch- 
ery before  the  advent  of  gunpowder  that  no 
coimtry  has  been  discovered  in  which  it  was  not 
the  chief  reliance  of  the  natives  in  the  chase  and 
war.  Vasco  da  Gama  found  it  in  the  East 
Indies  and  Columbus  in  the  West.  The  Amazons 
of  South  America  opposed  the  invading  Span- 
iards with  it.  It  was  found  by  Cabral  in  Brazil, 
and  in  the  uttermost  solitudes  of  the  Arctic 
regions  it  was  in  use  among  the  ilsquimaux. 
Even  to-day  the  pigmy  Bosjemen,  in  the  far  in- 
terior of  Africa,  bring  the  mightiest  of  game  to 
earth  with  their  poison-tipp^  arrows:  a  very 
ancient  and  widespread  practice  to  which  Justin 
bears  witness  in  the  time  of  Alexander,  and 
Pliny  among  the  Gauls,  as  well  as  Vergil  and 
numerous  other  classical  chroniclers. 

But  the  introduction  of  gunpowder  gradually 
put  an  end  to  the  use  of  the  bow  and  arrow, 
notwithstanding  valiant  efforts  to  maintain  the 
ancient  traditions.  The  Rolls  of  Parliament  are 
full  of  indications  of  the  gradual  falling  off  of 
the  voluntary  practice  of  archery  at  the  town 
butts.  It  was  almost  unheard  of  until  it  came 
into  new  life  in  London  in  the  year  1760  as  an 
exercise  conducive  to  the  improvement  of  health. 


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ABCHIBALD. 


and  as  such  it  met  with  a  very  favorable  recep- 
tion— so  much  so  that  by  1781  the  Royal  Tox- 
ophilite  Society  was  formed.  The  almost  con- 
timious  wars  in  which  Great  Britain  for  the 
next  thirty  years  was  involved  put  a  limit  to 
it;  but  after  the  peace  of  1813  archery  gradually 
assumed  a  stronger  position,  attested  even  to  this 
d«aY  by  numerous  societies,  popular  gatherings, 
and  contests.  Modern  practice  in  archery  is 
mainly  confined  to  shooting  at  targets,  although 
a  few'  sportsmen  use  it  for  still  hunting.  The 
modem  targets  are  set  at  various  ranges,  and 
the  concentric  rings  of  gold  (in  the  centre),  red, 
blue,  and  black  and  white  have  a  value  in  count- 
ing of  9,  7,  6,  3,  and  1,  respectively.  In  America 
there  are  annual  competitions  of  the  National 
Archery  Association,  and  other  annual  contests 
by  the  Potomac  Archery  Association  and  the 
Eastern  Archery  Association.  In  these  there 
are  contests  in  "double  national  rounds"  of 
96  arrows  at  60  yards  and  48  arrows  at  50 
yards;  ^'Double  Columbia  roimds"  of  48  arrows 
at  60  yards,  48  arrows  at  40  yards,  and  48  ar- 
rows at  30  yards;  "Double  York  rounds"  of  144 
arrows  at  100  yards,  96  arrows  at  80  yards, 
and  48  arrows  at  60  yards;  "Double  American 
rounds"  of  60  arrows  at  60  yards,  60  arrows  at 
50  yards,  and  60  arrows  at  40  yards;  "Potomac 
rounds"  of  24  arrows  at  80  yards,  24  arrows  at 
70  yards,  and  24  arrows  at  60  yards;  as  well 
as  competitions  for  the  longest  flight  and  team 
competitions  of  96  arrows  at  60  yards  for  men 
and  96  arrows  at  50  yards  for  women. 

The  cross-bow,  or  arbalest,  was  shorter  than 
the  long  bow.  It  was  mounted  on  a  stock,  and 
discharged  by  means  of  a  catch  or  trigger.  This 
form  of  archery  was  chiefly  used  by  the  English 
at  the  sieges  of  fortified  places  and  in  naval 
battles.  Ultimately  its  use  was,  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VII.  ( 1485-1609) ,  forbidden  by  law,  but 
continued  intermittently  for  a  long  time. 

Consult:  Roger  Ascham,  Toxophilus,  or  the 
Schole  of  Shooting  (London,  1868)  ;  G.  A.  Han- 
sard, The  Book  of  Archery  (London,  1840)  ; 
E.  S.  Morse,  Archery^  Ancient  and  Modem 
(Worcester,  Mass.,  1792)  ;  T.  Roberts,  The  Eng- 
lish Botcman  (London,  1801);  T.  Waring,  A 
Treatise  on  Archery  (London,  1828). 

ABCH^S,  CouBT  OF.  The  court  of  appeal 
of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  as  metropolitan 
of  the  province.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
ancient  place  of  sitting,  which  was  in  the  Church 
of  Saint  Mary  of  the  Arches,  now  usually  called 
Bow  Church,  in  I^ondon.  The  judge  of  the  Court 
of  Arches  is  styled  the  Official  Principal,  al- 
though he  has  for  several  centuries  received  the 
additional  title  of  Dean  of  the  Arches.  Appeals 
from  judgments  of  this  court  are  heard  before 
the  judicial  committee  of  the  Privy  Council 
(q.v. ).  The  Court  of  Arches  is  empowered  to 
hear  such  suits  as  are  sent  up  to  it  by  letter 
of  request  from  the  consistorial  courts  of  the 
bishops  of  the  Province  of  Canterbury  after  they 
have  issued  commissions  of  inquiry  and  the 
commissioners  have  made  their  report.  The 
Court  of  Arches  is  the  only  ecclesiastical  tribunal 
which  has  authority  to  pass  sentence  of  depriva- 
tion against  a  clerk  in  holy  orders.  Since  1875 
the  judge  of  the  provincial  courts  of  Canterbury 
and  York  has  performed  the  functions  of  official 
principal  of  the  Court  of  Arches,  under  the  Pub- 
lic Worship  Regulation  Act  of  1874. 


ABCHETYPE,  ar^^tip  (Gk.  dpxh-wros, 
archetypos:  Lat.  archetypum,  a  stamp,  die,  or 
model).  The  original  design  or  pattern  from 
which  anything  is  made  or  copied.  In  numis- 
matics, an  archetype  is  the  standard  coin  to 
whose  weight,  shape,  and  design  all  others  of  the 
issue  must  conform.  In  paleography,  the  name 
is  applied  to  an  original  manuscript  from  which 
a  number  of  others  are  copied,  these  being  then 
described  as  constituting  a  single  ^family.'  ( See 
Text  Cbiticism.)  In  biology,  the  archetjrpe  is 
an  assumed  system  or  structure  on  which  any 
group  of  living  organisms,  whether  animal  or 
vegetable,  is  said  to  have  been  made. 

ABCHEVITES,  ar'k^vits.  If  the  text  is 
sound,  the  term  must  refer  to  the  people  of 
Erech,  a  city  mentioned  in  Gen.  x.  10,  be- 
tween Babel  and  Accad,  whose  inhabitants  were 
deported  to  Samaria  by  "the  great  and  noble 
Asnappar" — i.e.,  Ashurbanipal  (b.c  668-626)  — 
possibly  because  they  had  united  with  Baby- 
lon in  the  revolt  of  Shamash-shumukin,  as 
Ryle  suggests.  But  it  is  not  impossible  that  the 
text  in  Ezra  iv.  9  has  suffered  in  transmission, 
and  originally  read  "who  were  Cuthseans,"  as  II. 
Kings  xvii.  24,  mentions  people  deported  "from 
Babylon  and  from  Cuthah." 

ABCHI-ANNELIDA,  ar'kl-an-n6n-d&  (Gk. 
dpxir  archi-,  chief,  first,  primitive  -f  Neo-Lat. 
Annelida,  from  Lat.  annellus,  anellus,  little 
ring).  A  group  of  small  primitive  marine  worms, 
regarded  by  Parker  and  Haswell  as  a  class,  em- 
bracing only  the  families  Polygordiidae  and  His- 
triodrilidee,  the  latter  minute  eggs-devouring 
parasite  of  the  lobster. 

ABCHIAS,  ar'ki-as  {Gk,  'Apxlas,  Archias). 
AuLus  LiCTNius.  A  Greek  poet,  known  only 
through  the  famous  oration  Pro  Archia  Poeta, 
which  Cicero  delivered  in  his  behalf  in  b.c.  62. 
He  was  bom  in  Antioch  and  early  settled  in 
Rome,  where  he  gained  the  patronage  of  the 
prominent  men  of  the  day,  as  Marius  and  Lu- 
cuUus,  by  writing  poems  on  their  warlike  deeds. 
He  had  obtained  citizenship  in  Heraclea,  but  ille- 
gality was  charged,  and  it  was  on  this  accusation 
that  Cicero  defended  him.  The  decision  of  the 
judges  is  not  known. 

ABCHIATEB,  ar'kl-a't5r  {Gk.  dpxlarpot,  ar- 
chiatros,  chief  physician,  whence  Ger.  Arzt,  phy- 
sician). A  title  given  by  some  Roman  rulers 
to  their  favorite  medical  attendants,  who  were 
usually  Greeks.  The  use  of  the  title  and  the 
office  spread  to  all  large  towns,  and  a  certain 
number  of  doctors  were  selected  as  archiatri, 
with  salaries  and  perquisites,  but  were  required 
to  minister  to  the  poor  without  charge.  They 
also  served  in  the  same  capacity  as  modern 
health  officers.  See  W^atson,  The  Medical  Profes- 
sion in  Atwient  Times   (New  York,  1856). 

ABCHOBALD,  Sir  Adams  George  (1814-92). 
A  Canadian  statesman.  He  was  a  native  of 
Nova  Scotia,  and  was  twice  chosen  to  the 
Colonial  Legislature,  and  four  years  afterward 
attorney -general.  In  1856  he  was  solicitor-gen- 
eral, and  one  of  the  Liberal  leaders.  He  was 
active  in  bringing  about  the  confederation  of  the 
British  Provinces,  and  in  1867  was  president  of 
the  council  in  the  Cabinet  formed  by  Sir  John 
Young,  and  Secretary  of  State  for  the  Provinces. 
During  1870-72  he  was  lieutenant-governor  of 
Manitoba,  and  afterward  served  two  terms  as 


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ABCHIBAIJ). 


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ABCHIICAOE. 


lieutenant-goveraor  of  Nova  Scotia.  He  was 
knighted  in  1885.  In  1886  he  was  returned  to 
the  Dominion  House  of  Commons. 

ABCHIDAMUS,  ilr'kl-da^mas  (Gk.  'Apx(- 
da/toty  Archidamos)  11.  (7  B.C  427).  A  son  of 
Zeuxidamus,  and  ELing  of  Sparta.  He  became 
king  after  the  banishment  of  his  grandfather, 
Leoty chides,  B.c.  469.  In  the  fourth  year  of  his 
reign  Greece  was  shaken  by  a  terrible  earthquake, 
and  Sparta  was  left  a  heap  of  ruins.  Archida- 
mus  was  at  that  time  foremost  in  crushing  the 
uprising  of  the  Helots.  Before  the  Peloponnesian 
War,  he  spoke  in  favor  of  arriving  at  a  peace- 
able settlement  of  the  matters  under  dispute.  In 
B.C.  431  he  led  an  army  into  Attica,  and  in  ihe 
three  following  years  conducted  campaigns.  He 
was  the  father  of  the  famous  Agesilaus. 

Abchidamus  III.  (  T  B.C.  338),  son  of  Agesi- 
laus and  King  of  Sparta.  He  succeeded  his  father 
in  B.C.  358.  In  B.C.  367  he  defeated  the  Arcadians 
in  the  so-called  "Tearless  Battle."  In  B.C.  362, 
shortly  before  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  he  success- 
fully defended  Sparta  against  Epaminondas.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  Sacred  War  he  attacked  the 
Phocians.  In  b.g.  338  he  led  an  army  to  Italy 
to  aid  the  Tarentines,  and  was  killed  in  battle  on 
the  same  day  on  which  Philip  won  the  battle  of 
Cheronea. 

Abchidamus  IV.,  a  grandson  of  Archidamus 
III.,  and  King  of  Sparta.  It  is  not  known  when 
he  came  to  the  throne  or  how  long  he  ruled.  He 
was  king  in  B.c.  294,  for  he  was  defeated  in  bat- 
tle in  that  year  by  Demetrius  Poliorcetes. 

Archidamus  V.,  a  grandson  of  Archidamus 
rV.,  brother  of  Agis  IV.,  and  King  of  Sparta. 
On  the  occasion  of  his  brother's  murder,  he  fled, 
but  subsequently  returned  with  the  object  of 
reestablishing  his  power.  He  was,  however,  al- 
most immediately  slain  by  his  brother's  mur- 
derers, who  feared  his  vengeance.  Archidamus 
V.  was  the  last  king  of  the  Eurypontid  line. 

ABCHIDAICUS.  A  Bohemian  lord  in  Shake- 
speare's A  Winter's  Tale,  appearing  only  in  Act 
i..  Scene  1. 

ABCHIL,  ar^Il  (of  uncertain  origin),  or 
OBCHIL,  Or^Il  (Orseille).  A  coloring  sub- 
stance obtained  from  various  species  of  lichens. 
The  archil  is  not  originally  present  in  the  lichens, 
but  is  developed  by. the  following  treatment:  The 
lichens,  collected  from  rocks  near  the  sea,  are 
ground  into  a  pulp  with  water  and  diluted  am- 
monia is  added;  certain  colorless  acids  (erythric 
acid,  etc.)  contained  in  the  lichens  gradually 
change,  under  this  treatment,  into  a  purple  sub- 
stance, orcein,  which  is  the  coloring  principle  of 
archil.  (If  in  the  same  process,  the  carbonate  of 
sodium  or  of  potassium  is  added  to  the  pulp, 
ordinary  litmus  is  produced  in  place  of  orcein.) 
Archil  is  used  in  the  dyeing  of  silks  and  of 
woolen  cloth  where  a  beautiful  brown  color  is  re- 
quired; but  though  a  brilliant  rich  hue  is  im- 
parted to  the  fabric,  the  color  is  not  permanent, 
being  easily  acted  upon  by  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
Hence  archil  is  seldom  used  by  itself;  the  fabric 
is  ^first  dyed  by  another  coloring  matter,  and 
then  archil  is  applied  to  impart  to  it  a  brilliant 
lustre. 

Archil  imparts  a  beautiful  and  durable  violet 
color  to  marble.  It  has  also  been  used  in  coloring 
wines.  It  is  brought  into  the  market  in  three 
different  forms.     The  name  archil  is  commonly 


applied  to  the  ordinary  pasty  form.  When 
offered  in  the  form  of  a  dry  mass  it  is  called 
persist  while  powdered  archil  is  known  as  cud- 
bear. The  lichens  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
archil  grow  on  the  rocky  coasts  of  South  America, 
Madagascar,  Zanzibar,  the  Canary  Isles,  and  a 
number  of  other  places.  They  belong  principally 
to  the  genus  roccella.  They  are  sometimes  called 
orchella-weed,  or  dyer's  moss. 

ABCHILOCHXrS,  ar-klK6-kfls  {GVL'Apxi'/oxoc, 
Arehilochos) .  A  native  of  the  island  of  Paros, 
who  flourished  in  the  Seventh  Century  b.c.,  and  is 
regarded  as  the  first  of  the  Greek  lyric  poets, 
although  the  origin  of  the  elegy  is  claimed  by 
Callinus,  a  writer  whose  age  seems  to  have 
slightly  preceded  that  of  Archilochus.  Glimpses 
of  his  life,  especially  of  the  calamities  which  be- 
fell him,  were  frequently  given  in  his  writings. 
His  father's  name  Mas  Telesicles ;  his  mother  was 
a  slave  called  Enipo.  At  an  early  age,  becoming 
entangled  in  political  contests,  he  abandoned  his 
native  town  and  led  a  colonv  of  its  citizens  to 
Thasos,  in  650  or  640  B.C.  V^ile  here,  as  he  in- 
forms us  in  some  extant  verses,  he  lost  his  shield 
in  a  battle  against  the  Thraciana,  yet  not 
through  cowardice.  Subsequently  he  was  ban- 
ished from  Sparta,  to  which  he  had  gone,  some 
say  because  he  had  vindicated  his  conduct  in 
running  away  from  the  fight,  others,  because  of 
the  license  of  his  verses.  He  is  said  to  have 
gained  the  laurel-wreath  at  the  Olympic  games 
by  an  ode  in  honor  of  Hercules,  but  this  is 
doubtful.  Having  returned  to  Paros,  he  took 
part  in  the  war  which  broke  out  between  it  and 
Xaxus,  in  the  course  of  which  he  lost  his  life. 
The  Delphian  oracle  pronounced  a  curse  upon 
his  slayer.  Variety,  novelty,  and  satirical  bit- 
terness characterized  his  lyric  poems;  so  much 
so  that  "Archilochian  bitterness"  and  "Parian 
verse"  became  bywords  in  ancient  times.  He 
scourged  his  enemies  in  the  most  merciless 
fashion,  and  always  displayed  the  most  malicious 
skill  in  selecting  for  his  sarcasm  the  points  on 
which  they  were  most  sensitive.  It  is  said  that 
Lycanibes,*  who  had  promised  his  daughter  Neo- 
bule  in  marriage  to  Archilochus,  having  failed 
to  fulfill  his  promise,  was  so  severely  satirized 
by  the  poet  that,  to  escape  ridicule,  both  father 
and  daughter  hanged  themselves.  Among  the 
ancients,  Archilochus  was  ranked  with  Homer. 
They  dedicated  the  statues  of  both  on  the  same 
day,  and  placed  the  head  of  Archilochus  beside 
that  of  Homer  on  the  same  herm.  As  Homer  was 
the  creator  of  epic  poetry,  so  Archilochus  was 
regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  poetry  of  the 
passions  and  of  biting  raillery,  and  he  became 
the  model  for  the  Old  Athenian  Comedy  and  for 
later  poets — e.g.,  for  Horace  in  his  earlier 
period.  He  is  said  to  have  invented  many 
new  metrical  forms,  but  his  fame  and  influence 
were  due  primarily  to  his  native  genius.  Only 
bare  fragments  of  his  compositions  remain;  ed- 
ited by  Bergk,  PoetcB  Lyriei  OnBci  (Leipzig. 
1882)  ;  Reitzenstein,  "Zwei  nexie  Fragmente  der 
Epoden  des  Arehilochos,"  in  Sitzungsberichtc  der 
preuasichen  Akademie  der  Wissenschaften  (Ber- 
lin, 1899). 

ABCHIMAGE,  &rncl-m&j.  (1)  The  foul 
magician  who,  in  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene,  as- 
sumes the  guise  of  the  Red  Cross  Knight,  and 
thereby  entices  Una  from  her  search.  He  stands, 
in  the  allegory,  for  the  personification  of  False- 


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ABCHIMAGE. 


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ABCHIMEDES'  SCBEW. 


hood.     (2)   The  personification  of  Indolence  in 
Thomson,  Castle  of  Indolence  (1748). 

ABCHOIANDBITE,  ar'kl-man'drtt  (Late 
Ok.  apxiftavSpiryij  archimandrites,  from  Gk.  apxi-, 
archi;  chief  +  fiavSpa^  mandra,  a  fold,  i.e.,  a 
convent) .  The  title  of  the  highest  order  of 
superiors  of  convents  in  the  Greek  Church,  cor- 
responding to  abbot  (q.v.)  in  the  Latin  Church; 
except  that,  strictly  speaking,  an  archimandrite 
presides  over  several  monasteries,  whereas  the 
hegumenos  was  over  only  one,  and  so  the  latter 
was  nearer  to  an  ordinary  abbot.  The  Russian 
bishops  are  chosen  from  among  the  archiman- 
drites. 

ABCHIMEDEAN  MIB^BOB,  ttr'kl-m^-dran. 
See  MiBBOR. 

ABCHIMEDES,  Rr'kl-m&^dez  (from  Archi- 
medes' Screw;  see  below).  A  genus  of  fossil 
Bryozoa  of  the  family  Fenestellidse,  common  in 
some  so-called  "Archimedes  Limestones"  of  the 
early  Carboniferous  age  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
and  in  some  of  the  southwestern  States.  The 
minute  animals  of  this  genus  dwelt  in  colonies  at- 
tached to  the  ocean  floor,  and  secreted  a  calcareous 
framework  of  spiral  form,  the  axis  of  which  re- 
sembles the  arch  imedes*  screw  (q.v.).  Continuing 
the  comparison — the  thread  of  the  screw  is  pro- 
duced as  a  reticulated  expansion,  upon  the  upper 
surface  of  which  are  situated  the  cells  that 
served  as  dwelling-places  for  the  individuals. 
The  cell-bearing  portion  of  the  colony  is  seldom 
found  connected  with  the  spiral  axis,  having,  by 
reason  of  its  delicacy,  been  usually  broken  off  by 
the  action  of  the  waves.  Some  nearly  complete 
examples  have  been  found  in  the  soft  shales  of 
the  Keokuk  group  at  Crawfordsville,  Ind. 
See  also  Bryozoa;  Cabbonifebous  System;  and 
for  illustration,  see  plate  Bbyozoa. 

ABCHIMEDES  (Gk.  'Apx^M^^^.  Archimidis) 
(B.C.  287-212).  A  Greek  geometrician  and 
mechanician,  the  greatest  mathematician  of  an- 
tiquity. He  was  bom  in  the  State  of  Syracuse,  in 
the  Island  of  Sicily.  He  studied  probably  under 
Conon  at  the  University  of  Alexandria,  spending 
the  major  part  of  his  life  in  Sicily.  He  was 
killed  in  the  sack  of  Syracuse.  The  most  im- 
portant among  his  extant  works  include  three  on 
plane  geometry,  three  on  solid  geometry,  one  on 
arithmetic,  and  three  on  mechanics.  In  the 
treatise  on  the  measurement  of  the  circle,  the 
value  of  w  is  given  as  a  number  less  than  8} 
and  greater  than  3ff.  He  also  gave  formulas 
for  the  area  of  the  circle  and  the  ellipse,  and  for 
the  sector  of  a  spiral  whose  equation  is  r  =  cd 
H  is  demonstration  that  the  area  of  a  segment  of 
a  parabola  is  two-thirds  that  of  the  inclosing 
parallelogram  is  the  first  real  example  of  the 
quadrature  (q.v.)  of  a  curvilinear  surface.  His 
method  of  exhaustion  is  suggestive  of  the  modem 
methods  of  calculus.  In  the  works  on  solid 
geometry  are  treated  the  volumes  of  spheroids 
and  conoids.  His  arithmetical  work,  known  by 
its  Latin  title,  Arenarius  (sand-reckoner),  con- 
tains his  famous  attempt  to  express  the  amount  of 
sand  required  to  fill  the  universe.  This  work  has 
given  rise  to  the  conjecture  that  Archimedes 
invented  a  new  and  powerful  system  of  notation, 
all  knowledge  of  which  perished  with  the  work 
itself.  Besides  his  work  in  pure  mathematics, 
Archimedes  also  made  valuable  contributions  to 
applied  mathematics,  including  applications  of 
geometry  to  the  theory  of  machines,  as  levers, 


pulleys,  and  screws.  He  also  improved  the 
methods  of  finding  centres  of  gravity.  In  accord- 
ance with  a  wish  of  Archimedes,  Marcellus  raised 
in  his  honor  a  tomb,  on  which  was  engraved  a 
sphere  inscribed  in  a  cylinder.  Cicero,  in  his 
Tuscan  Disputations,  gives  a  charming  account 
of  his  discovery  of  the  tomb  in  B.C.  75.  The  most 
noted  editions  of  Archimedes'  works  are  those  of 
J.  Torelli  (Oxford,  1792)  ;  J.  L.  Heiberg  (Leipzig, 
1881)  ;  and  T.  L.  Heath  (Cambridge,  1897). 

ABCHIMEDES'  SCBEW  (called  also  Spiral 
Pump).  A  machine  for  raising  water,  said  to 
have  been  invented  by  Archimedes,  during  his 
stay  in  Egypt,  for  draining  and  irrigating  the 
land.  Its  simplest  form  consists  of  a  flexible 
tube  bent  spirally  round  a  solid  cylinder,  the 
ends  of  which  are  furnished  with  pivots,  so  as  to 
admit  of  the  whole  turning  round  its  axis,  as  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  machine  is  placed  in  an 
inclined  position,  so  that  the  lower  mouth  of  the 
tube  may  dip  below  the  surface  of  the  water  to 
be  raised.  The  lowest  bend  of  the  tube  will  be 
filled  with  water,  and  if  now  the  handle  be  made 
to  turn  in  the  direction  of  the  hands  of  a  watch, 
the  mouth  of  the  spiral  tube  will  be  raised  above 
the  surface;  and  the  water  inclosed  in  the  tube, 
having  no  means  of  escape,  will  flow  within  it 
until,  after  one  revolution,  it  will  occupy  the 
second   bend.     The   first   bend    has   meanwhile 


Fio.  L 


Fio.  n. 

received  a  second  charge,  which,  after  a  second 
revolution,  flows  up  into  the  second  bend,  and 
takes  the  place  of  the  first  charge,  which  has  now 
moved  up  to  the  third  bend.  When,  therefore,  as 
many  revolutions  of  the  cylinder  have  been  made 
as  there  are  turns  in  the  spiral  tube,  each  of  the 
lower  bends  will  be  filled  with  water;  and  in 
the  course  of  another  revolution,  there  being  no 
higher  bend  for  the  water  of  the  first  charge  to 
occupy,  it  will  flow  out  of  the  tube  by  its  upper 
mouth.  At  each  succeeding  revolution,  the 
lowest  bend  will  be  charged,  and  the  highest  dis- 
charged. It  will  be  seen  that  there  may  be  room 
to  dispose  a  second  tube  side  by  side  wuth  the 


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ABGHrfECTTTBE. 


first,  round  the  cylinder,  in  which  case  the  screw 
would  be  called  double-threaded.  In  the  ordinary 
construction  of  these  machines,  the  cylinder 
itself  is  hollowed  out  into  a  double  or  triple- 
threaded  pcrew,  and  inclosed  in  a  water-tight 
case,  which  turns  round  with  it,  the  space  be- 
tween the  threads  supplying  the  place  of  tubes. 
It  is  sometimes  found  convenient  to  fix  the 
exterior  envelope,  and  to  make  the  screw  work 
within  it,  the  outer  edge  of  the  latter  being  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  former  without  actual 
contact,  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  This  modifica- 
tion of  the  Archimedes'  Screw  receives  the  name 
of  *water-Bcrew,*  and  frequently  of  *Dutch  screw,' 
from  its  use  in  Holland  for  draining  low  grounds. 

ABCHIMEDES,  The  Principle  of.  One  of 
the  most  important  principles  in  the  science  of 
hydrostatics,  so  called  because  the  discovery  of  it 
is  generally  ascribed  to  the  Syracusan  philoso- 
pher. It  may  be  thus  stated:  A  body,  when 
entirely  surrounded  by  a  fluid,  is  buoyed  up  by  a 
force  equal  to  the  weight  of  the  fluid  it  displaces. 
Tnis  is  an  immediate  consequence  of  the  princi- 
ples of  fluid  pressure,  which  prove  also  that  the 
line  of  action  of  the  upward  force  is  vertically 
through  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  displaced 
fluid.  When  bodies  lighter  than  water  are 
wholly  immersed  in  it,  they  displace  an  amount 
of  water  of  greater  weight  than  their  own,  so 
that  if  left  free  to  adjust  themselves,  they  rise 
to  the  surface  and  float,  only  as  much  of  their 
bulk  being  submerged  as  will  displace  a  quantity 
of  water  weighing  the  same  as  themselves.  Ac- 
cordinglv,  while  bodies  heavier  than  water  dis- 
place, when  put  into  it,  their  own  volume,  bodies 
.lighter  than  water  displace,  when  allowed  to 
float  on  the  surface,  their  own  weight  of  the 
fluid.  Bodies  of  the  same  density  as  water,  ac- 
cording to  the  principle  of  Archimedes,  have  no 
tendency  to  rise  or  sink  in  it,  for  the  water  dis- 
placed by  them  weighs  precisely  the  same  as  they 
do.  Similar  statements  may  be  made  with  re- 
spect to  bodies  surrounded  by  other  liquids  or  by 
gases — e.g.,  the  atmospheric  air.  The  buoyancy 
of  balloons  is  an  illustration  of  the  principle  of 
Archimedes  as  applied  to  the  atmosphere.  See 
Hydrostatics. 

ABCHIPELAQO,  ftrncI-p^rA-gd  (Gk.  apxi- 
iriXayo^j  archipelagos^  chief  sea,  originally  the 
.^gean  Sea,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other 
smaller  Grecian  waters ;  from  apxt-t  archi-,  chief 
-t-  irlAflyof ,  pelagos,  sea ) .  A  term  now  applied 
to  any  definite  sheet  of  water  interspersed  with 
many  islands,  but  formerly  restricted  to  the 
^gean  Sea  (with  its  islands),  which  lies  between 
(rreece  and  Asia  Minor.  The  islands  are  usually 
divided  into  two  groups,  the  Cyclades  and  the 
Sporades.  Of  the  former  group  Delos,  Lyra, 
Cythnos,  Thera,  Andros,  and  Melos  are  more 
prominent;  of  the  Sporades,  which  belong  to 
Turkey,  Rhodes,  Cos,  Patmos,  Samos,  and 
Lemnos  are  the  more  significant.  They  are  of 
volcanic  origin,  have  a  healthful  climate  and 
beautiful  scenery.  These  islands  have  played  a 
great  part  in  the  course  of  Greek  history,  giving 
to  the  world  poets  and  philosophers.  For  a 
more  detailed  description,  see  Cyclades  ;  Spo- 
rades; and  individual  islands. 

ABCHITECTS,  arTd-tPkts,  American  In- 
stitctte  of.  a  society  established  in  1857.  In 
1900  it  had  2C  chapters,  410  fellows,  116  associ- 
ate members,  and  54  honorary  members. 


ABCHTTECTirBE,  ftr^I-t^k'tiir  (Lat  areki- 
tectura,  Gk.  apxtrtKrovia^  architektonia,  from 
apxt'i  archi;  chief  +  riicruv^  tekton,  worker  in 
wood;  carpenter,  craftsman).  In  its  widest 
sense  this  term  includes  any  kind  of  construction, 
such  as  works  of  military  and  naval  architec- 
ture and  civil  engineering;  but  strictly  spr- 
ing it  is  building  raised  by  certain  ssthetic  aual- 
ities  to  the  rank  of  art,  as  distinguished  from 
purely  utilitarian  or  mechanical  building.  lift 
name  shows  that  it  was  regarded  by  the  ancients 
as  the  chief  art,  comprising  all  others,  the  archi- 
tect being  director  of  works,  and  responsible  for 
whatever  sculpture  and  painting  was  used  in 
connection  with  the  building.  This  ancient  tra- 
dition ruled  throughout  the  Middle  Ages,  and 
it  was  not  until  the  Renaissance  in  the  Fifteenth 
Century  that  architecture  lost  its  right  to  govern 
the  other  arts.  Because  architecture  had  this 
character  of  the  most  universal  art,  using  sculp- 
ture and  painting  in  subordination,  the  forma- 
tion of  what  we  call  an  architectural  style — ^like 
the  Greek  or  the  Gothic  style — was  a  complex 
and  gradual  process.  For  architecture,  being  one 
of  the  earliest  and  most  constant  expressions  of 
civilization,  is  not  the  artificial  product  of  the 
free  conception  of  a  few  artists,  but  is  ftmda- 
mentally  affected,  on  the  one  side  by  the  religious 
and  social  elements  of  society,  whose  demands  it 
must  meet,  and  on  the  other  by  the  material 
elements  such  as  the  influences  of  climate,  of 
materials  of  construction  and  decoration,  which 
limit  or  in  certain  directions  stimulate  artistic 
originality.  So  that  in  every  age,  architecture 
is  a  faithful  mirror  of  contemporary  society,  and 
at  once  the  most  material  and  the  most  ideal  of 
the  fine  arts. 

Egypt.  In  respect  to  historic  development, 
Egypt  and  Babylonia — the  valleys  of  the  Nile, 
and  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates — are  rivals  for 
seniority  in  the  field,  which  .they  seem  to  have 
held  alone  for  one  or  more  thousand  years,  while 
the  rest  of  the  world  went  without  architecture. 
It  is  true  that  the  early  monuments  of  Egypt 
between  c.5000  and  2500  B.c.  are  works  of  mere 
building  rather  than  of  art.  The  pre-pyramidal 
tombs;  the  pyramids  themselves;  the  primitive 
chapels  or  temples  connected  with  them  ( such  as 
the  "Temple  of  the  Sphinx" )  ;  the  early  mastaba- 
tombs  and  all  other  works  of  the  Ancient  Em- 
pire, have  few  truly  architectural  features.  The 
pyramids  are  a  mere  mass  of  material:  the 
temples  and  tombs,  even  when  supported  bv  piers, 
have  no  moldings,  decorations,  or  details  that 
indicate  style.  It  is  only  in  the  Middle  Empire 
(c.2500)  that  the  type  of  columnar  temple  was 
evolved,  which  became  the  glory  of  Egypt,  and 
that  tombs  were  made — as  at  Beni-Hassan  (for 
illustration,  see  Rock  Tomb)— where  there  were 
columns  and  other  features  with  a  distinct  artis- 
tic character — such  as  the  *Doric'  tvpe  and  the 
clustered-palra  type.  The  destructive  invasion 
of  the  Shepherd  Kings  has  forever  obscured  this 
second  stage  of  Egj'ptian  architecture,  and  for  a 
knowledge  of  its  possibilities  the  Golden  Age  is 
that  of  the  New  Empire,  especially  between  c 
1600  and  1400,  supplemented  by  the  much  later 
constructions  of  the  Ptolemaic  Age,  almost  equal- 
ly magnificent.  Some  of  the  temples  were  entirely 
excavated  in  the  rock,  like  those  at  Abu-Simbel 
(q.v.  for  illustration)  ;  others  were  partly  exca- 
vated, partly  structural,  as  at  Deir-el-Bahari : 
but  the  great  majority  were  built  entirely  in  the 


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open  and  of  stone  masonry.  A  few  are  sepul- 
chral temples,  such  as  the  Rameseum  at  Medi- 
net  Abu  (q.v.  for  illustration),  but  with  these 
exceptions  they  are  purely  temples  to  the  gods. 
Each  temple  of  the  usual  type  was  approached 
through  a  long  avenue  of  sphinxes  or  statues, 
was  preceded  by  an  immense  fagade  of  pylons 
connected  with  an  encircling  wall,  with  an  open 
columnar  court,  at  the  opposite  end  of  which 
was  a  liall  of  columns  forming  the  prelude  to  the 
dark  inner  sanctuary.  This  is  undoubtedly  the 
earliest  conception  of  a  large  columnar  interior 
in  architectural  history,  and  though  its  propor- 
tions may  be  heavy,  the  composition  was  artistic 
and  imposing,  and  botn  sculpture  and  color  were 
used  with  architectural  details  to  enhance  the 
effect.  Kamak,  Luxor,  Edfu,  and  Philae  are  the 
masterpieces  over  a  period  of  some  fifteen 
hundred  years  (for  illustrations  of  Edfu  and 
LuxoB,  see  those  titles).  No  vaults,  arches,  or 
piers  were  used  in  any  part  of  this  architecture 
— only  the  straight  lintel  and  column.  The  heavy 
columns,  of  so  many  forms  as  to  rebel  at  any 
classification  by  orders,  were  placed  very  close 
together,  so  that  the  effect  was  not  one  of 
spaciousness. 

Babylonia  and  Assyria.  Babylonian  archi- 
tecture is  less  known,  but  there  is  enough  infor- 
mation about  it  to  show  that  it  reached  its  full 
development  as  an  art  long  before  the  Egyptian, 
and  that  while  the  latter  remained  isolated, 
Babylonia  stood  at  the  head  of  a  lonjg  architec- 
tural genealogy;  for  Elam  and  Assyria  literally 
copied  it;  Persia,  the  Ilittites,  and  Phoenicians 
and  other  nations  borrowed  from  it,  and  its 
influence  was  felt  even  to  China  and  India.  There 
could  be  no  sharper  contrast  than  that  which 
exists  between  these  two  primitive  architectures. 
In  Babylonia  vaults  and  arches  were  used  in  place 
of  straight  lintels  and  flat  ceilings,  and  there 
were  no  long  lines  of  columns,  and  consequently 
no  larger  interiors  than  could  be  secured  by  the 
span  of  a  single  dome  or  tunnel  vault;  brick  was 
used  in  place  of  stone,  thus  increasing  the  heavi- 
ness of  walls  and  proportions.  The  Babylonian 
style  appears  to  have  existed  at  least  6000  years 
B.C.,  and  to  have  lasted  without  essential  change 
until  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  The  temples 
had  no  large  interiors,  but  were  stepped  pyra- 
mids, remarkable  mainly  for  their  great  height, 
their  external  mass,  and  the  brilliant  coloring 
of  their  receding  stories,  faced  with  glazed  tiles. 
Only  in  the  royal  palaces  did  the  Babylonians 
excel,  creating  a  type  which  the  Assyrians  de- 
veloped with  numerous  halls  and  chambers 
grouped  around  three  main  courts.  The  palace 
at  Tello,  the  temples  at  Erech  and  Ur,  give  the 
usual  types;  but  the  excavations  at  Nippur  and 
Babylon  are  disclosing  other  splendors.  Mean- 
while the  better  preservation  and  more  thorough 
«tudy  of  the  Assyrian  ruins  enables  to  judge 
somewhat  of  the  details  of  the  earlier  style.  The 
temple  observatory  and  the  palace  of  Sargon  at 
Khorsabad  were  destroyed  by  some  great  catas- 
trophe— probably  by  fire — when  they  were  still 
occupied,  perhaps  at  the  time  of  the  fall  of 
Nineveh;  and  not  only  their  plan,  but  also  a 
large  part  of  their  structure  and  decoration  in 
sculpture  and  color,  can  be  reconstructed.  Still, 
the  Babylonian- Assyrian  ruins  suffer  by  compari- 
son with  the  Egyptian,  from  their  poor  preserva- 
tion, largely  due  to  their  easily  disintegrated 
brickwork. 


HiTTiTES  AND  Ph(enicians.  The  Hittites,  the 
rivals  of  both  Eg3rpt  and  Assyria,  were  great 
builders;  like  the  Egyptians,  they  used  stone 
and  were  constructors'  of  fortresses.  Of  their 
temple  architecture  little  is  known;  but  their 
palaces — one  of  which  has  been  excavated  at  Sen- 
jerli  and  another  at  Boghaz-Koi — appear  to 
have  been  of  a  type  similar  to  the  Assyro-Baby- 
lonian.  Their  works  were  scattered  from  the 
confines  of  Assyria  to  the  Syrian  coast  and  as  far 
northwest  as  lie  interior  of  Asia  Minor.  Of  the 
architecture  of  the  PhGenicians  very  little  re- 
mains; they  also  built  in  stone,  and  like  the 
Hittites  used  at  first  the  Cyclopean  and  poly- 
gonal masonry.  The  great  fortifications  and 
ports  of  Arvad,  Tyre,  Sidon,  and  the  colonies 
of  Africa  and  Italy  show  that  the  utilitarian  side 
of  this  architecture  was  more  developed  than 
the  religious;  for  the  temples  themselves  were 
but  small  shrines,  none  of  them  equaling,  appar- 
ently, the  temple  of  Jerusalem  in  size  and  splen- 
dor, though  the  actual  work  on  this  temple  was 
done  by  Phoenician  artisans  and  artists. 

The  iEoEAN  Style.  It  was  the  migrating 
Pelasgic  tribes  of  Asia  Minor,  the  Mediterranean 
islands,  Greece  and  Italy,  whose  works  formed 
the  first  link  between  these  early  architectures 
of  Western  Asia  and  that  of  the  pre-Hellenic  and 
Hellenic  world,  forming  what  is  called  the 
-^gean  style,  which  flourished  mainly  between 
C.2000  to  1000  B.C.  The  cities  of  Crete,  as 
Cnossus,  and  of  other  islands,  of  Troy  and  other 
cities  in  Asia  Minor,  Tiryns,  Mycenae,  Argos,  and 
others  in  Greece  beside  many  early  Italian 
cities,  such  as  Norba  and  Lignia,  show  how  im- 
pressive and  rugged  a  style  of  construction  was 
combined  by  these  races  with  a  delicate  and 
varied  decoration,  especially  in  the  bee-hive 
domical  tombs  (Mycenaj,  Thoricus,  Vaphio,  etc.) 
in  the  royal  palaces,  which  were  as  important 
in  their  way  as  those  of  the  Assyrian  kings. 

Persia.  The  second  connecting  link  was  Per- 
sia. Its  great  palaces  and  tombs  at  Susa,  Per- 
sepolis  (q.v.  for  illustration).  Meshed  Murgab, 
and  Pasargadae,  with  monuments  from  Cyrus  to 
Artaxerxes,  show  the  influence  of  Egypt  in  their 
great  columnar  halls — though  they  aVe  far  more 
spacious  and  light  than  the  Egyptian — of  Baby- 
lon and  Assyria  in  the  use  of  brickwork,  sculp- 
tured colossi,  and  friezes  of  reliefs  in  the  curious 
double-animal  capitals  and  the  enameled  tiles. 
From  Lycia  and  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor  came 
the  high  stone  basements  for  their  structures,  the 
flutings  of  their  columns,  and  many  details.  The 
hall  of  Xerxes  at  Persepolis  is  more  than  twice 
the  size  of  the  great  hall  at  Kamak,  and  shows 
how  .such  columnar  interior^,  once  introduced 
iAto  Western  Asia,  were  appreciated  and  devel- 
oped. The  later  dynasties  of  Persia — ^both 
Parthian  and  Sassanian — threw  off  many  of 
these  foreign  elements  in  a  tendency  to  return 
to  the  brickwork,  the  domes,  vaults,  and  arches 
of  truly  Oriental  type,  as  can  be  seen  in  the 
palaces  at  Sarbistan,  Firuzabad  (q.v.  for  illus- 
tration), and  Ctesiphon. 

Greece.  Meanwhile,  even  before  the  rise  of 
Persian  architecture,  the  Greeks  had  originated 
the  Doric  and  Ionic  (for  illustration,  see  these 
titles)  orders  in  all  their  essential  features.  The 
temple,  which  is  the  one  central  figure  in  this 
architecture,  appears  to  have  developed  out  of 
the  main  hall  of  the  Pelasgic  royal  palace,  as  it 
is   seen   in   Crete,   Troy,   Tiryns,   and   Mycenee, 


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til  rough  a  middle  Ktage  of  crude  brick  walls, 
\\-ooden  columns,  architraves,  and  gables,  with 
terra-cotta  revetment  and  decoration,  into  the 
final  type  of  stone  temple  which  was  reached  as 
early  as  the  Seventh  Century  B.C.  It  is  in  Sicily 
and  Southern  Italy, that  the  earliest  works  of  the 
Doric  style  are  to  be  found  (Syracuse,  Selinus, 
Metapontum),  while  the  earliest  Ionic  temples 
were  in  A.sia  Minor,  at  Samos  and  Ephesus;  but 
these  hardly  rival  the  Doric  in  age,  and  their  ruins 
do  not  belong,  like  those  of  the  Doric  temples,  to 
the  primitive  structure.  The  normal  type  of  these 
temples  was  a  building  raised  on  a  three-storied 
basement,  and  consisting  of  one  main  cella- 
chamber  (naos)  usually  supplemented  at  one  end 
by  a  smaller  chamber  {opiathodomos) ,  and  pre- 
ceded at  the  other  end  by  a  pronaos,  the  whole 
being  surrounded  by  a  colonnade  on  all  four 
sides,  surmounted  by  an  entablature  and  crowned 
on  the  two  short  ends  by  gables.  Although  using, 
Greeks  did  not  plan  great  columnar  halls  or 
courts  like  those  of  the  E^'ptian  temples,  but 
relied  on  external  eflfects  almost  entirely;  on  re- 
fined beauty  of  outline  and  proportion.  Never, 
until  the  period  of  decadence,  was  there  any  at- 
tempt at  impressive  size  or  picturesqueness.  The 
Doric  style  was  heavy  in  proportion  and  plain  in 
ornament,  in  comparison  with  the  Ionic,  but 
provided  for  more  considerable  figured  sculpture 
in  the  friezes,  metopes,  and  gables.  It  prevailed 
at  first  o\er  nearly  the  entire  Hellenic  world, 
gaining  gradually  in  delicacy  and  lightness,  espe- 
cially when  handled  by  artists  with  Ionian  blood, 
as  was  the  case  at  Athens,  which  contains  in  the 
Parthenon  and  the  Theseum  the  two  finest  works 
of  the  developed  Periclean  Age,  though  they  are 
almost  rivaled  by  some  Italian  and  Sicilian 
works,  such  as  the  temples  of  Paestum  (q.v.  for 
illustration)  and  Girgenti.  At  this  time  other 
works,  such  as  the  Propylsea  at  Athens,  became 
worthy  to  stand  beside  the  temples,  and  here  the 
two  styles — Doric  and  Ionic — were  for  the  first 
time  combined.  The  originality  and  daring  of  this 
Attic  school  were  also  shown  in  the  Porch  of  the 
Maidens  in  the  Erechtheum  (q.v.  for  illustra- 
tion ) .  The  succeeding  Age  of  Praxiteles,  and  the 
Alexandrian  Period  brought  even  slimmer  Doric 
proportions,  increased  favor  for  the  more  decora- 
tive Ionic  style  (temples  of  Miletus  and  Ephe- 
sus), invention  of  the  still  richer  Corinthian 
(q.v.  for  illustration),  and  the  development  of 
colossal  forms  of  public,  civil,  and  sepulchral 
architecture  (such  as  the  propylaeas,  theatres, 
odeons,  stoas,  the  altar  at  Pergamus,  the  mauso- 
leum of  Halicamassus),  in  which  Oriental  splen- 
dor and  love  of  tlie  colossal  overruled  Hellenic 
reticence. 

Rome.  This  prepared  the  way  for  Roman 
architecture.  In  the  Royal  and  Early  Republican 
Periods,  Rome  had  followed  the  Etruscan  and 
Latin  types:  wooden  temples  with  terra-cotta 
revetments  in  the  Doric  style  and  civil  struc- 
tures of  stone,  vaulted  and  arched.  These  two 
typos  remained  fundamental,  except  that  before 
the  close  of  the  Republic  stone' had  replaced  wood 
and  terra-cotta  in  the  temples,  the  Ionic  style  had 
been  introtiueed  by  Greek  artists,  and  the  Greek 
orders,  with  their  lintels  and  columns,  had  been 
added  as  a  surface  decoration  and  framework 
to  the  constructive  arcades  in  secular  buildings. 
Tlie  Greek  spirit  informed  tlie  Roman  in  the 
sphere  of  art,  without  conquering  it,  for  ordi- 


narily it  is  not  difficult  to  distinguish  the  two 
styles.  The  Roman  temples  are  not  peristyles, 
but  in  antis,  with  a  very  deep  colonnade  in  front, 
and  this  alone  would  be  sufficient  to  make  their 
appearance  differ  fundamentally,  even  without 
the  substitution  of  the  heavier  Corinthian  and 
composite  forms  for  the  Doric  and  Ionic.  But 
the  true  nature  of  Roman  architecture  appears 
in  its  civil  structures:  in  theatres  and  amphi- 
theatres, aqueducts,  triumphal  arches,  palaces, 
villas,  and,  above  all,  in  the  baths  and  therms. 
The  Roman  genius  for  composition  shines  in 
such  great  combinations  of  structures  as  the 
Villa  of  Hadrian,  the  Palace  of  the  Cssars,  the 
Forum  of  Trajan  (q.v.  for  illustration),  and  the 
Baths  of  Caracalla  and  Diocletian.  And  the  great 
vaulted  interiors  of  some  of  these  buildings,  such 
as  the  Basilica  of  Maxentius  and  the  Baths  of 
Caracalla,  surpass  anything  previously  conceived 
of  in  architecture.  With  the  Greeks,  architecture 
had  been  plastic;  with  the  Romans,  who  devel- 
oped the  ideals  of  the  Alexandrian  Greeks,  it  was 
pictorial.  It  also  combined,  in  the  highest  degree, 
utility  and  comfort  with  showiness  and  imposing 
and  costly  appearance.  The  whole  civilized  world 
was  filled  with  the  monuments  of  this  art — which 
fell  heir  to  the  cultures  of  both  the  Orient  and 
Greece. 

Early  Christian.  When  religion  again  be- 
came paramount,  with  the  advent  of  Christianity, 
architectural  law  and  development  coincided  with 
the  building  and  decorating  of  churches.  The 
scheme  involved  the  development  of  large  inte- 
riors for  a  crowd  of  worshipers — quite  a  different 
problem  from  that  confronting  pagan  architects. 
The  public  basilica  of  the  Roman  fora  and 
the  basilical  halls  of  private  houses  offered 
models  for  such  a  type.  The  early  Christian 
architecture,  with  thin  brick  walls,  wooden  ceil- 
ings, and  long  colonnaded  interiors,  at  first  pre- 
vailed everywhere,  the  poverty  of  architectural 
form  and  detail  being  partly  concealed  by  rich 
mosaic  and  marble  ornamentation. 

Byzantine  and  Basiucal  Styles.  But  as 
early  as  the  Sixth  Century  the  Oriental  con- 
structive spirit  asserted  itself  once  more  in  the 
Hellenic  Provinces,  and  two  sharply  contrasted 
styles  henceforth  fiourished  side  by  side:  the 
Byzantine  domical  architecture  in  the  Empire  of 
the  East,  and  the  wooden-roofed  Latin  basilical 
architecture  in  the  West,  especially  in  lUly. 
Rome,  Ravenna,  Salonica,  Central  Syria,  North 
Africa,  are  full  of  early  basilicas.  Constanti- 
nople with  Saint  Sophia  (q.v.  for  illustration) 
and  others,  Ravenna,  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Syria 
possess  numerous  Byzantine  churches.  While  the 
Byzantine  style  underwent,  in  the  course  of  suc- 
ceeding centuries,  certain  changes,  such  as  the 
heightening  of  the  drums  of  the  domes,  the  deco- 
ration .of  the  exterior  with  marble  or  alternate 
courses  of  stone  and  brick,  the  use  of  accessories 
like  porches,  colonettes,  etc.,  these  differences 
were  of  minor  importance. 

Mohammedan.  In  the  West,  on  the  contrary, 
the  new  civilization  resulting  from  the  awaken- 
ing of  the  northern  races  in  the  Eleventh  Century 
and  their  fusion  with  the  old  stock,  created  for 
itself  a  new  architecture  of  which  the  first  phase 
is  called  Romanesque,  the  second  Gothic.  But 
before  describing  its  characteristics,  a  phase  of 
Oriental  architecture  which  arose  in  the  mean- 
time must  not  be  omitted — that  of  the  Moham- 


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medan  peoples  in  the  great  empire  founded  by 
the  Arabs  in  the  Seventh  Century.  Syria,  Pales- 
tine, Persia,  Egypt,  North  Africa,  Spain,  Asia 
Minor,  and  other  lands,  wrested  mainly  from  the 
Byzantines,  were  filled  with  monuments  of  a 
varied  and  rich  style,  based  largely  on  Byzantine 
and  Persian  models  adapted  to  new  purposes  and 
different  ideals.  The  mosques  and  mausoleums, 
minarets,  khans,  hospitals,  and  bazaars,  palaces, 
oratories,  and  fountains  form  a  varied  group  of 
buildings.  The  Moorish  School  of  Spain  from  the 
time  of  the  mosque  of  Cordova  to  the  Alhambra 
(q.v.  for  illustration)  of  Granada;  and  the 
Egyptian  School  of  Cairo,  from  the  mosques  of 
Hasan  and  Talun  to  that  of  Kait  Bey,  are  the 
best  kno>vn;  but  the  Syrian  and  Palestinian 
School,  centred  at  Damascus,  and  the  Persian 
School,  centred  at  Bagdad  and  Ispahan,  were 
fully  as  important — the  latter  sending  out  off- 
shoots as  far  as  distant  India  and  Asia  Minor. 
The  development  of  the  dome,  the  stilted  horse- 
shoe and  pointed  arches,  stalactite  vaulting,  geo- 
metrical decoration,  particularly  in  brilliant 
faience  and  mosaic — ^these  are  characteristics  of 
the  Mohammedan  schools.  They  spread  coin- 
cidently  with  the  political  conquests  of  Islam. 
The  Golden  Age  began  in  the  Tenth  Century.  Up 
to  that  time  there  had  been  two  types  of  mosque, 
both  of  them  with  flat  wooden  ceilings:  that 
founded  on  the  type  of  the  Christian  chuiX^h  with  , 
a  completely  inclosed  interior,  as  the  mosque  at 
Cordova  (q.v.  for  illustration)  ;  and  thai  based 
on  the  open  court  surrounded  by  colonnades  like 
a  cloister,  the  colonnade  being  deepest  on  the  one 
side  where  the  sanctuary  was  placed,  as  the 
mosques  of  Kairwan,  Damascus,  and  Cairo.  The 
famous  Aksa  Mosque  at  Jerusalem  held  an  inter- 
mediate position,  while  the  Dome  of  the  Rock, 
also  at  Jerusalem,  showed  how  Byzantine  domi- 
cal buildings  were  at  first  sometimes  imitated. 
But  in  the  Eleventh  Century  the  final  fixed  types 
had  been  reached.  The  court-plan  and  pointed 
arch  were  supreme ;  the  geometrical  style  of  orna- 
ment was  complete  with  its  bewildering  tracery, 
and  the  dome  had  triumphed  over  the  flat  ceiling. 
When  the  Mongols  and  Tartars  overran  Islam 
they  adopted  the  architecture  they  found,  espe- 
cially the  Persian  forms.  The  latest  addition  to 
the  artistic  heritage  was  through  the  Turkish 
conquest  of  Constantinople  in  the  Fifteenth  Cen- 
tury, which  led  to  a  return  in  even  greater  force 
of  the  primitive  influence  of  Byzantium. 

Romanesque.  Meanwhile  Europe  had  enjoyed 
the  architectural  revival  of  the  Romanesque 
period.  First  Germany  and  Italy,  then  France, 
and  finally  England  and  Spain  had  felt  the  new 
artistic  currents.  There  were  no  national  styles, 
far  less  was  there  any  unity  throughout  Europe. 
Each  province  had  special  characteristics.  In 
parts  of  Italy,  such  as  Tuscany  and  Rome,  the 
arrangcnient  of  the  early  Christian  basilica  was 
preserved  almost  intact  with  the  added  enrich- 
ment of  marble  and  mosaic  incrustations  and 
new  architectural  details.  It  was  the  same  in 
most  of  Germany  and  northern  France  until  the 
Twelfth  Century.  Some  sections,  as  Venice  and 
Sicily,  were  even  strongly  affected  by  Byzantine 
art.  But  the  most  fertile  novelty  of  the  age  was 
the  development  of  the  vault,  which  found  ex- 
pression particularly  in  central  and  southern 
France  and  northern  Italy.  The  dome  (P^ri- 
gord),  the  tunnel  vault  (Provence,  Burgundy, 
Spain,  etc.),  and  the  groin  or  cross- vault  (Lom- 


bardy)  were  all  successfully  used  to  cover 
churches  of  the  basilical  type.  The  future  of 
architecture  lay  in  this  development.  Gradually 
the  ribbed  groin-vault  gained  the  supremacy  and 
spread  to  Gremiany,  Normandy,  and  other  prov- 
inces of  France,  preparing  the  way  for  Gothic. 
The  great  crypts,  the  porches,  towers,  facades  of 
rich  and  varied  types,  a  decoration  of  figured  and 
ornamental  sculpture,  made  possible  by  the  use 
of  stone  in  place  of  brick,  were  among  the  promi- 
nent features.  This  phase  of  vaulted  Roman- 
esque was  rich,  heavy,  and  impressive.  It  was 
particularly  the  style  of  the  monastic  orders. 

GrOTHic.  Out  of  it  there  gradually  grew,  in  the 
course  of  the  Twelfth  Century,  in  the  north  of 
France,,  the  Gothic  style  (q.v.  for  illustration), 
the  perfect  embodiment  of  vaulted  constructive 
architecture,  formed  of  three  main  elements:  a 
ribbed  groin-vault,  receiving  all  superincumbent 
weight;  piers,  receiving  their  vertical  thrust; 
and  flying  buttresses,  receiving  their  diagonal 
thrust.  This  skeleton,  when  perfected,  freed 
architecture  from  the  thraldom  of  heavy  walls; 
hence  the  development  of  large  windows  with 
their  tracery  and  stained  glass,  the  slender  piers^ 
the  lofty  vaults.  The  new  style  was  hailed 
everywhere  and  spread  from  the  region  of  Paria 
gradually  over  Europe,  being  best  understood  in 
Spain  and  England,  less  so  in  Germany,  and  least 
of  all  in  Italy.  It  coincided  with  the  bloom  of 
all  the  other  arts,  which  remained  the  handmaids 
of  architecture,  contributing  to  the  rich  harmony 
of  the  style.  For  the  first  time  since  Roman 
days,  a  single  style  prevailed  everywhere,  break- 
ing through  local  schools  and  national  peculiar- 
ities. Gothic  was  essentially  of  one  type  and 
allowed  little  for  individual  idiosyncracies.  The 
typical  catliedrals  are  those  of  Paris,  Amiens 
(q.v.  for  illustration),  Rheims,  and  Strassburg, 
having  great  choirs  with  radiating  chapels  and 
aisles,  a  transept  with  facades,  a  nave  with  two 
or  four  aisles,  a  western  facade  in  three  sections 
with  two  fianking  towers.  Single  towers  in  the 
centre,  as  at  Ulm;  square  screen  facades,  as  at 
Peterborough;  plain  square-ending  apses,  as 
often  in  England;  all  such  features  are  varia- 
tions from  the  orthodox  type.  So  are  the  many 
cases,  especially  in  Italy,  when  wooden  roofs  in 
place  of  ribbed  vaults  are  used  with  Gothic 
forms,  but  in  violation  of  (Jothic  principles.  The 
development  of  Gothic  was  progressive.  The 
French  churches  of  the  Twelfth  Century  retained 
many  Romanesque  forms  and  heavy  proportions — 
as  at  Sens,  Sen! is,  Noyon,  and  Laon.  Larger  win- 
dows and  tracery,  slender  proportions,  and  height 
of  vaulting  came  with  the  Golden  Age  of  the 
Thirteenth  Century,  with  Notre  Dame  in  Paris, 
Chartres,  Rheims,  Amiens,  and  Saint  Denis.  The 
attenuated  geometric  style  reigned  in  France  in 
the  Fourteenth  Century;  then  the  flamboyant 
until  the  Sixteenth  Century.  In  England  the 
Early  English  corresponds  to  the  Thirteenth,  the 
Decorated  to  the  Fourteenth,  and  the  Perpendicu- 
lar to  the  two  succeeding  centuries.  Other  coun- 
tries had  corresponding  but  less  clearly  marked 
divisions.  The  general  tendency  was  increase  of 
decorative  richness  and  variety  of  form,  a  loss  of 
scientific  as  well  as  artistic  values,  the  invasion 
of  prettiness  in  place  of  breadth  and  strength. 

The  Italian  Renaissance.  Italy  had  seen 
some  large  Gothic  monuments :  monastic  churches, 
such  as  Santa  Croce  and  Santa  Maria  Novella  in 
Florence,  and  the  Frari  in  Venice;  cathedrals,. 


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such  as  Siena  and  Milan  (q.v.  for  illustration) ; 
but  Italian  artints  were  ripe  for  the  Renaissance 
style  founded  by  Brunei leschi  and  his  followers 
early  in  the  Fifteenth  Century,  a  style  based  on 
the  *  study  of  Itonian  monuments  adapted  to 
mediseval  needs.  The  new  style  employied  the 
dome  very  successfully  in  its  churches,  but  it  was 
preeminently  a  decorative  and  not  a  constructive 
style,  and,  Tike  the  Roman  architecture  which  it 
followed,  found  its  best  expression  in  civil  not 
in  religious  monuments.  Single  artists  stamped 
their  works  with  a  special  style.  Brunelleschi, 
Alberti,  Bramante,  Sansovino,  Michelangelo,  Pal- 
ladio,  are  not  merely  names — they  are  types. 
The  Roman  scheme  of  using  the  constructive  arch 
within  a  decorative  framework  of  pilasters  or 
columns  and  architrave  became  a  Renaissance 
commonplace.  The  palaces  and  civic  buildings  of 
Florence,  Rome,  Venice,  Lombardy,  Genoa  (for 
illustration  see  these  titles),  represent  the  essen- 
tial features  of  the  style  rather  than  such 
churches  as  those  of  Santo  Spirito  at  Florence, 
of  Mantua,  TiOreto,  Saint  Peter's  at  Rome  (q.v. 
for  illustration) ,  1^  Salute  at  Venice.  Although 
early  Renaissance  decoration  is  so  exquisitely 
delicate,  the  heaviness  and  size  of  its  deUils  grew 
to  be  a  characteristic.  The  imitation  of  classic 
style  was  at  first  not  complete;  Alberti  aimed  at 
it,  but  it  did  not  reach  its  cold  perfection  until 
Palladio,  just  before  the  opposite  school  of  fan- 
tastic irregularity,  called  the  Barocco,  came  to 
the  front  before  the  close  of  the  Sixteenth  Cen- 
tuTV,  The  style  was  at  first  almost  entirely  m 
the  hands  of  Florentine  artists,  who  introduced 
it  everywhere;  then  the  Lombards  took  the  lead 
under  Bramante,  with  a  branch  in  Venice; 
finally  the  Roman  school,  with  Michelangelo, 
Raphael,  Vignola,  and  many  others,  obUined 
supremacy.  Meanwhile  the  new  style  was  spread- 
ing over  Europe,  where  it  first  blended  with  and 
then  superseded  Gothic.  This  occupied  nearly 
the  entire  Sixteenth  Century,  for  although  it 
penetrated  to  France  in  about  1500,  it  did  not 
obtain  national  foothold  in  Germany  until  about 
1550,  or  in  England  much  before  1600.  In  none 
of  these  countries  was  it  used  in  its  original 
purity,  being  everywhere  affected  by  national 
peculiarities.  The  most  artistic  changes  were 
those  in  France,  whose  chftteau  architecture, 
especiallv  in  the  Loire  region  and  near  Pans, 
produced  masterpieces  of  composition  worthy  of 
comparison  with  the  best  Italian  work.  Blois, 
Chambord,  the  Louvre,  the  Tuileries,  the  Luxem- 
bourg, and  Versailles  form  an  unsurpassed  series. 
For  illustrations  of  the  Louvre,  the  Tuileries, 
the  Luxembourg,  and  Versailles,  see  these  titl^. 

Germany  was  more  foreign  to  the  classic  spirit; 
and  the  percentage  here  and  in  England  of  purely 
classic  design  was  much  smaller  than  in  Italy  or 
France.  German  art,  even  at  the  Heidelberg 
Schloss.  was  too  finical  and  barocque;  English 
art  as  soon  as  under  Inigo  Jones  it  had  shaken 
off  all  remnants  of  civil  Gothic,  adopted  an  ex- 
tremelv  pure  Palladian  Renaissance,  as  at  White- 
hall and  Saint  Paul's,  but  this  soon  passed  into 
a  more  picturesque  style,  as  at  Blenheim. 

The  Nineteenth  Centuby.  The  regular  se- 
quence of  developing  styles  ceases  in  an  abrupt 
way  with  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution. 
Before  that  time  no  style  of  architecture  had 
ever  existed  which  was  not  in  the  main  the 
result  of  natural  evolution.  Since  the  close  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century,  however,  a  marked  change  is 


evident.  Since  then  there  has  been  no  true  style 
anywhere,  but  merely  a  series  of  fashions  of  imi- 
tation chasing  one  another  rapidly  across  the 
background  of  equally  mutable  social  conditions. 

The  first  of  these  fashions  which  attracts  our 
attention  is  the  so-called  Style  Empire,  the  char- 
acter of  decorative  design  influenced  in  part  bj 
new  study  of  Roman  antiquity  and  partly  repro- 
duced from  the  work  of  the  preceding  reign  and 
fitted  to  the  grandiose  requirements  of  Napole- 
on's brief  dominion.  The  French  Republic  bad 
shown  a  marked  deference  to  what  were  sap- 
poaed  to  be  the  thoughts  and.  ambitions  of  the 
Roman  Republic  as  before  the  civil  war  of 
Marius  and  Sulla^  or  before  b.c.  100,  and  a 
fancied  attempt  to  reproduce  the  Roman  forms 
is  evident  in  all  the  work  of  the  Napoleonic 
epoch.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  the  larger 
masses,  for  in  the  furniture  and  metal  work 
of  the  time  there  is  more  of  Louis  Quinze  than 
of  jEmilius  Paulus — a  formalized  rococo  rather 
than  a  modernized  Greco-Roman  style.  The 
endurance  of  this  fashion  was  brief,'  however. 
The  Are  de  TEtoile  and  the  great  Church  of  the 
Madeleine  in  Paris  were  begun  and  their  char- 
acter determined  during  this  period.  Also  the 
character  which  we  associate  with  Paris  of  wide 
and  elegant  avenues  was  fixed  by  Percier  and 
Fontaine,  although  such  arcades  as  those  of 
the  Rue  de  Rivoli  and  the  Rue  Royale  were  toot 
destined  to  become  a  favorite  addition  to  im- 
portant streets.  The  influence  of  the  Empire 
style  was  hardly  felt  outside  of  Paris;  and  for 
succeeding  students  it  has  been  rather  a  fashion 
in  costly  furniture  and  the  hanging  of  walls 
with  silk  than  an  arehitecture  of  dignity. 

With  the  return  of  peace  there  came  to  Europe 
the  most  completely  non-artistic  time  which 
had  there  been  known  since  man  emerged  from 
the  period  of  rough-stone  implements.  It  is 
a  matter  not  settled  to  the  satisfaction  of  any 
inquirer,  the  cause  of  the  complete  disappear- 
ance from  the  European  mind  of  decorative 
ability  during  the  first  half  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  In  Great  Britain  the  unassuming  and, 
on  the  whole,  agreeably  simple  buildings  of  the 
Georgian  period  were  copied,  as  they  were  also 
in  the  United  States;  and  contemporaneously 
with  this,  in  the  countries  above  named,  there 
was  a  strong  inclination  to  study  the  newly 
discovered  monuments  of  pure  Grecian  art,  the 
buildings  of  Athens  and  Ionia,  and  also  the  re- 
mains of  Roman  imperial  art  existing  in  Italy 
and  its  neighborhood.  The  closing  years  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century  had  produced  a  number  of 
exfraordinarily  important  books,  in  which,  for 
the  first  time,  the  facts  concerning  those  an- 
cient buildings  were  made  known  to  Europe. 
Under  the  influences  thus  introduced  into  the 
mind  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,  there  were  built 
Roman  porticoes  with  square  box- like  churches 
behind  them,  such  as  the  magnificent  Cathedral 
of  Saint  Isaac  in  Saint  Petersbursr;  and  in  such 
buildings  as  this  the  Imperial  Roman  feeling 
for  costly  and  splendid  material  revived.  Smaller 
churches  of  this  sort  are  somewhat  abundant, 
as  in  London,  Saint  Pancras;  and  in  America, 
the  imitations  of  marble  churches  executed  elab- 
orately in  pine  wood.  The  same  influence  in 
other  architecture  than  that  of  churehes  is  seen 
in  the  famous  Walhalla  on  the  hills  near  Regens- 
burg,  the  Hall  of  Fame  at  Munich,  the  Capi- 
tol   at     Washington     (q.v.    for     illustration). 


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ABCKETECTTTBE. 


Saint  George's  Hall  in  Liverpool,  the  Bourse  in 
Paris,  and  the  great  theatre  of  Bordeaux.     It 
is  curious  to  find  this  Roman  style  of  colonnades 
and  pediments  decorating  an  otherwise  severely 
plain  building  revived  without  essential  changes 
at  the  close  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.     The  rea- 
son for  it  is  not  far  to  seek — it  is  in  the  im- 
practicability of  producing  an  interesting  new 
style  founded  upon  classical  traditions,  unless 
with  the  willing  and  continuous  labor  of  several 
decades  at  least.     To  copy  Roman  forms  has 
proved  easy  to  able  and  well-taught  men,  as  all 
that   is   needed   is   free   expenditure   upon   the 
building  and  the  possession  by  the  designer  of  a 
number  of  measured  drawings.    To  found  a  new 
style  upon  it,  whether  deliberately,  as  by  the 
careful   thought   of   men   who   can   design   and 
who  are  also  students,  or  more  unconsciously 
and  naturally  by  the  work  of  uninformed  build- 
ers  who   take   the   details   their   masters   used 
before  them  and  modify  them  to  suit  the  new 
requirements — to  do  either  has  proved  imprac- 
ticable.    The  immediate  result,  chronologically 
speaking,  of  the   first   Neo-Roman   revival   was 
the  introduction  into  domestic  and  civil  building 
of  the  insignificant  architecture  known  to  us  all 
from  the  abundant  remains  left  from  the  vears 
between  1830  and  1870.    The  Hotel  de  Ville,  in 
Paris,  as  it  was  under  Louis  Philippe  and  until 
its  destruction  in  1871,  contained  only  the  cen- 
tral   mass   of   the  building  of   Henry   IV.,  the 
wings  being  wholly  of  the  '^bourgeois"  and  un- 
impressive style  of  which  we  are  speaking.    The 
vast  structure  in  Washington  occupied  by  the 
departments  of  State,  War,  and  the  Navy  is  an 
almost  perfect  example  of  the  class  of  buildings 
in  question.     There  was  more  sincerity  in  the 
work  of  some  English  architects,  apart  from  the 
Gothic   revival   named   below.     Thus   the   club- 
houses   designed   by   the    elder    Charles    Barry 
(Sir  Charles),  such  as  the  Travellers*  and  the 
Reform  in  Pall  Mall,  and  Bridgewater  House,  by 
the  same  artist,  were  all  built  between  1830  and 
1850,  and  all  have  some  architectural  character. 
This  epoch  saw  also  the  work  of  King  Ludwig 
I.   in  Munich,  often  of  a  character  wholly  dif- 
ferent from  the  pseudo-Greek  buildings  named 
above.     Thus,   the  Royal   Library  was   finished 
before   1843,  in  a  style  borrowed  from  Italian 
palazzi  of  the  Fifteenth  Century,  as  was  also 
the  southern  front  of  the  royal  palace  (KSnigs- 
bau)  ;  and  of  this  time  also  was  the  Hauptwache, 
a    reduced    copy    of    the    Loggia    de'    Lanzi    at 
Florence.     The   buildings    of    the    new    Louvre, 
built  during  the  reign  of  Napoleon  III.,  just  miss 
this  expressionless  vulgarity  of  style;  they  miss 
it   in  that  they  are  large  in  their  parts,  built 
at  ^reat  cost,  and  adorned  by  a  school  of  highly 
trained  architectural  sculptors  to  whom  it  was 
impossible  to  turn   out  other  than   interesting 
details.     Even  the  dismal  H6tel  de  Ville  above 
mentioned  would  have  had  some  interest  had  it 
been  covered  with  elaborate  architectural  sculp- 
ture of  admirable  workmanship.     The  reign  of 
dullness  continued  until  1860  or  later;  but  there 
was   much  that  was  interesting  in  the  way  of 
individual  buildings.    The  Library  of  Sainte  Gene- 
vieve, in  Paris,  is  an  example  of  the  very  small 
group     of    buildings    called    Neo-Greek — which 
term    is    a   misnomer,    pointing    rather    to    the 
studies  of  the  founders  of  the  school  than  to 
their    finished   work.     The   buildings   especially 
classed  under  this  term,  as  the  library  above 
Vol.  L— 48. 


named  and  the  rebuilding  of  the  Palais  de  Jus- 
tice, have  no  Greek  character;  and  even  Vis- 
conti's  tomb  of  Napoleon  I.  is  rather  Neo-Roman 
— as  if  a  prolongation  of  the  Style  Empire  rather 
than  a  novel  departure.  Of  this  epoch,  too,  are 
the  basilica  churches — Saint  Vincent  de  Paul  and 
Notre  Dame  de  Lorette,  in  Paris,  and  Saint 
Boniface,  in  Munich — ^buildings  of  a  style  most 
promising  to  one  who  hopes  for  original  work  in 
the  future,  but  not  as  yet  carried  farther. 

This  epoch,  1830  to  1870,  includes  also  the 
time  of  the  Gothic  revival,  properly  so  called; 
that  is,  of  the  earlier  years  of  that  movement — 
of  the  time  when  the  reformers  were  full  of 
hope  and  courage,  and  believed  that  the  sin- 
cerity and  the  logical  construction  and  decora- 
tion of  Grothic  churches  were  capable  of  being 
i-eproduced.  The  intellectual  movement  assumed 
that  modern  churches  were  cold,  devoid  alike  of 
ornament  and  of  interest;  while  the  churches 
of  the  Fourteenth  Century — for  it  \fas  the  later 
Gothic  which  first  attracted  the  student — were 
full  of  interest.  Therefore,  those  engaged  in 
the  movement  undertook  to  study  the  forms  and 
the  details,  and  to  reproduce  them  exactly  for 
a  while,  believing  that  there  would  come  in- 
evitably a  Gothic  style  which  would  be  either 
the  old  one  revived  or  some  modification  of  it 
still  more  nearly  suited  to  modem  needs. 
Again,  as  to  civic  and  domestic  buildings,  the 
enthusiasts  believed  also  that  these  would  be 
far  more  admirable  if  they  were  built  as  the 
Fourteenth  Century  Italians  and  the  Fifteenth 
Century  Frenchmen  built.  Moreover,  this  style 
admits  of  all  kinds  of  adornment  by  means  of 
the  colors  of  natural  material.  In  England, 
in  France,  and  in  Germany,  preceding  genera- 
tions had  done  little  of  that;  but  in  Italy  they 
did  much,  and  it  was  deemed  clear  that  modem 
architects  might  study  Italian  as  well  as  other 
forms  of  Gothic.  All  this  can  be  found  at  length 
in  the  writingis  of  the  authors  of  that  time — 
authors  of  whom  some  are  still  in  repute — and 
in  the  work  of  a  host  of  later  writers,  men  who 
also  were  inspired  with  the  same  hope  of  speedy 
improvement  of  the  artistic  situation.  One  set 
of  studies  of  the  past  having  failed,  another  was 
thought  sure  to  succeed;  and  only  after  twenty 
years  of  effort  did  it  begin  to  be  clear  that 
nothing  complete  was  to  come  from  the  Gothic 
revival.  The  most  costly  building  of  the  style 
was  almost  the  earliest,  the  great  W^estminster 
Palace  (q.v.  for  illustration),  designed  by  the 
elder  Charles  Barry,  who  was  knighted  as  hav- 
ing been  the  architect  of  the  home  of  the  British 
Parliament.  This  building  is  studied  from  the 
most  formal  type  of  the  Tudor  style,  and  the 
attempt  to  cover  it  with  rich  decoration  only 
enhances  the  evident  formalism  of  the  constantly 
repeated  details  of  ornament.  In  spite  of  this, 
in  Germany  and  in  England,  the  style  became  al- 
most exclusively  ecclesiastical,  while  the  clas- 
sical methods  prevailed  for  civic  buildings.  In 
France  it  had  so  little  effect  upon  the  strongly 
organized  and  deeply  convinced  workmen  and 
thinkers  of  that  most  artistic  of  modem  nations 
that  only  a  few  buildings  of  completely  mediipval 
character  were  built,  either  in  France  itself  or 
in  the  countries  under  immediate  French  influ- 
ence. These,  when  they  were  built,  had,  how- 
ever, this  great  superiority,  that  they  were  com- 
pletely constructional,  vaulted  in  masonry  if 
not  according  to  the  strict  Gothic  principle  of 


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rib  vaulting,  which  was  as  yet  barely  under- 
stood, and  consistent  in  all  their  parts,  while 
the  English  work  of  the  same  period  and  Ameri- 
can imitations  of  it  were  very  apt  to  be  dis- 
figured within  by  plaster  imitations  of  medieval 
forms.  Since  1870  there  have  ^  been  some  evi- 
deuces  of  more  thoughtful  and  therefore  more 
original  wavs  of  working.  There  have  been  some 
designs  which  are  not  based  upon  buildings  of 
the  past  more  than  this,  that  the  old  systems 
of  proportion,  the  old  methods  of  making  a 
building  effective,  have  been  in  the  designer's 
mind.  One  of  the  most  carefully  studied  of 
these  is  the  great  building  on  the  Trocadi^ro 
hill  at  Paris,  which  was  begun  about  1875  and 
finished  in  time  for  the  great  Exposition  of  1878. 
This  is  a  vast  building,  more  than  a  quarter  of 
a  mile,  measured  in  a  straight  line,  from  out 
to  out,  occupying  a  most  advantageous  position 
and  richly  adorned  by  sculpture  on  a  large 
scale  in  its  immediate  surroundings  and  out- 
skirts rather  than  in  its  own  walls  and  door- 
ways. It  is  not  possible  to  say  to  what  his- 
torical style  it  belongs ;  it  belongs  to  none.  Less 
entirely  free  from  possible  classification  under 
an  ancient  name  is  the  best  of  American  free 
work,  such  as  Trinity  Church  in  Boston,  which, 
although  entirely  Komanesque  in  spirit,  is 
studied  from  the  Romanesque  of  Europe,  and 
contains  fea.tures  dimly  traceable  to  French, 
to  Spanish,  and  to  English  anti(juity,  while  all 
are  harmonized  into  a  modem  design.  Such  a  de- 
sign, too,  was  All  Souls  Church  in  New  York,  a 
study  indeed  of  Italian  Romanesque,  but  as  com- 
pletely a  modem  design  as  the  Trocad^ro  Palace 
itself.  So  there  are  some  smooth-faced  street 
facades  in  which,  the  question  being  merely  to 
design  a  front  and  to  arrange  the  fenestration 
agreeably,  great  independence  has  been  shown. 
Great  Britain  has  Wn  rich  in  buildings  of 
this  sort,  for  the  devotion  of  many  of  her  best 
designers  to  the  Gothic  revival  had  at  all  events 
ffiven  them  the  habit  of  constructional  design- 
mg;  they  have  been,  on  the  whole,  far  less  con- 
trolled by  tradition  than  the  Frenchmen,  while 
also  far  less  successful  in  producing  buildings 
of  permanent  charm  such  as  results  from  thor- 
oughly matured  designing.  It  is  to  be  noted 
that  a  tasteful  and  satisfactory  design  is  much 
more  quickly  got  in  a  style  already  familiar  to 
the  artist  and  to  his  critics,  the  cultivated  pub- 
lic. Cultivation  in  such  matters  must  go  far 
beyond  the  knowledge  gained  by  travel  and  by 
general  reading  before  the  student  can  recog- 
nize the  attempt  at  new  methods  of  design  and 
partly  judge  them.  There  is,  therefore,  a  very 
strong  inducement  to  every  designer  to  work  on 
the  old  lines. 

The  novel  systems  of  building  caused  by  mod- 
ern scientific  advance  have  not  had  so  much 
influence  upon  design  as  had  been  anticipated. 
In  France,  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  it  was  seen  that  wrought-iron 
was  to  become  an  important  element  in  future 
building,  and  those  who  sought  to  influent^e  for 
good  the  designing  of  the  time  pointed  out 
many  ways*  in  which  it  could  be  utilized.  At  the 
same  time,  in  the  United  States,  cast-iron  in  hol- 
low columns  and  in  shells,  imitating  cut-store 
work,  was  introduced;  and  while  the  shop  fronts 
of  all  American  cities  came  to  be  made  of  this 
material,  there  were  also  very  many  fagades 
which,  though  apparently  of  stone  masonry, 
were    from   street    level    to   roof   composed   ex- 


clusively of  a  series  of  cast-iron  members  held 
together  by  riveting.  Again,  at  a  later  time, 
when  the  steel -cage  construction  for  high  build- 
ings was  introduced,  as  is  shown  below,  the 
opportunity  for  a  fresh  .  movement  in  design 
seemed  to  be  given;  but  this  was  rendered  im- 
practicable, partly  by  the  legal  requirement  that 
iron  should  everywhere  be  protected  from  the 
effect  of  heat  in  case  of  conflagration,  and  partly 
by  the  same  willingness  to  repeat  old  forms 
under  new  conditions  which  had  controlled  the 
designing  of  the  cast-iron  fronts  mentioned 
above.  Still  another  opportunity  seemed  to  be 
afi'orded  for  the  use  of  ironwork  in  design; 
namely,  in  the  buildings  of  the  great  expositions, 
from  their  commencement  in  London  in  18dl 
through  the  entire  half-century;  but  here  it 
has  been  the  exception  rather  than  the  rule  to 
base  the  design  upon  the  ironwork  itself.  The 
disposition  to  make  the  buildings  of  one  of  these 
great  fairs  as  attractive  as  possible  to  a  multi- 
tude of  people,  and  the  need  of  great  haste  in 
their  construction,  has  prevented  thoughtful  con- 
sideration from  being  given  to  their  design, 
and  the  introduction  of  staff  and  of  plaster 
boards  has  facilitated  the  imitation  of  rec- 
ognized architectural  forms  in  mere  outside 
work,  in  the  simulcra  of  architectural  structures, 
supported,  indeed,  by  an  iron  frame,  but  not 
recognizing  that  framework  as  part  of  the 
building  proper.  Thus,  in  one  of  the  great  halls 
of  Chicago  of  1893,  or  of  Paris  in  1900,  there 
was,  without,  what  passed  for  a  cut-stone  facade 
of  great  elaboration  and  necessary  cost;  but 
within,  this  character  disappeared  completely, 
and  the  whole  interior  was  a  vast  cage — a 
greenhouse  as  completely  non-architectural  as 
the  original  building  in  Hyde  Park  in  1851. 
Here  and  there  a  building  has  been  built  con- 
structionally  of  wrought-iron,  having  the  spaces 
between  the  members  of  its  light  frame  filled  in 
with  colored  brickwork  or  the  like.  Such  a 
building  was  that  of  the  municipaUtj  of  Paris 
at  the  Exposition  of  1878.  Its  walls  were  of 
common  hard  brick,  between  uprights  and  hori- 
zontals of  wrought-iron,  while  its  wide  and 
very  high  doorways  were  enriched  beyond  all 
modem  practice  by  a  combination  of  terra- 
cotta in  high  relief  and  glazed  and  richly  painted 
tiles.  Similar  attempts  hav&  not  been  more 
numerous  during  the  later  years  of  the  cen- 
tury than  when  the  subject  first  excited  atten- 
tion. Thus,  the  excellent  readinff-room  of  the 
National  Library  at  Paris,  roofed  by  means  of 
wrought-iron  arches  carrying  cupola!s  of  brick- 
work faced  with  tiling,  dates  from  the  years 
before  1365.  The  most  effective  ornamentation 
in  the  days  of  the  Gothic  revival  is  that  of  the 
Oxford  Museum,  completed  about  1860;  and 
the  most  effective  artistic  ironwork  in  any  of 
the  larger  buildings  of  the  great  expositions 
was  that  of  the  square  domes  of  the  Paria 
building  of  1889.  In*  this  way  the  few  attempts 
at  artistic  ironwork  have  been  scattered  over  a 
half-century,  without  resulting  in  any  deter- 
mined school  of  design.  In  like  manner  a  few 
houses  have  been  built  fronting  on  the  streets 
of  Paris,  and  in  certain  Belgian  cities,  in  which 
the  iron  framework  is  treated  on  the  same 
sound,  constructional  principles  as  those  in- 
volved in  the  wooden  "naif -timbered"  construc- 
tion of  the  Fourteenth  and  Fifteenth  centuries. 
These,  however,  are  very  rare  exceptions,  and 
the  only  recent  development  of  the  same  fine- 


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"ELEVATOR"   ARCHITECTURE 

ST.    PAUL'S   CHURCH,    NEW   YORK,    AND   SURROUNDING   BUILDINGS 


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755 


ABCHITECTUBE. 


art  treatment  of  metal  has  been  in  the  very 
moderate  attempts  at  logical  building  of  shop 
fronts,  balconies,  greenhouses,  and  shelters  above 
doorways  of  entrance.  The  few  attempts  to 
treat  strictly  engineering  structures,  bridges, 
and  the  like,  in  an  artistic  way  have  not  been 
successful. 

The  steel-cage  system  of  building  dates  from 
about  1880.  It  was  ten  years  earlier  when  it 
was  first  noted  in  the  greater  cities  of  the  United 
States  that  business  offices  could  not  be  rented 
to  advantage  nor  large  hotels  managed  success- 
fully without  a  free  use  of  the  elevator  (the 
lift).  Offices  in  the  fifth  story  would  not  rent 
at  all,  nor  those  on  the  fourth  story  easily,  un- 
less they  had  this  "elevator  service."  But  with 
the  introduction  of  elevators  into  office  build- 
ings and  hotels  there  came  the  easy  possibility 
of  building  to  the  height  of  eight  and  nine  stories 
instead  of  to  five.  Ten  years  later  there  ap- 
peared suddenly  the  possibility  of  building  what 
appeared  to  be  an  ordinary  edifice  of  masonry 
with  an  actual  structure  of  steel  uprights  and 
horizontals  firmly  bolted  together,  braced  where 
necessary,  and  of  any  conceivable  height.  All 
the  exterior  walls,  which  were  thin  and  of 
masonry,  were  supported  by  the  steel  structure, 
and  therefore  the  walls  of  the  basement-  story 
occupied  no  more  horizontal  space  than  those 
of  any  upper  story;  whereas, in  a  masonry^ build- 
ing, the  walls  or  piers  grow  much  thicker'  below 
as  the  height  increases,  and  more  valuabie_$pace 
in  the  ground  story  is  lost  in  the  attempt  to 
get  less  valuable  space  above.  Immediately  upon 
the  introduction  of  the  constructional  steel 
frame,  buildings  were  increased  in  height  from 
nine  or  ten  to  twenty  or  more  stories.  Elevators 
were  built  which  ran  at  greatly  increased  speed, 
and  these  could  be  arranged  in  groups,  some  to 
run  "express"  to  the  twelfth  story,  perhaps, 
while  others  stopped  at  every  floor  from  the 
first  to  the  eleventh. 

In  spite  of  the  radical  character  of  these 
changes  in  construction  and  plan,  no  sign  of 
any  architectural  result  has  appeared.  This  is 
in  part  owing  to  the  purely  commercial  char- 
acter of  the  buildings.  They  must  be  built  as 
quickly  as  possible,  because  of  the  monthly  loss 
of  rent  to  the  owner  while  his  plot  of  ground 
remains  unproductive,  and  they  must  be  as  in- 
expensive as  possible,  in  order  that  the  annual 
rental  may  bear  a  better  proportion  to  the  cost. 
Hitherto  in  the  history  of  the  world  no  archi- 
tecture of  any  value  has  been  developed  out  of 
any  such  conditions.  The  eflTorts  of  two  or 
three  architects  to  invest  these  buildings  with 
a  logical  and  appropriate  system  of  external 
design  are  worthy  of  the  highest  praise,  but 
have  not  been  followed  generally;  nor  have  they 
produced  marked  results  as  yet. 

In  this  brief  survey  there  has  been  no  place  for 
the  architecture  of  Farther  Asia,  of  India,  and 
the  neighboring  provinces;  of  China  and  Japan: 
still  less  for  the  architecture  of  Mexico,  Central 
America,  Peru,  etc.  All  these  are  described  under 
their  especial  heads.  The  details  of  all  the  styles 
here  mentioned  are  also  given  under  the  separate 
titles  Egyptian  Abt;  Babylonian  Abt;  Assyri- 
an Art;  Hittite  Art;  Phoenician  Art;  Per- 
sian Art;  Greek  Art;  Roman  Art;  Early 
Christian  Art;  Byzantine  Art;  Mohammedan 
Art;  Romanesque  Art;  Gothic  Art;  Renais- 
sance Art;  and  Architecture,  Ancient  Ameri- 
can.   Under  the  general  head  Art,  History  of,  a 


review  is  given  of  all  the  various  classes  of  titles 
under  which  the  architectural  material  in  the  cy- 
clopsedia  is  classified,  such  as  biographies  of 
arcnitects,  descriptions  of  various  kinds  of  build- 
ings, definitions  of  terms,  etc.  This  history  of  the 
science  and  material  of  construction  as  distin- 
guished from  the  purely  Aesthetic  side  of  archi- 
tecture is  given  under  Building. 

Bibliography.  An  excellent  systematic  hand- 
book is  Rosengarten,  A  Handbook  of  Archiiec- 
tural  Styles  (English  translation,  London,  1878). 
More  recent,  and  with  references  and  a  larger 
enumeration  of  monuments,  is  Hamlin,  A  Text' 
hook  of  the  History  of  Architecture  (New  York, 
1897).  The  only  full  history  of  architecture  in 
English,  but  uneven  and  unreliable,  is  Fergusson, 
A  History  of  Architecture  in  All  Countries 
(London,  1893).  Lfibke,  Oeschichte  der  Archi- 
tektur  (Leipzig,  1884),  is  somewhat  antiquated, 
but  more  accurate.  Ram^,  Histoire  de  Varchi- 
tecture  (Paris,  1885),  is  still  useful.  A  critical 
history,  from  the  standpoint  of  pure  construc- 
tion and  form,  has  now  been  given  in  Choisy, 
Histoire  de  V Architecture  (Paris,  1899),  without 
an  enumeration  of  monuments,  and  extremely 
technical.  Two  series  of  separate  handbooks,  each 
covering  some  special  style  or  country,  and  to- 
gether forming  a  complete  w^hole,  are  being  pub- 
lished, one  in  France,  the  other  in  Germany.  The 
general  title  of  the  French  series  is  Bihlioth^que 
de  Venseignement  des  heaux  arts  (see  Art, 
History  of)  ;  Lalpux,  L* Architecture  grecque 
(Paris,  1888)  ;  Corroyer,  L* Architecture  romaine 
(Paris,  1887.),  and  L*  Architecture  gothique 
(Paris,  1891)  ;  and  Palustre,  L* Architecture  de 
la  renaissance  (Paris,  1892),  are  the  only  vol- 
umes on  architecture  alone;  but  the  rest  of 
the  field  is  covered  in  the  architectural  sections 
of  the  following  generab  volumes:  Maspero, 
Egyptian  Archceology  (London,  1895)  ;  Babylon, 
Oriental  Antiquities^  translated  by  B.  T.  Evetts 
(New  York,  1889);  Martha,  UArchiologie 
hrusque  et  romaine  (Paris,  1884)  ;  Perat6, 
L*Arch4ologie  chrMienne  (Paris,  1892)  ;  Bayet, 
L'Art  hyzantin  (Paris,  1883) ;  and  Gayet,  L*Art 
arahe  (Paris,  1893),  and  L*Art  persan  (Paris, 
1895). 

The  German  series  is  more  detailed,  and  is 
solely  architectural.  It  is  the  Handhuch  der 
Architektur,  ed.  Durm  (Darmstadt,  1896),  and 
contains  special  volumes  on  the  theory  and 
practice  of  architecture,  as  well  as  its  history. 
Its  four  sections  are  entitled:  I.  Allgemeine 
Hochhaukunde  (materials;  statics;  methods; 
forms)  ;  II.  Baustile  (History,  in  four  sections; 
Ancient,  Mediaeval,  Renaissance,  and  Modem)  ; 
HochhaU'Constructionen  (elements  of  structure; 
foundations;  external  features;  internal  feat- 
ures; specific  details)  ;  Entwerfen,  Anlage  und 
Einrichtung  der  Oebdude  (composition;  build- 
ings for  dwelling  and  trade;  buildings  for  agri- 
cultural and  provisioning  purposes;  public- 
houses,  clubs,  and  halls,  etc.;  buildings  for 
health,  charity,  etc.;  educational,  scientific,  and 
artistic  eajablishments;  civic,  governmental, 
administrative,  and  military  buildings;  religious 
and  memorial  structures;  the  city).  There  are 
a  number  of  quarto  volumes  in  each  of  these 
sections  and  subsections,  several  of  which  have 
been  published.  In  the  historical  section  the 
most  valuable  are:  Durm,  Die  Baukunst  der 
Griechen  (Darmstadt,  1892)  ;  and  Die  Bau- 
kunst der  Etrusker  und  d^r  Romer  (Darm- 
stadt,  1885).     The  others  are:    Essenwein,  Die 


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ABCUITECT  U  KJE. 


756 


ABCHITECTUBE. 


Ausgiinge  der  claasiachen  Baukunat  (Early 
Christian),  and  Die  Fortsetzung  der  clasaiachen 
Baukunat  im  ostromiachen  Reicke  (Byzantine)  ; 
Franz  Pascha,  Baukunat  dea  lalatn  (Darmstadt, 
181)0)  ;  and  Essenwein,  a  series  of  works  on  Die 
romaniache  und  die  gothiache  Baukunat  (Darm- 
stadt, 1889-92),  including  his  volumes  on  Mili- 
tary Architecture  (Kriegabaukunat),  and  Do- 
meatic  Architecture  {Wohnhau) . 

There  are  three  principal  dictionaries  of  archi- 
tecture in  English:  The  Dictionary  of  Archi- 
tecture of  the  English  Architectural  Publication 
Society,  on  a  large  scale,  never  completed;  and 
Russell  Sturges,  Dictionary  of  Architecture 
(New  York,  1901-02),  in  3  vols.,  covering  the 
ground  of  technique,  history,  classification  of 
monuments,  and  biography.  Gwilt,  Enclycopof- 
dia  of  Architecture  (London,  1888),  is  handy  to 
consult.  In  French  there  is  Planat,  Encyclopi- 
die  de  Varchitecture  et  de  la  conatruction  (Paris, 
1890-93). 

ABCHITECTTTRE,  Ancient  American.  No 
historical  sketch  of  aboriginal  American  archi- 
tecture is  possible  with  our  lack  of  reliable  data 
as  to  the  history  of  the  American  races  and  their 
relation  to  each  other.  The  tribes  whom  we  are  ac- 
customed to  group  under  such  heads  as  "Mound 
Builders"  and  "Cliff  Dwellers"  (for  illustration 
see  these  titles),  although  far  from  being  the 
earliest  inhabitants  of  our  continent,  never  pro- 
duced any  works  that  enter  the  domain  of  art, 
though  some  of  the  "pueblos"  show  careful  con- 
struction and  plan,  especially  in  Arizona  and 
New  Mexico;  for  example,  Casa  Grande  (q.v.  for 
illustration)  ;  Chihuahua;  and  Bonito.  The  peo- 
ples of  Maya  and  Nahuatl  nationality  who  found- 
ed the  confederacies  of  Mexico,  Central  America, 
Peru,  and  other  South  American  States,  devel- 
oped an  architecture  that  may  fairly  be  compared 
with  that  of  Farther  Asia,  especially  India.  But 
no  sure  historic  records  of  the  age  of  these  monu- 
ments gives  an  earlier  date  than  the  Twelfth 
Century  a.d.  ;  though  plausible  conjecture  goes 
back  to  the  Fifth  Century  B.C.  for  the  earliest 
Maya  examples.  The  earliest  ruins  are  those  of 
the  Mayas,  and  among  them  we  can  distinguish 
local  variations  and  historic  development;  for 
example,  those  of  Chiapas,  of  which  the  most  im- 

?ortant  are  at  Palenque,  differ  from  those  in 
ucatan,  which  are  much  later.  The  ruins  at 
Copan,  in  Honduras,,  form  the  connecting  linlf 
between  the  Palenque  style  and  that  found  at 
Uxmal,  Chichen-Itza,  Izamal,  and  other  ruined 
cities  of  Yucatan.  Guatemala  also  has  monu- 
ments of  the  Palenque,  and  later  types,  at  Utat- 
lan,  Cahuinal,  Tikal,  etc.  The  fortified  city  of 
Tenampua,  in  Honduras,  is  especially  interesting. 
It  is  important  that  the  Maya  ruins  of  Central 
America  are  the  more  monumental  the  nearer 
they  approach  the  frontier  of  Yucatan.  The 
arrangoment  of  the  buildings  is  according  to  one 
general  scheme:  they  rise  from  a  mound,  sur- 
mounted by  a  platform  on  which  the  building 
or  huildinfrs  stand.  This  mound  is  entirely  or 
partly  natural,  cut  into  terraces  about  five  feet 
high  or  lines  of  stone  steps.  The  lines  of  the 
mound  are  made  by  rubble,  and  retaining  walls, 
faced  either  with  colored  stucco,  or  large  slabs 
(Palenque),  or  with  dressed  stone  (Chichen-Itza 
and  Uxmal).  The  separate  buildings  rise  from 
a  base  in  the  form  of  a  truncated  pyramid,  and 
the  chambers  and  passages  are  covered  with 
vaults  formed  of  the  triangular  corbel  arch  of 


projecting  horizontal  courses.  Among  the  moat 
impressive  structures  are  the  pyramids;  one  at 
Izamal  is  between  700  and  800  feet  long,  and  con 
tains  several  chambers.  They  usually  ro^e  in 
front  of  each  temple.  These  pyramids  were 
crowned  by  shrines,  and  bear  some  resemblanct 
to  Buddhist  buildings  in  India.  The  greatest 
variety  of  monuments  is  at  Chichen-Itza.  There 
was  a  lavish  use  of  decorative  sculpture  either 
aa  integral  part  of  the  architecture,  or  in  the 
form  of  accessory  steles,  pillars,  obelisks,  statue*. 
The  famous  "Tablet  of  the  Cross"  from  Palenqae 
is  the  most  tasteful,  simple  piece.  An  idea  of 
the  way  in  which  the  Maya  buildings  were 
grouped  is  given  by  the  ruins' of  Palenque,  Uma- 
land,  and  Chichen-Itza.  For  illustrations,  s« 
these  titles. 

The  Mayas  suffered  from  invasions  of  Xahnatl 
peoples  in  the  Sixth  Century  a.d.,  but  though 
more  recent,  the  Nahuatl  monuments  appear  not 
to  have  survived  so  well;  perhaps  because  thi* 
people  preferred  the  less  durable  material  of 
adobes,  cemented  together  with  mortar,  to  the 
stonework  of  the  Mayas.  This  is  exemplified  in 
the  Pyramid  of  Cholula,  originally  crowned  by  a 
magnificent  temple  destroyed  by  Cort^, '  It 
measures  1440  feet  square— ^an  area  nearly  four 
times  that  of  the  Pyramid  of  Cheops;  its  height 
.was  177  feet,  and  it  was  divided  into  four  ter- 
races. Ruins  of  debated  character  occur  at  Xochi- 
calco,  in  Mexico,  Uuatusco,  and  C«ntla.  Here,  aa 
with  the  Mayas,  the  truncated  pyramid  is  the 
main  form  of  substructure.  It  is  curious  that 
even  less  remains  of  the  Aztec  monuments,  erected 
only  during  the  two  centuries  preceding  the 
Spanish  Conquest.  Probably  it  was  because, 
being  the  centres  of  civilization  at  that  time, 
they  bore  the  brunt  of  Spanish  vandalism,  while 
the  older  cities,  long  since  deserted,  remained 
immune  and  often  unknown.  Perhaps  slightly 
earlier  than  the  Aztec  domination  are  the  cities 
of  the  Zapotecs  in  Central  America,  whose  capi- 
tal, Mitla,  was  captured  and  ruined  by  Azte«-s 
C.1500  A.D.  The  palace  at  Mitla  has  called 
forth  the  most  enthusiastic  praise  for  tJie 
beauty  of  its  masonry,  the  symmetry  of  its 
proportions,  and  the  classic  restraint  of  its  or- 
nament. This  palace  consists  of  an  interior 
quadrangle,  130  x  120  feet,  surrounded  on  three 
sides  by  mounds  crowned  by  other  buildings.  It 
is  built  not  entirely  of  dressed  stones,  as  at 
Palenque,  but  of  faced  rubble,  as  in  Yucatan. 
The  main  hall  was  supported  by  six  columns, 
supporting  heavy  beams,  a  most  unusual  arrangp^- 
ment.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  manual 
labor  of  facing  the  masonry  and  executing  the 
sculptured  decoration  in  all  these  buildings  of 
Central  America  and  Yucatan,  was  vastly  in- 
creased by  the  lack  of  metal  implements.  We 
finally  come  to  Peni,  which  is  studded  with 
ruins  of  the  greatest  interest, bold  in  construction 
and  maasiveness,  though  lacking  in  that  richne*-? 
of  sculptured  ornament  so  characteristic  of  the 
styles  thus  far  mentioned.  Pachacamac.  Chimu, 
Tiaguanaco,  Titicaca,  and  Cuzco  are  the  most 
important  sites.  The  fortresses  are  of  especial 
interest;  also  great  engineering  works,  such  as 
aqueducts,  reservoirs,  and  bridges.  The  temple*, 
called  huacaa,  are  composed  of  truncated  pyra- 
mids, usually  of  stone.  That  of  Obispo  is  I.tO 
feet  high,  with  a  base  580  feet  square,  covering 
eight  acres.  Some  of  these  pyramids  served  as 
sepulchres,  like  one  near  Obispo,  surrounded  by 


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ABCHYTAS. 


an  inclosing  wall  14  feet  high.  Another 
at  Moche  was  800  x  470  feet,  and  about  200  feet 
high.  The  palaces  were  built  of  adobes,  and 
were  formed  of  an  irregular  series  of  buildings 
on  a  terraced  mound.  That  at  Chimu  is  typical. 
The  ruins  at  Tiaguana^o  are,  perhaps,  the 
earliest,  and  belong  to  a  civilization  prior  to 
that  of  the  Incas.  Most  remarkable  are  the 
niunerous  erect  monoliths  comparable  to  the 
Celtic  monoliths  in  the  Mediterranean  (e.g. 
Malta),  and  in  England  (e.g.  Stonehenge).  For 
books  of  reference,  consult  the  bibliography  un- 
der  ARCH-aEOLOGY  AMERICAN. 

ARCHITRAVE,  ar'kl-trav  (Gk.  dpxi-,  ar- 
chi',  chief  -f  Lat.  trahs,  beam) .  The  lowest  part 
of  the  entablature  (q.v.),  or  that  which  rests 
immediately  upon  the  columns,  also  called 
the  epistyle.  It  also  designates,  in  the  case  of 
a  square  opening,  the  beam  over  the  window  or 
door- jambs.  It  is  even  applied  to  a  curved  or 
vertical  molding  in  connection  with  such  open- 
ings or  entablatures,  being  in  the  first  case  the 
same  as  an  archwolt.  For  illustration,  see 
Entablature. 
ARCHIVES,  ar^Ivz.  See  Records. 
ARCHIVOLT,  arOcI-vdlt  (It.  arckivolto,  from 
archij  chief  -j-  volto,  vault,  arch).  The  stone 
or  marble  band,  corresponding  to  the  archi- 
trave, which  frames  a 
curved  opening.  In  early 
Christian  architecture,  it 
is  extremely  simple,  but 
in  the  Middle  Ages  it 
grows  into  an  elaborate 
bundle  of  moldings,  or 
sculptured  ornament. 

ARCHIiXTTE,  arch^at' 
(It.  archiliuto).  A  large 
double-necked  lute  about  4 
feet  5  inches  long,  used  in 
the  Seventeenth  Century 
for  the  lowest  part  in  in- 
strumental music  and  ac- 
companiments. The  neck 
contained  two  sets  of  tun- 
ing-pegs, the  strings  were  of  catgut  or  metal, 
and  the  compass  was  two  octaves,  from  C  below 
the  bass  clef.  The  sound-board,  with  a  circular 
hole,  was  of  pine,  while  the  back  was  made  of 
strips  of  pine  and  cedar  glued  together  and 
richly  ornamented.  It  was  also  the  ancient 
name  of  the  theorbo  (q.v.).     See  Lute. 

ARCH     OP    ARCADinS,     HONORIUS. 
AND  THE0D08IUS.    See  Thbodosius. 

ARCH   OP  A^QXTS^XTS.     See  Augustus. 
Arch  of. 

ARCH    OP    CLAXTa)IXTS.      See    Claudius. 
Arch  of. 

ARCH  OP  CON^STANTINE.    See  Constan- 
TINE,  Arch  of. 

ARCH  OP  DRXT^XTS.    See  Drusus,  Arch  of. 

ARCH  OP  HAa)RIAN.   See  Hadrian,  Arch 
of. 

ARCH  OP  JA^XJS  QTTAB^RIPRONS.  See 
J  anus  Quadrifrons,  Arch  of. 

ARCH  OP  SEPTIMOCUS  SEVE^XTS.     See 
Septimius  Severus,  Arch  of. 
ARCH  OP  Tl^irS.     See  Titus,  Arch  of. 
ARCH  OP  TRA'JAN.    See    Trajan,  Arch 


ABCBIVOLT. 


ARCHON,  ar^dn  (Gk.  apxurv,  archdn;  liter- 
ally: leader,  chief,  from  ipxeiv,  archein,  to  begin, 
lead,  rule).  The  highest  magistrate  in  Athens 
and  other  Greek  cities.  As  the  name  shows 
it  denotes  the  one  in  power  as  opposed  to  *king* 
(fioffiXeOs).  The  Athenian  archon  is  the  only 
one  whose  history  and  duties  are  well  known. 
There  were  nine  archons  at  Athens,  later 
chosen  yearly  by  lot.  The  first  was  called  "Th6 
Archon,"  or,  as  he  gave  his  name  to  the  year, 
Archon  Eponymus;  the  second  was  the  Archon 
Basileus,  the  third  Archon  Polemarchus,  the 
other  six  were  Thesmothetoe.  During  the 
Athenian  democracy  the  archons  were  law-offi- 
cers, the  Arehon  Eponymos  having  charge  of 
suits  relating  to  the  family,  the  Basileus  of 
religious  cases,  the  Polemarch  of  those  involving 
foreigners,  and  the  Thesmothet®  of  a  variety  of 
other  cases.  According  to  Athenian  tradition  the 
last  king,  Codrus  (q.v.),  was  succeeded  by  a  life 
archon,  but  in  r.c  752  the  office  was  limited  to 
ten  years,  and  in  r.c  713  opened  to  all  nobles 
(EupatndsB),  and  in  b.c.  683  it  was  made  an- 
nual, and  in  B.C.  467  opened  to  citizens  of  the 
three  upper  classes,  and  in  practice  to  all  citi- 
zens. The  historical  development  seems  rather 
to  have  been  the  reduction  of  the  power  of  the 
Basileus,  by  giving  first  the  military  command 
to  a  new  officer,  Polemarch  (^general'),  and  then 
adding  a  civil  ruler  as  the  civil  head  of  the 
,  State,  thus  restricting  the  'king*  to  religious  func- 
tions. The  military  was  still  held  by  the  Pole- 
march  at  the  time  of  the  battle  of  Marathon 
(B.C.  490).  The  same  Greek  word  is  often  used 
to  denote  rulers  of  other  official  titles. 

Among  the  Jews  of  the  Dispersion  the  title 
was  used  to  denote  members  of  the  official  body 
exercising  control  over  their  independently  or- 
ganized communities,  as  at  Alexandria,  Antioch, 
and  Rome.  In  the  New  Testament  it  is  used 
specifically  by  members  of  the  Sanhedrin  (e.g., 
Nicodemus,  John  iii.  1)  of  the  officer  presiding 
over  the  synagogue  (e.g.,  Jalrus,  Luke  viii.  4)  ; 
and  generally  for  rulers,  magistrates,  and  men 
of  influence.  In  the  sense  of  ruler  it  is  applied  to 
Christ  in  Rev.  i.  6:  "Ruler  [archon]  of  the  kings 
of  the  earth,"  and  to  Satan  in  John  xii.  31; 
"The  prince  [archon]  of  this  world."  In  the 
mystical  jargon  of  the  Gnostics,  the  term  archon 
was  frequently  employed;  and  hence  one  of  their 
sects,  especially  opposed  to  Judaism,  received  the 
name  Archontics.  See  Gnostics;  Heresy;  Herb- 
tics. 

ARCH-PRIEST,  ftrch'prest'.  A  name  dating 
from  the  Fourth  Century,  and  equivalent  to 
the  Greek  prdtopreshijter.  It  was  usually  ap- 
plied to  a  senior  priest  attached  to  a  cathedral, 
whose  duties  were  to  assist  the  bishop,  to 
act  as  his  substitute  in  the  performance  of  the 
Church  offices,  and  to  have  general  oversight  of 
the  cathedral  clergy;  also  to  those  placed  in 
large  towns  to  occupy  similar  positions  respect- 
ing the  local  clergy.  This  title  in  later  times 
gave  way  to  that  of  dean,  as  applied  to  the 
former  and  rural  dean,  to  the  latter  class  of 
arch-priests. 

ARCH^XTAY  {arch  -{-way).  A  passage 
closed  on  both  aides  and  covered  by  a  vault,  or 
at  least  ending  in  arches  at  each  end,  and  differ- 
ing from  an  arcade,  which  is  open  at  least  on 
one  side  in  a  series  of  arches. 

ARCHYTAS,  ttr-kl^tas  (Gk.  'A/);t^rac).  The 
son  of  Mnesagoras,  or  Hestiseus,  of  Tarentum,  a 


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ABQON. 


distinguished  philosopher,  mathematician,  gen- 
eral, and  statesman.  He  lived  in  the  first  half 
of  the  Fourth  Century  b.c.,  and  was  thus  a  con- 
temporary of  Plato,  whose  life  he  is  said  to  have 
saved  by  his  influence  with  the  tyrant  Dionysius. 
He  was  seven  times  elected  general  of  his  citv, 
though  it  was  customary  for  the  office  to  be  held 
for  one  year  only.  His  connection  with  Plato 
belongs  to  the  time  of  tl^e  latter's  visit  to  lower 
Italy.  He  was  drowned  on  the  Apulian  coast, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  buried  near  Matinum, 
iu  Apulia.  Archytas  was  a  roan  marked  for  his 
morality,  self-control,  and  gentleness.  As  a  phi- 
losopher, he  belonged  to  the  Pythagorean  School. 
His  services  to  the  science  of  mathematics  were 
many  a-nd  important,  and  he  .passed  as  the 
founder  of  scientific  mechanics.  He  was  the 
first  to  distinguish  harmonical  progression  from 
arithmetical  and  geometrical  progression ;  he  also 
solved  the  problem  of  doubling  the  cube.  (See 
Duplication.)  Among  his  mechanical  contriv- 
ances was  a  fiying  pigeon  made  of  wood.  He  is 
said  to  have  invented  the  pulley.  As  an  astrono- 
mer, he  taught  that  the  earth  is  a  sphere  rotat- 
ing on  its  axis  once  in  twenty-four  hours,  and 
that  the  heavenly  bodies  move  about  it.  He  fur- 
ther made  original  contributions  to  the  knowledge 
of  musical  tones.  In  a  philosophical  way  he 
must  have  influenced  Plato  not  a  little,  and  per- 
haps Aristotle.  The  mathematical  fragments  of 
Archytas  have  been  carefully  collected  by  Blass 
in  Melanges  Orauw  (Paris,  1884).  The  other 
fragments  which  are  attached  to  the  name  of 
Archytas,  and  which  relate  to  ethics,  logic,  and 
physics,  are  probably  for  the  most  part  not  gen- 
uine. They  are  to  be  found  in  Mullach,  Phi&ao- 
phorum  Grcecorum  Fragmenta,  Vol.  I.  (Paris, 
1860-81)  ;  also  the  two  letters  of  Archytas,  one 
to  Dionysius  and  the  other  to  Plato,  and  the 
work  On  the  Ten  Categories,  are  spurious. 

ABCHYTAS  of  Ampiiissa  (c.300  b.c.).  A 
Greek  poet,  to  whom  some  hexameter  lines  are 
attributed  by  Plutarch,  Atheneus,  and  Stobsus. 
He  is  spoken  of  by  Diogenes  LaSrtius  as  an  epi- 
grammatist upon  whom  Bion  wrote  an  epigram. 
K^othing  is  known  of  the  details  of  his  life  and 
work  beyond  the  scanty  information  given  by  the 
authors  named. 

ABCIF05BA  (Lat.  arcus,  bow  -f  ferre,  to 
bear,  carry ) .  A  group  of  anurous  amphibians,  the 
toads,  having  a  tongue,  with  the  clavicle  and 
coracoid  of  each  side  connected  by  a  longitudinal 
arched  cartilage,  allowing  contraction  and  ex- 
pansion.    See  Toad. 

ABCIS-SUB-AX7BE,  ar's^'sy'-rdb'  (Fr.,  Ar- 
cis  on  the  Aube).  Capital  of  the  arrondisse- 
ment  of  the  same  name  in  the  French  Depart- 
ment of  the  Aube,  and  remarkable  on  account  of 
the  battle  fought  here,  March  20-21,1814,  between 
Napoleon  and  the  Allied  forces  under  Prince 
Schwartzenberg  (Map:  France,  L  3).  The  bat- 
tle, beginning  with  several  skirmishes  on  the 
first,  and  ending  in  a  general  engagement  on  the 
second  day,  when  the  French  retreated  over  the 
Aube,  was  not  in  itself  very  important.  But 
Napoleon  now  formed  the  plan  of  operating  in 
the  rear  of  the  Allies,  and  left  the  road  to  Paris 
open;  assuming  that  they  would  not  venture  to 
proceed  without  attempting  first  to  secure  their 
rear.  The  Allies  marched,  nevertheless,  on  the 
capital,  and  thus  decided  the  campaign.  Arcis- 
sur-Aube  is  the  birthplace  of  Danton.  Its  indus- 
tries   are    silk    and    cotton    spinning,    stocking 


weaving,  and  it  has  also  an  important  trade  in 
grain.     Pop.,  1901,  2774. 

AB'CITE.  One  of  the  two  Theban  knights 
who,  in  Chaucer's  Knight's  Tale,  are  at  first 
close  friends,  but  who,  having  seen  the  lovely 
sister-in-law  of  Theseus  from  their  prison  win- 
dow, both  claim  her  as  mistress,  and  later  joust 
fiercely  for  her  hand,  in  which  tourney  Arcite  is 
slain. 

ABC  LAMPS  AND  ABC  UGHlVIira. 
See  Electbic  Lightiivg,  paragraph  Arc  Lamfts. 

AB^CO,  Cablo  d'  (1799-1872).  An  Italian 
art  critic  and  historian.  He  was  bom  at  Man- 
tua, studied  painting  at  Florence  and  Rome,  and 
as  a  result  of  a  study  of  the  galleries  of  Mantua 
published,  in  1827-37,  a  series  of  descriptions  of 
paintings,  with  engravings  from  drawings  bj 
himself.  His  most  important  work  was  Dtlle 
arti  e  degli  artifici  di  Mantowi  (2  vols.,  1857- 
59),  a  study  of  Mantuan  art  from  the  earliest 
times.  His  further  publications  include  8tudj 
intomo  al  municipio  di  Mantova  (1871-74) 
and  a  Ckronicon  Mantuanum,  1095-1299. 

ABCO  DEI  LEONI,  da'd  lA-d'n«  (It.,  Arch 
of  the  Lions) .  A  gate  in  Verona,  built  suppos- 
edly in  the  third  century  a.d.  Originally  it  had 
two  arches ;  but  at  present  only  one  remains.  It 
is  a  dainly  bit  of  architecture,  with  Corinthian 
columns,  above  which  is  a  story  pierced  with 
three  openings  between  pilasters.  It  is  situated 
in  the  Via  Leoni  and  is  coeval  with  the  Porta 
de'  Borsari. 

ABCO  DELLA  PACE,  d^Vlk  pft'chA  (It, 
Arch  of  the  Peace ) .  A  large  arch  of  white  mar- 
ble, with  smaller  ones  on  either  side,  surmounted 
by  a  bronze  figure  of  Peace  driving  a  six-horse 
chariot.  It  was  erected  in  Milan,  Italy,  in  1806, 
in  honor  of  Napoleon,  but  not  completed  until 
1838,  and  was  consecrated  to  Peace  in  1814. 

ABCOLE,  ftrOcd-lA.  A  village  of  Venetia,  situ- 
ated on  the  left  bank  of  the  Alpone,  a  tributary 
of  the  Adige,  and  famous  for  the  victory  gained 
by  Bonaparte  over  the  Austrians  imder  the  chief 
command  of  Alvinczy,  November  17,  1796.  From 
the  14th  to  the  16th  the  French  vainly  attempted 
to  rush  the  bridge  across  the  Alpone  held  by  the 
Austrians  under  Mittrowsky;  on  the  17tk  they 
forded  the  stream  below  the  bridge  and  took  the 
enemy  in  the  rear.  In  the  series  of  battles 
around  Arcole  the  Austrians  lost  eighteen  thou- 
sand men,  and,  as  a  result  of  the  battle,  they 
were  compelled  to  abandon  the  relief  of  Mantua, 
which  was  besieged  by  the  French. 

ABgON,  ar'sON',  Jean  Claude  d'  (1733- 
1800).  A  distinguished  French  engineer.  He 
was  bom  at  Pontarlier,  and  ^'as  educated  as  an 
engineer  at  the  military  school  at  M^zi^res. 
During  the  Seven  Years'  War,  he  acquired  consid- 
erable reputation,  especially  in  the  defense  of 
Cassel,  his  work  being  distinguished  by  a  re- 
markable fertility  of  invention.  His  most  famous 
scheme-  was  a  system  of  floating  batteries  de 
signed  to  reduce  Gibraltar  (1780),  then  in  the 
hands  of  the  English,  and  defended  by  Governor 
Elliot.  The  attempt,  however,  was  not  success- 
ful, mainly  because  of  the  fact  that  his  efforts 
were  indifferently  supported.  When  the  French 
under  Dumouriez  overran  Holland,  Argon  took 
several  strongly  fortified  places,  among  others. 
Breda.  After  his  retirement  from  the  army,  he 
was  called  to  the  Senate  (1799).    His  important 


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work  is  Consideration 8  miUtaires  et  politiquea 
sur  lea  fortifications  (Paris,  1796). 

ABCO^A.     See  Arkona. 

ABCOS  DE  LA  FBONTEBA,  ftrOcds  dA  d& 
frdn-ta-'rft  (Sp.,  Bow  of  the  Frontier,  alluding 
to  its  being  built  in  bow-shape  and  to  its  position 
on  the  frontier).  A  town  on  the  right  Dank  of 
the  Guadalete,  in  the  province  of  Cadiz,  Spain 
(Map:  Spain,  C  4).  It  is  situated  on  a  conical 
height  544  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  a  remarka- 
bly picturesque  city  with  steep,  crooked  streets. 
Above  the  city  stands  the  old  castle  of  the 
dukes  of  Arcos,  now  in  ruins.  Beyond  appear 
the  Ronda  Mountains.  There  are  seven  mon- 
asteries, two  parish  churches,  with  the  main 
church  of  Gothic  style,  interesting  among  its 
buildings.  The  manufactures  include,  leather, 
mats,  thread,  and  rope.  There  is  considerable 
trade  in  oil,  wine,  and  fruit.    Pop.  1900,  14,393. 

Arcos  is  the  Arcobriga  (Celt,  hriga,  town)  of 
the  Romans.  It  was  wrested  from  the  Moors  by 
Alfonso  the  Wise,  and  strongly  fortified  as  a 
frontier  town,  in  1264. 

AB'COSO^IXJM  (Lat.  arcus,  arch  -f  solium, 
seat,  chair  of  state).  A  name  given  to  the 
niches,  surmounted  by  an  arch,  that  were  used, 
for  example,  in  the  early  Christian  catacombs, 
for  the  burial  of  the  more  illustrious  dead.  They 
usually  contained  a  carved  marble  sarcophagus, 
and  were  ornamented  with  frescoes. 

ABCOT,  ttr-kftt'  (Tamil  Arkat,  Six  Woods). 
A  city  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  India,  the 
capital  of  the  district  of  North  Arcot,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Palar  River,  65  miles  west  of 
Madras  (Map:  India,  C  6).  It  is  a  railway 
junction,  has  a  military  cantonment,  contains 
some  mosques  in  a  tolerable  state  of  repair,  and 
the  ruins  of  the  Nawab's  palace.  Of  great  an- 
tiquity and  mentioned  by  Ptolemy,  it  is  note- 
worthy because  of  its  history,  the  most  brilliant 
incident  of  which  was  its  capture  and  defense  by 
Clive  (q.v.),  in  1751.  The  walls  of  the  famous 
fort  now  serve  as  a  dyke  which  protects  the  city 
against  periodical  inundations.     Pop.  11,000. 

ABCTIC  (Gk.  dpKTiKdc,  arkiikos,  northern, 
from  Gk.  hpicro^,  arktos,  bear,  north).  A  term 
meaning  "lying  near  the  constellation  of  the 
Bear."  The  Arctic  Circle  is  a  circle  drawn 
round  the  North  Pole^  at  a  distance  from  it 
equal  to  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  or  23^°. 
The  corresponding  circle  round  the  South  Pole 
is  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Within  each  of  these 
circles  there  is  a  period  of  the  year  when  the 
sun  does  not  set,  and  another  when  it  is  never 
seen,  this  period  increasing  as  we  approach  the 
pole  itself.  At  the  pole  it  is  six  months  in 
length,  if  we  neglect  the  effects  of  refraction 
(q.v.). 

ABCTIC  CXJB^ENT,  HIGHOiANDS.  See 
Abctic  Regions. 

ABCTIC    DISCOV^BY.      See    Polab    Re- 

SEABCH. 

ABCTIC  O^CEAN.     See  Abctic  Region. 

ABCTIC  PLANTS.    See  Abctic  Region. 

ABCTIC  BE^GION.  Broadly  speaking,  that 
portion  of  the  surface  of  our  globe  which  sur- 
rounds the  North  Pole  within  the  limits  of  the 
Arctic  Circle,  and  thus,  extending  twenty-three 
and  one-half  degrees  in  every  direction  from  the 
pole,  covers  an  area  of  8,200,000  square  miles. 
It  includes  the  northern  coast-lands  of  Europe, 
North  America,  and  Asia,  and  the  outlying  isl- 


ands to  the  north  of  these  continents,  as  well  as 
the  middle  and  northern  parts  of  Greenland,  the 
northern  part  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  the 
whole  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  northern  islands 
comprise  the  great  archipelago  north  of  the  con- 
tinent of  North  America,  including  the  Parry 
Islands,  Baffin  Land,  Prince  Albert  Land,  Banks 
Land,  l?rince  of  Wales  Land,  North  Somerset, 
Grinnell  Land,  etc.,  and  the  islands  north  of  Eu- 
rope and  Asia ;  the  Spitzbergen  group.  Nova  Zem- 
bla,  the  Franz- Josef  group,  and  the  New  Siberian 
group.  It  is  a  region  of  snow  and  ice;  for 
months  in  the  winter  the  sun  is  below  the 
horizon,  and  though  for  other  months  in 
summer  it  never  sets,  its  heat  is  not  strong 
enough  in  most  quarters  to  reduce  the  quantity 
of  snow  and  ice  which  forms  in  the  cold  season. 
The  longest  day  and  the  longest  night  at  latitude 
70°  are  about  two  months  each;  ten  degrees 
farther  north  they  are  about  three  months  each; 
at  the  pole  they  divide  the  year  almost  equally. 

TopooBAPHT.  The  land  surface  of  the  Arctic 
region  has  been  as  yet  but  incompletely  explored, 
although-  the  unremitting  interest  in  Arctic  ex- 
ploration is  gradually  adding  to  our  knowledge 
of  its  extent  and  details.  The  loftiest  region  is 
Greenland,  along  the  east  and  west  coasts  of 
which  there  are  mountains  rising  from  3(S00  to 
8000  feet  above  sea  level,  culminating  in  Peter- 
mann  Peak,  with  an  estimated  altitude  of  11,000 
feet.  The  name  "Arctic  Highlands"  was  given 
to  that  portion  of  the  American  Continent  which 
lies  between  Hudson's'  Bay  £ind  the  mouth 
of  the  Mackenzie  River,  reaching  far  below  the 
Arctic  Circle.  The  district  lies  partly  within 
and  partly  without  the  barren  or  treeless 
stretches  of  northern  North  America.  The 
southern  portion  has  elevations  of  1700  to  2000 
feet  above  sea  level.  The  portion  north  of  Great 
Slave,  Great  Bear,  and  Athabasca  Lakes  has  a 
gentle  and  regular  slope  toward  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  The  usage  of  the  term  "Arctic  Highlands" 
may,  perhaps,  be  extended  so  as  to  include  the 
highlands  west  of  Smith  Sound.  The  name  was 
also  applied  by  Ross  in  1818  to  the  region  around 
Cape  York  (latitude  76''  to  78'',  longitude,  67* 
W. ) ,  in  Greenland ;  and  the  most  northern  Eski- 
mos, who  live  on  the  seacoast  at  the  foot  of 
these  mountains,  have  until  recently  borne  the 
name  of  "Arctic  Highlanders,"  given  to  them  by 
Ross.  The  northern  part  of  Seward  Peninsula  is 
characterized  also  by  a  broken  topography,  with 
mountains  rising  5000  feet  or  more  above  sea 
level.  Banks  Land  and  other  large  islands  off 
the  coast  of  the  North  American  Continent,  in- 
cluding Baffin,  Ellesmere,  Grinnell,  and  Grant 
liands,  are  comparatively  low,  with  rounded 
mountains  in  the  interior.  In  Baffin  Land  the 
central  plateau  is  from  600  feet  to  800  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  isolated  mountains  attain  a 
height  of  2000  feet.  In  the  eastern  part  of  Si- 
beria the  surface  is  broken  by  low  mountain 
ranges  and  by  wide  river  valleys.  The  portion  of 
Siberia  lying  west  of  the  Yenisei  River,  however, 
is  a  low,  almost  unbroken  plain,  covered  with  a 
dense  growth  of  moss,  and  containing  numerous 
and  extensive  swamps,  features  that  are  compre- 
hended under  the  general  term  of  tundra  (q.v.). 
Portions  of  Franz-Josef  Land  and  Crown-Prince 
Rudolf  Land  (latitude  SO**  to  83°)  are  elevated, 
the  mountains  and  plateaus  rising  2000  feet  or 
more  above  the  sea.  Upon  these  plateaus,  and 
that  of  Spitzbergen,  and  particularly  upon  that 


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ABCnC  REGION. 


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ABCnC  BEGION. 


of  Greenland,  extensive  "ice-caps"  have  formed. 
The  outer  edges  of  these  masses  of  ice  are  forced 
through  the  fiords  in  the  form  of  glaciers,  which 
discharge  icebergs.  See  GLACiiai,  and  the  gen- 
eral article  Geoix>qt. 

Groloqy.  The  geology  of  the  Arctic  lands 
presents  a  great  variety  of  features,  which,  how- 
ever, are  comparable  in  general  to  those  exhibited 
in  more  southern  latitudes.  Extensive  coal  beds 
and  numerous  fossil  remains  in  sedimentarv 
strata  bear  evidence  that  the  conditions  prevail- 
ing in  former  ages  were  favorable  for  the  de- 
velopment of  a  diversified  fauna  and  flora,  such 
as  do  not  at  present  exist.  The  Carboniferous 
strata  are  the  most  significant  as  to  the  past  cli- 
matic conditions  obtaining  in  this  region.  They 
have  been  found  in  Banks  Land,  North  Devon, 
and  Spitzbergen.  Coal  beds  and  strata  of  the 
-  Tertiary  Age  have  been  discovered  in  Grinnell 
;^'  Land,  and  similar  deposits  are  known  to  occur  as 
far  north  as  82**,  in  which  poplar,  pine,  birch, 
and  hazel  flora  are  represented.  In  Spitzbergen  a 
Carboniferous  flora  has  been  obtained,  comprising 
no  less  than  twenty-six  species,  some  of  which 
are  new,  but  of  which  others  are  forms  common 
to  the  coal  measures  of  England  and  the  United 
States.  Greenland  (q.v.)  consists  principally 
of  gneisses,  schists,  and  granite,  with  later  in- 
trusions of  basalt,  and  is  noteworthy  as  the 
source  of  the  mineral,  cryolite.  Most  of  the 
islands  off  the  North  American  Continent  are 
made  up  of  crystalline  rocks  and  Paleozoic  sedi- 
ments, of  probably  Cambrian  and  Silurian  Age. 
The  northern  part  of  Seward  Peninsula  has  been 
found  recently  to  be  composed  of  metamorphosed 
sediments  of  undetermined  age,  and  of  Cretace- 
ous limestones.  The  great  island  groups  north  of 
Euro-Asia,  including  Franz-Josef  Land,  are 
formed  of  early  Paleozoic  and  pre-Cambrian 
rocks  overlaid  by  basalt.  Very  little  is  known 
as  to  the  geological  features  of  northern  Siberia. 

The  Abctic  Ocean  is  the  body  of  water  en- 
circling the  North  Pole,  and  included  between  the 
northern  boundaries  of  Europe,  Asia,  North 
America,  Greenland,  and  the  north  Atlantic 
Ocean  above  the  Arctic  Circle,  with  which  latter 
ocean  it  is  in  open  connection,  while  it  is  in 
communication  with  the  Pacific  Ocean  only 
through  the  narrow  Bering  Strait.  It  drains 
a  vast  area,  including  the  northern  parts  of 
North  America  and  of  Asia.  The  great  rivers, 
Obi,  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  in  Asia,  and  the  Mac- 
kenzie, in  Canada,  empty  into  this  ocean.  Its 
area  is  estimated  at  between  4,000,000  and 
5,000,000  square  miles.  How  much  of  this  area 
is  covered  by  land  is  uncertain;  but  the  con- 
siderable depth  of  soundings  taken  by  Arctic 
explorers  would  seem  to  indicate  an  extensive 
polar  sea.  It  is  hardly  probable  that  any  im- 
portant land  areas  exist  in  the  region  that 
stretches  from  the  pole  southward,  to  the  north- 
em  point  of  the  archipelago  above  Greenland, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie,  to  Bering 
Strait,  to  the  northern  point  of  Siberia,  and  to 
the  northern  point  of  Franz- Josef  Land.  The 
water  region  immediately  surrounding  the  pole 
is  covered  with  great  fields  of  ice,  which  are 
fro7,en  together  in  winter,  but  become  separated 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  (especially  at  the 
edges  where  ice  floes  are  formed)  during  the 
summer.  This  ice  area  is  called  the  ice-pack,  and 
it  extends  somewhat  to  the  southward  of  latitude 
75°   N.  above  Bering  Strait  and  the  adjoining 


American  and  Asiatic  coast,  between  the  limit» 
of  longitude  ^160*»  E.  and  130**  W.;  to  the  west- 
ward and  eastward  of  this  region  the  pack- 
limit  retreats  northward;  and  in  longitude  120^ 
W.,  it  is  found  at  about  latitude  78°  N. ;  in  longi- 
tude 90°  W.,  at  about  latitude  78°  N.;  in  longi- 
tude 85°  \V.,  at  about  latitude  81°  N.;  in  longi- 
tude 50°  \V.,  at  about  latitude  83°  N.  On  the 
east  coast  of  Greenland  the  ice-pack  descends  to 
latitude  78°"  N.,  to  retreat  again  to  82°  or  83° 
N.  north  of  Spitzbergen  and  Franz-Josef  Land, 
where  this  latitude  is  preserved  as  far  east 
as  longitude  100°  East  of  Greenwich,  when 
the  detour  toward  the  south  begins,  which 
reaches  its  limit  at  about  longitude  173°  E. 
This  ice  is  kept  in  sluggish  motion,  principally 
by  the  winds,  in  such  a  manner  that  a  vessel 
lodged  in  the  ice  at  a  point  north  of  Alaska,  or 
even  of  Siberia,  would  gradually  drift  toward 
the  pole  and,  passing  beyond  that,  would  con- 
tinue southward  until  set  free  from  the  ice  near 
Spitzbergen  or  Greenland.  Nansen  made  such 
a  drift  in  1893-96.  The  depth  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  is  variable,  being  very  shoal  (only  a  few 
hundred  feet  deep)  north  of  western  North 
America  and  eastern  Asia,  where,  however,  meas- 
urements have  not  been  made  above  latitude 
75°  north,  and  very  deep  (7000  to  15,000  feet) 
near  where  its  waters  join  the  North  Atlantic. 
Northward  of  the  continent  of  Europe  the  depth 
is  from  600  to  1200  feet,  and  northward  of  Spitz- 
bergen and  Franz- Josef  Land  10,000  feet.  The 
Arctic  Ocean  is  apparently  affected  by  tides,  in 
which  the  monthly  variations  are  more  important 
than  are  the  semi-diurnal,  but  both  these  are 
masked  by  the  influence  of  the  winds  and  the 
ice.  The  assumption  that  a  great  portion  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  has  for  a  long  time  been  covered 
with  solid  pack  of  ice  has  suggested  for  it  the 
name  of  Paleocrystic  Sea,  or  the  Sea  of  Ancient 
Ice. 

Arctic  Currents.  The  open  connection  be- 
tween the  North  Atlantic  and  the  Arctic  Oceans 
offers  an  opportunity  for  a  free  interchange  of 
waters  between  the  two.  On  the  east  side  of  the 
North  Atlantic  the  drift  of  the  surface  water  is 
northward,  and  on  the  west  side  the  current 
flows  southward.  This  latter,  called  the  Arctic 
Current,  passes  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  through 
the  Irmingen  Sea  of  Nordenskjold,  between  Ice- 
land and  Greenland;  thence  along  the  eastern 
coast  of  Greenland;  rounds  Cape  Farewell,  and 
flows  up  Davis  Strait  to  about  latitude  64°  N. 
Here  it  probably  turns  toward  the  west  and  joins- 
the  Labrador  Current.  There  is  another  move- 
ment of  water  southward  from  the  Arctic  Ocean 
through  the  straits  and  bays  which  communicate 
with  Baffin's  Bay.  The  Labrador  Current  flows 
southward  along  the  west  coast  of  Bafl^'s  Ba^ 
past  Labrador  and  Newfoundland,  until  it  dips 
into  the  eastward  drift  of  the  warmer  waters 
off  the  Banks  of  Newfoundland,  where  the  divers 
currents  prevailing  are  but  feeble.  It  has  been 
supposed  that  a  part  of  this  current  continued 
southward  along  the  Nova  Scotian  and  New 
England  coast,  but  some  other  explanation  must 
be  offered  for  the  cold  current  which  exists  on 
that  coast.  The  Labrador  Current,  which  has  a 
very  low  water  temperature,  carries  with  it  ice- 
bergs and  floes,  which  eventually  disappear  by 
melting  in  the  vicinity  of  Cape  Race.  In  thia 
latter  region  heavy  fogs  prevail  whenever  winds- 
from  the  south  carry  moist,  warm  air  over  the 


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100  MBA         % 


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^  /      C"^  •*  OOPVRIOMT,  1902,  BY  DODD,MEAO  A  COMPANY 


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ABCTIC  REGION. 


761 


ABCTIC  REGION. 


cold  water.  There  13  another  drift  of  water 
northward  through  Bering  Strait,  but  its  vol- 
ume is  not  great. 

CuMATE.  The  annual  average  temperatures 
of  the  Arctic  region  are  below  32°  F.  On  the 
island  of  Jan  Maven,  29*  F.;  in  Spitzbergen, 
22°  F.;  Sea  of  Kara,  13°  F.;  Point  Barrow, 
8°  F.;  Lady  Franklin  Bay,  2°  F.  In  Spitz- 
bergen the  average  temperatures  are  in  July  40° 
F.;  in  December,  — 2°  F.;  those  of  Lady  Frank- 
lin Bay,  in  July,  37°  F.;  and  February,  —  39°  F. 
In  other  localities,  Nares  experienced  a  mini- 
mum temperature  of.  —  74°  F. ;  Greely,  a  mini- 
mum of  —62°  F.;  Nansen,  —62°  F.,  and  De 
Long,  — 72°  F.  The  distribution  of  average 
temperatures  for  January  shows  a  great  area 
extending  northward  of  the  central  and  eastern 
part  of  the  Asiatic  and  American  continents, 
from  about  latitude  75°  to  beyond  the  pole,  over 
which  the  average  temperature  is  below  — 35° 
F.,  from  which  central  area  the  temperatures 
increase  in  all  directions,  save  on  one  side,  to 
the  following  temperatures  along  the  Arctic 
Circle:  — 30°  F.  on  the  North  American  Con- 
tinent, +  30°  F.  in  Iceland  and  the  North  At- 
lantic, +  5°  F.  in  north  Europe,  —  10°  F.*  at 
Bering  Strait,  — 31°  P.  in  eastern  north  Asia; 
but  there  is  actually  a  decrease  of  temperature 
from  the  Polar  region  to  — 60°  F.  in  central 
north  Asia,  which  is  the  cold  pole  of  the  globe. 
The  distribution  of  average  temperatures  for 
July  shows  a  circumpolar  area  of  +  35°  F., 
which  lies  mostly  north  of  latitude  80°,  between 
North  America  and  Europe,  but  lies  below'  80° 
latitude  elsewhere,  and  descends  to  latitude  70° 
in  northern  Alaska.  From  this  central  cold  area 
the  temperatures  increase  in  all  directions  to  the 
following  values  along  the  Arctic  Circle :  West- 
em  North  Atlantic,  +45°  F. ;  eastern  North 
Atlantic,  +  60°  F. ;  northern  Europe,  +  55°  F. ; 
northern  Asia,  +  60°  F. ;  Bering  Strait,  -f  45° 
F.,  and  northern  North  America,  +  55°  F.  The 
winds  in  January  near  the  pole  are  generally 
from  the  north  in  the  neighborhood  of  Baffin's 
Bay  and  northward  of  North  America,  but  north 
of  Asia  they  appear  to  be  from  the  south,  veering 
toward  the  east  over  northern  Europe.  In  July 
the  winds  are  from  the  southwest  in  Baffin's 
Bay,  from  the  northwest  in  the  archipelago 
northward  of  North  America,  from  the  east 
north  of  Alaska,  from  the  northeast  north  of 
Asia,  from  the  north  or  northeast  north  of 
Europe,  and  from  the  north-northeast  or  north- 
west in  the  North  Atlantic.  The  cloudiness 
averages  probably  between  40  and  60  per  cent, 
in  January,  and  between  60  and  70  per  cent,  in 
July.  The  annual  precipitation  is  in  general 
less  than  10  inches  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
most  of  it  falls  as  snow. 

The  temperature  of  the  Arctic  waters  varies 
from  several  degrees  above  freezing  to  even 
slightly  below  free2:ing  at  and  near  the  surface; 
but  from  a  distance  of  600  or  600  feet  below  the 
surface  down  to  great  depths  the  temperature  is 
about  1°  F.  above  freezing. 

Inhabitants.  Banging  across  the  North 
American  continent,  above  the  Arctic  Circle, 
from  Alaska  to  the  eastern  end  of  the  archipela- 
go, and  also  settled  on  both  the  west  and  the  east 
coasts  of  Greenland,  are  tribes  of  Eskimos,  a 
race  of  aborigines,  believed  by  certain  authorities 
to  be  of  Mongolian  origin;  by  other  authorities 
to  be  derived  from  American  Indian  stock.    They 


live  by  hunting  and  fishing,  speak  an  aggluti- 
nate language,  haye  no  written  characters  and  no 
well-defined  form  of  government.  Whether  they 
have  a  well-defined  form  of  religion  has  not  been 
definitely  determined.  Peary,  who  examined 
with  some  care  the  isolated  tribe  in  the  Whale 
Sound  region  of  Greenland,  reports  that  the 
nearest  approach  to  religion  is  "simply  a  collec- 
tion of  miscellaneous  superstitions  and  beliefs 
in  good  and  evil  spirits."  Other  observers,  how- 
ever, report  that  they  have  some  belief  in  a 
future  life.  For  further-  information  see  Eski- 
mo; Greenij^nd;  Alaska,  ete.  The  other  im- 
portant Arctic  inhabitants  are  the  Lapps  and 
Finns,  and  a  series  of  tribes,  probably  of  Mongo- 
lian origin,  living  in  the  northern  part  of  Si- 
beria; the  Samoyedes,  Tunguses,  Yakuts,  Yuka- 
hires,  and  Tchuktehis.  These  tribes  are  sup- 
ported, some  by  hunting  and  fishing,  but  most  by 
herds  of  reindeer,  which  find  sustenance  in  the 
moss  of  the  tundra.  But  all  the  tribes  are  more 
or  less  nomadic  in  their  habits — even  those  that 
build  villages  of  timber.  Those  that  depend  for 
livelihood  upon  their  herds  of  reindeer  are  some- 
times forced  to  wander  to  fresh  tundra;  those 
that  depend  upon  hunting  and  fishing  follow  the 
game  from  place  to  place. 

Flora  and  Fauna.  The  general  similarity  of 
modem  life-forms  throughout  the  Arctic  lands, 
which  has  been  noted  by  Heilprin  and  others,  is 
interesting  from  a  geological  standpoint,  in  that 
it  shows  that  areas  now  separated  by  stretehes  of 
water  were  probably  connected  in  past  ages.  It 
seems  quite  certain  that  the  area  now  occupied 
by  Bermg  Sea  and  Bering  Strait  was  in  com- 
paratively recent  times  a  land  surface,  and  that 
there  was  a  migration  of  fauna  and  flora  between 
the  American  and  the  Euro-Asian  continente. 
However,  the  uniformity  of  conditions  over  wide 
areas  is  also  undoubtedly  a  factor  causing  simi- 
larities of  life-forms,  as  fs  shown  by  the  fact  that 
isolated  Antarctic  islands  have  closely  similar 
floras. 

Arctic  Plants.  In  many  respects  these 
plants,  whose  natural  habitate  are  in  high  lati- 
tudes, resemble  alpine  plants  (q.v.),  and,  like 
them,  form  one  of  the  three  climatic  groups  of 
xerophytes  (q.v.).  Dwarf  growth  is  one  of  the 
chief  characteristics  of  Arctic  vegetation,  and  is 
remarkably  well  illustrated  in  a  juniper  stem 
reported  by  Kihlman:  The  stem  was  but  3% 
inches  thick,  and  yet  showed  544  growth  rings. 
Plants  that  grow  to  a  height  of  one  or  two  feet- 
in  Sweden  are  but  one  or  two  inches  high  in  the 
far  North.  As  in  the  case  of  alpine  plants,  re- 
duction is  confined  to  the  stems  and  leaves,  the 
roots  and  fiowers  being  as  large  as  in  warmer 
climates.  Cushion  and  rosette  plants  are  well 
developed.  The  leaf  stnicture  is  highly  xero- 
phytic,  leathery  and  thick-skinned  evergreen 
leaves  being  particularly  abundant. 

The  Arctic  life  conditions  have  been  especially 
well  described  by  Kihlman  {Pflanzenbiologische 
Studien  aua  Russisch- Lapland,  1890,  etc.).  The 
cold  and  darkness  of  the  long  winter  nights  have 
but  little  influence  on  the  vegetation.  Of  greater 
importance  are  the  short  vegetative  period,  which 
excludes  many  plant  species  from  life  in  Arctic 
regions,  and  the  prevalence  of  dry  winds  at  times 
when  transpiration  losses  cannot  be  made  good. 
Kihlman  thinks  that  this  latter  factor  is  the 
chief  cause  of  Arctic  phenomena.  The  absence 
of  trees,  then,  is  due  not  to  the  shortness  of  the 


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period  of  vegetation,  nor  to  the  cold,  but  to  dry 
winds;  this  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  trees 
thrive  in  the  coldest  known  place  in  the  world 
(Verkhoyansk,  Siberia),  and  also  by  the  fact 
that  the  height  of  shrubs  is  determined  by  the 
level  of  the  snow  in  winter.  The  continuous 
though  not  intense  light  of  Arctic  regions  checks 


DBABA  ▲LPIMB 

Showing  the  densely  compacted  cushion-form  of 
Arctic-alpine  plants. 

growth,  but  favors  photosynthesis.  One  of  the 
peculiarities  of  Arctic-plant  life  is  that  there  are 
no  gradual  seasonal  transitions.  The  buds  are 
largely  laid  down  in  the  preceding  season,  and 
spring  into  active  life  at  once;  gro^^'th  is  checked 
with  equal  suddenness  in  the  fall. 

The  Arctic  differs  radically  from  the  temperate 
zone  in  that  plant  structures  are  xerophytic,  re- 
'  gardless  of  water  and  soil  conditions.  In  fact, 
one  may  refer  all  of  the  arctic  vegetation  to  one 
great  plant  formation,  the  tundra  (q.v.).  While 
Arctic  plants  closely  resemble  alpine  plants  eco- 
logically, there  are  interesting  floristic  differ- 
ences. Alpine  plants  (q.v.)  are  noted  for  their 
endemism  (q.v.),  while  Arctic  plants  are  similar 
over  wide  areflas.  Indeed,  the  Arctic  floras  of 
Europe  and  America  are  almost  identical. 

About  seventeen  hundred  species  of  plants 
have  been  found  in  the  Arctic  region.  In  the 
zone  nearest  the  circle  grow  a  few  trees,  mainly 
junipers,  dwarf  willows,  and  birches.  The  tree 
line  in  the  Samoyed  region  ends  near  the  67th 
parallel  of  latitude;  at  the  Yenisei  River,  near 
the  C5th  parallel;  at  the  Lena,  near  the  71st 
parallel ;  at  the  Mackenzie,  near  the  68th  par- 
allel;   at  Hudson  Bay,  it  runs  down  to  the  60th 


parallel;  in  Labrador,  to  the  52d  parallel.  In 
Greenland  it  lies  near  the  62d  parallel.  Flower- 
ing plants,  grasses,  mosses,  and  lichens  extend  to 
the  most  northern  land  seen  by  man.  Examples 
of  those  found  in  all  sections  of  the  Arctic  world 
are  saxifrages  {Saxifraga  oppositifolia  is  ubiqui- 
tous), several  varieties  of  ranunculus,  potentil- 
las,  poppies  (the  Arctic  poppy,  Papaver  nudi- 
caule,  is  found  even  upon  the  crests  of  the  cliffs 
in  northern  Greenland,  where  it  thrusts  its  head 
through  the  edge  of  the  ice-cap  to  reach  the  sun- 
light),  drabas,  cochlearia,  etc.  The  country  richest 
in  variety  is  I^apland,  where  are  found  three- 
fourths  of  the  species  known  in  the  Arctic 
regions.  For  the  varieties  characteristic  of  each 
country,  see  Lapland;  Greenland;  Siberla; 
Alaska;  Spitzbergen;  Franz-Josef  Land; 
Ellesmere  Land;  Grinnell  Land,  etc.  See  also 
Moss;  Lichen;  Grass;  Distribltion  of 
Plants,  etc. 

Arctic  Mammals.  The  similarity  of  species 
of  Arctic  mammals  throughout  the  circle  of  the 
globe  is  even  closer  than  that  of  plants.  Of  land 
mammals  there  are  but  few,  and  many  of  these 
are  of  the  same  species  wherever  found.  The 
polar  bear  {Uraus  maritimus)  has  the  highest 
range.  Specimens  have  been  found  upon  the 
ice-pack  north  of  every  known  land.  The  bear, 
however,  is  never  found  far  from  the  coast 
either  inland  or  at  sea.  ( See  Bear.  )  The  Arctic 
fox  (Vulpe8  lagopus)  has  almost  as  high  s 
range,  and  is  also  found  throughout  the  entire 
Arctic  land  area.  The  lemming  is  found  in 
every  Arctic  country  except  Franz-Josef  Land. 
The  reindeer  (Rangifer  tarandus)  is  found  around 
the  globe  occasionally  as  far  north  as  about  the 
79th  parallel,  but  does  not  inhabit  the  great 
islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  musk-ox  (Ori- 
ho8  moschatus)  has  been  common  within  the 
memory  of  man  as  far  west  as  Point  Barrow;  but 
at  present  its  range  extends  from  the  Mackenzie 
River  east  across  the  continent  to  Grinnell  Land, 
and  again  across  the  northern  part  of  Greenland. 
The  Arctic  hare  {Lepus  glacialis)  is  found  in 
the  northern  part  of  North  America  and  of 
Greenland,  and  in  these  regions  it  reaches  the 
highest  known  land.  Among  the  other  Arctic 
land  animals  are  the  wolverine  or  glutton  {Oulo 
arcticu8)f  which  is  found  in  North  America  and 
is  reported  to  have  existed  in  Greenland,  though 
such  reports  lack  scientific  verification;  the 
Arctic  wolf;  and  the  Eskimo  dog,  which  is  sup- 
posed by  most  authorities  to  have  been  derived 
from  the  wolf  by  taming. 

The  most  important  of  the  sea-mammals  are 
the  whales  and  seals.  The  right  whale  {Balcenus 
myaticeius)  is  found  in  the  waters  east  of  Green- 
land, in  Baffin's  Bay,  and  again  north  of  Bering 
Strait.  The  range  of  individuals  is  exceedingly 
wide ;  a  whale  bearing  a  Greenland  harpoon  has 
been  found  in  the  &ring  Strait  region.  The 
razor-back,  the  hump-back,  and  the  bottle-nose, 
the  grampus,  the  white  whale,  and  the  narwhal, 
are  also  found  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.     See  Whale. 

Among  the  pinnipeds,  the  most  remarkable  is 
the  walrus  (q.v.),  which  formerly  inhabited  the 
seas  near  the  coasts  of  all  Arctic  lands,  but  on 
account  of  slaughter  by  fishermen  for  ivory,  skin, 
and  oil,  has  been  driven  from  Europe  and  from 
the  southern  part  of  Baffin  Bay.  The  North  At- 
lantic species  {Odobctnus  rosmarus  is  still  plen- 
tiful in  the  Smith  Sound  region  and  in  Spitzber- 
gen and  Franz-Josef  Land,  and  the  Pacific  spe- 


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ABCTIC  BEGION. 


cies  (OdoJxenua  ohesus),  is  found  on  the  north- 
ern coast  of  Alaska  and  Kamchatka.  Among 
species  of  hair  seals  which  inhabit  the  Arctic 
seas,  the  most  important  is  the  Phoca  foetida, 
whose  range  covers  the  Arctic  regions  near  the 
shores  and  ice-fields,  and  extends  south  to  Labra- 
dor, the  Orkneys,  the  Hebrides,  the  gulfs  of  Both- 
nia and  of  Finland,  and  along  the  coasts  of  Si- 
beria and  Alaska,  into  Bering  Sea.  The  harp 
seal  {Phoca  grcenlandica)  and  the  bearded  seal 
{Phoca  harhatua),  which  is  the  largest  of  the 
North  Atlantic  pinnipeds  next  to  the  walrus, 
also  have  a  circumpolar  distribution.  The  blad- 
der-nose or  hooded  seal  {Systophora  cristata) 
ranges  from  Greenland  to  Spitzbergen  and  along 
the  northern  coast  of  Europe.  For  other  seals, 
see  the  article  Seal. 

Abctic  Birds.  Birds  are  very  plentiful 
throughout  the  whole  of  the  Arctic  region.  The 
little  auk  {\fergnlu8  alle)  and  the  guillemot 
( Uria  arra )  are  found  in  thousands  in  whatever 
region  there  are  clitfs  to  serve  as  nesting  spots. 
Ravens  {Corvus  corax),  snow  buntings  (Plectro- 
phenax  nivalU:),  and  sandpipers,  have  been  seen 
in  the  remotest  northern  land  regions.  The 
snowy  owl  {Nyctea  nivea)  and  the  falcon, 
though  in  certain  regions  rare — as,  for  instance, 
Greenland  and  Franz-Josef  Land — still  inhabit 
all  Arctic  lands.  Various  species  of  gulls — 
Ross's  gull  { Rhodostethia  rosea),  the  glaucus 
gull  {I,aru8  glaucus),  the  ivory  gull  {Pagophila 
ebumea) — also  range  very  far  north;  Nansen 
saw  Ross's  gulls  and  ivory  gulls  upon  the  ice- 
pack above  Franz-Josef  Land.  Among  the  other 
characteristic  Arctic  birds  are  the  eider  duck, 
kittiwakes,  skuas,  teal,  petrels,  puffins,  and  ptar- 
migans. Further  information  concerning  the 
mammals  and  birds  of  the  Arctic  region  will  be 
found  under  the  names  of  the  animals.  See  also 
Distribution  of  AnimaIs,  and  the  titles  of  the 
countries  included  in  the  Arctic  region. 

Arctic  Insects.  Insects  have  been  collected 
whenever  exploration  has  extended  and  vegeta- 
tion was  known.  Bees  and  parasitic  hymenop- 
terans  occur  as  far  as  the  Pedicularis  or  other 
flowers  bloom — ^up  to  82°  or  more  in  .Grinnell 
Land,  and  in  Greenland.  Beetles  are  less  hardy, 
and  few  are  known  north  of  the  Arctic  Circle, 
but  flies,  butterflies  and  moths  have  been  taken 
up  to  83°  on  the  American  side  of  the  pole. 
Thus  the  Nares  expedition  brought  back  several 
species  of  Lepidoptera,  mostly  of  common  genera 
(Argynnis,  Colias,  Lycaena,  etc.)  of  butterflies, 
while  the  few  moths  represent  various  families. 
These  insects  have  only  about  six  weeks  in  which 
their  larvae  can  hatch  and  feed,  and  probably  do 
not  mature  in  a  single  season;  but  it  must  also 
be  remembered  that  the  whole  twenty- four  hours 
of  the  days  of  their  brief  career  are  sunny,  and 
they  fly  about  continuously. 

Marine  Life.  More  than  one  hundred  and 
twenty- five  species  of  fishes  have  been  taken 
within  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  valuable  fisheries 
exist  on  the  northern  coasts  of  Russia,  in  the 
waters  about  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla, 
and  might  be  organized  north  of  Bering  Strait. 
The  most  important  are  cod,  halibut,  flatfish, 
and  related  forms;  but  many  bottom- feeding 
families  are  represented  as  far  north  as  knowl- 
edge extends.  Several  species  of  salmon  or 
trout  ascend  Arctic  rivers,  the  most  northerly 
case  being  that  of  Salmo  arcturus,  taken  in 
Grinnell  Land   (latitude  82°).     Food  for  many 


of  these  fishes,  and  for  seals  and  walruses,  is 
afforded  by  a  large  variety  of  moUusks,  includ- 
ing squids,  clams,  and  mussels,  and  a  long  list 
of  gastropods,  chiefly  of  the  families  Pleuro- 
tomidee,  Buccinidse,  Natacids,  and  Trochidae. 
Nearly  one  hundred  species  have  been  cata- 
logued, a  large  proportion  of  which  also  exist 
in  temperate  latitudes.  The  great  abundance 
of  diatoms  and  the  general  prevalence  of  low 
algae  sustain  these  and  similar  low  animals. 
No  moUusks  are  more  widespread  and  numer- 
ous, however,  than  the  pteropods,  especially  of 
the  genera  Clione  and  Limacina,  and  they  fur- 
nish an  important  element  in  whale  diet.  There 
are  also  chitons  and  sea-slugs.  Crustacea 
abound  in  the  Arctic  seas.  A  few  are  of  the 
higher  forms,  allied  to  crabs  and  shrimps,  but 
mainly  they  are  entomostraeans  of  small  size 
and  pelagic  life.  Such  amphipods  as  Anonyx 
and  Hippolyte  are  well  represented  in  the  ex- 
treme north  at  various  depths,  as  also  are  the 
copepods,  isopods,  barnacles,  and  pycnogonids; 
and  the  specimens  of  such  species  as  are  also 
known  southward  are  very  much  larger  than 
their  southern  equivalents.  All  of  these,  and 
especially  the  copepods,  are  of  gT^^^  economic 
importance  as  food  for  whales.  They  are  an  ex- 
ample of  the  power  of  resisting  cold  possessed 
by  these  creatures,  for  they  survive  freezing  for 
a  long  period,  and  their  eggs  are  still  more 
hardy.  The  shores  and  shallows  of  the  Arctic 
Ocean  also  abound  in  annelids,  of  which  twentv 
or  more  species  have  been  collected,  and  which 
form  an  important  element  in  the  diet  of  the 
larger  denizens  of  those  seas;  and  the  still 
humbler  ranks  of  life  are  represented  by  jelly 
fishes  and  hydroids,  especially  varied  and  nu- 
merous north  of  Alaska,  and  by  polyzoans  and 
test-bearing  protozoans  in  great  numbers.  Sea- 
weeds diminish  toward  the  extreme  north  to  a 
very  few  olive-colored  kinds,  and  seem  to  be 
more  abundant  north  of  Europe  than  in  the 
American  Arctic  regions. 

Discoveries.  For  explorers  the  principal  en- 
trance to  the  Arctic  Ocean  is  the  passage  be- 
tween Nova  Zembla  and  Franz- Josef  Land; 
the  next  most  convenient  entrance  is  through 
Davis  Strait.  American  explorers  have  gen- 
erally passed  up  Davis  Strait,  Baffin's  Bay,  and 
Smith  Sound,  and  through  the  very  narrow  Ken- 
nedy Channel,  but  have  not  as  yet  succeeded  in 
steaming  or  sailing  by  this  route  into  the 
open  Arctic  Ocean ;  although  Peary,  above  Green- 
land, and  Markham,  in  Grinnell  Land,  reached 
the  oceai^  by  traveling  along  the  shore. 

As  to  the  efforts  to  reach  the  North  Pole 
itself,  it  may  be  stated  that  by  the  use  of 
sledges.  Parry,  in  1827,  reached  82°  46',  far  out- 
stripping all  previous  records;  Markham,  of  the 
British  expedition  under  Nares,  attained  83°  20' ; 
Lockwood,  of  Greely's  expedition  reached  83° 
24';  and  Peary,  in  1900,  reached  83°  60'.  By  the 
passage  eastward  toward  the  New  Siberian 
Islands  and  the  subsequent  drift  in  the  ice-floe, 
Nansen's  ship,  the  Fram,  in  1895,  reached  85° 
57';  but  having  previously  left  the  ship,  by  a 
sledge  journey  over  the  ice-pack,  Nansen  and 
Johannsen  reached  86°  14'.  On  April  26,  1900, 
Cagni,  of  Abruzzi's  expedition,  by  a  rapid  march 
northward  from  Franz-Josef  Land,  reached  86° 
33'. 

BiBLioGRAFHT.  A  Very  good  bibliography  of 
the  Arctic  region  is  Chavanne,  aided  by  Karpf 


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and  Mommier,  Die  Literatur  iiher  die  Polar- 
Regionen  der  Erde  (Vienna,  1878).  In  this 
work  may  be  found  the  titles,  classified,  of 
most  of  the  important  books  that  had  been 
written  up  to  the  time  of  its  publication. 
General  Greely's  Handbook  of  Arctic  Discov- 
eries (Boston,'  1896)  also  gives  valuable  lists 
of  books,  classified  according  to  the  various 
spheres  of  Arctic  exploration.  A  fairly  com- 
prehensive work  covering  The  Natural  History, 
Geology,  and  Physics  of  Greenland  and  Adjacent 
Regions  (London,  1875),  was  prepared  by  T. 
Jones  as  a  manual  for  the  British  Admiralty 
Expedition  of  1875-76.  The  information  pre- 
sented by  the  contributors  to  this  work  extends 
somewhat  beyond  the  regions  "adjacent"  to 
Greenland,  but  needs  to  be  supplemented,  and 
in  a  few  passages  corrected,  by  the  reports  of 
later  explorations.  Of  such  reports,  the  most 
important  are  (1)  those  of  the  International 
Polar  Expeditions  of  1881-83,  published  by  tne 
various  cooperating  governments.  Those  of  the 
United  States  appeared  (a)  by  Greely  under 
the  title.  Report  on  the  Proceedings  of  the 
United  States  Expedition  to  Lady  Franklin  Bay 
(Washington,  1888);  (b)  by  Ray,  under  the 
title,  Report  of  the  Expedition  to  Poiwt  Barrow; 
that  of  Austria,  by  Wohlgemuth,  appeared 
under  the  title,  Osterreichische  Polarstation  Jan 
Mayen  (Vienna,  1886)  ;  that  of  Denmark,  by 
Paulsen,  under  the  title,  Expedition  Danoise, 
Godthaah  (Copenhagen,  1889-93)  ;  that  of  Great 
Britain,  by  Dawson,  under  the  title.  Fort  Rae 
(London,  "1886)  ;  that  of  Russia,  by  Andreyeff 
and  I^ntz,  under  the  title,  Beobachtungen  der 
russischen  Polarstationen  auf  Nowaja  Semla 
(Saint  Petersburg,  1886-95),  etc.  (2)  Wright, 
Greenland  Ice  Fields  and  Life  in  the  North 
Atlantic  (New  York,  1896),  which  contains  a 
brief  description  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of 
Greenland  and  a  discussion  of  Arctic  glacial 
phenomena;  (3)  Conway,  The  First  Crossing  of 
Spitzbergen  (I^ndon,  1897);  (4)  Jackson,  A 
.Thousand  Days  in  the  Arctic  (New  York,  1899), 
which  deals  with  Franz-Josef  Land,  and  The 
Great  Frozen  Land  (New  York,  1895),  which 
deals  with  the  Samoyed  peninsula;  (5)  Peary, 
Northward  Over  thi  Great  Ice  (New  York, 
1898),  which  contains  a  valuable  chapter  on  the 
most  northern  Eskimos;  (6)  Nansen,  Farthest 
North,  which  sets  forth  the  drift  of  a  vessel 
frozen  in  the  ice  across  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Books  on  Arctic  currents  are:  Dittmar,  Das 
Nord-Polarmeer  (Hanover,  1901),  and  the  re- 
port published  by  the  Norwegian  Government 
of  the  investigations  of  the  ship  Ingolf  in  the 
region  of  east  Greenland  and  Iceland. 

Valuable  works  on  the  inhabitants  are:  Boas, 
"The  Eskimo  of  Baflfin  Land  and  Hudson  Bay" 
{Bulletin,  American  Museum  of  Natural  His- 
tory, Vol.  XV.;  Pecher,  The  Races  of  Man 
and  Their  Geographical  Distribution  (London, 
1876)  ;  Ratzel,  The  History  of  Mankind  (3 
vols.,  translated;  New  York,  1896).  For  the 
distribution  of  mammals  consult  Heilprin,  The 
Geographical  and  Geological  Distribution  of 
Animals  (New  York,  1887);  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  plants  consult  Heer,  Flora  Fossila  Arc- 
tica    (7   vols.,  Zurich,   1868-80). 

For  an  account  of  exploration  in  the  Arctic 
regions,  see  Poijir  Research.  For  further  in- 
formation concerning  the  magnetic  phenomena, 
see  Terrestrial  Magnetism. 


764  ABCY. 

ABCTIUM,  ftrk'shl-dm.    See  Burdock. 
ABCTOIIKEA.     See  Carnivora. 


ABC  TOST  AFHTI^OB  (Gk.  aptcroc,  ark^ 
t08,  bear  -j- ara^/.^,  etaphyle,  grape-bunch).  A 
genus  of  shrubs  and  small  trees  closely  related 
to  Arbutus.  Moet  of  the  species  are  American; 
two,  however,  are  circumpolar.  The  red  Bear- 
berry  (Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi)  is  one  of  them. 
It  is  a  trailing  evergreen  shrub,  which  bears  small 
flowers  and  red  berries  that  are  eaten  by  birds, 
especially  grouse  and  ptarmigan.  Its  associated 
species,  Arctostaphylos  alpina,  has  berries  which 
are  black  when  ripe  and  leaves  which  are  not 
evergreen.  The  leaves  of  Arctostaphylos  uva- 
ursi  are  used  in  medicine.  They  contain  tannin, 
gallic  acid,  arbutin,  ericolin,  and  ursone,  and 
possess  tonic,  diuretic,  astringent,  and  nephri- 
tic properties.  The  manzanita  of  California  is 
Arctostaphylos  pungens  or  Arctostaphylos  man- 
zanita. It  is  a  shrub  or  small  tree  30  feet  high 
tnat  sometimes  forms  almost  impassable  thickets. 
A  number  of  other  species  are  believed  worthy  of 
cultivation  in  regions  adapted  to  them.  Only  the 
trailing  forms  are  entirely  hardy.  Fossil  speci- 
mens of  Arctostaphylos  uva-ursi  have  been  found 
in  the  clays  of  the  glacial  period  in  northern 
Europe. 

ABGTU^nS  (Gk.  ipicroc,  arktos,  bear,  the 
Great  Bear  -+-  olpoc,  ouros,  guardian) .  The  prin- 
cipal star  in  the  constellation  Bootes  (the 
"herdsman").  Arcturus  is  of  the  first  magni- 
tude, and  is  very  conspicuous  in  the  northeni 
heavens. 

AJl'CUA^nON.    See  Inarching. 

ARCTJEIIi,  Ur'kS'y'  (anciently,  Lat.  Arcus 
lulianus),  A  suburb  of  Paris  lying  four  miles 
south  of  that  city  (Map:  France,  C  7).  It  i* 
a  place  of  resort  for  Parisian  holiday  crowds, 
and  is  noted  for  the  ruins  of  an  aqueduct  built 
by  order  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Julian,  and  for 
several  aqueducts  of  modem  times. 

ABACUS  SENIORS  (Lat.,  bow  of  old  age). 
A  not  very  well-chosen  term  for  a  change  occur- 
ring in  the  cornea  of  the  eye,  in  consequence  of 
fatty  degeneration  of  its  marginal  part.  The 
term  is  (H>jecti(mable,  because  the  change  usually 
commences  before  the  advent  of  old  age ;  and  fur- 
ther, because  the  arcus,  or  arch,  is  usually  con- 
verted into  a  complete  circle  by  the  time  that 
the  patient  has  reached  the  age  of  60  or  70 
years.  The  arcus  senilis  usually  commences  at 
or  even  before  the  age  of  40  years,  aa  an  opaque 
whitish  crescent,  skirting  either  the  upper  or 
lower  margin  of  the  cornea;  and  from  this  be- 
ginning it  extends  along  the  edge,  till  it 
finally  becomes  a  complete  circle,  which  some- 
times assumes  a  chalky  whiteness,  and  gives  to 
the  eye  a  very  peculiar  appearance.  On  careful 
examination,  it  may  be  seen  that  a  narrow  inter- 
val of  partially  clear  cornea  always  interveni^ 
between  the  arcus  and  the  opaque  sclerotic.  As 
far  as  the  eye  is  concerned,  the  formation  of  this 
circle  is  of  little  importance.  It  is  usually  as^o 
ciated  with  arterio-sclerosis  of  the  blood  vesi«eN 
and  fatty  degeneration  of  other  portions  of  the 
body,  including  the  heart. 

ABGT,  ar's*'.  Grotto  of.  A  cavern  of 
remarkable  beauty  twelve  miles  east  of  Auxerre, 
]«>ance.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  used  in 
early  times  as  a  stone  quarry,  and  possibly  the 


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ABGY. 


765 


ABDEN   OF   FEVEBSHAM. 


material  for  the  Auxerre  cathedral  was  taken 
from  it.  One  of  its  divisions  is  400  yards  long, 
26  high,  and  14  wide. 

ARDy  or  AIBD.  A  Celtic  root,  meaning 
•height'  (cf.  Lat.  arduusy  high),  which  appears 
in  many  geographical  names,  especially  in  Ire- 
land and  Scotland. 

ABDAHAN,  llr'd&-h&n^  The  capital  of  a 
district  in  the  territory  of  Kars,  Transcaucasian 
Russia  (Map:  Russia,  F  3).  It  is  situated  on 
the  Kur  River.  Its  strategical  importance  as 
the  point  of  juncture  of  the  roads  to  Batum 
Akhaltsikh,  Kars,  and  Erzerum  was  recog- 
nized by  the  Turks,  who  by  constantly  im- 
proving its  fortifications,  made  it  finally  a  very 
strong  fortress.  In  1877,  20,000  Russians  under 
Devel  and  Heiman  successfully  stormed  it.  By 
the  treaty  of  San  Stefano  and  the  Berlin  Con- 
gress (1878),  Ardahan  and  the  surrounding 
country  were  ceded  to  Russia. 

ABDASHIB,  ar'd&-sher^  (Pahlavi  Artaxaor 
tar,  later  Pers.  Ardaair).  The  name  of  three 
monaichs  of  the  Sassanian  dynasty  of  Persia 
(see  Sa.ssanid^),  and  a  later  form  of  the  old 
name  Artakhshathra,  or  Artaxerxes  (q.v.).  The 
most  important  of  the  three  was  Ardashir  I.,  or 
Artakhshatar  Papakan,  who  foimded  the  Sas- 
sanian dynasty  by  overthrowing  Artabanus,  the 
last  of  the  Parthian  kings,  and  strengthened  his 
pow^er  by  further  conquests,  and  ruled  over  Per- 
sia A.D.  226-240.  The  other  two  of  the  name  were 
Ardashir  II.,  379-383;  Ardashir  III.,  628-629. 
See  Persia. 

ABDEBIIi,  ar'de-beK,  or  ABDABILy  ttr^dA- 
bel'.  A  celebrated  town  of  Persia,  situated  in 
latitude  38**  15'  north,  longitude  48**  19'  east, 
on  a  highly  elevated  plain,  forty  miles  from  the 
Caspian  Sea  (Map:  Persia,  D  5).  It  has 
a  moderate  climate,  and  its  picturesque  environs 
and  the  mineral  springs  in  its  vicinity  make  it 
the  favorite  abode  of  the  Persian  rulers,  whose 
tombs  it  contains.  Before  the  Russo- Persian  War 
(1826-28)  the  city  was  strongly  fortified  imder 
the  direction  of  a  French  general.  During  the 
war  it  was  captured  by  the  Russians,  and  was 
subsequently  nearly  ruined  by  earthquakes.  It 
derives  some  importance  from  its  proximity  to 
the  Lenkoran-Tabriz' caravan  route.  Its  popula- 
tion is  estimated  at  15,000. 

ABDtlCHE.  ar'd$sh'.  A  department  in  the 
south  of  France.  It  takes  its  name  from 
the  river  Ard^he,  a  tributary  of  the  Rh6ne,  and 
includes  the  northernmost  part  of  the  ancient 
province  of  Langiiedoc.  Area,  2136  square 
miles;  population,  1896,  360,599;  1901,  353,564. 
Ard^he  is  almost  wholly  mountainous.  The  up- 
land, which  has  winter  *for  about  six  months,  is 
devoted  to  pasturage;  the  terraces  and  valleys 
near  the  RhOne  have  a  warm  climate  and  pro- 
duce good  white  and  red  wine,  olives,  dates,  al- 
monds, chestnuts,  etc.  Lead,  Iron,  copper, 
and  manganese  are  mined.    Capital,  Privas. 

AB'DEN,  Edwin  Hunter  Pendleton  (1864 
— ).  An  American  actor  and  manager.  He  was 
born  February  13,  1864,  in  St.  Louis,  Mo.  He 
left  home  at  the  age  of  17,  and  after  a  variety 
of  experiences  in  the  West  went  upon  the  stage 
in  1882,  with  J.  W.  Keene's  company,  in  Chi- 
cago. Besides  his  engagements  with  other  man- 
agers, he  has  traveled  for  a  number  of  years  with 
his  o\;vTi  company,  and  appeared  in  pfays  of  his 
own  authorship.     He  has  written,  either  alone 


or  in  collaboration.  Eagle's  Nest,  Barred  Out, 
Raglan's  Way,  and  Zorah. 

AKDlSiNf  Forest  of.  A  wood  in  Warwick- 
shire, in  old  times  very  extensive.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  a  hunting-ground  of  Robin 
Hood's.  Certain  authorities  believe  that  Shake- 
speare used  it  as  a  background  is  As  You- Like  it; 
others  assert  that  his  scenery  was  taken  from 
the  forest  of  Ardennes. 

ABDENNES,  ar'dSn'  (Celt.,  high  wooded  val- 
ley, from  ard;  Lat.  arduus,  high;  the  ancient 
Lat.  Arduenna  Silva,  Ardenne  Forest).  A  wild, 
hilly  region,  extending  over  portions  of  Belgium 
and  France,  and  gradually  sloping  toward  the 
plains  of  Flanders.  In  ekrly  times,  the  name 
was  given  to  a  vast  forest  lying  between  the 
Rhine  and  the  Sambre,  a  distance  of  about  160 
miles.  The  average  height  of  the  hills  is  less 
than  1600  feet;  but  in  the  east,  Mont  St.-Hu- 
bert  attains  an  elevation  of  2100  feet.  Large 
tracts  of  this  region  consist  of  gently  undulating 
plateaus  densely  covered  with  oak  and  beech 
forests,  while  other  portions  are  marshy,  heathy, 
and  barren.  The  districts  through  which  the 
Meuse  and  other  rivers  flow  present  some  extra- 
ordinary appearances.  The  channel  of  the  river 
is  sometimes  bound  in  by  rugged  and  precipitous 
cliffs  more  than  600  feet  high.  The  principal 
rocks  of  the  Ardennes  are  clayslate,  grauwacke, 
quartz,  etc.,  interspersed  with  extensive  strata 
of  Paleozoic  limestone.  There  are  coal  and  iron 
mines  in  the  northwest;  lead,  antimonv,  and 
manganese  are  also  found.  There  is  little  culti- 
vation of  grain,  but  cattle  and  sheep  are  exten- 
sively reared.  Consult  A.  Meyrac,  Villes  et  vil- 
lages des  Ardennes  ( Charleville,  1898). 

ABBENNE8.  A  frontier  department  in  the 
northeast  of  France.  It  forms  a  part  of  the 
old  province  of  Champagne.  Area,  2020  square 
miles;  population,  in  1896,  318,865;  in  1901, 
315,589.  The  northeastern  part  of  Ardennes 
belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Meuse;  the  south- 
west is  watered  by  the  the  Aisne;  both  of 
these  rivers,  united  by  the  Canal  of  Ardennes, 
receive  several  affluents.  About  one-eighth  of 
the  surface  is  hilly  and  covered  with  forests 
and  wide  tracts  of  pasturage.  The  valleys 
alone  are  fertile  and  produce  corn.  The  vine 
is  cultivated  at  M^ziftres,  in  the  southwest.  In 
the  north,  near  Givet,  marble  is  obtained;  but 
the  prevailing  rock  is  limestone,  veined  with  lead 
and  iron.  Slate,  marble  and  iron,  porcelain 
clay,  and  sand  for  making  glass  are  obtained. 
Capital,  M<^zidres.  Consult  A.  Joanne,  Le  dd- 
partement  des  Ardennes  (Paris,  1898). 

ABDENNES,  The  Wild  Boar  of.  An  ap- 
pellation of  William  de  la  Marck,  a  lawless 
baron  of  the  reign  of  Louis  XL,  whom  Scott  has 
introduced  in  several  chapters  of  Quentin  Dur- 
ward. 

ABa)EN  OF  FEVEBSHAM.  The  first  Eng- 
lish "bourgeois  tragedy."  It  deals  with  a  murder 
by  a  wife  and  her  paramour.  The  plot  was 
drawn  from  an  actual  occurrence,  contemporary 
with  it.  It  was  first  printed  in  1592;  its  author- 
ship is  unknown.  The  play  has  been  attributed 
both  to  Shakespeare  and  toKyd.  In  1736,  Lillo, 
author  of  George  Barnwell,  began  an  adaptation 
of  it,  which  was  completed  after  his  death  by  Dr. 
Hoadley  and  produced  in  1790.  For  further  in- 
formation, consult:  Saintaburj',  History  of 
Elizabethan  Literature  (London,  1887). 


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ABDITL 


766 


ABEGA. 


ABDITI,  arde'W,  Luigi  (1822—).  An 
Italian  composer  and  musical  conductor.  He 
was  bom  at  Crescentino,  Piedmont,  July  16, 
1822.  After  graduating  from  the  Milan  Con- 
servatory in  1842,  he  began  his  career  as  a  violin 
virtuoso,  traveling  with  Bottesini,  the  famous 
double-bass  player.  With  the  Havana  Opera 
Company,  of  which  he  became  conductor,  he  vis- 
ited New  York  in  1847  and  during  subsequent 
seasons,  conducting  in  1854  the  first  performance 
at  the  Academy  of  Music,  w^here  he  brought  out 
his  opera,  La  8pia  (based  on  Cooper's  novel,  The 
8py)t  with  Brignoli  and  La  Grange.  In  1857  he 
was  conductor  at  her  Majesty's  Theatre  in  Lon- 
don. In  1869  he  conducted  The  Flying  Dutch- 
mnttf  the  first  performance  of  a  Wagner  opera  in 
Kngiand.  In  1878,  and  many  subsequent  sea- 
sons, he  again  conducted  opera  in  New  York. 
His  waltz  songs,  II  Bacio  (to  which  Piccolomini 
gave  great  vogue)  and  Fior  di  Margharita  (sung 
by  Patti  and  other  great  prima  donnas),  ure 
famous.  He  was  Patti 's  favorite  conductor.  His 
other  operas  are  /  Brigandi  ( 1841 )  and  II  Cor- 
earo  (1856).  He  published  My  Reminiscences 
(New  York,  1896),  containing  a  good  deal  of 
valuable  information,  besides  interesting  chit- 
chat. 

ABIVHOBE.  A  city  in  the  Chickasaw  Nation, 
Indian  Territory,  about  400  miles  south  by  west 
of  Kansas  City,  Mo. ;  on  the  Gulf,  Colorado,  and 
Santa  F6  and  other  railroads.  It  is  the  seat  of 
Hargrove  College,  and  controls  important  com- 
mercial interests  in  cotton,  coal,  and  asphalt. 
Ardmore  was  settled  in  1886  and  incorporated  in 
1898  under  a  charter  providing  for  a  government 
administered  by  a  mayor,  elected  every  two  years, 
and  a  municipal  council.  Population  in  1900, 
5681. 

ABDOGH,  ar'ddo.  A  small  village  in  Perth- 
shire, Scotland,  eight  miles  south-southwest  of 
Crieff,  with  the  best-preserved  Roman  camp  in 
Britain  (Map:  Scotland,  E  3).  The  camp  is  21^ 
miles  north  of  Greenloaning  station  on  the  Cale- 
donian Railway,  in  the  grounds  of  Ardoch  House. 
The  intrenched  works  form  a  rectangle  600  by 
430  feet,  the  four  sides  facing  the  cardinal 
points.  The  north  and  east  sides  are  protected 
by  five  ditches  and  six  ramparts,  these  works 
being  270  feet  broad  on  the  north  side  and  180 
feet  on  the  east.  A  deep  morass  exists  on  the 
southeast,  and  the  perpendicular  banks  of  Knaig 
Water,  rising  50  feet  high,  protect  the  camp  on 
the  west.  The  prfftorium,  or  general's  quarter, 
now  called  Chapel  Hill,  rises  above  the  level  of 
the  camp,  but  is  not  exactly  in  the  centre,  and  is 
nearly  a  square  of  60  feet  each  side.  Three  of 
the  four  gates  usual  in  Roman  camps  are  still 
seen.  A  subterranean  passage  is  said  to  have 
formerly  extended  from  the  praetorium  under  the 
bed  of  the  Knaig.  Not  far  north  of  this  station, 
on  the  way  to  Crieff,  may  be  traced  three  tem- 
porary Roman  camps  of  different  sizes.  Portions 
of  the  ramparts  of  these  camps  still  exist.         ' 

ABDBOS^AN  (Gael,  ard,  high  +  rossan, 
point).  A  small  seaport  town  and  summer  re- 
sort in  Ayrshire,  Scotland,  on  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
about  30  miles  southwest  of  Glasgow  (Map: 
Scotland,  D  4).  Its  harbor,  sheltered  by  an 
island  off  the  coast,  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most 
accessible  on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  and  has 
been  greatly  improved  by  the  earla  of  Eglinton. 
There  is  a  large  export  of  coal  and  pig  iron  from 


this  place,  and  ship-building  is  carried  on  to  a 
considerable  extent.  On  a  hill  above  the  town 
stand  the  ruins  of  Ardrossan  Castle,  said  to  have 
been  surprised  by  Wallace  when  held  by  the 
forces  of  Edward  I.  Population  of  the  police 
burgh  in  1901,  5933. 

ABE,  ftr  (Lat.  area^  piece  of  level  ground). 
The  unit  of  the  French  land  measure;  a  square, 
the  side  of  which  is  10  metres  (or  32.809  feet) 
long,  and  which,  therefore,  contains  100  square 
metres  =  1076  English  square  feet.  The  next  de- 
nomination in  the  ascending  scale  is  the  decare, 
containing  10  ares;  but  the  denomination  com- 
monly used  in  describing  a  quantity  of  land  is 
the  hectare  of  100  ares  =  2.47  English  statute  or 
imperial  acres.    See  Metric  System. 

A'BEA  (Lat.,  piece  of  level  ground,  vacant 
place ) .  The  superfices  of  any  bounded  surface  or 
space.  The  calculation  of  areas,  or  mensuration 
of  surfaces,  is  one  of  the  ultimate  objects  of 
geometry.  Area  is  commonly  measured  by  a 
square  unit,  as  the  square  inch,  square  yard, 
square  metre,  square  degree.  ( See  ^Iensubation  ; 
and  QuADBATUBE. )  In  antiquity  this  word  meant 
any  space  free  of  buildings,  such  as  a  square, 
inclosure,  court,  arena  of  a  circus,  space  around 
a  temple  or  any  other  public  building.  In  this 
connection,  the  area  was  consecrated  ground. 
So,  in  connection  with  early  Christian  churches 
there  were  areas  protected  by  law,  in  which  the 
faithful  were  buried.  The  modem  use  of  the 
word  is  restricted  to  the  open  space  of  a  narrow 
front  yard  or  back  court,  or  in  connection  with  a 
basement. 

AJIE^GA  (Sp.  Portug.,  from  Canarese  ad- 
iki),  A  genus  of  palms  containing  about  twenty 
species,  having  pinnate  leaves  and  three  or  more 
spathes.  The  fruit  is  a  fibrous  one  -  seeded 
drupe,  a  nut  with  an  outer  fibrous  husk.  Areca 
catechUj  the  Pinang  palm,  or  betel-nut  palm,  is 
a  native  of  the  East  Indies,  whose  nut  yields  a 
sort  of  catechu.  ( See  Catechu.  )  This  Areca-nut, 
or  Betel-nut,  is  very  much  used  in  all  parts  of 
the  East,  the  chewing  of  it  with  quick-lime  and 
the  leaf  of  the  betel-pepper  being  one  of  the  most 
prevalent  habits  of  the  people.  ( See  Betel.  )  The 
fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg,  smooth, 
orange  or  scarlet,  the  fibrous  husk  about  half  an 
inch  thick.  When  chewed  it  reduces  the  saliva 
and  stains  the  lips  and  teeth.  It  is  said  to  stimu- 
late the  digestive  organs  and  to  prevent  dyseii- 
tery.  Areca-nuts  form  a  considerable  article 
of  trade  in  the  East.  The  timber  of  the  palm 
which  produces  them,  and  its  leaf-stalks  and 
spatheSj  are  also  used  for  domestic  purposes. 
The  tree  is  often  40  to  100  feet  high,  and  in  gen- 
eral less  than  a  foot  in  diameter.  The  leaves  are 
few,  but  very  large,  their  leaflets  one  to  two  feet 
long.  In  Malabar,  an  inebriating  lozenge  is  pre- 
pared from  the  sap.  Areca  oleracea,  or  Oreodoxa 
aleraceay  the  *cabbage  palm*  of  the  W^est  Indies, 
is  a  very  tall  tree,  100  to  200  feet,  whose  huge 
terminal  leaf -bud  is  sweet  and  nutritious,  and  is 
sometimes  used  for  the  table  as  cabbage;  but 
when  it  is  cut  off  the  tree  is  destroyed.  The 
stem  of  this  tree,  notwithstanding  its  great 
height,  is  remarkably  slender.  The  nuts  are  pro- 
duced in  great  numbers;  they  are  about  the  size 
of  a  filbert,  and  have  a  sweet  kernel.  Areca  »a- 
pida,  now  called  Rhopalostylis  sapidn^  the  New 
Zealand  palm,  is  remarkable  as  extending  south- 
ward beyond  the  geographical  limits  of  any  other 


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ABECA. 


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ABENBT. 


of  its  order,  as  far,  indeed,  as  latitude  38°  22'  S. 
It  is  a  small  palm,  only  from  six  to  ten  feet 
high,  with  leaves  four  to  six  feet  long.  The 
young  inflorescence  is  eaten.  Areca  vestiariaj  a 
native  of  the  East,  is  so  called  because  clothing 
is  made  from  its  fibres.  For  illustrations,  see 
Palms. 

ABECreO,  Jl'rA-se'Bft.  The  chief  city  of  the 
aepartment  of  the  same  name,  rather  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  the  northern  coast  of  Porto 
Rico  (Map:  Porto  Rico,  B  1).  It  is  about 
forty  miles  west  of  Siin  Juan,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail,  and  has  a  rather  shallow  har- 
bor and  some  sugar  mills.  Population,  in  1899, 
8008. 

AB^IOP'AOnS.    See  Areopagus. 

ABE^A  (Lat.,  sand,  sandy  place,  beach, 
coast).  The  central  part  of  an  amphitheatre, 
inclosed  by  the  seats.  In  it  the  gladiatorial 
contests  and  other  games  were  held,  and  the 
name  arena  was  given  to  it  because  of  the  sand 
which  was  spread  to  soak  up  the  blood.  The 
term  is  extended  to  mean  any  flat  inclosure  for 
the  exhibitions  of  shows,  games,  sports,  and  con- 
tests, and  even  figuratively  to  political  and 
other  intellectual  contests.     See  Amphitheatre. 

AJfENA'GEOTJS  BOCKS  (from  Lat.  arena, 
sand),  or  Psammites,  Gravel  and  Sand  Rocks, 
composed  mainly  of  quartz  particles  deposited 
through  water  or  air.  They  are  mechanical  sedi- 
ments produced  by  the  disintegration  and  re- 
moval of  silicious  rocks  by  the  action  of  atmos- 
phere, rain,  rivers,  frost,  lake  and  ocean  waves, 
and  other  superficial  agencies.  The  arenaceous 
rocks  or  psammites,  include  plain  sand,  river 
sand,  sea  sand,  sandstone,  graywacks,  quartzite, 
gravel,  shingle,  and  conglomerate  (q.v.).  Seldom 
are  they  composed  entirely  of  quartz ;  the  quartz 
being  commonly  associated  with  fragments  of 
other  minerals  such  as  feldspar,  mica,  iron  ore, 
hornblende,  etc.,  all  of  which  may  be  cemented 
by  carbonate  of  lime  or  magnesia,  quartz,  or  iron. 
See  Argillaceous  Rooks;  Caixjareous  Rocks; 
Rocks.  Arenaceous  rocks  grade  by  intermediate 
stages  into  argillaceous  rocks  through  increasing 
admixtures  of  clay,  and  into  calcareous  rocks  by 
admixture  of  lime.       , 

ABENAXES,  ft'rft-naaes,  Juan  Antonio  Al- 
varez DE  (1755-1825).  An  officer  in  the 
patriot  army  in  the  Peruvian  revolution  against 
Spain.  In  1820,  with  a  body  of  a  thousand  men, 
he  was  sent  from  Pisco  with  orders  to  strike  into 
the  country  across  the  Andes  and  proceed  by  a 
circuitous  route  to  Lima,  there  to  meet  the  main 
army  —  a  feat,  not  unlike  Sherman's  famous 
march,  which  he  accomplished  most  successfully, 
completely  defeating  the  Spanish  army  at  Cerro- 
Pasto. 

AB'ENA^IA  (Lat.  arenarius^  pertaining  to 
sand,  from  arena,  sand)  or  Sandwort.  A  large 
genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Caryophyl- 
lacece,  differing  from  Stellaria  (Stitchwort,  q.v.) 
chieflj?"  in  the  undivided  petals.  The  species, 
about  two  hundred  in  number,  are  annual  and 
perennial  herbaceous  plants  of  humble  growth, 
rarely  somewhat  shrubby,  and  natives  of  the 
temperate  and  colder  parts  of  the  world.  Some 
of  them  are  arctic  and  alpine  plants.  Many  of 
them  are  chiefly  found  in  sandy  soils.  The 
tlowers  are  generally  small  and  inconspicuous. 


but  if  closely  examined,  are  seen  to  possess  no 
little  beauty. 

ABENBEBG,   %'ren-b«rK,  or  ABEMBEBG, 

a'rem-b€rK,  August  Maria  Raimund,  Prince 
II.  (1753-1833).  A  Belgian  soldier  and  author 
— also  known  as  Count  Lamarck — a  brother  of 
the  Duke  of  Arenberg.  He  served  in  India  in 
1780,  and  participated  in  the  Belgian  revolt 
of  1789,  but  afterwards  swore  allegiance  to  the 
Emperor  Leopold  II.  He  was  an  intimate  friend 
of  Mirabeau  during  the  French  Revolution,  and 
his  Correspondance  entre  le  Comte  de  Mirabeau 
et  le  Comte  de  Lamarck  (edited  by  Vacourt, 
two  volumes,  Brussels,  1851 )  must  be  considered 
a  valuable  contribution  to  the  history  of  the 
French  Revolution. 

ABENBEBG,  Leopold  Phtlipp  Karl  Joseph, 
Duke  op  ( 1690-1754 ) .  An  Austrian  field-marshal. 
He  was  born  at  Mons,  of  one  of  the  most  illus- 
trious families  of  Belgium.  At  sixteen  he  was 
colonel  of  a  regiment,  and  councillor  of  state 
to  Charles  III.,  the  Austrian  pretender  to  the 
Spanish  throne,  who  subsequently  became  Em- 
peror as  Charles  VI.  He  fought  at  Malplaquet 
in  1709  and  in  the  same  yearb^ame  grand  bailiff 
of  Hainault.  In  1716  he  served  in  Hungary 
under  Prince  Eugene,  and  fought  at  Belgrade  in 
the  following  year;  on  returning  to  the  Nether- 
lands in  1718  he  was  made  military  governor 
of  Hainault,  and  subsequently  commander-in- 
chief  of  all  the  Austrian  forces  in  the  Nether- 
lands, with  the  rank  of  field-marshal.  In  1743 
he  led  his  troops  with  great  gallantry  at  Det- 
tingen.  Afterwards  he  served  in  Silesia  under 
Charles  of  Lorraine,  and  in  1747  was  president 
of  the  commission  in  control  of  the  Netherlands. 
He  was  a  lover  of  the  sciences  and  of  letters,  and 
was  a  patron  of  J.  J.  Rousseau.  He  also  cor- 
responded with  Voltaire  and  with  Frederick  the 
Great.  The  fullest  account  of  Leopold  of  Aren- 
berg is  that  given  by  Gachard,  in  the  Biographie 
Nationale,  published  by  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Belgium,  and  founded  on  documents  in  the  Bel- 
gian royal  archives. 

ABENDAXy&^ren-d&l.  A  town  on  the  south- 
east coast  of  Norway,  ituated  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Nid  Elf  in  the  Bay  of  Kristiania,  forty 
miles  northeast  of  the  city  of  Kristiansand 
(Map:  Norway,  C  7.).  It  is  built  partly  on 
piles,  partly  on  rock,  with  numerous  canals  in- 
tersecting it,  and  this  circumstance,  as  well  as 
its  situation,  gives  it  a  very  romantic  a^ect, 
and  has  caused  it  to  be  called  "The  Little 
Venice."  The  bay,  which  is  protected  by  the 
island  of  TromO,  forms  an  excellent  harbor,  and 
favors  the  commerce  of  the  town.  The  exports 
are  iron  from  the  neighboring  mines,  and  wooden 
articles.  Ship-building  is  also  carried  on,  and  on 
a  smaller  scale,  distilleries  and  tobacco  factories. 
Population,  in  1900,  4370. 

ABENDT,  ft'r^nt.  Otto  (1854—).  A  German 
economist  and  politician,  bom  in  Berlin.  He 
studied  law  and  political  science  at  Leipzig  and 
FreibursT,  and  with  the  appearance  in  1880  of  his 
work,  Die  vertragsmassige  Doppeludhrung,  be- 
came an  active  advocate  of.  bimetallism.  He 
was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  society  for  the 
introduction  of  international  bimetallism  ( 1882), 
and  became  the  real  head  of  the  party  in  Ger- 
many. In  188;)  he  was  elected  to  the  Prussian 
House  of  Representatives  as  a  member  of  the 


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ABENDT. 


Liberal  Conservative  party.  In  1888  he  under- 
took the  editorship  of  the  Deutsche  Wochenhlattj 
and  begiin  to  advocate  colonial  expansion  and 
the  coalition  of  national  parties.  His  published 
works  include  Leitfaden  der  Wahru'ngafrage 
(17th  ed.,  1895). 

ABENDT,  a'rcnt,  Rudolf  (1828—).  A 
German  chemist,  bom  at  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. 
He  studied  at  the  University  of  Leipzig,  and 
after  1861  taught  at  the  commercial  high  school 
there.  His  published  works  include  text-books 
of  chemistr>%  and  valuable  manuals  of  the 
methods  of  teaching  chemistry.  The  best-known 
among  his  works  is  his  Technik  der  Experimental 
Chemie  (two  volumes,  ed.  1,  Leipzig,  1881;  ed. 
2,  1891).  Arendt  was  also  for  many  years 
editor  of  the  Chemiachea  Centralhlatt. 

AKkJSn^  A'ren',  Paul  Auguste  (184396).  A 
French  writer,  bom  at  Sisteron.  He  was  director 
of  the  Lyceum  at  Marseilles,  and  afterwards  of 
that  at  Vanves,  and  gained  his  first  success  as 
an  author  with  his  Pierrot  hotter  (presented 
in  1865) ,  a  one-act  comedy  in  verse.  His  further 
publications  include  the  dramatic  works  Jean 
des  figues  {\%10) ,  Les  comHiena  erranta  (1873), 
and  Le  duel  aux  lant ernes  (1875),  some  prose 
fiction,  such  as  Au  hon  aoleil  (1879),  and  Le 
canot  dea  aix  capitainea  (1888),  and  a  volume  of 
descriptions  of  travel,  Vingt  joura  en  Tuniaie 
(1884).  Most  of  his  work  was  marked  by  a 
very  delicate  humor.  He  was  a  regular  contri- 
butor to  La  R&puhlique  Frangaiae,  UEv6nementj 
and  Gil  Blaa. 

ABENGK  PALM.     See  Gokuto. 

ABENTS,  a'rents,  Albert  (1840—).  A 
Crerman- American  metallurgist.  He  was  born 
at  Klausthal,  Germany,  and  studied  mining  en- 
gineering there,  and  at  Berlin.  In  1865  he  came 
to  the  United  States  and  undertook  to  treat  the 
lead  ores  in  Hampden  CJounty,  Mass.  He  was 
subsequently  connected,  as  metallurgist  and  min- 
ing engineer,  with  a  number  of  enterprises  in 
the  Westem  States,  and  patented  many  valuable 
industrial  improvements. 

ABENTZENy  a'rcnts-en,  Kbistian  August 
Emil  (1823-1900).  A  Danish  poet.  He  was 
bom  at  Copenhagen,  and  after  extensive  travels, 
he  was  appointed  to  the  chair  of  aesthetics  in  the 
University  of  Copenhagen.  He  published  two 
dramas,  Gunlog  Ormetunge  (1852),  and  Knud- 
den  Hellige  ( 1853) ,  and  a  volume  of  Digte  (1854, 
repuolished  as  Ny  Digtaamling,  1867).  He  is 
chiefly  known  for  his  important  critical  work, 
Baggesen  og  Oehlenachlager  (eight  volumes, 
1870-87). 

ABEOIS,  A'rwa'.  The  society  of  the  Areois 
was  a  famous  institution  among  ^he  natives  of 
the  Society  Islands  (Tahiti),  organized  for 
literary,  dramatic,  and  especially  religious  pur- 
poses. The  members  traveled  from  place  to 
place,  singing,  dancing,  and  representing  his- 
torical events  and  scenes  in  the  lives  of  gods 
and  heroes.  They  also  devoted  themselves  to 
erotic  pleasures  (love  adventures  and  sexual 
congress  of  an  absolute  reality  were  acted), 
which  has  made  the  Arrois  stand  for  a  sort  of 
artistic  sexual  ism.  Upon  the  women  belong- 
ing to  the  society,  infanticide  was  imposed  by 
oath.  The  Areois  represent  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable sides  of  Polynesian  life,  for  which 
.  a  parallel  has  to  be  sought  in  the  European  Mid- 
dle Ages. 


768  ABEOPAGUS. 

A'BEOM^TEB.     See  Hydbometeb. 


AB'EOPAGIT^GA.  A  speech  for  the  liberty 
of  unlicensed  printing.  The  greatest  prose  work 
of  Milton  (1644),  a  plea  for  freedom  of  thou^t 

AB'BOP^AGUS  (Gk.  'Apetoc  ndyoc,  Areioa 
pagoa,  the  hill  of  Ares).  A  bare,  rocky  hill 
at  the  west  of  the  Acropolis  of  Athens,  about 
350  feet  high.  The  ancients  explained  the  name 
by  saying  that  here  Ares  had  been  tried  for  the 
murder  of  Halirrhothius,  or  that  the  Amazons, 
the  worshipers  of  Ares,  had  attacked  the  Acro- 
polis from  this  point.  Some  modern  writers  pre- 
fer to  connect  it  with  the  Eumenides,  and  the 
blood-guiltiness,  which  was  tried  here,  and  de- 
rive the  name  ifrom  'Apai,  so  that  the  meaning 
would  be  *hill  of  the  curse.*  At  the  south  end 
steps  hewn  in  the  rock  lead  to  a  series  of  rock- 
cuttings  which  cannot  now  be  satisfactorily 
explained.  On  the  north  side,  which  overlooka 
the  citv,  and  is  near  the  deep  cleft  where  the 
Eumenides  were  worshiped,  seems  to  have  been 
the  place  where  the  court  of  Areopagus  tried 
cases  of  willful  murder.  The  Areopagus  gave 
its  name  to  the  most  venerable  court  of 
Athens  (Gk.  17  kv  *Ape<V  ffdyift  Pav/^,  the 
Coimcil  on  the  Areopagus).  It  met  in  the  open 
air,  and  accuser  and  accused  stood  on  plat- 
forms hewn  from  the  rock.  The  Areopagus 
seems  originally  to  have  been  the  ooimcil  of 
nobles,  such  as  surrounds  the  king  in  the 
Homeric  poems,  and  naturally,  therefore,  tha 
'king*  archon  remained  its  presiding  officer. 
This  council  appears  to  have  gradually  taken  into 
its  hands  the  entire  governing  power,  since  we 
are  told  that  it  appointed  all  officials,  including 
the  archons,  who  entered  the  Areopagus  at  the 
end  of  their  term  of  office.  This  was  certainly 
an  ancient  custom,  as  it  prevailed  through  the 
historical  period,  in  spite  of  its  undemocratic 
character.  The  Areopagus  doubtless  exercised 
the  supreme  judicial  power,  and  could  bring 
to  an  account  any  official,  so  that  its  indirect 
influence  must  have  sufficed  to  control  the  State. 
In  the  code  of  Draco,  the  Areopagus  kept  its 
place  as  the  court  for  all  cases  of  willful  mur- 
der, and  even  under  the  Solonian  Constitution  it 
seems  to  have  preserved  its  place  as  a  guardian 
of  the  laws,  with  the  power  of  procedure  against 
any  official,  or  even  private  citizen,  whose  con- 
duct was  an  offense  against  good  morals  or  the 
well-being  of  the  community.  Clisthenes  seems 
to  have  made  no  change  in  the  rights  of  the 
Areopagus;  but  his  creation  of  the  Senate  of 
Five  Hundred  and  the  power  given  the  popular 
assembly  certainly  must  have  lessened  its  real 
influence.  It  continued,  however,  to  enjoy  a 
considerable  amount  of  power,  even  in  public 
affairs,  for  some  writers  represented  it  as  di- 
recting the  policy  of  Athens  from  the  time  of 
the  battle  of  Salamis  B.C.  480  to  B.C.  462). 
Certain  it  is  that  in  the  latter  year  the  leaders 
of  the  democracy,  Ephialtes  and  Pericles,  suc- 
ceeded in  carrying  a  law  which  deprived  the 
Areopagus  of  all  those  powers  by  which  it 
exercised  a  general  control  over  officials  and 
public  morals,  leaving  it  only  the  right  of 
judgment  in  murder  cases,  and  the  oversight  of 
the  sacred  olive  trees  of  Athena  and  some 
sacred  lands.  In  spite  o|  this  reduction  of  its 
powers,  it  remained  the  most  venerated  body 
to  act  for  the  State,  or  to  conduct  investigations 
in  Athens,  and  we  find  it  appointed  at  times 
to  act  for  the  state,  or  to  conduct  investigationa 


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ABEOPAGUS. 


769 


ABETINO. 


of  treasonable  conduct,  as  a  sort  of  commission 
of  the  popular  assembly.  In  the  reforms  of 
Demetrius  of  Phalerum  B.C.  317),  the  Areopagus 
seems  to  have  been  given  once  more  an  over- 
sight over  public  morals,  and  especially  over 
offenses  against  the  new  sumptuary  laws.  In 
Koman  times  it  was  one  of  the  governing 
bodies  of  Athens,  and  its  name  appears  on 
decrees  with  that  of  the  senate  and  people.  Its 
jurisdiction  was  also  widely  extended,  and  its 
decisions  still  commanded  great  respect.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  the  Apostle  Paul  was  actually 
brought  before  the  court  of  Areopagus.  It 
seems  more  probable  that  his  speech  was  de- 
livered before  a  body  of  curious  philosophers 
on  the  hill  of  Areopagus,  a  convenient  spot 
somewhat  retired  from  the  confusion  of  the 
neighboring  market-place.  In  Athenian  legend 
the  court  was  famed  as  the  body  which,  under 
the  presidency  of  Athena,  acquitted  Orestes  of 
the  charge,  brought  against  him  by  the  Furies, 
of  blood-guiltiness  in  murdering  his  mother, 
Clytemnestra.  The  story  forms  the  subject  of 
the  Eumenides  of  iEschylus.  Consult:  Philippi, 
Areopag  und  Epheten  (Berlin,  1874)  ;  Busolt, 
Handhuch  (Nordlingen,  1887)  ;  Schomann, 
Oriechische  Alterthumer,  ed.  Lipsius  (Berlin, 
1897)  ;  Meier  and  SchSmann,  Der  attische 
Proz€88,  ed.  Lipsius  (Berlin,  1883-87);  and 
Botsford,  The  Athenian  Constitution  (New 
York,   1893). 

ABEQTJIFA,  H'rt-k^pk.  A  maritime  de- 
partment of  Peru,  bounded  by  the  departments 
of  Ayacucho  and  -Chizco  on  the  north,  Puno  on 
the  east,  Moquegua  on  the  south,  and  the  Pacific 
on  the  west  (Map:  Peru,  C  7).  Area,  21,947 
square  miles.  It  is  mountainous  in  the  east 
and  has  a  fertile  soil,  but  is  sparsely  settled. 
The  population  was  officially  estimated  in  1896 
at  229,007.    Capital,  Arequipa  (q. v.). 

ABEQTJIFA.  An  episcopal  city,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Arequipa,  Peru;  situated  on 
the  Chile  River,  105  miles  northeast  of  the 
port  of  MoUendo,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  railroad.  Another  line  runs  to  Puno,  on 
Lake  Titicaca,  226  miles  to  the  east.  Its  situa- 
tion, on  a  plateau  7000  feet  above  sea  level,  at 
the  foot  of  the  half-extinct  volcano  Misi,  gives 
it  a  very  dry  and  temperate  climate.  The  air 
is  exceedingly  dry  and  the  water  is  impregnated 
with  salts.  It  IS  the  second  city  in  Peru,  is 
regularly  laid  out,  and  has  a  cathedral, 
a  university,  and  two  national  schools.  The 
inhabitants  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
jewelry,  the  cutting  of  precious  stones,  and 
in  commerce,  the  city  being  the  centre  of  trade 
for  the  interior  of  Peru.  Arequipa  was  founded 
in  1540  by  Francisco  Pizarro,  and  has  ever  since 
been  important  in  the  history  of  Peru,  occu- 
pying a  prominent  place  in  the  war  for  inde- 
pendence. From  the  13th  to  the  15th  of  August, 
1868.  the  city  was  subjected  to  earthquake  shocks 
which  overthrew  nearly  all  its  buildings  and 
killed  more  than  600  people.  Population,  in 
1880,  30,000:  in  1901,  35.000. 

ABEQUIPA,  or  MiSTf.  A  volcanic  mountain 
of  the  Andes,  Peru,  over  20,000  feet  high.  The 
volcano  has  been  in  a  dormant  state  since  1831. 
To  the  northeast  of  the  volcano  is  the  town  of 
Arequipa  (q.v.). 

A^ES,  a'rez.      See  Mabs. 

AB'ET.fli'US  (Gk.  'ApeTdioc,  Aretaios) .  A 
famous  Greek  physician  and  writer  of  Cap- 
VOL.  I.— 49. 


padocia,  who  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of 
the  First  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  Second 
Century  after  Christ.  He  is  considered  to  rank 
next  to  Hippocrates  in  the  skill  with  which  he 
treated  diseases.  He  was  noted  for  his  total 
want  of  professional  bigotry;  and  in  his  accu- 
racy in  the  detail  of  symptoms  and  the  diagnosis 
of  disease  he  is  superior  to  most  of  the  ancient 
physicians.  His  great  work,  written  in  singu- 
larly elegant  and  concise  Ionic  Greek,  is  divided 
into  two  parts.  The  first  four  books  treat  of 
the  causes  and  symptoms  of  acute  and  chronic 
diseases;  the  last  four,  the  cure  of  the  same. 
They  have  been  translated  into  various  Euro- 
pean languages,  besides  having  been  frequently 
edited  in  the  original.  The  finest  edition  is  the 
Oxford  one  of  1723,  by  J.  Wigan.  A  German 
translation  appeared  at  Vienna  (1790-1802); 
an  English  one,  by  T.  F.  Reynolds,  London,  1837 ; 
and  there  is  a  Greek  and  English  edition  by  Dr. 
F.  Adams  (London,  1856). 

ABS31*E,  &-re^t^.  The  wife  of  the  Phsacian 
King  Alcinous,  and  mother  of  Nausicaa,  in 
Homer's  Odyssey,  (2)  The  personification  of 
virtue  in  Ben  Jonson's  Cynthia's  Revels. 

AB'ETHU'SA.     See  Alpheus. 

ABETHUSA  BTTLBO'SA.  A  beautiful  ter- 
restrial orchid  growing  in  wet  bogs  of  the 
northern  United  States.  The  plant  is  small,  and' 
consists  of  a  slender  scape,  six  to  ten  inches  in 
height,  which  arises  from  a  corm.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  scape  bears  a  few  green  bracts, 
and  the  summit  is  crowned  by  a  brilliant  rose- 
pink  fiower  one  to  two  inches  in  length.  The 
plant  blooms  in  late  spring,  and  is  often  found 
associated  with  the  Pitcher-plant  (Sarracenia) 
and  two  other  orchids — Calopogon  and  Pogonia 
— which  plants,  however,  bloom  at  a  later  period 
than  does  Arethusa.  For  illustration,  see  plate 
of  Anemone. 

AB'ETINOAN  SYIiOABLES.  The  sylla- 
bles ut,  re,  mi,  fa,  sol,  la,  used  by  Guido 
Aretino  (q.v.)  for  his  system  of  hexachords, 
to  which  si  was  added  afterwards,  thus  com- 
pleting the  modem  scale.     See  Scale. 

ABETINO,  a'rft-te'nd,  Carlo  (properly 
Carlo  Marsuppini)  (c.1399-1463).  An  Italian 
humanist.  He  was  bom  at  Arezzo  (whence  his 
surname),  studied  the  Latin  language  and  lit- 
erature at  Florence  under  Giovanni  da  Ravenna 
and  Greek  under  Manuel  Chrysoloras;  and, 
with  the  patronage  of  the  Medici,  lectured 
learnedly  and  successfully  on  the  classics.  His 
first  lecture,  indeed,  seems  at  once  to  have 
established  his  fame;  for  on  that  occasion,  we 
are  told,  he  amazed  all  by  quotations  from 
every  known  author,  Greek  or  Roman.  But  it 
aiso  seems  to  have  begun  the  quarrel  between 
him  and  the  renowned  Filelfo,  who  eventually, 
through  Medicean  hostility,  was  compelled  to 
withdraw  to  Siena.  He  was  appointed  first 
apostolic  secretary,  and  became  in  1444  chan- 
cellor of  the  Republic  of  Florence.  His  writings 
include  translations  into  Latin  of  the  Batracho- 
myomachia  and  Book  i.  of  the  Iliad.  His  finely 
sculptured  tomb  is  still  to  be  seen  at  Florence, 
in  the  Church  of  Santa  Croce. 

ABETINO,  GuiDO.    See  Guido  Abetino. 

ABETINO,  Leonardo.    See  Bbuni. 

ABETINO,  Pietbo  (1492-1556).  A  notorious 
and  profligate  Italian  author  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century,  who,  apart  from  his  comedies,  is  in- 


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770 


ARQAJLL. 


teresting  chiefly  for  his  colossal  and  successful 
impudence.  He  was  born  at  Arezzo,  the  son  of 
a  shoemaker,  Luca,  whose  surname  is  unknown; 
for  Pietro,  being  ashamed  of  his  origin,  as- 
sumed that  of  Aretino.  While  still  young  he 
came  to  Home  and  found  favor  with  Pope  Leo  X. 
and  Cardinal  Giulio  de  ^iedici,  but  lost  it 
through  writing  some  licentious  sonnets.  For 
a  while  he  frequented  the  Medicean  court,  where 
he  attached  himself  closely  to  Giovanni  de 
Medici,  but  in  a  few  years  withdrew  to  Venice, 
where  he  soon  acquired  powerful  friends,  and 
where  he  remained  almost  continually  till  his 
death.  Aretino  has  best  been  summed  up  as  a 
systematic  blackmailer.  His  letters  are  an 
astonishing  record  of  audacity;  they  show  him 
to  have  b^n  equally  adept  in  the  art  of  threats 
and  of  successful  flattery,  and  extorted  from 
many  of  the  greatest  flgures  of  the  time — even 
from  Francis  1.  and  Charles  V. — rich  gifts  of 
jewelry,  large  sums  of  money,  and  in  some  cases 
even  annuities,  which  enabled  him  to  lead  at 
Venice  a  life  of  lavish  opulence.  He  was  a  re- 
markably prolific  writer  in  various  fields  of  lit- 
erature, and  has  left  dialogues,  biographies, 
sonnets  and  other  poems,  comedies,  one  tragedy, 
and  six  volumes  of  letters.  Aside  from  the 
tragedy  Orazia,  which  was  good,  judged  by  con- 
temporary standards,  the  comedies,  of  which  the 
principal  ones  are  the  Cortigiana  and  Talanta, 
are  alone  of  any  merit,  and  their  interest  is  due 
mainly  to  their  vivid  and  convincing  portrayal  of 
life;  but,  in  the  words  of  John  Addington  Sy- 
nionds,  it  is  life  seen  ^'from  the  standpoint  of 
the  servants'  hall."  Aretino's  greatest  strength 
lay  in  his  satire.  There  is  an  edition  of  Le 
cammedie  e  I/Orazia  tragedia  di  Pietro  Aretino 
(Milan,  1876).  Consult:  Graf,  Attraverao  it 
Cinqueccnto  (Turin,  1888). 

ABETINO,  Spineixo.     See  Spinello. 

ABEZZO,  A-r^t^sd  (ancient  Lat.  Arreiium), 
An  episcopal  city  of  Italy,  the  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Arezzo,  Tuscany  ( Map :  Italy,  F  4 ) .  It  is 
beautifully  situated  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  64 
miles  southeast  of  Florence  and  6  miles  from 
the  confluence  of  the  Chiana  and  the  Arno.  It 
has  broad  streets,  impressive  buildings,  a  famous 
academy  of  science,  a  museum  and  picture  gal- 
lery, a  library,  many  convents,  and  excellent 
mineral  springs.  Externally,  the  cathedral,  which 
was  begun  in  the  Thirteenth  Century,  is  un- 
attractive; but  the  proportions  of  the  interior 
are  pleasing  and  the  decorations  are  elaborate 
and  by  master  hands  of  several  centuries. 
The  church  of  San  Francisco  contains  some  fine 
Fifteenth  Century  frescoes.  The  Pieve,  begun 
in  the  Eleventh  Century  on  the  site  of  a 
heathen  temple,  also  contains  art  treasures. 
Arezzo  was  one  of  the  twelve  richest  and  most 
populous  cities  in  ancient  Etruria,  and  ex- 
celled in  pottery  and  in  copper  work.  In  the 
Social  War,  Sulla  sacked  it,  banished  its  citizens, 
and  replaced  them  with  his  own  followers. 
It  was  also  sacked  by  the  Goths  under  Totila 
and  restored  under  Justinian.  During  the  con- 
test of  the  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines  in  a  later  age, 
it  became  subject  to  Florence,  being  defeated  in 
the  battle  of  Campaldino,  in  which  Dante  took 
part.  Among  celebrated  men  born  here  were 
^laecenas,  the  famous  patron  of  letters  in  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Augustus ;  Petrarch ;  Pietro 
Aretino;  Guido  Aretino,  inventor  of  the  gamut; 
Leonardo  Aretino,  the  historian;  Cesalpino,  the 


botanist;  Redi,  the  physician;  Pope  Julius  II.: 
the  notorious  Marshal  d'Ancre;  and  Vasari, 
author  of  Lives  of  the  Painters.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cloth,  silk  fabrics,  and  leather. 
The  country  is  unusually  fertile,  and  produces 
grain,  wine,  oil  and  fruit.  Population,  in  1881, 
39,000;  in  1901  (commune),  44,316. 

ARQM^Sy   ar-je'fis.   Mount.     See    Akjish. 

AB'GAIiI  (Mongolian  name).  A  mountain 
sheep,  specifically  Ovia  ammon,  formerly  com- 
mon to  all  the  mountain  ranges  of  northeastern 
Asia,  but  lately  killed  off  in  Siberia  and  re- 
stricted to  the  heights  of  Mongolia,  where  it 
is  found  near  timber  line.  Its  size  is  that  of  a 
large  donkey,  and  it  is  covered  by  shorty  coarse, 
gray-brown  hair,  with  the  short  mane  and  a 
stripe  down  the  forelegs  dark  and  the  rump  and 
under  surface  of  the  body  white.  The  massive 
horns  of  the  ram  coil  like  those  of  the  bighorn 
(sometimes  called  American  argali),  and  meas- 
ure 40  to  48  inches  along  the  curve  and  16  or 
more  around  the  base;  the  horns  of  the  ewes 
reach  about  half  these  dimensions.  A  closely 
allied  species  is  the  nyan,  or  Thibetan  argali 
(0.  Hodgsoni),  which  is  distinguished  by  a 
white  ruff  upon  the  throat.  It  frequents  the 
barren  and  desolate  regions  of  high  Thibet. 
Sportsmen  regard  these  sheep  as  among  the 
most  difficult  game  to  stalk,  and  good  speci- 
mens are  rare  in  collections.  See  Bighorn: 
Sheep,  and  plate  of  Wild  Sheep  and  Musk  Ox. 

AB'GAIili,  Sir  Samuei.  (c.  1580-1626).  An 
English  navigator,  and  deputy  governor  of  the 
Virginia  colony,  bom  about  1580  or  1585.  In 
1609  he  was  sent  to  Virginia  in  charge  of  a 
vessel,  with  orders  to  find  a  more  direct  route 
than  that  previously  followed,  and  he  succeeded 
in  considerably  shortening  the  time  ordinarily 
occupied  by  the  passage.  After  his  arrival,  in 
1609,  he  was  employed  in  surveying  Chesapeake 
Bay  and  a  large  part  of  the  coast  northward  to 
Cape  Cod.  Returning  to  Virginia,  he  took  part 
in  the  fighting  with  the  Indians,  and  in  1612 
he  conducted  the  negotiations  with  the  chief 
of  a  Potomac  tribe  to  whose  care  the  women  of 
the  Powhatan  tribe  had  been  intrusted  during 
hostilities,  by  which  the  English  secured  pos- 
session of  Pocahontas,  a  favorite  daughter  of 
the  chief,  Powhatan,  in  exchange  for  a  copper 
kettle.  Her  marriage  to  John  Rolfe  followed 
soon  after,  and  the  troubles  with  the  natives 
were  settled,  leaving  Argali  free  to  go  to  sea 
again.  In  1613  he  was  given  command  of  a 
powerful  war  vessel,  and  instructed  to  keep  all 
intruders  out  of  the  territory  claimed  for  Eng- 
land. He  sailed  to  Mount  Desert  Island,  where 
he  found  a  French  Jesuit  settlement,  which  he 
destroyed,  carrying  off  the  settlers  to  James- 
town as  prisoners.  French  establishments  at 
Port  Royal  and  Saint  Croix  received  the  same 
treatment.  At  New  Amsterdam  (now  New 
York)  Argali  found  a  Dutch  colony,  and  forced 
the  governor  to  haul  down  his  flag  and  display 
the  English  colors  in  its  place — a  recognition  of 
English  supremacy,  which  lasted  so  long  as  Ar- 
gali was  in  the  harbor.  In  1617  Argali  was 
promoted  to  be  deputy  governor  and  admiral  of 
Virginia.  He  conducted  affairs  in  a  high- 
handed fashion,  and  was  accused  of  engaging 
in  illegal  trade,  especially  with  the  Spanish 
settlements  in  the  West  Indies.  He  ignored 
several  peremptory  orders  to  return  to  England 
to  answer  the  charges  against  him,  but  eventu- 


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ABGALIi. 


771 


ABGEHONE. 


ally  went  back  to  stand  trial.  No  serious 
action,  however,  was  taken,  probably  because 
of  the  protection  afforded  him  by  the  Earl  of 
WarMuck,  who  is  supposed  to  have  participated 
in  the  profits  of  Argall's  ventures.  In  1620 
Argall  was  captain  in  a  fleet  which  attacked  the 
Algerine  pirates  in  the  Mediterranean.  A  year 
later  he  was  knighted.  In  1625  he  was  ap- 
pointed admiral  of  an  Anglo  -  Dutch  fleet  of 
twenty-eight  vessels,  which  U»ok  Spanish  prizes 
valued  at  over  £100,000,  and  later  in  the  same 
year  took  part,  as  commander  of  the  flagship, 
in  Cecil's  expedition  a^inst  the  Spaniards.. 

AB/QAN  (Ar.  arjan)  Argania  sideroxylon. 
The  common  species  of  the  order  Sapotaceae.  It 
is  a  low,  spiny  evergreen  tree,  native  of  the 
southern  parts  of  Morocco,  and  it  bears  an 
ovate  drupe  the  size  of  a  plum,  dotted  with 
white,  and  full  of  a  white  milky  juice.  The 
Moors  extract  from  the  fruit  an  oil  known  as 
"argan  oil,"  which  they  use  with  their  food. 

ARQANy  ar'giiN'.  The  hypochondriac  in 
Moliftre*s  Le  Malade  imaginaire,  who  allows 
himself  to  be  cozened  by  apothecaries  even  to 
the  extent  of  forcing  his  daughter  to  receive 
the  addresses  of  one.  He  is  finally  effectively 
disillusioned  and  cured  by  his  brother-in-law. 

ABGANB,  ar'gand,  Fr,  pron.  ar'gaN',  AiMfi 
(1755-1803).  The  inventor  of  the  well-known 
Argand  burner.  The  chief  difiiculty  that  at- 
tended the  use  of  lamps  as  a  source  of  light  be- 
fore Argand  introduced  his  invention,  consisted 
in  procuring  complete  combustion  of  the  oil,  so 
as  to  keep  the  flame  from  smoking.  The  round 
thick  column  of  oil- vapor  rising  from  the  wipk 
of  an  old-fashioned  lamp  presented  an  insufiicient 
extent  of  surface  to  the  air:  a  large  proportion 
of  the  carbon  of  the  oil,  therefore,  not  reached 
by  the  air,  remained  unburnt  and  ascended  in 
the  form  of  smoke.    Argand*s  improvement  con- 


sisted in  making  the  wick  ring-shaped.  The 
flame  procured  by  means  of  a  circular  wick  has 
naturally  the  form  of  a  hollow  cylinder,  with 
a  current  of  air  ascending  through  the  inside, 
so  that  the  burning  surface  is  doubled.  Even 
when  supplied  with  this  form  of  burner,  how- 
ever, the  lamp  remained  unsatisfactory  until 
Argand's  younger  brother  accidentally  discov- 
ered the  effect  of  the  glass  chimney,  by  which 
the  flame  is  steadied,  a  draught  created,  and 
thus  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  light  pro- 
duced. The  Argand  burner  is  now  extensively 
used  in  gas-lighting. 

ABGANTE,  ar'gaNt'.  ( 1 )  A  witty  portrait 
in  Molifere's  gallery  of  dupes — the  father  who, 
in  Lea  Fourberiea  de  Scapin,  is  trickily  per- 
suaded by  Scapin  to  give  up  his  own  plans  in 
favor  of  those  of  his  son  and  daughter.     (2)   A 


giantess  typifying  Licentiousness  in  the  Faerie 
Queene,  by  Spenser. 

ABGANTES,  ar-gfin'tez.  A  fierce  Circassian, 
the  bravest  of  the  infidel  warriors,  in  Tasso's 
'* Jerusalem  l>elivered." 

ABGAO,  ar-ga'6.  A  town  of  Cebu,  Philip- 
pines, situated  about  33  miles  southwest  of  Cebu. 
Population    (ofiicial  estimate),  1898,  34,050. 

ABGEL,  ar^gel,  or  ABGHEL  (Syrian),  Sole- 
nostemma  argel.  A  plant  of  the  natural  or- 
der Aaclepiadacecef  a  native  of  Arabia  and  of 
the  north  of  Africa,  deserving  of  notice  because 
of  the  frequent  use  of  its  leaves  for  the  adultera- 
tion of  senna.  They  are  lanceolate  and  leathery, 
and  may  readily  be  distinguished  from  genuine 
senna  leaves  by  their  texture,  their  being  downy, 
their  greater  heaviness,  the  comparative  absence 
of  veins,  and  the  symmetry  of  their  sides,  the 
sides  of  the  true  senna  leaves  being  unequal. 
They  are  acrid,  and  cause  sickness  and  gripmg; 
but  a  difference  of  opinion  prevails  as  to  their 
possessing  purgative  properties. 

ABGELANDEB,  ar^gc-lan'ddr,  Friedbich 
WiLiiELM  August  (1799-1875).  One  of  the 
most  eminent  German  astronomers  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century.  He  was  bom  at  Memel,  Prus- 
sia. He  studied  at  K5nigsberg,  where  the 
political  sciences  first  attracted  him;  but  he 
was  subsequently  drawn  away  to  astronomy 
by  the  lectures  of  Bessel,  bv  whom  he  was 
employed  to  make  calculations  and  obser- 
vations. In  1820  he  was  appointed  assistant 
to  Bessel  in  the  Konigsberg  Observatory,  and  in 
1823  succeeded  Walbeck  as  astronomer  at  the 
observatory  of  Abo,  in  Finland.  Here  he  be- 
gan a  series  of  observations  on  the  fixed  stars 
which  have  a  perceptible  "proper  motion." 
His  studies  were  unfortunately  interrupted  by 
a  fire  which  destroyed  the  observatory;  but 
after  a  time  he  resumed  them  in  a  new  observa- 
tory at  Helsingfors,  and  published  a  catalogue 
of  not  less  than  560  stars  having  "proper  mo- 
tions." This  contained  the  resmts  of  his  ob- 
serviations  at  Abo,  and  received  from  the  Acad- 
emy of  Saint  Petersburg  the  Demidoff  Prize.  In 
1837  he  was  invited  to  fill  the  chair  of  astron- 
omy at  the  University  of  Bonn.  Argelander 
was  long  engaged  in  a  series  of  observations  on 
the  changes  of  light  in  variable  stars,  and  he 
also  added  to  our  ideas  concerning  the  progres- 
sive motion  of  the  solar  system  in  space.  Arge- 
lander's  works  include:  Observations  Astro- 
nomicce  in  SpecuUs  Universitatis  Fennico  FactCB 
(3  vols.,  Helsingfors,  1830-32)  ;  A  ewe  t/ro- 
nometrie  (Berlin,  1843),  containing  eighteen 
celestial  charts  of  fixed  stars  seen  with  the 
naked  eye;  Mittlere  Oerter  von  33,811  Stemen 
(Bonn,  1867)  ;  and  a  few  others  of  considerable 
importance.  His  greatest  work,  however,  is 
the  AtUis  des  nordlichen  gestimten  Himmela 
(Bonn,  1857),  with  a  Stemverzeichnis  (Bonn, 
1869-62,  Vols.  III.-V  of  the  Astronomiache 
Beohachtungen  auf  der  Sternwarte  zu  Bonn), 
This  work  contains  an  enormous  number  of  ob- 
servations carried  out  by  Argelander  and  his 
assistants  during  the  nine  years  from  1852  to 
1861. 

AB'GEHO'NE  (Lat.,  an  herb,  Gk.  apyefidivf/, 
argemOne,  a  kind  of  poppy).  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Papaveraeeas  distinguished 
by  four  to  six  petals,  four  to  seven  radiating 
concave  stigmas,  and  an  obovate  capsule,  open- 


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ASGENSON. 


ing  by  valves  at  the  point.  Argemone  Mexicana, 
sometimes  called  Mexican  Poppy  and  Prickly 
Poppy »  is  an  annual  herbaceous  plant  one  to  two 
feet  high,  with  large  yellow  flowers,  and  sessile, 
waved  and  sinuated,  spiny  leaves,  variegated 
with  white.  It  is  a  native  of  Mexico  and  of  the 
southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  is  now 
also  common  in  many  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
countries,  in  which  it  has  been  naturalized.  In 
parts  of  Australia  it  has  become  a  troublesome 
weed.  Its  seeds  are  narcotic,  purgative,  and 
diuretic,  exhibiting  in  a  strong  degree  those 
qualities  of  the  order  of  which  the  seeds  of  the 
poppy  are  devoid.  They  are  used  in  the  West 
Indies  as  a  substitute  for  ipecacuanha;  also 
instead  of  opium;  and  the  juice  of  the  plant  is 
employed  as  a  remedy  for  ophthalmia.  This 
plant  is  not  infrequently  to  be  seen  in  flower 
borders  in  Great  Britain  and  elsewhere ;  but  in 
the  northern  parts,  at  least,  the  seed  is  gen- 
erally sown  in  a  hot-bed.  Argemone  platyceraa, 
a  similar  species  with  white  petals  and  a  cap- 
sule armed  with  stout  spines,  is  common  from 
Kansas  and  Nebraska  southward  and  westward. 
Argemone  grandifloray  a  Mexican  species,  has 
large  white  flowers,  and  the  plant  is  almost 
devoid  of  prickles.  All  these  plants  are  occa- 
sionally met  with  in  gardens. 

AB^GENIS.  An  allegorical  romance  by  John 
Barclay,  published  in  1621.  It  purports  to 
narrate  the  history  of  a  war  waged  by  Lycogenes, 
a  Sicilian  rebel,  and  Poliarchus,  a  prince  of 
Qaul,  for  the  hand  of  the  daughter  of  Meliander, 
King  of  Sicily.  But  under  this  thin,  figurative 
veneer,  one  can  easily  trace  a  history  of  con- 
temporary happenings.  Poliarchus  represents 
Henry  IV.,  Hyanisbe,  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
Radirobanes,  Philip  II.  The  book  has  exerted 
not  a  little  literary  influence.  F^nelon's  TM- 
maque  is  modeled  after  it.  It  was  also  the 
favorite  work  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  suggesting 
to  him  some  of  his  political  moves.  Cowper  said 
of  it  that  it  was  **the  most  amusing  romance 
that  ever  was  written." 

ABGENSy  ar'zh»N^  Jeai7  Baftibte  de  Botes, 
Marquis  d'  (1704-71).  A  French  philosophical 
writer,  born  at  Aix,  in  Provence.  His  Lettrea 
ohinoiaea  (1739),  Lettrea  cahaliatiquea  (1741), 
and  Lettrea  juivea  (1742)  attracted  the  notice 
of  Frederick  II.,  and  their  author  was  invited 
to  Potsdam,  and  in  1744  was  made  director  of 
fine  arts  in  the  Academy  of  Berlin,  w^ith  a  large 
salary.  Soon  he  was  the  friend  and  daily  com- 
panion of  the  King,  who  liked  exceedingly  his 
frank  and  vivacious  character.  When  almost 
sixty  he  married  an  actress,  without  Frederick's 
permission.  Deprived  of  his  pension,  he  returned 
to  Provence  and  died  at  Toulon.  Among  his 
other  numerous  writings  should  be  mentioned 
Hiatoire  de  Veaprit  humain  (14  vols.,  1765-68), 
and  Rcflectiona  critiquea  aur  lea  4colea  de  pein- 
ture  (1752). 

AB0ENSOLA,  Ur'nftn-syift,  Lupebcio  Leo- 
NABDO  de  (1559-1613);  and  Bartolomeo  Leo- 
nardo de  (1562-1631).  Two  Spanish  poets, 
sometimes  overrated  as  the  "Spanish  Horaces." 
They  were  bom  at  Barbastro,  in  Aragon,  the 
elder  brother  December  14,  1559,  the  younger 
August  26,  1562.  Both  studied  at  the  University 
of  Huesca,  and  both  later  enjoyed  the  patronage 
of  Maria  of  Austria,  widow  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  II.,  who  made  Lupercio  her  secre- 


tary and  Bartolomeo  her  chaplain.  The  former 
was  subsequently  appointed,  by  Philip  III.,  his- 
toriographer of  Aragon.  Bartolomeo  was  com- 
missioned by  the  Conde  Lemos,  then  president 
of  the  Indian  Council,  to  write  the  Conquista  de 
laa  Molucaa  (1609)  ;  and  when  that  nobleman  be- 
came viceroy  of  Naples,  both  brothers,  who  had 
meanwhile  acquired  fame  as  poets,  were  included 
in  his  suite,  thereby  arousing  the  anger  of  Cer- 
vantes, who  had  hoped  to  obtain  a  like  honor. 
Lupercio  died  in  Naples,  in  1613,  while  filling  the 
office  of  secretary  of  state.  Bartolomeo  succeed- 
ed his  brother  as  historiographer  of  Aragon.  He 
returned  to  Spain  and  busied  himself  with 
Lupercio's  unfinished  work,  a  continuation  of 
Zurita's  Annala  of  Aragon,  a  task  which 
occupied  him  until  his  death  in  1631.  Only 
the  first  part,  which  deals  with  the  years 
1516-20,  was  completed,  and  treats  every  detail 
with  such  conscientious  minuteness  as  to  be 
wearisome  reading.  The  collected  poems  of  the 
two  brothers  were  first  published  posthumously 
by  Lupercio's  son,  under  the  title  of  Rimas 
(Saragossa,  1634),  and  received  from  no  less  a 
personage  than  Lope  de  Vega  the  indorsement 
that  the  authors  **haA  come  from  Aragon  to  re- 
form among  our  poets  the  Castilian  language." 
Although  an  overstatement,  this  verdict  indi- 
cates the  real  merit  of  their  verse.  They  are 
both  models  of  correct  form  and  pure  idiom, 
with  the  Horatian  model  and  the  classic  stand- 
ard ever  before  them ;  yet  their  influence  on  the 
literature  of  their  coimtry  was,  on  the  whole, 
small.  Lupercio  is  also  remembered  as  a  dram- 
atist whom  Cervantes  pronounced  almost  equal 
iSo  himself;  but  of  his  three  known  plays,  one, 
the  Filiay  is  lost,  while  his  laahela  and  Alejandra 
show  little  to  justify  Cervanteos  praise.  The 
best  edition  of  the  Ohraa  aueltaa  of  both  broth- 
ers, is  that  edited  by  Conde  de  la  Viiiaza  (2 
vols.,  Madrid,  1889),  which  includes  the  plays 
and  shorter  prose  writings. 

ABGENSONy  ftr'zhftN'sON'.  Mabc  Antoixe 
BxNt  DE  VoYER,  Marquis  de  Fajtlmy  (1722- 
87).  A  French  diplomat  and  author,  son  of 
Louis  XV.'s  minister  of  foreign  affairs.  He 
was  envoy  to  Poland,  Switzerland,  and  Venice; 
a  member  of  the  Royal  Academy,  and  gathered 
a  library  of  about  100,000  volumes,  which  was 
purchased  by  the  Comte  d'Artois  in  1785  and  be- 
came the  nucleus  of  the  Biblioth^ue  de  I'Arsenal. 
He  was  editor  of  forty  volumes  of  the  Universal 
Bibliography  of  Romance,  in  which  are  some 
novels  of  his  own. 

ABGENSON,  Marc  Pterre  de  Voter,  Count  d* 
(1696-1764).  A  celebrated  French  statesman, 
brother  of  Ren6  Louis  Voyer  d'Argenson  (q.v.). 
After  holding  a  number  of  inferior  offices,  he 
succeeded  M.  de  Breteuil  in  the  War  Office  in 
1742.  On  the  death  of  Cardinal  Fleury,  in  the 
following  year,  the  whole  care  of  the  war  then 
raging  devolved  upon  him.  He  found  matters 
in  the  most  deplorable  condition.  The  French 
troops,  decimated  by  sword  and  disease,  were 
in  full  retreat  across  the  Rhine;  the  Austrians 
already  swarmed  in  Alsace  and  Ijorraine,  and 
the  very  political  existence  of  France  "was  im- 
periled ;  but  Argenson,  by  his  vigor  and  lucky 
choice  of  generals,  changed  the  fortunes  of  war 
in  the  course  of  one  year.  After  the  vic- 
tories of  Fontenoy  and  Louffeld,  and  the  cap- 
ture of  Bergen-op-Zoom,  peace  was  secured  by 


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the  famous  Treaty  of  Aix-le-Chapelle,  signed 
in  1748.  Argenson,  however,  did  not  remain  in- 
active; he  introduced  reforms  in  the  army, 
established  the  Ecole  Militaire  in  1761,  and,  by 
various  measures,  kept  alive  the  military  spirit 
of  the  nation.  He  was  an  illustrious  patron  of 
literature.  Diderot  and  D'Alembert  dedicated 
to  him  their  great  Encyclop6die ;  and  to  Voltaire, 
whose  fellow-student  he  had  been,  he  furnished 
materials  for  his  Steele  de  Louis  XIV.  In  1767 
he  was  exiled  to  his  estate,  it  is  supposed  by  the 
machinations  of  ]\iadame  Pompadour.  On  her 
death  he  returned  to  Paris.  * 

ABGENSON,  Mabc  Ren^  de  Voyeb  d'  (1771- 
1842).  A  grandson  of  Marc  Pierre  d'Argenson. 
A  French  soldier  and  statesman.  Though  he  was 
an  aristocrat  by  birth  and  possessed  immense 
wealth,  he  embraced  the  cause  of  the  Revolution 
and  served  as  Lafayette's  adjutant  till  the  ex- 
cesses of  1792  drove  him  from  public  life.  In 
1809,  while  prefect  of  Antwerp  (then  Deux- 
N&thes),  he  took  part  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
English  from  Walcheren.  In  1813  he  resigned 
rather  than  unjustly  confiscate  the  property  of 
the  mayor  at  the  order  of  the  French  ministry. 
He  was  elected  deputy  for  Belfort  in  the  Hundred 
Days,  and  reelected  after  the  second  Restoration. 
In  1830  he  appeared  in  the  Chamber  to  represent 
Slrassburg,  and  in  1832  was  one  of  the  members 
who  signed  the  famous  compte  rendu.  In  1833  he 
put  his  name  to  the  manifesto  of  the  "Society 
of  the  Rights  of  Man."  D'Argenson  was  a  man 
of  great  charity,  a  lover  of  freedom,  and  fearless 
in  the  defense  of  his  principles. 

ABGENSON,  Mabc  Ren£,  Marquis  d'  ( 1652- 
1721).  A  member  of  an  ancient  French  family 
possessed  of  a  domain  in  what  is  now  the  De- 
partment of  Indre-et-Loire.  Passing  through 
many  minor  offices,  he  w^as  made  Keeper  of  the 
Seal  in  1718,  and  minister  of  state  in  1720.  He 
resigned  the  same  year,  and  died  shortly  after. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  French  Academy  and  an 
honorary  member  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 

ABGENSON,  Ren£  Louis  de  Voteb,  Marquis 
d'  (1694-1767).  Minister  of  foreign  affairs  for 
Louis  XV.  from  1744  to  1747,  when  he  was 
forced  to  resign  on  account  of  the  intrigues  of 
Spain,  whose  policy  he  had  frustrated  in  his 
negotiations  with  Italy.  He  was  more  of  a  stu- 
dent and  idealist  than  a  diplomat,  and  his  min- 
istry was  not  very  successful.  After  his  retire- 
ment he  devoted  himself  to  literature.  He  was 
a  profound  student  of  political  science,  and 
wrote,  among  other  works,  Consid^ationa  sur  le 
gouvemment  ancien  et  present  de  la  Frcmce 
(Amsterdam,  1764).  His  journal  and  memoirs, 
in  nine  volumes,  were  published  at  Paris,  1861-67. 
Consult  Ogle,  The  Marquis  d'Argenson  (Oxford, 
1893). 

AB^GENT  (Fr.  silver).  The  metal  silver 
in  heraldry    (q.v.). 

ABGENTEUIL,  ftr'zhaw'tS'y'.  A  town  in 
the  Department  of  Seine-et-Oise,  France,  twelve 
miles  northwest  of  Paris  (Map:  France,  B  6). 
It  has  manufactures  of  files,  pasteboards, 
watches,  and  alcohol.  Its  priory,  now  in  ruins, 
was  founded  in  the  Seventh  Century,  and  was 
turned  by  Charlemagne  into  a  nunnery,  of  which 
the  famous  H<^loIse  afterward  became  abbess. 
Population,  in  1896,  15,126. 

ABOEN^EUS  C(VDEZ.    See  Ulfilas. 


ABGENTINA,  ar'jto-te'nAj  Span.  pron.  ar'- 
H^n-te^nA  (From  Lat.  argentum,  silver;  cf.  the 
name  Rio  de  la  Plata,  Span.,  River  of  Silver). 
A  federal  republic,  next  to  Brazil  the  largest 
State  in  South  America  (Map:  South  America, 
C  6).  It  was  formerly  called  Argentine  Repub- 
lic, and  at  a  still  earlier  period  wad  known  as 
the  Confederation  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  It  is 
included  between  latitudes  22**  and  55'*  south, 
longitudes  63''  30'  and  73''  30'  west,  and  is  bound- 
ed on  the  north  by  Bolivia  and  Paraguay ;  on  the 
east  by  Paraguay,  Brazil,  and  Uruguay,  and  the 
Atlantic  Ocean;  on  the  south  by  the  Atlantic; 
and  on  the  west  by  Chile,  the  watershed  indicated 
by  the  highest  summits  of  the  Andes  separating 
the  two  countries.  It  forms  a  blunted  wedge- 
shaped  area  about  2100  miles  long,  with  a  width 
of  nearly  1000  miles  at  the  north  and  less  than 
200  miles  at  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  A  number 
of  islands  are  included;  the  Falkland  Islands, 
off  the  Atlantic  coast,  which  were  at  one  time 
claimed  by  the  Republic,  are  held  by  Great 
Britain.  The  total  area,  including  eastern  Pata- 
gonia and  part  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  is  about 
1,114,000  square  miles,  divided  between  fourteen 
organized  Provinces  and  nine  territories. 

Topography.  The  surface  is  diversified  by 
the  Andean  Cordilleras  on  the  w^estern  border, 
and  by  the  interior  highlands;  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  area  is  a  flat  plain  sloping  gently 
toward  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  Andes  system 
in  the  northwest  is  a  broad  plateau,  broken 
into  parallel  or  slightly  diverging  ridges,  which 
reach  well  to  the  east  of  the  Chilean  frontier, 
and  occupy  large  areas  in  the  States  of  Jujuy, 
Salta,  Tucuman,  Catamarea,  Rioja,  and  San 
Juan.  Above. the  plateau  rise  numerous  crests 
to  a  height  of  over  17,000  feet,  attaining  extreme 
elevations  in  Aconcagua  (22,860),  Mercedario 
(22,316),  Famatina  (about  20,700),  and  Tupan- 
gato  (20,286).  In  the  western  Province  of  Men- 
doza,  the  Andes  contract  laterally,  and  gradually 
fall  off  in  height  toward  the  south,  where  they 
end  in  the  highlands  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  East 
of  the  Cordilleras,  the  most  notable  elevations 
are  the  north  and  south  ridge  of  the  Sierra  de 
C6rdoba,  on  the  western  boundary  of  the  Province 
of  C6rdoba;the  Tandil  andVentana  Highlands,  in 
the  Province  of  Buenos  Ayres ;  and  the  continua- 
tion of  the  mountain  range  of  Lower  Brazil,  in  the 
Territory  of  Misiones.  "Hiese  independent  moun- 
tain ranges,  however,  are  of  no  great  areal  or 
topographic  importance;  the  entire  region  east- 
ward from  the  base  of  the  Andean  Plateau  is 
generally  flat,  or  slightly  undulating,  and  falls 
gradually  from  an  elevation  of  about  2000  feet 
to,  or  nearly  to,  the  level  of  the  sea.  That  part 
of  the  plain  north  of  the  Rio  Salado  (affluent  of 
the  Paranfi)  is  called  the  "Gran  Chaco"  (great 
hunting-ground),  and  contains  extensive  forests. 
Between  the  Rio  Salado  and  the  Rio  Negro,  in 
central  Argentina,  are  the  characteristic  pampas, 
monotonous  stretches  of  level  ground  covered 
with  grass  during  the  wet  season.  Northward 
the  pampas  graduate  into  more  forested  country, 
and  are  also  marked  by  a  large  interior  drainage 
system  and  by  saline  swamps,  w^hile  to  the 
south  they  merge  into  the  higher  plains  or 
steppes  of"  Patagonia,  which  are  disposed  at  an 
elevation  ranging  from  2000  feet  at  the  base  of 
the  Andes  to  600  feet  or  less  on  the  coast.  Be- 
tween the  Rio  Parana  and  the  Rio  Uruguay  are 
tue  Provinces  of  Corrientes  and  Entre  Rios,  which 


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ABGEKTINA. 


are  generally  low,  the  latter  Province,  however, 
containing  a  small  area  of  hills  in  the  west. 

Hydboobapht.  Aside  from  a  few  inclosed 
basins  in  the  interior,  the  entire  area  is  drained 
by  easterly  flowing  rivers  into  the  Atlantic. 
The  great  river  system  of  the  Plata,  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  the  Uruguay  and  the  ParanA, 
belongs  only  partly  to  Argentina,  as  both  its 
branches  rise  in  the  interior  of  Brazil,  and  for 
a  large  part  of  their  course  flow  along  the 
frontiers  of  Brazil,  Paraguay,  and  Uruguay. 
The  ParanA  is  of  great  importance  to  Argentina 
as  a  commercial  highway.  With  the  Paraguay, 
it  drains  the  Gran  Chaco,  through  the  channels 
of  the  Pilcomayo,  Bermejo,  and  Salado,  and 
also  the  northern  pampas,  where  in  past  times 
there  were  several  important  tributaries  that 
are  now  represented  by  smaller  streams  with 
intermittent  flow.  The  ParanA  is  navigable  by 
steamers  for  a  distance  of  about  1200  miles,  and 
by  light-draught  boats  for  nearly  its  whole 
length.  From  the  confluence  of  the  Paraguay  to 
the  sea,  the  fall  amounts  only  to  about  225  feet, 
so  that  a  slight  depression  would  separate  the 
Plata  system  into  three  independent  branches — 
the  ParanA,  the  Paraguay,  and  the  Uruguay. 
In  the  central  Provinces  of  Argentina,  between 
the  Kio  Salado  on  the  north  and  the  Rio  Colo- 
rado on  the  south,  there  is  an  area  of  inclosed 
drainage,  with  extensive  saline  marshes,  which 
deposit  alkaline  salts  during  the  dry  season. 
South  Argentina  is  drained  by  the  Colorado  and 
Negro,  both  rising  on  the  slopes  of  the  Andes. 
The  drainage  basin  of  the  Colorado  formerly 
covered  a  much  larger  territory,  as  the  prov- 
inces of  San  Juan,  San  Luis,  and  Mendoza  were 
drained  by  a  northern  tributary  that  now  ends 
in  a  swampy  reservoir.  Patagonia  has  several 
large  streams,  including  the  Chubut,  Deseado, 
Salado,  and  Chico,  which  receive  their  water  sup- 
plies from  the  slopes  of  the  Andes,  where  there 
are  numerous  glacial  lakes.  See  the  articles  on 
La  Plata;  PabanA,  etc. 

Climate.  The  northern  part  of  Argentina 
projects  well  within  the  equatorial  hot  belt, 
while  the  central  and  southern  parts  extend 
through  the  south  temperate  zone.  The  peculiar 
location  of  Argentina,  with  oceanic  conditions 
on  the  east  and  high  mountains  on  the  west, 
make  its  climatic  details  very  dependent  on 
the  direction  of  the  winds.  The  northern  sec- 
tion lies  within  the  region  of  prevailing  east 
winds,  which  convey  inland  the  warm,  moist  air 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  cause  a  very  uni- 
form temperature,  with  heavy  precipitation  on 
the  coast,  but  decreasing  in  amount  with  prog- 
ress inland.  South  of  the  Plata  the  west  and 
northwest  winds  of  middle  latitudes  prevail, 
and  these  convey  across  the  narrow  territory 
the  air  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  which  has  been 
deprived  of  most  of  its  moisture  on  the  wind- 
ward slopes  of  the  Chilean  Andes.  Thus  the 
air  becomes  drier,  and  the  precipitation  de- 
creases with  approach  toward  the  Atlantic  coast. 
The  monsoon-effects  considerably  modify  these 
general  conditions,  so  that  for  the  northern  and 
more  important  half  of  Argentina,  in  winter, 
northerly  winds  are  very  common. 

The  temperature  decreases  with  increase  of 
latitude,  and  varies  in  the  annual  average  from 
70**  F.  at  the  north  to  less  than  45°  F.  at  the 
south.  In  the  north  the  temperatures  range 
from  a  maximum  of  105°  F.  to  a  minimum  of 


30**  F.;  the  hottest  month  averages  about  80° 
P\,  and  the  coldest  month  about  55°  F.  Toward 
the  middle  of  Argentina  the  hottest  month 
averages  only  75°  F.  and  the  coldest  a  little 
less  than  50°  F.,  and  at  the  extreme  south  ihe 
hottest  month  averages  less  than  50°  F.,  and 
the  coldest  month  has  a  temperature  near  that 
of  freezing  water.  There  is  in  general  a  great 
difference  between  the  day  and  night  tempera- 
tures; but  the  intense  cold  waves  of  the  middle 
latitudes  of  the  continents  of  the  Northern 
Hemisphere  are  entirely  lacking.  In  general, 
the  rainy  season  is  in  summer,  with  a  winter 
season  that  is  dry,  even  to  the  utter  lack  of 
rain  in  the  interior.  Three  rain  belts  lying 
nearly  parallel  to  the  Andes  are  noticeable';  in 
the  extreme  northeast  the  rainfall  is  moderately 
heavy,  from  50  to  70  inches.  To  the  west  of 
this  there  is  a  zone  of  moderately  light  rainfall, 
extending  as  far  south  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Plata,  where  the  annual  average  is  about  30 
inches.  Still  farther  west  there  is  a  rapid  de- 
crease to  the  Andean  slopes.  On  the  pampas 
the  weather  is  variable,  changes  from  the  cool, 
dry  south  winds  to  the  moist,  hot  north  winds 
frequently  occurring  with  great  suddenness. 
The  former  winds,  which  sometimes  blow  with 
stormy  violence,  are  called  "Pamperos."  They 
come  with  little  warning,  and  are  sometimes  of 
day-long  continuance.  The  moist,  hot  wind  from 
the  north,  called  "Zonda"  (somewhat  similar 
to  the  sirocco),  causes  intense  discomfort  to 
the  inhabitants.  The  dry  Zonda  of  the  east 
side  of  the  Andes  region  is  of  Fohn  character. 
Floba.  In  the  north  and  northeast  are  found 
tropical  woodlands,  to  the  south  and  west  of 
which  are  scattered  forests  containing  most  of 
the  species  usual  in  the  ^"arm  temperate  zone. 
The  slopes  of  the  Andes  are  well  wooded,  espe- 
cially with  thorny  and  shrubby  plants,  as  are 
tlie  banks  of  the  ParanA  and  the  rivers  flowing 
from  the  west  into  the  Paraguay;  although  the 
trees  do  not  attain  great  size.  Palms  are  a 
distinctive  feature  of  the  base  of  the  Sierra  de 
C6rdoba  and  of  the  northwestern  foothills.  The 
pampas,  in  the  wet  season,  are  covered  with 
clover  and'  thistles,  or  with  tall  grass  and 
flowers,  gay  verbenas^  geraniums,  etc.;  but  here, 
as  well  as  on  the  Gran  Chaco,  there  is  little 
to  form  thickets,  except  mimosas  and  cacti.  The 
algaroba,  a  shrub  resembling  a  honey  locust, 
is  widely  distributed;  it  is  used  for  fence  posts; 
from  the  pulp  of  the  pod  are  made  a  kind  of 
flour,  and,  by  fermentation,  an  intoxicating 
liquor  called  Chica.  Patagonia  has  herbs,  shrubs, 
cacti,  some  tufty  grass,  brambles,  and  copse; 
but  is  almost  treeless,  except  in  the  south,  and 
even  there  but  four  species  of  trees  are  found, 
two  of  them  being  beeches.  Among  the  in- 
digenous trees  and  plants  are  the  quince,  aloe, 
coca,  cinchona,  mat6  (or  Paraguay  tea),  manioc 
the  prickly  pear,  with  edible  fruit;  the  cactus 
foliosus,  on  which  the  cochineal  insect  feeds, 
and  a  shrub  harboring  an  insect  yielding  a 
handsome  green  dye.  The  apple-tree,  introduced 
from  Chile  by  the  Indians,  flourishes  in  the 
southwestern  Provinces;  the  grape  is  extensively 
grown  in  the  western  Provinces  of  Rioja,  San  Juan, 
and  Mendoza;  the  Province  of  Salta  is  famed  for 
its  bananas  and  cofl'ee ;  ^d  the  peach,  fig,  orange, 
and  walnut  are  grown  in  many  parts.  The 
scarcity  of  wood  in  some  Provinces  compels  the 


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*^-  s  r    <J^     ■'^   ».    "  -  |«    s  '-  d\" 

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ABQENTINA. 


775 


ABQENTIKA. 


use  of  dry  thistles  and  peach-tree  cuttings  for 
fuel. 

Fauna.  The  larger  wild  animals,  found 
mainly  in  the  northern  forests,  are  the  jaguar, 
puma,  ocelot,  ant-eater,  tapirs,  sloths,  and  pec- 
caries. The  pampas  and  plains  are  inhabited 
by  deer,  wildcats,  wild  dogs,  pumas,  skunks, 
armadillos,  the  red  wolf,  foxes,  and  several  bur- 
rowing quadrupeds,  notably  the  viscacha.  The 
guanaco,  vicuQa,  and  llama  range  from  the 
mountains  to  the  plains;  the  capybara  and 
coypu  frequent  the  rivers;  the  condor,  vulture, 
the  Rhea  Americana  range  north  of  the  Rio  Ne- 
gro, and  the  Rhea  Darwinia,  south  of  it.  Several 
species  of  game  birds,  and  birds  of  prey,  flamin- 
gos, and  water  fowl  of  many  kinds,  parrots,  hum- 
ming-birds, and  other  birds  of  gay  plumage  are 
seen  in  the  forested  regions  or  on  the  open  plains, 
where  bird-life  greatly  flourishes.  There  are 
several  varieties  of  reptiles  in  Argentina;  boas 
and  rattlesnakes  occur  in  the  north,  together 
with  iguanas,  alligators,  and  turtles.  Spiders  also 
and  mosquitoes  of  great  size,  destructive  locusts 
and  ants,  and  chigoes  abound.  Fish  are  very 
numerous  in  the  coast  and  inland  waters.  Seals, 
sea-lions,  and  sea-elephants  are  captured  along 
the  coast,  and  the  rivers  supply  many  edible  fish. 
Most  interesting  fossil  remains  are  found  in 
different  parts  of  the  Republic,  a  large  number 
of  species  having  been  obtained,  among  then! 
the  megatherium,  toxodon,  glyptodon,  and  gigkn- 
tic  ratite  birds. 

Geoixkjy  and  Mineral  Resoubces.     The  in- 
terior highlands  have  usually  a  granitic  core, 
overlaid    by    Paleozoic    formations,    while    the 
Andean  system  is  largely  composed  of  Mesozoic 
strata,   broken   through   by   igneous   rocks   and 
covered  by  extensive  volcanic  sheets.     The  pam- 
pas are  made  up  of  Tertiary  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone,  with   sandy   or   clayey   material   on   the 
surface.    In  Patagonia  the  northwest  and  south- 
east   ridges   are   denuded    remnants    of   former 
mountain    ranges,    and    rise    out   of    layers    of 
coarse  gravel  that  cover  the  region  to  a  depth 
of    50   feet   or   more.     The   gravel   consists   of 
granite,   gneiss,   and   schist,   and   has   been   de- 
rived by  disintegration  and  glacial  action  from 
the    underlying   formations.      Large    areas    are 
also  occupied  by  sand  dunes,  that  shift  their 
position   with   the   winds.     The   region   of   the 
Andes  was  once  the  scene  of  enormous  volcanic 
development,  when  streams  of  lava  flowed  down 
the    slopes   and   spread   out  over  the   adjacent 
plains  in  the  form  of  thick  and  extensive  sheets. 
The  lower  stretches  of  the  rivers  in  Argentina 
are    bordered   by   recent   deposits   of   alluvium. 
ITie  mineral  resources  of  the  country  have  re- 
ceived but  little  attention  as  yet,  although  they 
are   extensive,   and   include  a   large  variety   of 
ores  and  minerals.    Gold  is  found  in  the  Andes 
and  in  the  mountains  of  San  Luis,  coal  in  Tierra 
del   Fuego,   marble   in   the   Sierra   de   C6rdoba, 
while   copper,   lead,   silver,   and   iron   ores   and 
sodium  salts  occur  at  numerous  localities.    The 
output  of  silver  annually  exceeds  $200,000   in 
value.     The  gold  product  in   1900  was  valued 
at  $75,000.     Mica  is  mined  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  C6rdoba,  and  the  product  is  shipped  to 
European    countries.     Some*   petroleum    is    ob- 
tained, and  a  number  of  companies  are  organiz- 
ing for  the  further  exploration  of  the  petroleum, 
borax,  and  other  mineral  resources. 


Agbicultub£.  This  is  naturally  the  most  im- 
portant industry  in  a  country  so  rich  in  land 
and  80  sparsely  settled  as  Argentina.  Although 
the  land  under  actual  cultivation  constitutes 
less  than  5  per  cent,  of  the  total  available  area, 
Argentina  already  figures  as  an  important  fac- 
tor in  the  world's  grain  markets.  In  1895,  at 
the  time  of  the  last  census,  the  total  land  under 
cultivation  was  4,892,005  hectares  (nearly  12,- 
000,000  acres)  ;  in  1888,  at  the  time  of  the  first 
agricultural  census,  the  area  under  cultivation 
was  2,459,120  hectares  (nearly  6,000,000  acres)  ; 
while  in  1872  it  was  but  580,008  hectares  (or 
about  1,450,000  acres).  The  area  under  culti- 
vation, therefore,  doubled  in  seven  years,  and 
increased  more  than  eightfold  since  1872.  The 
total  available  agricultural  area  is  estimated 
at  250,000,000  acres,  or  more  than  was  taken 
up  in  1900  by  the  combined  grain,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, and  vegetable  crops  in  the  United  States. 
The  census  estimates  the  number  of  people  en- 
gaged in  agriculture  at  one-fourth  the  entire 
population. 

There  were  more  than  180,000  farms  in  Ar- 
gentina in  1895,  of  which  60  per  cent,  were 
cultivated  by  their  owners,  30  per  cent,  by 
tenants  paying  rent,  and  8  per  cent,  by  persons 
working  for  a  share  of  the  crop.  Although 
there  are  no  statistics  to  show  the  growth  of 
each  of  these  groups,  it  is  a  matter  of  common 
observation  that  the  number  of  farmers  owning 
their  land  is  growing  apace,  as  free  land  is 
'  abimdant  and  its  acquisition  extremely  easy. 
Renting  for  a  share  of  the  crop  is  the  first  step 
on-  the  part  of  the  agricultural  laborer  toward 
becoming  a  landowner.  Land  being  productive 
and  population  scarce,  lal)or  is  naturally  dear 
and  well  rewarded;  so  that  it  is  a  matter  of 
common  occurrence  for  the  laborer  to  get  from 
one-fourth  to  one-half  of  the  share  of  the  crop, 
the  proprietor  furnishing  land,  implements,  and 
seeds,  as  well  as  a  house  and  food  for  the 
laborer  and  his  family.  Under  these  conditions, 
it  takes  the  laborer  only  a  few  years  to  acquire 
land  of  his  own.  In  fifteen  out  of  the  twenty- 
three  Argentine  Provinces  for  which  there  are 
figures  for  the  two  censuses  of  the  country,  the 
number  of  farms  increased  from  43,746  in  1888 
to  107,274  in  1895.  The  average  size  of  farms 
is  about  125  acres,  the  number  of  larger  planta- 
tions and  of  farms  of  smaller  area  being  in- 
considerable. 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  cultivated  area  is 
to  a  great  extent  due  to  European  immigration, 
the  newcomers  settling  in  colonies,  living  in 
accordance  with  their  own  customs,  and  using 
their  own  methods  of  cultivation.  The  first 
colony  thus  foimded  consisted  of  Swiss  peasants, 
who  came  to  Argentina  in  1856;  in  1874  there 
were  32  colonies,  tilling  12,900  acres;  in  1884 
the  number  of  colonies  increased  to  85,  the 
area  under  cultivation  to  86,000  acres;  in  1896 
the  census  records  709  colonies,  with  an  area 
of  no  less  ihan  115,284,000  acres.  The  wonder- 
fully rapid  gro>vth  of  colonies  is  explained  by 
the  very  liberal  immigration  laws  of  the  Repub- 
lic, alluring  inducements  being  held  out  to 
immigrants,  who  are  given,  in  some  of  the  prov- 
inces, large  tracts  of  land,  provisions,  and  im- 
plements with  which  to  begin  farming  life  in 
the  new  coimtry. 

The  most  important  crop  in  Argentina,  from 
a  commercial  point  of  view,  is  wheat.     Barley, 


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oats,  potatoes,  flax,  tobacco,  and  other  European 
crops  are  also  extensively  raised.  Sugar-cane 
is  cultivated  in  the  northeast  with  considerable 
success,  and  the  cultivation  of  cotton  has  been 
recently  introduced.  The  fruits  raised  are  of 
the  tropical  and  semi -tropical  varieties,  includ- 
inff  oranges,  olives,  figs,  grapes,  and  dates. 
Silk- worm  culture,  for  which  the  climate  seems 
to  be  splendidly  adapted,  is  also  receiving  con- 
siderable attention.  The  following  figures  illus- 
trate the  growth  of  the  agricultural  industry 
in  Argentina:  In  1888  the  area  devoted  to  the 
cultivation  of  wheat  was  2,014,947  acres,  in 
1895  it  was  5,064,767,  an  increase  of  about 
150  per  cent,  in  seven  years.  The  area  de- 
voted to  the  cultivation  of  com  in  the  corre- 
sponding years  was  respectively  1,980,724  and 
3,074,374  acres,  showing  an  increase  of  over 
50  per  cent.  The  area  under  flax  increased 
from  299,246  acres  in  1888  to  957,073  acres  in 
1895,  or  more  Jthan  200  per  cent.  The  area 
under  barley  increased  from.  23,937  acres  in 
1888  to  54,011  acres  in  1895,  or  about  130  per 
cent.  The  following  are  the  chief  wheat-raising 
Provinces,  with  their  acreage  in  1895: 

,  Acres. 

Santa  Fe 3.M7.849 

Buenos  Ajres 907.909 

Cordoba 736.733 

EntreKlos 731.799 

Balta 84.001 

While  the  progress  in  sugar-cane  and  tobacco 
planting  keeps  pace  with  that  of  cereals,  the 
growing  of  cotton  has  not  reached,  as  yet,  any 
large  proportions,  although  it  is  also  on  the  in- 
crease. The  increase  in  the  area  under  sugar- 
cane has  been  as  follows:  1855,  551  acres;  1875, 
7759;  1888,  52,044;  1895,  151,406.  The  area 
under  tobacco  was:  1872,  8551  acres;  1888, 
7991 ;  1895,  39,029.  The  cotton  crop  covered  an 
area  of  about  1500  acres  in  1895;  but  there  is 
no  doubt  that  the  beginning  thus  made  is 
fraught  with  great  possibilities,  especially  for 
the  northern  provinces,  which  are  b^st  adapted 
to  its  cultivation. 

Stock-raising  is  no  less  important — if  not, 
indeed,  more  important — than  the  cultivation 
of  land.  Tlie  following  table  shows  the  number 
of  various  kinds  of  animals  at  the  time  of 
the  taking  of  the  first  and  second  censuses : 


Cattle 21,961.667 

Horses 4,284,033 

Asses  and  Mules 417.494 

Sheep: 66.708,097 

Hogs 893,758 

Goats 1.894.386 


1896 

31.701.636 

4,446.869 

483.869 

74.379,663 

663.766 

2.748.860 


It  will  be  seen  from  the  above  figures  that  the 
raising  ot  sheep  constitutes  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant branches  of  the  animal  industry.  Their 
increase  has  been  steady  and  large,  as  the  fol- 
lowing figures  show:  In  1830,  their  total  num- 
ber in  the  country  was  estimated  at  2,500,000; 
1800,  14,000,000;  1870,  41,000,000;  1880,  61,000,- 
000.  As  to  the  wool  product,  it  increased  from 
6,000,000  pounds  in  1830  to  130,000,000  in 
1870;  from  310,000,000  in  1891  to  about  600,- 
000,000  pounds  in  1900.  The  significance  of  these 
figures  will  be  clear  if  it  is  remembered  that  in 
the  United  States  there  were  only  42,000.000 
sheep  in  1895,  a  number  which  did  not  increase 
up  to  1900.  On  the  other  hand,  the  number  of 
cattle  in  the  United  States  is  double  that  in 
Argentina. 


Manufactures.  The  manufacturing  indus- 
tries of  Argentina  are  largely  in  foreign  hands. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  larger  industries, 
requiring  investments  of  considerable  capital 
and  management  on  a  large  scale,  such  as  elec- 
tric-light and  power  plants,  flour  mills,  mines, 
smelting  works,  etc.  The  census  of  1895  re- 
ports in  the  country  22,204  manufacturing 
establishments,  18,706  of  which  belonged  to 
foreigners,  3498  to  natives.  The  proportion  of 
native  workmen  in  these  establishments  was 
more  than  one-third  of  the  total  number  of 
145,650,  52,356  being  Argentinians,  93,294  for- 
eigners. The  total  number  of  people  engaged 
in  manufactures,  including  employers  and  em- 
ployees, was  167,854.  The  various  industries 
are  classed  by  the  census  in  nine  large  groups, 
as  follows: 


No.  of 
Employees 

For- 
eign 

Na- 
tive 

I.         Food  Products 

4,083 

6.713 

3.955 

3.259 

949 

3,168 

317 

437 

1.339 

608 

647 
960 
339 
ITS 
389 
66 
132 
817 

3  574 

II.       Clothing  Industry 

5.066 
3.995 

III.     Building  Industiy 

IV.  Furniture  and  Household  Goods 

V.  Art  and  Ornaments. 

1.MS 
776 

VI.      Metallic  Products 

3,774 
361 

VII      ChemlcaU 

VIII.  Printing  Trades 

306 

IX.     Miscellaneous 

1.031 

Total 

32,304 

3.496 

18.706 

INDUSTSIRS 

No 

of  Persons  Employed 

Capital 
(In  pesos) 

Peso. 
96.5  rents 

Men 

Wo- 

men 

Na- 
tive 

For- 
eign 

Total 

I.  Food 

Products 

II.  Clothing 

Industry 

III.  Building 

Industry 

IV.  Furniture  Jb 
Household  G'ds 

V.  Art  and 

Ornaments 

VI.  Metallic 

Products 

VII.  Chemicals.. 
Viil.  Printing 

Trades 
IX.  Miscel- 
laneous 

33,609 

3,403 

8.346.18,736 

37.0T1 

67.286.686 

31,037 

11.603  10.414  33,186 

33.599 

45.086.764 

39,134 
11.841 

1.396 
1.380 

13.702 
4.138 

17,817 
8.596 

30.519 
13.731 

46.631.872 
33.010.006 

3.363 

13.963 
8.096 

4,614 

13.144 

308 

668 
1,017 

666 

3,613 

808 

4,018 
3.303 

3,658 

7,190 

1,767 

10,613 
2,509 

3,533 

8.567 

3.600 

14,631 
4.713 

6.060 

16.757 

8,568,935 

36.478,585 
13.902.463 

9.009,838 

45,337.219 

Total 

133.789 

33.911 '  Ba.9Sti>9H.^si. 

145.660  ^SA  101  .SfiT 

' 

Thus,  nearly  $280,000,000  of  capital  was  in- 
vested in  1805  in  the  infant  industries  of  Ar- 
gentina. The  table  shows  that  the  manufacture 
of  food  products  is  foremost  among  the  indus- 
tries. That  does  not  include,  however,  the  two 
largest  industries  of  the  country,  which  have 
contributed  more  than  any  others  to  its  pros- 
perity— ^viz.,  the  flour  mills,  employing  a  capital 
of  about  $20,000,000,  and  the  meat-packing 
houses,  with  a  capital  of  more  than  $22,000,000. 
Nor  does  it  include  sugar  plantations  and  re- 
fineries, with  a  capital  of  over  $17,000,000;  the 
wine-making  establishments,  with  a  capital  of 
$8,500,000;  breweries,  with  a  capital  of  nearly 
$,3,000,000;  and  distilleries,  with  a  capital  of 
over  $5,000,000.  The  growth  of  the  flour-milling 
industry  is  shown,  not  so  much  by  the  increase 
of  the  total  number  of  flour  millsl— from  638  in 
1888  to  659  in  1895 — as  by  the  increase  of  steam- 


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ABQENTINA. 


driven  mills  from  180  in  1888  to  234  in  1895, 
accompanied  by  a  shutting-down  of  mills  driven 
by  animal  power,  which  numbered  173  in  1888 
and  only  56  in  1895.  It  is  the  only  industry, 
too,  in  which  the  proportion  of  native  owners 
is  comparatively  high — ^viz.,  344  out  of  a  total 
of  659. 

These  facts  illustrate  the  direction  taken  by 
the  development  of  the  Argentine  industry — 
viz.,  the  building-up  of  those  branches  of  manu- 
facture in  which  the  natural  products  of  the 
country  can  be  converted  into  more  valuable 
finished  or  half- finished  products.  As  a  con- 
sequence, the  country  is  being  gradually  relieved 
of  the  necessity  of  paying  a  tribute  to  foreign 
nations  for  articles  of  prime  necessity;  and 
what  is  equally  important,  employment  is  pro- 
vided in  the  country  for  a  large  and  steadily 
increasing  number  of  people,  nearly  equal  to 
that  engaged  in  agriculture.  The  growth  of 
the  sugar-refining  industry  is  another  case  in 
point.  Previous  to  1870  the  coimtry  imported 
annually  some  22,000  tons  of  sugar,  and  hardly 
produced  1000  tons  at  home;  in  the  decade  of 
1870-80  the  imports  increased  to  about  30,000 
tons,  but  the  home  production  increased  to  some 
8000  tons  per  annum.  In  the  following  decade 
the  imports  remained  stationary,  while  the  home 
product  rose  to  40,000  tons  per  year;  and  this 
figure  8ubse<i^uently  increased  to  70,000  tons. 
Among  the  industries  carried  on  on  a  large 
scale,  the  manufacture  of  gas  should  be  men- 
tioned. It  is  almost  exclusively  in  foreign 
hands  (largely  English),  and  in  1895  there  was 
invested  in  it  a  capital  of  nearly  $40,000,000. 
Electric-lighting  plants  have  made  much  less 
progress,  the  capital  invested  in  such  plants  in 
1895  being  only  $1,000,000.  The  more  distinc- 
tive native  manufactures  are  those  of  baskets 
from  the  willows  of  the  Paran&  Islands;  the 
homespun  cotton  and  woolen  cloths,  blankets, 
rugs,  laces,  and  embroideries  of  the  northwestern 
highland  provinces;  the  tanned  leather,  wooden 
ware,  laces,  blankets,  etc.,  of  C6rdoba;  and  the 
harness,  belts,  ponchos,  horse-blankets,  ropes, 
etc.,  of  the  Indians  in  various  States.  The 
growth  and  diversification  of  Argentine  indus- 
tries are  best  brought  out  by  the  following  table, 
showing  the  absolute  and  relative  values  of  the 
products  of  the  various  industries  exported  from 
the  country  at  three  different  periods: 


Value  in 

Biold  pesos  (96.6  cents) 

Products 

1872 
Pesos 

??' 

1888 
Pesos 

per 
ct. 

1896 
Pesos 

?r 

1  The  Animal 

Industry. 

2  Agric'lture 

3  An  other 

Industries 

43,840,000 
98.000 

2.332,000 

94.7 
0.4 

4.9 

71,070,000 
16,800,000 

12.730,000 

70.9 
16.3 

12.8 

74.630,000 
41,460.000 

3,990.000 

62.1 
34.6 

3.4 

Total 

45.740.000 

100.0 

100,100,000 

100.0 

120.070,000 

100.0 

with  the  manufacturing  industry  still  in  its 
infancy,  Argentina  must  on  the  one  hand  import 
most  of  the  manufactured  products  needed  by  its 
people,  and  on  the  other  hand  seek  to  dispose  of 
its  enormous  agricultural  surplus  to  the  nations 
of  Europe.  Of  the  total  imports  brought  into 
the  country,  manufactured  articles  of  all  kinds, 
including  textiles,  metal  ware,  chemicals,  paints, 
and  liquors,  constitute  more  than  86  per  cent., 
while  vegetable  and  animal  substances  constitute 
less  than  13  per  cent.;  and  even  these  include 
many  manufactured  products,  such  as  refined 
sugar,  cigars  and  cigarettes,  dried  fruit,  manu- 
factures of  rubber,  and  preserved  meats.  Mak- 
ing allowance  for  such  articles,  the  value  of 
really  crude  products  of  the  farm  barely  exceeds 
1  per  cent,  of  the  total  imports;  on  the  other 
hand,  the  only  manufactured  articles  exported 
from  Argentina  consist  of  semi-crude  products  of 
the  farm  and  mine,  such  as  refrigerated  meat, 
washed  wool,  hides  and  furs,  lard,  animal  oil, 
linseed  oil,  flour,  copper  bars,  etc.  The  imports, 
into  Argentina,  in  the  order  of  importance,  are 
textiles  and  apparel,  iron  and  iron  manufactures, 
food  substances,  coal,  coke,  oil,  drinks,  wood  and 
wood  manufactures,  chemicals,  paper  and  paper 
manufactures,  etc.  The  trade  with  Europe  has- 
been  facilitated  by  the  establishment  of  branches, 
of  foreign  mercantile  houses  in  Argentina. 

Since  British  capital  has  contributed  more  to 
the  development  of  the  material  resources  and 
the  industries  of  Argentina  than  the  investments 
of  any  other  nation,  Great  Britain  naturally  gets 
the  lion's  share  of  Argentina's  trade.  The  prin- 
cipal countries  sharing  in  the  import  trade  of 
Argentina  are:  Great  Britain,  34  per  cent.; 
Germany,  15  per  cent. ;  Italy,  13  per  cent. ;  the 
United  States,  12  per  cent. ;  and  France,  10  per 
cent.  Of  those  taking  Argentine  products,  th& 
most  important  are:  Great  Britain,  15  per  cent.; 
Germany,  13  per  cent.;  France,  12  per  cent;  Bel- 
gium, 11.5  per  cent.;  the  United  States,  4.5  per 
cent.  The  growth  of  Argentine  trade  is  shown 
by  the  following  figures: 

(Millions  of  Pesos.)  (Millions  of  Pesos,  y 
Imports.  Exports. 

1870 88.60  29.6 

1880 43.10  64.9 

1886 92.26  83.9 

1890 142.26  100.8 

Early  in  1800  a  severe  commercial  and  finan- 
cial crisis  struck  the  country,  from  the  effects  of 
which  it  took  her  several  years  to  recover.  The 
following  figures  show  the  downward  movement 
of  the  trade  within  the  few  years  following  1890, 
and  the  gradual  recovery  until  in  1894  the  ex- 
ports began  to  exceed  lie  high-water  mark  of 
1890: 


Thus  the  value  of  animal  products,  which  for- 
merly made  up  nearly  the  entire  amount  of  its 
exports,  has  dwindled  to  less  than  two-thirds, 
while  agricultural  products  have  risen  from  next 
to  nothing  to  over  one- third  the  total  value.  The 
small  exports  of  manufactured  products  does  not 
indicate  lack  of  industrial  progress,  since  the 
manufactures  go  mainly  to  satisfy  the  home  mar- 
ket, and  do  not  appear  in  the  above  table. 

Commerce.    Being    an    agricultural    country, 


Exports. 

Exports. 
Peso 

Imports 

Peso 

Imports 

in 

equals 

in 

equals 

pesos 

96.6c. 

pesos 

96.6c. 

1891 

67,207,000 

96,703,000 

1896 

112,164,000 

116,802.000 

1892 

97,899,000 

114.667.000 

1897 

98.289,000 

101.169,000 

1893 

100.913.000 

94,906,000 

1898 

107,429,000 

133,829,000 

1894 

92.789.000 

101,260,000 

1899 

116,860,000 

184,918,000 

1895 

94,849,000 

118,937,000 

1900 

118,486,000 

164,600,000 

The  growth  of  the  trade  with  the  United 
States  during  the  last  half  century  is  shown  hj 
the  following  figures: 


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ABGENTIKA.  778  ABQENTIHA. 

Importnlnto         Exportofrom  age  in  1900  aggregated  10,595  miles,  being  dis- 
S^m  thS              ^'^"the*  tributed  among  26  lines.  Four  are  owned  and  op- 
United  StatM.         United  States.  erated  by  the  nation,  six  are  owned  and  operated 

jgjg •SS'SS  ^J'SS'ooo  ^^  *^®  provinces,  with  a  mileage  of  8  per  cent,  of 

i87o'.'.'.'.'.'.'.!'.!*.'.".*.*.'.!!'.!!      s.6So;ooo  e.'So'ooo  ^^^  ^^^  >  ^^®  ^^^  *'®  managed  by  private  com- 

1880.'.*'".!".!!!'.".!'.!!".!!*.".!      liooo.'ooo  eiaooiooo  panies.    The  first  railway  in  Argentina  was  built 

i«» 8.900.000  6,400.000  in  1854,  and  extended  for  about  12  miles  west  of 

The  crisis  of  1890  had  a  similar  effect  on  the  ^^?°«»  ^?"?o^n*I»,^®^^  there  were  19  mil^  of 

trade  with  the  United  States  as  it  had  on  the  fj'^^^y;  ^?  \^^^  there  were  4o4  miles,  including 

general  trade  of  Argentina,  the  decline  continu-  ^^^  Central  Argentina  Railway,  extending  from 

ing  for  several  yearl    Since  1896,  however,  the  ^^'^"^Tu*^®  ^Y*^^  ST"*  ^  ^^''^^J'^.B^ 

trSde  has  again  been  increasing  as  follows:  ^"^^  «*  ^^^  l^'^^'lU'     Between  1870  and   1880 

°  were  constructed  the  great  trunk  lines  leading 

Imports.         Exports.  north  from  Cdrdoba  to  Tucuman,  and  from  Villa 

IS?::;:::;:::::::::::;::::::;:;:   t2S:SS     KSS  ^^  *»  X"^i5!"^tf'  '*r«!,"«  ^''".'"i'^i? 

1896 6.400.000  6,900,000  1880   up    to    1434.     The   decade   that    followed 

1899 9,600,000  6.100,000  eclipsed  all  previous  records,  and  the  mileage  was 

^^ 11.600,000  8.100.000  increased    four-fold,    reaching  a  total  of    5860 

The  trade  with  the  United  States  increased,  not  »"  1890.  By  that  year  the  country  was  covered 
only  absolutely,  but  also  relatively.  In  1896  the  w>*"  *  network  of  railways  branching  out  from 
imports  from  the  United  States  constituted  9.9  ^^^  ^l^^ee  great  industrial  centres  on  the  Paranft 
per  cent,  of  the  toUl  imports;  in  1897  they  rose  River— Buenos  Ayres,  Santa  F6  and  Rosario.  On 
to  10.3  per  cent;  in  1898  to  10.4  per  cent.;  in  ^^«  south,  the  railway  reached  the  sea  of  Bahia 
1899  they  were  13.2  per  cent.,  and  in  1900  11.9  Blanca;  on  the  west,  it  was  extended  to  Mendoza 
per  cent.  The  exports  from  Argentina  to  the  ^^  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  and  not  far  from  the 
United  States  were  4.4  per  cent,  in  1898,  4.2  per  Chilean  boundary;  on  the  north,  to  Salta,  also 
cent,  in  1899,  and  4.4  per  cent,  in  1900.  The  dose  to  Chile.  Finally,  in  the  decade  between 
chief  articles  of  import  from  the  United  States  1890  and  1900,  the  mileage  was  nearly  doubled, 
are  machinery  and  all  kinds  of  tools  and  imple-  one  line  stretching  southward  as  far  as  Neuquen, 
ments,  having  an  annual  value  of  some  $4,500,-  another,  the  Trans- Andean,  being  opened  from 
000.  The  value  of  agricultural  implements  alone  Mendoza  to  Punta  de  las  Vacas. 
is  rapidly  approaching  $2,000,000  annually ;  that  On  the  economic  side  Argentina  did  not  escape 
of  oil  (illuminating  and  lubricating)  is  nearly  the  experience  which  has  been  the  lot  of  all  coun- 
$1,500,000;  that  of  boards,  wooden  manufactures,  tries  where  railway  building  has  been  allowed  to 
and  lumber  exceeds  $1,500,000;  and  that  of  man-  go  unchecked  under  private  management.  Exees- 
ufactures  of  linen,  hemp,  and  jute  is  over  $1,000,-  sive  issues  of  capital  stock,  over-speculation  and 
000.  The  chief  articles  of  export  to  the  United  kindred  abuses  accompanying  the  great  railway 
States  are  wool,  valued,  in  1900,  at  more  than  "boom"  of  the  eighties  had  their  dav  of  reckoning 
$4,500,000  (a  decline  from  $20,000,000  in  1897)  ;  in  and  contributed  in  no  small  share  to  the  great 
and  hides  and  skins,  valued,  in  1900,  at  nearly  commercial  panic  of  1890,  when  the  Government 
$1,000,000  (a  decline  from  nearly  $6,000,000  in  found  it  impossible  to  pay  interest  on  railway 
1896).  securities  guaranteed  by  it.  It  was  that  experience 
Tbanspobtation  and  Communication.  Ship-  that  led  to  the  gradual  withdrawal  of  guarantees 
piny.— The  increase  in  shipping  facilities  has  to  rhilways,  and  the  radical  reform  in  railway 
kept  pace  with  commercial  progress.  In  1869  there  management  which  culminated  in  the  creation 
was  a  total  of  1698  sailing  vessels  and  steamships  of  a  special  Ministry  of  Railways,  a  sharp  super- 
in  the  country.  In  1895  there  were  2654;  but  as  vision  of  railway  management,  and  a  strong 
progress  in  shipbuilding  made  it  possible  to  build  tendency  toward  Government  ownership  and  man- 
larger  vessels,  the  total  increase  in  tonnage  was  agement  of  railways.  Of  the  existing  trunk  lines 
much  greater,  viz.,  from  151,177  tons  in  1889  to  of  the  country  five,  with  a  mileage  of  1500,  were 
368,634  in  1895,  an  increase  of  144  per  cent.  In  built  by  the  national  Government  at  a  cost  of 
1895,  406  of  these  ships  were  steamers,  the  rest  80,000,000  pesos  gold  (about  $76,000,000)  ;  three 
being  sailing  vessels.  The  tonnage  of  the  steam-  Hnes,  with  a  mileage  of  1240,  were  built  by  the 
ers,  however,  was  190,242,  or  more  than  one-half  three  richest  provinces— Buenos  Ayres,  Santo  F^ 
of  the  totol.  More  than  66  per  cent,  of  the  and  Entre  Rios— at  a  total  cost  of  66,000,000 
steamers  and  88  per  cent,  of  the  sailing  vessels  pesos  ($53,000,000).  In  a  word,  more  than  one- 
carried  the  Argentine  flag,  English  and  German  fourth  of  the  totol  railway  mileage  of  the  countrv 
vessels  being  next  m  importance.  The  actual  has  been  built  by  the  national  and  provincial 
shipping  done  by  these  vessels  is  shown  by  the  Governments.  While  the  cost  of  the  Government 
following  figures  of  foreign  trade:  railways  has  been  about  28,650  pesos  per  kilo- 
Number.  Tone.  metre,  that  of  the  private  lines  has  been  35,320 
1890 13,873         6,340,955  pesos  per  kilometre.  In  all,  the  Government  paid 

im::!!::;:::;::;;!:!;::::::::::::::::::    ioiS     i^'^  ®^*  ^^®^  $44,000,000  in  guarantees  for  private 

'     '  roads.    At  the  end  of  1898  the  totol  capitol  in- 

Railways.    Perhaps  in  no  other  field  has  the  vested  in  Argentine  railways  amounted  to  523,- 

economic   progress   of    Argentina   been   so   well  000,000  pesos,  of  which  435,000,000  pesos  repre- 

exemplified  as  in  its  railway  development.     Ar-  sented  private  roads;  65,000,000,  national  rail- 

gentina  has  a  larger  railway  mileage  than  any  ways;  and  33,000,000,  provincial  railways.    The 

country  in  America  south  of  the  United  States,  railways  employed  over  37,000  men  in  1898  as 

although  it  has  only  half  the  area  and  about  one-  against  20,000  in  1893. 

fourth  the  population  of  Brazil,  and  less  than        Telegraphs.    More  than  one-half  of  all  the  tel- 

half  the  population  of  Mexico.    The  railway  mile-  egraph  lines  belong  to  the  Government,  less  than 


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a  tenth  to  private  companies,  and  the  rest  to  the 
railways.  There  were  27,584  miles  of  telegraph 
lines  in  Argentina  in  1000  as  against  20,415  miles 
in  1891.  A  "snow  cable"  connects  Buenos  Ayres 
with  Valparaiso,  whence  a  submarine  cable  con- 
nects with  San  Francisco,  Cal.  Buenos  Ayres  is 
connected  with  Montevideo  by  submarine  cable, 
and  also  with  Europe  by  way  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands;  and  in  this  indirect 
way  with  the  United  States  also.  There  is  be- 
sides a  cable  between  Buenos  Ayres  and  Lisbon. 

Banking.  The  first  bank  established  in  Argen- 
tina was  the  Banco  de  la  Provincia  Buenos  Ayres, 
opened  in  1822.  It  was  followed  by  a  number 
of  other  banks,  but  none  of  them  managed  to 
exist  long,  as  the  insignificant  commerce  of  the 
country  was  not  sufficient  to  maintain  such  in- 
stitutions. The  real  banking  history  of  the 
country  dates  from  1872,  when  the  Banco  Na- 
cional,  with  a  capital  of  50,000,000  pesos,  was 
founded.  •  In  1882  the  first  foreign  bank,  the 
Banco  Italiano  del  Rio  de  la  Plata  was  estab- 
lished, and  the  growing  commerce  of  the  country 
soon  led  to  the  establishment  of  French,  German, 
and  Spanish  banks,  which  the  respective  nations 
established  in  the  interests  of  their  ovm  com- 
merce. By  law  of  November  3,  1887,  national 
banks,  resembling  those  of  the  United  States, 
were  established.  The  creation  of  these  banks 
without  proper  safeguards  thrown  around  them, 
followed  by  great  abuse  of  the  inadequate  law  by 
Government  officials,  soon  resulted  in  flooding  the 
country  with  worthless  paper  money.  Specula- 
tion on  a  scale  thiat  left  far  behind  the  worst 
features  of  the  German  Oriinder  fever  in  the 
early  seventies,  and  resembling  much  the  excesses 
of  the  days  of  John  Law  (q.v.)  in  France,  gave 
the  country  for  a  time  the  appearance  of  genuine 
prosperity;  the  *boom*  was  skillfully  utilized 
through  the  medium  of  the  Paris  Exposition  of 
1889  to  attract  still  more  fox;eign  capital,  and 
the  scramble  for  wealth  went  on,  until  it  culmi- 
nated in  a  financial  panic.  The  panic  swept 
away  the  numerous  national  banks,  most  of 
which  had  nothing  but  paper  and  a  political 
"pull"  with  the  directors  of  the  National  Bank 
at  Buenos  Ayres  as  their  chief  assets.  The  Na- 
tional Bank  itself,  robbed  of  its  capital  by  its 
directors  and  by  politicians,  was  declared  in- 
solvent, and  was  reorganized  in  1891,  under  the 
name  of  the  Banco  de  la  Naci6n  Argentina,  with 
a  capital  of  $50,000,000.  In  addition,  there  are 
14  State  banks.  In  1899  the  paper  peso  was 
fixed  by  the  Congress  of  Argentina  at  .44  of 
the  gold  peso,  thus  contributing  to  the  stability 
of  the  currency. 

Government.  The  constitution  of  Argentina, 
adopted  in  1853,  and  modified  in  1860  and  in 
1898,  is  modeled  closely  upon  that  of  the  United 
States;  and  the  entire  system  of  government, 
both  federal  and  provincial,  is  almost  identical 
in  its  chief  features  with  our  own.  The  legisla- 
tive power  is  vested  in  a  Congress  consisting  of 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Senate  is  composed  of  30  members,  elected  2  each 
by  the  legislatures  of  the  14  provinces,  and  2 
by  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres.  They  serve  for  nine 
years,  but  one-third  of  the  Chamber  passes  out 
every  three  years.  The  T-.ower  House  consisted  in 
1901  of  133  members,  elected  directly  by  the  peo- 
ple for  a  term  of  four  years,  one-half  of  the 
House  being  renewed  every  two  years.     To  the 


House  of  Representatives  is  reserved  the  right 
of  initiating  bills  dealing  with  taxation  and 
military  conscription,  and  of  impeaching  the  na- 
tional executive  and  judiciary.  The  executive 
power  is  vested  in  a  President,  elected  for  a 
period  of  six  years  by  the  same  method  as  that 
pursued  in  the  United  States,  except  that  the  num- 
ber of  electors  chosen  by  each  Province  is  twice 
the  number  of  its  representatives  in  Congress. 
The  President  acts  through  his  ministers,  eight 
in  number,  who  preside  over  the  Departments  of 
the  Interior,  Foreign  Affairs  and  Worship,  Fi- 
nance (Hacienda),  Justice  and  Public  Instruc- 
tion, War,  Navy,  Agriculture  and  Public  Works. 
The  ministers  may  appear  and  speak  in  Congress, 
though  they  have  no  vote,  and  are  responsible 
for  the  acts  of  the  chief  executive,  whose  decrees 
they  must  countersign  separately  or  jointly. 
Through  the  ministers,  the  President  may  initiate 
legislation  in  either  house.  The  Supreme  Court 
of  the  Republic  consists  of  five  judges  and  an 
attorney-general,  appointed  by  the  President, 
with  the  approval  of  the  Senate.  It  exercises 
similar  jurisdiction  to  that  of  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court. 

The  Provinces,  fourteen  in  number,  have  each 
their  own  constitution,  and  exercise  complete  con- 
trol over  their  own  affairs.  They  possess  even 
greater  power  than  the  States  of  our  Union,  in  that 
they  may  conclude  treaties  (with  the  consent  of 
Congress),  for  the  fostering  of  industry,  immi- 
gration, colonization,  railways,*  and  canals.  The 
governor  is  elected  directly  by  the  people  for 
a  period  of  three  or  four  years.  The  national  do- 
main is  divided  into  nine  Territories,  controlled 
by  Congress,  and  ruled  by  governors  appointed 
by  the  President.  When  a  territory  acquires  a 
population  of  30,000  it  is  granted  the  power  of 
choosing  a  legislature,  and  when  its  inhabitants 
number  60,000,  it  must  of  right  be  admitted  as 
a  Province  with  boundaries  determined  by  Con- 
gress. For  purposes  of  administration  and 
police,  the  Republic  is  divided  into  424  depart- 
ments and  1750  districts.  The  national  capital 
is  Buenos  Ayres. 

Local  Government.  Every  community  of  more 
than  1000  inhabitants  may  be  erected  into  a 
municipal  corporation.  In  the  Provinces  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  Santa  F6,  Entre  Rios,  San  Juan, 
and  Corrientes,  the  municipalities  are  supreme 
in  the  sphere  of  local  government,  and  are  amen- 
able to  the  Province  or  court  only  in  case  of  a 
violation  of  a  general  law.  The  municipal  presi- 
dents and  councils  are  elected  by  the  people, 
except  the  inteiidente  (governor)  of  Buenos 
.Ayres,  which  comprises  the  Federal  District,  who 
is  appointed  by  the  President  of  the  Republic. 
In  the  other  provinces  the  municipalities  are 
subject  to  inspection  and  regulation  by  the  Gov- 
ernment officials  and  judicial  authorities.  For- 
eigners are  eligible  to  any  municipal  office. 

Immigration  and  Emigration.  Since  1857, 
when  the  statistics  of  incoming  foreigners  were 
first  taken,  there  has  been  a  growing  stream  of 
immigration,  which  swelled  the  country's  popu- 
lation in  the  period  from  1857-99  by  2,564,000 
people.  Immigration  received  a  great  setback 
in  1890,  and  although  it  has  been  recovering  since 
that  year  it  has  not  yet  reached  the  high-water 
mark  of  the  year  preceding  the  crisis.  In  1889 
the  total  immigration  into  the  country  was  261,- 
000,  of  whom  219,000  came  by  sea  and  42,000  by 


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land.  In  the  following  year  there  was  a  drop 
of  one-half,  the  total  immigration  in  1890  heing 
132,000.  In  1891  there  was  a  further  drop  to 
52,600,  but  since  then  there  has  been  a  gradual 
increase,  the  total  immigration  in  1899  exceeding 
111,000.  On  the  other  hand,  the  emigration 
from  the  country,  which  was  only  40,600  in  1889, 
rose  to  83,000  in  1890.  It  has  averaged  about 
60,000  per  year  since  then.  About  70  per  cent, 
of  the  immigrants  are  Italians,  about  10  per 
cent.  Spaniards,  and  nearly  8  per  cent,  are 
French,  the  rest  being  made  up  of  the  various 
nationalities  mentioned  below  under  Population. 
The  Argentinians  have  long  understood  the 
great  value  of  immigration  to  a  naturally  rich 
and  fertile,  but  sparsely  settled,  country  like 
their  own.  Hence  their  great  efforts  to  attract 
foreign  labor,  as  well  as  foreign  capital,  to  their 
country.  In  addition  to  very  liberal  immigra- 
tion laws,  and  generous  distribution  of  land  to 
colonists,  enormous  sums  of  money  have  been 
spent  in  bringing  over  and  aiding  immigrants 
before  they  are  able  to  support  themselves.  Be- 
sides the  sums  thus  spent  by  the  Province  of 
Buenos  Ayres  and  by  the  private  Colonization 
Association,  the  national  treasury  has  been 
spending  annually  from  one  to  three-quarters  of 
a  million  pesos  during  the  last  decade  of  the 
century,  and  on  the  average  a  sum  close  to  a 
quarter  of  a  million  annually  since  1870.  The 
number  of  people  gratuitously  brought  over, 
lodged,  and  finally  settled  at  public  expense  in 
the  forty  years  from  1857  to  1897  was  897,806, 
697,398,  and  576.396,  respectively.  To  what  ex- 
tent the  free  distribution  of  land  to  immigrants 
and  the  planting  of  agricultural  colonies  have 
added  to  the  national  wealth  has  already  been 
shown  under  Agbicultl'be. 

EIducation.  The  public-school  system  of  Ar- 
gentina was  admirably  organized  by  President 
Sarmiento  (1868-74),  but  on  the  whole  it  has 
not  been  kept  up  to  the  standard  he  set  for  it. 
Primary  education  is  free  and  obligatory  for 
all  children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  14.  The 
elementary  schools  are  supported  by  the  individ- 
ual Provinces,  although  subsidized  by  the  Federal 
Government.  They  are  under  the  general  control 
of  Provincial  boards  of  education,  while  the  de- 
tails of  administration  are  left  to  district  school 
boards.  The  schools  in  the  Territories  and  the 
Federal  district  are  managed  by  a  National  Board 
of  Education  under  the  supervision  of  the  Minis- 
ter of  Justice  and  Public  Instruction.  Besides 
the  regular  elementary  schools,  there  are  kinder- 
gartens, schools  for  adults,  and  in  sparsely  set- 
tled districts,  ambulatory  schools.  In  some  of 
the  provinces,  and  in  the  Federal  schools,  relig- 
ious instruction  of  any  kind  may  be  imparted 
outside  of  school  hours;  in  others  only  the 
Catholic  faith  must  be  taught;  in  one,  Entre 
Bios,  no  religious  instruction  is  permitted.  In 
1899  there  were  4,291  primary  schools,  with 
427,311  enrolled  pupils,  but  probably  a  far  great- 
er number  of  children  were  receiving  no  instruc- 
,  tion.  Secondary  education  is  provided  for  by  16 
lyceums  and  35  normal  schools,  under  the  control 
of  the  Government,  and  higher  education  by  na- 
tional universities  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  C6rdoba, 
and  provincial  universities  at  La  Plata,  Santa 
F^,  and  ParanA.  There  are  also  a  school  of 
mines,  a  college  of  agriculture,  and  a  naval  and 
military  school. 


Reugion.  The  constitution  guarantees  free- 
dom of  religion  to  all,  but  makes  the  Roman 
Catholic  faith  that  of  the  State.  The  country 
is  divided  into  seven  dioceses  and  one  arehiepis- 
copate.  The  Government  builds  churches  and 
supports  the  Catholic  priesthood,  but  it  controls 
all  ecclesiastical  appointments,  and  sanctions  or 
rejects  the  decrees  of  the  Papal  See.  ^farriage 
was  made  the  subject  of  a  civil  contract  in  1888. 
The  native  Argentinians  are  nearly  ail  Roman 
Catholics.  Of  the  3,954,911  people  returned  by 
the  census,  3,921,136  were  Catholics,  26,750 
Protestants,  6085  Jews,  and  940  belonged  to 
other  denominations. 

Finance.  The  economic  progress  of  Argentina 
has  been  accompanied  throughout  its  course  by 
extremely  unfavorable  financial  conditions.  The 
chief  cause  of  the  unsatisfactory  state  of  public 
finance  has  been  the  inordinate  increase  of  ex- 
penditure, which  was  incurred  without  reference 
to  the  capacity  of  the  people  to  shoulder  new 
burdens.  All  thoughtful  students  of  Argentine 
affairs  unite  in  the  opinion  that  the  politicians 
of  the  country  embarked  with  too  light  hearts 
on  all  kinds  of  undertakings — some  productive, 
others  wasteful  and  useless,  and,  to  make  mat- 
ters worse,  the  administration  of  the  budget  was 
until  recently  extremely  loose.  In  1870  the  total 
budget  of  the  Government  was  $12,635,000;  in 
1880  it  was  $16,815,000,  or  an  increase  of  33 
per  cent,  in  one  decade;  in  1890  it  was  $71,508,- 
000,  or  a  further  increase  of  325  per  cent.;  and 
in  1900  it  was  $95,000,000  paper  and  $33,000,000 
gold,  or  reducing  it  all  to  a  paper  basis,  $194,- 
000,000,  or  a  further  increase  of  171  iier  cent 
J)r.  Albert  B.  Martinez,  formerly  Assistant  Min- 
ister of  Finance,  ascribes  the  great  increase  in 
public  expenditure  to  the  following  principal 
causes:  (a)  Increase  of  administrative  func- 
tions, due  to  rapid  growth  of  population;  (b) 
increase  of  public  debt;  (c)  depreciation  of  paper 
money;  (d)  wars,  foreign  and  civil;  (e)  guar- 
antee by  the  State  of  the  payment  of  interest  on 
costly  public  works;  (f)  imperfect  administra- 
tive machinery;  (g)  defective  control  of  public 
expenses,  etc.  In  1890,  on  the  eve  of  the  great 
financial  crisis,  the  revenues  of  the  Republic 
amounted  to  $73,408,000  paper,  as  against  an 
expenditure  of  $92,854,000.  The  enormous  defi- 
cit, together  with  the  general  unsettled  financial 
condition  of  the  country,  forced  the  Government 
to  suspend  payment  on  the  national  debt,  and 
during  the  following  years  the  revenue  continued 
to  decline.  Although  since  1895  the  revenue  has 
been  steadily  increasing,  the  expenditure  con- 
tinued to  be  in  excess  of  it,  as  is  shown  by  the 
following  figures: 


ExPS!CDITUaE 

Pesos             Peace 
(paper).           (gold). 

Peeofl 
(paper). 

Pcfloe 
(gold). 

1896 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901* 

39.000.000 
28,600,000 
61.000.000 
49,700.000 
61.400.000 
67,100.000 
02.800,000 

29,800.000 
32,000.000 
30.600.000 
88.900.000 
46.700.000 
46,000.000 
38.000.000 

83.900.800 
92.100,000 
93.400.000 
93.100.000 
1  103.900.000 
96.400.000 
88.400.000 

94.200.000 
46,000.000 
29.20Q.O00 
20.900.O0D 
SO.900.0O0 
32.900.000 
26.000.000 

•Estimated. 


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ABGENTINA. 


Of  the  total  revenue,  import  duties  furnish  less 
than  one-sixth,  the  bulk  of  the  revenue  being 
derived  from  excise  taxes  on  spirits,  wines,  and 
tobacco  (one-fifth),  land  and  stamp  taxes  (about 
7  per  cent,  of  total  revenue),  proceeds  from  rail- 
ways, telegraphs,  and  posts  (about  6  per  cent,  of 
revenue),  and  a  number  of  other  taxes.  The  in- 
crease of  internal  taxation  took  place  in  the  early 
nineties  to  close  the  widening  gap  in  the  na- 
tional finances,  created  by  the  growing  deficits, 
and  to  put  the  country  in  a  position  to  resume 
payments  on  the  debt.  The  growth  of  the  Ar- 
gentine debt  during  the  last  three  decades  of  the 
century  was  in  round  figures  as  follows:  1870, 
$47,000,000;  1880,  $85,000,000;  1890,  $363,000,- 
000.  In  1900,  according  to  the  report  of  the 
Minister  of  Finance,  the  total  debt  exceeded 
$440,000,000,  and  was  distributed  as  follows: 
External  debt,  386,004,118  pesos  (gold)  ;  inter- 
nal debt,  98,751,300  pesos  (paper),  6,376,000 
pesos  (gold). 

The  annual  service  of  the  debt  required  more 
than  $27,000,000  in  gold,  or  nearly  one-half  the 
revenue  of  the  country.  That  the  Government 
was  unable  to  meet  its  obligations  is  shown  by 
the  large  deficit  in  one  of  the  foregoing  tables. 
According  to  the  agreement  entered  into  by  the 
Argentine  Government  with  Lord  Rothschild  in 
1893,  it  was  practically  relieved  from  payment 
of  interest  for  five  years  (the  interest  for  that 
period  being  converted  into  a  new  debt),  and 
was  to  pay  interest  alone  from  1898  to  1901.  On 
January  12,  1901,  the  full  payment  of  interest 
and  sinking  funds  was  to  be  resumed.  Not- 
withstanding the  respite  thus  secured,  the  finances 
ot  tne  Government  in  1901  continued  to  be  as 
little  satisfactory  as  before  1893.  The  chief 
items  of  expenditure  are:  For  the  army  and 
navy,  service  of  the  public  debt,  Department  of 
the  Interior,  Department  of  Justice  and  Public 
Instruction,  and  Department  of  Finance.  In 
spite  of  the  cry  of  economy  raised  since  the  great 
crisis  of  1890,  the  cost  of  the  army  and  navy 
has  gone  up  from  11,000,000  pesos  in  that  vear 
to  nearly  29,000,000  pesos  in  1897;  pensions, 
from  1,587,000  to  3,496,000  pesos;  justice  and 
public  instruction,  from  8,303,000  to  14,108,000 
pesos;  and  the  administration  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior,  from  19,828,000  to  24,801,- 
000  pesos. 

Military  Equipment. — See  Argentina,  under 
Armies. 

Weights,  Measures,  and  Money, — The  metric 
system  was  officially  adopted  in  1887.  Gold  is 
the  standard  of  value.  A  gold  peso  ($)  equals 
96..5  cents  in  United  States  money.  A  peso  has 
100  centavos.  The  paper  peso  is  equal  to  44 
centavos  gold  money. 

Population.  The  following  table  shows  the 
population  of  Argentina  by  Provinces  for  1869 
and  1895. 

Thus  there  was  an  increase  of  2,217,421,  or 
121  per  cent,  in  26  years.  The  urban  population 
constituted  34.6  per  cent,  of  the  total  population 
of  the  country  in  1869,  and  42.8  per  cent,  in  1895, 
thus  keeping  pace  with  the  industrial  develop- 
ment of  the  country.  Only  in  three  European 
countries,  viz.,  England,  Germany,  and  Italy,  is 
the  percentage  of  the  urban  population  greater 
than  in  Argentina.  In  the  United  States,  the 
urban  population  constituted  32.9  per  cent,  of  the 
total  in  1890,  and  37.3  per  cent,  in  1900.  Of 
the   3,954,911   persons   reported  by  the  census, 


Provinces. 

Population 
1869. 

Population 
1896. 

Area  in 
Square 
Miles. 

1.  Eastern  Littoral. 
BuenoBAype«(clty).. 
Buenos  Ayres 

187.346 
807.761 
80.117 
134.271 
129.023 

663.864 
921.168 
397.188 
292.019 
239,618 

72 
117,777 
60,916 
28,784 
32,580 

Santa  Fe 

EntreKlos 

Corrientes 

Total  1 

847,618 

210,608 
63,294 
132.896 

2,613,847 

861,223 
81,460 
161,602 

a.  Central. 

Ck)rdoba 

62.160 
28,635 
89,764 

San  Luis 

Santiago  del  Estero. 

Total  3 

8.  Western  Andes. 

IffendoEa 

396.700 

66,418 
60.319 
48,746 
79.962 

694,176 

116.136 
84,251 
69.502 
90.161 

66,602 
83,716 
34.546 
47.631 

San  Juan 

Rloja 

Total  8 

264.440 

108.963 
88,933 
40,379 

360,060 

215,742 
118,016 
49,713 

4.  Northern. 

Tucuman 

8.926 
62.184 
18,977 

Salta 

Jujuy 

Total  4. 

268.266 

383,470 

88.163 

4,829 

10.422 

Territories  (northern). 
Mislones 

Formosa 

Chaco 



Total 

48.414 

25,914 

14.617 

9.241 
8.748 
1,068 

477 

Central. 

Pampa 

Western. 

Neuquen  

.   490.880 

Southern. 

Bio  Negro 

Chubut  

163 

Santa  Crui 

Los  Andes  and 
Tlerra  del  Fnego... 

163 

14,524 

Total  6 

163 
1.737.076 

103,869 

8,964,911 

60,000 
30.000 

Total  population 

Population  not  returned 
by  census 

Indians 

asitss" 

Total 

1,830.214 
47,276 

4.044.911 
60,000 

Argentinians  abroad 

Grand  Total 

1.877.490 

4,094,911 

1,113.849 

2,088,919  were  males,  and  1,865,992  females,  the 
great  excess  of  males  being  a  common  phenom- 
enon in  young  countries  attracting  large  num- 
bers of  immigrants.  There  were  2,950,384  na- 
tives, as  against  1,004,527  foreigners,  or  in  other 
words,  more  than  one-third  of  the  population  con- 
sisted of  immigrants,  among  whom  the  propor- 
tion of  males  to  females  was  about  7  to  4.  The 
best  represented  nationalities  among  the  foreign 
population  were:  Italians,  492,636;  Spaniards, 
198,685;  Frenchmen,  94,098;  and  South  Ameri- 
cans (Brazilians,  Chileans,  etc.),  117,000.  Next 
in  order  were  Englishmen,  Germans,  Swiss,  and 
Austrians,  ranging  from  21,788,  to  12,803.  The 
Indians  seem  to  be  fast  dying  out,  their  number 
having  dwindled  from  more  than  93,000  in  1869, 
to  30,000  in  1895.  The  density  of  population 
increased  from  1.6  per  square  mile  in  1869,  to 
3.7  per  square  mile  in  1895,  ranging  in  the  latter 


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ABQENTINA. 


jear  from  0.16  per  square  mile  in  the  western 
territory  of  Neuquen,  to  11.1  in  the  Province  of 
Buenos  Ayres. 

Estimates  made  of  the  population  in  December, 
1900,  place  the  total  for  that  date  at  4J94,149, 
o  an  increase  since  1895  of  21  per  cent.  This 
increase  was  shared  by  all  of  the  provinces.  Of 
the  territories,  Pampa  alone  made  large  gains. 

HiSTOBY.  The  river  Plata  was  entered  in  1516 
by  Juau  Diaz  de  Solis,  who  was  searching  for  a 
southwest  passage  to  the  East  Indies,  and  in 
1527-8  Sebastian  Cabot  ascended  the  Paranft  to 
its  confluence  with  the  Paraguay,  there  founding 
a  colony,  and  giving  the  name  La  Plata  (silver) 
to  the  latter  stream,  from  the  stories  of  hoards 
of  silver  which  he  heard  from  the  Indians,  who 
told  him  that  the  metal  came  from  the  head- 
waters of  the  river  in  the  west,  i.e.  Peru.  In 
1535  Don  Pedro  de  Mendoza  visited  the  new 
country,  and  founded  Buenos  Ayres,  which  was 
abandoned  by  the  colonists  in  1537 ;  was  rebuilt  in 
1542,  was  abandoned  again  in  1543,  and  was  not 
permanently  established  until  1580.  Meanwhile 
AscunciOn   (1637),  Santa  F^   (1573),  and  other 

E laces  had  been  settled,  and  horses  and  cattle 
ad  been  introduced.  Spanish  colonists  from 
Peru  had  founded  cities  in  the  northwest,  Tucu- 
man  (1565),  and  Cordoba  (1573),  and  down  to 
1776  the  basin  of  the  river  Plata  was  a  depend- 
ency of  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru.  In  that  year  the 
vice  royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  formed,  includ- 
ing Bolivia,  Paraguay,  *  and  Uruguay,  and  the 
country  was  governed  by  viceroys  until  1806, 
when,  during  the  war  of  France  and  Spain 
against  England,  Buenos  Ayres  and  Montevideo 
were  occupied  by  the  English.  Buenos  Ayres, 
however,  was  recaptured  by  the  inhabitants,  who, 
forced  to  defend  themselves,  saw  the  need  and 
advisability  of  independence  of  the  mother  coun- 
try. Accordingly,  they  refused  in  1808  to  acknowl- 
edge Joseph  Bonaparte  as  King  of  Spain,  and 
in  1810  the  struggle  for  independence  began. 
A  provisional  government  was  instituted  under 
a  junta  gubernativa,  which  was  replaced  early 
in  1814  by  a  "Supreme  Board  of  the  United 
Provinces,"  under  the  virtual  control  of  one  man, 
Antonio  de  Posados.  Civil  strife  followed,  and  in 
1816  a  general  congress  declared  the  independence 
of  the  "United  Provinces  of  Rio  de  la  Plata," 
though  this  was  not  substantially  attained  with- 
out war  (1817-24),  and  was  not  recognized 
by  Spain  until  1842.  During  1826-28  there  was 
war  with  Brazil  for  the  possession  of  the  Banda 
Oriental  (Uruguay),  w^hich  in  1828  was  finally 
recognized  by  both  as  an  independent  State,  and 
from  1827-31  the  Plata  provinces  were  practically 
isolated  from  each  other.  In  1831  Buenos  Ayres, 
Entre  Rios,  Corrientes,  and  Santa  F6  formed 
a  federal  compact,  and  invited  the  others  to  join 
them;  but  little  but  anarchy  resulted  till  1835, 
when  General  Rosas  (q.v.)  was  installed  as  dic- 
tator. His  efforts  to  make  Buenos  Ayres  supreme 
led  to  his  downfall  in  1852.  In  1853  a  constitu- 
tion, still  in  force,  was  adopted  for  the  "Argen- 
tine Republic,"  but  Buenos  Ayres  refused  to  ac- 
cept the  document,  and  in  1854  declared  itself  in- 
dependent, but  was  defeated  in  1859,  and  obliged 
to  reenter  the  Confederation.  Hostilities  were 
soon  renewed  (1801),  however,  and  though  the 
province  did  not  again  become  independent,  it  in- 
creased greatly  in  relative  importance,  and  the 
city  of  Buenos  Ayres  supplanted  Paranft  as  the 


capital  of  the  Confederation.  During*  1865-70, 
under  the  presidency  of  General  ;Mitr§  and  of 
Sarmiento,  a  war  was  waged  against  Paraguay 
by  the  Argentine  Republic,  Brazil,  and  Uruguay, 
with  little  benefit  to  the  Republic.  In  1881  a 
treaty  was  made  with  Chile  by  which  Ai^gentina 
acquired  all  the  country  east  of  the  Andes. 
comprising  Patagonia  and  the  eastern  part  of 
Tierra  del  Fuego.  In  July,  1890,  a  revolution 
broke  out,  aid^  by  the  army  and  navy — the 
result  of  the  political  and  financial  corruption 
of  the  cabinet  officei*s  and  the  stagnation  in  busi- 
ness produced  by  debasement  of  the  currency. 
President  Cehnan  was  forced  to  resign,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Dr.  Carlos  Pellegrini,  who  held 
office  until  October,  1892,  when  Dr.  Luis  Saenz- 
PeiSa  was  inaugurated.  Saenz-Pefia  made  a 
vigorous  eflFort  to  put  the  country  on  a  proper 
financial  basis,  conditions  having  continued  very 
bad  since  the  failure  of  the  Barings,  which  was 
largely  brought  about  by  their  extensive  dealings 
in  unproductive  Argentine  securities.  Repeated 
political  disturbances  at  the  various  provincial 
capitals,  however,  prevented  any  successful  finan- 
cial reorganization  or  sufficient  commercial  im- 
provement, and  in  January,  1895,  Saenz-Pefia 
resigned,  and  the  Vice-President,  S.  Joa^  Uri- 
burtl,  took  the  executive  chair.  He  held  office 
until  1898,  when  Lieut.-G€n.  Julio  A.  Roca,  who 
had  occupied  the  place  between  1880  and  1886, 
was  again  electea  President.  The  boundary 
difficulties  with  Chile  and  Bolivia,  which  very 
Irequently  threatened  serious  trouble  between 
the  States  during  the  later  years  of  the  Nine- 
teenth Century,  are  referred  to  in  the  accounts  of 
those  countries. 

BiBLiOGBAPHY.  Grcneral  description  and  sta- 
tistics: Greger,  Die  Repuhlik  Argentina  (Basel, 
1883)  ;  Bovio,  Georgrafia  de  la  Repiiblica  Argen- 
tina ( Buenos  Ayres,  1888 ) ;  van  Bruyssel,  La 
R^uhlique  Argentine,  ses  reaaources  naturelles, 
etc.  (Brussels,*  1888) ;  Guil&ine,  La  Rfpuhlique 
Argentine,  physique et  ^onomique  (Paris,  1889) : 
Child,  The  Spanish-American  Republics  (New 
York,  1891)  ;  Latzina,  Oeografia  de  la  Republica 
Argentina  (Buenos  Ayres  and  Paris,  1891): 
Turner,  Argentina  and  th^  Argentines  (London, 

1892)  ;  Mulhall,  Handbook  of  the  River  Plate 
Republics  ( London,  1893 )  ;  Latzina,  Diccionario 
geogrdfico  argentino  (Buenos  Ayres,  1894)  ;  Se- 
gundo  censo  de  la  republica  argentina  de  18$^ 
(Buenos  Ayres,  1898),  contains  a  wealth  of  in- 
formation descriptive,  statistical,  historical,  oo 
every  important  subject  with  regard  to  the 
country  and  people;  Gubematis,  L* Argentina, 
ricordi  e  letture  (Florence,  1898)  ;  Maerten.*, 
8iid-Amerika  unter  besonderer  BerUcksichtigung 
Argentiniens  (Berlin,  1899);  Lix-Klett,  Estu- 
dies  sobre  producddn,  com^rcio,  finanzos  ^  inter- 
e&es  generdles  de  la  republica  argentina  (Bueno?^ 
Ayres,  1900).  Climate:  Anales  de  la  OfictM 
meteoroldgica  argentina  (Buenos  Ayres,  1880 — 
date,  annual)  ;  Flora  and  Fauna:  Hudson,  The 
Naturalist  in  La  Plata  (London,  1892) ;  Philip- 
pi,  Comparacidn  de  his  floras  y  faunas  de  liis 
republicas    de    Chile    y    Argentina     (Santiago,. 

1893)  ;  Sclatter  and  Hudson,  Argentine  Orni- 
thology (London,  1888-89)  ;  History,  Dominguei, 
History  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  translated  by 
Williams  (Buenos  Ayres,  1866)  ;  Merou,  His- 
tdria  de  la  Republica  Argentina  (Buenos  Ayres, 
1900.    See  plate,  Coats  of  Abms. 


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ABGENTINE. 


783 


ABGOLIS. 


AB'OEIdTINE.  A  city  in  Wyandotte  County, 
Kan.,  three  miles  from  Kansas  City,  on  the 
Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  F6  Bailroad  (Map: 
Kansas,  H  2).  It  is  a  suburb  of  Kansas  City, 
and  has  large  smelting  and  refining  works  for 
gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  besides  grain 
elevators  and  railroad  repair  shops.  Pop.  1890, 
4732;   1900,  5878. 

ABQENTIHE  (Fr.  argentin,  silvery,  from 
Lat.  argentum,  silver).  A  small  deep-sea  smelt, 
most  abundant  on  the  southern  coasts  of  Eu- 
rope, where  it  is  seined  in  schools,  with  ancho- 
vies and  sardines.  These  tishes  are  chiefly 
remarkable  and  valuable  for  the  resplendent  sil- 
very lustre  of  their  sides  and  the  abimdance 
of  nacre,  the  substance  used  in  making  artificial 
pearls,  with  which  their  air-bladder  is  ex- 
ternally loaded.  It  consists  of  a  coat  of  silvery 
fibres.  Representatives  of  the  genus  (Argen- 
tina) are  found  on  both  shores  of  America.  See 
Plate  of  White*ish,  Smelt,  et€. 

AB^QENTOBA^TTM.  The  Latin  name  for 
Strassburg,  derived  from  an  old  Celtic  term  sig- 
nifying "the  Stone  of  Argantos." 

ABOHOOL,  ar-g^K.  A  wood  wind-instru- 
ment of  the  Arabs,  invented  in  post-Moham- 
medan times.  It  consists  of  two  tubes,  made  of 
common  cane,  with  a  reed  mouthpiece.  One  tube 
is  always,  the  other  usually,  perforated. 

ABQILE  PLASTIQTTE,  Rr'zh^K  pl&'st^k' 
(Fr.,  plastic  clay).  A  series  of  beds  at  the  base 
of  the  Tertiary  system  in  France,  which  con- 
sist of  extensive  deposits  of  sand,  with  occa- 
sional beds  of  plastic  clays,  used  for  pottery. 
I'he  Argile  Plastique  is  the  equivalent  in  the 
Paris  basin  of  the  Woolwich  and  Reading  series, 
or  Lower  Eocene  of  the  English  geologists.  See 
Tebtiabt. 

AB^arLLA'^CEOUS  BOCKS  (Lat.  argilla- 
ceuSj  clayey,  from  argilla,  Gk.  &fryiXh)g,  argillo8, 
white  clay,  potter's  earth ;  cf .  dpydf ,  argo8,  shin- 
ing, white).  Rocks  consisting  of  or  contain- 
ing more  or  less  clay.  Pure  clay,  or  kaolinite, 
a  hydrated  silicate  of  aluminum,  is  always 
an  alteration  product  of  other  minerals,  par- 
ticularly of  feldspars.  However,  the  term  'clay' 
is  applied  to  practically  all  plastic  or  sticky 
masses  of  eartii  or  shale,  which  may  include, 
besides  kaolinite,  a  variety  of  minerals, 
such  as  quartz,  feldspar,  limonite,  hematite, 
magnetite,  etc.  Clay  deposits  may  be  either 
residual  or  transported — i.e.,  formed  in  place, 
or  carried  to  the  point  of  deposition  by  water, 
wind,  or  glaciers.  They  are  derived  from  the 
alteration  of  igneous  rocks,  limestone,  sand- 
stone, or  shale.  When  consolidated  without  de- 
formation, so  that  they  have  partings  or  capa- 
city to  part  along  planes  of  deposition,  clay 
deposits  form  shale.  When  consolidated  and 
so  metamorphosed  that  new  planes  of  cleavage 
are  developed  at  angles  to  the  deposition  planes, 
the  clay  is  known  as  a  slate  or  clay-slate. 
When  still  more  metamorphosed,  the  clay  may 
be  known  as  a  phyllite.  Argillaceous  rocks 
may  be  readily  identified  by  the  peculiar  odor 
which  they  emit  when  breathed  upon.  These 
rocks  grade  by  admixture  of  lime  into  calcare- 
ous rocks  or  limestones.  See  Abenceous 
Rocks,  Rocks,  Geology,  Clay. 

AB^GILLITE.     See  Shale. 

AB'GINTT^iE.  Three  islets  off  the  south 
coast  of  the  island  of  Mitylene  (Lesbos),  Asiatic 


Turkey.  Near  their  shores  the  Spartan  fleet 
under  Callicratides  was  defeated  by  the  Athenian 
fleet  under  Conon,  September,  B.C.  406. 

AB/OIVES,  or  Aboivi  (Lat.  Argivij  Gk. 
^Apryelot  Argeioi).  (See  Abqolis.)  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Argos.  In  Homer,  the  name  is  applied 
to  all  the  Greeks. 

AB^GO.     See  Abgonauts. 

ABGO.  A  large  southern  constellation  in 
which  is  commemorated  the  mythical  ship  of 
the  expedition  of  the  Argonauts  (q.v.).  Cano- 
pus,  a  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  is  its  chief 
ornament.  Its  declination  (52**  38'  S.)  renders 
it  invisible  in  the  northern  and  central  United 
States.  Eta  Argus,  a  star  in  this  constellation, 
has  undergone  greater  changes  in  brightness 
than  any  other  variable  star  of  its  class.  It  is 
situated  in  a  remarkable  nebula,  named  by  Sir 
John  Herschel  the  "keyhole"  nebula,  on  account 
of  its  shape.  Very  recent  photographic  observa- 
tions at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  Observatory 
leave  little  room  to  doubt  the  existence  of  some 
connection  between  Eta  Argus  and  the  nebula. 

AB'GOB.  A  district  in  Bashan,  which,  ac- 
cording to  Deut.  iii.  4  contained  three- 
score walled  cities,  "the  kingdom  of  Og."  Its 
exact  location  is  uncertain.  The  Targums  trans- 
late Argob  by  Trakona — i.e.,  Trachonitis,  the 
modern  El  T^eja — ^which,  indeed,  abounds  in  de- 
serted towns  and  villages.  Some  of  these  are 
cave  dwellings  or  subterranean  chambers;  oth- 
ers are  built  above  ground,  of  massive  blocks 
of  black  basalt,  with  heavy  doors  moving  on 
pivots,  staircases  and  roofs  of  the  same  ma- 
terial. The  latter  belong  to  the  period  from 
the  First  to  the  Seventh  Century  a.d.,  according 
to  De  Vogfi^,  Barton  and  Drake,  Wetzstein  and 
Waddin^on;  though  it  is  possible  that  the 
Greek  cities  may  have  been  built  on  the  sites 
of  earlier  towns,  as  Driver  suggests.  In 
Deut.  iii.  14,  Jair,  son  of  Manasseh,  is  said  to 
have  conquered  the  region  of  Argob  as  far  as 
Geshur  and  Maacha.  But  the  Hawoth  Jair 
were  tent-villages  in  Gilead,  not  walled  cities  in 
Bashan.  Argob  may  have  been  situated  on  the 
western  slopes  of  Jebel  Hauran,  north  of  Salchil,. 
but  this  is  far  from  certain.  A  most  careful  de- 
scription of  the  region  is  given  by  J.  G.  Wetz- 
stein, Reisehericht  iiber  Hauran  un'd  die  Track- 
onen  (Berlin,  1860)  ;  cf.  also  the  excellent  plates 
in  De  VogtiC's  Syrie  Centrale  (Paris,  1869), 
Porter,  Five  Years  in  Damascus  (London,  1870), 
and  Oiant  Cities  of  Balkan  (London,  1869),  are 
interesting  but  somewhat  unreliable. 

AB'QOL  (Of  uncertain  origin,  perhaps  from 
Gk.  ap-}6c,  argos,  white).  The  crude  potas- 
sium bi-tartrate  which  is  found  as  a  crust  in 
wine  vats.  It  exists  originally  in  the  juice 
of  the  grape,  but  is  deposited  during  fermenta- 
tion, as  it  is  sparingly  soluble  in  an  alcoholic 
liquid.  Accordingly  as  it  is  deposited  from 
the  red  or  white  grape,  it  is  called  red  argol 
or  white  argol.  In  addition  to  the  potassium 
bi-tartrate  it  usually  contains  small  quantities 
of  calcium  tartrate  with  coloring  and  extrac- 
tive matters.  Crude  argol  is  purified  by  dis- 
solving in  water  and  heating  for  several  days; 
on  cooling,  the  clear  liquor  is  run  off,  the  de- 
posited crystals  constituting  the  commercial 
cream  of  tartar. 

AB^GOLIS  (Gk.  *Apyokl^).  A  division  of 
ancient  Greece.  In  its  wider  sense  it  is  the 
northeast  portion  of  the  Peloponnesus,  bounded 


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on  the  west  by  Achea,  Arcadia,  and  Laconia; 
on  the  north  bordering  on  the  Corinthian  and 
Saronic  Gulfs;  and  penetrated  on  the  south  by 
the  Argolic  Gulf,  which  separates  the  portion  bor- 
dering on  Laconia,  the  Kynuria,  from  the  east- 
em  peninsula.  This  district,  containing  about 
1700  8(}uare  miles,  is  filled  with  mountains,  and 
never  m  historical  times  formed  one  kingdom; 
and  the  northern  states — Sicyon,  Corinth,  and 
Phlius — were  often  considered  outside  of  Argolis 
proper.  The  chief  towns  of  the  eastern  penin- 
sula were  Epidaurus,  Troezen,  and  Hermione. 
The  plain  of  Argos,  in  the  middle  portion,  was 
famed  for  its  fertility,  and  contained  the  cities 
of  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  and  Argos,  and  was  called 
Argeia.  The  edge  of  this  plain  is  now  swampy; 
and  the  southeast  portion  contained,  even  in 
ancient  times,  the  swamp  of  Lema,  home  of  the 
Hydra  (q.v.),  slain  by  Heracles.  In  the  legends 
Argolis  plays  an  important  part.  Mycens  is  the 
home  of  Agamemnon  and  the  capital,  though 
other  chiefs  rule  at  Argos,  Midea,  and  Tiryns. 
Here,  also,  was  placed  the  birth  of  Heracles, 
and  his  contests  with  the  Nemean  lion  and  the 
Lemean  hydra.  Still  earlier,  the  plain  was  the 
scene  of  the  story  of  Inachus  and  his  daughter, 
lo,  of  Danaus  and  his  daughters,  and  of  the  rule 
of  Perseus  and  Pelops. 

In  historic  times  the  chief  city  was  Argos, 
which  held  possession  of  the  Argive  plain,  and 
was  at  the  head  of  a  somewhat  loosely  organized 
league  of  several  of  the  Argolic  States,  which 
under  King  Phiedon  (c.670  B.C.),  became  a  great 
power  in  the  Peloponnesus.  Later  the  growing 
power  of  Sparta  greatly  lessened  the  influence 
of  Argos,  which,  however,  always  remained 
a  jealous  rival,  and  during  the  Fifth  and  Fourth 
centuries  b.c.  usually  appears  in  alliance  with 
Athens. 

The  principal  divinity  of  Argos  was  Hera, 
who  had  a  very  ancient  sanctuary  to  the  east 
of  the  city,  the  Heraeum,  where  was  a  cele- 
brated gold  and  ivory  statue  of  the  goddess, 
the  work  of  Polycletus.  This  sanctuary  was 
excavated  by  the  American  School  of  Classical 
Studies  at  Athens,  from  1892  to  1895,  result- 
ing in  the  discovery  of  a  large  number  of  build- 
ings, including  the  earlier  and  later  temples, 
much  interesting  sculpture,  and  a  great  mass  of 
pottery,  showing  that  this  had  been  a  place 
of  worship  from  the  earliest  times.  Argos  was 
the  seat  of  a  celebrated  school  of  artists  in 
bronze,  and  was  also  famed  for  its  musicians. 
The  modem  town  is  a  flourishing  place  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city,  of  which  few  traces  re- 
main in  sight.  Argolis  is  one  of  the  names  of 
the  kingdom  of  Greece.    The  capital  is  Nauplia. 

AB^GON  (Gk.  apyiv^  neut.  of  dpy(Jf,  argos, 
inactive,  inert,  alluding  to  its  incapacity  for 
entering  into  chemical  combination).  A  gase- 
ous element  discovered  in  1895  by  Lord  Ray- 
leigh  and  William  Ramsay,  although  Cavendilh 
had  already  mentioned  it  as  a  constituent  of  at- 
mospheric air  a  century  ago.  Argon  is  contained 
in  the  atmosphere  to  the  extent  of  nearly  1 
per  cent.  It  was  obtained  by  its  discoverers 
by  passing  air  through  a  combustion  tube 
packed  with  metallic  copper,  which  absorbed  the 
oxygen,  after  which  the  gas  was  passed  through 
an  iron  tube  packed  with  magnesium  turnings 
and  heated  in  a  combustion  furnace.  The  mag- 
nesium absorbed  the  nitrogen,  and  the  argon,  in 
its  gaseous  form,  was  then  collected  in  a  holder. 


It  was  also  obtained  by  adding  oxygen  to  air, 
subjecting  the  mixture  to  the  action  of  an  elec- 
tric current  in  the  presence  of  an  alkali,  and 
removing  all  oxygen  by  means  of  pyrogallie  acid. 
The  density  of  the  argon  made  by  means  of  mag- 
nesium was  19.94;  that  of  argon'prepared  by  tfa« 
second  method  was  20.6  ( the  density  of  hydrogen 
being  taken  as  imit,  or  rather  that  of  oxygen 
as  16) .  The  elementary  nature  of  argon  has  been 
demonstrated  by  a  comparison  of  its  specific 
heats  at  constant  pressure  and  at  constant  vol- 
ume, which  showed  that  a  molecule  of  arpon  is 
made  up  by  a  single  atom  and  hence  is  not 
compound.  But  if  this  is  true,  then  the  molecu- 
lar weight  (i.e.  twice  the  density)  of  argon  is 
identical  with  its  atomic  weight,  and  hence  the 
latter  is  concluded  to  be  about  40.  Sir  William 
Crookes  found  in  the  spectrum  of  argon  two 
characteristic  lines  near  the  red  end  that  could 
not  be  mistaken  for  the  lines  of  nitrogen  or  of 
any  other  element.  Argon  cannot  be  liquefied 
unless  its  temperature  is  reduced  at  least  121 
degrees  below  zero  C.  At — 121°  G.  a  pres- 
sure of  50.6  atmospheres  ( 759  pounds  per  square 
inch)  is  sufficient  to  produce  liquefaction.  Un- 
der ordinary  atmospheric  pressure,  liquid  argon 
boils  at^-lS?**  C.  At  the  temperature  of— 190'' 
C,  it  freezes.  No  well-defined  chemical  com- 
pound of  argon  with  other  substances  is  as 
yet  known.  Its  discoverers  received  the  first 
Hodgkins  Medal  and  the  grand  prize  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution  at  Washington.  Consult: 
Lord  Rayleigh  and  W.  Ramsay,  Argon,  a  Xck 
Const ituent  of  the  Atmoaphere,  Smithsonian  Con- 
tributions to  Knowledge  (Washington,  1896). 

AB'GONATTT.  A  small  pelagic  octopod  cut- 
tlefish of  the  genus  Argonauta;  specifically,  the 
paper  sailer  or  paper  nautilus  (Argonauta  argo). 
The  female  is  many  times  longer  than  the  male, 
and  secrets  a  thin,  irridescent,  crenelated  and 
somewhat  boat-shaped  shell,  which  serves  as  a 
brood-pouch.  In  calm  weather  the  animal  rises 
to  the  surface  and  seems  to  voyage  about,  whence 
the  fanciful  name  and  sundry  fables.  For  fuller 
description,  see  Octopus. 

AB'GONAir^nCA.  An  epic  poem,  narrating 
the  deeds  of  the  Argonauts,  written  by  Apol* 
lonius  of  Rhodes  in  b.c.  194. 

AB^GONAUTS  {Gk.^ A fyyavavrcu,  Argonautai— 
i.e.  "the  sailors  on  the  ship  Argo").  A 
name  given  to  those  who,  under  command  of 
Jason,  undertook  a  voyage  famous  in  Gredc 
legend.  The  Argo  is  mentioned  in  the  Odyssey, 
and  incidents  of  the  story  appear  in  the  Hesi- 
odic  poems.  Allusions,  often  contradictory  and 
influenced  by  local  legends,  are  scattered 
through  the  fragments  of  lyric  poetry,  and 
single  episodes  were  used  by  the  tragedians, 
though  only  the  Medea  of  Euripides  has  sur- 
vived. Tliese  fragments,  and  the  somewhat 
more  satisfactory  scraps  from  the  prose  writers, 
are  the  chief  sources  for  the  earlier  versions; 
but  our  most  complete  and  valuable  account  is 
contained  in  the  poem,  in  four  books,  by  the 
Alexandrian  librarian,  Apollonius  Rhodius,  who 
tried  to  combine  the  mass  of  material  with 
which  his  studies  had  made  him  familiar  into 
a  connected  and  consistent  narrative.  A  brief 
narrative  is  also  found  in  the  mythological 
handbook  which  goes  under  the  name  of  Apol- 
lodorus.  In  its  main  outlines  the  story  is  as 
follows:  Pelias,  King  of  lolcus,  in  Thessaly, 
having  reason  to  fear  his  nephew,  Jason,  corn- 


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manded  him  to  fetch  from  King  iEetes,  in  Col- 
chis, the  golden  fleece  of  the  ram  which  had 
borne  away  Phrixus  and  Helle  (q.v.).  With 
the  help  of  Hera  and  Athena,  Jason  and  Argos, 
son  of  Phrixus,  built  a  wonderful  ship,  strong 
and  swift,  but  light,  and  with  a  piece  of  the 
oracular  oak  from  Dodona  in  her  keel,  capable 
of  delivering  prophecies.  About  him  Jason 
gathered  a  band  of  heroes,  whose  names  and 
number  vary  greatly,  though  the  party  is  usu- 
ally estimated  to  have  comprised  about  fifty. 
The  earlier  versions  seem  to  have  placed  the 
land  of  .^£etes  in  the  far  east,  but  the  later 
writers  placed  it  in  Colchis,  on  the  Black  Sea. 
On  the  voyage  the  most  notable  adventures 
were:  (1)  The  landing  on  Lemnos,  where  the 
Argonauts  found  a  State  of  women,  under 
Queen  Ilypsipyle,  all  the  men  having  been  mur- 
dered shortly  before.  Here  they  remained  some 
time,  and  two  sons  were  bom  to  Jason  and 
Hypsipyle.  (2)  Near  the  Bosporus  Pollux  con- 
quered Amyeus,  King  of  the  Bebryces,  in  a  box- 
ing match,  and  so  secured  for  his  companions 
access  to  a  spring.  (3)  In  these  same  Thracian 
regions  they  found  the  blind  prophet  Phineus, 
tormented  by  the  Harpies  (q.v.),  whom  the 
sons  of  Boreas,  Calais,  and  Zetes  put  to  flight, 
and  in  return  Phineus  showed  the  Argonauts 
how  to  pass  the  ever-clashing  rocks  of  the  Sym- 
plegades.  (4)  This  adventure  they  accom- 
plished by  hard  rowing,  after  they  had  been 
encouraged  by  the  sight  of  a  dove,  which  flew 
through  the  passage  with  only  the  loss  of  her 
tail  feathers.  When  tb?y  arrived  at  Colchis, 
yEetes  demanded  that  Jason  should  yoke  fire- 
breathing  bulls  with  brazen  hoofs,  plow  with 
them  a  field,  sow  the  dragon's  teeth  given 
him  by  Cadmus,  and  then  destroy  the  crop  of 
giants  which  would  spring  from  such  seed.  All 
this  Jason  accomplished;  with  the  help  of  ^Eetes's 
daughter,  Medea,  who  had  fallen  in  love  with 
the  hero.  With  her  help,  also,  he  foiled  further 
plots  of  the  King,  and  securing  the  fleece  by 
stealth,  fled  with  :Medea  and  her  young  brother. 
Pursued  by  .^tes,  Medea  saved  the  Argonauts 
from  capture  by  killing  her  brother  and  strew- 
ing the  fragments  of  his  body  into  the  sea,  thus 
delaying  her  father,  who  piously  collected  his 
son's  remains  for  burial.  The  return  of  the 
Argonauts  was  very  diversely  narrated.  Some 
brought  them  by  way  of  the  Tanals  into  the 
Northern  Sea,  while  others  led  them  eastward 
to  the  ocean  and  back  across  Africa,  carrying 
their  ship  through  the  Libyan  desert  on  their 
shoulders.  After  many  adventures  they  at 
len^h  reached  lolcus,  and  delivered  the  fleece 
to  Pelias.  (For  the  further  legends  see  Jason; 
Medea;  Pelias.)  There  are  indications  that 
both  Jason  and  Medea  were  originally  worshiped 
as  ffods  at  Corinth  and  elsewhere,  but  later  sank 
to  the  rank  of  heroes,  and  became  connected  with 
the  common  folk-tale  of  the  lover  who  must  per- 
form impossible  tasks  to  win  his  mistress,  but 
who  overcomes  all  obstacles  by  magic  help. 
Whatever  the  origin  of  the  story,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  was  developed  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  vo3^ges  that  marked  the  great  period 
of  Greek  colonization  in  the  Eighth  and  Seventh 
centuries  B.C.  The  wonders  and  adventures  en- 
countered by  the  first  explorers  of  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  west  were  thrown  back  into  the  mythical 
past,  and  told  of  gods  and  heroes— Heracles,  Ja- 
son, and  Odysseus. 
Vol.  I.— 50. 


ABGONAUTS  OF  '49.  A  name  applied  to 
the  fortune-seekers  who  emigrated  to  California 
in  the  years  immediately  following  the  discovery 
of  gold  there  in  1848,  the  largest  number  of 
whom  went  out  in  1849.    See  Fobty-Ninebs. 

ABGONNE,  ^T'gi\n\  A  rocky  plateau  in 
northeast  France,  extending  along  the  border  of 
Lorraine  and  Champagne,  and  forming  parts  of 
the  departments  of  Ardennes  and  Meuse.  The 
Argonne  forest  proper,  or  western  Argonne,  has 
a  length  of  over  thirty  miles  and  a  width  of  from 
one  to  eight  miles.  The  forest  of  eastern  Ar- 
gonne includes  the  forest  of  Apremont.  Argonne 
has  been  the  scene  of  several  stirring  historical 
events,  notably  in  connection  with  Dumouriez's 
"Argonne  campaign"  of  1792,  and  with  the  Fran- 
co-Prussian War. 

AB^GOS.     See  Abgolis. 

ABGOSTOLIy  Ilr'g68-t6'l$.  An  episcopal  city, 
capital  of  the  island  of  Cephalonia,  on  the  east 
shore  of  Argos toli  Bay,  an  inlet  of  Livada  Bay 
(Map:  Greece,  C  5).  The  town  is  famous  for 
its  mills,  which  are  driven  by  a  current  of  sea- 
water,  flowing  throuffh  an  artificial  channel 
about  150  feet  long,  then  disappearing  through 
fissures  in  the  rocks.  It  has  an  excellent  harbor. 
It  finds  considerable  trade  in  exporting  wine, 
oil,  and  currants.  A  long  bridge  connects  the 
north  shore  of  the  bay  with  the  Koutav6s  La- 
goon, which  lies  to  the  south.  Population,  in 
1896,  9241. 

ABOOT,  ar'gy.  The  French  term  for  what 
in  English  is  called  "slang,"  especially  the  dia- 
lect of  thieves  and  vagabonds.  Like  all  such 
dialects,  argot  is  often  sparkling  with  wit  and 
remarkable  for  aptness  and  comprehensiveness  of 
expression.  Many  specimens  of  it  are  to  be  found 
in  Victor  Hugo's  Lea  Mia^rahlea,  in  Zola's  As- 
sommoirt  and  in  the  lower  grade  of  Parisian  jour- 
nals. Consult:  Barr^re,  Argot  and  Slang  (Lon- 
don, 1887),  and  see  the  article  Slang,  in  this 
Encyclopedia. 

ABGOTJTy  ar'g5<5',  Antotne  Maxtbice  Apol- 
LiNAiBE,  Count  d*  (1782-1858).  A  French  finan- 
cier. He  was  bom  in  Is^re,  and  after  acting  as 
auditor  to  the  Council  of  State  (1810),  became 
prefect  of  Gard  (1817),  and  a  peer  of  France 
(1819).  As  mediator  between  Charles  X.  and 
the  popular  leaders,  during  July,  1830,  he  ob- 
tained concessions  from  Charles,  but  not  until 
it  was  too  late.  He  was  appointed  minister  of 
the  marine  in  1830,  and  acted  as  minister  of 
commerce  (1831),  and  minister  of  the  interior 
( 1833) .  He  was  governor  of  the  Bank  of  France 
from  1834  until  1848.  About  1852  Louis  Napo- 
leon appointed  him  president  of  the  section  of 
finance. 

ABOUELLES,  ilr'gS'lyfts,  Augustine  (1776- 
1844).  A  Spanish  politician  of  the  liberal 
school.  He  was  bom  at  Rivadisella,  in  Asturias. 
On  the  breaking  out  of  the  War  of  Independence 
in  1808,  he  went  to  Cadiz,  where  he  agitated  for 
the  organization  of  a  regency  with  a  free  con- 
stitution. In  1812  he  was  sent  as  representative 
of  his  native  province  to  the  Cortes,  where  he 
was  appointed  one  of  the  members  of  a  commit- 
tee to  draft  a  constitution.  His  splendid  talents  as 
a  public  speaker  soon  won  him  the  admiration  of 
the  Liberal  party,  who  used  to  call  him  the 
Spanish  Cicero.  But  on  the  return  of  Ferdinand 
VII.,  Arguelles  fell  a  victim  to  the  reactionary 
spirit  which  ensued.    On  May  10,  1814,  he  was 


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arrested,  and  after  a  trial  that  was  a  mockery 
of  justice,  condemned  by  the  King  to  ten  years' 
imprisonment  in  the  galleys  at  Ceuta.  The 
revolution  of  1820  restored  him  to  freedom.  Ar- 
guelles  became  minister  of  the  interior,  but  soon 
resigned,  provoked  beyond  measure  by  the  nar- 
row bigotry  of  the  court.  He  continued  a  con- 
stitutional Liberal  always.  In  the  Cortes  held  at 
Seville,  in  1823,  he  voted  for  the  suspension  of  the 
ro^al  power;  but  after  the  violation  of  the  con- 
stitution he  fled  to  England,  where  he  remained 
till  the  amnesty  of  1832.  On  his  return  to  Spain 
he  was  repeatedly  made  president  and  vice-presi- 
dent of  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  and  always 
showed  himself  a  moderate  but  unwavering  re- 
former. In  July,  1841,  in  the  discussion  of  the 
law  regarding  the  sale  of  Church  property,  he 
delivered  himself  strongly  against  all  concordats 
with  the  Pope.  Next  to  Espartero,  he  was  the 
most  popular  man  in  the  kingdom  with  the  en- 
lightened party.  During  the  regency  of  Espar- 
tero  he  was  guardian  to  the  young  Queen  Isa- 
bella. In  his  old  age  he  still  exhibited  the  fiery 
eloquence  that  marked  his  youth.  Consult:  Eva- 
risto  San  Miguel,  Vide  de  D,  A.  Arguelles  (Ma- 
drid, 1851). 

AB^OUMENT.  In  law,  the  address  by 
counsel  to  the  court  or  jury,  in  which  he  argues 
upon  the  merits  of  his  client's  case  in  order  to 
affect  the  decision  or  verdict  to  be  rendered. 
Arguments  to  the  jury  are  based  upon  the  facts 
established  or  disputed  in  evidence  at  the  trial 
of  a  cause,  and  upon  matter  of  common  knowl- 
edge of  which  the  court  may  take  judicial  cog- 
nizance. Arguments  addressed  to  the  court  may 
be  based  either  upon  the  facts  before  it  or  upon 
the  law.  The  time  to  be  devoted  to  the  argu- 
ment, its  scope,  and  order,  are  subject  to  the 
discretionary  control  of  the  court.  It  is  the 
usual  practice  to  permit  the  attorney  for  a 
plaintiff  or  appellant  both  to  open  and  close  the 
argument.  If  in  the  argument  the  attorney  goes 
beyond  proper  comment  upon  the  evidence,  or 
indulges  in  abuse  of  a  party  or  attorney  in  the 
case,  or  comments  upon  failure  of  a  privileged 
witness  to  testify,  or  otherwise  so  conducts  him- 
self as  to  unwarrantably  inflame  or  prejudice 
the  minds  of  the  jury,  it  may  be  ground  for  set- 
ting aside  the  verdict.  See  Trial  and  the  author- 
ities referred  to  under  Practice. 

ABGUMENT  (Lat.  argumentum) .  In  logic, 
either  the  ground  or  premise  on  which  a  conclu- 
sion is  rested,  and,  more  specifically,  the  minor 
premise  (see  Logic),  or  a  whole  syllogism. 
Popularly,  it  is  applied  to  a  series  of  arguments, 
or  to  a  controversy.  Argumentum  ad  hominem 
is  an  appeal  to  the  known  prepossessions  or  ad- 
missions of  the  persons  addressed.  For  instance, 
an  attempt  may  be  made  to  silence  an  opponent, 
who  has  recently  changed  his  mind,  by  saying: 
"Your  well-known  speech  last  winter  leaves  you 
the  single  course  open  of  admitting  that  so-and-so 
is  the  case."  Argumentum  ad  rem  is  an  argument 
pertinent  to  the  issue.  Argumentum  e  consensu 
gentium,  or  ad  judicium,  is  an  appeal  to  the 
common  belief  of  mankind.  The  Argumentum  a 
futo  rests  upon  the  supposed  safety  or  prudence 
of  adopting  a  certain  conclusion.  Argumentum 
ad  populum  is  an  appeal  to  popular  passions  or 
l)rejudices.  Argumentum  ad  ignorantiam  is  an 
artful  attempt  to  establish  a  statement  by  show- 
ing that  we  do  not  know  the  truth  of  its  op- 
posite. Argumentum  ad  verecundiam  is  an  ap- 
peal to  a  revered  authority.     Lastly,  the  argu- 


mentum a  haculo  is  the  use  of  the  cudgel  or  of 
a  browbeating  manner  to  settle  a  dispute.  This 
form  of  argument  is  concise  in  its  style,  and  has 
quickly  adjusted  many  controversies* 

AJtOTTN,  ar-g!5?>n'.  A  river  of  Asia,  which 
unites  with  the  Shilka  at  Ust-Strielka,  on  the 
borders  of  Siberia  and  Manchuria,  to  form  the 
Amur.  It  rises  on  the  northern  borders  of  Mon- 
golia, and  has  a  generally  easterly  course  of 
about  1100  miles,  in  the  lower  half  of  which  it 
forms  the  boundary  between  Trans-Baikalea  and 
Manchuria.  Not  far  from  the  middle  point  of 
its  course  it  flows  through  a  considerable  lake 
called  Dalai-Nor.  In  its  upper  course  it  bears 
the  name  of  Kerulen. 

ABOUN  KKAN,  kr-gTSSjof  Kfin.  See  Mongol 
Dynasties. 

AB^aUS  (Lat.  for  Gk.  'A/a>oc,  Argos).  The 
son  of  Zeus  and  Niobe.  He  was  the  myth- 
ical ancestor  of  the  Argives,  and  founder  of  Ar- 
gos,  and  was  worshiped  at  his  grave,  near  that 
city.  He  was  said  to  have  introduced  agricul- 
ture from  Libya.  Argus,  sumamed  Panoptes 
(all-seeing),  had  100  eyes,  some  of  which  were 
always  awake.  For  his  watchfulness  Hera  chose 
him  to  guard  lo  (q.v.),  who  had  been  trans- 
formed into  a  cow.  Hermes,  sent  by  Zeus  to 
steal  the  cow,  killed  Argus  by  stoning  him,  or, 
in  the  later  version,  charmed  all  his  eyes  to  sleep 
and  struck  off  his  head.  Hera  used  the  eyes  of 
Argus  to  decorate  the  peacock's  tail.  (2) 
Argus,  the  builder  of  the  ship  Arga,  (See  Abgo- 
KAUTS.)  (3)  Argus  is  also  the  name  of  sev- 
eral Greek  cities,  of  which  the  most  celebrated 
was  the  historic  capital  of  the  Argolic  plain. 
In  Homer,  Argus  denoted  the  kingdom  of 
Agamemnon,  the  entire  Peloponnesus,  and  even 
the  whole  of  Greece.  (4)  Argus,  the  dog  of 
Odysseus,  who,  after  twenty  years,  recognized  his 
master  on  his  return  in  spite  of  his  disguise,  and 
died  of  joy. 

ABOUS,  The.    See  Au£N,  William  Hknbt. 

ABGtrS  PHEASANT.    See  Pheasaivt. 

ABQYXL,  &r-giK,  Archibald  Campbell,  Mar- 
quis of  (1598-1661).  A  Scotch  political  char- 
acter of  the  Seventeenth  Century.  In  his  six- 
teenth year  he  saw  service  under  his  father, 
whom  he  succeeded,  as  eighth  earl,  in  1638.  Al- 
ready he  had  given  proofs  of  that  strength  of  re- 
ligious principle  which  marked  his  whole  life  and 
of  a  perilous  union  of  attachment  to  Charles  I., 
and  of  faith  in  the  principles  against  which  the 
King  made  war.  In  the  (general  Assembly  at 
Glasgow,  in  November,  1638,  he  openly  took  the 
side  of  the  Covenanters,  and  thenceforth  became 
recognized  as  their  political  head.  In  1640  he 
commanded  a  military  expedition  through  Bade- 
noch,  Athole,  Mar,  and  Angus,  for  the  purpose  of 
enforcing  subjection  to  the  Scottish  Parliament. 
The  King,  on  his  visit  to  Scotland  in  1641, 
found  it  convenient  to  show  peculiar  favor  to 
Argyll,  and  created  him  a  marquis.  On  the 
breaking  out  of  hostilities,  Argyll  was  still  de 
sirous  for  negotiation,  but  was  finally  compelled 
to  take  the  field.  In  April,  1644,  he  dispersed 
the  Royalist  forces  imder  the  Marquis  of  Huntly 
in  Aberdeenshire.  He  was  less  successful  in 
withstanding  the  genius  of  Montrose,  who,  on 
February  2,  1645,  almost  annihilated  his 
army  at  Inverlochy.  His  estates  had  suffered  so 
much  in  the  preceding  year  from  the  ravages  of 
the  brilliant  cavalier,  that  a  sum  of  public 
money  was  voted  for  his  support.     In  August, 


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ABQYLL. 


1046,  he  went  to  London,  with  Loudon  and  Dun- 
fermline, to  treat  with  the  Parliament  for  a 
mitigation  of  the  articles  presented  to  the  King. 
He  was  at  the  same  time  the  bearer  of  a  secret 
commission  from  the  King  to  treat  with  the 
Duke  of  Richmond  and  the  Marquis  of  Hertford, 
on  the  propriety  of  a  Scottish  demonstration  in 
favor  of  Charles.  On  the  defeat  of  the  "engage- 
ment" plan,  to  which  he  had  been  decidedly  op- 
posed, the  government  of  Scotland  devolved  on 
Argyll  and  the  other  Presbyterian  leaders.  In 
the  Parliament  of  February,  1649,  Charles  11. 
was  proclaimed  king,  and  at  Scone,  on  Janu- 
ary 1,  1651,  Argyll  put  the  crown  on  his 
head.  At  this  time,  it  was  even  said  that  the 
complaisant  monarch  intended  to  marry  one  of 
his  daughters.  As  head  of  the  committee  of 
estates,  Argyll  took  vigorous  measures  to  oppose 
Cromwell's  invasion  of  Scotland,  and  still  ad- 
hered to  the  King,  after  the  subjugation  of  the 
country..  After  the  battle  of  Worcester,  he  re- 
tired to  Inverary,  where  he  held  out  for  a  year 
against  Cromwell's  troops.  Falling  ill,  he  was 
taken  prisoner  by  General  Dean.  He  refused  sub- 
mission to  the  Protector,  but  took  an  engage- 
ment to  live  peaceably,  which  he  strictly  Kept. 
On  the  Restoration,  he  repaired  to  Whitehall, 
encouraged  by  a  flattering  letter  from  the  King 
to  his  son.  Impeached  with  the  crime  of  having 
submitted  to  the  usurper  (to  whom  he  had  re- 
fused allegiance),  he  was  committed  to  the 
Tower,  and  on  February  13,  1661,  was 
brought  before  the  Scottish  Parliament  on  the 
charge  of  treason.  He  defended  himself  with 
spirit,  but  in  vain.  On  the  27th  of  May,  he 
was  executed  at  Edinburgh — ^having  displayed 
throughout  his  whole  trial,  and  on  the  scaffold, 
the  dignity  of  a  true  nobleman,  and  the  meekness 
of  a  Christian.  Conflicting  estimates  of  Argyll's 
character  have  been  written;  cowardice  in  the 
field  has  been  proved  against  him,  and  Scott 
places  him  in  an  unfavorable  light  in  his  Legend 
of  Montrose. 

ABGYIiL,  Arcutbau)  Campbell,  Ninth  Earl 
of  ( ? — 1685).  Eldest  son  of  the  preceding.  He 
was  early  distinguished  by  personal  accomplish- 
ments, and  exhibited  great  bravery  on  the  dis- 
astrous day  of  Dunbar,  where  he  commanded  a 
regiment  on  the  Royalist  side.  After  W^orcester, 
he  continued,  like  his  father,  in  arms,  and  made 
himself  so  obnoxious  to  the  Parliamentary  lead- 
ers that  he  was  specially  excepted  by  Cromwell 
from  the  Act  of  Grace  in  1654.  After  much 
harassing  persecution,  he  submitted  to  the  Par- 
liament, but  continued  to  be  closely  watched. 
On  the  restoration  of  Charles  II.,  he  was  received 
into  high  favor '(as  a  balance  to  the  execution  of 
his  father) ,  and,  unfortunately  for  his  own  fame, 
participated  in  some  of  the  iniquitous  acts  of  the 
Scottish  Legislature.  He  had,  however,  numer- 
ous and  active  enemies;  and,  on  the  ground  of 
an  intercepted  letter,  in  which  he  had  complained 
of  neglect,  he  was  tried  and  condemned  to  death 
by  the  Scottish  Parliament  for  the  imaginary 
crime  of  Iwsa  majeatas.  The  influence  of  Claren- 
don restored  him  to  liberty  and  favor;  even  the 
King  himself  was  prejudiced  in  his  favor,  but 
in  taking  the  test  oath  framed  by  the  Scottish 
Parliament  in  1681,  his  added  reservation,  "So 
far  as  consistent  with  the  Protestant  faith,"  was 
declared  treasonable,  and  he  was  again  con- 
demned to  death.  The  devotion  of  his  wife  en- 
abled him  to  escape  from  Edinburgh  Castle  in 
the  disguise  of  a  page,  and,  after  remaining  con- 


cealed some  time,  he  fled  to  Holland.  On  the 
accession  of  James  II.,  he  landed  in  the  north  of 
Scotland,  in  May,  1685,  with  an  armed  force, 
to  cooperate  in  the  revolt  of  Monmouth,  but  after 
a  series  of  misfortunes,  was  taken  prisoner, 
hastily  condemned,  and  beheaded,  June  30,  1685. 
His  son  Archibald,  one  of  the  deputation  sent  by 
the  Scottish  Convention  to  present  the  crown  to 
the  Prince  of  Orange,  was  in  1701  created  Duke 
of  Argyll. 

ABGYLLy  HT-giV,  Geobge  John  Douglas 
Campbell,  eighth  Duke  of  (1823-1900).  He  suc- 
ceeded his  father  in  1847.  At  the  age  of  nineteen, 
while  Marquis  of  Lome,  he  wrote  a  pamphlet 
entitled  A  Letter  to  the  Peers  from  a  Peer's  Son, 
on  the  struggle  which  ended  in  the  disruption 
of  the  Scottish  Church.  In  1848  he  published 
an  essay  on  presbytery,  which  contains  a  his- 
torical vindication  of  the  Presbyterian  system. 
On  the  formation  of  the  coalition  ministry  by 
Lord  Aberdeen  he  was  invested  with  the  office  of 
Lord  Privy  Seal,  which  he  continued  to  hold  in 
Lord  Palmerston's  administration.  In  1855  he 
relinquished  his  office  and  became  Postmaster- 
General.  In  1859,  on  Palmerston's  return,  he 
again  accepted  office.  He  was  secretary  of  state 
for  India  under  Mr.  Gladstone  in  1868-74,  and 
Lord  Privy  Seal  in  1880-81;  he  resigned  office 
in  1881,  disapproving  the  Irish  Ijand  Bill.  In 
1874  he  had  supported  the  abolition  of  patron- 
age in  the  Church  of  Scotland.  In  1854  he  was 
chosen  Lord  Rector  of  the  University  of  Glas- 
gow; in  1855  presided  at  a  meeting  of  the 
British  Asociation  in  that  city,  and  in  1861 
was  elected  president  of  the  Royal  Society  of 
Edinburgh.  He  was  hereditary  master  of  the 
Queen's  household  in  Scotland,  Chancellor  of  the 
University  of  Saint  Andrews,  a  trustee  of  the 
British  Museum,  also  hereditary  sheriff  and 
lord-lieutenant  of  Argyllshire.  Besides  numer- 
ous papers  on  zoology,  geology,  etc.,  he  wrote 
The  Reign  of  Law  (1866);  Primeval  Man 
(1869)  ;  A  History  of  tlie  Antiquities  of  lona 
(1871);  a  volume  of  poems,  The  Burdens  of 
Belief  (1894);  and  Organic  Evolution  (1898). 
Though  Argyll  is  best  known  by  The  Reign  of 
Law,  which  has  become  a  classic  in  the  defense 
of  theism,  all  his  work  shows  very  great  ability. 
He  was  also  one  of  the  most  finished  orators  of 
his  time. 

ABGYIX,  JoHX  Douglas  Suthebland 
Campbell,  ninth  Duke  of  (1845 — ).  An  English 
statesman  and  author.  He  was  born  in  London, 
and  was  educated  at  Eton,  Saint  Andrew's  Uni- 
versity, and  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
returned  to  Parliament  as  a  Liberal  from  Argyll- 
shire, which  he  represented  from  1868  to  1878. 
In  1871  he  married  Louise,  fourth  daughter  of 
Queen  Victoria.  From  1878-83,  as  Marquis  of 
Lome,  he  was  Governor-General  of  Canada,  his 
administration  being  markedly  popular  and  suc- 
cessful. In  1895  he  was  returned  to  Parliament 
from  South  Manchester.  He  succeeded  to  the 
dukedom  of  Argyll  in  1900.  He  has  published 
A  Trip  to  the  Tropics  (1867)  ;  Guido  wnd  Lita 
(1875)  ;  The  Psalms  Literally  Rendered  in  Verse 
(1877)  ;  Imperial  Federation  (1885)  ;  and  Cana- 
dian Pictures  (1885)  ;  and  he  was  appointed  to 
prepare  the  official  life  of  the  late  Queen  Victoria 
(1902). 

ABGYLL,  John  Campbell,  second  Duke  of 
(1678-1743).  A  Scotch  general  and  statesman. 
He  was  the  son  of  the  first  duke,  and  took  an 


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ABIALDTJS. 


important  part  in  the  political  and  military 
affairs  of  his  time.  As  royal  commissioner  in 
1705,  he  had  a  principal  share  in  bringing  about 
the  union  of  England  and  Scotland.  As  a  soldier 
he  distinguished  himself  under  Marlborough  at 
Ramillies,  Oudenard^,  Lille,  Ghent,  and  Mal- 
plaquet.  Previous  to  the  change  of  ministry  in. 
1710,  Argyll  had  been  a  strong  Whig.  He  now 
joined  the  Tories  in  opposing  the  Duke  of  Marl- 
borough. As  a  reward  he  was  appointed  by 
the  Tories  generalissimo  of  the  British  army  in 
Spain;  but,  considering  himself  to  have  been 
slighted  by  the  ministry,  he  soon  after  returned, 
and  finding  his  influence  greatly  diminished,  he 
again  became  a  Whig.  His  career  up  to  the  re- 
bellion of  1715  was  tortuous,  and  seriously  de- 
tracts from  his  meritorious  services  during  that 
critical  period.  He  was,  however,  placed  in 
command  of  the  King's  forces  in  Scotland,  and 
was  completely  successful  in  quelling  the  Jaco- 
bite rising.  His  services  were  rewarded  in  1718 
with  an  English  peerage,  and  the  title  of 
Duke  of  Greenwich.  In  1721  he  again  played 
into  the  hands  of  the  Tories,  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  the  entire  patronage  of  Scotland.  In 
1737  he  rose  into  immense  popularity  in  his  own 
country  by  his  spirited  defense  before  Parlia- 
ment of  the  city  of  Edinburgh  in  regard  to  the 
Porteous  mob.  Pride  and  passion  rather  than 
ambition  were  the  motives  which  chiefly  con- 
trolled him.  He  was  endowed  with  remarkable 
oratorical  gifts,  but  the  shiftiness  of  his  policy 
prevented  him  from  ever  attaining  a  place  com- 
mensurate with  his  seeming  abilities.  He  was 
noted  for  his  kindness  and  courtesy  in  private 
life.  The  benevolence  of  his  disposition  procured 
him  the  title  of  **the  Good  Duke  of  Argyll."  See 
the  flattering  description  of  him  in  Scott's  Heart 
of  Midlothian,  See  also  his  Life,  by  Robert 
Campbell  (1746). 

ABOYIiL  AKD  THE  ISLES,  James 
RoBEBT  Alexander  Chinnery-Haldane,  Lord 
Bishop  of  (1843 — ).  A  Scottish  prelate.  He 
was  educated  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
took  orders  in  1866,  and  was  curate  of  All . 
Saints,  Edinburgh,  from  1869  to  1876.  From 
1876  to  1895  he  was  rector  of  Nether  Lochaber, 
and  in  1881-83  was  Dean  of  Argyll  and  the  Isles. 
In  1883  he  became  bishop.  Among  his  publica- 
tions may  be  mentioned  The  Scottish  Communi- 
cant and  The  Communicant's  Guide. 

ABOYLL^SHIBE  {Argyle,G&eL  Airer-Oaedh- 
elf  district  of  the  Gaels ) .  A  coimty  in  the  west 
midland  division  of  Scotland,  bounded  west  and 
south  by  the  sea  (Map:  Scotland,  C  3).  Its 
greatest  length  is  about  115  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  about  55  miles;  its  extent  of  coast  line 
is  very  great,  amounting  to  2289  miles,  owing  to 
the  indentation  of  the  coast  by  the  numerous 
lochs  running  inland.  Next  to  Inverness,  it  is  the 
lar^jest  county  in  Scotland;  area,  3210  square 
miles,  of  which  623  are  occupied  by  numerous 
islands.  The  county  is  divided  into  the  districts 
of  Cantire,  North  and  South  Argyll,  I^m,Appin, 
Cowal,  Morven,  and  Sunart.  The  chief  islands 
are  Mull,  Islay,  Jura,  Tiree,  Coll,  Lismore,  and 
Colonsay,  with  lona  and  Staffa.  There  are  up- 
wards of  30  other  islands  of  smaller  size.  The 
general  aspect  of  Argyll  is  wild  and  picturesque, 
marked  by  rugged  and  lofty  mountains  and  deep 
inland  baVs.  Some  fertile  valleys  exist.  Sheep 
andcattle'rearing  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the 
people.     I^Iore  sheep  are  reared  in  Argyll  than 


in  any  other  Scotch  county,  cuid  nearly  1,000,000 
acres  are  in  permanent  pasture.  Argyll  abbunds 
in  deer  and  other  game.  Loch  Fyne  is  famed  for 
its  herrings.  Loch  Awe  abounds  in  salmon  and 
trout.  There  are  also  some  mineral  industries. 
The  chief  towns  and  tillages  are  In  vera  ry,  the 
capital,  Campbelton,  Oban,  Dunoon,  Appin/Loch- 
gilphead  and  Tarbert.  Population,  in  1801,  81,- 
300;  in  1851,  89,300;  in  1891,  75,000;  in  1901, 
73,700,  the  decrease  being  chiefly  due  to  emigra- 
tion. Consult:  Lord  A.  Campbell,  Records  of  Ar- 
ffyll  (Edinburgh,  1885). 

ABOYBOFXJLOS,  Sr'g^rd-poo'lds,  Johaxz^es 
(1416-73).  A  Greek  humanist,  who  contributed 
largely  to  the  revival  of  Greek  learning  in  the 
West.  He  was  bom  at  (Constantinople,  but 
went  to  Italy  at  an  early  age,  and  in  1456  was 
called  by  Cosmo  de  Medici  to  the  chair  of  Greek 
and  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  at  Florence. 
There  his  pupils  included  Lorenzo  and  Pietro  de' 
Medici,  Politianus,  Reuchlin,  and  Acciaioli.  In 
1471  he  removed  to  Rome,  where  he  died.  His 
chief  works  were  Latin  translations  of  Aristotle, 
and  a  commentary  on  the  Ethics  of  that  philoso- 
pher. 

ABIA,  a'r^-A  or  a'ri-a,  or  AIB  (It.  from 
Lat.  aer,  Engl,  air,  in  the  meaning  style,  manner ; 
for  similar  development  of  meaning,  cf.  modus^ 
mode,  musical  mode).  In  music,  a  rhythmic 
song  or  melody  as  distinguished  from  recitative 
(q.v.).  At  one  time  the  term  was  applied  to  a 
broad,  flowing  melody  or  set  number  in  any 
music — even  instrumental  music,  as  e.g.  Bach's 
Aria  for  the  violin.  At  present  it  almost  ex- 
clusively denotes  a  lyrical  piece  for  one  voice, 
with  instrumental  accompaniment.  It  is  sung 
either  by  itself,  when  it  bears  the  name  of 
concert  aria,  or  in  an  opera,  cantata,  or  oratoria 
In  its  modem  form,  it  represents  the  grand,  or 
da  cap6,  form  invented  by  Alessandro  Scarlatti 
(q.v.),  and  consists  of  three  sections:  (1)  the 
general  theme,  the  lyric  outburst  introduced 
( sometimes  after  an  instrumental  prelude — ritor- 
nello)  and  worked  out  in  broad  style;  (2)  a 
less  agitated  part  richly  harmonized  and  contra- 
puntally  elaborated;  (3)  a  repetition  of  the 
first  section  with  various  embellishments.  Aai- 
ETTA  ( Italian,  diminutive  of  aria )  is  a  short  aria. 
Arioso  is  a  melody  which  follows  less  strictly  the 
rigid  form  of  the  aria,  and  has  more  of  the 
effect  of  recitative.    Aria  Buffa  is  a  comic  aria. 

A'BIAD^E  (Gk.  'kptadvrf,).  A  daughter  of 
Minos,  King  of  Crete,  by  Pasipha^.  In  the  earli- 
est form  of  the  story  Ariadne,  while  on  her  way 
to  Athens  with  Theseus,  was  killed  by  Artemis- 
The  more  common  version  told  how,  when  The- 
seus (q.v.)  landed  in  Crete  with  the  offerings 
for  the  Minotaur>  Ariadne  loved  the  youthful 
stranger,  and  enabled  him  to  slay  the  monster 
and  escape  from  the  labyrinth.  Theseus  secretly 
carried  her  with  him  from  Crete,  but  abandoned 
her  on  the  island  of  Naxos.  The  earlier  writers 
seem  to  have  attributed  this  desertion  to  the  will 
of  Dionysus,  w^hile  later  the  faithlessness  of 
Theseus  was  made  prominent.  Dionysus  found 
the  deserted  Ariadne,  and  made  her  his  bride, 
placing  her  cro^^^l  among  the  stars.  Ariadne,  as 
left  forsaken  by  Theseus,  and  as  found  and  mar- 
ried by  Dionysus,  has  been  a  favorite  subject 
with  artists. 

A'ItIALa)nS.  A  deacon  of  the  Chureh  of 
Milan,  w^ho  flourished  during  the  Eleventh  Cen- 
tury, and  was  called  the  Patarene,  an  opprobri- 


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ABIALDT7S. 


789 


ABIEOE. 


0U8  epithet,  meaninfi^  **the  ragpicker,"  because 
his  followers  assembled  in  the  slum  quarter  of 
Milan,  where  the  ragpickers  lived.  He  led  them 
in  vigorous  protest,  even  insurrections,  against 
the  clerical  marriages  and  incontinence  and  in 
support  of  the  strict  enforcement  of  clerical 
celibacy.  Although  successively  sanctioned  by 
Popes  Stephen  IX.  (1057-58),  Nicholas  II. 
(1059-61),  Alexander  II.  (1061-73),  he  found 
little  sympathy  among  his  brethren,  and  used 
to  complain  that  he  could  get  only  laymen  to 
assist  him  in  his  agitation.  Having  at  length 
succeeded  in  obtaining  a  Papal  bull  of  excommu- 
nication against  the  Archbishop  of  Milan ( 1065) , 
a  fierce  tumult  ensued  in  the  city,  whose  inhabit- 
ants declared  against  Arialdus  and  his  coadju- 
tors, not  because  they  opposed  clerical  marriages, 
but  because  they  thought  them  bent  on  subjugat- 
ing the  Church  of  Milan  to  Rome.  Arialdus  now 
fled  to  the  country,  but  his  hiding-place  being 
betrayed,  he  was  conveyed  captive  to  a  desert 
isle  in  Lake  Maggiore,  where  he  was  murdered 
by  the  emissaries  of  the  archbishop,  and  his 
remains  thrown  into  the  lake,  June  28,  1065.  He 
was  afterwards  canonized  by  Pope  Alexander  II. 

ABIANE,  A'r^&n'.  One  of  Comeille's  less 
excellent  tragedies,  composed  in  his  period  of 
decline,  in  1672,  and  founded  on  Ariane's  (Ari- 
adne's) adventures  after  her  unhappy  marriage 
with  Theseus. 

A^IANISM.     See  Abius. 

ABIANO,  a'r^a'nA  (anciently,  Lat.  Arior 
num) .  An  Episcopal  city  of  southern  Italy,  3400 
feet  above  the  sea,  84  miles  northeast  of 
Naples  (Map:  Italy,  K  6).  In  the  limestone 
of  the  surrounding  mountains,  caves  have  been 
hollowed  out,  in  which  many  of  the  poorer  people 
dwell.  The  chief  manufacture  is  earthenware. 
Population,  in  1881,  14,398;  in  1901  (commune), 
17,650. 

ADRIANS.     See  Abius;  Hebesy;  Hebetics. 

ABIAS,  a'ri-as,  Benedictus,  surnamed  MoN- 
TANUS  (1527-98).  A  Roman  Catholic  divine 
noted  for  his  great  linguistic  attainments.  He 
was  bom  at  Fregenal  de  la  Sierra.  He  studied 
first  at  Seville,  and  afterwards  at  Alcalft  de 
Henares,  where  he  distinguished  himself  by  the 
ardor  he  manifested  in  the  acquisition  of  the 
Oriental  languages,  Arabic,  Syriac,  and  Chal- 
dee.  He  next  proceeded  on  a  tour  through 
Italy,  France,  Germany,  England,  and  the  Neth- 
erlands, in  the  course  of  which  he  obtained  a 
knowledge  of  various  modem  tongues.  He  joined 
the  knightly  Order  of  Saint  James  as  a  priest, 
and  as  theologue  of  Bishop  Martin  Perez  Azala, 
of  Segovia,  attended  the  Council  of  Trent;  but 
on  his  retum  home  he  resolved  to  retire  into  se- 
clusion at  Aracena,  and  dedicate  his  whole  time 
to  literature.  In  1568,  however,  Philip  II.  per- 
suaded him  to  repair  to  Antwerp  and  superin- 
tend the  publication  of  the  famous  edition  of 
the  Polyglot  Bible,  executed  in  that  city  at  the 
suggestion  of  the  printer,  Christopher  Plan- 
tin.  After  four  years'  labor,  the  work  was 
issued  under  the  title  Biblia  iSfacra,  Hehraice, 
Chaldaioey  Greece  et  Latine,  Philippi  II.  Regis 
Caiholici  Pietate  et  Studio  ad  SacrisanctcB 
EcclesifB  TJfium  Chph.  Plantinus  excudehat 
(Antwerp,  1569-73,  8  vols.,  folio).  Only  500 
sets  were  printed,  and  the  greater  part  of  them 
were  lost  at  sea,  on  their  way  to  Spain.  It 
was  received  with  universal  applause.  The 
Jesuits,  to  whom  Arias  was  sincerely  and  strenu- 


ously opposed,  alone  attempted  to  fasten  the 
charge  of  heresy  on  the  author  because  he  had 
included  so  much  rabbinical  matter,  and  he  made 
several  journeys  to  Rome  to  clear  himself  of  the 
accusation.  Philip  II.  rewarded  him  with  a 
pension  of  2000  ducats,  besides  bestowing  on  him 
various  other  emoluments — as  court  chaplain 
and  librarian  at  the  Escurial.  He  died  at  Se- 
ville in  1598.  His  literary  works  are  very  nu- 
merous. They  relate  principally  to  the  Bibfe  and 
to  Jewish  antiquities;  but  he  also  wrote  numer- 
ous Latin  poems  and  a  history  of  nature.  For 
his  biography  and  portrait  consult;  Memoriaa 
de  la  .real  Academia  de  la  Historia,  Vol.  VII. 
(Madrid,  1832). 

ABICA,  &-re^A.  A  seaport  tow^  of  northern 
Chile,  situated  in  the  Province  of  Tacna,  about 
40  miles  by  rail  from  Tacna,  the  capital  of  the 
province  (Map:  South  America,*  Northern  Part, 
C  7).  It  has  a  safe  roadstead,  and  is  of  im- 
portance to  Bolivia  owing  to  its  connection  by 
road  with  La  Paz.  It  has  a  considerable  export 
trade,  the  chief  products  being  copper,  silver,  al- 
paca, wool,  and  giiano.  The  population,  esti- 
mated at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  regime  at  30,- 
000,  is  at  present  only  about  4000.  Arica  was 
founded  over  two  hundred  years  ago  and  has  suf- 
fered considerably  from  earthquakes,  that  of 
1868  being  most  destructive.  During  the  war 
between  Chile  and  Peru,  the  town  was  bombarded 
by  the  Chilean  forces  and  was  transferred  to 
Chile  in  1883  along  with  the  Province  of  Tacna 
(q.v.). 

ABICHAT,  ft'rft-shftt'.  A  seaport  on  Madame 
Island,  Nova  Scotia,  the  capital  of  Richmond 
County.  The  town  is  the  see  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  episcopate,  and  with  West  Arichat  niun- 
bers  about  2500  inhabitants,  mostly  engaged  in 
fishing.  Its  harbor  accommodates  the  largest 
vessels.  The  United  States  is  represented  by  a 
consular  agent. 

ABICI,  &-re^ch6,  Cesabe  (1782-1836).  An 
Italian  poet,  bom  at  Bresci.  He  studied  at 
Milan,  and  was  secretary  of  the  departmental 
court  at  Brescia  und^r  Bonaparte.  He  was 
appointed  professor  of  eloquence  in  the  lyceum 
at  Brescia  in  1810,  subsequently  professor  of 
history  and  literature,  and  in  1824  professor 
of  the  Latin  language.  His  principal  work  is 
the  didactic  poem  La  coltivazione  degli  olivi 
(1808),  which  won  for  him  an  important  place 
in  Italian  literature.  He  also  wrote  another 
didactic  poem,  La  pastorizia  (1814),  and  some 
shorter  poems,  such  as  II  campo  santo  di  Brescia^ 
and  made  a  translation  of  the  Bucolics  and 
^Uneid  of  Virgil. 

AB'ID  BE^OIONS.     See  Desebts. 

ABIEGEy  a'r^-Azh'.  A  Department  of  France 
lying  along  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyre- 
nees (^Map:  France,  H  9).  Area,  1890  square 
miles.  Population  in  1896,  272,028;  in  1901, 
210,527.  The  chief  industries  are  agriculture, 
iron  mining,  and  the  manufacture  of  woolens, 
linens,  and  pottery.  Capital,  Foix.  Cousult  H.  L. 
Duclos,  Histoire  des  Ariegeois,  7  vols.  (Paris, 
1881-87). 

ABIISOE  (anciently,  Lat.  aurigera,  gold- 
bearing).  A  tributary  of  the  Garonne  (q.v.) 
which  rises  in  the  Pyrenees,  in  southern  France, 
and  flows  northward  to  join  the  Garonne  above 
Toulouse.  It  is  95  miles  long,  and  of  little  com- 
mercial importance. 


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ABIEL.  790 

A^RIEL.  (1)  An  Arabian  antelope.  See 
GA.ZErxE.     (2)  A  toucan.    See  Toucan. 

ABIEL.  The  name  given  in  the  Revised 
Version  of  the  Bible  to  (1)  the  father  of  twd 
Moabitish  youths  slain  by  Benaiah,  one  of 
David's  "mighty  men"  (2  Sam.  xxiii.  20)  ; 
(2)  one  of  a  delegation  sent  by  Ezra  (Ezra 
viii.  16);  (3)  Jerusalem  (Isa.  xxix.  1,  2,  7). 
In  later  Jewish  angelology  it  was  the  name  of 
a  water  spirit. 

ABIEL.  A  guardian  of  the  waters  in 
medisval  black  art,  several  times  introduced 
into  English  poetry.  The  character  first  appears 
in  Shakespeare's  Tempest,  where  he  is  described 
as  an  "ayrie  sprite,"  Prosperous  servant.  In 
Milton's   Paradise   Lost   he   assumes   the   more 

frandiose    proportions    of   a    fallen   angel.      In 
ope's  Rape  of  the  Lock  he  is  a  minute  and  in- 
visible guardian  of  Belinda's  head-dress. 

ABIES,  a^rl-ez.    See  Battering  Ram. 

ABIES  (Lat.,  the  Ram).  One  of  the  signs  of 
the  zodiac,  including  the  first  30  degrees  of  the 
ecliptic  measured  from  the  vernal  equinox,  or 
that  point  where  the  vernal  passage  of  the  sun 
across  the  equator  takes  place.  The  vernal  equi- 
nox, or,  as  it  is  also  called,  the  first  point  of 
Aries,  is  constantly  changing  its  position  among 
the  fixed  stars,  in  consequence  of  the  precession 
of  the  equinoxes,  moving  westward  at  the  rate 
of  50^.2  annually.  It  is  from  this  circumstance 
that  the  sign  Aries  no  longer  corresponds  with 
the  constellation  Aries,  or  the  Ram,  which  was 
the  case  about  2000  years  ago,  when  the  ecliptic 
was  divided  into  12  equal  parts  called  signs,  each 
named  after  the  group  of  stars  through  which  it 
passed.  The  present  sign  Aries  is  in  the  con- 
stellation Pisces,  about  30'  west  of  the  original 
sign;  and  although  the  sun  when  passing  the 
vernal  equinox  will  always  be  at  the  first  point 
of  the  sign  Aries,  yet  nearly  24,000  years  .will 
elapse  before  that  point  will  again  coincide  with 
the  beginning  of  the  constellation  Aries.  See 
Ecliptic  ;'  Precession  ;  Zodiac. 

ABIKABA,  A-re^A-rA.  A  tribe  of  Caddoan 
stock  now  confederated  with  the  Mandans  and 
Grosventres  on  the  Fort  Berthold  Reservation,  in 
North  Dakota,  and  numbering  about  400.  They 
are  a  northern  ofTshoot  from  the  Pawnee  (q.v.), 
of  whose  language  their  own  is  practically  a  dia- 
lect. About  the  year  1780  they  occupied  several 
villages  some  500  miles  lower  down  the  Missouri 
River,  but  were  driven  out  by  the  Sioux,  since 
which  time  they  have  rapidly  declined.  Their 
tribal  name,  frequently  abbreviated  to  Ree, 
seems  to  be  from  the  same  root  as  the  name 
Patanee. 

AR^IL  (Low  Lat.  nom  pi.  arilliy  dry  grapes; 
from  I>at.  aridus,  dry).  An  extra  investment 
of  the  seed,  outside  the  ordinary  testa.  It  may 
be  a  more  or  less  complete  investment,  and  is 
often  fleshy.  For  example,  the  aril  of  the  Yew 
{Taxus)  is  a  beautiful,  scarlet,  fleshy  cup,  which 
gives  the  seed  the  appearance  of  a  berry.  See 
Seed. 

AB'IMATHJE'A  (Ok.  'Apifia^ain,  AHma- 
ihaia).  The  home  of  Joseph,  the  Jewish  coun- 
selor who  favored  Josus  (see  Matt,  xxvii.  57, 
etc. ) .  Its  situation  is  not  certainly  known,  but 
was  probably  the  same  as  that  of  Ramathaim 
Zophim  (I.  Sam.  i.  1),  the  modem  Beit-Rima, 
about  19  miles  northwest  of  Jerusalem. 


ABIOSTO. 


ABINCKBI  MO^BI.  See  HoBi,  Arhvobl 
ABIOCHy  aM-ok.  King  of  Ellasar,  accord- 
ing to  Gen.  xiv.  He  may  be  identical  with  Rim 
Sin,  King  of  Lara,  a  son  of  Kudur  Mabug,  King 
of  Elam  at  the  time  of  Hammurabi  (c2200 
B.C.),  although  it  is  not  certain  that  the  moon- 
god  Sin  was  called  Aku  in  Elam.  In  Dan.  ii.  14 
Nebuchadnezzar's  captain  of  the  guard  is  named 
Arioch,  which  shows  that  in  b.c.  165  the  story  in 
Gen.  xiv.  was  already  known.  Arioch  is  an 
Elamitish  king  in  league  with  Nebuchadnezzar 
in  the  story  of  Judith  (i.  6). 

ABI^ON  (Gk.  'AptW,  Ari6n).  A  celebrated 
lute-player  of  Methymna,  in  Lesbos,  who  lived 
at  the  time  of  Periander,  tyrant  of  Corinth. 
According  to  Herodotus,  Arion,  while  dwell- 
ing at  the  court  of  Periander,  paid  a  visit 
to  Sicily  and  Lower  Italy.  When  on  his  way 
back  by  sea,  the  sailors  of  the  vessel  on  which 
he  had  taken  passage  plotted  to  slay  him  and 
seize  his  possessions.  Arion  begged  permission 
to  try  once  more  his  skill  in  music,  and,  having 
been  allowed  to  do  so,  threw  himself  at  the  close 
of  his  strain  into  the  sea.  Several  dolphins, 
charmed  by  the  music,  had  assembled  around  the 
vessel,  and  on  the  back  of  one  of  these  he  was 
carried  in  safety  to  Greece.  The  sailors,  on  their 
return,  were  confronted  with  Aiion,  and  paid  the 
penalty  of  their  intended  crime.  Another  account 
makes  the  rescue  take  place  while  Arion  was  on 
his  way  from  Corinth  to  Methymna.  In  the  days 
of  Herodotus  and  Pausanias  there  existed  at 
Tsnarum,  where  Arion  landed,  a  bronze  monu- 
ment, representing  Arion  riding  on  a  dolphin, 
which  was  supposed  to  be  a  thank-offering  miuie 
by  Arion  to  Poseidon.  The  lute  and  dolphin 
were  put  among  the  constellations.  Arion  was 
regarded  as  the  inventor  of  the  dithyramb.  He 
may  have  given  it  its  artistic  form,  but  even  so 
much  is  doubtful. 

ABION  (Gk.  'ApeUrv^  AreiCn) .  A  marvelous 
horse,  the  offspring  of  Poseidon  by  either  Deme- 
ter,  Gfl'a,  or  a  harpy,  the  mother  having  fu- 
tilely  changed  herself  into  a  mare  to  escape 
the  Sea  God's  addresses.  Driven,  at  different 
times,  by  Copreus,  Oncus,  Hercules,  and  Adras- 
tus,  it  yet  possessed  astounding  evidences  of  its 
divine  origin.  It  had  full  power  of  speech,  and 
its  right  feet  were  those  of  a  man. 

ABIOSTO,  ftr-yevs'tA,  LuDOVico  (1474-1533). 
One  of  the  most  celebrated  of  Italian  poets,  the 
author  of  the  Orlando  Furioso,  and,  with  Boi- 
ardo  and  Tasso,  one  of  the  trio  who  showed  Italy 
how  the  material  of  the  old  chivalric  romances 
might  be  remodeled  and  endowed  with  classic 
form  and  epic  dignity.  He  was  bom  September 
8,  1474,  at  Reggio,  where  his  father  was  then 
military  governor.  Like  Petrarch  and  Boccaccio 
before  him,  he  was  destined  by  his  father  for 
the  law,  but  abandoned  it  after  five  years  of 
half-hearted  studjjr.  His  father's  early  death 
transferred  to  Ariosto's  shoulders  the  burden  of 
a  large  family,  with  but  a  scanty  inherit- 
ance; and  in  1503  he  was  glad  of  the  chance 
offered  him  to  enter  the  service  of  Ippolito,  the 
Cardinal  d*Este,  brother  of  the  Duke  of  Fer- 
rara.  By  this  time  he  had  already  acquired  a 
reputation  for  his  verses,  in  both  Latin  and  lul- 
ian ;  but  his  new  position  was  far  from  favorable 
to  poetic  inspiration.  The  Cardinal,  a  rou«?h, 
coarse-natured  man,  quite  destitute  of  poetic  feel- 
ing, kept  Ariosto  actively  employed  upon  diplo- 
matic errands  to  Rome  or  upon  distant  embas- 


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ABIOSTO. 


791 


ABIST^US. 


files,  and  on  one  occasion  at  least,  sent  him 
into  active  service  against  the  Venetians.  It 
was,  however,  during  the  ten  years  that  Ari- 
osto  spent  in  his  service  that  the  Orlando  Furi- 
C80  was  written,  and  it  was  published  at  Fer- 
rara,  1616,  in  forty  cantos.  Ostensibly  it 
was  a  continuation  of  Boiardo's  Orlando  Innamo- 
rata;  practically,  it  was  a  glorification  of  the 
House  of  Este,  having  for  its  real  hero  Rug- 
giero,  the  mythical  founder  of  that  House.  In 
payment  for  this  rather  obvious  flattery,  the  Car- 
dinal is  said  to  have  rewarded  him  with  a  golden 
chain  and  the  query,  "Where  he  had  got  that 
rubbish?"  and  the  following  year, having  incurred 
his  patron's  displeasure  by  a  refusal  to  accom- 
pany him  to  Hungary,  Ariosto  passed  into  the 
service  of  his  brother,  .the  Duke  of  Ferrara.  The 
Duke,  scarcely  more  munificent  than  the  Car- 
dinal, bestowed  upon  him  the  governorship  of 
the  wild  mountain  district  of  Garfagnana,  over- 
run with  bandits,  which,  in  spite  of  his  endeavors, 
he  could  not  succeed  in  reducing  to  order.  He 
was  finally  recalled  by  the  Duke  in  1525,  and 
spent  his  remaining  years  in  Ferrara,  nominally 
in  his  patron's  service,  but  in  reality  enjoying 
what  he  prized  most  highly — abundant  leisure 
for  prosecuting  his  studies,  in  the  modest  home 
which  the  Latin  inscription  over  the  door  proud- 
ly states  was  bought  from  his  own  savings.  This 
house  is  still  carefully  preserved  by  the  authori- 
ties of  Ferrara.  He*  died  in  that  city  June  6, 
1533,  and  was  buried  there  in  the  Church  of  San 
Benedetto. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Orlando  Furioso  is 
engrafted  upon  Boiardo's  earlier  poem  has  been 
aptly  compared  to  the  connection  between  the 
Iliad  and  the  ^Jnid  of  Vergil.  Boiardo's  poem 
was  based  upon  the  chivalric  cycle  which  dealt 
with  the  wars  between  Charlemagne  and  the 
Saracens,  confounded  as  they  were  with  those  of 
Charles  Martel,  in  which  Orlando,  or  Roland, 
stood  forward  as  champion  of  Christendom.  Or- 
lando is  Boiardo's  hero,  and  falls  in  love  with 
Angelica,  a  clever  and  beautiful  Oriental  princess 
sent  by  the  Paynim  to  sow  discord  among  the 
Christian  knights.  The  story,  left  unfinished  by 
Boiardo,  is  taken  up  by  Ariosto,  who  makes  An- 
gelica fall  in  love  with  an  obscure  young  squire, 
upon  which  Orlando  becomes  insane.  It  is  diflfi- 
cult,  however,  to  disentangle  the  central  argu- 
ment of  this  poem  from  the  mass  of  extraneous 
episodes  in  which  it  is  involved.  The  Orlando 
Furioso  has  long  been  numbered  among  the 
world's  greatest  epics,  but  it  is  utterly  lacking  in 
epic  unity,  and  probably  the  nearest  parallel  to 
it  which  can  be  found  is  that  pointed  out  by 
Richard  Garnett — Ovid's  Metamorphoses.  In  so 
far  as  it  has  a  central  theme  at  all,  it  is  not  the 
adventures  of  the  knight  who  has  given  it  his 
name,  but  of  Ruggiero's  conversion  from  pagan- 
ism, his  union  with  Bradamante,  and  the  inci- 
dental exaltation  of  the  House  of  Este.  Ariosto 
also  left  comedies,  satires,  sonnets,  and  a  number 
of  Latin  poems.  There  are  also  extensive  frag- 
ments of  another  epic,  Ranaldo  ArdifOf  which  are 
attributed  to  him;  but  it  is  a  question  whether 
they  are  not  rather  the  work  of  his  son  Virginio. 

The  first  edition  of  the  Orlandq  FuriosOy  in  its 
present  dimensions  of  forty-six  cantos,  was  pub- 
lished at  Ferrara,  in  1832.  Recent  editions  are 
those  edited  by  Giol)erti  (Milan,  1870)  and  Ca- 
sella  (Florence,  1877),  and  an  Mition  de  luxe, 
with  introduction  bv  Carducci  and  illustrations 
by  Dor^   (Milan,  1880).     The  latest  edition  of 


his  lesser  works,  Opere  minori  in  verso  e  in 
prosa,  is  that  of  Polidori  (2  vols.,  Florence, 
1856).  The  latest  and  most  complete  biography 
is  by  A.  Cappelli,  in  his  collection  of  Ariosto's 
Letters  (Milan,  1887).  Of  translations,  the  fol- 
lowing into  English  may  be  mentioned:  by  Sir 
John  Harrington  (London,  1591)  ;  John  Hoole 
(London,  1783)  ;  and  the  much  more  spirited 
version  of  W.  Stewart  Rose  (London,  1823). 

ABIOSTO  OF  THE  NOBTH.  A  title  given 
to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  suggested  by  the  legendary 
subject-matter  and  the  romantic  manner  of  treat- 
ment which  the  English  and  the  Italian  poet  are 
alike  in  employing. 

A'BIOVIS^US  (probably  the  Latinized 
form  of  the  (Jer.  Heerfurst,  army-prince).  A 
(jrcrman  chief.  He  was  the  leader  of  the  Suevi 
and  other  German  tribes,  and  was  requested  by 
the  Sequani,  a  Gallic  people,  to  assist  them  in 
a  contest  against  the  ^dui.  Having  gained  a 
victory  for  the  Sequani,  Ariovistus  was  so  well 
pleased  with  their  country  (now  Burgundy), 
that  h^  determined  to  abide  there  with  his  fol- 
lowers, ^lany  other  Germans  followed  him  into 
Gaul,  where  he  soon  collected  an  army  of  120,000 
men.  The  Gallic  people  now  turned  for  help 
to  the  Romans,  and  Csesar  demanded  an  in- 
terview with  Ariovistus,  who  proudly  replied, 
that  "  he  did  not  see  what  Caesar  had  to  do  with 
Gaul."  After  another  message  from  Caesar  had 
been  treated  in  the  same  scornful  manner,  the 
Roman  forces  under  Caesar  advanced  and  occu- 
pied Vesontio  (now  Besancon),  the  chief  city 
of  the  Sequani.  A  furious  engagement  took 
place  B.C.  58,  in  which  Roman  discipline  pre- 
vailed over  the  German  forces,  which  were  ut- 
terly routed.  Ariovistus,  with  only  a  few  fol- 
lowers, escaped  over  the  Rhine  into  his  own 
country.  His  subsequent  history  is  unknown. 
Consult  Cfipsar,  De  Bello  Oallico. 

ABIFA,  ft-re^pA.  A  Malay  people  of  Cagayan 
Province,  Luzon.  They  speak  a  distinct  dialect 
See  Philippines. 

ABISTA,  &-r6s^tA,  Mabiano  (1802-55).  A 
Mexican  general.  He  was  in  command  of  the 
Mexican  Army  of  the  North  in  1846,  and  was 
badly  defeated  by  (general  Taylor  at  Palo  Alto 
(May  8)  and  Resaca  de  la  Palma  (May  0).  He 
was  minister  of  war  in  1848,  and  was  elected 
President  of  Mexico  in  1851,  but  resigned  in  1853 
to  avert  an  impending  revolution,  and  was  ban- 
ished soon  afterward.    He  died  in  Europe. 

ABI£rrA  and  AB^STOLE.     See  Awn. 

AB'IST.^SN^T1TS  (Gk.  'ApiaraiveToCj  Aris- 
tainetos)  (? — c.484  A.D.).  A  Greek  epistolary 
writer.  He  is  thought  to  be  the  author  of  two 
books  of  love-stories  in  the  forms  of  letters 
{EniaToXal'Ep<jTiKai)  epistolai  erotikai),  imita- 
tions of  Alcephron,  and  taken  almost  entire- 
ly from  Plato,  Lucian,  Philostratus,  and  Plu- 
tarch. They  have  been  edited  by  Boissonade 
(1822),  and  the  text  and  a  Latin  version  are 
contained  in  the  Didot  collection  of  the  Episto- 
lographi  Grwci  (1873),  Aristaenetus  should  not 
be  confused  with  Aristaenetus  of  Nicsea. 

AB'IST.S!^1TS  ( Gk.  'Apiordioi^  Aristaios ) . 
An  ancient  divinity  whose  worship  in  the  earli- 
est times  seems  to  have  been  widely  difl'used 
throughout  Greece,  but  who  is  known  only  in 
scattered  and  fragmentary  traditions.  Accord- 
ing  to  the  common  tradition,  he  was  the  son  of 
Apollo  and  Cyrene,  the  latter  the  granddaughter 


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ARIST^US. 


792 


ABISTEAS. 


of  Peneius,  a  river-god  of  Thesaaly.  She  is  said 
to  have  given  birth  to  Aristajus  on  the  coast  of 
Libya,  in  Africa,  whence  the  region  is  alleged 
to  have  derived  its  name  of  Cyrenaica.  Hermes 
placed  the  child  in  the  care  of  the  Horse  and 
Gala  (earth).  Another  version  placed  his  birth 
in  Thessaly  and  made  him  a  pupil  of  Chiron 
the  centaur.  He  appears  at  Thebes  in  Boeotia  as 
son- in- law  of  Cadmus  and  father  of  Actseon  ( (j.v. ) . 
Btill  another  story  brings  him  from  Arcadia  to 
the  island  of  Ceos,  where  he  was  honored  as  hav- 
ing freed  the  island  from  the  heat  of  the  dog-star 
by  erecting  an  altar  to  Zeus  Icmteus,  the  rain- 
maker, who  rewarded  this  piety  by  sending  the 
Etesian  winds.  Aristseus  also  appears  in  Cor- 
cyra,  Eubopa,  Sicily,  and  even  Thrace,  where  he 
is  one  of  a  band  of  Dionysus.  These  stories 
are  obviously  not  fragments  of  a  connected  nar- 
rative, but  rather  a  nimiber  of  local  traditions 
connected  with  a  divinity  known  as  "the  Good," 
whose  very  transparent  name  prevented  his  at- 
taining the  rank  of  a  great  god,  though  many 
of  his  activities  are  those  attributed  to  Zeus  and 
Apollo.  He  is  connected  with  the  life  and  inter- 
ests of  hunters  and  herdsmen,  taught  bee-keep- 
ing, the  care  of  the  olive  tree,  and  the  spinning 
of  wood,  and  introduced  to  Cyrene  its  valuable 
plant,  Silphium  ( asaf cetida ) . 

AB'ISTAGKOBAS  (Gk.  'ApiaToydpac)  (  ?— 
497  B.C.).  A  tyrant  of  Miletus  and  brother- 
in-law  of  Histiapus.  During  the  stay  of  His- 
tiaeus  at  the*  Persian  court,  Aristagoras  was 
made  governor  of  Miletus,  and  in  B.C.  501  made 
an  unsuccessful  attack  on  Naxos,  which  he  had 
promised  to  subdue  for  the  Persians.  Fearful 
of  the  consequences  of  his  failure,  he  induced 
the  Ionian  cities  to  revolt  from  Persia,  and 
after  vainly  applying  to  Sparta  for  aid,  obtained 
troops  and  "twenty  ships  from  the  Athenians.  The 
allies  captured  and  burned  Sardis  (B.C.  499), 
but  were  finally  driven  to  the  coast  by  the 
Persians,  and  Aristagoras,  in  despair,  fled  to 
Thrace,  where  he  was  slain  by  the  Edonians. 

AB'ISTAB^CHTTS  (Gk.  ^Apiorapxog,  Aria- 
tarchos)  of  Samos.  A  celebrated  ancient  astrono- 
mer of  the  Alexandrian  School,  who  made  his 
observations  about  b.c  280-264.  All  his  writ- 
ings have  perished,  excepting  a 
short  essay  on  the  sizes  and  dis- 
tances of  the  sun  and  the  moon.  In 
this  he  shows  the  method  of  estimat- 
ing the  relative  distances  of  the  sun 
and  moon  from  the  earth,  from  the 
angle  formed  by  the  two  bodies  at 
the  observer's  eye  when  the  moon's 
phase  reaches  exactly  the  first  or 
third  quarter;  i.e.,  when  we  see  a 
half  moon.  Remembering  that  the 
moon's  light  is  simply  reflected  solar 
light,  it  is  easy  to  see  from  the  an- 
nexed figure  that  the  three  bodies 
must  then,  form  a  right-angled  tri- 
angle, of  which  the  moon  is  at  the 
angle.  The  angle  MES  being  then  observed,  we 
can  readily  calculate  the  ratio  EM  to  ES.  This 
is  quite  correct  in  theory:  but  the  impossi- 
bility of  determining  when  the  moon  is  exactly 
half  illuminated,  renders  the  method  inaccurate 
in  practice.  Besides,  in  the  days  of  Aristarchus, 
there  were  no  instruments  for  measuring  angles 
with  anything  like  accuracy.  Aristarchus  esti- 
mated the  angle  at  E  at  83°  and  determined  EM 
to  be  one-twentieth  of  ES,  the  truth  being  that 


the  angle  at  E  differs  only  by  a  fraction  of  a 
minute  from  a  right  angle,  and  that  EM,  the  dis- 
tance of  the  moon  from  the  earth,  is  about  1-400 
of  ES,  the  distance  of  the  sun.  According  to 
some  accounts,  Aristarchus  held,  with  the  Pytha- 
gorean School,  that  the  earth  moves  around  the 
sun.  Vitruvius  speaks  of  Aristarchus  as  the  in- 
ventor of  a  kind  of  concave  sun-dial.  His  essay 
was  first  published  in  Latin  (Venice,  1498),  then 
in  Greek  (Oxford,  1688),  and  it  has  since  been 
republished. 

ABI8T ABCHUS  OF  Samothrace  (b.c.  216- 
144).  A  Greek  scholar.  He  was  the  pupil  of 
Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  became  tutor  to  the 
son  of  Ptolemy  Philometor,  and  succeeded  his 
master  as  head  of  the  Alexandrian  Library. 
He  died  in  Cyprus  at  the  age  of  72.  Aris- 
tarchus represents  the  highest  attainments  of 
philological  criticism  in  antiquity,  and  his  in- 
fluence dominated  all  later  workers.  He  gave 
his  attention  chiefly  to  exegesis  of  the  poets,  |ra.r- 
ticularly  of  the  Homeric  poems;  his  recension 
is  the  basis  of  our  common  text  of  Homer  to-day. 
He  wrote  an  enormous  number  of  ex^etical 
works  —  according  to  Suidas  over  800  —  and 
many  special  treatises  besides.  Fragments  of 
his  comments  are  preserved,  e.g.,  in  the  Vene- 
tian scholia  to  the  Iliad.  He  founded  a  school 
of  Ariatarcheana  at  Alexandria,  which  continued 
to  work  on  classical  texts  until  after  the  begin- 
ning of  the  Empire.  For  an  account  of  Ari- 
tarchus'  Homeric  studies,  consult:  Lehra,  Dt 
Ariatarchi  Siudiis  Homericia  (Konigsberg. 
1882) ;  and  Ludwich,  Ariatarcha  Homeriaehe 
Teatkritik    (Leipzig,   1885). 

ABISTE,  A'rdst^.  A  male  character  in 
Molifere's  Lea  femmea  aavantea,  the  common- 
sense  brother  of  Chrysale.  He  befriends  the 
lovers,  and,  through  his  pardonable  falsehood 
concerning  Chrysale's  financial  loss,  exposes  the 
knavery  of  Trissotin. 

ABISTEAS  (Gk.  ^Apiariag).  An  officer  at 
the  court  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  sent  by  the  latter  to  Jerusalem 
(B.C.  273),  where  he  obtained  from  the  high- 
priest  Eleazar  a  genuine  copy  of  the  Pentateuch 
and  a  body  of  seventy- two  elders  who  could  trans- 
late it  into  Greek.  SeeHody,De  Bibliorum  Tesiu 
Originali  (Oxford,  1705)  ;  Dale,  Diaaertaiio 
auper  Ariatea  (Amsterdam,  1705)  ;  and  Gallan- 
dis,  Bihliotheca  Pat  rum  (Volume  II.)  ;  also  the 
article  on  Septuagint. 

ABISTEAS.  A  magician  of  antiquity 
who  rose  after  his  death,  and  whose  soul 
left  and  reentered  his  body  according  to  its 
pleasure.  His  earliest  appearance  is  as  the 
teacher  of  Homer.  We  also  hear  of  him  as 
having  been  born,  at  a  period  later  than  Homer, 
at  Proconnesus,  an  island  in  the  Propontis.  He 
is  said  to  have  traveled  through  the  countries 
north  and  east  of  the  Enxine.  and  to  have  vis- 
ited the  Arimaspi,  the  Cimmerii,  the  Hyper- 
horei,  and  other  mvthical  nations,  and  after  his 
return  and  subsequent  disappearance  to  have 
written  an  epic  poem  in  three  books,  called  Ari- 
masvia^  a  composition  belonging  probably  to  the 
Sixth  Century  "b.c.  Aristeas  is  fabled  to  hare 
entered  a  fuller's  shop  at  Proconnesus  and  there 
died.  Later  a  traveler  appeared  who  said  that 
he  had  met  him  on  the  road  between  Cyzicus 
and  Artace.  When  the  fuller's  shop  was  entered 
no  body  was  found.     It  was  seven  years  after 


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ABISTEAS. 


793 


ABISTIFFUS. 


this  strange  disappearance  that  he  reappeared 
at  Proconnesus  and  wrote  the  Arimaspia.  He 
then  vanished  once  more,  to  reappear  for  the 
second  time  240  years  later  at  Metapontum,  in 
Italy.  He  advised  the  people  of  Metapontum  to 
build  an  altar  to  Apollo,  and  by  its  side  a  statue 
of  himself,  saying  that  he  had  been  present,  in 
the  form  of  a  raven,  when  the  god  founded  the 
city.  I^ter  accounts  tell  other  wonderful  stories 
of  Aristeas. 

AB'ISTia)ES  (Gk.  *ApiaTeidifC,  Ariateidea), 
called  The  Just  (c.550-467  b.c,).  An  Athenian 
statesman.  He  was  the  son  of  Lysimachus, 
descended  from  one  of  the  best  families  in 
Athens.  His  birth  is  to  be  placed  shortly  after 
the  middle  of  the  Sixth  Century  b.c.  At  the 
battle  of  Marathon  (B.C.  490)  he  was  one  of  the 
ten  Athenian  generals  who  held  command  suc- 
cessively, each  for  a  single  day.  In  the  following 
year  he  was  chief  archon.  His  policy  in  State 
politics  was  opposed  to  that  of  the  other  great 
statesman  of  his  time,  Themistocles,  and  the  ri- 
valry between  these  two  became  so  pronounced 
that  the  Athenians,  in  order  to  obtain  quiet,  final- 
ly resorted  to  the  means  of  ostracism.  Aristides 
received  the  necessary  vote  for  banishment,  and 
retired  to  ^^gina,  Athens's  bitter  enemy.  The 
date  of  this  ostracism  was  apparently  B.C.  484. 
The  story  is  told  that  on  the  day  of  voting,  an 
ignorant  citizen,  personally  unknown  to  the 
statesman,  being  asked  why  he  voted  against 
Aristides,  answered:  "Because  he  was  tired  of 
hearing  him  always  called  The  Just."  Four  years 
later,  when  Xerxes  invaded  Greece,  a  general 
amnesty  for  all  exiles  was  declared  by  Athens, 
and  in  consequence  thereof  Aristides  joined  the 
Athenian  fleet  at  Salamis  and  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  battle  that  followed.  Being  thus  re- 
stored to  favor,  he  was  appointed  commander  of 
the  Athenian  troops  that  fought  at  Platcea,  in 
B.C.  479.  In  B.C.  477  he  was  joint  commander 
with  Cimon  of  the  Athenian  contingent  in  the 
combined  Greek  fleet  which  was  engaged  in  driv- 
ing the  Persians  from  the  Greek  cities  on  the 
coast  of  the  iEgean  Sea.  After  the  fall  of  Pau- 
sanias,  he  took  the  chief  part  in  organizing  the 
Delian  League.  It  is  said  that  after  the  battle 
of  Platapa  he  carried  through  a  law  opening  the 
archonship  to  the  whole  b<Kiy  of  Athenian  citi- 
zens. He  died  poor,  in  B.C.  467,  leaving  a  son 
and  two  daughters.  His  body  was  carried  to 
Athens  and  buried  at  Phalerum,  at  the  cost  of 
the  State. 

ABISTIBES,  i^iijs  (129-189).  A  Greek 
rhetorician,  sumamed  Theodorus,  son  of  Eude- 
mon,  a  priest  of  Zeus.  He  enjoyed  the  teaching 
of  the  most  famous  rhetoricians  of  his  day, 
Aristooles  in  Pergamus  and  Ilerodes  Atticus  in 
Athens;  in  grammar  and  literature  he  was 
trained  by  Alexander  of  Cotyaeum,  whom  he 
honored  with  a  eulogy  still  extant.  He  traveled 
extensively  in  Egypt,  Asia,  Greece,  and  Italy, 
exhibiting  his  art  as  a  speaker.  While  in  Rome 
in  156  he  was  attacked  by  a  severe  illness, 
which  troubled  him  seventeen  years  with  slight 
interruptions:  yet  he  seems  to  have  continued 
his  vocation  in  spite  of  it.  He  stood  in  siich 
favor  with  the  Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius 
that  he  secured  the  rebuilding  of  Smyrna  at  the 
imperial  expense  after  its  destruction  by  an 
earthquake  in  178.  Of  his  works,  we  have  two 
rhetorical  treatises  and  55  speeches.  Of  these 
some   arc   eulogies    on   deities    and   cities   (e.g. 


Rome  and  Smyrna),  others  declamations  like  his 
Panathenaicus,  modeled  on  Isocrates'  oration 
with  the  same  title.  Interesting  also  are  the  six 
Sacred  Speeches  (iepol  ^^}ot)^  which  report 
the  suggestions  made  by  ^Esculapius  through  his 
priests  for  the  rhetorician's  recovery.  Edited  by 
Dindorf  (3  vols.,  Leipzig,  1829). 

ABISTIDES  OF  Thebes.  A  Greek  painter  of 
the  time  of  Apelles.  He  lived  about  the  middle 
of  the  Fourth  Century  b.c,  and  was  a  son  and 
pupil  of  Nicomachus.  He  was  noted  for  power 
of  expression  in  his  work,  one  of  his  finest  pic- 
tures being  that  of  a  babe  approaching  the  breast 
of  its  mother,  who  is  mortally  wounded,  and 
whose  face  shows  her  fear  lest  the  child  should 
find  blood  instead  of  milk.  His  works  were 
bought  at  enormous  prices,  and  one  of  them  was 
the  first  foreign  painting  ever  exhibited  to  the 
public  in  Rome.  He  left  two  sons,  Nicerus  and 
Ariston,  to  whom  he  taught  his  art. 

ABISTIDES,  QuiNTiMANUS  (Gk.  ^ApiareidifC 
KolvTihavdc,  Aristeides  Kointilianos) .  A  Greek 
grammarian  of  about  the  First  Century  a.d., 
and  author  of  a  treatise  on  music  which  is 
one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  ancient  discus- 
sions of  that  subject.  In  the  first  part  it  treats 
of  the  principles  of  harmonics  and  rhythm,  as 
laid  down  by  Aristoxenus,  but  later  introduces 
the  Neo-Platonic  ideas  of  the  moral  effects  of 
music  and  the  connection  between  musical  inter- 
vals and  the  harmony  of  the  universe.  It  was 
originally  edited  by  Meibomius,  'and  in  1882  by 
(lahn.  Consult  CMsar,  Die  Orundziige  der 
griechischen  Rythmik  im  Anschluss  an  Aris- 
teides (Marburg,  1861). 

ABISTIDES,  Saint.  A  Greek  Christian  apolo- 
gist, of  the  First  Century,  who  also  taught  rhet- 
oric and  philosophy.  He  presented  to  the  Em- 
peror Hadrian  an  apology  for  the  Christian  faith, 
which  was  highly  esteemed  by  the  early  Church. 
This  work  is  lost,  with  the  exception  of  a  frag- 
ment discovered  and  published  at  Venice  in  1878. 
His  day  is  August  31. 

AB'ISTIF^US  ( Gk.  'Apiartiriro^^  Aristippos ) . 
The  founder  of  the  Oyrenaic  or  Hedonistic  School 
of  Piiilosophy.  He  was  the  son  of  Aristades  of 
Cyrene,  in  Africa,  and  was  born  probably  not 
long  before  b.c.  435.  He  was  drawn  to  Athens  by 
the  fame  of  Socrates,  whose  pupil  he  remained 
until  his  master's  condemnation  and  death,  with- 
out, however,  adopting  fully  his  philosophy. 
After  Socrates's  death  he  livei  in  various  cities, 
avoiding  all  hindering  connections  by  becoming 
a  citizen  of  no  state,  but  having  guest-friends  in 
many.  We  know  that  he  sojourned  some  time 
in  JEgina,  in  Corinth,  where  he  was  intimate 
with  the  famous  courtesan  LaTs,  and  especially 
at  the  Syracusan  court.  He  must  have  spent 
considerable  time  also  in  his  native  Cyrene, 
where  he  possessed  property,  for  his  philosophic 
school  was  there  established.  His  master,  Soc- 
rates, had  tauffht  that  virtue  and  felicity  to- 
gether formed  the  highest  aim  of  man;  the  lat- 
ter Aristippus  emphasized  as  a  principle  in  it- 
self, and  declared  that  pleasure  Wmrij,  hMonS) 
was  the  supreme  good.  According  to  him,  our 
sensations  alone  are  the  real  bases  of  knowledge, 
and  all  that  gives  pleasant  sensations  must  be 
good:  virtue  and  all  so-called  moral  obligations 
and  limitations  have  no  validity  so  far  as  they 
limit  pleasure.  Yet  Aristippus  show^s  the  influence 
of  Socratic  doctrine  when  he  teaches  that  the 


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wise  man  will  wish  to  preserve  the  enjoyment  he 
may  secure  by  practicing  self-control,  judgment, 
and  moderation;  and  for  the  same  end  will  re- 
aiBt  the  mastery  of  the  passions.  Further,  the 
greatest  pleasure  is  to  be  found  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  mind.  For  this  teaching  he  has  been 
not  inaptly  named  a  pseudo-Socratic. 

Many  anecdotes  about  Aristippus  have  come 
down  from  antiquity.  They  show  him  to  have 
been  a  skillful  man  of  the  world,  capable  of 
adapting  himself  to  the  changes  of  fortune. 
Plato  is  reported  to  have  said  that  Aristippus 
was  the  only  man  he  knew  who  could  wear  with 
equal  gi'oce  both  fine  clothes  and  rags.  Diogenes 
LaSrtius  has  preserved  to  ua  many  of  his  hon- 
mots  and  repartees.  He  apparently  did  not  for- 
mulate a  philosophy  himself;  the  Cyrenaic  sys- 
tem was  probably  worked  out  by  Arete,  his 
daughter,  and  by  her  son,  Aristippus  the 
younger.  (See  Hedonism.)  Aristippus^s  works, 
if  he  left  any,  have  been  lost;  the  nve  letters  to 
which  his  name  is  attached  are  unquestionably 
spurious.  Consult:  Zeller,  Oeschichte  der 
^et'hiachen  Philoaophie  (Leipzig,  1893),  and 
Ueberweg,  History  of  Philoaophy,  English  trana- 
lation  (New  York,  1877). 

ABISTOy  &-r$s^t6.  Sganarelle's  brother  in 
Molifere's  Ecole  dea  maris. 

AB'ISTOBUa<nS  (Gk.  ^AptffrdpovXoc  Ariato- 
houloa).  An  Alexandrian  Jew  who  lived  under 
Ptolemy  VI.,  Philometor,  and  was  considered  by 
the  early  fathers -as  founder  of  the  Jewish  philoso- 
phy in  Alexandria.  He  was  the  author  of  certain 
works  (B.C.  170-160)  on  the  Pentateuch,  of  which 
only  fragments  are  preserved  in  Clement  of 
Alexandria  and  in  Eusebius.  It  was  intended  to 
show  that  Greek  philosophers  and  poets  borrowed 
their  views  from  the  Pentateuch ;  and  to  support 
this  theory,  numerous  questions  were  professedly 
taken  from  Linus,  Hesiod,  Homer,  and  Orpheus, 
of  which  the  Christian  apologists  made  abundant 
use.  There  is  no  reason  to  question  the  genuine- 
ness of  the  work  of  Aristobulus,  which  exhibits 
all  the  characteristics  of  the  literature  of  Hel- 
lenistic Judaism.  As  for  the  supposed  quota- 
tions from  the  Greek  poets,  it  is  probable  that 
Aristobulus  adopted  them  from  some  old'er  work 
by  a  Jewish  writer,  who  forged  the  verses  in  ques- 
tion. See  Schttrer,  Hiatory  of  the  Jewiah  People 
in  the  time  of  Chriat,  Vol.  II.,  237-243. 

ABISTOBULUS  of  Cassandria.  A  Greek 
historian,  bom  in  a  city  of  Chalcidice,  but  after- 
wards— later  than  B.C.  316 — a  citizen  of  Cassan- 
dria. When  eighty-four,  he  wrote  an  historical 
work  of  unknown  title  on  Alexander  the  Great, 
whom  he  accompanied  on  his  Asiatic  campaigns. 
This  work  was  freely  used  by  later  authors,  no- 
ticeably by  Arrian,  Strabo,  and  Plutarch. 

ABISTOBULUS  I.  A  prince  of  Judaea,  who 
succeeded  his  father,  John  Hyrcanus,  as  high- 
priest  iii  B.C.  105.  His  mother  had  been  given  the 
royal  office  by  the  will  of  Hyrcanus,  but  the  son 
deposed  her,  put  her  in  prison,  where  she  died  of 
hunger,  while  he  took  the  title  of  king,  the  first 
instance  of  its  assumption  among  the  Jews  after 
the  Babylonian  captivity.  Aristobulus  had  a  de- 
cided leaning  toward  Hellenism,  though,  despite 
this  fact,  he  remained  Jewish  in  his  feelings. 
He  was  disliked  by  the  people  for  imprisoning 
his  mother,  and  all  his  brothers  except  An- 
tigonus,  and  even  him,  at  a  later  period,  he  mur- 
dered at  the  instigation  of  Queen  Salome.     He 


conquered  a  large  part  of  the  Iturean  country 
and  compelled  the  inhabitants  to  accept  Judaism. 
He  died  in  b.c.  104  of  a  malignant  disease,  al- 
though his  death  may  have  &en  hastened  be- 
cause of  remorse  for  the  murder  of  his  brother. 

ABISTOBULUS  II.  (  ?  -b.c.  49).  Son  of 
Alexander  Jannoeus  (brother  of  Aristobulus 
1. )  and  Salome  Alexandra  ( widow  of  Aristobulus 
I.),  who  succeeded  in  grasping  the  high-priest- 
ship  and  the  royal  authority  from  his  elder 
brother,  Hyrcanus  II.,  to  whom  both  belonged. 
Aristobulus  maintained  himself  from  b.c.  69  to 
B.C.  63,  when  Hycranus  appealed  to  Pompey. 
After  many  intrigues  and  changes  of  front  Pom- 
pey finally  took  sides  against  Aristobulus,  and, 
after  reducing  the  extent  of  the  Jewish  posses- 
sions, placed  Hycranus  in  charge  as  high-priest, 
without  the  title  of  king.  Aristobulus  was  taken 
as  a  prisoner  of  war  to  Rome.  He  was  released 
by  Caesar,  but  was  poisoned  by  adherents  of 
Pompey,  and  died  in  b,c.  49. 

AB'ISTOC^BACY  (Gk.  apiaTOKparia,  aria- 
tokratia,  from  ^pf/rroc,  ariatoa,  best  -\-  xparoc, 
kratos,  power).  A  form  of  government  in  which 
the  sovereign  power  is  vested  in  a  small  num- 
ber of  citicens,  as  opposed  to  monarchy,  in  which 
the  supreme  authority  rests  with  one  man,  or 
to  democracy,  where  the  ultimate  authority  is 
exercised  by  the  entire  body  of  freemen.  Ety- 
mologically,  the  term  denotes  the  rule  of  the 
"best,"  used,  however,  in  the  sense  of  the  Greek 
ariatos,  which  connoted  high  birth  and  the  pos- 
session of  wealth,  as  well  as  personal  excellence. 
In  an  aristocracy,  however,  though  the  power  of 
government  was  wielded  by  a  few,  theoretically 
the  administration  of  government  was  carried 
on  for  the  welfare  of  the  many.  Whenever  the 
interests  of  the  commonwealth  were  made  subser- 
vient to  the  interests  of  the  rulers,  aristocracy 
degenerated  into  oligarchy.  To  the  Greek  mind 
aristocracy  appealed  as  the  most  acceptable  form 
of  government  in  that  it  was  free  alike  from  the 
dangers  of  despotism  and  mob  rule.  Athens,  be- 
fore the  period  of  the  Persian  Wars,  and  Sparta, 
practically  during  the  entire  course  of  its  his- 
tory, were  aristocracies  in  fact,  since  in  both 
places  the  chief  power  was  exercised  by  senates 
which  represented  only  the  noblest  and*  wealthi- 
est families  of  the  state.  The  same  was  true  of 
Rome  for  at  least  two  hundred  and  fifty  years 
before  the  establishment  of  the  Empire.  As  pre- 
eminence in  rank  became  less  closely  associated 
with  the  ownership  of  land,  there  arose  aris- 
tocracies of  wealth  as  well  as  of  birth,  typified 
by  ancient  Carthage  and  modem  Venice.  In  the 
Middle  Ages  there  was  no  aristocracy,  strictly 
speaking,  for  though  political  power  reposed  in 
tne  hands  of  a  very  small  portion  of  the  people, 
each  feudal  lord  in  his  own  domain  was  sole 
master.  It  was  only  with  the  rise  of  the  modem 
state  that  an  aristocracy  again  became  possible. 
It  appeared,  however,  in  quite  a  different  form 
from  the  ancient  aristocracy,  and  partook  rather 
of  the  nature  of  a  privileged  social  class.  Where 
the  sovereign  power  was  vested  in  the  king,  as  was 
the  theory  of  monarchical  government  in  early 
modern  times,  aristocracy  referred  rather  to  a 
monopoly  of  titles  and  offices  than  of  actual  po- 
litical power.  Still,  the  rule  of  powerful  families 
was  not  rare  in  the  history  of  Europe,  especially 
at  times  when  weak  kings  occupied  the  throne, 
as  was  the  case  with  the  Guises  of  France  and 


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ABISTOFHANES. 


the  rulers  of  the  House  of  Valois.  In  England 
the  government,  from  the  accession  of  the  house 
of  Hanover  down  through  the  Eighteenth  Century, 
though  parliamentary  in  form,  was  in  fact  an 
aristocracy,  since  King  and  Parliament  alike 
were  under  the  control  of  a  few  great  Whig  fami- 
lies. At  present,  however,  though  the  aristo- 
cratic element  is  still  strong  in  Great  Britain 
and  Germany  so  far  as  the  enjoyment  of  public 
office  is  concerned,  the  term  aristocracy  has  be- 
come almost  entirely  social  in  meaning,  and  is 
used  loosely  and  in  a  great  variety  of  combina- 
tions to  denote  a  select  few — as  aristocracy  of 
birth,  of  wealth,  or  of  brains. 
ABISTOGI^ON.     See  Harmodius  and  Ab- 

ISTOQITON. 

AB/TSTOL,  A  light-brown,  amorphous  pow- 
der formed  by  the  union  of  iodine  and  thy- 
mol. It  contains  45.8  per  cent,  of  iodine,  and 
chemically  it  is  dithymol-diiodide.  Insoluble  in 
water  and  glycerin,  it  is  freely  soluble  in  ether 
and  fatty  oils,  and  slightly  so  in  alcohol.  Its 
action  is  similar  to  that  of  iodoform  (q.v.),  but 
it  possesses  the  advantage  of  being  odorless.  Be- 
ing an  unstable  compound,  it  cannot  be  mixed 
with  substances  which  have  a  tendency  to  com- 

•  bine  with  iodine,  and  so  is  best  used  alone.  It  is 
used  as  a  substitute  for  iodoform,  as  a  cicatri- 
zant  and  mild  antiseptic,  in  dressing  wounds. 

ABISTOLOCHIA,  &-rIs't6-16-kI^&  (Lat.,  from 
Gk.  dpiaToMxe"^,  aristolocheia,  an  herb  pro- 
moting childbirtn,  like  birth-wort,  from  d/jwrrof , 
aristos,  best-|-  Xoxeia.  locheia,  childbirth,  child- 
bed). A  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
Aristolochiacee.  This  order  consists  of  herba- 
ceous plants  or  shrubs,  often  climbing  shrubs, 
and  contains  upward  of  180  known  species, 
chiefly  natives  of  warm  climates,  and  particu- 
larly abundant  in  the  tropical  regions  of  South 
America.  The  species  are  mostly  shrubby,  some 
of  them  climbing  to  the  siunmits  of  the  loftiest 
trees.  Several  are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe ; 
one  only,  the  common  birthwort  (Aristolochia 
elematitis),  occurs  upon  the  continent  as  far 
north  as  about  latitude  50*^,  and  is  a  doubtful 
native  of  England.  It  is  a  perennial  plant,  with 
erect,  naked,  striated  stem — heart-shaped  dark- 
green  leaves  on  long  stalks — the  flowers  stalked, 
and  CTowing  to  the  number  of  sometimes  seven 
together,  the  tube  of  the  perianth  about  one  inch 
long,  and  of  a  greenish  color.  It  grows  chiefly  in 
vineyards,  hedges,  about  the  borders  of  fields, 
among  rubbish,  and  in  waste  places.  It  has  a 
long  branching  root,  with  an  unpleasant  taste 
and  smell,  which,  with  the  roots  of  Aristolochia 
rotunda  and  Aristolochia  longa,  two  herbaceous 
species,  natives  of  the  south  of  Europe,  was  for- 
merly much  used  in  medicine,  being  regarded  as 
of  great  service  in  cases  of  difiicult  parturition, 
whence  the  English  name.  These  roots  possess 
powerful  stimulating  properties,  and  those  of  the 
southern  species  are  still  used  as  emmenagogues. 
The  root  of  Aristolochia  indica  is  used  in  the 

*8anie  way  by  the  Hindoos.  Aristolochia  serpen- 
taria,  Virginian  Snake-root,  is  a  native  of  most 
parts  of  the  United  States,  growing  in  woods.  It 
has  a  flexuous  stem,  8  to  15  inches  high,  bearing 
heart-shaped,  very  acute  leaves.  The  flowers  are 
on  stalks,  which  rise  from  near  the  root;  the  ori- 
fice of  the  perianth  is  triangular.  The  root  has 
a  penetrating,  resinous  smell,  and  a  pungent, 
bitter  taste.  It  has  long  been  a  fancied  remedy 
for  the  bite  of  the  rattlesnake.  It  possesses  stim- 


ulant, tonic,  and  diap'horetic  properties.  It  forms 
an  article  of  export  from  the  United  States  to 
Europe,  being  highly  esteemed  as  a  medicine  in 
certain  kinds  of  fever.  Its  reputation  as  a  cure 
for  serpent  bites  is  shared  by  other  species,  na- 
tives of  the  warmer  parts  of  America.  Several 
South  American  species  seem  also  to  possess 
medicinal  properties  analogous  to  those  of  the 
Virginian  snake-root.  Aristolochia  sipho  or  Aris- 
tolochia macrophylla,  a  climbing  shrub  of  15  to 
20  feet  in  height,  a  native  of  the  southern  parts 
of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  is  frequently  plant- 
ed in  the  United  States,  in  Great  Britain,  and  on 
the  Continent  of  Europe,  to  form  shady  bowers. 
It  has  very  large  round  or  somewhat  heart- 
shaped  leaves  ( a  foot  in  breadth ) ,  of  a  beautiful 
green.  The  flowers  hang  singly,  or  in  pairs,  on 
long  stalks;  the  tube  of  the  perianth  is  crooked 
in  its  upper  part,  inflated  at  the  base,  and  lined 
with  reddish-bro^'n  veins,  having  a  sort  of  re- 
semblance to  the  bowl  of  a  tobacco  pipe,  for 
reason  the  shrub  is  sometimes  called  Pipe-shrub, 
Pipe- vine,  or  Dutchman's  pipe.  Aristolochia  to- 
mentosa  resembles  Aristolochia  sipho,  except  in 
being  smaller,  very  hairy,  and  in  having  yellow 
flowers.  The  tropical  species  are  distinguished 
for  their  beauty  and  the  peculiar  forms  of  their; 
flowers.  Some  of  them  are  much-prized  orna- 
ments of  our  hot-houses,  Aristolochia  grandiflora 
{Aristolochia  gigas  of  Lindley),  the  Goose  flower 
or  Pelican  flower  of  the  West  Indies  being  one  of 
the  most  important.  Its  name  is  derived  from 
the  fancied  resemblance  to  the  bird.  Fossil  forms 
of  Aristolochia  have  been  described  from  the  Ter- 
tiary rocks  of  Greenland,  the  Rh5ne  Valley,  and 
from  Portugal,  and  still  earlier  forms,  under  the 
names  Aristolochites  and  AristolochicB  phyllum, 
from  the  Cretaceous  of  North  America. 

AB'ISTOMOSNES  (Gk.  ' Apiarofiivriq.)  A  Mes- 
senian  general  who  commanded  the  army  of  his 
country  in  the  Second  Messenian  War,  in  the  Sev- 
enth Century  b.c.  He  upheld  with  success  the 
Messenian  cause  for  about  seventeen  years,  but 
was  finally  defeated  and  went  to  Rhodes,  where 
his  son-in-law  was  one  of  the  reigning  princes. 
Many  heroic  deeds  are  related  of  Aristomenes. 

ABIS^ON  (Gk.  'Ap'iGTov)  or  ABIS^O  of 
Chios  (  ?  —  c.  250  b.c.)  .  A  disciple  of  Zeno,  and 
afterward,  according  to  Diogenes  Laertius,  of 
the  Platonist  Polemo.  Though  a  professed 
Stoic,  he  differed  from  Zeno  in  that  he  re- 
jected all  branches  of  philosophy  except  ethics; 
maintained  that  the  supreme  good  consisted  in 
aSiwpopiaj  adiaphoria,  or  entire  indifference  to 
everything  except  virtue  and  vice;  recognized 
only  one  virtue,  which  he  called  vyeia^  hygeia, 
or  health  of  soul,  and  douhted  the  existence  of 
God.  Ariston  was  called  Siren,  from  his  elo- 
quence, and  Phalantus,  from  his  baldness. 

AB'ISTOFH^AKES  (Gk.  'Apzffro^dwyf,  (c.450- 
e.386  B.C.).  The  only  writer  of  the  od  Greek 
comedy  among  whose  plays  any  survives  entire. 
He  was  the  son  of  one  Philippus,  born  possi- 
bly in  the  deme  of  Cydathene.  As  he  also  had 
property  in  the  island  yEgina,  he  was  some- 
times called  an  iEginetan.  The  most  probable 
date  of  his  birth  is  between  b.c.  450  and  445. 
That  his  education  was  of  the  best  is  shown  by 
his  intimate  knowledge  of  -^schylus,  Stesi- 
chorus,  and  Pindar.  His  genius  was  of  the 
highest  order,  so  that  he  maintained  himself  for 
over  a  generation  as  more  than  peer  among  the 
brilliant  writers  of  comedy  of  his  day.    In  poll- 


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ARISTOPHANES. 


tic8  he  favored,  with  all  the  force  of  his  impetu- 
ous nature,  the  aristocratic  peace  party;  and  in 
his  hands,  come<lv,  which  ha(l  been  given  a  politi- 
cal turn  by  his  older  contemporary,  Cratinus,  be- 
came in  the  first  period  of  the  Peloponnesian 
War  a  most  effective  weapon  against  the  dema- 
gogues and  their  faction.  His  sharp  wit  and 
biting  humor  on  at  least  two  occasions  stirred 
Cleon  to  bring  suits  against  him. 

Aristophanes's  literary  activity  covered  forty 
years  (B.c.  427-388),  and  his  plays  mirror  the 
political  and  social  changes  of  the  State.  We 
can  distinguish  three  periods:  the  first  ends 
with  421,  the  second  with  405,  and  the  third 
with  388.  In  all  we  have  forty-four  titles,  of 
which  four  are  considered  spurious;  from  the 
forty  genuine  plays  eleven  are  preserved,  of 
which  five  belong  to  the  first  period.  Aris- 
tophanes's  earliest  play  was  The  Banqueters, 
produced  in  427,  a  satire  on  the  new-fangled 
teachings  of  the  Sophists  as  compared  with  the 
simple  education  of  the  fathers.  The  Babylo- 
nians (426)  contained  a  sharp  attack  on  the 
demagogue,  Cleon.  Both  these  plays  are  lost. 
The  Acharnians  (425)  won  the  first  prize.  It 
is  a  satire  on  the  headstrong  Jingoes  at  Ath- 
ens who  are  typified  in  the  play  oy  the  captain, 
LamachuB.  The  blessings  of  peace  are  ex- 
hibited by  the  good  fortune  of  an  old  country- 
man, Dicieopolis,  who  makes  a  private  treaty 
with  the  Lacedemonians  for  thirty  years,  and 
thereby  enjoys  all  blessings,  in  contrast  with 
Lamachus,  who  comes  to  grief  with  his  cam- 
paigning. The  Knights  (424)  also  won  the 
first  prize.  This  is  the  first  play  which  Aris- 
tophanes brought  out  in  his  own  name,  the  three 
previous  having  been  nroduced  under  the  name 
of  Callistratus.  In  this  comedy  Aristophanes 
fulfills  the  promise  which  he  made,  in  The  Achar- 
nians the  year  before,  to  cut  Cleon  into  pieces. 
The  demagogue  is  here  represented  as  a  vulgar, 
insolent  charlatan;  the  people  are  represented 
in  the  person  of  a  credulous  and  fickle  old  De- 
mos. At  the  end,  Cleon  is  discomfited,  and 
old  Demos  has  his  youth  renewed  so  that  he 
clearly  sees  how  he  has  been  tricked.  It  is 
said  that  Aristophanes  himself  was  obliged  to 
take  the  part  of  Cleon,  as  no  actor  was  willing 
to  incur  the  enmity  of  the  infiuential  dema- 
gogue. The  Clouds  (423)  was  not  so  successful 
as  the  two  previous  plays.  Its  present  form  is 
a  revision  of  the  original.  This  comedjr  is  a 
satire  on  the  pretensions  of  the  new  sophistical 
school  and  an  attempt  to  point  out  its  dangerous 
tendencies.  Socrates  is  taken  as  the  representa- 
tive of  that  school,  whether  because  Aristophanes 
did  not  understand  his  teachings,  or  because  he 
was  a  convenient  butt,  is  uncertain.  It  repre- 
sents a  young  Athenian,  Phidippides,  who  is 
ruining  his  father  by  his  spendthrift  habits.  So 
the  old  man  sends  him  to  the  "thinking-shop"  of 
Socrates,  where  he  can  learn  to  make  the  worse 
appear  the  better  cause  and  so  save  his  father. 
The  son,  after  some  hesitation,  reluctantly  enters 
the  school,  and  learns  his  lesson  all  too  well.  A 
famous  scene  represents  a  dialogue  between  the 
Just  and  Unjust  Argument,  in  which  the  latter 
wins  and  obtains  the  mastery  over  the  pupil. 
The  youth  returns  to  his  home  thoroughly 
trained  in  the  new  sophistic,  and  at  a  festival 
made  by  his  father  for  his  return,  sings  an  im- 
moral passage  from  Euripides,  thrashes  his 
father,  and  then  justifies  what  he  has  done  by 
the  art  he  has  just  learned.     His  old  father's 


eyes  are  now  opened,  and  he  takes  vengeance  on 
Socrates  by  setting  his  "thinking-shop"  on  fire. 
It  is  said  that  the  reckless  young  Phidippides 
was  intended  to  represent  Alcibiadea*  The 
Wa^ps  (422)  is  a  ridicule  of  the  regular  courts 
of  justice.  The  Peace  (421)  is  a  play  in  the 
interests  of  the  truce  between  the  Athenians  and 
the  Spartans  consummated  in  this  year.  Peace 
is  brought  down  from  heaven  and'  restored  to 
earth. 

Seven  years  passed  before  Aristophanes  pro- 
duced another  play.  In  the  meantime  public 
measures  had  been  taken  to  check  political 
satire,  and  The  Birds  (414)  ridicules  the 
Athenians'  fondness  for  litigation  and  their 
flighty  character.  Two  old  men  leave  Athens 
in  disgust,  and  with  the  birds  establish  the  city 
Cloud-cuckoo-town,  in  mid-air,  shut  off  the  gods 
from  enjoying  sacrifice,  and  win  back  the  sceptre 
from  Zeus.  The  whole  play  is  very  brilliant 
and  clever.  Some  have  wished  to  see  in  it  a 
caricature  of  the  Athenians'  hopes  of  founding 
a  great  western  empire  in  Sicily.  The  LyHstrata 
(411)  represents  a  woman's  conspiracy  to  bring 
about  peace.  The  Thesmophoriazu^a,  produced 
three  months  after  the  preceding  comedy,  con- 
tains an  attack  on  Euripides,  whom  the  w^omen, 
who  are  celebrating  the  Thesmophoria,  propose* 
to  punish. for  his  hatred  of  them.  The  Frogs 
(405)  is  devoted  to  literary  criticism.  In  the 
opening  scenes  Dionysus  is  on  his  way  to  Hades 
in  search  of  a  good  poet,  for  Sophocles  and 
Euripides  have  just  died.  The  remainder  of 
the  play  is  given  to  the  adventures  of  Dionysus 
in  Hades,  and  the  contest  between  JEschylus  and 
Euripides  for  the  seat  of  honor  there,  which 
.^schylus  wins.  The  real  subject  is  the  decay 
of  tragic  art,  for  which  Euripides  is  blamed. 
The  Ecclesiazuscs  (392  or  389  B.C.),  or  The 
Women  in  Parliament,  is  a  satire  on  commu- 
nistic ideas  current  at  this  time.  The  women 
disguised  as  men  occupy  the  Pnyx,  and  adopt  a 
new  thoroughgoing  communistic  constitution. 
In  the  Plutus  (which  failed  in  408,  but  was  re- 
vived in  388)  the  god  of  wealth  has  his  si^t 
restored  to  him,  and  thereafter  confers  his 
blessings  only  on  the  deserving. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  extant  plays  there 
is  a  gradual  change  from  political  and  personal 
satire  to  caricature  of  social  conditions;  further- 
more, the  local  character  of  the  earlier  plays 
^ves  wav  in  the  later  to  a  certain  cosmopolitan- 
ism. These,  therefore,  form  the  transition  to 
the  middle  and  new  comedy.  Aristophanes,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  ancients,  held  a  middle  place 
between  his  older  contemporaries.  Cratinus  and 
Eupolis,  combining  the  severe  character  of  the 
one  with  the  grace  of  the  other.  In  wit,  rollick- 
ing humor,  invention,  skill  in  the  use  of  lan- 
guage and  rhythm,  he  has  never  been  surpassed. 
The  text  is  best  edited  bv  Meineke  (Leipzig, 
1860),  and  Blaydes  (Halle/ 1886).  The  Scholia 
are  published  by  G.  Dindorf  (Oxford,  1835) ; 
Dfibner  (Paris,  1842),  and  from  the  Ravenna 
MS.,  by  Rutherford  (1896).  There  are  numer- 
ous commentated  editions  of  single  plays.  Eng- 
lish translations  have  been  made  by  Mitchell, 
Frere,  Rogers,  Kennedy,  and  Tyrrell, 

ABISTOPHANES  of  Byzanttum.  A  learned 
Greek  grammarian  of  the  Second  Century  B.C. 
He  was  a  pupil  of  Zenodotus  at  Alexandria.'where 
he  was  subsequently  instructor  of  the  famous 
critic  Arista rchus  of  Samothrace,  and  director 
of  the  great  library.    He  was  the  first  to  attempt 


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ABISTOPEANES. 


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ABISTOTLE. 


a  critical  edition  of  the  Homeric  poems,  and 
made  extensive  study  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  Al- 
cffius,  Pindar,  and  the  comic  and  tragic  poets. 
He  is  said  to  have  introduced  into  the  Greek 
language  the  use  of  accents. 

ABISTOFHAKES,  The  English.  A  name 
applied  to  Samuel  Foote  (q.v.),  who  lashed  the 
manners  and  people  of  his  age  with  a  coarse  but 
irresistible  wit. 

ABIST0FHANE8,  The  French.  An  ap- 
pellation, though  hardly  a  happy  one,  given  to 
Moli^re  for  his  genial  wit,  the  object  of  which 
was  the  vice  and  affectation  of  his  day. 

ABISTOFHANES'S  APOLOGY.  The  sequel 
to  Browning's  Balau8tion*8  Adventure,  published 
in  1875.  It  is  a  long  poem  in  blank  verse,  sup- 
posed to  commemorate  the  defense  made  by 
Aristophanes  for  his  comic  art,  on  learning  from 
the  venerable  Sophocles  of  the  death  of  the 
tragedian,  Euripides. 

AB'ISTOTE^LIA.      See    Maqui. 

ABISTOTLE  (Gk.  'KpiaroTk'krf^,  AristoteUs) 
(B.C.  384-322).  A  Greek  philosopher,  bom  at 
Stagira,  a  Greek  town  of  the  Chalcidice,  on 
the  Strymonic  Gulf,  the  present  Stavro.  He 
came  of  a  family  in  which  the  practice  of  medi- 
cine was  hereditary,  and  his  father,  Nicomachus, 
was  physician  -  in  -  ordinary  to  the  Macedonian 
king,  Amyntas  II.  From  his  father,  Aristotle 
undoubtedly  inherited  his  love  for  natural 
science,  and  through  him  came  into  relation 
with  the  royal  house  of  Macedonia.  Nicomachus 
died  while  Aristotle  was  still  young;  the  son 
was  brought  up  in  Stagira  by  a  family  friend, 
Proxenus,  of  Atameus  in  Mysia,  whose » memory 
he  held  so  dear  that  in  after  life  he  erected  a 
statue  to  him  at  Delphi,  and  after  his  death 
educated  and  adopted  his  son  Nicanor.  Aris- 
totle doubtless  received  the  usual  education  en- 
joyed by  the  son  of  a  well-to-do  family,  and 
probably  was  trained  also  for  his  ancestral  pro- 
fession.* When  seventeen  years  old,  he  went  to 
Athens  and  associated  himself  with  the  Acad- 
emy. But  its  head,  Plato,  was  then  absent  on 
his*  second  journey  to  Syracuse,  where  he  acted 
as  adviser  to  the  two'  despots  in  succession, 
Dionysius  the  elder  and  Dionysius  the  younger. 
For  nearly  twenty  years  Aristotle  enjoyed  the 
teaching  and  association  of  Plato,  and  in  spite 
of  the  different  natures  of  master  and  pupil,  it 
needs  no  argument  to  show  that  the  relation 
between  the  two  was  close.  Plato  is  said  to  have 
called  him  the  reader  and  intellect  of  his  School, 
and,  because  of  his  zeal,  to  have  likened  him  to 
a  colt  that  needs  the  bit  more  than  the  spur. 
Ihiring  this  period  of  discipleship,  Aristotle 
seems  to  have  begun  to  lecture  to  small  circles 
of  listeners,  chiefly  on  the  subject  of  rhetoric; 
at  the  same  time  he  trained  himself  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection  in  the  practice  of  oratory. 
His  superior  genius  was  so  well  recognized  by 
his  contemporaries  that  his  elders,  like  Hera- 
clides  Ponticus,  who  was  Plato's  representative 
in  B.C.  361,  were  ready  to  yield  to  him,  and 
younger  men  like  Theophrastus  were  glad  to  be 
his  followers.  At  Plato's  death  in  B.C.  348-347, 
Speusippus  became  head  of  the  Academy,  and 
Aristotle  had  no  longer  any  bonds  to  bind  him  to 
the  school.  He  was  now  in  his  thirty-eighth 
year,  had  enjoyed  long  intimacy  with  the  best 
thinkers  in  Greece,  and  had  undoubtedly  already 
developed  to  a  considerable  degree  an  independ- 


ent philosophical  position.  With  Xenocrates  of 
Chalcedon,  who  likewise  withdrew  from  his  old 
associates,  Aristotle  went  to  Mysia,  and  pres- 
ently accepted  an  invitation  from  a  former 
fellow-pupil  in  the  Academy,  Hermeas,  head- 
man of  Atameus,  to  take  up  his  residence  with 
him.  Here  he  remained  three  years,  until  Her- 
meas was,  through  treachery,  captured  by  the 
Persians,  and  put  to  death  by  Artaxerxes  III. 
Aristotle  sought  refuge  in  Mytilene,  taking  with 
him  the  niece  and  sister  of  Hermeas;  he  after- 
wards married  the  latter,  who  died  something 
more  than  ten  years  later  in  Macedonia.  On 
the  basis  of  certain  allusions  in  the  opening  of 
Isocrates's  Panathenatcus  it  has  been  conjectured 
that  the  following  two  years  Aristotle  spent 
again  in  Athens,  teaching  in  company  with  others 
in  the  Lyceum;  this  conjecture,  however,  has  a 
very  uncertain  basis. 

During  the  many  years  spent  at  Athens  and  in 
Asia  Minor,  Aristotle's  hereditary  relation  with 
the  Macedonian  court  seems  to  have  been  un- 
broken; for  in  B.C.  343-42  in  response  to  a  call 
from  Philip  to  educate  his  son  Alexander,  then 
fourteen  years  old,  he  removed  with  his  familv 
and  Theophrastus  to  Pella,  the  Macedonian  capi- 
tal. He  acted  as  tutor  to  the  Prince  for  three 
vears.  The  plan  of  the  education  attempted  by 
him  is  unknown  to  us;  but  it  is  most  probable 
that  the  philosopher  added  to  the  ordinary  edu- 
cation of  the  day  in  rhetoric  and  philosophy 
some  instruction  in  at  least  history,  geography, 
and  politics  suited  to  a  future  ruler.  How  far 
his  pupil  absorbed  teaching  is  also  uncertain, 
although  we  know  that  his  later  pTans  for  con- 
quest were  in  opposition  to  Aristotle's  views. 
Yet  Aristotle  was  held  in  high  esteem  by  both 
Philip  and  Alexander;  during  his  residence  at 
court  he  was  able  to  obtain  5ie  restoration,  at 
the  public  expense,  of  his  native  city,  which  had 
sufTered  severely  in  B.c.  348  when  Philip  con- 
quered the  district  about  the  Strymon;  later 
he  was  able  to  secure  from  Alexander  protection 
for  Eresus,  in  Lesbos,  the  home  of  his  friend 
Theophrastus.  The  greatest  favors  he  received, 
however,  were  in  the  way  of  support  and  ma- 
terial for  his  scientific  investigations;  and  his 
years  of  residence  at  the  Macedonian  court, 
where  he  could  observe  at  close  range  the  rule 
of  an  aggressive  monarch,  must  have  been  of 
the  greatest  importance  in  developing  his  politi- 
cal ideas. 

After  Alexander  mounted  tne  throne  and 
undertook  his  Eastern  conquests,  Aristotle  re- 
turned to  Athens  in  his  fiftieth  year,  to  carry 
out  a  plan,  no  doubt  long  cherished,  of  opening 
a  school  of  his  own.  This  he  established  in  the 
Lyceum,  in  a  building  called  "The  Walk" 
(ireptfraroc) ,  where  he  lectured.  We  hear  from 
an  untrustworthy  tradition  that  he  gave  two 
kinds  of  instruction:  in  the  morning  to  a  nar- 
row circle  of  advanced  pupils  (his  esoteric 
doctrine),  and  in  the  evening,  more  popular 
lectures  (exoteric  teaching)  to  a  larger  body  of 
listeners.  The  name  Peripatetic,  applied  to  the 
school  and  its  philosophy,  cannot  be  traced 
earlier  than  B.C.  200.  Of  the  equipment  of  the 
school,  in  books  and  material,  we  know  nothing. 
Aristotle  continued  to  teach  for  twelve  years, 
until  Alexander's  death,  in  B.C.  323,  made  his  po- 
sition in  Athens  dangerous.  He  was  charged 
with  impiety,  but  fled  to  Chalcis,  as  he  said,  to 
save  the  Athenians  from  a  second  sin  against 


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ABISTOTIiE. 


philosophy.  Here  he  died,  in  B.c.  322,  m  his 
sixty- third  year.  Theophrastus  and  Eudemus 
were  his  immediate  successors  in  the  leadership 
of  the  school. 

Aristotle  left  behind  him  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  writings.  Diogenes  La^rtius,  of  uncertain 
date,  gives  us  a  list  of  46  works.  This  probably 
represents  the  works  bearing  Aristotle's  name 
in  the  Alexandrian  Library.  A  list  dating  from 
the  time  of  Cicero  makes  the  total  much  larger. 
An  ancient  tradition  says  that  at  the  death  of 
Theophrastus,  his  library,  including  of  course 
the  works  of  Aristotle,  was  left  to  a  certain 
Neleus  of  Scepsis.  His  descendants  buried  the 
books  to  save  them  from  the  rapacity  6i  the 
Attalids,  who  were  eager  to  enrich  the  Perga- 
mene  Library  by  every  possible  means.  About 
100  B.C.  the  buried  collection,  naturally  much 
injured  by  damp  and  worms,  was  discovered  by 
Apellicon  of  Teos,  a  learned  bibliophile,  who 
brought  it  to  Athens.  When  Sulla  captured  the 
city,  B.C.  86,  he  took  the  books  to  Rome,  where 
their  value  was  recognized  by  the  grammarian, 
Tyrannion,  who  had  a  catalogue  prepared  by  the 
Peripatetic,  Andronicus, — the  longer  list  men- 
tioned above — and  about  46  b.c.  published  the 
works  thus  recovered.  Our  present  recension 
undoubtedly  goes  back  to  this  edition,  although 
it  is  more  immediately  related  to  a  recension 
prepared  toward  the  end  of  antiquity  which 
embraced  a  number  of  spurious  writings.  The 
later  Peripatetics  divided  the  complete  works 
of  their  master  into  two  classes;  exoteric  dia- 
logues intended  for  the  public,  and  acromatic 
for  the  smdll  circle  of  pupils.  To  these  may 
be  added  as  a  third  class  certain  writings  not 
intended  for  publication,  the  hypomnematic 
works  consisting  of  memoranda  and  collections 
on  various  topics.  The  exoteric  dialogues  were 
well  known  and  much  admired  in  antiquity, 
but  only  bare  fragments  have  come  down  to 
us.  These  dialogues  did  not  possess  the  dra- 
matic character  of  Plato's  works;  in  place  of 
question  and  answer,  they  had  long  discourses, 
such  as  we  find  in  the  philosophical  writings  of 
Cicero,  who  chose  Aristotle  as  his  model.  Among 
the  titles  known  to  us  are  On  the  Immortality  of 
the  Soul,  On  Philosophy,  On  the  Oood,  On  Justice, 
etc.  Certain  titles,  e.g.  Menexenus,  Oryllus, 
'Serinthus,  The  Sophist,  etc.,  remind  us  of 
Plato's  dialogues.  Aristotle  carefully  prepared 
these  for  publication,  and  must  have  exhibited 
in  them  that  perfection  of  style  which  caused 
Cicero  to  speak  of  the  philosopher's  language 
as  a  golden  stream.  The  extant  works  show 
but  little  of  this  quality.  These  were  never  com- 
pletely prepared,  and  in  many  cases  probably 
never  intended  for  publication  by  Aristotle,  but 
were  edited  by  Theophrastus,  Eudemus,  and  the 
philosopher's  son,  Nicomachus.  Many  have  the 
character  of  lecture  notes,  possibly  those  taken 
by  pupils,  and  most  have  suffered  from  interpola- 
tions. A  considerable  number  of  the  works  to 
which  his  name  is  now  attached  are  spurious. 
The  extant  writings  may  be  classed  according  to 
their  contents  under  Logic,  Metaphysics,  Natural 
Science,  Ethics  and  Politics,  Rhetoric  and 
Poetics. 

The  works  on  Logic  were  called  by  the  later 
Peripatetics,  the  Organon,  "The  Instrument,"  as 
they  deal  with  the  method  of  investigation. 
They  include  the  Categories,  on  the  ten  classes 
of  predicates — substance,  quantity,  quality,  etc.; 


On  Interpretation,  dealing  with  the  proposition 
and  its  parts ;  Analytica  Priora,  in  two  books  on 
the  syllogism ;  Analytica  Posteriora  in  two  books 
on  the  theory  of  knowledge  and  the  scientific 
method;  Topica  in  eight  books,  on  dialectics  and 
reasoning  from  probabilities;  and  Sophisms  on 
the  fallacies  of  the  Sophists  and  their  solution. 
Aristotle's  claim  that  he  was  the  first  to  work 
out  a  method  of  reasoning  was  correct,  and 
formal  logic  has  made  little  advance  since  his 
day;  it  Ims  only  added  to  his  categorical  syllo- 
gism the  hypothetical  and  disjunctive  forms,' and 
has  supplemented  his  three  figures  by  a  fourth. 

The  Metaphysics  in  thirteen  books  bears  the 
name  given  it  by  later  students,  because  it  fol- 
lowed the  works  on  physics  in  the  ancient  edi- 
tions of  Aristotle.  The  philosopher  himself 
called  it  "First  Philosophy"  (irp^r^  ^i?joeo^) 
It  is  in  an  unsatisfactory  condition,  consisting  of 
one  finished  treatise  and  a  number  of  shorter 
sketches  hardly  connected  or  fully  worked  out. 
It  begins  with  a  criticism  of  previous  philosoph- 
ical systems — ^the  earliest  history  of  philosophy 
— and  then,  after  stating  the  philosophical  ques- 
tions preliminary  to  the  examination,  discusses 
the  doctrine  and  the  ultimate  grounds  of  Being. 

The  works  on  Natural  Science  comprise  the 
Physics  in  eight  books,  treating  of  the  general 
principles  and  relations  of  nature;  four  books 
On  the  Heavens,  and  two  on  Beginning  and  Per- 
ishing. The  last  treatise  is  important  for  a 
knowledge  of  Aristotelian  philosophy.  The  Me- 
teorology discusses  the  phenomena  of  the  heav- 
ens. Natural  History  is  handled  in  ten  books; 
with  it  are  associated  the  following  treatises: 
Parts  of  Animals  in  four  books,  Oeneration  in 
fLve,  and  Mode  of  Progression  in  one.  To  these 
must  be  added  certain  works  of  doubtful  authen- 
ticity: On  Plants  in  two  books,  a  retranslation 
from  the  Latin  and  probably  the  work  of  Nico- 
lafls  of  Damascus,  who  composed,  under  Augus- 
tus, a  compendium  of  Aristotle's  philosophy; 
On  the  Cosmos,  certainly  belonging  to  the  Roman 
period;  On  the  Motion  of  Animals,  On  Breath- 
ing, On  Colors  of  Plants  and  Animals,  all 
later  than  Aristotle.  The  treatise  on  Physiog- 
nomy, which  was  composed  certainly  as  late  as 
Hadrian's  time,  is  based  apparently  on  two  lost 
works  named  in  the  ancient  catalogues  of  the 
Aristotelian  writings.  The  Problems,  discussions 
chiefly  of  physical  questions,  is  also  drawn  in 
part  from  the  philosopher's  work.  The  Mechan- 
ics, Mirahiles  Auscultationes,  and  some  other 
minor  monographs  falling  within  the  same  field 
are  certainly  spurious. 

According  to  Aristotle's  own  view,  psychology 
was  inseparably  connected  with  natural*  science. 
Under  this  head  we  possess  his  work  On  the 
Soul  in  three  books,  and  a  large  number  of 
smaller  treatises  which  are  known  as  the  Parva 
Katuralia, 

Next  must'  be  named  the  works  on  Ethics  and 
Politics,  which  Aristotle  regarded  as  parts  of 
the  same  subject.  Under  Uie  former  division 
there  are  extant  three  works :  The  Xicomachean 
Ethics  in  ten  books,  which  takes  its  name  from 
the  philosopher's  son,  Nicomachus,  to  whom  the 
work  is  dedicated  and  by  whom  it  probably  was 
edited.  This  is  Aristotle's  work.  The  Eudemean 
Ethics  in  seven  books  was  prepared  by  Aristotle's 
pupil  Eudemus  on  the  basis  of  his  master's  lec- 
tures and  the  Nicomachean  Ethics,  with  which  it 
coincides  in  parts.    The  Magna  Moralia  in  two 


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ABISTOTLE. 


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books  is  a  late  work  of  the  Peripatetic  School,  and 
nothing  more  than  an  abstract  of  the  other  works. 
An  essay  On  Virtues  and  Vices  is  also  spurious. 
The  Politics  in  eight  books  is  closely  connected 
with  the  Ethics,  The  work  is  incomplete  but  mas- 
terly, discussing  the  elements  and  aims  of  the 
State,  the  forms  of  government,  and  the  ideal 
State.  The  loss  of  the  Constitutions,  which  treat- 
ed of  158  States,  is  greatly  to  be  regretted;  but 
fortunately  the  greater  part  of  the  Constitution 
of  Athens,  which  belonged  to  the  larger  work,  has 
been  recovered  in  recent  years  from  four  papy- 
rus rolls  of  the  First  Century  a.d.,  first  published 
by  Kenyon  in  1891.  This  document  is  one  of 
the  most  valuable  for  the  history  of  Athens,  and 
has  at  many  points  corrected  and  enlarged  our 
previous  knowledge.  The  Economics  in  three 
books  is  the  work  of  the  later  School. 

In  the  field  of  Rhetoric  and  Poetics,  Aristotle 
also  made  contributions  of  the  highest  value  and 
permanence.  His  Rhetoric  in  three  books  treats 
of  the  relations  of  rhetoric  to  dialectic,  the  na- 
ture of  the  proof  the  orator  may  employ,  the 
use  of  examples,  and  language  and  style.  In 
this  work  also  appear  beginnings  of  formal  gram- 
mar and  its  technical  terms.  The  Rhetoric  ad- 
dressed to  Alexander,  which  is  catalogued  with 
Aristotle's  works,  was  written  by  Anaximenes. 
Of  the  Poetics,  only  the  first  book  on  tragedy  and 
epic  poetry  is  preserved,  but  this  is  of  inestima- 
ble value  for  its  analyses  of  the  various  kinds  of 
poetry  and  its  full  treatment  of  tragedy. 

From  this  enumeration  of  the  most  important 
extant  writings  of  Aristotle,  the  universality  of 
his  studies  is  evident;  and  in  every  field  enu- 
merated his  influence  has  been  enormous.  By 
him  Logic,  Grammar,  Rhetoric,  Literary  Criti- 
cism, Politics,  Psychology,  Ethics,  Natural  His- 
tory, Physiology,  were  raised  to  independent  disci- 
plines; he  was  the  first  to  attempt  a  history  of 
Philosophy  and  Government.  This  many-sided 
literary  activity  was  the  natural  result  of  his 
method  of  working,  proceeding  from  the  individ- 
ual to  the  general;  and  this  method,  which  col- 
lects facts,  compares,  sifts,  and  groups  them  ac- 
cording to  their  relations,  and  thus  obtains  sys- 
tematic knowledge  of  the  subject  in  hand,  has 
been  most  fruitful  in  the  history  of  investigation 
of  every  sort,  especially  in  the  Nineteenth  Cen- 
tury. 

Aristotle's  service  lies  in  his  analysis  and  clear 
distinction  of  ideas  and  in  his  studies  in  par- 
ticular fields,  rather  than  in  the  full  develop- 
ment of  a  philosophy.  Yet  here  he  made  impor- 
tant advances  that  have  been  influential  down 
to  the  present  day.  According  to  him,  Being  has 
four  universal  elements:  Matter,  form  or  es- 
sence, the  emcient  cause,  and  the  final  cause. 
These  principles  enter  into  the  constitution  of 
everything.  Matter  is  mere  potentiality,  which 
through  the  supervention  of  Form  becomes  the 
Actual.  By  Form,  Aristotle  wished  to  replace  the 
Platonic  idea,  which,  he  pointed  out,  cannot  ex- 
ist apart  from  the  individual.  Every  change 
from  potentiality  to  actuality  is  accomplished 
by  an  efficient  cause  which  is  working  toward  an 
end,  the  Final  Cause.  In  the  field  of  Ethics  this 
final  cause  is  man's  summum  honum,  happiness, 
which  is  defined  to  be  the  activity  of  the  soul  in 
accordance  with  virtue,  but  under  favorable  con- 
ditions. The  problem  of  free-will  Aristotle  met 
by  the  statement  that  man  has  a  potentiality  in 
two  opposite  directions — for  good  or  evil — which 


can  be  freely  chosen;  by  consistently  choosing 
one  a  man  forms  the  habit  of  virtue  or  vice,  and 
thus  becomes  either  virtuous  or  vicious,  as  his 
choice  determines.  Virtue  itself  lies  between  the 
extremes  of  self-indulgence  and  asceticism. 

The  influence  of  Aristotle  on  human  thought 
has  continued  unbroken  to  the  present  day.  In 
the  early  centuries  of  our  era  his  writings  stimu- 
lated scientific  inquiry;  during  the  Middle  Ages 
Latin  translations  from  the  Arabic  versions  guid- 
ed the  philosophy  of  the  Western  Church,  al- 
though the  real  nature  of  Aristotelianism  was 
little  understood.  Arabian  philosophy  in  the 
West  during  the  Eleventh  and  Twelfth  centuries 
was  a  combination  of  Aristotelianism  with  cer- 
tain Neo- PI  atonic  elements.  With  the  revival  of 
learning  the  original  of  Aristotle's  works  became 
gradually  known,  and  from  them  were  drawn  the 
means  to  combat  the  errors  of  scholasticism. 

Learned  comment  on  Aristotle  began  with  the 
First  Century  B.C.,  and  during  antiquity  and  the 
early  mediaeval  period  the  amount  of  comment 
grew  to  be  enormous.  The  standard  edition  of 
the  works  is  still  that  by  Bekker  (5  vols., 
1831-40).  Volumes  I.  and  IL  contain  the  Greek 
text;  III.,  the  Latin  translations;  IV.,  scholia, 
edited  by  Brandis;  V.,  the  fragments,  edited  by 
Rose,  and  Bonitz's  index.  A  new  and  complete 
edition  of  the  ancient  commentaries  is  being  pub- 
lished by  the  Prussian  Academy.  Twenty-five 
volumes  have  already  appeared.  Of  editions  of 
single  works,  the  following  are  valuable:  Tren- 
delenburg's P«yc/ioio^y  (1877);  Schwegler- Bo- 
nitz's Metaphysics  (1848)  ;  Ramsauer's  Kico- 
maehean  Ethics  (1878);  Susemihl's  Politics 
(1879);  Spengel's  Rhetoric  (1867);  Vahlen's 
Poetics  ( 1884) .  Useful  English  works  of  general 
import  are  Grote's  Aristotle  (1872);  Grant's 
Ethics  of  Aristotle  (London  and  Edinburgh^ 
1877)  ;  Bywater,  Ethics  (1890) ;  Jowett,  Politics 
(1885);  Newman,  Politics  (1887);  Wallace, 
Psychology  (1884).  General  bibliography  by 
Schwab,  Bihliographie  d*Aristote  (Paris,  1896). 
For  influence  of  Aristotle  upon  Arabic  philoso- 
phy, see  Arabic  Literature  ;  Averroi^s. 

AB'ISTOXrENnS  ( Gk. 'A/)«n-<J^evoc,  Aristoxe- 
nos)  (Fourth  Century  b,c.).  The  greatest  stu- 
dent in  Greek  antiquity  of  the  science  of  rhythm 
and  music.  He  was  a  son  of  Spintharus,  and  a 
native  of  Tarentum.  He  received  his  first  in- 
struction from  his  father,  who  had  himself  been 
a  pupil  of  Socrates  and  was  well  versed  in  music- 
al matters.  He  later  studied  music  under  Lam- 
prus  of  Erythrae,  and  music  and  philosophy 
under  the  Pythagorean  Xenophilus  of  Chalcidice. 
He  finally  went  to  Athens  and  became  the  pupil 
of  Aristotle.  It  is  said  that  he  expected,  upon 
the  death  of  Aristotle,  to  be  appointed  his  suc- 
cessor, and  was  deeply  chagrined  when  Theo- 
phrastus  was  made  head  of  the  School  instead. 
He  remained  at  Athens,  however,  and  is  said  in 
the  course  of  his  life  to  have  written  453  treat- 
ises on  various  subjects — musical,  philosophical, 
and  moral.  His  method  was  that  of  Aristotle. 
One  of  his  tenets  was  that  the  notes  of  the  scale 
were  to  be  judged  entirely  by  the  ear,  and  not,  as 
the  Pythagoreans  held,  by  mathematical  proper- 
ties. The  only  one  of  his  works  that  has  come 
down  to  us— and  this,  not  in  the  original  or  com- 
plete form — is  the  Elements  of  Harmony  {'kpfiovtua 
iToixeia^  Harmonika  Stoicheia),  in  three  books. 
The  best  edition  is  that  of  Marquard  (Berlin, 
1868) . 


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ABISUGAWA. 


800 


ABITHMETIC. 


ABISUGAWA,  a'r^-8?RJ-ga'wft.  The  name  of 
a  noble  family  in  Japan  whose  members,  besides 
showing  marked  ability,  have  been  prominent  in 
the  rejuvenation  of  that  ancient  empire.  The 
house  was  founded  by  the  seventh  son  of  the 
Mikado  Gro-Yozei,  who* reigned  from  1587  to  1611 
and  died  in  1638.  When  in  January,  1868,  the 
duarchy  of  !Mikado  and  Shogun  was  abolished 
and  the  existing  government  of  Japan  established 
by  tlie  restoration  of  the  Emperor  Mutsuhito  to 
undivided  power,  Aristtgawa  Tabuhito  (1836- 
86),  uncle  of  the  Mikado,  bom  in  Kioto,  and 
carefully  educated,  was  appointed  supreme  ad- 
ministrator and  commander-in-chief  of  the  army. 
Receiving  the  sword  of  justice  and  the  brocade 
banner,  he  led  the  imperial  troops  against  the  reb- 
els, saved  Yeddo  from  destruction,  and  then  di- 
rected the  military  operations  in  the  north  which 
brought  the  civil  war  to  a  happy  conclusion.  In 
1869,  he  returned  to  the  Emperor  the  sword  and 
banner  in  token  of  complete  pacification  of  the 
empire.  In  1875  he  was  made  President  of  the 
Senate,  and  in  1877  received  supreme  command 
of  the  forces,  which,  after  seven  months  of 
fighting  and  the  loss  of  20,000  lives. and  $60,000,- 
000,  suppressed  the  Satsuma  rebellion  led  by 
Saigo  Takamori,  for  which  Arisugawa  was  deco- 
rated with  the  Order  of  the  Chrysanthemum  and 
made  field-marshal  and  junior' prime  minister. 
Arisugawa  Takehito  (1862-95),  brother  of  the 
above,  was  adopted  by  the  Emperor  (when  with- 
out an  heir)  in  1878.  He  traveled  and  studied 
in  Europe,  examining  military  systems,  received 
the  highest  decorations,  served  for  education  as 
midshipman  on  H.  B.  M.  ship  Iron  Duke,  and  as 
captain  in  the  Japanese  navy  in  the  war  with 
China  (1894-95),  dying  in  service.  The  first 
memorial  postage  stamps  ever  issued  in  Japan 
showed  his  portrait.  The  allowance  of  the 
Arisugawa  family  out  of  the  civil  list  is  30,000 
yen. 

ABITA,  &-re^t&.  A  town  of  Japan  situated 
in  the  western  part  of  Kyushu,  about  58  miles 
north  of  Nagasaki,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  rail.  It  is  famous  chiefly  for  its  pottery 
works,  established  at  the  end  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century.  The  porcelain  of  Arita  used  to  be  ex- 
ported in  large  quantities  to  the  Netherlands 
and  is  very  highly  valued.  Population,  about 
6000. 

ABITHIEETIC  (Gk.  apte^nrLicf}^  sc.  rkxvri, 
arithmStike  tcchn^y  the  art  of  reckoning,  from 
api'^uSc,  aritkmos,  number).  This  primitive 
matnematical  science  involves  three  phases: 
the  conception  of  number,  the  representation  of 
numbers  by  symbols,  and  the  principles  and 
methods  of  computation.  To  these  may  be  added 
the  rules  of  ordinary  business,  which  have  come 
to  be  considered  part  of  the  elements  of  the  sub- 
ject. 

The  Conception  of  Nitmber.  Kant  advanced 
the  idea  that  the  number-concept  is  derived 
from  sequence  in  time,  and  accordingly  Sir 
William  Hamilton  speaks  of  "the  science  of  pure 
time."  In  recent  years  the  Kantian  idea  has 
led  to  a  revival,  in  teaching  arithmetic,  of  the 
older  methods,  based  on  the  cultivation  of  a 
sense  for  rhytlimic  repetition,  i.e.,  on  counting — 
number  being  regarded  as  a  product  of  reflection, 
of  an  activity  of  the  mind.  On  the  contrary,  the 
Pestalozzian*  method,  which  was  generally  em- 
ployed until  some  years  ago,  followed  the  idea 
that  perception  alone  forms  the  basis  of  all 
number  work,  and  that  the  origin  of  the  number- 


concept  is  to  be  sought  not  in  time,  but  in 
space.  This  principle  has  often  been  over- 
worked. Some  teachers  have  presented  a 
variety  of  objects  so  systematically  that  the 
pupil  learned  to  think  of  nine  horses,  nine  feet, 
nine  dollars,  and  was  unable  to  think  of  the 
number  nine  without  the  aid  of  a  group  of  ob- 
jects. The  reaction  against  the  Pestalozzian 
plan  has  led  teachers  to  lay  greater  emphasis  on 
phenomena  taking  place  successively  in  time; 
thus,  to  distinguish  nine  from  six,  the  pupil  is 
made  to  hear  the  clock  strike  the  hours. 

Representation  of  Numbers  by  Symbols. 
Aside  from  primitive  number-pictures,  such  as 
the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and  the  Babylonian 
cuneiform  symbols,  the  ancients  commonly  used 
the  letters  of  their  alphabets  to  represent  num- 
bers— e.g.,  the  a,  p  y,  6,  of  the  Greeks.  Some- 
what more  refined  is  the  system  of  the  Romans, 
\(ho  used  only  a  limited  set  of  letters,  combin- 
ing these  according  to  simple  additive  and  sub- 
tractive  principles.  But  even  in  the  Roman 
notation  no  extended  calculaticms  were  possible 
without  the  aid  of  some  registering  instrument; 
hence  the  early  and  extensive  use  of  the  abacus. 
(See  Calculating  Machines.)  The  notation  in 
use  at  present,  which  consists  in  combining  ten 
digits  according  to  a  simple  position-system, 
originated  with  the  Hindus,  was  transmitted  to 
the  Arabs,  and  came  to  the  knowledge  of  Euro- 
peans chiefly  through  the  labors  of  Leonardo 
of  Pisa,  about  a.d.  1200.  This  powerful  system 
freed  arithmetic  from  the  reign  of  the  abacus. 

As  to  fractional  numbers,  the  Ahmes  papyrus, 
which  is  at  least  thirty-six  centuries  old,  shows 
that  the  Egyptians  had  a  knowledge  of  fractions 
at  a  very  remote  date.  But  while  the  concept 
and  symbolism  of  the  common  fraction  are  thus 
very  old,  the  decimal  fraction,  the  decimal  point,  * 
and  other  improvements  in  notation,  are  com- 
paratively recent,  dating  from  the  Sixteenth  and 
Seventeenth  centuries. 

Besides  the  decimal  scale,  fractions  have  also 
been  written  on  various  other  scales,  such  as  the 
binary  (scale  of  two),  ternary  (scale  of  three), 

.  .  .  duodenary  (scale  of  twelve),  and  nota- 
bly the  sexagesimal  (scale  of  sixty)  by  the 
Egyptians  and  Babylonians.  At  present,  the 
scale  of  ten  is  generally  recognised  as  the 
most  convenient.  The  scale  of  twelve,  how- 
ever, has  the  advantage  of  producing  simpler 
fractional  forms.  E.g.,  on  the  scale  of  ten  the 
fractions  %,  %,  %,  are  written,  respectivelv, 
0  333. . .,  0.25,  0.125;  on  the  scale  of  twelve  thev 
are  written,  0.4,  0.3,  0.16. 

Arithmetic  Computation.  The  methods  of 
carrying  out  the  basal  operations  of  arithmetic 
have  been  considerably  improved  since  the  Fif- 
teenth Century.  The  old  *g»llcy'  method  of  di- 
vision was  replaced  by  the  'Italian'  method,  the 
superiority  of  which  may  be  seen  from  the  fol- 
lowing examples: 

Gnlley. 
97535399  -=-  9876, 
carried  for  one  figure  only: 


32.92  -r-  3.1416 


H 

Italian, 

3.1416)32.9200(10.48 

31416 

1504()0 
125664 

247360 


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ABTTHUZTIC. 


801 


ABITJS. 


Ix>garithms,  the  greatest  arithmetical  achieve- 
ment of  the  Seventeenth  Century,  were  introduced 
bv  Napier  (q.v.)  in  1614.  Many  changes  for 
the  better  have  also  been  made  in  the  operations 
for  finding  the  square  root  and  in  the  algorisms 
of  applied  arithmetic. 

As  to  improvements  that  may  be  expected  to 
be  introduced  in  the  future,  the  'Italian'  method 
of  division  seems  destined  to  yield  to  the  so- 
called  'Austrian'  algorism,  which  is  represented 
by  the  following  example: 

Austrian. 

10.48 
31416)329200 
32.92  -=-  3.1416  3142 

150 
126 

24 
24 

Further,  proportion,  as  the  old  *rule  of  three,' 
will  probably  be  replaced  by  the  equation  as 
such,  and  the  same  may  be  expected  for  unitary 
analysis. 

Hoarding  the  teaching  of  arithmetic,  the  stu- 
dent of  pedagogy  will  look  for  information  to 
the  writers  of  the  Nineteenth  Century.  The  fol- 
lowing may  be  recommended  as  valuable  worlcs 
on  the  history  and  pedagogy  of  the  subject: 
Unger,  Die  Methodik  der  praktischen  Arithmeiik 
in  historischer  Entwickelung  (Leipzig,  1888)  ; 
Kehr,  Geschichte  der  Methodik  (Gotha,  1888, 
Vol.  Ill) ;  W.  Rein,  A.  Pickel,  and  E.  Scheller 
Theorie  und  Praxis  dea  Volksschulunterrichts 
fiach  Herhartischen  Gnin<i«d*2eti( Leipzig,  1898)  ; 
J.  A.  McLellan  and  J.  Dewey,  Psychology  of 
y umber  (New  York,  1895) ;  D.  E.  Smith, 
Teaching  of  Elementary  Mathematics  (New 
York,  1900).  Notable  among  higher  arithmetics 
are:  Tannery,  Lemons  d'Arithm4tique  thiorique 
et  pratique  (Paris,  1894) ;  and  W.  W.  Beman 
and  D.  E.  Smith's  Higher  Arithmetic  (Boston, 
1897). 

ABTTHMEiyiC  AUD  GB'OICBT'BIC 
SIGHS.     Arbitrary  symbols  used    to    indicate : 

( 1 )  the  nature  of  a  magnitude,  as  +  «,  a  I>08i- 
tive  quantity,  and  —  a,  a  negative  quantity; 

(2)  operations  to  be  performed  upon  magnitudes, 
as  a  .  5,  i.e.,  h  multiplied  by  a;  (3)  relations 
between  magnitudes,  as  a>  b,  i.e.,  a  is  greater 
than  5.  The  following  are  a  few  signs  in  com- 
mon use:  ^,      „.    _ 

0,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  are  the  Hindu 
numerals. 

1,  II,  III,  IV,  V,  VI,  etc.,  are  Roman  numerals, 
-f    (plus)  ;  —  (minus)  ;   +  (plus  or  minus)  ; 

X  or- (times  or  multiplied  by);  -r-,  /  or  the 
fraction  bar  (divided  by)  ;  =  (equal  to)  ; 
a  =  6  (a  is  identical  with  &) ;  a  =  &  (mod  m) 
(a  is  congruent  to  5,  modulus  to)  ;  o  >  6  (a  is 
greater  than  6)  ;  a  <  6  (a  is  less  than  6)  ;  a  </i  6 
(a  is  similar  to  6)  ;  a  a  6  (a  varies  as  6)  ;  oo 
(infinity)  \  a  :^'b  (a  approaches  5  as  a  limit) ; 
.-.  (therefore) ;  •.■  (since)  ;  l-a|  (absolute  value 
of.^  ;  ^  A  (angle  A)  \  -^  (perpendicular  to)  ; 
^  (congruent  to,  i.e.,  similar  and  equal)  ;  V 
(root  of )  ;  T  (ratio  of  the  circumference  of  a 
circle  to  its  diameter) ;  e  (base  of  the  hyper- 
bolic  logarithms). 

ABITHMETIC  COMPLEMENT.     The  dif- 
ference between  a  number  and  the  next  larger 
Vol.  I.— 61. 


number  representing  a  power  of  10.  Thus,  the 
arithmetic  complement  of  7  is  10  —  7,  or  3 ;  the 
arithmetic  complement  of  85  is  100  —  85,  or  15; 
that  of  125  is  1000  —  125,  or  875.  The  arith- 
metic complement  is  much  used  in  numerical 
calculations  where  differences  are  to  be  found. 
Since  a  —  b  =  a  -f  ( lOn  —  b)  —  lOn ,  it  fol- 
lows that  instead  of  subtracting  a  number  its 
arithmetic  complement  may  be  added,  the  cor- 
responding power  of  10  being  then  deducted. 
Thus,  456  —  273  =  456  -f  727  —  1000  =  183. 
The  advantage  consists  in  this,  that  since  the 
arithmetic  complement  of  a  number  is  easily 
found  by  subtracting  each  digit  from  9,  except 
the  unit's  (which  is  taken  from  10),  it  is  often 
easier  to  add  the  arithmetic  complement  than  to 
subtract  the  number.  In  working  with  loga- 
rithms arithmetic  complements  are  often  used 
instead  of  their  numbers,  under  the  name  of 
co-logarithms.    See  Logarithm. 

ABITHMETIC  MEAK.     See  Series. 

AKITHMETICAIi  PSOOBES^SION.  See 
Series. 

ABITHMETLC  TBI^ANGLE.    See  Pasgai.. 
AB'ITHMOM'ETEJEt.        See     Calculatiitg 
Machine. 

ABI  THOBGIIiSsbN,  ISfr^  t6r^g«ls5n  ( 1076- 
1148).  The  Father  of  Icelandic  literature.  His 
Islendingahok,  the  first  literary  work  of  the  isl- 
and, was  finished  between  1134  and  1138,  and  is 
a  concise  account  of  the  history  of  Iceland  from 
its  settlement,  about  870,  till  1120.  See  Ice- 
landic Literature. 

ABIOrS  (c.256-336).  The  father  of  Arianism 
the  doctrine  that  Christ  was  not  of  the  same 
essence  as  God  the  Father,  but  was  a  creature, 
though  the  first  and  highest  of  creation.  He  was 
bom  in  Libya,  the  North  African  province  to 
the  west  of  Egypt,  about  250.  He  went  to  Alex- 
andria and  there  was  made  deacon  and  presbyter, 
and  was  the  hi^ly  esteemed  pastor  of  a  chureh 
called,  from  its.  shape,  the  Baucalis  (the  Greek 
name  of  a  kind  of  vase).  In  318  he  denied 
the  statement  which  Alexander  of  Alexandria 
made  upon  the  Trinity:  viz.,  that  there  was 
only  a  single  essence.  This  he  declared  was 
Sabellian.  Defining  his  own  position,  he  afilrmed 
that  if  the  Son  were  truly  a  son,  there  must  have 
been  a  time  when  he  was  not.  For  this  state- 
ment he  was  applauded  by  many,  but  Alexander 
called  a  council  of  a  hundred  Egyptian  and  Lib- 
yan bishops,  which  condemned  Arius  and  his 
allies  and  deposed  them  (321).  The  fight  had 
now  begun.  Arius  had  numerous  supporters, 
chief  of  whom  was  Eusebius,  Bishop  of  Xicomedia. 
Alexander  also  rallied  a  large  contingent.  He 
wrote  numerous  letters  (two  of  which  are 
still  extant),  exhorting  the  bishops  not  to 
receive  the  heretic.  Notwithstanding  this  active 
canvass  by  Alexander,  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia 
absolved  Arius,  who  had  retired  to  Palestine 
and  then  to  Nicomedia,  from  the  Alexan- 
drian's condemnation,  and  had  Arius's  position 
approved  by  a  synod  held  in  323,  probably  in 
Nicomedia.  Arius  wrote  The  Banquet,  a  work 
in  prose  and  verse,  of  which  fragments  remain. 
It  sets  forth  his  view  of  the  person  of  Christ 
and  put  it  in  a  form  so  that  it  could  be  sung 
to  popular  tunes.  This  is  said  to  have  aided  his 
cause  greatly.  The  strife  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  Emperor  Constantine,  as  it  was  troubling 
the  peace  of  the  Church  and  disuniting  it.   Con- 


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stantine  did  not  appreciate  the  importance  of  the 
doctrine  involved,  and  so  thought  the  controversy 
could  be  healed  bjr  mutual  concessions.  He  em- 
powered Hosius,  Bishop  of  Cordova,  who  was 
his  ecclesiastical  adviser,  to  represent  him  in 
an  effort  at  Alexandria  to  smooth  matters  over; 
but  when  Hosius  reported  failure,  he  took  more 
active  measures,  and  called  a  general  Church 
council  at  Niciea,  in  Bithynia  (326),  the  first 
(Ecumenical  Council,  at  which  the  point  raised 
by  Arius  was  settled  against  him.  This  result 
was  effected  by  the  champion  of  Christ's  di- 
vinity which  then  appeared — Athanasius,  a 
Toung  deacon  of  Alexandria,  and  spokesman 
for  his  bishop,  Alexander.  Three  hundred  and 
eighteen  bishops,  besides  numerous  other  clergy 
of  all  grades,  were  present.  Four  parties  were 
formed — the  strict  Arians,  led  by  Arius  him- 
fielf  ( who  was  present ) ,  who  contended  that  Christ 
was  of  different  essence  (heteroousios)  from  the 
Father;  the  strict  Athanasians,  who  contended 
that  he  was  of  the  same  essence  {homoousios)  ; 
the  party  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia;  and 
that  of  Eusebuis  of  Ctesarea.  The  creed  of  the 
Kicomedian  Eusebians  was  essentially  Arian, 
and  was  rejected  by  the  Council  without  de- 
bate: in  fact,  the  document  containing  it  was 
torn  to  shreds.  The  creed  of  the  Csesarean  Euse- 
.  bians,  which  was  designed  to  be  a  compromise, 
was  respectfully  received,  as  it  was  an  old 
Church  one;  but  the  steady  persistence  of  the 
Athanasian  party  forced  the  Council  to  reject 
it  and  make  a  new  deliverance,  in  which  Arian- 
ism  was  unequivocally  condemned.  The  upshot 
was  that  Arius  and  his  episcopal  supporters 
were  banished  to  Illyria,  and  his  writings  pub- 
licly burned  and  interdicted.  This  action  did  not, 
however,  end  Arianism;  and  as  for  Arius,  the 
great  influence  of  Eusebius  of  Nicomedia  and 
of  Constantia,  the  sister  of  Constantine*  secured 
his  recall  in  331,  and  in  a  personal  interview 
with  the  Emperor,  Arius  convinced  him  that  his 
views  were  in  substantial  agreement  with 
those  of  Athanasius. 

In  the  confession  of  faith  which  he  printed, 
he  declared  his  belief  that  the  Son  was  bom 
of  the  Father  before  all  ages,  and  that,  as  the 
"Word,"  he  had  made,  all  things  both  in  heaven 
and  earth.  The  Emperor  was  satisfied,  and  sent 
orders  to  Athanasius,  now  Bishop  of  Alexandria, 
to  receive  Arius  into  the  communion  of  the 
Church.  This  Athanasius  refused  to  do,  and  a 
series  of  tumults  was  the  consequence.  Eusebius 
of  Nicomedia  was  greatly  incensed.  He  called  a 
synod  of  bishops  at  Tyre,  in  335,  which  pro- 
ceeded to  depose  Athanasius.  The  Emperor  was 
even  prevailed  on  to  remove  the  latter  to  Gaul, 
though  he  alleged  as  his  reason  that  he  wished 
to  deliver  him  from  the  machinations  of  his 
enemies.  In  the  same  year  another  synod  met 
at  Jerusalem,  which  revoked  the  sentence  of  ex- 
communication uttered  against  Arius  and  his 
friends.  Still,  the  majority  of  the  Christians 
of  Alexandria  clung  to  the  doctrines  of  Atha- 
nasius, and  resolutely  resisted  every  effort  to  es- 
tablish the  new  opinions  among  them.  Dis- 
appointed in  his  expectations,  Arius,  in  336, 
proceeded  to  Constantinople,  where  he  presented 
the  Emperor  with  another  apparently  orthodox 
confession  of  faith;  whereupon  orders  were  is- 
svicd  to  Alexander,  Bishop  of  Constantinople, 
to  administer  to  Arius  the  holy  communion  on 
the  Sunday  following.    This  was  naturally  con- 


sidered a  grand  triumph  by  Eusebius  and  his 
friends ;  but  on  the  Saturday  preceding  the  day 
appointed  for  his  restoration,  Arius  suddenly 
died  of  hemorrhage  of  the  bowels. 

Arius  was  exceedingly  handsome;  but  the 
harassing  cares  of  a  life  spent  in  a  continual 
struggle  with  his  adversaries  are  said  to  haTe 
given  him  a  worn  and  haggard  look.  His  man- 
ners were  graceful  and  modest;  he  was  noted 
for  even  an  ascetic  abstinence,  and  the  purity 
of  his  moral  character  was  never  challen^  by 
a  single  enemy. 

After  the  death  of  Arius,  his  followers  rallied 
round  Eusebius,  now  Bishop  of  Constantinople 
(338),  from  whom  they  were  styled  Eusebians. 
The  reconciliatoiy  middle  party  of  Eusebius  of 
Csesarea    (d.340  A.D.),   who  wished  to  end  the 
great  controversy  by  abstaining  from  all  strict 
dogmatic  assertions  on  the  matter,  soon  dwin- 
dled into  insignificance  between  the  two  contend- 
ing parties.    Constans,  who  ruled  the  West  after 
the  death  of  Constantine  (337),  and  Constantius, 
who  ruled  the  East,  made  an  essay  toward  recon- 
ciliation, but  it  failed  at  the  Synod  of  Sardis 
(347),   where   the   Occidental   bishops  gathered 
themselves    round     Athanasius     in    support  of 
the  homooiisian  doctrine    {identity  or  sameness 
of  substance),  while   in  a   separate  council  at 
Philippopolis,     the     Oriental     bishops    asserted 
the  homoiousian  doctrine  ( implying  merely  simi- 
larity of  substance).     Slight   as  might  appear 
the  verbal   difference  between   the  two  parties, 
the  bitterness  of  the  controversy  was  intense, 
and  pervaded  almost  all  departments  of  public 
and   private   life.     Constantius   having,  by  the 
death  of  Constans    (350)    and  his  victory  over 
Magnentius    (353),   gained   dominion  over  the 
West,  the  Arian  cause,  which   he  favored,  tri- 
umphed at  the  Synod  of  Arelate  or  Aries  (353), 
and  at  that  of  Milan    (355).     These  victories 
however,   were  more  apparent  than  real.    The 
Nicene  doctrine  had  still  strong  support  on  its 
side,  and  was  strictly  maintained  by  the  ban- 
ished Athanasius  and  his  friends,  while  the  An- 
tiniceans,  soon  after  their  triumph,  were  divided 
into  at  least  three  parties.    The  old  Arians,  also 
styled  Anomoeoi,  or  Heterousions,  asserted,  in 
the  boldest  style,  their  doctrine  of  "distinct  sub- 
stances."   The  semi-Arians  (a  large  majority  in 
the  Eastern  Church)    maintained  the  homoiou- 
sian ^doctrine   of   similar  substances.     A  third 
party  held  the  same  doctrine  with  some  qualifi- 
cation.   Morally,  the  victory  was  leaning  to  the 
side  of  the  Nicseans.    Julian  the  Apostate  (361- 
363),  in  his  hatred  of  the  Christian  religion,  left 
all  parties  at  liberty  to  contend  as  they  pleased 
with  one  another,  so  that  they  did  not  interfere 
with   his  plans.     Jovian  and  his   successors  in 
the  West,  Valentinian  I.  and  Gratian,  extended 
full   toleration   to  both   parties.      Arianism,  at 
last,  was  virtually  abolished  in  the  Roman  Em- 
pire, under  Theodosius  in  the  East    (379-395), 
and  Valentinian  II.  in  the  West.     Among  the 
German    nations,    however,    it     continued    to 
spread     through     missionary     efforts.      Bishop 
Ulfilos,    the   translator   of   the   Bible   into  the 
Moeso-Gothic  language,  had  been   the  means  of 
converting  the   West   Goths   to   Arian   (Jbristi- 
anitv  as  early  as  348,  and  they  adhered  to  it 
until    the  Synod  of    Toledo  in  689.     The  East 
Goths,    Vandals,    Burgundians,    the    Suevi   in 
Spain,  and  the  Longobards  also  adopted  Arian- 
ism; but  in  all  these  instances  the  Nicene  doc- 


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ABIZONA. 


trine  ultimately  prevailed,  most  slowly  among 
,the  Longobards,  who  retained  the  Arian  creed 
until  662.  The  Arian  controversy  has  never  ex- 
cited any  great  interest  in  modern  times;  yet 
among  Englishmen  John  Milton  was  at  least  a 
semi-Arian,  and  it  was  revived  for  a  time  by  the 
writings  of  the  learned  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke  (1675- 
1729),  and  also  by  William  Whiston  (1667- 
1752).  More  recently,  a  part  of  the  Arian  doc- 
trine, the  denial  of  "the  eternal  sonship,"  was 
broached  in  the  Wesleyan  Methodist  Society  by 
Dr.  Adam  Clarke  (1762-1832)  and  a  few  follow- 
ers; but  it  was  soon  suppressed  by  the  confer- 
ence. Pure  Arianism  can  now  hardly  be  said  to 
exist.  It  has  gradually  lapsed  into  Unitarian- 
ism.  Consult:  H.  Rolling,  Geachichte  der  arian- 
i&chen  Hiiresie  von  Nikdta  [325]  bia  Konstanti- 
nopel  [381]  (GUtersloh,  1875-83)  ;  J.  Gummerus, 
Die  homousianische  Partei  hia  zum  Tode  dea  Kon^ 
stantius.  Bin  Beitrag  zur  Geachichte  dea  arian- 
ischen  Streitea  in  den  Jahren  356-361  (Leip-  . 
zig,  1900).    See  Christology. 

AB'IZO'NA  (Span.,  *dry  belt').  A  Terri- 
tory of  the  southwesj^em  United  States,  bounded 
on  the  north  by  Utah,  on  the  south  by  Mexico, 
on  the  east  by  New  Mexico,  and  on  the  west  by 
California  and  Nevada  (Map:  United  States, 
west  half,  C  4).  It  lies  between  latitudes  31° 
20'  and  37"  N.  and  longitude  109''  3'  and  114° 
54'  W.  It  is  about  350  miles  square,  and  con- 
tains 113,020  square  miles,  only  100  of  which 
are  under  water.  Compared  with  States  and 
other  Territories,  it  ranks  sixth  in  area  and 
forty-ninth  in  population. 

Topography.  The  extension  northwestward  of 
the  Mexican  Cordilleras,  which  rises  beyond  the 
Colorado  River  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  divides 
Arizona  diagonally  into  two  regions — a  south- 
western part  of  low  elevation,  and  a  northeastern 
part  consisting  of  an  elevated  plateau.  The  whole 
Territory,  however,  is  mountainous  in  the  form 
of  short,  isolated  ranges  having  a  general  north- 
west-southeast trend,  which  are  abrupt,  sterile, 
and  gashed  by  deep  cailons  and  dry  water-courses. 
In  the  south  these  mountains  rarely  reach  3000 
feet  in  height,  but  in  the  central  line  of  eleva- 
tions they  are  more  continuous  and  lofty,  many 
summits  approaching  10,000  feet  (Thomas  Peak, 
11,496;  Ord  Peak,  10,266;  Bill  Williams  Moun- 
tain, 9264;  Mount  Logan,  7700;  Mount  Tipton, 
7364;  Mount  Dellenbaugh,  6756,  etc.).  The 
highest  mountains  in  the  Territory  are  in  the 
isolated  San  Francisco  Range,  in  the  northern 
central  part,  the  apex  of  which  reaches  12,794 
feet.  From  these  central  elevations  the  Territory 
slopes  rapidly  away  nearly  to  sea  level  in  the 
Gila  Valley.  The  northeastern  half  of  the  Terri- 
tory consists  of  a  broken,  caflon-cut,  hill-studded, 
arid  table-land,  the  average  altitude  of  which  is 
over  5000  feet  above  the  sea,  with  many  large 
areas  from  6500  to  8000  feet.  The  few,  and  often 
intermittent  rivers,  which  drain  this  arid  region, 
serving  more  as  the  conduits  of  sudden  rainstorms 
than  as  living  water  -  courses,  run  in  narrow 
cailons,  in  some  cases  a  mile  or  more  deep.  The 
Rio  Colorado  (see  Colorado  River  and  Canon) 
traverses  the  northwest  corner  of  the  Territory 
in  such  a  gorge,  and  then,  turning  to  the  south, 
becomes  the  western  boundary  of  Anzona  to  near 
its  mouth.  Its  few  tributaries,  of  which  the  Lit- 
tle Colorado  in  the  north  alone  is  important, 
reach   the   river  through  similar  cafions.     The 


whole  scenery  of  this  northwestern  part  of  the 
Territory  is  that  of  a  rough,  rocky,  dry  region, 
interrupted  by  steep-sided  gorges  and  scarp- 
fronted  mesas  and  barren  mountains,  more  or 
less  covered  with  bunch-grass  and  scattered, 
stunted  trees.  The  southern  part  of  the  Terri- 
tory is,  on  the  whole,  even  more  desert-like  in 
appearance,  and  all  the-  water-courses  (most  of 
which  are  dry  except  for  a  short  time  after  rains) 
lead  downward  to  the  Gila,  a  broad,  shallow  river 
flowing  into  the  Colorado  near  its  mouth.  The 
mountains  here  are  mainly  of  volcanic  origin. 
The  only  other  rivers  in  Arizona  worth  mention- 
ing are  the  Rio  Santa  Maria  and  Sandy,  which 
unite  in  the  central  western  region  to  form  Bill 
Williams's  Fork,  which  enters  the  Rio  Colorado 
near  latitude  34 •*  N.,  and  the  Virgin,  in  the  ex- 
treme northeast  corner  of  the  Territory. 

Cum  ATE  AND  Soil.  The  climate  oi  Arizona 
is,  on  the  whole,  dry  and  healthful,  and  it  has 
the  largest  number  of  clear  days  of  any  part  of 
the  Union.  The  northern  plateau  region  has  a 
mean  annual  temperature  of  about  45°  F.,  which 
is  almost  the  same  as  that  of  many  of  the 
Northern  States,  but  without  their  extremes ;  the 
rainfall  here  is  approximately  twenty  inches  per 
annum.  In  the  low^er  lands  of  the  southern  half 
of  the  Territory  the  mean  temperature  is  about 
that  of  New  Orleans  (69''  F.).  Tlie  rainfall, 
however,  is  much  less  than  that  in  the  northern 
section,  scarcely  exceeding  an  average  of  Ave 
inches  per  annum — the  heaviest  fall  (about  thir- 
teen inches)  being  in  the  district  of  Tucson.  The 
soil  varies  from  light  loam  to  heavy,  dense  adobe. 
In  many  places  along  the  rivers  it  is  very  pro- 
ductive when  supplied  with  water.  Elsewhere  it 
is  alkaline  and  lacking  in  nitrogen  and  humus 
matter.  The  flora  and  "fauna  are  those  of  the  re- 
gion extending  from  southern  California  around 
to  southwestern  Texas.  See  United  States, 
paragraph  Flora  and  Fauna. 

Geology.  Northern  Arizona  consists  of  a  vast 
series,  of  Carboniferous  and  Mesozoic  marine 
strata  covered  by  a  series  of  Tertiary  laeustrine 
and  terrestrial  formations ;  in  all,  originally  some 
15,000  feet  thick.  A  great  uplift  occurred  during 
Eocene  time,  and  subsequent  erosion  has  carved 
the  land  surface  into  mountains  and  valleys.  A 
second  uplift  with  much  volcanic  action  occurred 
about  the  close  of  Miocene  time.  In  southern 
Arizona  the  changes  were  not  so  marked.  The 
Territory  has  abundant  deposits  of  valuable 
minerals,  which  are  described  below  in  the  para- 
graph on  Mining.  In  Navajo  County,  near 
Hoi  brook,  whole  trunks  of  trees  to  the  thickness 
of  four  feet  are  found  completely  silicified  and 
cracked  into  blocks  of  beautiful  coloring  which 
ore  of  great  value  for  ornamental  purposes.  See 
Fossil  Forest. 

Mining.  Arizona  probably  contains  a  larger 
proportion  of  ore  and  mineral-bearing  land  than 
any  other  member  of  the  Union,  but  the  lack  of 
transportation  facilities  has  prevented  a  normal 
development  of  the  mining  industry.  In  spite  of 
this  difficulty,  however,  mining  has  been  under- 
going a  steady  growth,  and  constitutes  the  most 
important  industry  of  the  Territory.  Copper 
mining,  in  w^hich  Arizona  ranks  next  to  Michigan 
and  Montana,  is  the  most  important.  The  Ter- 
ritory produces  more  than  one- fifth  of  the  total 
output  of  the  United  States.  There  has  been  a 
steady  increase  in  the  copper  output  of  Arizona, 
rising  from  23,874,963  pounds  in  1883  to   133,- 


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ABIZONA. 


054,8<{0  in  1890.  There  was  a  decrease  in  1900, 
when  the  production  was  118,317,764  pounds, 
which  was  due  to  accidental  causes  and  not  to 
an  exhaustion  of  the  mines.  Gold  mining  is 
next  in  importance.  The  output  of  gold  for  the 
five-year  period  ending  with  1900  had  an  aver- 
age annual  value  of  over  $2,500,000.  This  was 
nearly  three  times  the  output  for  1889  and  twelve 
times  that  of  1880.  The  output  of  silver  during 
the  same  period,  on  the  other  hand,  has  suffered 
a  decided  decrease  in  point  of  value,  and  a  small 
decrease  in  volume.  In  1889  the  output  amounted 
to  1,812,000  ounces,  in  1900  it  was  1,578,000 
oimces,  value  $1,074,000.  The  mining  of  both 
gold  and  silver  was  begun  by  the  Spaniards.  In 
addition  to  the  metals  mentioned  above,  lead  and 
ooal  deposits  are  worked  to  some  extent.  Plati- 
num, quicksilver,  tin,  nickel,  iron,  salt,  gypsum, 
and  such  precious  stones  as  the  opal,  garnet, 
onyx,  and  sapphire,  as  well  as  chalcedony  and 
marble,  are  also  found,  although  they  are  not  as 
yet  worked  on  any  large  scale. 

AoBicuLTUBE.  Isolation  and  aridity  have  held 
Arizona  in  a  backward  state  of  development. 
Railroads  and  irrigation,  however,  are  overcom- 
ing these  obstacles.  Stock-raising  has  been  here- 
tofore the  leading  agricultural  industry,  and  the 
absence  of  climatic  extremes,  such  as  are  com- 
mon to  the  regions  farther  north,  is  very  favor- 
able to  this  industry.  In  1900  the  neat  cattle 
in  the  Territory  numbered  607,000;  sheep,  668,- 
000;  horses,  106,000;  the  first  of  these  doubled 
in  number  during  the  decade,  while  the  two  latter 
increased  threefold.  The  pasture  lands  are  con- 
fined principally  to  the  northern  plateau,  the 
rainfall  of  the  southern  portion  of  the  Territory 
being  insufficient  for  the  growth  of  grasses,  ex- 
cept on  a  few  favored  mountain  slopes. 

With  the  development  of  irrigation,  mixed 
farming  is  becoming  common.  The  most  favor- 
able region  for  irrigation  is  the  valley  of  the 
Gila  River  and  its  tributaries.  The  most  exten- 
sive irrigated  district  is  that  surrounding  the 
city  of  Phoenix.  During  the  last  decade  of  the 
century  the  irrigated  land  (outside  of  Indian 
reservations)  increased  from  66,000  to  185,000 
acres.  This  constitutes  81  per  cent,  of  the  im- 
proved land  of  the  Territory.  The  farm  land 
aggregates  but  2.7  per  cent,  of  the  total  area.  The 
rainfall  is  so  small  that  the  ordinary  flow  of 
water  in  the  streams  supplies  but  a  small  portion 
of  the  irrigable  area,  and  the  further  extension 
of  irrigation  is  dependent  upon  the  construction 
of  storage  reservoirs.  Alfalfa  is  the  most  im- 
portant crop.  The  acreage  devoted  to  its  culti- 
vation (including  the  reservations)  increased 
during  the  decade  231.4  per  cent.  Wheat  and 
barley  are  next  in  importance,  and  the  acreage 
of  these  and  other  /jereals  is  rapidly  increasing. 
In  the  southern  part  of  the  Territory  many  of 
the  semi  -  tropical  fruits  —  figs,  raisin  -  grapes, 
almonds,  etc.,  are  successfully  raised,  ripening 
earlier  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  United 
States.  Recent  experiments  seem  to  show  that 
Egyptian  cotton  can  be  successfully  grown  in 
this  region.  The  more  distinctively  temperate 
zone  crops — potatoes,  applet,  and  various  kinds 
of  fruits — flourish  in  the  northern  counties. 

Manufactures.  Manufactures  within  the 
limits  of  the  Territory  are  confined  largely  to 
the  building  trades,  to  car  constniotion  and  re- 
pair shops,  and  to  the  smelting  and  refining  of 
copper. 

Transportation.     The   lower   course   of   the 


Colorado  constitutes  the  only  navigable  waters 
of  the  Territory.  The  Southern  Pacific,  running 
across  the  southern  end  of  the  Territory,  the 
Santa  ¥6  Pacific  across  the  northern  end,  and 
the  Santa  F6,  Prescott,  and  Phoenix  connecting 
the  two,  are  the  principal  railroads.  The  mile- 
age has  been  steadily  increasing,  having  risen 
from  340  miles  in  1880  to  1094  miles  in  1890. 
and  to  1465  miles  in  1899.  There  are  1.28  miles 
of  line  for  every  100  square  miles  of  territory, 
and  204  miles  to  every  10,000  inhabitants.  The 
Territory  has  a  larger  mileage,  in  proportion  to 
its  inhabitants,  than  has  any  of  the  States. 

Banks.  In  1900,  eight  national  banks  had  been 
organized  in  the  Territory,  only  three  of  which 
were  in  operation.  The  capital  stock  amounted 
to  $400,000;  circulation  outstanding,  $213,000; 
and  deposits,  $2,061,000.  On  June  30,  1900,  there 
were  fourteen  State  banks,  with  total  resources 
of  $2,762,000;  capital  stock,  $373,000;  and  de- 
posits, $2,296,000. 

Government.  ( See  paragraph  on  Government 
under  Territories).  The  total  valuation  of 
property  in  the  Territory  for  the  year  1900  was 
$33,732,465.  The  tax  rate  for  the  year  was  $0.85 
per  $100.    Net  indebtedness,  $1,070,850. 

Editcation.  Arizona  has  been  diligent  in 
maintaining  a  high  educational  standard.  Al- 
though the  sparse  population  of  the  Territory  , 
is  so  widely  scattered,  public  school  advantages 
are  brought  within  the  reach  of  almost  all.  The 
education  of  all  children  is  compulsory  under 
the  law;  and  in  1900,  79  per  cent,  of  the  20333 
children  between  the  ages  of  6  and  18  were  en- 
rolled in  the  public  schools.  For  a  few  years  the 
average  length  of  the  school  ^rm  has  exceeded 
125  days.  There  are  two  territorial  normal 
schools,  one  being  located  at  Tempe,  the  other 
at  Flagstaff.  The  territorial  university  at  Tuc- 
son includes  courses  in  agriculture  and  in 
mining. 

Charitable  and  Penal  Institutions.  The 
Territory  has  an  insane  asylum  at  Phoenix,  and 
a  prison  at  Yuma. 

Religion.  The  Catholics  were  first  in  the  field. 
As  early  as  1687  the  Jesuits  had  established  mis- 
sions and  schools  in  the  Territory,  and  were  al- 
ways active  in  the  propagation  of  their  faith. 
This  sect  still  constitutes  a  large  percentage  of 
the  church  membership  of  the  Territory.  In  re- 
cent years,  however,  the  Territory  has  been  colon- 
ized by  Mormons,  who  now  outnumber  all  other 
denominations  combined.  Nearly  half  of  the 
population  of  the  State  are  church  members. 

Population.  The  population  of  Arizona  by 
decades  is  as  follows:  1870,  9658;  1880,  40.440; 
1890,  59,620;  IPOO,  122,900.  Nevada.  Wyoming, 
and  Alaska,  are  all  behind  Arizona  in  population. 
There  are  only  1.1  inhabitants  per  square  mile. 
The  foreign  born  constitute  less  than  20  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  and  are  mostly  Mexican. 
The  excess  of  males  —  a  phenomenon  common 
to  the  Western  States — is  marked,  being:  more 
than  20,000 ;  this  is  attributed  to  the  mining  and 
frontier  character  of  the  Territory.  For  the 
populations  of  Arizona  by  counties,  see  back  of 
map.  The  following  are  the  largest  cities  in  the 
Territory:  Tucson,  5100;  Phoenix,  4600;  Pres- 
cott, 2700 ;  Jerome,  2500.    Phoenix  is  the  capital. 

Indians.  At  the  census  of  1900  the  Indians 
numbered  26,400,  those  taxed  only  18.36.  This 
was  a  decrease  of  over  3000  during  the  decade. 
Twenty  thousand  one  hundred  belonged  to  the 
Navajo  tribe.     There  are   five   agencies   in    the 


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ARBA  AND  POPULATION  OF  ARIZONA  BY  COUNTIES. 


County. 

Map 
Index. 

County  Seat. 

Area  In 
square 
miles. 

Population. 

1890. 

1900. 

Apache 

Cochise 

Coconino 

Gila 

Da 

D4 
BS 

ca 

D8 

B8 
A2 
C2 
A4 
C8 

C4 
B2 
A8 

CI 

Saint  Johns 

10,786 
«,147 

19,322 
4,542 
6,500 

8,816 
13,421 
9,826 
9,424 
6,324 

1,212 

7,868 
9,787 

4,281 
6,988 

2,021 
6,970 

10,986 
1,444 

12,678 
4,251 

8,686 
2,671 

8,297 

Tombstone 

Flagstaff 

Glohe 

Solomonsvilie 

Phoenix. 

9,251 
5,514 
4,973 

Graham 

Maricopa,  

Mohave 

14,162 
20,457 

Kingman 

Holbrook 

8,426 

Navajo 

Pima 

8,829 

Tucson 

14,689 

Pln^l , , 

Florence  

7,779 

Santa  Cms 

Nogales 

4,645 

Yavapai 

Yuma 

Prescott. 

18,799 

Tuma 

4;i45 

San  CarloB  Indian  res- 
ervation  

8,066 

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COPYRIGHT,  1891  AND  1902,  BY  DODD,  MEAD  A  COMPANY. 


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ABIZONA. 


805 


ABK« 


Territory.  The  Indians  were  formerly  very 
troublesome,  but  have  now  become  law-abiding 
and  industrious,  taking  an  active  interest  in  edu- 
cation and  agriculture. 

Militia.  The  organized  militia  numbers  500. 
The  census  of  1900  counted  34,200  males  of 
militia  age,  of  whom  12,000  are  liable  to  duty. 

History.  Long  before  its  discovery  by  white 
men,  Arizona  was  inhabited  by  a  powerful  race, 
whose  ruined  cities,  aqueducts,  and  fortifications 
dot  the  valleys  and  cafions  of  the  Territory.  In 
1539  Padre  Marco  de  Nizan,  with  a  companion, 
left  the  City  of  Mexico  to  explore  the  country  now 
included  in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  being  stimu- 
lated by  rumors  of  its  mineral  wealth  and  of  its 
populous  Seven  Cities  of  Cibola.  The  report 
brought  back  was  so  favorable  that  in  1540 
Yasquez  de  Coronado  led  an  expedition  thither, 
visiting  the  Moqui  villages  and  New  Mexican 
pueblos,  and  exploring,  it  is  believed,  as  far  north 
as  latitude  40°.  In  Spanish  and  Mexican  times 
there  was  no  Arizona,  and  the  country  south  of 
the  Gila  formed  part  of  the  Province  of  Pimeria 
Alta.  What  is  now  Arizona  was  very  sparsely 
settled  before  the  beginning  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century.  In  1772  there  were  only  two  missions 
in  Arizona,  with  three  visitaa,  and  two.  incipientf 
towns — Tucson  and  Tubac.  The  hoatility  of.  the 
Apaches  and  other  tribes  prevented  all  advance, 
and  outbreaks  in  1802  and  1827,  added  to  the 
disorder  attending  the  Mexican  Kevolution,  led  to 
the  abandonment  of  the  mines  and  ranches,  and 
of  all  settlements,  excepting  Tucson  and  Tubac. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  -  Hidalgo  (q.v.), 
February  2,  18*48,  Arizona,  then  includ^  in  New 
Mexico,  became  the  property  of  the  United  States, 
except  the  tract  south  of  the  Gila,  which  was  a 
part  of  the  Mexican  State  of  Sonora,  and  was  not 
acquiI^ed  till  December  30,  1853.  (See  Gadsden 
Purchase.  )  On  February  24,  1863,  Arizona  was 
separated  from  New  Mexico  and  made  a  Terri- 
tory. Indian  troubles  broke  out  as  late  as  1896, 
and  tended  in  some  degree  to  hinder  the  develop- 
ment of  the  country,  but  the  population  of  the 
Territory  has  steadily  increased  in  proportion 
as  larger  tracts  of  desert  land  have  been  re- 
claimed by  irrigation,  and  the  mineral  resources 
of  the  region  have  been  utilized.  On  December  1, 
1891,  a  constitution  was  adopted  by  the  people 
in  anticipation  of  admission  to  the  Union  as  a 
State,  but  Congress  refused  to  grant  the  applica- 
tion. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  governors  who  have 
served  the  Territory: 

John  N.  Goodwin Republican lB«-66 

Richard  C.  McCormlck....  "  - JSit? 

A.  P.  K.  8afford \^^ 

John  P.  Hoyt ]^-_^ 

John  C.  Fremont "  JSvi> 

John  J.  Gonper "  JaoileK 

FrpdPrtckA.TTitle ^       "     ^    ]^fl 

C.  Mpver  ZtiHck Democrat    JSiS 

I>»wl8WolflPT Republican JS^S 

John  N.  Irwin "  {S?^ 

Nathnn  B.  Mnrphy _       "     ^    J2«lS 

LoiiIhC.  HnprhPfl I?^™<2p,r**    ISftIo? 

Bpnjamln  J.  Franklin.... Republican IXil 

Mvron  H.  McCord "  }^L^ 

Nathan  B.  Murphy "  »«w — 

Bibliography.  Mowry,  "The  Geography  and 
Resources  of  Arizona  and  Sonora,"  in  American 
Geological  Society  Papers,  No.  4  (Washington, 
1850)  ;  Simpson,  "Report  of  an  Expedition  into 
the  Navajo  Country  in  1849,"  in  Johnson,  Recon- 
naissances of  Routes  from  Ban  Antonio  to  El 
Paso    (Washington,    1850)  ;    Bancroft,  "Arizona 


and  New  Mexico,  1530-1888,"  in  his  History  of 
Pacific  States  of  North  America,  Vol.  XII.  (San 
Francisco,  1888)  ;  Hamilton,  The  Resources  of 
Arizona  (Prescott,  1881)  ;  Hinton,  Handbook  to 
Arizona  (San  Francisco,  1878)  ;  Mindeleff,  "Ab- 
original Remains  in  Verde  Valley,"  in  United 
States  Bureau  of  Ethnology  Annual  Report  XIII, 
(Washington,  1891-92)  ;  Fewkes,  "The  Cliff  Vil- 
lages of  the  Red  Rock  Country,"  in  Smithsonian 
Institute  Annual  Report,  1895  (Washington, 
1896)  ;  Merriam  and  Stejneger,  "Results  of  a 
Biological  Survey  of  the  San  Francisco  Mountain 
Region  and  Desert  of  the  Little  Colorado,  Ari- 
zona," in  North  American  Fauna,  No.  3  (Wash- 
ington, 1890)  ;  Ward,  "The  Petrified  Forests  of 
Arizona,"  in  Smithsonian  Institute  Annual  Re- 
port, 1891)  (Washington,  1901);  Greely  and 
Glassford,  "Report  on  the  Climate  of  Arizona," 
in  51  Cong.  2d  sess.  H.  ex.  doc,  287  ( Washington, 
1891 )  ;  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Annual 
Reports  (Tucson,  1896,  et  seq.)  ;  Governor's  An- 
nual Report  to  Secretary  of  Interior  (Washing- 
ton, 1881,  et  seq.). 

ABIZONA,  Univebsity  of.  An  American 
university  situated  at  Tucson,  Ariz.  It  was 
established  by  act  of  the  legislature  in  1885, 
opened  1891,  and  had  in  1901  buildings  and 
grounds  valued  at  $160,000;  a  library  of  6000 
volumes  and  10,000  pamphlets;  a  faculty  of 
20;  and  47  collegiate  and  178  sub-collegiate 
students.  It  receives  $40,000  annually  from  the 
United  States  Grovemment  and  $15,000  (ap- 
proximately) from  the  Territory.  There  is  a 
full  academic  course,  and  a  manual  training 
and  mining  school  equipment.  President,  M.  M. 
Parker,  A.M. 

ABJISH,  ar-j6sh',  or  Ebjish  Dagh  (an- 
ciently, Lat.  ArgcBus).  An  extinct  volcano  in 
Asia  Minor,  situated  in  the  vilayet  of  Angora, 
south  of  Kaisarieh.  It  has  an  altitude  of  over 
13,000  feet,  and  its  latest  eruption  took  place 
in  the  Fourth  Century. 

ABJISH,  or  Akhlat.  A  small  town  of  Turk- 
ish Armenia,  vilayet  of  Erzerum,  on  the  northern 
shore  of  Lake  Van  ( Map :  Turkey  in  Asia,  K  3 ) . 
Population  about  2000.  The  old  city  of  Arjish, 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  present  town,  in 
a  ravine,  was  the  residence  of  the  kings  of 
Armenia,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  conflicts 
between  the  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Persians. 
It  was  taken  and  devastated  in  1228  by  Jelal- 
ed-Din,  and  completely  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1246.  Arjish  is  the  seat  of  an  Ar- 
menian bishop. 

AB^JIJNA,  Hind,  pron,  flr'jS^-na.  The  grand- 
son of  Indra,  and  the  hero  of  episodes  in  the 
M&habhdrata. 

ABK.  In  the  English  Version  of  the  Bible 
the  word  is  applied  to  three  different  objects: 
(1)  To  the  craft  which  Noah  built  and  in  which 
he  preserved  himself,  his  family,  and  numerous 
animals  alive  during  the  flood.  It  is  described 
in  Gen.  vi.  It  was  of  "gopher  wood,"  which 
is  perhaps  conifer  cypress,  of  which  the  Phoeni- 
cians built  ships,  and  the  "pitch"  used  was 
asphalt.  Its  dimensions  were,  in  English  meas- 
ure: Length,  525  feet;  breadth,  87^  feet; 
height,  52 1^  feet.  It  was  not  built  for  speed, 
and  merely' floated  about  until  the  waters  sub- 
sided. (2)  To  the  basket  of  bulrushes  (papyrus 
reed)  daubed  with  slime,  prepared  by  the 
mother  of  Moses,  in  which  Moses  floated  on 
the  Nile  until  Pharaoh's  daughter  rescued  him 


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ABX. 


806 


ABKANSAS. 


£xod.  ii.  3  seq.)*  A  eirailar  Btory  is.  told  of 
Sargon  I.,  a  king  in  the  Valley  of  the  Euphrates 
about  B.C.  3800.  (3)  To  the  Ark  of  the  Cove- 
nant   (q.Y.)- 

AB'KADEI/PHIA.  A  city,  the  county-seat 
of  Clarke  County,  Ark.,  65  miles  southwest  of 
Little  Rock,  on  the  Ouachita  River,  and  Saint 
Louis,  Iron  Alountain  and  Southern  Railroad 
(Map:  Arkansas,  C  3).  Arkadelphia,  300  feet 
above  sea-level,  has  good  natural  drainage  and 
water  power.  Its  manufactures  comprise  the 
products  of  lumber  and  cotton-mills,  and  foundry 
and  machine-shops.  It  is  the  site  of  Ouachita 
Baptist  College  and  Arkadelphia  Methodist  Col- 
lege, founded  1886  and  181)0,  respectively,  and 
has  Baptist  and  Presbyterian  schools  for  colored 
pupils.  The  charter  of  Arkadelphia,  in  effect 
since  1873,  provides  for  a  biennially  elected 
mavor  and  a  citv  council.  Population,  in  1890, 
2455;  in  1900,  2739. 

ABKANSAS,  ftr^an-sft  (popularly  known  as 
the  *Bear  State').  A  south  central  State  of  the 
United  States,  bounded  by  Missouri  on  the 
north,  the  Mississippi  River  (which  separates  it 
from  Tennessee  and  Mississippi)  on  the  east, 
Jjouisiana  on  the  south,  and  the  Indian  Terri- 
tory on  the  west,  with  Texas  touching  the 
southwest  comer.  It  is  nearly  square  in  form, 
each  side  measuring  about  250  miles,  and  covers 
an  area  of  53,850  square  miles,  of  which  805 
square  miles  are  water.  It  ranks  twenty-third 
in  size  among  the  States  of  the  Union. 

Topography.  With  the  exception  of  a  few 
high  bluffs,  the  eastern  margin  of  the  State  is 
subject  to  inundation  from  the  Mississippi  River, 
causing  an  overflowing  of  the  numerous  lakes, 
bayous,  and  swamps.  But  the  region  to  the 
westward  attains  a  higher  elevation,  and  the 
surface  is  broken  by  numerous  ranges  of  hills 
and  low  mountains,  which  have  a  general  trend 
from  east  to  west.  The  mountains  in  the  north- 
west are  a  part  of  the  Oeark  uplift,  being  con- 
tinuous with  the  elevations  in  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory to  the  west  and  Missouri  to  the  north. 
I'he  highest  points  in  the  State  do  not  exceed 
2800  feet.  The  Arkansas  River  bisects  the  Stete 
from  northwest  to  southeast  and  joins  the  Mis- 
sissippi. The  White  River  enters  the  State  from 
southwestern  Missouri,  flows  southeast,  receives 
the  Black  and  Cache  Rivers  from  the  north  and 
joins  the  Arkansas  near  its  mouth.  The  Ouachita, 
Saline,  and  Bartholomew,  tributaries  of  the  Red 
River,  drain  the  southern  part  of  the  S£ate.  The 
Arkansas  is  navigable  for  boats  of  light  draft 
throughout  its  course  within  the  State;  the 
White  for  260  miles;  the  Ouachita  and  Barthol- 
omew each  for  150  miles;  the  Saline,  Red,  and 
Black  each  for  100  miles,  making  a  total  of  some 
8000  miles  of  waterways  within  the  State.  The 
upper  courses  of  the  streams  furnish  water 
power. 

Cum  ATE  AND  Soil.  Except  in  the  eastern 
swampy  districts,  where  malaria  and  other  fevers 
are  common,  the  climate  is  pleasant  and  health- 
ful. The  snowfall  is  light,  and  prolonged 
droughts  are  unknown.  The  mean  rainfall  tor 
the  State  is  50.6  inches;  at  Fort  Smith,  46.5 
inches ;  at  Hot  Sprinjjs  in  the  southwestern  part, 
63.2  inches;  at  Little  Rock,  52.3  inches.  Mean 
temperatures  for  January  and  July  respectively 
are  as  follows:  At  Little  Rock  (central),  40.8 
and  80.3  dc<rrces;  at  Fort  Smith  (northwest), 
36.1  and  80.0  degrees.     The  hill  country  of  the 


northern  part  of  the  State  has  little  land  of 
agricultural  value,  the  soil  being  sandy  and  thin ; 
but  the  bottom  lands,  having  a  heavy  black  soil. 
are  very  productive.  In  the  limestone  regions 
are  found  much  red  clay  and  loam,  the  residual 
materials  from  the  decomposition  of  the  lime- 
stone. The  higher  lands  of  the  Arkansas  Valley, 
from  Indian  Territory  to  Little  Rock,  are  com- 
posed of  a  dark,  sandy  loam.  Below  Little  Rock 
a  sandy,  sometimes  clayey,  soil  borders  the  river, 
and  this  grades  toward  the  south  into  black, 
sandy,  and  'buckshot*  soils,  which  are  the  rich- 
est in  the  State,  and  which  yield  from  20O0  to 
3000  pounds  of  seed  cotton  to  the  acre.  The  bot- 
tom lands  of  the  Red  River  Valley  contain  a 
black,  sandy  loam  or  a  red,  sticky  clay  called 
"gumbo."  A  yellow  loam  is  characteristic  of 
some  of  the  southern  counties,  which  are  under- 
laid by  deposits  of  the  Tertiary  Age. 

Geoloqy  and  Mineral  Resocbces.  A  north- 
east line  dra^^  from  Texarkana  in  the  south- 
western comer,  through  Little  Rock  to  Pocohon- 
tas  in  the  northeast,  divides  the  State  into  two 
parts;  the  northwest  portion  is  underlaid  by 
Palseozoic  rocks  with  a  small  area  of  Cretaceous 
rocks  in  its  southernmost  corner;  the  south- 
eastern portion  is  occupied  by  the  less  consoli- 
dated rocks  «f  Tertiary  and  Post-Tertiary  Ages. 
The  Paleozoic  area  is  essentially  the  'hill  coun- 
try,' the  Tertiary  district  is  a  part  of  the  low 
level,  fertile  Atlantic  coastal  plain.  The  oldest 
rocks  known  in  the  State  are  of  the  Ordovician  or 
I-K)wer  Silurian  Age.  They  extend  over  the  line 
from  Missouri  and  lie  on  the  southern  flanks  of 
the  Ozark  uplift,  and  consist  of  sandstones, 
quartzites,  and  limestones,  the  latter  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  series.  They  furnish  good  building 
stones,  quartz  sand  for  glassmaking,  and  lime. 
Along  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Ordovician 
formations,  in  the  vicinity  of  Batesville  and 
Cushman  in  Independence  and  Izard  counties, 
are  deposits  of  manganese  ore  which  are  worked 
to  some  extent,  the  product  being  shipped  to  steel 
manufacturers  in  the  East.  Another  area  of 
Ordovician  rocks  is  found  in  the  Ouachita  Moun- 
tains west  of  Little  Rock.  In  these  mountains 
are  large  masses  of  a  silicious  rock,  novaculite, 
from  which  are  made  the  finest  known  whet- 
stones, called  in  the  markets  "Arkansas"  and 
"Ouachita"  stones. 

These  whetstones  are  obtained  in  Garland, 
Howard,  Hot  Springs,  Montgomery,  Polk, 
Pulaski,  and  Saline  counties,  and  their  quarry- 
ing constitutes  an  important  industry.  In  con- 
nection with  the  Ordovician  rocks  of  the  Ouachita 
uplift  are  found  some  deposits  of  manganese  ore, 
but  these  are  of  little  importance  compared  with 
those  of  the  Batesville  region.  Around  the  edges 
of  the  Ordovician  area  of  the  northern  part  of 
the  State  is  a  narrow  strip  of  Silurian  limestone, 
the  Saint  Clair  limestone,  that  furnishes  a  fine 
quality  of  pink  marble  useful  for  ornamental 
purposes.  The  Devonian  formation  is  poorly 
developed.  It  is  known  as  the  Eureka  shale  and 
the  Sylamore  sandstone,  but  is  of  importani^ 
for  the  reason  that  in  connection  with  it  are 
found  phosphate  deposits  which  give  promise  of 
yielding  valuable  returns.  Gold  and  silver  have 
been  reported  in  large  quantities  in  the  Ouachita 
^iountains,  but  examinations  made  by  the  State 
geologist  have  proven  the  reports  to  be  erroneous 
or  misleading,  and  the  amount  of  these  precious 
metals  to  be  very  small.  Deposits  of  zinc  blende 
have  been  opened  recently  in  Sevier  County,  and 


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ARBA    AND   POPULATION    OF    ARKANSAS    BT  COUNTlEa 


County. 


Map 
Index. 


ArkanBas. 
Ashley  . . . 
Baxter. . . . 
Beaton. . . . 
Boone 


Bradley . 
Calhoun. 
Carroll  .. 
Chicot . . . 
Clark... 


Clay 

Cleuoame 
Cleveland... 
Columbia  . . 
CoDway  ... 

Craighead  . 
Crawford  . . 
Crittenden  . 

Cro86 

Dallas 


Desha 

Drew 

Faulkner. . 
Franklin.  . 
Fulton . . . . 


Garland 

Grant 

Greene 

Hempstead.. 
Hot  Springs. 


Howard 

Independence . 

Izard 

Jacknon 

JeiTeraon 


Johnson. . . 
Lafayette. . 
Lawrence . 
Lee 
Lincoln... 


Little  River. 

Logan 

Lonoke 

Madison 

Marion .    ... 


Miller 

Mississippi . . . 

Monroe 

Montgomery . 
Kevada 


Newton . . 
Ouachita. 
Perry. . . . 
Philfipe . . 
Pike 


Poinsett  . 

Polk 

Poije 

Prairie . . . 


Pulaski  ... 
Randolph. 
St.  Francis. 
Saline 


Scott 

Searcy . . . 
Sebastian  . 
Sevier 


Sharp ....,.., 

Stone , 

Union  .     . . 
Van  Buren. 


Washington . 
White 

Woodruff. . . . 
Yell 


D3 
D4 
(;  1 
A  1 
B  1 

C  4 
C  4 
B  1 
D4 
B8 

E  1 

C  8 

C  4 

B  4 

C  2 

ES 
A  2 
K2 
E  2 
C  4 

D4 
D4 
C  2 
B  2 
Dl 

B  8 
C  8 
£  1 
B  4 
B  8 

A  8 
D2 
D  I 
D2 
D8 

BS 
B  4 
1)1 
K8 
D4 

A  4 
B  2 
D8 
B  1 
C  1 

B  4 

K  2 

I)  3 

B  3 

B  4 

B  8 

C  4 

('  3 

E  3 

B  8 

E  2 
A  8 
B  2 
D  8 

C  8 
D  1 
E  2 
C  8 

A  8 
C  2 
A  2 
A  8 

Dl 
C  2 
C  4 
C  2 

A  2 
D2 
D2 
B8 


County  Seat. 


Area  in 
square 
miles. 


Dcwitt 

Hamburg 

Mountainhome  .. 

Benton  ville 

Harrison 


Warren 

Hampton 

Berryville 

Lake  Village. 
Arkadelphm. 


Coming... 

Heber 

Rison , 

Magnolia . . 
Morrillton. 

Joncaboro . 
Van  buren . 

Marion 

Vanndale . 
Princeton 


Arkansas  City. 

Monticello 

Conway 

Ozark 

Salem     


Hot  Springs. 

Sheridan 

Paragould... 
Washington . 
Malvern , 


Centerpolnt . 
Batesville . . . 
MellKMirne  . . 
New  ix>rt .... 
Pine  Bluff... 


Clarksville 

New  Lewisville.. 

Powhatan 

.Marianna 

Star  City 


Richmond. . 

I»aris 

Ixniokc 

Huntsville.. 
Yell  ville.... 


Texarkana. 
( )Hceola  . . . 
Clarendon.. 
Mount  Ida  . 
Prescott 


Jasper 

Camden 

Perryville 

Helena 

Murfreesboro. 


Harrisburg. . 

Mena 

Rnssellville.. 
Desarc 


Little  Rock. . 
Pocahontas. . 
Forrest  City. 
Benton 


Waldron . . . 
.Marehall . . . 
Greenwood. 
Locksburg. . 


Evening  Shade 
Mountamview. . 

Eldorado 

Clinton 


Fayetteville . 

Searcy 

Augusta 

Danville 


1.013 
974 
riM 
H92 
681 

658 
646 
645 
616 
875 

649 
635 
5K1 
&i6 
489 

683 
603 
623 
620 
657 

725 
888 
661 
687 
622 


640 
514 
722 
681 

611 
T79 
611 
&48 
919 

666 
524 
589 
696 
560 

556 
697 
784 
859 


665 
842 
622 
918 
610 


742 
C08 
710 
611 

rJ7 
868 
834 


788 
644 
646 
77i0 

1,090 
652 
542 

648 

606 

615 

1,074 

6»4 

1,006 

1,035 

598 

955 


Popnlatk>n. 


1890. 


11,4;)2 
13,295 
8,527 
27,716 
15,816 

7,972 
7,267 
17,288 
11,419 
20,997 

12,200 
7,884 
11.362 
19,893 
19,459 

12,025 

21,714 
13,940 
7,693 
9,296 

10,824 
17,852 
18,842 
19,934 
10,9&4 

15,828 
7,786 
12.908 
22,7t)6 
11,603 

18.789 
21.961 
13,038 
15,179 
40,881 

16,768 
7,700 
12,984 
18,886 
10,255 

8,903 
20,774 
19,268 
17.40-i 
10.390 

14,714 
11,635 
15,a36 
7,9>;j 
14,882 

9,950 
17,083 

5,588 
25,341 

8,537 

4,272 
9.283 
19,458 
11,374 

47,829 
14,485 
13,543 
11,311 

12,635 

9,664 

83,i00 

10,072 

10,418 
7,043 
14.977 

8,567 

82.024 
22,946 
14,009 
18,015 


1900. 


12,978 
19,734 
9,298 
81,611 
16,896 

9,651 
8,589 
18,848 
14,528 
21,289 

15,886 
9,628 
11,620 
22,077 
19,778 

19,506 
21,270 
14,529 
11,051 
11,518 

11,511 
19,461 
20,780 
17,896 
12,917 

18,778 
7,6n 
16,979 
^,101 
12,748 

14,076 
22,567 
18,506 
18,8S8 
40,9r2 

17,448 
10,594 
16.491 
19.409 
13,889 

13,731 
80,568 
22,544 
19,864 
11,377 

17,668 
16,3&1 
16,816 
9,444 
16,609 

12.588 
20,892 
7,294 
26,561 
10,301 

7.026 
18,a52 
21,715 
11,875 

63,179 
17,1156 
17,157 
13,122 

18,183 
11,988 
86,935 
16,339 

12,199 
8,100 
22,495 
11,220 

84,256 

24,86-i 
16,804 
22,760 


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COPYRWHT.  1801  AND  1902,  flt  IWO0,M6AO  *  COHfAn.. 


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ARKANSAS. 


807 


ARKANSAS. 


ether  occurrences  of  this  ore,  as  well  as  of  galena, 
are  known  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  State. 
Aluminium  ore  in  the  form  of  bauxite  occurs 
near  Little  Rock  and  farther  west  at  Bryant  in 
Salina  County.  Iron  ores  are  of  little  impor- 
tance, though  they  are  found,  at  many  places,  in 
the  form  of  limonite.  Nickel  is  also  known,  but 
sparingly,  in  Salina  Coimty.  The  coal  measures 
<;over  large  areas  and  furnish  a  good  quality  of 
bituminous  coal  in  abundance.  Oil  and  gas  have 
been  found  only  in  small  amount.  In  the  Creta- 
ceous and  Tertiary  areas  no  metals  have  been 
found,  but  there  are  deposits  of  lignite  and  green- 
sand. 

Igneous  rocks  of  great  geologic  interest  are 
found  at  Magnet  Cove  and  Fourche  Mountain,  in 
,  the  eastern  end  of  the  novaculite  region  near  Hot 
Springs.  No  Pre-Cambrian  rocks  lare  known  in 
the  State.  Mineral  springs  are  common,  espe- 
cially so  in  the  Ouachita  Mountains.  Those  at 
Hot  Springs  are  famous  for  their  medicinal  quali- 
ties, and  have  led  to  the  foundation  there  of  a 
renowned  health  resort.  The  Ouachita  Moun- 
tains have  been  shown  to  be  the  westerly  ex- 
tension of  the  south  end  of  the  Appalachian  moun- 
tain system,  and  to  have  been  formed  at  the  same 
time  and  by  the  same  causes  that  upheaved  the 
Appalachians. 

Mining, — ^The  lack  of  transportation  facilitieft 
and  of  adequate  geological  surveys  have  delayed 
the  development  of  the  mineral  resources  of  the- 
>State.  Mining  in  some  directions,  however,  is 
steadily  growing.  The  output  of  coal  (bitumi- 
nous) has  increased  in  value  from  $200,000  in 
1886  to  $1,687,000  in  1900.  Granite,  sandstone, 
limestone,  and  slate  are  quarried,  and  building 
clay  is  obtained.  Whetstones  of  superior  grade 
have  been  quarried  since  1840.  Some  cement  is 
manufactured,  and  small  quantities  of  zinc  ore 
and  bauxite  are  exported. 

AoBiciTLTURE.  Few  States  are  so  exclusively 
agricultural  as  Arkansas.  It  shared  with  the 
other  Southern  States  the  disasters  of  the  Civil 
War,  but  not  to  so  great  a  degree.  It  was  new 
and  comparatively  undeveloped  at  that  time,  and 
it  soon  regained  and  rapidly  exceeded  its  former 
importance.  In  1860  the  farm  acreage  was  only 
a  little  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  total  area 
of  the  State;  in  1900  it  was  49  per  cent.  During 
the  decade  1890-1900  the  farm  acreage  increased 
by  1,755,000  acres.  In  1860  but  20.7  per  cent, 
of  the  farm  land  was  improved,  while  in  1900, 
41.8  per  cent,  of  it  was  improved.  There  has 
been  during  the  period  mentioned  a  rapid  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  farms  and  a  decrease 
in  their  size.  The  average  size  in  1860  was 
245.5  acres,  in  1900  it  was  93.1  acres.  The  farms 
in  the  cotton  belt  average  a  little  smaller  than 
in  other  parts  of  the  State.  In  three  counties 
in  that  section  the  number  of  farms  doubled  dur- 
ing the  last  census  period,  and  in  others  the  in- 
crease was  almost  as  marked.  The  farms  are 
there  cultivated  largely  by  negroes,  who  consti- 
tute about  26  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of 
farmers  (80  per  cent,  in  two  counties),  but  the 
acreage  cultivated  bv  them  is  only  13.8  per  cent, 
of  the  total.  Of  the  white  farmers,  56.3  own 
their  farms;  of  the  colored  farmers  only  21.2  per 
cent. 

As  already  mentioned,  there  are  two  agricul- 
tural sections  in  the  State.  The  region  north  and 
west  of  a  line  dra>\Ti  from  near  the  northeastern 
comer  of  the  State  to  Little  Rock  and  thence 


west  to  the  boundary  is  known  as  the  upland 
region,  containing  much  hilly  and  mountainous 
territory,  resembling  the  Missouri  region  to  the 
north;  while  the  southern  division,  consisting 
largely  of  low  ground  and  an  alluvial  soil — much 
of  it  requiring  drainage  and  some  of  it  subject 
to  annual  overflow — resembles  the  Louisiana  re- 
gion to  the  south.  The  cereals  and  temperate 
zone  crops  predominate  in  the  northem^division ; 
while  cotton  and  representative  southern  crops 
predominate  in  the  other.  The  cotton  product 
of  the  State  yields  nearly  half  of  the  total  crop 
receipts,  though  the  acreage  is  less  than  one-third 
of  the  total  cultivated  area.  In  1900,  819,000 
bales  of  cotton  w^ere  marketed,  giving  the  State 
fifth  rank  among  the  cotton-growing  common- 
wealths. Com,  wheat,  and  oats  ar^  the  most 
important  of  the  cereals.  Hay  and  forage 
crops  are  also  of  considerable  value.  Peas  are 
raised  in  the  southwest;  Irish'  potatoes  in  the 
northwest;  and  sweet  potatoes  throughout  the 
State.  Sorghum  cane  is  produced,  but  in  less 
quantities  than  formerly.  The  northwestern  part 
of  the  State  has  acquired  an  enviable  reputation 
in  the  production  of  fruits.  The  number  of  apple 
trees  increaiied  from  2,114,000  in  1890  to  7,434,- 
000  in  1900.  The  peach  trees  exceed  4,000,000. 
In  1900  there  were  9600  acres  of  strawberries. 
A  minor  local  industry  is  the  cultivation  of  roses 
and  other  flowers  for  the  making  of  perfumes  and  ^ 
for  seeds.  As  in  most  other  cotton-growing 
States,  stock-raising  is  on  a  small  scale.  Horses, 
mules,  and  asses  are  necessary  to  the  agricul- 
turist, and  their  numbers  are  increasing  rapidly. 
The  raising  of  swine  is  extensive  and  increasing ; 
but  the  last  census  showed  a  decrease  in  the 
number  of  dairy  cows,  neat  cattle,  and  sheep. 
There  w^as,  however,  a  large  increase  in  dairy 
products.  The  figures  for  farm  animals,  and  also 
for  crops,  will  be  found  in  the  following  table: 


H 

Horaee. 

Mules 
and 
Asses. 

Milch 
Cows. 

Other 
Cattle. 

Swine. 

Sheep. 

1900 
1890 

1900 
1890 

jS  f  II 

177,400 
126,400 

Oats. 

280.100 
288,800 

P.  1  11 

681,900 
662,600 

Hay. 

tOU8. 

239,400 
138,200 

1,713.300 
1.606,200 

Cotton, 

bales. 

1,641,800 

1.700.600 

168,700 
243.900 

Pota- 
toes. 

39.700 
83.800 

Manufactures.  But  little  manufacturing  is 
carried  on  in  the  State,  the  census  of  1900  show- 
ing only  2  per  cent,  of  the  population  engaged 
in  that  industry,  yet  the  wage-earners  ( 26,600  in 
1900)  have  almost  doubled  in  number  during  the 
last  decade,  and  the  capital  invested  has  more 
than  doubled.  The  value  of  manufactured  prod- 
ucts of  the  State  has  also  doubled,  rising  from 
$22,700,000  in  1890  to  $44,900,000  in  1900.  The 
greatest  increase  was  in  the  manufacture  of  lum- 
ber and  timber  products,  and  the  vast  forest  re- 
sources of  the  State  promise  a  bright  future  in 
this  particular  industry.  The  forest  area  exceeds 
25,600,000  acres — an  area  larger  than  that  of  the 
State  of  Indiana.  There  are  varieties  both  of 
hard  and  soft  wood.  The  number  of  establish- 
ments manufacturing  lumber  and  timber  prod- 
ucts increased,  during  the  decade  ending  1900, 
from  539  to  1199;  and  the  wage-earners  in  that 
industry  from  6563  to  15,895.  Prominent  among 
forest  products  are  sash,  doors,  and  blinds, 
cedar  posts,  cypress  shingles,  staves,  and  spokes. 


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ABKANSAS. 


808 


ABKAKSAS. 


The  value  of  the  forest  product  for  1900  was 
estimated  at  $26,000,000.  As  a  natural  out^ 
growth  of  the  vast  cotton  interests  of  the  State, 
there  have  developed  such  branches  of  manu- 
facturing aa  cotton-seed  oil  and  cake  pressing, 
and  cotton  ginning.  Spinning  and  weaving,  how- 
ever* have  made  no  progress.  Flour  and  grist- 
mills are  important,  but  not  participating  in 
the  rapi^  development  of  the  other  industries. 
The  following  table  shows  the  progress  of  the 
leading  industries: 


INDU8TBU8. 


Total  induBtrlM... 


Increaoe,  1990  to  1900 

Per  cent,  of  IncreMe... 


Per  cent,  total  Indoatries 


Lamber  and  timber  pro- 
ducts  


Planing  mill  p'd'ct.  sash, 
doors,  and  DllndB,lncl 

Oil,  cottonseed  and  cake 


Cotton  ginning*.. 


Flouring  and  grist-mill 
products 


Steam-car   construction 
and  repair  shops...., 


Printing  and  publishing 


Ar'ge 
Num-  num- 
ber of  ber 
estab-  wage 
llsh-  I  eam- 
ments.     ers 


1900 
1(«» 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 


1900 
1890 


Value  of 
products, 
including 

custom 
work  and 
rt'palring. 


3.067 
1.000 

31.717 
10,384 

1,817 
146.4 

11,888 
109.1 

64.0 
60.S 

81.9 
73.4 

1.199 
680 

16.896 
6,663 

60 
88 

1.063 
640 

90 
8 

667 
611 

1,160 
187 

1.108 
660 

410 
876 

443 

743 

31 

8 

1.937 
847 

ai7 

144 

600 

613 

$87,006,409 
17,375.193 

19,781.317 
114.3 

83.4 
76.3 

38.900,988 
8,948.063 

3,366.633 
1.761.983 

3.874.864 
1.881.668 

1,361,097 
163.336 

8,708,700 
3,498,168 

3.096.447 
1.399.668 

889.787 
787.688 


*Does  not  include  many  ginneries  operated  in  connection 
with  saw.  grist,  and  cottou-seed  oil  mills,  or  for  the  use  ex- 
duslvelj  of  plantations  on  which  they  are  located. 

Tbanspobtation  and  Commebce.  The  Missis- 
sippi River  gives  the  State  a  water  outlet  to  the 
Atlantic,  and  a  water  communication  with  the 
other  Mississippi  Valley  States.  Besides  this, 
the  Arkansas,  and  a  large  number  of  smaller 
streams  traversing  the  State,  afford  navigable 
waterways.  The  very  multiplicity  of  these,  to- 
gether with  the  broken  mountainous  nature  of 
the  western  and  northern  portions  of  the  State, 
have  greatly  retarded  the  development  of  an  ade- 
quate railroad  system.  At  present,  however,  rail- 
road construction  is  making  rapid  progress.  The 
first  railroad  in  the  State  was  not  completed 
when  the  Civil  War  broke  out  in  1861,  and  there 
were  but  850  miles  in  1880.  In  1890  the  mileage 
had  increased  to  2203;  in  1900  to  3167.  There 
are  altogether  39  railway  lines,  of  which  the 
principal  are  the  Saint  Louis,  Iron  Jklountain  and 
Southern ;  the  Saint  Louis  Southwestern,  and  the 
Choctaw,  Oklahoma  and  Gulf.  There  are  about 
6  miles  of  line  to  every  100  square  miles  of  terri- 
tory, and  about  24  miles  to  every  10,000  inhab- 
itants. A  State  Railroad  Commission  has  been 
recently  created,  which  examines  and  revises  tjie 
rate  sheets  of  the  railways,  and  fixes  rates  for 
such  roads  as  may  fail  to  furnish  rate  sheets. 
The  foreign  commerce  is  carried  on  largely 
through  the  port  of  New  Orleans,  and  consists 
chiefly  of  cotton  and  lumber. 


Banks.  In  1000,  fourteen  national  banks  had 
been  organized  in  the  State,  seven  of  which  were 
in  operation.  The  capital  stock  aggregated 
$1,070,000;  the  cireulation  outstanding,  ^30,- 
000;  the  deposits,  $3,108,000;  and  the  reserve. 
$1,003,000.  In  addition  to  this,  there  were  thirty- 
nine  State  banks,  having  resources  amounting 
to  $6,604,000;  capital  stock,  $1,243,000;  and  de- 
posits, $4,464,000.  There  were,  besides,  a  few 
small  private  banks. 

Finances.  About  1880  there  arose  a  dispute 
between  the  State  of  Arkansas  and  the  United 
States.  The  latter  held  certain  coupon  bonds  of 
the  State,  which  the  State  asserted  the  right  to 
offset  by  an  unliquidated  claim  which  had  arisen 
through  failure  of  the  Government  to  patent  to 
the  State  some  273,000  acres  of  swamp  lands. 
After  a  prolonged  discussion,  the  matter  was 
settled  finally  in  1900.  Arkansas  relinquished 
claim  to  the  lands,  guaranteeing  the  titles  to  the 
settlers,  while  paying  to  the  (^vemment  $160,- 
672.  The  debt  of  the  State  in  January,  1901, 
was  $1,271,000,  of  which  sum  $1,113,000  was 
a  part  of  the  permanent  school  fund. 

Education.  Arkansas,  like  the  other  Southern 
States,  has  labored  in  the  face  of  very  unfavor- 
able conditions  for  the  establishment  of  ade- 
quate schools.  There  is  a  very  large  and  widely 
scattered  rural  population,  and  the  experience  of 
every  State  beara  testimony  to  the  difliculty  of 
the  solution  of  the  rural  educational  problem. 
The  average  length  of  the  school  term  (about  70 
days),  is  less  than  that  of  any  other  State,  with 
one  or  two  possible  exceptions.  Of  a  school  popu- 
lation of  349,000  whites  (1900),  230,000  were 
enrolled  and  142,000  were  in  average  attendance; 
while  of  135,000  blacks,  84,000  were  enrolled,  and 
52,000  were  in  average  attendance.  Of  the  total 
school  population  65  per  cent,  were  enrolled,  and 
62  per  cent,  of  these  were  in  average  attendance. 
The  excellence  of  the  school  varies  with  the  com- 
munity, each  being  dependent  almost  wholly  upon 
itself  for  financial  support.  The  school  Interests 
are  in  the  hands  of  local  school  directors.  The 
State  has  a  permanent  school  fund  of  $1,118,709. 
The  interest  on  this,  together  with  the  amounts 
arising  from  the  2  mills  State  school  tax  and 
other  sources,  aggregates  nearly  $500,000  an- 
nually, and  constitutes  the  common  school  fund, 
which  is  apportioned  among  the  various  coun- 
ties. The  district  tax  in  1900  amounted  to  $805.- 
000  and  the  poll  tax  to  $163,000;  making  a  total 
school  revenue  of  nearly  $1,500,000  as  against  an 
expenditure  of  $l,369,(k)0.  Of  the  6959  teachers 
employed,  4152  are  males,  a  larger  proportion 
than  in  any  other  State.  There  are  twenty-four 
secondary  schools  in  the  State.  A  State  Uni- 
versity is  situated  at  Fayetteville.  There  aTe.no 
State  normal  schools,  but  private  enterprise  has 
provided  several  answering  their  purpose.  Pri- 
vate and  sectarian  interests  also  maintain  several 
small  colleges,  six  of  which  are  for  the  educa- 
tion of  the  colored  race. 

Charitabt^  and  Penal  iNSTrrmoNS.  The 
State  maintains  a  hinatic  asylum,  but  it  is  in- 
adequate to  meet  the  public  needs.  There  are 
also  a  deaf-mute  institution  and  a  penitentiary 
now  located  in  Pulaski  Countv.  There  is  no 
reform  school,  and  juvenile  offenders  are  con- 
fined in  the  county  jails  and  the  State  peniten- 
tiary. 

Reijoion.  As  is  common  in  the  Southern 
States,  the  Baptist  and  Methodist  churehes  eon- 


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ARKANSAS. 


809 


ARKANSAS. 


tain  the  bulk  of  the  church  membership.  Of  the 
other  churches  represented,  the  Presbyterian  and 
the  Christian  are  the  only  ones  that  have  ob- 
tained any  considerable  following. 

Population.  The  population  by  decades  is  as 
follows:  1820,  14,000;  1830,  30,000;  1840,97,000; 
1850,  209,000;  1860,  435,000;  1870,  484,000; 
1880,  802,000;  1890,  1,128,000;  1900,  1.311,000. 
In  1820  Arkansas  ranked  twenty-sixth  in  order 
of  population,  and  has  since  varied  but  little 
from  this  position,  being  twenty-fifth  in  1900. 
The  State  ranks  tenth  in  respect  to  negro  popu- 
lation, the  rate  of  increase  for  this  class  being 
greater  than  it  is  for  the  whites.  In  1880  they 
numbered  210,000;  in  1890,  309,000;  and  in  1900, 
360,000.  The  rate  of  increase  for  the  whole 
population  during  the  last  decade  was  16.3,  as 
against  20.7  for  the  United  States.  There  are  24.7 
people  to  the  sauare  mile,  the  density  being  a  lit- 
tle less  than  that  of  the  United  States.  As  in 
other  Southern  States,  foreign  immigration  has 
been  unimportant,  the  total  number  of  immi- 
grants in  1900  being  but  14,289.  The  excess  of 
males  in  the  population  is  39,000.  The  State  is 
in  striking  contrast  with  the  nation  as  a  whole, 
in  the  relative  proportions  of  the  rural  and  urban 
population.  But  eight  places  exceed  4000  in 
number  of  inhabitants,  and  contain  but  6.9  of  the 
total  population.  Cities, — In  1900,  Little  Rock, 
the  capita],  had  a  population  of  38,307;  Pirie 
Bluff,  11,147;  Fort  Smith,  10,903;  Hot  Springs, 
9412.  The  State  has  seven  representatives  in 
Congress.  For  population  of  the  State  by  coun- 
ties, see  the  back  of  the  map. 

Government.  The  present  constitution,  which 
is  the  third  for  the  State,  was  adopted  by  a  vote 
of  the  people  in  1874.  Either  House  may  propose 
an  amendment  to  the  constitution,  which,  if  ap- 
proved by  a  majority  of  both  houses  and  by  a 
majority' of  the  voters  at  the  next  general  elec- 
tion, is  adopted.  To  enjoy  the  right  of  suffra^ 
one  must  have  resided  in  the  State  one  year,  m 
the  county  six  months,  and  in  the  precinct  or 
w^ard  one  month,  while  an  amendment  passed  in 
1893  further  restricts  the  suffrage  to  those  who 
have  paid  a  poll  tax.  Electibns  are  held  every 
two  years,  on  the  first  Monday  in  September. 
Some  further  provisions  of  the  constitution  are: 
"No  person  who  denies  the  being  of  a  God  shall 
hold  any  office  in  the  civil  departments  of  this 
State,  nor  be  competent  to  testify  as  a  witness 
in  any  court."  Six  per  cent,  is  the  legal  rate 
of  interest,  and  all  contracts  for  a  greater  rate 
than  10  per  cent,  are  void,  both  principal  and  in- 
terest being  forfeited.  The  property  of  the  wife 
is  not  liable  for  the  debts  of  her  husband.  The 
principal  causes  for  divorce  are  adultery,  habit- 
ual drunkenness,  cruel  treatment,  or  desertion 
for  one  year. 

Legislative. — The  representatives  to  the  State 
Lejrislnture  are  elected  for  a  term  of  two  years, 
and  cannot  exceed  100  in  number,  each  county 
beinp  entitled  to  one  member,  while  the  extra 
members  are  distributed  among  the  more  popu- 
lous counties.  Thirty  and  thirty-five  are  respect- 
ively the  minimum  and  maximum  limits  to  the 
number  of  senators,  who  are  elected  from  dis- 
tricts of  contiguous  counties,  serving  for  four 
years.  The  session  of  the  legislature  is  limited 
to  sixty  days,  imless  extended  by  a  two-thirds 
vote  of  each  House.  The  governor  may  call  an 
extra  session. 

Executive. — The  governor,  secretary  of  state, 


treasurer,  auditor,  and  attorney-general  are  each 
elected  for  a  term  of  two  years.  The  governor's 
veto  may  be  overridden  by  a  majority  vote  of  each 
House.  If  the  office  of  governor  becomes  vacant 
twelve  months  before  the  expiration  of  the  term, 
a  new  election  is  held  to  fill  the  vacancy — if  the 
vacancy  occurs  within  that  period,  the  president 
of  the  Senate  completes  the  term. 

Judiciary. — There  is  a  supreme  couft  of  five 
members,  each  elected  for  eight  years;  a  number 
of  circuit  courts,  each  member  of  which  is  elected 
for  four  years;  a  probate  and  county  court  for 
each  county;  and  at  least  two  justices  of  the 
peace  for  each  township — the  justices  of  the 
peace  and  county  judges  being  elected  for  terms 
of  two  years.  The  General  Assembly  also  vests 
such  jurisdiction  as  may  be  deemed  necessary  in 
mimicipal  corporation  courts,  courts  of  common 
pleas,  where  established,  and  when  deemed  expe- 
dient, and  establishes  separate  courts  of  chan- 
cery. 

Local  Oovemment. — Each  county  has  a  sheriff, 
assessor,  coroner,  treasurer,  and  surveyor,  each 
elected  for  two  years.  Each  township  has  a 
constable,  who  is  elected  for  two  years.  The 
Legislature  may  create  other  local  offices.  The 
county  court,  together  with  a  majority  of  the 
justices  of  the  peace,  levies  road  taxes  when  the 
people  have  voted  in  favor  of  such  a  measure. 
The  Legislature  provides,  by  general  laws,  for 
the  organization  of  cities  (which  may  be  classi- 
fied) and  incorporated  towns,  and  can  place  cer- 
tain restrictions  upon  them. 

Militia. — The  organized  militia  has  a  total 
strength  of  1900,  1600  of  whom  belong  to  the 
infantry.  The  only  limitation  to  the  extent  of 
organization  is  that  there  shall  not  be  more  than 
four  companies  in  any  one  county.  The  census  of 
1900  reported  250,000  males  of  militia  age  with- 
in the  State. 

History.  The  name  Arkansas  (pronounced 
Ar'kansaw)  was  that  of  an  Indian  tribe  found 
by  the  first  explorers  within  the  limits  of  the 
present  State.  About  1685,  Frenchmen  settled 
at  Arkansas  Post.  Arkansas  formed  a  part  of 
l/ouisiana  Territory  till  1812,  and  of  Missouri 
Territory  till  1819,  when  it  was  organized  as 
Arkansas  Territory,  including  Indian  Territory. 
On  June  15,  1836,  it  became  a  State.  Though 
settled  chiefly  from  the  South,  Arkansas  was 
fairly  divided  between  Unionists  and  Secession- 
ists in  the  early  part  of  1861;  but  President 
Lincoln's  call  for  troops  led  to  the  passing  of  an 
ordinance  of  secession  on  May  6,  1861.  The 
Confederates  were  defeated  at  Pea  Ridge,  March 
6-7,  1862,  and  at  Prairie  Grove,  December  7. 
Helena  was  occupied  by  Union  forces,  and  Ar- 
kansas Post  was  captured  on  January  11,  1863. 
With  the  fall  of  Little  Rock,  September  4,  1863, 
the  Confederate  power  in  the  State  collapsed.  In 
October  and  November  Union  delegates  from 
twenty  counties  met  at  Fort  Smith  to  take  steps 
to  reorganize  the  State  Government,  and  in 
January,  1864,  a  convention  met  at  Little  Rock 
and  framed  a  constitution,  which  was  accepted  by 
the  people,  but  rejected  by  Congress.  Under  the 
Reconstruction  Act  of  1867,  a  constitutional  con- 
vention met  January  7,  1868,  at  Little  Rock,  and 
framed  a  constitution,  which  was  ratified  March 
13,  by  a  small  majority.  On  June  22  the  State 
was  readmitted  to  the  Union.  In  April,  1874,  an 
armed  collision  occurred  between  the  adherents 
of  two  rival  claimants  for  the  governorship.   Fed- 


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ABK  OF  THE  COVENANT. 


€ral  aid  was  invoked,  and  President  Grant  form- 
ally recognized  Baxter,  Republican,  as  the  lawful 
l^vemor.  In  1874  a  new  constitution  was 
adopted.  It  marked  a  radical  change  in  the 
existing  law  and  was  in  the  main  a  return  to 
ante-bellum  conditions.  Of  recent  years  the 
prosperity  of  the  State  has  increased  with  the 
development  of  its  rich  mineral  resources.  Since 
1870  tne  Democrats  have  been  victorious  in  State 
and  national  elections;  the  congressional  delega- 
tion as  a  rule  is  solidly  Democratic.  The  elec- 
toral vote  has  been  cast  as  follows:  in  1836  and 
1840,  for  Van  Buren  and  Johnson,  3;  1844,  Polk 
and  Dallas,  3;  1848,  Cass  and  Butler,  3;  1852, 
Pierce  and  King,  4;  1856,  Buchanan  and  Brecken- 
ridge,  4;  1860,  Breckenridge  and  Lane,  4;  1864, 
no  vote;  1808,  Grant  and  Colfax,  5;  1872  (6 
votes  not  counted)  ;  1876.  Tilden  and  Hendricks, 
€;  1880,  Hancock  and  English,  6;  1884,  Cleve- 
land and  Hendricks,  7;  1888,  Cleveland  and 
Thurman,  7;  1892,  Cleveland  and  Stevenson,  8; 
1896,  Bryan  and  Sewall,  8;  1000,  Bryan  and 
Stevenson,  8. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  governors  of  Ar- 
kansas from  the  date  of  its  organization  as  a 
Territory: 

TERRITORIAL  GOVERNORS. 

James  Miller t81J^-25 

George  Iiard 1825-29 

John  Pope 1829-«6 

WUUsm  8.  Fulton 18S5-M 

STATE  GOVERNORS. 

James  S.  Conway Democrat     1886-40 

Arehlbald  Yell "  1840-44 

Samuel  Adama "  1844 

Thomas  8.  Drew ••  1844-48 

John  8.  Roane "  1A4H-^ 

Ellas  N.  Conway ••  18.V2-flO 

Henry  M.  Rector "  lS0O-«2 

Harris  Flana^can ••  lS«2-64 

Isaac  Murphy Republican    18S4-68 

Powell  Clayton "  IH6M-71 

Oxro  A.  Hadley "  1871-72 

EllBha  Baxter "  1872-74 

Augustus  H.  Garland.... Democrat      1874-77 

Wm.  R.  Miller "  1877-81 

Thomas  J.  ChuPchJll "  1881-83 

James  H.  Berry "  18W3-85 

Simon  P.  Hughes "  1S85-89 

Jamee  P.  Eagle "  1S89-«J 

William  M.  Flshback....         "  1893-85 

James  P.  Clarke "  1S95-87 

Daniel  W^.  Jones ••  i897-01 

Jefferson  Davis "  1901 — 

BiBLiooRAPHT.  Agricultural  Experiment  Sta- 
tion Bulletins  ( Fayetteville,  1896,  et  seq.)  ;  Ar- 
kansas Climate  and  Crop  Service  Monthly 
Reports  (Little  Rock,  1896-1900)  ;  Arkansas 
Common  School  Commissioner  Report  (Little 
Rock,  1857)  ;  Arkansas  Department  Biennial  Re- 
port of  the  Secretary  (Little  Rock,  1882-1898)  ; 
Arkansas  State  Lands,  Commission  of,  Biennial 
Report  for  Jf<7()-78  (Little  Rock,  1878)  ;  Arkan- 
sas Levee  and  Railroad  Construction  Bonds  Com- 
mittee, Report  of  Special  Committee  of  House 
of  Representatives  (Little  Rock,  1873)  ;  Harvey, 
Minerals  and  Rocks  of  Arkansas,  Catalogue  of 
species  (Philadelphia,  1886)  ;  Lewis,  Xatural 
Resources  of  Arkansas  (Little  Rock,  1869)  ;  Hill- 
yard,  The  Xew  South  (Baltimore,  1887);  Mo- 
nette,  Discovert/  and  Settlement  of  the  Valley  of 
the  Mississippi  (New  York,  1846). 

ABKANSASy  University  of.  A  State  in- 
stitution, situated  at  Fayetteville,  Ark.  It  was 
founded  in  1872,  and  has  a  medical  and  a 
law  school  at  Little  Rock,  Ark.,  and  a  branch 
normal  college  at  Pine  Bluflf.     It  is  supported 


by  the  aid  of  the  Federal  and  State  endow- 
ments and  appropriations,  and  has  an  income 
of  about  $70,000,  grounds  and  buildings  valued 
at  $300,000,  and  a  library  of  about  10,000  vol- 
umes. In  1901  there  were  37  professors  and 
instructors  and  1150  students,  distributed  in 
the  several  departments  as  follows:  Collegiate, 
302;  medical,  240;  preparatory,  340;  law,  21; 
normal  training,  247.  President,  John  L, 
Buchanan,  A.M.,  LL.D. 

ABKANSAS  CITHT.  A  city  in  Cowley  Co., 
Kan.,  55  miles  south  by  east  of  Wichita; 
on  the  Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  F6,  the  Mis- 
souri Pacific,  the  St.  Louis  and  San  Francisco, and 
other  railroads  (Map:  Kansas,  F  4).  It  is  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Arkansas  and  Walnut 
rivers,  which  are  connected  by  a  canal  which  fur- 
nishes water-power  for  manufacturing.  The 
city  is  the  centre  of  a  highly  productive  agri- 
cultural and  stock  -  raising  country ;  manufac- 
tures, flour,  luml)er,  windmills,  mattresses,  ice. 
yeast,  carriages,  and  creamery  products;  and 
from  its  location  near  the  southern  boundary 
of  Kansas,  has  an  important  trade  with  the 
Indian  agencies  and  military  posts  in  Indian 
Territory  and  Oklahoma.  The  principal  features 
of  interest  are  the  United  States  Indian  School, 
the  high-school  and  opera-house  buildings,  two 
parks,  wnth  several  bridges  across  the  canal 
and  the  Arkansas  and  Walnut  rivers.  Settled 
in  1870,  Arkansas  City  was  incorporated  the 
following  year.  It  is  governed  under  a  revised 
charter  of  1880,  which  provides  for  a  mayor, 
biennially  elected,  and  a  city  council.  The 
water-woVks  are  owned  and  operated  by  the 
municipalitv.  Population,  in  1890,  8347;  in 
1900,  6140.' 

ABKANSAS  BIV^B.  Next  to  the  Mis- 
souri,  the  largest  affluent  of  the  I^Iississippi 
River  (Map:  United  States,  Eastern  Part,  G  3). 
It  rises  in  Central  Colorado,  flows  east  into 
Kansas,  and  out  again  east  of  the  middle  of 
the  south  boundary  of  the  same  State,  south- 
east across  Oklahoma  and  Indian  territories, 
and  diagonally  across  Arkansas,  bisecting  it 
into  nearly  equal  parts,  and  emptying  into 
the  Mississippi.  The  river  is  about  20(X)  miles 
long,  navigable  for  650  miles,  and  drains  an  area 
of  188,000  square  miles.  Much  of  the  water  in 
its  upper  course  is  used  for  irrigation  purposes. 
In  Fremont  County,  in  Central  Colorado,  it 
flows  through  the  Royal  Gorge,  one  of  the  deepest 
caiions  ih  the  United  States.  In  its  upper 
course  the  current  is  very  rapid,  but  in  its 
lower  portion  the  bed  is  sandy  and  broad.  It 
receives  the  Salt  Fork  and  Cimarron  from 
the  west  in  Oklahoma,  and  in  the  Indian  Ter- 
ritory the  Canadian  from  the  west  and  the 
Verdigris  and  Grand  rivers  from  the  north. 

ABKANSAS  STONE.     See  Novaculite. 

ABK^OW.  .  A  small  seaport  toi^-n  of 
County  Wicklow%  Ireland,  about  50  miles  soutli 
of  Dublin  ( Map :  Ireland  E  4 ) .  Near  the  town  is 
Shelton  Al)ey,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Wicklow. 
In  the  uprising  of  1798  the  Irish  were  defeated 
here  by  the  British.  The  population,  mainly 
engaged  in  Ashing,  is  graduallv  decreasing.  In 
1871  it  was  5178;  in  1891,  4172" 

ABK  OF  THE  COVENANT,  Ark"  of  the 
Testimony,  Abk  of  Yahweii  (or  Jehovali),  or 
Ark  of  God.  According  to  the  data  furnished 
in  the  Bible,  it  was  one  of  the  most  important 


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ABK  OF  THE  COVENANT. 


811 


ABKWBIQHT. 


parts  of  the  furniture  of  the  tabernacle,  con- 
structed in  the  Wilderness,  and  afterwards  of  the 
temple  built  by  Solomon  at  Jerusalem.  We  have 
two  descriptions  of  it  in  the  Pentateuch.  Exod. 
XXV.  10-22  and  xxvii.  1-9,  both  passages  belonging 
to  the  Priestly  Document. 

From  these  descriptions,  it  appears  that  the 
ark  was  a  chest  of  shittim-wood  (very  generally 
supposed  to  be  the  wood  of  a  species  of  acacia, 
but  by  some  regarded  as  that  of  the  wild  olive), 
overlaid  with  gold  within  and  without,  two  cubits 
and  a  half  in  length,  one  cubit  and  a  half  in 
breadth  and  in  height,  with  a  crown  or  raised 
border  of  gold  round  about.  Within  the  ark 
was  deposited  the  "testimony,"  consisting  of 
"the  two  tables  of  the  Law" — i.e.,  the  stone  tab- 
lets upon  which  the  Ten  Commandments  were 
inscribed  (Exod.  xl.  20).  The  golden  lid  of 
the  ark  was  called  the  mercy-seat  or  propitia- 
tory; above  it  were  the  cherubim  (see  (Jhebub), 
made  of  the  same  piece  of  gold  with  it,  and  be- 
tween them  the  place  of  the  Shechinah  or  mani- 
festation of  the  Divine  Presence.  It  should, 
however,  be  mentioned  that  neither  in  Deuteron- 
omy nor  in  the  Books  of  Kings  are  these  figures 
of  the  cherubim  mentioned.  The  ark  had  golden 
rings,  through  which  passed  staves  of  shittim- 
wood,  overlaid  with  gold,  for  carrying  it  in  the 
journeyings  of  the  Israelites,  concerning  which 
very  particular  rules  were  laid  down  (Num. 
iv.).  While  being  carried  from  one  place  to 
another,  it  was  covered  first  with  a  "covering 
of  badgers'  skins,"  and  above  this  with  a  "cloth 
wholly  of  blue" ;  and  when  reposing  in  the  taber- 
nacle and  temple  it  was  put  into  the  "most  holy 
place,"  into  which  the  high-priest  alone  was  to 
enter  upon  the  Day  of  Atonement.  After  the 
tabernacle  had  been  set  up  at  Shiloh,  the  ark 
was  deposited  there  (Josh,  xviii.  1).  When 
Israel  sustained  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  Phil- 
istines at  Eben-ezer  they  sent  to  Shiloh  for  the 
ark  (1  Sam.  iv.  3-5).  In  the  battle  which  fol- 
lowed, the  Philistines  captured  the  ark;  they 
carried  it  about  to  several  places  in  their  land, 
but  in  each  place  misfortune  followed  its  ar- 
rival, and  at  the  advice  of  their  diviners  the 
Philistines  returned  the  ark  to  Israel  at  Beth- 
Shemesh,  whence  it  was  removed  to  Kirjath- 
Jearim  (1  Sam.  iv.  11-vii.  2),  hence  David  re- 
moved it  to  Jerusalem  (2  Sam.  vi.  1),  and  Solo- 
mon assigned  it  a  place  in  the  Temple  ( 1  Kings 
viii.  6).  What  finally  became  of  the  ark  is  un- 
known ;  perhaps  it  was  captured  in  Nebuchadnez- 
zar's siege  of  Jerusalem.  At  any  rate  there  was 
no  ark  in  the  Second  Temple  (Joseph us,  B.  J. 
V.  5,  5). 

It  is  not  easy,  from  the  various  accounts  of, 
and  references  to,  the  ark  in  the  Old  Testament 
to  obtain  a  clear  idea  of  what  the  ark  actually 
was,  or  what  was  its  age.  From  Egyptian  and 
Babylonian  sources,  we  know  that  it  was  cus- 
tomary to  carry  the  images  of  the  cods  about  in 
portable  shrines ;  and  if,  therefore,  the  Ark  of  the 
Covenant  belongs  to  the  oldest  period  of  Hebrew 
history,  it  must  have  served  as  the  abode  of  the 
Deity,  suitable  for  a  time  when  there  was  as  yet 
no  fixed  sanctuary  regarded  as  the  seat  of 
Yahweh.  This  view  accords  both  with  the  state 
ment  (Num.  x.  35,  36)  that  the  ark  was  car- 
ried into  battle;  for  among  other  nations  it 
was  customary  to  carry  images  and  symbols  of 
the  gods  into  battle,  and  w^ith  the  narrative  m 
the  Book  of  Samuel,  from  which  it  appears  that 


where  the  ark  rested,  there  Yahweh  himself  was 
supposed  to  have  his  abode  for  the  time  being. 
Whether,  however,  the  description  given  of  the 
ark  in  the  Priestly  Document  applies  to  the 
earlier  periods  of  Hebrew  history  is  more  than 
doubtful ;  it  is  probably  a  description  of  the  ark 
as  it  appeared  in  the  days  of  Solomon  and  for 
which,  as  an  ancient  palU^dium  to  which  the  peo- 
ple were  attached,  a  place  was  found  in  the 
Temple.  As  to  the  original  contents  of  the  ark, 
it  is  now  held  by  many  critics  that  the  Hebrews 
at  one  time  had  a  stone  as  a  symbol  of  their  God, 
and  that  the  traditional  tables  of  stone  belong  to 
a  later  period,  when  the  fetich  was  replaced  by 
a  symbol  that  accorded  better  with  the  more  ad- 
vanced religious  conceptions. 

ABKO^A.  The  northeast  promontory  of 
the  German  island  of  Rtlgen  (q.v:),  in  the  Baltic 
(Map:  Prussia,  El).  It  rises  about  145  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  has  a  lighthouse,  erected  in 
1826. 

ABKOSEy  ilr-k5s^.    See  Sandstone. 

ABK  SHELL,  or  Noah's  Abk.  A  marine 
bivalve  mollusk,  common  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  the  United  States,  and  representing  the  cosmo- 
politan family  Arcadse.  The  shells  do  not  exceed 
three  inches  in  length,  are  ventricose,  hairy,  and 
have  the  hinge  margin  long  and  perfectly 
straight.  As  the  umbones  are  wide  apart,  this 
leaves  a  sort  of  flat  ''deck,"  which  probably  led 
Linnaeus  to  the  rather  fanciful  designation.  They 
dwell  near  shore,  especially  where  weedy  rocks 
abound,  but  one  species  is  known  in  the  inland 
fresh  waters  of  India.  The  commonest  American 
species  is  Area  pexata  (called  "bloody  clam,"  on 
account  of  its  red  gills  and  exudations),  whic^  is 
covered  with  coarse  hairs.  See  Plate  of  Aba- 
lone,  etc. 

The  genus  Area  has  existed  for  a  great  length 
of  time;  its  ancestors  bein^  found  in  the  rocks 
of  all  geological  periods  smce  the  Ordovician, 
but  in  special  abundance  in  the  Tertiary  deposits 
of  all  countries. 

ABK^WBIQHT,  Sir  Righabd  (1732-92). 
Celebrated  for  his  invention  of  cotton-spinning 
machinery,  was  bom  at  Preston,  in  Lancashire. 
Of  humble  origin,  the  youngest  of  thirteen  chil- 
dren, and  bred  to  the  trade  of  a  barber,  his 
early  opportunities  of  cultivation  were  exceed- 
ingly limited.  In  1761  he  gave  up  his  business  as 
a  barber  in  Bolton,  to  become  a  traveling  dealer  in 
hair,  and  the  profits  of  his  trade  were  increased 
considerably  by  a  secret  process  for  dyeing  hair 
which  he  had  acquired.  His  residence  in  tlie 
midst  of  a  cotton-spinning  population  naturally 
led  him  to  take  an  interest  in  the  processes  used 
in  that  manufacture,  and  his  mind  was  soon 
turned  toward  improved  methods.  Having  no 
practical  skill  in  mechanics,  he  secured  the  ser- 
vices of  a  watchmaker,  named  Kay,  to  assist  him 
in  the  construction  of  his  apparatus.  About 
1767  he  seems  to  have  siven  himself  wholly  up  to 
inventions  in  cotton-spinning  machinery.  In  the 
following  year  he  removed  to  Preston,  where  he 
set  up  his  first  machine,  the  celebrated  spinning' 
frame,  consisting  chiefly  of  two  pairs  of  rollers, 
the  first  pair,  which  were  in  contact,  revolving 
with  a  slow  motion,  and  passing  the  cotton  to 
the  other  pair,  which  revolved  with  such  in- 
crea.sed  velocity  as  to  draw  out  the  thread  to  the 
required  degree  of  fineness.  A  subsequent  opera- 
tion was  to  spin  the  yam  from  these  threads.  No 


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ABKWBIGHT. 


812 


ABLINGOTTBT. 


previously  invented  machinery  had  been  able  to 
produce  cotton  thread  of  sufficient  tenuity  and 
strength  to  be  used  as  warp.  An  invention,  in- 
deed, by  Charles  Wyatt  of  Birmingham,  which 
was  patented  in  1738,  but  never  succeeded, 
deprives  Ark'wright  of  the  honor  of  having  been 
the  first  to  use  rollers  in  spinning;  but  there  is 
no  reason  to  believe  that  he  owed  anything  to 
this  previous  attempt.  The  first  suggestion  of 
the  idea,  he  said,  was  derived  from  seeing  a  red- 
hot  iron  bar  elongated  by  being  made  to  pass 
between  rollers.  At  this  time  Arkwright  was  so 
poor  that  he  needed  to  be  furnished  with  a 
suit  of  clothes  before  he  could  appear  to  vote  at 
an  election  as  a  burgess  of  Preston.  Soon  after, 
he  removed  to  Nottingham,  to  escape  the  popular 
rage,  which  had  already  driven  Hargreaves,  the 
inventor  of  the  apiniiing-jennyy  out  of  Lancashire. 
Here  he  fortunately  fell  in  with  Jedediah  Strutt 
of  Derby,  the  celebrated  improver  of  the  stocking- 
frame,  who  entered  into  partnership  with  him,  in 
conjunction  with  his  partner,  Mr.  Reed.  In  1769 
Arkwright  -set  up  his  first  mill,  driven  by  horses, 
and  took  out  a  patent  for  his  invention.  In  1771 
he  set  up  a  larger  factory,  with  water-power,  at 
Cromford,  in  Derbyshire.  Not  only  was  his  labor- 
saving  machinery  well  arranged  and  ingeniously 
devised,  but  he  effected  such  a  division  of  labor 
and  organization  of  his  employes  that  the  great- 
est efficiency  of  production  was  secured.  From 
these  mills  of  Arkwright  the  modem  factory 
system  takes  its  origin.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
to  introduce  the  steam-engine  into  his  factories, 
and  the  mill  at  Nottingham  was  supplied  with  a 
Boulton  and  Watts  steam-engine  of  1790.  The 
remarkable  capabilities  of  his  mind  were  strik- 
ingly evinced  in  the  management  of  the  great 
business.  In  1775  he  took  out  a  fresh  patent  for 
various  additional  improvements  in  machinery. 
The  success  attending  these  undertakings  stimu- 
lated rivals  to  invade  his  patent ;  and  to  such  an 
extent  did  other  cotton-spinners  use  his  designs, 
that  he  was  obliged,  in  1781,  to  prosecute  at  once 
nine  different  manufacturers.  The  first  action, 
against  Colonel  Mordaunt,  backed  by  a  strong 
combination  of  Lancashire  manufacturers,  was 
lost,  solely  on  the  ground  that  the  description  in 
his  specification  was  not  sufficiently  clear  and 
distinct.  The  other  actions  were  abandoned ;  and, 
in  the  following  year,  Arkwright  published  a 
pamphlet  containing  a  statement  of  his  case.  In 
a  new  trial,  in  1785,  he  obtained  a  favorable 
verdict.  The  whole  question,  however,  was 
brought  finally  before  the  Court  of  King's  Bench, 
a  few  months  after,  when  Arkwright*s  claim 
to  the  inventions  patented  was  for  the  first 
time  called  in  question.  On  the  doubtful 
evidence  of  a  person  named  Highs,  or  Hayes, 
combined  with  that  of  Arkwright's  old  assistant, 
Kay,  the  jury  decided  against  him,  and  his 
patent  was  annulled.  This  was  but  the  formal 
outcome  of  an  opposition  which  had  from  the 
beginning  marked  out  Arkwright  as  an  object  of 
hostility.  The  manufacturers  at  first  combined 
to  discountenance  the  use  of  his  yarn.  When  the 
yarn  was  made  into  calicoes,  and  Parliament  was 
petitioned  to  lessen  the  duty  on  that  cloth,  they 
strenuously  opposed  the  measure,  but  in  vain. 
Popular  animosity  was  also  excited  against  the 
man  who  apparently  displaced  labor,  but  in  real- 
ity.  increased  its  sphere;  and  on  one  occasion,  a 
large  factory  belonging  to  Arkwright  was  de- 
stroyed in  the  presence  of  a  powerful  military 


and  police  force,  without  a  word  of  interference 
from  the  magistrates.  The  energy  and  good 
sense  of  Arkwright  triumphed  over  all  opposi- 
tion, and  at  the  time  of  his  death,  in  1792.  the 
value  of  his  property  amounted  to  about  $500,- 
000.  In  1786  he  was  appointed  high-sheriff  of 
Derbyshire  and  was  also  knighted  by  George  HI. 
See  Baine's  History  of  Cotton  Manufacture  and 
Ure's  Cotton  Manufacture  of  Great  Britain. 

ABLBEBOy  £Lrl^rK.  A  famous  mountain 
pass  between  the  Rhaetian  and  the  Lech  Alps, 
connecting  Tyrol  with  Vorarlberg  (Map:  Austria, 
B  3).  It  lies  at  an  altitude  of  5840  feet, 
along  the  watershed  between  the  Danube  and 
the  Rhine.  In  1786  n  road  was  laid  across  the 
pass  which  in  those  times  formed  the  only  means  - 
of  communication  between  Vorarlberg  and  the 
rest  of  Austria.  The  construction  of  the  Arl- 
berg  railway  from  Innsbruck  to  Bludenz,  begun  in 
1880,  necessitated  the  cutting  of  a  tunnel  through 
the  pass.  The  tunnel  is  situated  between  Sanet 
Anton  and  Langen  and  has  a  total  length  of 
nearly  6.5  miles.  The  highest  point  of  the  tun- 
nel is  4260  feet,  and  the  difference  between  the 
altitudes  of  the  eastern  and  western  ends  is  280 
feet.  The  tunnel  was  completed  m  three  and 
one-half  years,  at  a  cost  of  over  $7,500,000. 

AKLESy  Fr.  pron,  ftrl;  Eng.  pron.  Mrlz  (an- 
ciently, Lat.  ArelatCf  or  Arelas  from  Celt.    Ar- 
laeth,  "on  the  marshy  land").    One  of  the  oldest 
toA\Tis  in  France  in  the  Department  of  Bouches- 
du-RhOne,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  prin- 
cipal branch  of  the  Rhone,  after  it  has  divided  • 
into  a  delta  (Map:  France,  L  8).    Aries  carries 
on  a  considerable  trade.    It  has  manufactures  oi 
silk,   hats,   tobacco,  brandy,  etc.,   and   forms  a 
market  for  the  productions  of  the  surrounding 
country.     It  possesses  a  college,  a  naval  school, 
a  public  library,  and  a  superb  museum  of  antiqui- 
ties in  natural  history.     A  canal  has  been  cut 
which  connects  Aries  with  the  south  coast.   Rail- 
ways also  bring  it  into  easy  communication  with 
Marseilles,    Avignon,    Nimes,    Montpellier,    etc. 
Under  the  Romans,  it  was  the  seat  of  a  pre- 
fecture; afterwards,  for  some  time,  the  residence 
of  the  Gothic  King,   Euric,  and   from   879   the 
metropolis  of  the  kingdom  of  Aries,    or   of    Cis- 
jurane  Burgimdy   (see  Burgundy).     This  kin^ 
dom  was  united  in  933  with  that  of  Transjurane 
Burgimdy,  and  this  larger  Arletan    realm   was 
ruled  by  native  kings  until   1032.     On  the  ex- 
tinction of  this  line,  the  Arletan  territories  were 
taken  possession  of  by  the  German  Emperor  Con- 
rad II.     In  the  early  Christian  times,   several 
important  councils  were  convened  here   (in  314. 
353,    452,    and   475).      At   the    famous    council 
(synod)    of  353,  the  cause  of  Arianism  gained 
a  temporary  triumph.     Among  the   antiquities 
of    Aries    are    an    amphitheatre    (Les    Ar^nt>' 
which  accommodated  between  20,000  and  30,000 
spectators;    the   ruins   of   a   theatre,    also   of  a 
palace  of  Constantine  the  Great;  an  oUclisk  of 
granite  dug  up  from  the  mud  of  the  Rhone  In 
1389:  a  burial-place   (the  Elysian  Fields)    usori 
by   the  Romans;    and  a  Romanesque    cathedral 
dedicated  to  Saint  Trophimus,  the  western  portiil 
of  w^hich  is  a  unique  example  of  Gallo-Byzantine 
art.    Population,  in  1896,  12,765;  in  1901^  15,o(h». 

ABLES,  The  Kingdom  of.     See  Abi£S  aiid 
BuRGixnY. 

ABLINCOUBT,   ar'lftN'ko^r',  Chables   Vic 
TOR  PRfevoT,  Vicomte  d'  (1789-1856).     A  Frencl 


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ABLINCOXJBT. 


813 


ABM. 


poet  and  novelist,  bom  near  Versailles.  He  com- 
mended himself  to  the  favor  of  Napoleon  by  the 
publication  of  the  flattering  allegory,  Une  Mati- 
nee de  Charlemagne  (1810),  for  which  he  was  re- 
warded with  offices  at  court.  Under  Louis 
XVIII.  he  was  appointed  maitre-dea-requites, 
but  after  the  Hundred  Days  was  obliged  to  re- 
sign. He  wrote  several  novels,  including  Le 
Solitaire  (1821),  Lc  r^n^gat  (1822),  and 
UEtrangh-e  (1825),  of  which  the  first  named 
was  extensively  read  and  many  times  translated. 
His  tragedy,  Le  Si^ge  de  Paris,  played  at  the 
Thfifttre-Francais,  in  1827,  was  greeted  with  out- 
bursts of  derisive  laughter. 

ABIJNG^ON,  A  residential  town  of  Mid- 
dlesex County,  Mass.,  on  the  Boston  and  Maine 
Railroad,  six  miles  northwest  of  Boston.  Markei- 
flardening,  ice-cutting,  and  ice-tool  manufactur- 
ing  are  leading  industries  (Map:  Massachusetts, 
E  3).  Arlin^on  has  a  fine  public  library,  and 
its  water  supply  is  furnished  under  the  metro- 
politan system.  Town  meetings  are  held  in 
March  and  November  and  at  special  times  on  all 
matters  of  appropriations.  Settled  about  1650, 
Arlington  was  separated  from  Cambridge  and 
incorporated  as  West  Cambridge  in  1807,  and  re- 
ceived its  present  name  in  1867.  Population,  in 
1890,  5629;  in  1900,  8603.  Consult  Cutter,  His- 
tory of  the  Totcn  of  Arlington  (Boston,  1880). 

ABLINGKTON.  A  village  in  Alexandria 
County,  Va.,  opposite  Washington,  D.  C.  It  was 
formerly  the  home  of  Robert  E.  Lee,  but  his 
property  was  seized  by  the  Grovemment  during 
the  Civil  War,  and  is  now  the  site  of  a  national 
cemetery,  in  which  some  of  the  most  prominent 
officers  of  the  United  States  army  are  buried. 
The  cemetery  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most 
beautiful  in  the  United  States.  There  are  18,161 
graves,  4608  of  which  contain  unknown  dead. 
The  old  Lee  mansion,  with  its  stately  portico, 
is  one  of  the  finest  specimens  of  Colonial  archi- 
tecture. Population  (district),  in  1890,  2013;  in 
1900,  3200. 

ABLIKQTONf  Henry  Bennet,  Earl  of 
(1618-85).  An  English  politician,  member  of 
the  famous  "Cabal"  ministry.  He  was  bom  at 
Arlington,  and  studied  at  Christ  Church,  Ox- 
ford. At  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  he 
joined  the  Royalists,  but  subsequently  left  Eng- 
land, and  in  1654  was  appointed  secretary  to 
James  Stuart.  In  1658  he  was  sent  as  royal  agent 
to  Madrid,  and  in  1662  was  appointed  secretary 
of  state,  in  which  post,  notwithstanding  his  igno- 
rance of  English  law,  his  knowledge  of  foreign 
afifairs  made  him  extremely  influential. 

ABLON,  ar'lON'  (anciently.  La t.  Orototintiw). 
The  capital  of  the  Belgian  Province  of  Luxem- 
bourg, situated  sixteen  and  one-half  miles,  by 
r^il,  northwest  of  Luxembourg,  on  an  elevated 
plateau  of  the  Ardennes  (Map:  Belgium,  D  5). 
It  contains  a  museum  with  a  collection  of  Roman 
antiquities  found  in  the  neighborhood.  The  town 
has  frequently  suffered  the  ravages  of  war,  and 
was  occupied  by  the  French  from  1684  to  1697. 
It  came  into  the  possession  of  Belgium  in  1831. 
Population,  in  1899,  7997. 

ABLT,  FERDmATTD,  RiTTEB  von  (1812-87). 
An  Austrian  oculist,  born  near  Teplitz.  He 
studied  medicine  at  Prague  and  was  professor  of 
diseases  of  the  eye  there  from  1849  to  1856,  when 
he  was  appointed  to  a  similar  chair  at  the  Uni- 
versity of  Vienna.     Arlt  was  the  author  of  a 


number  of  works  on  the  eye  and  its  diseases,  in- 
cluding Die  Pflege  der  Augen  im  geaunden  wnd 
kranken  Zuatande  (Prague,  1846,  and  subse- 
quent editions)  ;  IJeher  die  Uraachen  und 
die  Entatehung  der  Kursaichtigkeit  (Vienna, 
1876),  a  number  of  memoirs  in  the  Archiv  fUr 
Ophthalmologies  of  which  he  was  one  of  the 
editors,  etc.  His  best-known  work  is  Die  Krank- 
heiten  dea  Augea  fUr  praktiache  Arze  geachildert 
(ed.  1,  3  vols.,  Prague,  1851-56),  which  passed 
through  several  editions.  Consult  his  autobi- 
ography (Wiesbaden,  1887). 

ABM  (Lat.  neut.  plur.  arma,  arms,  weapons). 
A  weapon  of  any  kind;  also  used  to  designate 
a  branch  of  the  military  service;  as,  the  cavalry 
arm,  the  infantry  arm,  etc.  It  has,  in  addition, 
a  wide  application  in  naval  and  military  termin- 
ology to  express  the  end,  or  branch,  of  any- 
thing, particularly  of  articles  or  objects  that 
have  two  similar  ends,  as  yard  arms,  axle-tree 
arms  (gun  carriage),  anchor  arms,  etc.  See 
Abtilleby;  Obdnance;  Small  Abms;  Swords, 
and  other  weapons. 

ABH  (Ger.,  Dan.,  Swed.,  and  Dutch  arm, 
A.  S.  eann,  Icel.  armr,  Goth,  arma^  Lat.  armtts, 
the  shoulder,  Gk.  apfi6q^  harmoa,  shoulder-joint, 
all  from  the  Indo-European  root  ar,  to  fit,  join) . 
The  upper  extremity  of  the  human  body.  It 
consists  of  two  portions — the  arm,  strictly  so 
called,  and  the  forearm;  the  former  having  one 
bone,  the  humerus,  which  moves  freely  oy  a 
globular  head  upon  the  scapula,  forming  the 
shoulder- joint ;  and  the  latter  having  two  bones, 
the  radius  and  ulna,  which  move  on  the  lower 
end  of  the  humerus,  forming  the  elbow- joints 
and  below,  with  the  carpus,  forming  the  wrist. 

The  humerus  is  attached  by  a  loose  capsular 
ligament  to  the  scapula,  allowing  great  freedom 
of  motion,  and  were  it  not  for  the  muscles 
would  be  frequently  dislocated,  but  it  is  sup- 
ported by  muscles  on  all  sides  except  underneath 
or  opposite  the  armpit,  in  which  direction  the 
head  of  the  bone  is  often  driven  by  violence.  The 
roundness  of  the  shoulder  is  due  to  the  head  of 
the  hiunerus,  so  that  any  displacement  is  ac- 
companied by  a  flattening,  which  at  once  sug- 
gests the  nature  of  the  accident.  On  the  shoul- 
der there  is  a  large  triangular  muscle,  the 
deltoid,  which  lifts  the  arm  from  the  side.  At 
the  back  is  the  triceps,  which  extends  the  fore- 
arm; in  front  are  two  muscles  which  flex  or 
bend  it — the  biceps  and  the  brachialis  anticus; 
and  on  each  side  below  are  muscles  passing  to 
the  forearm  and  hand;  while  above  the  great 
muscle  of  the  back  (latissimus  dorsi)  and  that 
of  the  chest  (the  pectoralis  major)  are  inserted 
on  each  side  of  a  groove,  wherein  lies  one  of  the 
tendons  of  the  biceps  (q.v.).  The  motions  of 
the  ulna  are  flexion  or  bending  effected  by  the 
biceps,  and  extension  or  straightening  by  the 
brachialis  anticus  and  the  triceps,  its  projec- 
tions being  received  in  these  movements  into 
corresponding  depressions  on  the  humerus.  The 
movements  of  the  hand  are  principally  due  to 
the  radius,  the  head  of  which  rolls  upon  the  ulna, 
thereby  turning  the  palm  downward  (prona- 
tion), or  restoring  the  palm  upward  (supina- 
tion) ,  these  movements  being  eff'ected  by  muscles, 
two  for  each  movement,  which,  taking  their  fixed 
points  from  the  humerus  and  ulna,  pull  the 
radius  round  on  the  latter.  The  elbow-joint  is 
ginglymoid  or  hinge-like,  and  therefore  has 
strong  lateral  ligaments;  but  it  is  often  liable 


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ABM. 


814 


ASliCADIIiLO. 


to  dislocations,  which  ma^  be  accompanied  by 
fracture.  The  accident  being  often  followed  by 
severe  inflammation,  the  joint  is  very  apt  to  stif- 
fen (see  Ankylosis),  thereby  seriously  impair- 
ing the  usefulness  of  the  limb;  it  is,  therefore, 
unadvisable  to  keep  the  limb  too  long  in  any  one 
position  after  such  an  injury.  (See  Joints,  Dis- 
eases OF.)  The  upper  extremity  is  supplied 
with  blood  by  the  brachial  artery,  the  continua- 
tion of  the  axillary  trunk.  The  veins  collect 
into  large  superficial  trunks,  which  unite  at 
the  bend  of  the.  elbow,  at  which  situation  one 
may  be  selected  for  venesection,  and  then  pass 
on  to  the  axillary,  on  the  outside  by  the  cephalic 
vein,  on  the  inner  side  by  the  basilic.  Deep  veins 
also  accompany  the  arteries  and  pass  upward  to 
join  the  axillary  at  its  commencement. 

The  nerves  pass  do'^'n  as  large  cords  by  the 
side  of  the  artery,  and  diverge  from  it  to  their 
ultimate  distributions;  the  musculo- spiral  soon 
passing  round  at  the  back  to  appear  on  the 
outside,  to  become  the  radial  and  posterior 
interosseous  nerves;  the  ulnar  running  behind 
the  internal  condyle,  for  which  it  has  obtained 
the  term  *funny  bone,*  from  the  electric  -  like 
thrill  which  passes  along  the  arm  when  the 
nerve  is  struck  or  pressed.  The  median,  as  its 
name  implies,  keeps  a  middle  course  with  the 
artery. 

In  wounds  of  the  forearm,  bleeding  is  some- 
times excessive.  It  may  be  at  once  controlled 
by  pressure  on  the  brachial  artery,  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  biceps. 

The  arm  affords  excellent  illustrations  of  some 
of  the  principles  of  mechanics.  The  insertion 
of  the  muscles  so  near,  as  will  be  seen,  to  the 
fulcra  or  centres  of  motion,  involves  a  loss  of 
power  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word;  there  is, 
however,  a  corresponding  gain  in  velocity  at  the 
end  of  the  lever,  and  for  most  of  the  purposes 
to  which  the  hand  is  put,  agility  is  of  far  greater 
moment  than  mere  strength. 

ABICADA,  'dT-mS/dk  or  fir-m^dA  (Sp.,  an 
armed  force),  The.  A  name  especially  applied 
to  the  powerful  Spanish  fleet  equipped  by  Pnilip 
II.  in  1688  for  the  conquest  of  England.  By  per- 
mitting the  execution  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
Elizabeth  had  awakened  the  indignation  of  all 
Catholics ;  and  Scotch,  French,  and  Papal  leaders 
forgot  their  differences  and  urged  Philip  to 
undertake  the  invasion  of  England.  Santa  Cruz, 
the  ablest  seaman  in  Spain,  prepared  elaborate 
plans  for  the  fleet,  which  was  to  subdue  England. 
All  his  specifications  (as  to  vessels,  men,  and 
equipment)  had  to  be  considerably  reduced,  but 
the  King  raised  enormous  supplies  in  utter  dis- 
regard of  the  already  almost  intolerable  burdens 
of  the  nation.  No  attempt  was  made  to  disguise 
the  purpose  of  the  unusual  activities  which  took 
place  in  the  Spanish  docks  between  1586  and 
1588.  In  consequence,  the  English  were  on  the 
alert,  the  crisis  was  prepared  for,  so  far  as  the 
parsimony  of  Elizabeth  would  permit;  and,  in 
the  spring  of  1587,  Drake  raided  the  Spanish 
coast  and  burned  all  the  equipment  and  supplies 
of  the  fleet,  causing  a  delay  which  gave  the  Eng- 
lish another  full  year  in  which  to  prepare  for  the 
attack.  Early  in  1588  Santa  Cruz  and  his  vice- 
admiral,  Paliano,  died,  and  the  expedition  was 
intrusted  to  the  Duke  of  Medina  Sidonia,  who 
was  wholly  unfit  for  the  command.  Similar 
want  of  judgment  was  shown  in  the  appointment 
of  the  other  officers,  destined  to  meet  in  battle 


such  English  seamen  as  Howard,  Drake,  Fro- 
bisher,  and  Hawkins.  The  Spanish  counted  the 
victory  already  won,  and  named  the  fleet  the 
"Invincible  Armada."  The  English,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  anxious  but  determined.  The  Span- 
iards blundered  at  the  very  outset.  Alessandro 
Famese,  Duke  of  Parma,  was  in  Flanders  with  a 
large  army  intended  for  the  invasion  of  En<r- 
land,  but  failed  to  co5perate  with  Medina  Si- 
donia. The  fleet  itself,  which  consisted  of  131 
vessels  with  8000  sailors  and  19,000  soldiers,  left 
Lisbon  on  May  29,  1588.  On  account  of  delays 
■  due  to  storms  and  mismanagement,  it  was  the 
30th  of  July  before  the  English  Channel  was 
reached.  The  fleet  now  numbered  only  about 
120  ships,  of  which  70  could  not  be  used  in 
an  engagement.  The  main  English  fleet,  under 
the  chief  command  of  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham, 
consisted  of  about  80  ships,  all  of  them  avail- 
able for  action;  considerably  smaller  than  the 
Spanish  vessels,  but  much  more  easily  handled, 
and  with  superior  fighting  equipment.  The 
English  commanders  took  advantage  of  this  fact, 
and  avoided  a  close  contest,  such  as  the  Spanish 
hoped  for.  Hardly  a  battle  occurred,  but  for 
a  whole  week  the  light  English  vessels  hung 
on  the  rear  and  flanks  of  the  Armada  as  it  lum- 
bered up  the  Channel,  raking  the  galleons  with 
rapid  shot  and  escaping  almost  unharmed  from 
the  Spaniards'  slow  delivery.  On  August  7,  the 
Armada  was  driven  close  to  the  port  of  Grav- 
elines,  where  on  the  following  day  Drake  made 
a  spirited  onslaught  upon  the  Spanish  ships. 
IVfany  of  the  galleons  of  the  invaders  were  riddled 
by  the  English  guns.  After  a  hasty  council  of 
war,  it  was  recognized  that  Parma's  army  could 
not  be  transported  to  England,  and  Medina  Si- 
donia turned  toward  Spain.  The  English  gave 
chase  for  a  short  distance,  but  soon  retired,  not 
being  provisioned  for  a  long  pursuit.  It  was 
necessary  for  the  Armada  first  to  sail  around  the 
Orkneys,  on  account  of  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
A  fearful  voyage  followed,  and  only  about  50 
vessels  returned  home.  Both  Philip  and  Elizabeth 
seem  to  have  ascribed  the  failure  of  the  expedi- 
tion to  the  storms,  which  in  fact  did  very  largely 
influence  the  result;  but  the  English  fleet  had 
almost  every  advantage  that  counts  in  a  naval 
engagement,  so  that  the  result  under  any  cir- 
cumstances could  hardly  have  been  otherwise. 
The  destruction  of  the  Armada  was  the  collapse 
of  Spain's  naval  power. 

For  a  detailed  account  see  Froude,  History  of 
England  (London,  1856-70),  and  The  Spanish 
Story  of  the  Armada  (London,  1892)  ;  Motley, 
History  of  the  United  Netherlands  (New  York. 
1861-68)  ;  Camden,  History  of  Queen  Elisa- 
beth (Amsterdam,  1677);  Creasy,  Fifteen  De- 
cisive Battles  (New  York,  1858)  ;  Hakluyt, 
Principall  Navigations  (London,  1589)  ;  Corbett, 
Drake  and  the  Tudor  Navy  (London,  1898); 
Gardiner,  Historical  Biographies:  "Drake"  (Lon- 
don, 1894)  ;  Green,  History  of  the  English  Peo- 
ple (London,  1878-80). 

AB'MADAIiE.  A  novel  by  Wilkie  Collin?, 
published  in  1866,  the  plot  of  which  hinges  on 
the  death-bed  confession  of  Allan  Wrentmore,  a 
West  Indian,  who  had  assumed  the  name  of 
Armadale  and  had  murdered  a  disinherited 
cousin  of  that  name. 

AB'MADH/LO  (Sp.  dim.  of  artnado,  armed, 
referring  to  its  bony  shell).  (1)  An  edentate 
mammal  of  the  South  American  family  Das^y- 


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ABMADILLO. 


815 


ABHAQNAC. 


podidse,  especially  characterized  by  its  bony 
armor.  The  muzzle  is  elongated,  the  mouth  pro- 
vided with  feeble  teeth  destitute  of  true  roots, 
and  set  apart  from  each  other,  and  the  tongue  is 
smooth  and  slender,  with  a  glutinous  saliva, 
adapted  to  the  capture  of  ants  and  other  insects, 
after  the  manner  of  the  ant-eaters,  but  not  long 
and  extensile,  like  theirs.  The  limbs  are  short 
and  strong,  as  are  also  the  claws,  and  the  animals 
have  a  great  aptitude  for  digging  and  burrowing, 
by  means  of  which  they  seek  to  shelter  them- 
selves from  enemies — ^burrowing  in  sand  or  soft 
earth  with  such  rapidity  that  it  is  almost  im- 
possible to  dig  them  out,  and  indeed  it  can  only 
be  done  by  persevering  till  they  are  exhausted. 

The  feature  which  peculiarly  distinguishes  the 
armadillo,  and  in  which  the  animal  differs  from 
all  the  other  mammalia,  is  the  bony  armor  with 
which  the  body  is  covered,  and  which  consists 
of  polygonal  plates  not  articulated,  united  on 
the  head  to  form  a  solid  covering,  and  similarly 
to  form  solid  bucklers  over  the  shoulders  and  the 
haunches;  and  between  these,  disposed  in  trans- 
verse bands,  which  allow  of  freedom  of  motion  to 
the  body,  similar  bands  in  most  species  protecting 
also  the  tail.  When  alarmed  or  exposed  to  dan- 
ger, armadillos,  which  have  the  middle  portion 
of  the  armor  divided  into  several  bands,  protect 
themselves  by  rolling  up  into  a  ball,  which  ex- 
poses only  the  hard,  armored  surface.  The  three- 
banded  armadillo,  or  apar,  of  the  Argentine 
pampas  {Tolypeutes  tricinctus)  is  famous  for 
this  and  for  waTking  on  the  tips  of  its  foreclaws. 

Armadillos  feed  not  only  on  insects,  but  on 
vegetable  and  animal  food  of  almost  every  kind, 
which  by  decomposition  or  othenvise  has  ac- 
quired a  sufficient  softness.  Some  of  them  prefer 
vegetable  food,  others  delight  chiefly  in  carrion. 
They  are  all  natives  of  the  warm  and  temperate 
parts  of  South  America,  in  the  woods  and  pam- 
pas of  which  they  were  formerly  found  in  im- 
mense numbers;  but  all  except  the  omnivorous 
and  adaptable  hairy  one  (Dasypua  villosus)  dis- 
appear quickly  from  the  plains  wherever  a 
settlement  is  made.  They  are  timid  and  in- 
offensive, although,  when  they  are  incautiously 
assailed,  injury  may  be  received  from  their 
claws.  Their  flesh  is  esteemed  a  delicacy,  par- 
ticularly that  of  the  species  which  feeds  chiefly 
on  vegetable  food.  The  largest  species  is  fully 
three  feet  long,  exclusive  of  the  tail;  the  small- 
est not  above  ten  inches.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, and  they  are  divided  among  half  a  dozen 
or  more  genera,  representing  probably  three 
families.  The  nine-banded  armadillo  {Tatusia 
novemcincta)  occurs  as  far  north  as  Texas, 
where  it  is  called  *'peba,"  a  name  properly  be- 
longing to  some  South  American  species  of  the 
genus  Dasypus,  to  which  the  non-burrowing 
peludos,  common  in  the  pampas,  belong.  One  of 
the  rarest  and  most  interesting  of  these  animals 
is  the  little  pichiclago  [Chlamydophoru8  trun- 
catus),  five  or  six  inches  long,  a  native  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  living  imderground  like  the 
mole,  which  it  much  resembles  in  its  habits,  and 
feeding  on  the  same  kind  of  food.  Itb  forefeet 
are  adapted  for  digging,  although  in  a  diiferent 
manner  from  those  of  the  mole.  The  skull  is 
destitute  of  sutures;  there  are  resemblances  to 
the  osteology  of  birds  in  the  ribs  and  their  union 
to  the  sternum;  the  hinder  part  of  the  body  is 
altogether  unlike  that  of  any  other  known  ani- 
mal, in  its  terminating  quite  abruptly',  as  if  cut 


off  almost  where  its  thickness  is  greatest,  or  as 
if  the  back  were  suddenly  bent  down  at  right 
angles,  the  tail  not  springing  from  where  the 
line  of  the  back  appears  to  ^rminate,  but  far 
below.  The  whole  upper  and  hinder  parts  of  the 
body  are  covered  with  a  coat  of  mail,  made  up 
of  a  series  of  square  plates ;  the  imder  parts  and 
legs  are  covered  with  long  silky  hair.  See  color 
plate  of  Mammalia;  and  plate  of  Anteatebs^ 
etc. 

Fossil  remains  of  gigantic  extinct  armadillos 
have  been  found  in  the  pleistocene  strata  of 
South  America,  forming  the  genus  Glyptodon  of 
Owen. — In  Entomology,  armadillo  is  a  name  for 
wood-lice.     See  Woou-Louse. 

ABMADO,  ilr-maM6.  A  bragging  Spanish 
knight  in  Shakespeare's  Love's  Labour's  Lost, 
evidently  conceived  in  mockery  of  the  euphuists. 

ABMAGEDDONy  ar'm&-gedM5n  (Heb.  Ear- 
magedon.  Mount  of  Megiddo).  The  name 
given  to  the  whole  or  part  of  the  great  plain  of 
Esdraelon  (Rev.  xvi.  16).     See  Esdbaelon. 

ABMAQH,  ar-mll^  (anciently,  Gael.  Ard- 
macha,  Macha's  Height,  from  ard,  height,  high). 
A  small  inland  county  in  Ulster,  Ireland  (Map: 
Ireland,  E  2)  ;  area*  313,035  acres,  of  which 
about  27,000  acres  are  bog  and  other  waste  land. 
The  chief  crops  are  oats,  wheat,  potatoes,  tur- 
nips, and  flax.  Large  numbers  of  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  hogs  are  raised.  The  chief  towns  are 
Armagh,  Lurgan,  Portadown,  and  Newrv.  Popu- 
lation, in  1841,  233,024;  in  1891,  137,877;  in 
1901,  125,238. 

ABHAGH.  The  capital  of  the  county  of 
Armagh,  Ireland,  near  '  the  Ulster  Canal,  34 
miles  southwest  of  Belfast  (Map:  Ireland, 
E  2).  It  is  situated  on  rising  ground  and 
is  built  of  limestone,  quarried  in  the  neighbor- 
hood. There  are  two  cathedrals,  a  Protestant 
and  a  Roman  Catholic.  The  former,  a  cruci- 
form structure  dating  from  the  Twelfth  Century, 
built  of  red  sandstone,  is  supposed  to  occupy  the 
site  of  one  erected  in  the  Fifth  Century  by  Saint 
Patrick,  the  traditional  founder  of  the  city.  The 
other  is  a  modem  building.  Armagh  is  the  seat 
of  the  archiepiscopal  see  of  the  Primate  and 
:Metropolitan  of  All  Ireland,  in  the  Catholic 
and  Anglican  churches,  and  has  two  archiepis- 
copal palaces.  This  city  has  a  college,  a  large 
library  founded  by  Primate  Robinson,  and  a  fa- 
mous observatory.  Its  benevolent  institutions 
include  an  infirmary,  a  fever  hospital,  and  a 
lunatic  asylum.  Its  chief  industry  is  linen- 
weaving  and  the  manufacture  of  yarns.  Popula- 
tion, in  1891,  7438.  Armagh,  from  the  year  495 
to  the  Ninth  Century,  was  the  metropolis  of  Ire- 
land, the  native  kings  living  at  Emania,  two 
miles  to  the  west  of  the  city.  It  was  then  re- 
no\^Tied  for  its  school  of  theology  and  literature. 
Between  -839  and  1092  the  town  was  sacked  five 
times  by  the  Danes.  After  the  Reformation  it 
suffered  severely  in  the  conflicts  between  the  Eng- 
lish and  Irish.  It  contained  only  three  slated 
houses  in  1765,  but  since  then,  owing  to  the  ex- 
ertions of  Lord  Rokeby  and  his  successors  to 
the  primacy,  it  has  been  largely  rebuilt.  Consult 
J.  Stuart,  Historical  Memoirs  of  Armaah  (Dub- 
lin, 1900). 

ABDCAQNAC,  Hr'm&'ny&k'  (anciently,  Lat. 
Ager  Aretnonicus,  Aremonian  territory')-  The 
name  of  an  old  district  in  Gascony,  France,  now 


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ABMAGNAC. 


816 


ASliCATUBE. 


mainly  included  within  the  Department  of  Gers. 
Its  capitals  were  Auch  and  Lectoure.  The 
Counts  of  Armagnac  played  an  important  part 
in  French  history  from  the  Tenth  Century  to  the 
Sixteenth.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  line  was 
Bernard  VII.  (q.v.).  The  inhabitants  of  Ar- 
magnac  were  ^lebrated  as  soldiers,  and  consti- 
tuted an  important  element  in  the  French  armies 
during  the  Hundred  Years'  War.  About  the 
close  of  this  period,  their  roving  bands  laid  waste 
large  parts  of  the  country,  and  in  order  to  rid 
himself  of  them,  Charles  VII.  sent  them  to  fight 
the  indomitable  Swiss,  who  made  short  work  of 
large  numbers  of  them.  Consult  F.  Berthault, 
L'Armagnac.  (Paris,  1899). 

ABMAQNAC,  Bernard  VTI.,  Count  d' 
(  ?  -1418) .  The  leader  of  the  Orleanist  partv, 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  VI.  of  France,  which, 
from  him,  took  the  name  Armagnaca.  The  rise 
of  this  party  was  due  to  the  feud  between 
the  dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Orleans  over  the 
possession  of  the  royal  power  during  the  in- 
capacity of  Charles  VI.  (q.v.).  In  the  struggle 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  was  assassinated  and  the 
Burgundians  gained  the  upper  hand  in  the  State. 
Bernard,  father-in-law  of  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
assumed  the  leadership,  and  in  1413  got  pos- 
session of  Paris.  After  the  battle  of  Agincourt, 
in  1415,  he  became  Constable  of  France.  He 
ruled  Paris  so  oppressively  that  the  populace 
rose,  June  12,  1418,  and  killed  him  and  all  of 
his  party  they  could  find. 

ABMAGNAC,  Jean  V.,  Count  d'  (c.  1420- 
1473).  A  grandson  of  Bernard;  a  notoriously 
passionate  and  wicked  man.  He  publicly  mar- 
ried his  own  sister,  fraudulently  securing  a 
Papal  dispensation.  Charles  VII.  took  away  his 
possessions,  but  they  were  restored  by  Louis 
VI.  Armagnac  later  joined  the  "League  for  the 
Public  Good,"  and  in  consequence  was  driven  into 
Aragon  by  the  King,  and  his  estates  were  for- 
feited. At  the  intercession  of  the  King's  brother, 
the  estates  were  returned,  but  Armagnac  re- 
mained a  fugitive  and  was  put  to  death  by  the 
King's  soldiers. 

AB^MAICENT  (Lat.  nom.  pi.  armamenta, 
implements  or  utensils  for  any  purpose;  tackle 
of  a  ship).  The  guns  and  other  weapons  of 
ofi'ense  supplied  to  a  ship  or  fortification  for 
use  against  an  enemy.  It  includes  ammunition 
and  gun-mountings,  torpedoes,  torpedo-tubes, 
etc.  In  a  broader  sense,  it  is  used  to  designate 
the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  military  and  naval 
equipments  or  forces  of  a  nation. 

ABMAND,  ftr'maN',  Charles  Teffin,  Mar- 
quis de  la  Rouarie  (1766-93).  A  French  sol- 
dier in  the  American  Revolution.  Dismissed 
from  the  French  service  for  fighting  a  duel  about 
an  actress,  he  came  to  America,  and  (in  May, 
1777)  entered  the  Continental  Army  as  a  colonel. 
In  October,  1779,  he  succeeded  Pulaski  in  com- 
mand of  the  "Pulaski  I-«gion"  (soon  renamed 
"Armand's  Partisan  Corps"),  and  in  1783  be- 
came a  brigadier-general.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1783  and  took  an  active  part,  on  the  Royalist 
side,  in  the  French  Revolution.  See  a  Memoir 
by  Townshcnd  Ward  in  Vol.  II.  Pennsylvania 
Magazhie  of  History  and  Biography  (Philadel- 
phia, 1878). 

ABMANDE,  ftr-mJiNd^  One  of  the  elder 
sisters  of  Henriette,  in  Molifere's  Les  Femmes 
Savnntes.     Armande,  wishing  to  marry  Henri- 


ette's  lover,  tried  to  marry  her  off  to  Trissottin, 
and  would  have  succeeded  but  for  the  inter- 
ference of  her  uncle. 

ABlffATfSPEBQ,  ftr^mAns-p^rK,  Joseph  Ln>- 
wiG,  Count  von  (1787-1853).  A  German  states- 
man, bom  in  Lower  Bavaria.  In  1826  he  was 
appointed  Bavarian  minister  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  soon  after  exchanged  that  ofiice  for  the 
portfolios  of  the  interior  and  the  finances.  He 
drew  upon  himself  the  hatred  of  the  Camarilla 
by  his  strenuous  opposition  to  the  claims  of 
Rome,  as  well  as  by  his  attempts  to  identify  him- 
self with  the  Liberal  party,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  clergy  brought  about  his  dismissal.  He 
accompanied  the  young  King  Otho  to  Greece  in 
1833,  where  for  four  years  he  acted  as  regent  or 
chancellor.  Greece  derived  many  benefits  from 
his  administration. 

ABMATOLES,  &r^m&-t(Jlz.  A  body  of  Greek 
militia,  first  formed  under  the  reign  of  Sultan 
Selim  I.  about  the  beginning  of  the  Sixteenth 
Century.  They  were  organi^d  to  preserve  the 
fertile  plains  from  the  ravages  of  the  klephts. 
Christian  mountain  robbers  of  Thessaly,  Epirus, 
and  Macedonia  (from  Gk.  K^iTrnyf,  kleptes,  rob- 
b«»r ) ,  who  had  never  been  entirely  conquered  by 
the  Turks.  The  Armatoles  themselves  were 
originally  klephts,  but  received  their  more  hon- 
orable designation  when  the  Porte  bad  tran.<- 
formed  them  into  a  sort  of  military  police.  The 
safety  of  the  public  roads  was  intrusted  to  their 
care.  The  whole  of  northern  Gr^ce  was  divided 
into  fourteen  districts,  each  placed  under  the 
supervision  of  a  chief  of  these  militia,  who,  how- 
ever, had  himself  to  receive  orders  from  a  Turk- 
ish pasha  or  Greek  bishop.  But  although  the 
Armatoles  frequently  suppressed  the  briganda<:e 
of  the  klephts,  they  still  regarded  them  in  the 
light  of  brothers,  inasmuch  as  they  had  a  com- 
mon origin  and  faith;  both  detested  the  oppres- 
sors of  their  country,  and  the  sentiment  of 
patriotism  overruled  every  other  consideration. 
This  sympathy  at  last  appeared  to  the  Turks  so 
dangerous  that  they  grew  alarmed,  and  desired 
to  substitute  for  the  Armatoles,  the  Mohamme- 
dan Albanians,  who  were  the  implacable  enemies 
of  the  Greeks,  which  resolution  did  not  a  little 
to  hasten  the  insurrection  which  the  Porte  ever 
dreaded.  The  moment  it  broke  out,  the  Arma- 
toles pronounced  themselves  in  favor  of  the 
national  cause,  and  in  the  war  of  independencv 
that  ensued,  distinguished  themselves  by  their 
brilliant  exploits.  Marco  Bozarris,  leader  of  the 
Souliotes,  was  a  good  type  of  the  Armatole. 

AB'MATXJBE  (Lat.  armatura,  armor:  Ger. 
Anker).  The  mass  of  iron  or  other  magnetizable 
substance  that  is  placed  in  contact  with  the  pnle 
or  poles  of  a  magnet,  or  in  proximity  thereto. 
In  the  case  of  a  permanent  magnet  of  the  horse- 
shoe pattern,  the  armature  may  be  of  soft  ir<»n 
and  act  as  the  keeper  to  help  retain  and  prescne 
the  magnetism  by  completing  the  magnetic  cir- 
cuit through  the  two  poles.  The  armature  of  an 
electro-magnet  is  placed  near  its  poles,  and  when- 
ever a  current  of  electricity  is  sent  through  the 
coils  of  the  latter,  is  attracted  or  repelled.  If 
the  armature  is  a  piece  of  soft  iron,  attraction 
always  takes  place,  and  on  this  principle  i? 
based  the  action  of  the  electric  bell,  the  tele- 
graph sounder,  and  other  forms  of  electrical  ap- 
paratus. Such  an  armature,  as  soon  as  the  flo^r 
of  the  current  ceases,  returns  to  its  normal  po<i- 


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ABICENIA. 


tiou  under  the  action  of  gravity  or  of  a  spring. 
If  the  annature  is  a  permanent  steel  magnet  or 
another  electro-magnet,  it  m&j  move  either 
toward  or  away  from  the  main  electro-magnet, 
depending  on  its  polarity,  and  in  that  case  is 
known  as  a  polarized  armature.  In  d^amo- 
electric  machinery,  the  term  armature  is  used 
to  designate  tliat  portion  of  the  machine  in 
which  the  differences  of  electric  potential  pro- 
ducing the  current  are  generated,  and  is  gener- 
ally employed  to  descri^  the  part  which  is  re- 
volved between  the  poles  of  the  field  magnets. 
The  name  is  used  in  this  connection,  since  the 
iron  cores  on  which  the  coils  comprising  the 
armature  are  wound  afford  a  magnetic  connec- 
tion between  the  poles  of  the  field  magnets,  just 
as  is  done  by  the  keeper  or  armature  of  the 
horseshoe  magnet.  See  Magnet;  and  Dynamo- 
Electric  Machineby. 

ABICE  BLANCHE,  arm'  blilNsh^  A  term 
of  French  origin,  meaning  *white  arm.'  It  has 
special  application  to  the  dueling  foil  or 
rapier  (see  I^encino),  but  is  often  applied  to 
all  weapons  other  than  firearms,  such  as  foil, 
rapier,  sword,  lance,  and  dagger. 

ABMED  NEXJTBAI/IT7,  The.  An  asso- 
ciation of  European  powers  which, under  the  lead- 
ership of  Russia,  first  gave  international  validity 
to  the  doctrine,  proclaimed  bv  Prussia  in  1752  and 
by  France  in  1778,  that  "free  ships  make  free 
goods."  Because  England  insisted  on  her  right 
to  search  neutral  ships  for  her  enemies'  goods 
in  the  early  years  of  her  war  with  America, 
France,  and  Spain  (1775-83),  and  in  conse- 
quence crippled  the  commerce  of  non-combatant 
powers,  Catherine  of  Russia,  on  March  8,  1780, 
issued  her  famous  proclamation  laying  down  the 
principles:  (1)  That  neutral  ships  msgr  freely 
sail  from  port  to  port  and  along  the  coasts  of 
belligerents;  (2)  that  a  blockade,  to  be  recog- 
nized, must  be  effectual  and  real;  and  (3)  that, 
except  in  the  case  of  contraband,  free  ships  make 
free  goods.  These  principles  were  immediately 
indorsed  and  adopted  by  the  United  States, 
France,  and  Spain;  and  an  association,  ulti- 
mately composed  of  Russia,  Denmark,  Sweden, 
the  Netherlands,  Prussia,  the  Empire,  Portugal, 
Turkey,  and  Naples,  was  organized  for  the  pur- 
pose of  enforcing  them  upon  the  belligerent 
powers.  The  immediate  effect  w^as  greatly  to 
embarrass  England  by  placing  her  in  diplomatic 
hostility  to  the  rest  of  Europe,  by  increasing  the 
probability  of  an  extended  war,  and  by  lessening 
the  advantage  which  her  naval  preponderance 
gave  her.  The  enunciation  of  the  doctrine  of 
"free  ships,  free  goods,"  at  that  time  marked  an 
epoch  in  the  history  of  international  maritime 
law. 

ABMED  SHIP.  A  ship  carrying  an  arma- 
ment in  contradistinction  to  one  without  arm- 
ament. The  term  is  generally  used  to  designate 
merchant  vessels  taken  into  the  service  of  the 
government  and  supplied  with  a  battery;  but  it 
was  formerly  used  with  reference  to  private 
vessels  fitted  out,  by  permission  of  a  government, 
to  operate  against  an  enemy's  commerce ;  that  is, 
a  privateer.  The  term  has  acquired  additional 
importance  in  recent  years  as  certain  unarmed 
vessels  of  the  enemy,  such  as  cartels  and  hospital 
ships,  are  exempt  from  capture;  and  the  tendency^ 
of  the  usaojes  of  maritime  war,  in  respect  to  pri- 
vate unarmed  ships,  is  toward  increased  exemp- 
tion from  capture. 


ABMED    SOLa>IEB    OF    DEMOCKBAOY, 

The.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  so  called  because 
he  was  supposed  to  give  expression  to  the  ideals 
that  succeeded  the  French  Revolution. 

ABMENOAXJD,  ttr'mttN'gy,  Jacques  Eu- 
gene, called  .\rmenoaud  the  Elder  (1810-91). 
A  French  inventor  and  draughtsman.  He  was 
bom  at  Ostend  and  was  educated  at  the  Ecole 
des  Arts  et  Metiers  at  Chftlons.  He  was  profes- 
sor of  mechanical  drawing  at  the  Conservatoire 
des  Arts  et  Metiers  at  Paris,  where  in  collabora- 
tion with  his  brother,  he  published  a  monthly 
review  entitled  Le  Odnie  Industriel.  His  works 
on  engineering  include:  Traits  thiorique  et 
pratique  des  moteura  hydrauliquee  et  d  vapeur 
(1858);  Nouveau  coura  raiaonnd  de  deasin  in^ 
duatriel  appliqu4  d  la  m6canique  et  d  Varchitee- 
ture  (1860).  He  was  decorated  with  the  Legion 
of  Honor  in  1863,  and  his  work  has  been  recog- 
nized by  many  scientific  associations. 

ABICENIA  (Assyrian  Urartu,  Old  Persian, 
Armaniya;  Persian,  Armina).  A  high  table- 
land in  Western  Asia,  situated  to  the  southwest 
of  the  Caucasus  range,  stretching  southward 
toward  the  lowlands  of  Mesopotamia,  and  ex- 
tending from  the  highlands  of  Asia  Minor  on 
the  west  to  the  vicinity  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
Armenia,  in  the  widest  sense  of  the  name,  is 
included  between  the  parallels  of  37°  30'  and 
41°  45'  north  latitude,  and  the  meridians  of  37° 
and  49°  east  longitude.  It  embraces  the  north- 
east comer  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  the  southern  part 
of  Transcaucasia  (Asiatic  Russia),  and  the 
northwest  comer  of  Persia.  The  principal  por- 
tion, having  an  area  in  round  numbers  of  about 
70,000  square  miles,  belongs  to  Turkey  (Map: 
Turkey  in  Asia,  J  2),  and  is  included  in  the 
vilayets  of  Erzemm,  Van,  Bitlis,  Mamuret  (il- 
Aziz,  and  Diarbekr.  The  Russian  portion  (ac- 
quired in  part  from  Persia  in  1828,  and  in  part 
from  Turkey  in  1878)  is  included  in  the  govem- 
ments  of  Erivan,  Yelisavetpol,  and  Tiflis,  and 
the  territory  of  Kars.  Persian  Armenia  forms 
part  of  the  Province  of  Azerbaijan.  A  great 
part  of  the  region  called  Kurdistan  is  included 
in  Southern  Armenia.  In  antiquity  Armenia 
was  divided  into  Greater  and  Lesser  Armenia, 
the  latter  (a  small  fraction  of  the  whole)  being 
separated  from  the  former  by  the  western  head- 
stream  of  the  Euphrates.  Between  the  Arme- 
nian table-land  and  the  Caucasus  Range  is  the 
broad  depression  of  the  Kur  Valley.  The  sur- 
face covered  with  a  series  of  mountain  ranges, 
mostly  of  volcanic  origin,  inclosing  elevated 
plateaus,  some  of  which  are  as  much  as  6000  or 
7000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  surface  of  which 
consists  in  great  part  of  pasture  land.  From 
these  plateaus  rise  great  conical  mountain  peaks. 
Mount  Ararat,  situated  where  the  frontiers  of 
Russia,  Turkey,  and  Persia  meet,  has  an  altitude 
of  nearly  17,000  feet.  Armenia  is  watered  chiefly 
by  the  Euphrates,  Kur,  and  Aras.  It  contains 
three  extensive-  salt  lakes — Van  in  Turkish  Ar- 
menia (elevation  over  5000  feet),  Urumiah  in 
Persian  Armenia  (elevation  over  4000  feet),  and 
Goktoha,  in  Russian  Armenia. 

The  climate  of  Armenia  is  generally  healthful, 
but  the  temperature  is  very  imsteady.  Long  and 
severe  winters  are  followed  by  very  short  springs, 
beginning  in  April.  The  summers  are  hot,  and 
grains  and  fruit  ripen  very  early.  The  rainfall 
is  generally  scant,  and  artificial  irrigation  has 


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ABMENIA. 


been  resorted  to  for  centuries  past.  The  flora 
Taries  considerabl  j,  in  accordance  with  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  surface.  Trees  are  found  at  an  alti- 
tude of  nearly  9000  feet,  and  even  higher  on  the 
southern  slopes.  Wheat  grows  freely  as  high  as 
7000  feet  above  the  sea.  Southern  fruits,  such  as 
olives  and  figs,  are  cultivated  successfully  in  the 
warmer  regions,  while  the  common  fruits  are 
found  everywhere.  Tobacco,  flax,  and  cotton  are 
also  cultivated.  The  domestic  animals  of  Arme- 
nia, and  especially  horses  and  sheep,  are  well 
known  for  their  good  qualities,  while  the  wild 
animals,  such  as  the  bear,  wolf,  tiger,  hyena, 
leopard,  etc.,  are  still  found  in  the  woods.  The 
soil  of  Armenia  is  generally  fertile  and  well 
adapted  for  agricultural  purposes. 

The  turbulent  state  of  the  country  under  the 
despotic  rule  of  Turkey,  however,  has  always 
been  a  serious  obstacle  to  the  natural  develop- 
ment of  the  region,  and  as  a  result  agriculture 
is  very  much  neglected.  Armenia  has  consider- 
able mineral  wealth.  The  chief  minerals  are 
marble,  saltpetre,  iron,  copper,  quicksilver,  lead, 
and  gold.  The  population  of  Turkish  Annenia 
(the  chief  city  of  which  is  Erzerum)  is  between 
2,000,000  and  2,500,000.  Of  this  number,  about 
650,000  are  Armenians,  the  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion consisting  of  Turks  and  Kurds.  The  Ar- 
menians in  Transcaucasia  number  nearly  1,000,- 
000.  The  number  of  Armenians  in  European 
Turkey  is  estimated  at  about  400,000,  and  there 
is  a  considerable  Armenian  population  in  Asiatic 
Turkey  outside  of  Armenia.  Persia  is  supposed 
to  contain  about  100,000  Armenians,  and  there 
are  about  30,000  in  Ciscaucasia.  Hungary,  Trans- 
ylvania, and  Galicia  have  about  15,000,  and  there 
are  several  thousand  in  India  and  also  in  Africa. 
Since  the  recent  massacres  by  the  Turks,  con- 
siderable numbers  have  emigrated  to  the  United 
States. 

By  language  the  Armenians,  or,  as  they  call 
themselves,  Haik,  are  entitled  to  rank  as  a  very 
old  branch  of  the  Ar^'an  stock,  in  some  respects 
intermediate  between  the  Aryans  of  Europe  and 
the  Aryan  peoples  of  Greater  Asia.  Physically 
also  they  are  of  a  primitive  type,  short  and 
thickset,  dark-skinned,  and  of  exaggerated  bra- 
chycephalism,  in  part  artificially  induced.  They 
are  related  on  the  one  hand  to  the  *Alpine' 
stock  in  Europe,  and  on  the  other  to  the  Galt- 
chas,  etc.,  of  Central  Asia.  Their  physical  type 
is  probably  less  pure  than  is  assumed  by  Ripley 
(1899),  but  not  so  mixed  as  Deniker  (1900) 
supposes.  They  inhabited  in  early  prehistoric 
times  a  considerable  portion  of  Asia  Minor,  and 
have  contributed  to,  or  borrowed  from,  Aryans 
of  other  types,  Semites,  Caucasic  peoples,  and 
later  intruding  Europeans  and  Turks.  Their 
racial,  social,  and  religious  solidarity,  and  their 
position  in  a  land  that  has  seen  so  much  of  the 
beginnings  of  the  civilizations  of  the  white  race, 
make  them  one  of  the  most  interesting  peoples 
of  Asia.  The  Armenians  are  conspicuous  by 
their  industry,  intelligence,  and  aptitude  for 
commercial  pursuits,  and  in  many  cities  of  the 
East  they  are  the  principal  merchants  and 
money-lenders.  The  bulk  of  the  Armenians 
belong  to  the  so-called  Armenian  Church  (q.v.). 

Arch -OOLOGY.  Cities  abounding  in  superb  pal- 
aces and  temples  existed  in  Armenia  from  remote 
antiquity.  Armais,  grandson  of  Haig,  the  con- 
queror of  Ninirod,  is  said  to  have  built  the  town 
of  Armavir,  long  the  capital  of  Armenia,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Araxes.     When,  according  to  the 


tradition,  Semiramis  conquered  the  count ry, 
Semiramocerte,  now  Van,  was  built,  where  im- 
portant excavations  and  discoveries  have  been 
made  in  recent  years.  Christianity,  introduced  by- 
Saint  Gregory,  and  adopted  by  his  royal  convert, 
Tiridates,  c.312,  resulted  in  the  demolition  of 
the  pagan  temples*  throughout  the  kingdom  and 
the  endowment  and  building  of  Christian 
churches.  Among  the  most  interesting  examples 
of  Armenian  architecture  dating  from  this  period 
are  the  remains  of  fortifications,  the  castle,  cathe- 
dral, and  chapel  at  Ani,  the  ruins  at  Akhlat  and 
at  Talin,  the  troglodyte  city  of  Vardzia,  the 
medisval  castle  of  Khertvis,  Uie  church  at  Saba, 
built  by  Atabeg  Sargis  (1306-34),  and  the  one 
at  Etchmiadzin,  the  cathedral  of  Saint  Gregory, 
the  monastery  and  the  churches  of  Saint  Gaine, 
Saint  Ripisme,  and  of  Shoghakath,  with  its 
finely  sculptured  stones. 

History.  The  Armenians  trace  their  descent 
from  Haig,  the  grandson  of  Japhet.  His  descend- 
ant, Aram,  is  the  eponymous  hero  of  the  land, 
which  was  called  Armina  by  the  Persians,  and 
Haik,  or  Haiastan,  by  the  Armenians  themselves. 
Though  undoubtedly  possessed  of  a  very  old  civil- 
ization, the  Armenian  people  appears  in  authen- 
tic history  for  the  first  time  about  the  middle  of 
the  Sixth  Century  B.c.,  when  Dikran,  or  Tigranes 
ancient  subjection  to  the  Assyrians  and  Medes. 
Subdued  by  Alexander  the  Great,  the  country 
was  ruled  by  the  representatives  of  the  Seleucid 
kings  until  b.c.  190,  when  the  satraps  Artaxias 
and  Zariadres  revolted  against  Antiochus  the 
Great  and  divided  the  province  between  them, 
the  former  taking  the  country  east  of  the  Eu- 
phrates, or  Armenia  Major;  the  latter  the  west- 
em  portion,  or  Armenia  Minor.  Armenia  Major 
was  subdued  by  the  Parthians  about  B.C.  150,  and 
ruled,  except  for  a  prief  period  of  Persian  dom- 
ination (A.D.  232-260),  till  A.D.  428  by  the  family 
of  the  Arsacidse.  The  most  celebrated  prince  of 
the  line  was  Tigranes  the  Great,  who,  drawTi  by 
his  father-in-law,  Mithridates,  into  a  quarrel 
with  Rome,  was  completely  overthrown  at 
Tigranocerta  (  b.c.  69 ) ,  but  was  left  in  power  as 
a  client  king  of  the  Romans.  Armenia  thus  be- 
came a  buffer  state  between  the  Roman  Empire 
and  the  Parthians,  and  was  controlled  in  rapid 
alternation  by  the  two  powers.  In  a.d.  387  the 
Byzantines  and  Persians  definitively  partitioned 
country:  the  line  of  the  Arsacidse  continuing  to 
rule  in  Persarmenia  forty  years  longer. 

About  the  year  285  (Christianity  was  intro- 
duced into  Armenia  by  Gregory  the  Illuminator, 
who  succeeded  in  converting  the  King,  Tiridates 
III.  Zoroastrianism,  the  old  religion  of  the 
country,  collapsed,  the  people  imitated  the  ex- 
ample of  their  monarch,  and  the  earliesc  national 
Christian  Church  in  the  world  arose.  The  Sas- 
sanid  rulers  of  Persia  vainly  endeavored  to  ex- 
tirpate Christianity,  and  succeeded  only  in 
plunging  the  country  into  anarchy.  The  first  250 
years  of  Arab  rule  (636-885)  were  marked  by 
bitter  conflicts  between  Mohammedans  and  By- 
zantines, but  in  885  Ashod  I.,  a  descendant  of 
the  ancient  Jewish  family  of  the  Bagratids,  or 
Pagratids,  was  made  king,  under  the  suzerainty 
of  the  Caliph,  and  for  more  than  100  years  the 
land  enjoyed  peace.  Then  ruin  came  upon  it  in 
the  shape  of  Byzantine  and  Mongol  invasions. 
The  Seljuk  Turks,  and  after  them  Timur,  de- 
vastated the  land,  and  occupied  a  portion  of  it, 
while  the  Byzantines  seized  the  rest.  Subjugated 
by  the  Persians  in  1472^  part  of  it  w^as  wrested 


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819 


ABUCEKIAN  ABT. 


from  them  by  the  Ottomans  50  years  later,  and 
permanently  incorporated  into  their  empire.  The 
northeastern  portion  of  Armenia  Major  was 
taken  from  the  Persians  by  Russia  in  1828,  who 
added  to  her  possession  in  187B  the  Turkish 
country  of  Kars  and  Batum. 

Armenia  Minor  for  a  long  time  had  a  history 
of  its  own.  It  was  made  a  Roman  province  in 
A.D.  70;  was  conquered  from  the  Byzantines  by 
the  Arabs  about  633,  and  recovered  by  the  By- 
zantines 120  years  later.  In  1080  Rhupen,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  Bagratids,  made  himself  inde- 
pendent in  Armenia  Minor;  his  successors  ex- 
tended their  power  over  Cilicia  and  Gappadocia, 
and  aided  the  Crusaders  against  the  Saracens. 
The  house  of  Rhupen  fell  in  1393,  and  the  land, 
after  passing  through  the  hands  of  the  Egyptians 
and  the  Persians,  came  into  the  possession  of  the 
Turks  in  1541. 

Armenia,  therefore,  at  the  present  is  merely 
an  historical  conception.  The  ancient  land  is  di- 
vided among  the  Turks,  the  Russians,  and  the 
Persians,  and  the  Armenian  people  have  been 
scattered  over  Asia  Minor  and  a  considerable 
territory  in  Europe.  Aspirations  toward  na- 
tional unity  have  not  been  wanting  among  the 
Armenians,  especially  those  dwelling  in  Asiatic 
Turkey.  After  1885  a  revolutionary  movement, 
inspired  by  the  Russian  Nihilist  propaganda,  at- 
tained to  formidable  dimensions.  The  Porte  in- 
trusted the  pacification  of  the  country  to  the 
Kurds, 'who  constitute  the  national  police.  San- 
guinary conflicts,  marked  by  outrageous  cruelty 
on  both  sides,  occurred  between  the  revolutionists 
and  the  police  in  the  provinces  of  Trebizond, 
Bitlis,  and  Erzerum,  and  it  was  the  news  of  the 
atrocities  committed  by  Kurds,  acting  in  their 
official  capacity,  that  stirred  Europe  and  Ameri- 
ca to  horror  in  the  years  1895  and  1896.  Signs 
of  anti-Armenian  feeling  had  appeared  through- 
out Asiatic  Turkey  as  early  as  the  spring  of 
1894.  In  August  of  that  year  a  massacre  of 
Armenians  was  perpetrated  at  Sassun,  and  the 
fever  of  murder  spread  all  over  Asiatic  Turkey. 
All  through  the  spring  and  summer  of  1895  the 
slauffhter  of  Armenian  men,  women,  and  children 
continued,  until  the  representatives  of  England, 
France,  and  Russia,  backed  up  by  their  assembled 
warships,  wrested  from  the  Sultan  the  promise 
of  reparation  and  reforms.  A  commission  was 
sent  to  the  scene  of  conflict  to  investigate  condi- 
tions there,  and  the  Armenian  Patriarch  was 
summoned  to  Constantinople  to  state  the  de- 
mands of  the  Armenians,  which  included  a  share 
in  the  making  of  laws  and  the  administration, 
and  proportional  representation  in  the  national 
police.  The  Sultan's  trade  went  forth,  the  com- 
mission labored,  and  the  massacres  continued. 
Ihiring  the  months  of  October  and  November 
Armenians  were  butchered  at  Trebizond,  Erze- 
rum, Akhissar,  Bitlis,  Zeitun,  Swas,  Kurun,  and 
Marash.  At  Diarbekr  a  pitched  battle  was 
fought  between  Turks  and  Armenians,  in  which 
5000  men  perished.  In  the  Provinces  of  Erzerum 
and  Trebizond  entire  villages  were  devastated, 
famine  and  plague  attacked  the  survivors  of 
the  massacres,  and  the  Turkish  Government  was 
forced,  only  after  the  greatest  reluctance,  into 
permitting  the  work  of  relief  organized  by  Clara 
Barton  and  the  Red  Cross  Society  to  be  carried 
on.  The  outrages  subsided  in  18*96,  but  in  Au- 
gust occurred  a  fearful  carnage  of  Armenians 
in  the  streets  of  Constantinople,  perpetrated  by 
a  mob  at  the  instigation  of  the  Government,  in 


retaliation  for  the  attack  on  the  Ottoman  Bank 
made  by  Armenian  patriots,  August  26-28. 
At  least  4000  Armenians,  and  probably  twice 
that  number,  were  beaten  to  death  in  the  streets 
and  on  the  roofs  by  the  clubs  of  hired  ruffians. 
Nor  could  reparation  be  demanded  of  the  Turk- 
ish Grovernment,  inasmuch  as  the  Armenian  revo- 
lutionists, by  their  riotous  action,  had  put  them- 
selves and  their  innocent  countrymen  outside  of 
the  law.  Since  1896  the  sporadic  slaughter  of 
Armenians  on  a  minor  scale  has  continued  to  the 
present  day;  but  the  attention  of  the  powers 
has  been  directed  elsewhere,  and  no  real  guaran- 
tees for  the  safety  of  the  unhappy  people  have 
been  exacted  from  the  Turkish  Government. 

Bibliography.  The  best  modem  work  on 
Armenia  is  Lynch,  Armenia  (New  York,  1901), 
which  contains  a  good  map  and  an  exhaustive 
bibliography;  Saint-Martin,  M  ^moires  histo- 
riques  et  g^ographiques  aur  VAnn^nie  (Paris, 
1818-19)  ;  NoguCres,  Afm&nie;  g^ographie,  re- 
ligioriy  mceurSy  littdrature,  aititation  actuelle 
(Paris,  1897)  ;  Tchobanian,  L'Armhiie,  son 
histoire,  sa  litt&ratiiref  8on  rdle  en  Orient 
(Paris,  1897);  Ozhderian,  The  Turk  and  the 
Land  of  Haig,  or  Turkey  and  Armenia,  Descrip- 
tive, Historical,  and  Picturesque  (New  York, 
1898)  ;  Tiele,  Western  Asia,  According  to  Most 
Recent  Discoveries  (London,  1893)  ;  Kolenati, 
Die  Bereisung  Hoch  Armeniens  (Dresden,  1858)  ; 
Bryce,  Trans-Caucasia  and  Ararat  (London, 
1896)  ;  Barkley,  A  Ride  Through  Asia  Minor  and 
Armenia  (London,  1891);  John  Catholicos,  Pa- 
triarch of  Armenia,  Histoire  d'Armdnie,  translat- 
ed by  Saint-Martin  (Paris,  1841)  ;  Issaverdentz, 
Armenia  and  the  Armenians  (Venice,  1888)  ; 
Gregor,  History  of  Armenia  (London,  1897); 
Brasset,  Voyage  aroh4ologique  en  Trans-Caucasie 
(Saint  Petersburg,  1849-51)  ;  Langlois,  Rapport 
sur  Vexploration  arch4ologique  de  Cilicie  et  de 
la  Petite  ArmHie  (Paris,  1854)  ;  Sayce,  The 
Cuneiform  Inscriptions  of  Van  (London,  1882-88- 
93-94)  ;  Hyvemat,  Uhistoire  ancienne  de  VAr- 
m4nie  et  les  inscriptions  cun6iformes  du  bassin 
de  Van  (Paris,  1892)  ;  Belck,  "Archseologische 
Forschungen  in  Armenien,"  in  Verhandlungen 
der  Gesellschaft  fUr  Anthropologic  (Berlin, 
1893)  ;  Deniker,  Races  of  Man  (London,  1900) ; 
Belck  and  Lehmann  have  published  a  -number  of 
valuable  articles  on  Armenian  Archeology  and 
Ethnology  in  the  Verhandlungen  der  Gesellschaft 
fiir  Anthropologie  (Berlin,  1900-01);  Greene, 
The  Armenian  Crisis  and  the  Rule  of  the  Turk 
(New  York,  1897);  De  Cursons,  La  Rebellion 
Arm4nienne  (Paris,  1895) ;  Lepsius,  Armenia 
und  Europa  (Berlin,  1896)  ;  Gladstone,  The  Ar- 
menian Question  (London,  1893)  ;  Nazarbek, 
Armenian  Revolutionists  Upon  Armenian  Prob- 
lem (London,  1895)  ;  Woods,  The  Truth  About 
Asia  Minor  (London,  1890). 

ABICE^IAN  ABT.  This  art  and  that  of 
Georgia  are  so  closely  related  as  to  form  but  a 
single  style,  which  might  be  called  the  art  of  the 
Caucasus.  Its  early  antiquities  are  not  very  well 
known:  they  are  related  to  those  of  the  Sar- 
mathians  and  Scythians  of  Turkistan  and  Si- 
beria, and  of  the  cities  of  Crimea  and  the  Bos- 
porus. In  northern  Armenia  there  are  thou- 
sands of  graves  in  the  form  of  large  moimds,  and 
especially  near  Kaaban,  there  are  many  dolmens. 
It  is  from  these  tombs  (e.g.,  Koban  and  Ka- 
munta)  that  the  objects  have  come  which  show 
us  the  condition  of  the  arts  here  just  before  and 
after  ihe  Christian  era.    It  was  rather  late  when 


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ABMENIAN  ABT. 


820 


ABKEKIAN  ABT. 


both  Persian  and  Roman  influences  penetrated 
simultaneously.  Building  had  been  almost  en- 
tirely in  wood,  except  in  the  case  of  the  numer- 
ous fortresses.  The  only  ruins  yet  studied  of  the 
Roman  period  are  those  at  Kami.  This  region 
seems  to  have  become  an  important  centre  for 
the  propagation  of  that  most  interesting  form  of 
barbaric  art  which  we  associate  with  Goths, 
Celts,  Scandinavians,  Anglo-Saxons,  Lombards, 
and  other  early  Germanic  tribes,  and  of  which 
the  treasury  of  Guerrazar  is  the  most  brilliant 
example.  Its  main  characteristics  are:  The 
technique  of  cloisonne  enamel,  the  setting  of 
colored  glass  in  metal  bands  soldered  to  a  metal 
ground,  and  the  use  of  geometric  ornamentation. 
Beginning  in  Central  Asia,  it  passed  westward, 
apparently  with  the  emigration  of  the  Goths, 
by  whom  it  was  presumably  imparted  to  the 
other  tribes.  Shortly  after,  when  the  country 
had  become  Christianized,  the  history  of  archi- 
tecture and  monumental  sculpture  in  this  region 
began.  The  churches  built  tSetween  the  Seventh 
and  Sixteenth  centuries  are  not  large,  but  have 
considerable  character. 

The  Caucasus  felt  the  influence  of  Byzantine 
art  at  all  times,  but  added  to  it,  and  to  its  own 
inherited  traits,  something  from  Syria,  whose 
missionaries  had  converted  it  and  formed  its 
literature.  At  one  time  Armenia  became,  in  fact, 
a  province  of  the  Empire  politically  as  well  as 
artistically.  Then,  during  the  Middle  Ages,  the 
Crusaders  gave  a  Western  tinge,  and  still  later 
came  the  influence  of  Russian  art.  The  earliest 
kno\\Ti  church  of  Armenia,  Saint  Ripsima's  at 
Vagashabad  (618)  is  thoroughly  Byzantine,  a 
Greek  cross  with  its  four  arms  ending  in  apses 
and  a  central  dome  raised  on  a  drum,  circular 
inside  and  polygonal  outside.  As  in  so  many 
Byzantine  churches,  the  cruciform  plan  does  not 
appear  on  the  outside,  as  chapels  fill  in  the 
spaces  between  the  arms.  The  church  at  Usunlar, 
with  its  peristyle  colonnade,  dates  from  718-729. 
Both  are  still  without  ornament.  It  is  possible 
that  the  Church  at  Dighbur,  from  its  similarities 
to  buildings  in  Central  Syria  of  the  Sixth  Cen- 
tury-, may  be  even  earlier.  Pitzeuda  (c.  Fifteenth 
Century),  with  its  high  dome  and  tunnel  vaults, 
is  very  Byzantine.  The  culmination  of  a  new  style 
appears  in  the  Cathedral  of  Ani  (1010  A.D.),  the 
most  interesting  church  of  Armenia.  The  ex- 
terior, with  its  central  dome  raised  on  a  high 
square  drum,  its  exterior  decorated  with  colo- 
nettes,  its  internal  clustered  piers  and  pointed 
arches,  as  well  as  its  vaulting  system,  reminds 
us  in  many  ways  of  the  European  architecture. 
At  the  same  date  a  church  was  built  at  Mokwi, 
Byzantine  in  every  particular,  and  with  the 
greatest  similarity  to  the  early  Russian  Church 
of  Saint  Sophia  at  Novgorod.  The  contemporary 
Cathedral  of  Kiutas  in  Imerethia,  is  of  equal  im- 
portance, but  its  plan  is  basilical  instead  of  a 
Greek  cross.  This  century  was  most  prolific.  In 
Abkhasia,  the  church  of  Mowki,  with  a  charming 
dome  and  five  naves  with  slender  stone  piers  and 
cornices  of  great  delicacy;  that  of  Martvili,  in 
Mingrelia,  with  exquisite  decorative  details,  are 
samples  of  a  numerous  class  of  which  others  are 
at  ^langlis,  Kaben,  Sion,  Zarzma,  etc.  Later,  in 
the  Twelfth  Century,  are  others  at  Bethania, 
Vardzia,  Ghelathi.  The  purely  architectural 
moldings  are  very  simple;  a  cornice  of  a  simple 
cove,  sometimes  decorated  with  painted  or  carved 
palriiettes  or  foliage :  a  rude,  ball-shaped  capital ; 
a  torus  moulding  woven  into  patterns  and  often 


carried  out  so  as  to  join  the  windows  and  decora- 
tive plaques  in  one  scheme  of  ornament  covering 
the  whole  facade.  The  climax  is  reached  in  the 
Fifteenth  Century  in  the  Church  of  Mtzkhet  in 
Georgia,  Armenian  in  its  dome  and  plan,  Byzan- 
tine in  its  proportions,  Georgian  in  its  rich  inter- 
laced decorative  patterns  with  the  addition  of 
Byzantine  floral  designs.  Statuary  and  figures 
in  relief  appear  to  have  been  systematically 
avoided,  and  when  used  were  crude  and  provin- 
cial. In  some  churches  the  king,  bishop,  or  archi- 
tect is  represented  holding  the  model  of  the 
building;  or  Christ  is  blessing.  But  the  animal 
and  decorative  sculpture  is  much  more  artistic. 
The  fighting  animals  are  a  reminiscence  of  Per- 
sian art;  the  peacocks,  doves,  griffins,  and 
dragons,  heraldically  arrayed  or  intertwined  with 
vines,  are  derived  from  Byzantine  models. 

The  most  successful  use  of  decorative  sculpture 
is  in  the  broad  bands  surrounding  the  church 
windows  and  in  the  panels  let  into  the  walls. 
These  are  in  very  flat  and  low  relief,  and  are 
often  highly  original,  differing  from  Byzantine 
work  and  bearing  a  most  remarkable  resemblani-e 
to  the  patterns  in  Celtic-Irish,  Anglo-Saxon,  and 
Frankish  illuminated  manuscripts.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  in  churches  of  the  Eleventh  to  the 
Fifteenth  centuries.  It  is  interesting  that  in- 
scriptions w^re  turned  to  extremely  decorative 
purposes,  just  as  they  were  in  Mohammedan  art 
The  most  decorative  class  of  smaller  works  are 
the  sepulchral  slabs  usiially  erected  like  antique 
stiles  on  pedestals  in  the  open  air.  Their  design 
is  graceful  in  outline  and  delicate  in  the  detail 
of  their  arabesque  and  lace-work  patterns  around 
a  central  cross  or  rosette.  One  cannot  help  see- 
ing in  such  as  these  the  originals  of  the  famous 
Irish,  Welsh,  and  Saxon  stone  crosses,  which  are 
far  less  exquisite  in  design  and  execution.  Wood- 
carving  and  ivory-carving  were  practiced,  as  is 
shown  by  some  church  doors  and  a  multitude  of 
images,  book-covers,  crosiers,  crosses,  and  other 
bits  of  handiwork.  But  the  highest  efforts  of 
Georgian  and  Armenian  decoration,  with  its 
amalgamation  of  Sassanian-Per8ian,of  Byzantine 
and  Mohammedan  design,  are  shown  in  the  gold- 
smith's work,  where  the  metals  are  combined  with 
enamels  and  set  stones.  The  treasuri^  of  mon- 
asteries and  churches  in  Suanetia,  Mingrelia, 
and  other  provinces  are  still  extremely  rich  in 
such  works ;  especially  Etchmiadzin  the  national 
sanctuary  of  Armenia,  Ghelathi,  Khopi,  Tchu- 
kul,  etc.  None  of  them  a^je  earlier  than  the 
Tenth  Century.  In  most  cases  the  ornamentation 
surrounds  some  sacred  image.  The  elaborate 
geometric  design,  so  difficult  to  follow,  and  yet 
so  thoroughljr  scientific,  winds  over  the  entir? 
gold  surface  inclosing  the  enamels  surrounded  by 
pearls. the  precious  stones  framed  in  gold rloison*. 
The  cloisonne  enamel  employed  is  another  link 
both  with  Byzantium  and  with  the  prim  it  iv? 
jewelry  of  the  Goths  and  their  imitators,  the 
Germanic  tribes.  It  is  probable  that  the  prw^f* 
originated  in  this  very  region.  The  local  stvle  ^f 
figured  enamels,  of  great  originality  in  the  Ninth 
to  Twelfth  centuries,  and  independent  of  Bvziin- 
tium,  is  brilliantly  shown  in  those  of  the  Khakul 
image  at  Ghelathi  and  others  at  Sion.  Diun^a- 
ti,  Khopi,  etc.  In  jewelry,  figured  composition!^ 
were  not  avoided,  as  in  large  soulptur.^ : 
especially  where  the  art  came  strongly  und  r 
Byzantine  influence,  and  the  figures  in  their 
crude  realism  and  exaggerated  movement  ajniin 
connect  with  Carlovingian  and  other  branch  A  <f 


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ABMBNIAN  ABT. 


821 


ABICENIAN  LANOXJAGE. 


the  north  European  art  of  early  mediieval  times, 
rather  than  with  Byzantium.  Religieuses,  gold 
images,  triptychs,  crosses,  chalices,  book-covers, 
are  among  the  forms  taken  by  this  jewelry.  They 
are  found  in  dozens  of  church  treasuries.  Wall- 
painting  was  very  general  during  the  entire 
period,  and  here  again  considerable  independence 
of  Byzantium  was  shown.  The  only  example  of 
the  mosaic  work  so  universal  among  the  Greeks 
is  at  Ghelathi,  and  was  a  present  to  King  David 
from  Emperor  Alexis  Comnenus.  Caucasian 
painting  was  far  less  stiff  and  classic  than 
Byzantme.  It  admitted  historic  scenes  more  fre- 
quently, and  the  desire  of  the  artists  to  glorify 
events  of  national  interest  is  shown  vividly  in 
frequent  portraits  of  the  sovereigns  of  Geor^a 
and  Armenia.  Such  frescoes  are  at  Sion 
( Eleventh  Century ) ,  Nekresi  ( Eleventh  Century ) , 
and  especially  Ghelathi  and  Bethania.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  nimierous  illuminated  MSS. 
of  the  same  period  (Eleventh  to  Fifteenth  cen- 
turies)^ Byzantine  influence  predominated.  The 
Georgian  are  the  earliest,  and  attained  perfec- 
tion in  the  Eleventh  Century.  More  numerous, 
but  later,  are  the  Armenian.  The  largest  collec- 
tions of  such  MSS.  are  in  the  Armenian  Library 
in  Venice,  and  in  that  of  the  monastery  of 
Etchmiadzin.  The  Thirteenth  Century  marks  for 
this,  as  well  as  for  most  other  branches  of  art, 
the  highest  point  of  perfection.  In  the  Seven- 
teenth Century  foreign  influences— especially 
Italian  and  Persian — ^began  to  predominate.  See 
ABCHITE0TU1U&;  Abt,  History  of;  Byzantine 
Art. 

References.  Consult  for  pre-Christian  an- 
tiquities: Kondakoflf  (N.),  Tolstoi  (J.),  and 
Remach  (S.),  Antiquit^a  de  la  Ruaaie  mMdion- 
ale  (l^aris,  1801);  see  also  Dubois  de  Mont- 
p^rieux.  Voyage  autour  Caucase  (Paris,  1839- 
41);  Brosset,  Voyage  arch4ologique  dans  la 
Georgia  dans  VArmhiie  (Saint  Petersburg, 
1849-51)  ;  Prince  Gagarin,  Le  Caucase  (Paris) ; 
Mourier  (J.),  L'Ari  religwuw  au  Caucase  (Paris, 
1887). 

ABHE13XAN  CHtTItCH.  C^hristianity  ap- 
pears to  have  been  introduced  in  Armenia  as 
early  as  the  Second  Century.  It  was  for  the  first 
time  firmly  established,  however,  when  Bishop 
Gregory  the  Illuminator  (q.v.),  baptized  Tin- 
dates  the  King  (301)  and  a  great  party  of  the 
people  became  immediately  baptized  Christians. 
(See  Armenia.)  The  Bible  was  translated  into 
the  Armenian  language  in  the  Fifth  Century,  hj 
Mesrob  and  Rahak.  After  this  period  great  ani- 
mation prevailed  in  the  Armenian  Church.  Num- 
bers flocked  to  the  colleges  at  Athens  and  Con- 
stantinople. In  the  ecclesiastical  controversy 
concerning  the  twofold  nature  of  Christ,  the 
Armenian  Christians  held  with  the  Monophys- 
ites  (q.v.)  ;  refused  to  acknowledge  the  authority 
of  the  Council  of  Chalcedon;  and  constituted 
themselves  a  separate  church,  which  took  the 
title  of  Gregorian  from  Gregory  himself.  For 
several  centuries  a  spirit  of  scientific  inquiry, 
especially  in  theology,  manifested  itself  among 
them  to  a  far  wider  extent  than  in  the  other 
eastern  churches.  Their  greatest  divine  is 
Kerses  IV.,  patriarch  of  Armenia,  and  Catholicos, 
from  1166  to  1173,  whose  works  have  been 
repeatedly  published.  (Latin  translation,  Ven- 
ice, 1833,  2  vols.)  ;  his  Prayers  in  thirty-six  lan- 
guages ( 1882) .  The  Georgians  have  continued  to 
entertain  a  deeply  rooted  aversion  to  the  so- 
called  Orthodox  Church.     The  Roman  Catholic 


Popes  at  various  times,  especially  (1145,  1341, 
1440)  when  the  Armenians  accepted  the  help  of 
the  West  against  the  Mohammedans,  tried  to  per- 
suade them  to  recognize  the  Papal  supremacy; 
but  for  the  most  part  only  the  nobles  consented 
to  do  so,  while  the  mass  of  the  people  clung  to 
their  peculiar  opinons,  as  we  see  from  the  com- 
plaint of  Pope  Benedict  XII.,  who  accuses  the 
Armenian  Church  of  117  errors  of  doctrine. 
There  is  a  sect  of  United  or  Roman  Catholic 
Armenians  in  Italy,  Galicia,  Persia,  Russia, 
and  Marseilles,  who  accept  the  Papal  suprem- 
acy. It  dates  from  1439.  Seventeen  dioceses  are 
now  subject  to  their  patriarch,  but  he  has  no 
authority  over  Armenians  in  Russia  and  Austria. 
The  attempt  of  Pius  IX.,  in  1867,  to  Romanize 
the  sect  still  further,  led  to  a  split,  and  the 
rebellious  fraternized  with  the  Old  Catholics  in 
1872.  The  congregation  of  the  Mechitarists 
founded  by  the  Abbot  Mechitar  in  1701  at  Venice, 
have  done  much  to  spread  the  Roman  faith 
among  their  people.  In  theology  the  orthodox 
Armenian  Church  attributes  only  one  nature  to 
Christ,  and  holds  that  the  Spirit  proceeds  from 
the  Father  alone,  this  doctrine,  however,  being 
held  by  it  in  common  with  the  Orthodox  Greek 
Church,  although  contrary  to  the  theology  of 
the  Western  churches.  With  respect  to  the 
**seven  sacraments,"  it  entertains  the  peculiar 
notion  that  at  baptism  one  must  be  sprinkled 
three  times  and  as  often  dipped;  that  confirma- 
tion is  to  be  conjoined  with  baptism;  that  the 
Lord's  Supper  must  be  celebrated  with  wine  and 
leavened  bread;  that  the  latter,  before  being 
handed  roimd,  must  be  dipped  in  the  former; 
and  that  extreme  unction  is  to  be  administered 
to  ecclesiastics  alone,  and  that  immediately  after 
(and  not  before)  their  death.  It  believes  in  the 
worship  of  saints,  but  not  in  purgatory.  It 
exceeds  the  Greek  Church  in  the  number  of  its 
fasts,  but  has  fewer  religious  festivals.  These, 
however,  are  more  enthusiastically  kept.  Divine 
service  is  held  in  Turkey  chiefly  by  night.  Mass 
is  celebrated  in  the  old  Armenian  language; 
preaching  is  carried  on  in  the  new.  The  sacer- 
dotal constitution  differs  little  from  the  Greek. 
The  head  of  the  Armenian  Church  is  called  the 
Catholicos.  He  resides  at  Etchmiadzin,  in  Rus- 
sian Armenia.  Under  him  are  bishops.  The 
Russian  Government  claims  the  right  of  ap- 
pointing him.  But  of  more  consequence  are  the 
patriarchs  of  Jerusalem  and  Constantinople,  who 
are  nominally  under  the  Catholicos.  The  monks 
of  this  church  follow  the  rule  of  Saint  Basil. 
The  Wartabieds  (vartabeds)  form  a  peculiar 
class  of  ecclesiastics;  they  live  like  monks,  but 
are  devoted  exclusively  to  learning  and  preach- 
ing. Secular  priests  must  marry  once,  but  none 
is  at  liberty  to  take  a  second  wife.  Since  1830 
very  successful  Protestant  missions  have  been 
carried  on  among  the  Armenians. 

ABHENIAN  CHTJBCH  in  the  United 
States.    See  Catholic  Ciidbches. 

ABHENIAN  LAN^aXJAaE  AND  LIT^- 
BBATUBJi.  The  Armenian  language  forms 
one  of  the  eight  main  divisions  of  the  Indo- 
Gerraanic  group.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  many 
loan-words  from  the  Iranian  languages,  Armenian 
was  for  a  long  time  supposed  to  ]£b  an  Iranian 
dialect,  and  this  theory  was  defended  especially 
by  Paul  de  Lagarde  and  Friedrich  Mtiller,  A 
more  scientific  investigation  of  the  language, 
however,  has  overthrown  this  view,  and  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  Armenian  has  been  conclusively 


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^^iTiBTrrATg  LABrOUAOE. 


822 


ABITERTA. 


shown.  For  this  great  contribution  to  philolosr 
we  are  indebted  most  of  all  to  Ueinrich  HQbsch- 
niann.  Valuable  studies  on  the  Armenian  lan- 
guage and  literature  have  also  been  made  bj 
Meillet,  Bartholoma,  Bugge,  and  others.  The 
Armenian  language  is  divided  into  two  parts: 
The  Old,  or  Classical  {grabar)  Armenian  and  the 
Modern  Armenian.  The  Classical  Armenian 
language  shows  no  dialectic  variations,  but  the 
modern  Armenian  has  many  dialects,  whose 
study  is  most  important  for  a  correct  scien- 
tific philological  knowledge  of  this  Indo-Ger- 
manic  tongue.  The  Classical  Armenian  is  a 
fully  inflected  language,  possessing  seven  declen- 
sions with  six  cases  (nom.,  gen.,  dat.,  ace., 
abl.,  and  instr.)  and  two  supplementary  cases 
(narrative  and  circumlocutory).  There  is  also, 
as  in  all  Indo-Germanic  languages,  a  special 
mode  of  declension  for  the  pronoims.  There  is 
no  gender  in  Armenian,  and  but  two  numbers, 
singular  and  plural.  Comparison  of  adjectives, 
which  are  often  uninflected,  is  chiefly  by  aux- 
iliary adverbs  or  by  repetition  of  the  adjec- 
tives to  be  compared.  There  are  lour  conjuga- 
tions, of  which  the  fourth  is  generally  passive 
in  force,  with  present,  imperfect,  first  and  sec- 
ond aorist,  and  first  and  second  future,  present 
and  future  participle,  and  infinitive  tenses.  As  in 
Greek,  but  one  of  the  futures  and  aorists  is  com- 
monly found  in  the  same  verb.  The  moods  are 
the  indicative,  subjunctive,  imperative  (or  more 
properly,  prohibitive).  The  Modem  Armenian 
diiTers  from  the  grabar  chiefly  in  the  decay  of 
its  inflectional  system,  in  the  influx  of  loan- 
words from  the  Turkish,  and  in  the  inter- 
change of  pronounciation  of  the  old  tenues  and 
medicB  with  the  new  (Classical  Armenian  5,  g, 
d,  k,  p,  etc.,  pronounced  p,  fc,  *,  g,  5,  etc.,  in 
lklo<lern  Armenian.  The  Armenian  is  fond  of 
harsh  combinations  of  consonants  and  it  is 
particularly  rich  in  affricative  sounds.  The 
accent  is  usually  on  the  last  syllable.  The 
Armenian  alphabet  consists  of  thirty-six  let- 
ters, to  which  two  others,  C  and  f,  were  added 
in  the  Twelfth  Century.  This  alphabet  was 
introduced  by  Mesrob,  a  bishop  of  the  Arme- 
nian Church,  early  in  the  Fifth  Century,  and 
was  probably  based  upon  the  Greek  letters, 
with  additions  from  other  sources  to  provide 
characters  for  sounds  not  represented  in  the 
Greek  alphabet.  In  addition  to  the  sounds 
familiar  to  our  ears,  Armenian  possesses  char- 
acters for  the  indefinite  e  in  the  man,  for  ah 
(French  j),  h  (as  in  German,  Greek  x)f  ^h,  is, 
da,  tch,  dsh,  thsK  tsK  rolled  r,  for  the  aspirates 
th,  p/i,  khy  and  for  a  deep  glottal  catch  corre- . 
spending  somewhat  in  pronunciation  to  the 
Arabic  ghain. 

Armenian  literature,  properly  speaking,  begins 
only  with  the  Fifth  Century,  when  Mesrob  devised 
the  alphabet,  and  the  entire  Bible  was  rendered 
into  Armenian  by  410.  Before  the  time  of 
Mesrob  there  had  been  no  Armenian  literature 
(although  a  few  Armenian  songs  are  preserved 
by  Moses  of  Chorene)  despite  the  claims  made 
for  Agathangelos  (ed.  Venice,  1862,  Tiflis,  1883)  ; 
and  Faustus  of  Byzantium  (ed.  Venice,  1889), 
who  probably  wrote  in  Greek,  and  was  trans- 
lated into  Armenian  later.  Armenian  literature 
is  especially  strong  in  history  and  in  theology; 
but  in  poetry  and  belles-lettres  it  is  very  weak, 
and  the  drama  does  not  exist.  The  principal 
Armenian  writers  (exclusive  of  translators)  are 


as  follows:  Fifth  Century,  Eznik  of  Golp,  Refu- 
tation of  Hereaiea,  especially  valuable  for  its 
account  of  the  Zoroastrian  and  Manichcan  re- 
ligions (ed«  Venice,  1850) ;  Moses  of  Chorene, 
History  of  Armenia,  a  most  important  source  of 
material  (ed.  Amsterdam  1695,  London  1736, 
Venice  1752,  1827,  1865,  1881,  translated  by  Le 
Vaillant  de  Florival  ( Venice,  1841 ) ,  and  by  I^uer 
(Regensburg,  1869),  and  a  geography  (ed.  and  tr. 
Venice,  1881)  ;  David  the  Philosopher  (ed.  Venice, 
1823)  ;  EUsseus,  History  of  Vardan  and  of  the 
Battles  of  the  Armenians  (ed.  Constantinople, 
1764,  1823,  Venice,  1828,  1852,  1859,  1893,  tr. 
Neumann,  London,  1830)  ;  Eighth  Century,  John 
of  Ozim,  a  theological  writer  (ed.  Venice,  1834) ; 
Ninth  (Century,  Thomas  of  Ardsruni,  an  impor- 
tant historian;  Tenth  Century,  Gregor  Narek, 
religious  writer  (ed.  Venice,  1827-40)  ;  Eleventh 
Century,  Gregor  Magistros,  theologian,  gramma- 
rian, and  poet;  Twelfth  CJentury,  Nerses  Klay- 
ensis,  poet,  theologian,  historian  (ed.  of  his 
poetry,  Venice,  1830),  and  his  nephew,  Nersea 
of  Lampron,  theologian,  poet,  and  translator; 
Mechitar  Gosh,  fable-writer  (ed.  Venice,  1854) 
and  lawyer  (ed.  Etchmiadzin,  1880)  ;  Thir- 
teenth Century,  Vardan,  who  composed  an  im- 
portant history  of  Armenia  (ed.  Venice,  1862), 
a  book  of  beast-fables  (ed.  in  selection,  Paris, 
1825),  and  theological  works;  Vahram  of  Edessa, 
historian  (ed.  Madras,  1810)  ;  Johannes  Erzin- 
gensis,  historian,  grammarian,  theologian,  and 
astronomer;  Fourteenth  Ontury,  Gregor  Dath- 
eriensis,  theologian.  The  last  great  author  who 
wrote  in  Classical  Armenian  was  Tschamtschean 
(died  1823),  whose  most  important  work  was 
a  history  of  Armenia  from  the  earliest  times 
to  1784  (ed.  Venice,  1784-86).  The  golden 
ages  of  Armenian  literature  are  the  Fifth 
cSntury  and  the  Twelfth  Century,  and  the 
Fourteenth  Century  marks  the  beginning  of  a 
steady  decline.  The  first  book  printed  in  Arme- 
nian was  the  Psalms  (Venice,  1565),  and  during 
the  Seventeenth  and  Eighteenth  centuries  print- 
ing-houses were  established  in  many  cities  in 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  Asia — at  Julfa,  Smyrna,  and 
Madras.  A  special  impetus  toward  the  preserva- 
tion of  Armenian  literature  was  given  by  the 
establishment  of  a  college  and  convent  by 
Mechitar  on  the  island  of  San  Lazaro  near  Ven- 
ice, in  1717. 

BiBLioGRAPHT.  Pctermann,  Chrammaiica  Lin- 
gucB  Armeniacas  t  Berlin,  1837);  Hrevis  Lingucr 
ArmeniaccB  (Leipzig,  1872)  ;  Laurer  et  Carri^re. 
Qramm^ire  Arm^ienne  (Paris,  1833)  ;  Hfibsch- 
mann,  Armenische  Studien  (Leipzig,  1883)  ;  Ar- 
menische  Orammatik  /.  (all  out,  Leipzig,  1897) : 
Mseriantz,  Sttidies  on  Armenian  Dialectology 
(Styudi  po  Armyanskoi  Dialecktologie)  1.  (Mos- 
cow, 1897)  ;  Bedrossian,  New  Armenian-English 
Dictionary  (Venice,  1875-79)  ;  Neumann  Ge- 
schichte  der  amienischen  Literatur  (Leipzig, 
1836)  ;  Ndve,  L'Ami^ie  chrdtienne  et  sa  litt^ror 
iure  (Louvain,  1886). 

ARMENIAN  VEB13I0N.    See  Bible. 

ABKENTIEBES,  ftr'm&N'tyftr^.  A  town  of 
the  department  of  Nord,  France,  on  the  Lys,  8 
miles  from  Lille.  It  posseses  a  college,  hospital, 
and  insane  asylum.  The  town  is  well  built,  and 
is  active  and  prosperous,  having  manufactories 
of  cotton,  linen,  and  hemp,  and  a  considerable 
trade  in  grain.     Pop.,  1901,  29,40L 

ABME'BIA.    See  Thsut. 


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